amount of energy for a single surface. as each progressive pass emits the radiative energy for a surface, the ambient term is slowly decreased. as the total radiative energy of the scene approaches zero, so does the ambient term ( though, at different rates, of course. ) a nice advantage here is that you can use the ambient term to figure out when you ’ ve distributed enough energy as to make only a negligible difference. at this point, you can stop processing. so, the progressive approach has solved the massive memory requirements for the radiosity matrix by simply not storing it, and it partially solves the processing time issue by speeding things up, and further improving this by allowing users to preview their works in progress. a note on patches before i continue, i want to cover the topic of patch subdivision just a little. i only touched on it lightly so as not to confuse the reader. it ’ s time we dive just a little bit deeper in to these ever useful things. | first, let ’ s be perfectly clear on something. if you use subdivision in your radiosity code, then you will not be using " surfaces " since the patches are a higher resolution representation of the original surface geometry. it will be the patches that shoot and gather energy amongst themselves, not the surfaces. if you use patch subdivision, you can probably discard your original surfaces since they have been replaced by a higher resolution representation, their patches. patches are how we simulate area light sources. rather than actually treating the surface like an area light source, we simply split it up into lots of smaller light sources across the entire area of the original surface. if the surface is subdivided enough, then the results can be quite pleasing. patch subdivision can be done blindly or intelligently. an example of blind subdivision might be to subdivide every surface into a set of patches that are one square foot each. this can be quite a waste, since we only really need the subdivision in high - contrast areas ( i. e. an area of a surface that has a dramatic change in energy across a relatively small area - like a shadow boundary. ) there is a multitude of intelligent subdivision techniques. one of the most common is to subdivide progressively by adding another step to the process. once a surface has fully emitted its energy, each patch in the existing data - set is visited and a decision is made if two adjoining patches have too much of a difference in their illumination values. if they do, there will be a sharp contrast between


once a surface has fully emitted its energy, each patch in the existing data - set is visited and a decision is made if two adjoining patches have too much of a difference in their illumination values. if they do, there will be a sharp contrast between these two patches so you should subdivide each of them. you can pick any threshold you wish to contain your subdivisions to a minimum. you can also set a maximum subdivision level to prevent from subdividing too much. patches, however, are just the first step to subdivision. patches themselves can be subdivided into " elements ". the usefulness of elemental subdivision is for performance reasons as well as aesthetic reasons. patch subdivision can be pre - set to a specific resolution. in this case, the entire scene is subdivided evenly into patches of a specific size. this sounds like a waste, but let ’ s not get hasty. the subdivision resolution can be quite low in this case. as the radiosity solution progresses, the patches are intelligently subdivided into elements based on high contrast areas ( or whatever intelligent subdivision technique you decide to use. ) you can think of elements as a higher resolution representation of their " parent " patches. but unlike patch subdivision where the surfaces are discarded and replaced by patches, patch subdivision does not discard the patches. the advantage here, is that the patches are maintained for shooting, while the elements are used for gathering. let ’ s look at that a little more closely. a patch is subdivided into a grid of 8x8 elements. during the distribution process, the patch with the highest amount of radiative energy is chosen for energy distribution. energy is distributed from that patch to all of the elements in the scene. the elements retain their illumination value ( for beauty ’ s sake ) and the radiative energy that would be reflected from all the elements is then sent up to their parent patch. later, the patch will do the shooting, rather than each individual element. this allows us to have a high resolution of surface geometry with a lower resolution distribution. this can save quite a lot of processing time, especially if the average patch is subdivided into 8x8 elements. for the sake of this example, i ’ ll just assume we ’ re not at the elemental subdivision stage yet, and work from patches. did somebody say shadows? i didn ’ t. not yet, at least. : - ) | to obtain shadows, we need to have some visibility information, so we ’ ll know how much of a patch is visible from another patch. one of


did somebody say shadows? i didn ’ t. not yet, at least. : - ) | to obtain shadows, we need to have some visibility information, so we ’ ll know how much of a patch is visible from another patch. one of the most common ways of doing this in today ’ s world is to use a z - buffer. and radiosity is no different. to do this, however, we ’ ll need a way to generate a z - buffer from a patch. this is where the hemicube comes in handy. a hemicube is exactly what it sounds like. it ’ s exactly one half of a cube, split orthogonally along one axis. this gives us one whole face, and four half - faces. what ’ s it for? try to picture this : place a pin - hole camera at the base of the hemicube ( i. e. the center of the cube prior to cutting it in half ) and point the camera at the center of the top face. now set your camera to a 90 - degree frustum. you can consider the top face of the hemicube now, to be the rendering surface of the camera. this surface has a pixel resolution ( which i ’ ll discuss shortly. ) if you render the scene from this perspective, you ’ ll " see " what the patch " sees ". remember when i said that we need to take the relative distance and relative orientation of two patches into account to calculate their form factors? well, in this case, we no longer need to do that. the hemicube takes care of that for us. as patches are rendered onto the surface of the hemicube, they ’ ll occupy " hemicube pixels ". the farther away the surface is, the fewer pixels it will occupy. this is also true for patches at greater angles of relative orientation. the greater the angle, the fewer pixels it will occupy. using a z - buffer we can let some patches partially ( or fully ) occlude other patches, causing them to occupy even fewer pixels ( or none at all ) which gives us shadows. for this to work, we need to translate these renders into energy transmission. let ’ s talk about that for a bit. a standard z - buffer renderer will render color values to a frame buffer and store depth information into a z - buffer. a hemicube implementation is very similar. it keeps the z - buffer just like normal. but rather than


bit. a standard z - buffer renderer will render color values to a frame buffer and store depth information into a z - buffer. a hemicube implementation is very similar. it keeps the z - buffer just like normal. but rather than storing color values into a frame buffer, it stores patch ids into a frame buffer. when the render is complete, you have partial form factor information for how much energy gets transmitted from one patch to another. i say " partial form factor information " because we ’ re missing one piece. this information is lacking some of the relative angle information between two patches. the relative angles are used to decrease the amount of energy shot from one patch to another. the greater the angle, the less energy is transmitted. our hemicube gives us part of this information by only telling us ( in an indirect way ) how much of an angle the destination patch is relative to us. but we also need to take the shooter ’ s relative angle into account as well. it ’ s much like lambert shading. as the surface turns away from the light, the surface receives less light. we ’ ve got this information ( indirectly ) in the hemicube frame buffer. but our light source is also an area, which means it can turn, too. so we ’ ll need to take its angle into consideration before we shoot any energy to anybody. the hemicube has a wonderful mechanism for this. it ’ s called the " delta form factor. " this is simply a table of values. it is the same resolution as the surface of the hemicube and it contains values that are used to scale the amount of energy that each hemicube pixel can transmit. the values in this table associated with the center pixels of the top face have the highest value, and the values fall off as they get near the edges of the hemicube face. the reason for this is simple. the values associated with the center of the hemicube face have the highest value since anything rendered to this area of the " screen " will be directly in front of the hemicube ( i. e. the least incident angle. ) the values in the table associated with the edges of the hemicube face are at a 45 - degree angle, so they are considerably less than those found near the center. there is a very specific calculation for the " delta form factor " table which can be found in most radiosity references. to finish up our hemicube explanation


45 - degree angle, so they are considerably less than those found near the center. there is a very specific calculation for the " delta form factor " table which can be found in most radiosity references. to finish up our hemicube explanation, we need to pull it all together. rather than shooting light from the source patch to the destination patches, we do this through each pixel in the hemicube ’ s frame buffer ( remember, we ’ ve stored patch ids in there so we can reference them later, and this is later : - ). visiting each hemicube pixel, we simply scale the amount of the shooter ’ s total radiative energy by the delta form factor associated with that pixel. this means that each patch will receive a little bit of energy for each pixel it resides in, in the hemicube ’ s frame buffer. each of these partial energy transmissions to an individual destination patch will all add up to the proper amount of total transmitted energy, just like magic. how do we know that we ’ ve transmitted all the energy from the shooter? well, if you add up all the delta form factors for the hemicube, you ’ ll find they add up to 1. 0. this is a good test, by the way, to make sure your hemicube delta form factor table is correct. remember to account for error, so the value might not equal exactly 1. 0, rather something very close. a typical hemicube resolution might be 128x128. however, you may decide to go with a higher resolution. either way, remember this : each pixel in the hemicube ’ s delta form factor table contains a very small fractional value. you should consider using doubles to store these values as they can get very small. to save confusion, i purposely neglected to mention a few things. each hemicube has five sides. i only described the process for rendering the top face. the remaining half - faces also require rendering, but the process is identical to that of the top face. don ’ t worry, your radiosity references will cover how to calculate the delta form factors for all faces of the hemicube. and don ’ t forget that when you run your little test that adds up all the delta form factors to a result of 1. 0, you ’ ll need to include all of the delta form factors, not just those for the top face. in closing, i should mention that there are issues with hem


test that adds up all the delta form factors to a result of 1. 0, you ’ ll need to include all of the delta form factors, not just those for the top face. in closing, i should mention that there are issues with hemicubes ( like aliasing artifacts under certain circumstances. ) there are some solutions to these issues as well as totally different techniques. but hemicubes are a great place to start your radiosity adventures. " advanced animation & rendering techniques " by watt & watt | " computer graphics principles & practice " by foley, vandam, feiner & hughes " radiosity : a programmer ' s perspective " by ashdown " radiosity and realistic image synthesis " by cohen & wallace " radiosity and global illumination " by sillion & puech personally, i originally learned the concepts & fundamentals of radiosity from " advanced animation & rendering techniques. " i learned enough to get my first radiosity processor up and running. since this book has such a wealth of other information, i highly recommend it for first - timers on the subject. from there, you can graduate to any of the other references listed. if you make it to the more advanced stuff, you ’ re welcome to visit my site and grab some research papers on the subject. - paul nettle


the building blocks of sandbox and open world games : eve, gta, minecraft, and beyond the term “ sandbox ” has become a bit of an overused buzzword over the past few years, with many games using it to attract attention. it ’ s a difficult concept to define due to its abstraction, so i ’ m going to take you on a journey through gaming history to help you understand the evolution of sandbox games, and the advantages and disadvantages they offer to a game designer. minecraft : a good modern example a picture of a castle made by a player, luis prado, in minecraft minecraft is a great example of a popular modern sandbox game. it ’ s sold 8 million copies, yet its community is still growing. the game allows you to construct buildings in a randomly generated world made of cubes. you can gather resources, craft, explore and combat strange creatures to survive in the world – but mostly, you are free to do anything you want. the goals come from your imagination ; there is no ultimate objective. ( at least, none that you must aim for. ) and yet, although it ’ s a great example of a sandbox game, minecraft does not offer a perfect definition of the term. i ’ m not even sure whether there can be a true definition of “ sandbox ” because the concept is huge. there are many games in the market that use sandbox mechanisms, and they are quite different from each other. a town in the desert created by a group of players in a multiplayer minecraft server. let ’ s start by imagining a real - world sandbox. magically, a child appears inside that sandbox. now he or she is free to do whatever they want – but there is only sand in the box and without any tools the child will get bored of playing with the sand rather quickly. at this point there is nothing else to do other than to leave and play something else. without proper tools, the sandbox is no fun. imagination is a problem it ’ s essential to have the right tools to create a joyful box of sand. the same rule applies to virtual sandbox games as to real sandboxes : if the developer doesn ’ t give the right tools to the player, the player will get bored pretty easily. game designers have to think about a way to make people like and spend time playing their games. if you add some tools – a bucket and a shovel – to the sandbox and guide the child in his first


: the capacity to build a place of your own and manipulate everything you can to fit you perfectly. open world vs. sandbox a final note about the concepts of “ open world ” and “ sandbox ” games : they are very similar, and i ’ ve used the words almost interchangeably in this article. however, i do think it ’ s useful to try to separate them ; here ’ s my take on that : while open world games let you visit every single place and explore every little piece of artwork, a sandbox game lets you actually help to build and manage the world around you. many see the gta series or assassin ’ s creed games as belonging to the sandbox genre. i can ’ t totally disagree with that, but i feel they ’ re better described as open world games. you can change and interact with stuff in the world of gta, but you ’ re not helping to build it. and that ’ s a huge difference from games like salem, the repopulation, minecraft and xsyon. for me, those are the real sandbox games, where you have a set of tools and you can modify the world you live in. but that ’ s just part of the evolution i guess. it ’ s hard to understand what a true sandbox game is, and what it will be in the future, but it looks like the industry has taken a leap in another direction and that will happen again some day soon. the concept may change, but for now i accept it as it is and i ’ m betting it will take a while until someone figures out a way to recreate it. but the past will always be connected to the future, that ’ s for sure.


are we thinking too little, or too much? in the course of making a decision, managers often err in one of two directions — either overanalyzing a situation or forgoing all the relevant information and simply going with their gut. hbs marketing professor michael i. norton discusses the potential pitfalls of thinking too much or thinking too little. key concepts include : - when deciding among potential products or employees, managers often take too much time considering all the attributes of their choices — even attributes that have no bearing on the situation at hand. - however, in trying to avoid overthinking a decision for fear of decision paralysis, managers often " over - correct " and end up not thinking enough. - we know that sometimes people think too much, and sometimes they think too little. but we still don ' t know the right amount to think. the most captivating item in michael norton ' s office is a star wars the force trainer, a toy that allows would - be jedi warriors to levitate a ping - pong ball within a tube using only the power of focused thinking. norton, a marketing professor at harvard business school, plans to study whether inducing people into believing they can expertly control the ball will affect the way they perceive themselves as business influencers. in fact, norton spends most of his time thinking about thinking. so it ' s somewhat ironic that his latest line of research explores the idea of thinking too much. " if you ' ve done something the same way for 10 years, it might be time to reconsider. " " academics traditionally have taken two different approaches to decision - making, " says norton, who teaches in the marketing unit. " one view is that people often make decisions too hastily ; they use shortcuts and heuristics, and therefore they ' re susceptible to biases and mistakes. the implication is that if maybe they thought more, they ' d do better. " and then there ' s this whole stream of research about ways in which you should think more carefully in more logical ways — creating decision trees that map out ' if you want to do this, then you should do this and not that, ' making lists of the pros and cons and making a decision based on which list is longer, and so on. " however, there has been little research that considers the notion that overthinking a decision might actually lead to the wrong outcome. nor have researchers come up with a model that explores how to determine when we ' re overthinking a


. " however, there has been little research that considers the notion that overthinking a decision might actually lead to the wrong outcome. nor have researchers come up with a model that explores how to determine when we ' re overthinking a decision — even though logic tells us that there certainly is such a thing. " we all know that when we make lists, we often end up crumpling them and throwing them away because they ' re not really helping us make decisions, " norton says. " bill clinton was famous for becoming so involved with the intricacies of each policy that no decisions were made. having a leader who considers every detail sounds great in theory, but it can be suboptimal for moving forward with a decision. there ' s a paralysis that can come with thinking too much. " norton explores this idea in from thinking too little to thinking too much : a continuum of decision making, an article he co - wrote with duke university ' s dan ariely for wiley interdisciplinary reviews : cognitive science. " we set out not to tell people whether they ' re thinking the right way, but just to get them thinking, ' i ' m supposed to be making a decision right now — am i thinking too little about this, or am i thinking too much? ' " norton says. " both of those could lead to mistakes. " " we set out not to tell people whether they ' re thinking the right way, but just to get them thinking, ' i ' m supposed to be making a decision right now - am i thinking too little about this, or am i thinking too much? ' both of those could lead to mistakes. " for example, in choosing laptop computers for a sales team, an it executive might get caught up in comparing the graphics capabilities and audio quality of various options, when in fact the only factors of importance to users are the size, weight, and security features. worse yet, even if they narrow down the list of attributes under consideration, executives can still be stymied if they try to consider every single laptop on the market. ( in the article, norton and ariely cite a study by social psychologists sheena iyengar and mark lepper, who showed that grocery store shoppers who were offered free samples of 24 jam flavors were less likely to buy any jam at all than those shoppers who sampled only 6 flavors ; considering too many options made it too hard to choose one. ) the problem is that time - crunched managers often swing too far to the other end


flavors were less likely to buy any jam at all than those shoppers who sampled only 6 flavors ; considering too many options made it too hard to choose one. ) the problem is that time - crunched managers often swing too far to the other end of the decision - making thinking spectrum — that is, they don ' t think at all. " very often managers find that there ' s not enough time to think through every single scenario or customer segment, which can take months, " norton says. " but too often the correction to ' we don ' t have time to do that ' is an over - correction to one hundred percent ' we should go with our gut. ' " while all good managers should be able to make snap decisions in high - pressure situations, they may miss out on good opportunities — and fall into ruts — when they make quick decisions strictly out of habit. too often, " we always do it that way " is the main reason for a decision. for instance, a manager might hire or disqualify job candidates based on whether they make good eye contact during an interview, just because past candidates who made good eye contact ended up performing well at the company. " so they just decide to use that criterion forever because it ' s worked out in the past, " norton explains. " but they don ' t think about what if they had hired people who don ' t make eye contact. maybe they would have been better than the people who do. and so that ' s the idea we want people to consider. sometimes when you make habitual decisions, things work out fine. but that doesn ' t mean they ' re the best decisions. and if you ' ve done something the same way for 10 years, it might be time to reconsider — to think a little more. " more detrimentally, people may make downright bad decisions based on force of habit. in the article, norton and ariely describe a study in which several participants watched a movie while eating popcorn. some received fresh popcorn, while others were given week - old, stale popcorn. the researchers found that those participants who always ate popcorn at the movies were just as likely to gobble down the stale popcorn as they were the fresh popcorn, strictly out of habit. lately, norton has been studying the brain chemistry of decision makers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fmri ) in order to determine the neural signatures of decisions based on habits and those based on thoughtful analysis. he gives the example of choosing a favorite hangout because of the


years after the civil war ended. in this book, the author reveals the ugliness of war, and examines its relationship to the pain of growing up. before you get started on the body of the report, take a few minutes to jot down some helpful information by considering the following points. - did you enjoy the book? - was it well written? - what was the genre? - ( fiction ) which characters play important roles that relate to the overall theme? - did you notice reoccurring symbols? - is this book a part of a series? - ( nonfiction ) can you identify the writer ' s thesis? - what is the writing style? - did you notice a tone? - was there an obvious slant or bias? conclusionas you lead to your final paragraph, consider some additional impressions and opinions : - was the ending satisfactory ( for fiction )? - was the thesis supported by strong evidence ( for non - ficton )? - what interesting or notable facts do you know about the author? - would you recommend this book? conclude your report with a paragraph or two that covers these additional points. some teachers prefer that you re - state the name and author of the book in the concluding paragraph. as always, consult your specific assignment guide.


thu september 20, 2012 why pictures can sway your moral judgment originally published on thu september 20, 2012 8 : 41 am when we think about morality, many of us think about religion or what our parents taught us when we were young. those influences are powerful, but many scientists now think of the brain as a more basic source for our moral instincts. the tools scientists use to study how the brain makes moral decisions are often stories, said joshua greene, a harvard psychologist, citing one well - known example : " a trolley is headed toward five people, and the only way you can save them is to hit a switch that will turn the trolley away from the five and onto a side track, but if you turn it onto the side track, it will run over one person. " it ' s a moral dilemma. greene and other researchers have presented this dilemma to research volunteers. most people say they would flip the switch and divert the trolley. they say they don ' t want to kill someone, but one innocent person dead is better than five innocent people dead. what this shows is that people resolve the moral dilemma by doing a cost - benefit analysis. greene says they look at the consequences of each choice, and pick the choice that does the least harm. in other words, people are what philosophers would call utilitarians. except, greene tells me, sometimes they aren ' t. he asked me to visualize another well - known dilemma : " this time, you ' re on a footbridge, in between the oncoming trolley and the five people. and next to you is a big person wearing a big backpack. and the only way you can save those five people is to push this big guy off of the footbridge so that he lands on the tracks. and he ' ll get squashed by the train ; you sort of use him as a trolley stopper. but you can save the five people. " would you push the big guy to his death? more important, do you feel this moral dilemma is identical to the earlier one? " in a certain sense, they ' re identical, " greene said. " trade one life to save five. but psychologically, they ' re very different. " pushing someone to their death feels very different from pushing a switch. when greene gives people this dilemma, most people don ' t choose to push the big guy to his death. in other words, people use utilitarian, cost - benefit calculations — sometimes. but other times, they make an emotional decision. " there


moral dilemmas that evoked strong visual images. as expected, the volunteers made emotional moral judgments. then the psychologists made it difficult for volunteers to visualize the dilemma. they distracted them by making them visualize something else instead. when that happened, the volunteers stopped making emotional decisions. not having pictures of the moral dilemma in their head prompted them into rational, cost - benefit mode. in another experiment, greene and amit also found that people who think visually make more emotional moral judgments. verbal people make more rational calculations. amit says people don ' t realize how images tip the brain one way or another. and that can create biases we aren ' t even aware of. she laid out a scenario to think about : " imagine a horrible scenario in which a terrorist takes an ax and starts slaughtering people in a bus, " she said. " i ' m coming from israel, so these are the examples that i have in my mind. " the story produces a movie in our heads. we can see blood everywhere. we can hear people screaming. we don ' t have to think at all. it feels terribly wrong. then amit presented another kind of news event : a drone strike that sends a missile hurtling toward a target. at the center of the cross - hairs, an explosion. there ' s dust billowing everywhere. " so if you learn about these events from television or from pictures in a newspaper, which one [ would you ] judge as more horrible? " amit asked. " the person with the ax that killed maybe two people but the scene looks horrible and extremely violent, or the picture of the drone that killed 100 people but looks relatively clean and nice? " to be sure, the events amit describes are completely different. one ' s a terrorist attack, the other is a military action. but it ' s true the ax murderer instantly sends the brain into emotional mode. the drone strike has less vivid imagery. you can ' t see, up close, what the missile does. so most people go into utilitarian mode — they start to think about the costs and benefits. amit ' s point is not that one mode is better than the other. it ' s something much more disturbing. as you listen to the news everyday, hidden circuits in your brain are literally changing the ground rules by which you judge events. you think you ' re making consistent moral choices when, really, the movies playing in your head might be making your choices for you.


shortly after the deepwater horizon disaster, mysterious honeycomb material was found floating in the gulf of mexico and along coastal beaches. using state - of - the - art chemical forensics and a bit of old - fashioned detective work, a research team led by scientists at woods hole oceanographic institution ( whoi ) confirmed that the flotsam were pieces of material used to maintain buoyancy of the pipe bringing up oil from the seafloor. the researchers also affirmed that tracking debris from damaged offshore oil rigs could help forecast coastal pollution impacts in future oil spills and guide emergency response efforts — much the way the coast guard has studied the speed and direction of various floating debris to guide search and rescue missions. the findings were published jan. 19 in environmental research letters. on may 5, 2010, 15 days after the deepwater horizon explosion, oceanographer william graham and marine technicians from the dauphin island sea lab were working from a boat about 32 miles south of dauphin island, ala., when they saw a 6 - mile - long, east - west line containing more than 50 pieces of white material interspersed with sargassum weed. the porous material was uniformly embedded with black spheres about a centimeter in diameter. no oil slick was in sight, but there was a halo of oil sheen around the honeycomb clumps. two days later, the researchers also collected similar samples about 25 miles south of dauphin island. nobody knew what the material was, with some hypothesizing at first that it could be coral or other substance made by marine plants or animals. graham sent samples to whoi chemist chris reddy, whose lab confirmed that the material was not biological. but the material ’ s source remained unconfirmed. in january 2011, reddy and whoi researcher catherine carmichael, lead author of the new study, collected a piece of the same unknown material of elmer ’ s beach, grand isle, la. in april, 2011, they found several large pieces, ranging from 3 to 10 feet, of the honeycomb debris on the chandeleur islands off louisiana. oil on all these samples was analyzed at whoi using comprehensive two - dimensional gas chromatography. the technique identifies the thousands of individual chemical compounds that comprise different oils from different reservoirs. the chemistry of the oil on the debris matched that of oil sampled directly from the broken pipe from the macondo well above the deepwater horizon rig. in addition, one piece of debris from the chandeleur islands retained a weathered red sticker that read “ cuming ” with


science teachers in this approach, with me arranging for phillips petroleum to donate a bunch of old ibm at machines and dot matrix printers for the science rooms in grades 6 - 12. eventually each station in my lab had an old ibm ps / 2 model 25 floppy - disk - based computer for graphing, with a primitive print - only network of telephone cables linking them to a few slow and noisy old dot matrix printers with fanfold paper. my classroom evolved to having old hard - drive computers at the stations, linked in a daisy chain 10base2 network of thin coax cable which i wired up from one station to the next, all linked to a single laser printer. what a breakthrough that was, since i could finally transfer files and everyone could print to a single fast printer with high - quality output. a few years later i led netday at our school, with volunteers helping me install the first ethernet wiring and wall ports in the science labs. by then the use of classroom computers was not all that different from what we do today – we ’ re still using a version of graphical analysis after all these years – although fat crt monitors have been replaced with flat lcd panels and the desktop machines are smaller and more capable with each generation. we also now have enough laptop computers that i can provide each student, not merely each group, with a computer if needed for in - class data collection and lab report creation via wireless networking, but it is still such a big hassle to get enough computers wired up and running properly that i only do it once per year to give them the experience. i presume eventually we ’ ll have convenient tablet computers for this sort of thing, but we ’ re a long ways from getting there with our pitiful state funding for public schools. well, i still have an overhead projector and i actually use it in class, although only for a few demonstrations, such as fleming ’ s law and electromagnetic induction, where an apparatus on the overhead can project a huge visual. until we built the science wing in 2003, i either used a large crt monitor to show visuals or a portable lcd projector on a cart. here ’ s what my classroom technology looked like in 2001, minus the portable lcd projector and a smart board i never used much : my classroom technology in 2001 thankfully the lab stations in the new wing are much larger you can see why we needed the new wing, with its large student lab stations with built - in network ports, ceiling - mounted lcd projector, etc. with the permanent lcd projector


the active galactic nucleus ( agn ) of seyfert galaxy m77 ( ngc 1068 ), about 60 million light years from earth, in the x - ray light, as photographed by chandra x - ray observatory. a composite chandra x - ray ( blue / green ) and hubble optical ( red ) image of m77 ( ngc 1068 ) shows hot gas blowing away from a central supermassive object at speeds averaging about 1 million miles per hour. the elongated shape of the gas cloud is thought to be due to the funneling effect of a torus, or doughnut - shaped cloud, of cool gas and dust that surrounds the central object, which many astronomers think is a black hole. the x - rays are scattered and reflected x - rays that are probably coming from a hidden disk of hot gas formed as matter swirls very near the black hole. regions of intense star formation in the inner spiral arms of the galaxy are highlighted by the optical emission. this image extends over a field 36 arcsec on a side. this three - color high energy x - ray image ( red = 1. 3 - 3 kev, green = 3 - 6 kev, blue = 6 - 8 kev ) of ngc 1068 shows gas rushing away from the nucleus. the brightest point - like source may be the inner wall of the torus that is reflecting x - rays from the hidden nucleus. scale : image is 30 arcsec per side. this three - color low energy x - ray image of m77 ( ngc 1068 ) ( red = 0. 4 - 0. 6 kev, green = 0. 6 - 0. 8 kev, blue = 0. 8 - 1. 3 kev ) shows gas rushing away from the the nucleus ( bright white spot ). the range of colors from blue to red corresponds to a high through low ionization of the atoms in the wind. scale : image is 30 arcsec per side. this optical image of the active galaxy ngc 1068, taken by hubble ' s wfpc2, gives a detailed view of the spiral arms in the inner parts of the galaxy. scale : image is 30 arcsec per side. credit : x - ray : nasa / cxc / mit / p. ogle et. al. ; optical : nasa / stsci / a. capetti et. al. last modification : july 12, 2003


information and public awareness programme the objective of “ information & public awareness programme ” is to disseminate information on new and renewable sources of energy ( nrse ) systems / devices through variety of media like electronic, print & exhibition as well as outdoor media, thereby popularizing and creating awareness about such systems and devices. it also brings to the fore benefits, technological developments and promotional activities taking place in the renewable energy arena from time to time. the role of information and public awareness programme for inculcating the importance of renewable energy amongst masses has been assuming increasing significance in recent times. the programme is implemented mainly through state nodal agencies, directorate of advertising & visual publicity ( davp ), doordarshan, all india radio ( air ), and department of posts, etc. special area demonstration project programme the special area demonstration project scheme of the ministry has been introduced with the objective of demonstrating application of various renewable energy systems in a project mode at places of national and international importance including world heritage sites, heritage monuments, religious locations and places of public interest to create greater awareness of renewable and to supplement the energy requirement at such locations human resources development programme ministry has been implementing a comprehensive human resource development programme with the objective of institutionalizing the renewable energy education and training in the country with the following overall goals : - to update the professionals working in the field of renewable energy on technological, economical and social issues and management of the science and technology and public administration through infusion of scientific temper and accountability ; - to infuse commitment towards building of partnership and participatory decision - making ; - ito be responsive to the challenge of changing framework needs in policy, institutional, legal, trade, ipr, knowledge management, organizational and technological development ; - to strive for improving performance and efficiency of renewable energy systems and devices to make them cost competitive ; - to provide adequate knowledge of the technical issues that are essential to help executives in government, banking and financial sector with non - technical background about renewable energy ; - to bring about attitudinal changes among the renewable energy professionals and those working in the mainstream power sector to enhance the use of renewable energy for energy security of the country ; and - to act as a facilitator for improving the skill sets of professionals and executives in the renewable energy industry and also in research and development institutions. planning & coordination the planning and co - ordination division is responsible for overall planning and budgeting plans schemes / programmes of the ministry and matters related to reforms, policy measures, fiscal concessions, etc. its work involves maintaining


projects and programmes in the area of renewable energy in the country. - taking up activities on patents and technology information, forecasting and assessment in the area of renewable energy. 100 % computerization has been achieved. 250 nos. of computer based workstations have been created for providing computerization facility at the ministry ’ s headquarters, its 9 regional offices and solar energy centre. local area network ( lan ) has been established in the two building of the ministry ’ s headquarters for providing connectivity to various computers installed in the ministry. in order to provide connectivity between the computers installed in the two buildings and fast data communication, lans set up in these buildings of the ministry have been integrated through laying of fiber optics cable. e - mail and internet facility have been extended to all the officers at the ministry ’ s headquarters. e - mail facility has also been provided to the 9 regional offices and the solar energy centre. all the officers and officials of the ministry ’ s headquarters, its regional offices and the solar energy centre have been provided training in the use of computers through nic and other professional organizations. specialized training programmes on basic concepts of data management and networking services & applications is being organized at nic for all the officers of mnre, its regional offices and solar energy centre. the mnre has already prepared its web - site in english as well as in hindi through its in - house efforts. the mnre web - site gives a comprehensive picture of the development and utilization of renewable energy sources in india. the ministry has started information and facilitation centre with computer facility at its headquarters for an easy access to various types of information by the visitors coming to this ministry.


elected. if it wins two top - up seats, then the first two will be elected, and so on. some think that their two votes must be for same party others think their two votes must be for different parties in fact, voters can cast their two votes however they wish it is important, therefore, for candidates to be near the top of their party ' s list for them to stand a realistic chance of being elected. there are two complications to the lists. first, a " party list " can be an individual person who is standing at the regional level rather than in a constituency. secondly, a candidate can stand both in a constituency and on a regional top - up list. if they succeed in a constituency this takes priority and their name will be removed from the regional list so they cannot be elected twice. the all - important divisor the formula for deciding which parties win regional top - up seats is known as the d ' hondt system and is used widely across europe. first, party list votes are totalled from each of the constituencies making up the region. these totals are then divided by the number of seats each party has won - plus one. the party with the highest resulting total elects one additional member. the regions for additional member seats highlands and islands mid - scotland and fife north east scotland south of scotland west of scotland that party ' s divisor is then increased by one ( because of its victory ) and new figures calculated. again, the party with the highest total wins a seat. the process is then repeated until all seven additional members are elected. the aim of the system is to compensate parties which pile up votes in constituencies but fail to win many msps. under the d ' hondt system, they are much more likely to gain additional members. conversely, parties which do well in constituency elections will do less well in the top - up seats.


much as a hybrid bicycle is a cross between two bikes - - a road bike frame with mountain bike handlebars, for instance - - this hybrid compound is a cross between two molecules. one is a traditional anticancer drug, a small molecule that targets cancer tumors. the other is a type of antibody, which is a protein produced in great abundance by the bodys immune system and found naturally in the bloodstream. the hybrid of the two, described in an upcoming issue of the journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences, was found to have a profound effect on the size of tumors in mouse models - - shrinking tumors of both kaposi ' s sarcoma and colon cancers in these preclinical studies. moreover, this approach is general enough that it could be used to design hybrids against any number of cancers. " a single antibody can become a whole multiplicity of therapeutics simply by mixing it with the desired small molecule, " says tsri professor carlos f. barbas iii, ph. d., who is janet and w. keith kellogg ii chair in molecular biology. barbas conducted the research with tsri president richard a. lerner, m. d., and several colleagues at tsri ' s skaggs institute for chemical biology. steering and support, joined at the hip the tsri team built the hybrid molecule with a " catalytic " antibody, a small drug molecule, and a linker molecule that joins the two. the hybrid thus formed borrows the wheels and the frame of the antibody for supports and the handlebars of the small drug molecule for steering ability. also called immunoglobulins, antibodies are proteins produced by immune cells that are designed to recognize a wide range of foreign pathogens. after a bacterium, virus, or other pathogen enters the bloodstream, contact : jason bardi scripps research institute


dr. harry demos and dr. del schutte, both associate professor of orthopedics at musc, and specialists in joint reconstruction recently joined dr. marcy bolster to record a podcast to address concerns regarding metal - on - metal joint replacement devices. below, please read a summary of their thoughts on device implants and you can listen to their podcast as well. total hip arthroplasty is one of the most commonly performed and effective surgical procedures currently in use. nearly 200, 000 hip replacements are performed annually in the united states. recent data reveals hip replacement to be one of the most cost - effective of all surgical procedures in terms of quality of life per health care dollar spent. unfortunately, newer technology has not always led to an improvement in patient outcomes. a recent hip replacement design has been associated with an unacceptably high early failure rate. by now almost everyone with a newspaper or television set has seen the advertisements by attorneys soliciting patients with “ metal on metal ” hip replacements. while the majority of metal on metal hip replacements may function well for many years, two specific designs have shown significant failures as soon as the first few years. the eventual outcome of other designs remains concerning, recently prompting the fda to mandate postmarket surveillance to 21 metal on metal hip replacements manufacturers. unfortunately these failures if not caught early enough, are associated with significant destruction of the muscles and bone in and around the hip joint. increased concentrations of metal ions in the blood as well as in the surrounding soft tissues can be readily identified in most of these patients. some patients, however, have normal metal ion levels and still have problems, while others may have high levels with well - functioning hips. the cause and effect relationship of metal ions and failure remains to be determined, but it is clear at this point that certain designs of metal on metal hip replacements are having a higher than expected rate of failure. one of the most widely used metal on metal implants that has recently been recalled is the depuy asr hip replacement. approximately 37, 000 of these implants have been inserted in patients in the us and 93, 000 world - wide. to date, revision rates are around 10 %. the revisions associated with failure of the asr implant can be much more difficult than others and should be performed by surgeons and joint replacement centers who routinely perform revisions. the loss of bone and soft tissues around the hip joint can make reconstruction much more difficult. the implant manufacturer has an aggressive patient care program in place to facilitate and fund revision of any


field and modelling studies to assess the risk to uk groundwater from earth - based stores for livestock manure gooddy, d. c. ; hughes, a. g. ; williams, a. t. ; armstrong, a. c. ; nicholson, r. j. ; williams, j. r.. 2001 field and modelling studies to assess the risk to uk groundwater from earth - based stores for livestock manure. soil use and managment, 17 ( 2 ). 128 - 137. 10. 1111 / j. 1475 - 2743. 2001. tb00018. xbefore downloading, please read nora policies. boreholes have been constructed at eight sites on the permo - triassic sandstone and chalk aquifers to assess the extent of chemical and microbiological contamination emanating from unlined farm manure stores. slurry along fracture faces in the chalk was found on cores taken from beneath two stores. porewaters from the chalk sites and one of the sandstone sites were discoloured and showed high concentrations of nitrate, ammonium and organic carbon to depths in excess of 10 m. although cryptosporidia and escherichia coli o157 were found in many of the cattle slurry lagoons, neither were found in the aquifer material beneath. the self - sealing of unlined slurry stores is seen as a crucial step in minimizing leakage. a simple mass balance shows farm boreholes near to contaminant sources are at greater risk than public supply wells. contaminant modelling shows discontinuing use of an unlined farm manure store will lend to little difference in solute concentrations over the short to medium term. groundwater is most at risk where the water table is shallow since direct hydraulic connection between the lagoon base and the water table considerably increases the rate of vertical migration. this is of greatest significance for pathogens that are thought to be relatively short lived in the subsurface. under the majority of situations minimal threat is posed to potable groundwater drinking supplies. | programmes : | | bgs programmes > groundwater management | | additional keywords : | | groundwaterbgs, groundwater, point source pollution, groundwater modelling | | nora subject terms : | | agriculture and soil science | date made live : | | 24 jul 2009 10 : 15 | actions ( login required )


- sawtooth software ( http : / / www. sawtoothsoftware. com ) - r ( programming language ) ( http : / / www. r - project. org ) prescription - based conjoint modeledit these models are adequate when respondents ’ evaluations apply to products or services to be used by themselves ( fmcg, durable goods, financial products, etc ). however, for some projects, respondents have to provide evaluations for products or services to be used by a group of people, that is the case of physicians with respect to their patients, when they are asked to assess the preference for a new or existing drug or medical treatment. the healthcare researcher wants to assess what physicians will do for a number of patients. more precisely, he / she intends to elicit the preference for a new treatment and to estimate in the most precise way the related preference share that eventually will lead to the estimation of the market share for such a treatment. consequently, a prescription - based model seems to be an appropriate tool for this research situation. basically, it consists in exposing physicians to several treatments profiles at - a - time, where all current treatments appear next to the new treatment ( conjoint task ). physicians are then asked to assign some points to each treatment in the task. more precisely, in this exercise they are asked to think of the next 100 patients with the disease of concern and to record the number of prescriptions that they would prescribe for each of the treatments outlined in the task presented. consequently, all treatment assignments in the task add up to 100 points or more. more than 100 points are allowed for projects involving treatments that could be co - prescribed. this framework is especially appropriate for a deep understanding of the relationships between the current medical treatments for a particular disease and different definitions for the product to be launched. software available for allocation - based conjoint analysis : - demia r - sw conjoint : an ms excel add - on interface ( http : / / www. demia. it ) - conjoint analysis ( in marketing ) - new product development - marketing research - quantitative marketing research - chakraborty, g., r., ettenson, & g., gaeth. 1994. how consumers choose health insurance. “ journal of health care marketing ”, 14, 21 – 23. - furlan r., corradetti r. ( 2006 ), “ aspects of experimental design in the allocation - based conjoint analysis model ”, proceedings of enbis


submitted by mrs. alexander ' s class to keep droppings from piling up on the ground we thought of a little vacuum that sucks the droppings into a net. once each day when the astronauts check on the cage they will empty out the net and throw it into the garbage. it will only take a minute or two to do this simple job. to keep the smell from going around the cage we came up with a clever idea. we would use an unscented spray which is talked about in our smell paragraph. for the smell problem we thought that you could send an unscented deodorizer down. when the substance goes down to the stench it will absorb it. you could attach a container to the top to hold it. then you could put a switch on the container. this switch would allow it so that a ray of deodorizer hits the stench. then there would be no stench problems. the astronauts could push the switch during their ten - minute period oftime with the animal. this would allow the deodorizer to take effect whenever you want. the water problem was hard but we have thought of a way to recycle and the rat has enough to drink! you take the leftover water from the cabin during your 10 minutes and add it to the water tank below the cage like on the picture. the water tank will pump the water it has to the 3 water bottles around the cage. when the rat drinks and it drips it will go through the screen on the bottom of the cage to the water tank centered below it. then the water tank will pump that water back through the pipe leading into the water bottle and you have a cycle also you are recycling the water because rats will eat or drink anything. our thought on how to handle the food is to have a bowl with flaps the rat can lift up. this bowl will be basically a regular bowl. the only thing different about this bowl is it will have a lid with flaps all over the place, with a little bit of them sticking out so the rat can lift them up and get food. this way the rat ' s head will be in the hole grabbing food so the food will not float out. this is a good way to feed the rat because it is easy for the rat to get food and it won ' t let the food float around and disturb the astronauts. the bowl will be velcroed down to the cage so that the rat can get to it easily and won ' t have to float around until it bumps into the


agricultural co - operation has long been recognised as an important institution in the development of western australia ’ s agricultural sector. charles harper ( 1842 – 1912 ) has long been considered the founding father of agricultural co - operation in western australia. harper was instrumental in founding the western australian co - operative producers ’ union in 1902 which, among other things, eventually became wesfarmers ltd. harper was also a long standing member of parliament, a newspaperman, an explorer, a founder of schools, a philanthropist, and an agricultural experimentalist. he was also able to pass his legacy on to his son walter who led the co - operative movement after harper senior ’ s death in 1912 and saw to its integration into the mainstream of western australian political and economic systems. in considering harper ’ s contribution to the economic and social development of western australia, it is difficult to determine the extent to which his economic thinking in relation to co - operation or other economic questions conformed to such socialistic ideas represented by owenite co - operation or colonial socialism. harper was neither a protectionist nor a free trader. indeed, in this paper, i will discuss harper ’ s position in relation to a number of economic questions – tariffs, dumping, fair trade, land alienation - with a view to showing that harper was a pragmatist focused on economic development and determined to place all resources and apply all leavers, regardless of source and political niceties, toward that end. gilchrist, d. ( 2010 ). antipodean owenite or colonial socialist : charles harper ’ s economic thought. paper presented at the history of economic thought society of australia conference. university of sydney, nsw, 7 - 9 july.


what ’ s abnormal in this image? here ’ s a hint. here is an example of normal. when evaluating for possible elevation in intracranial pressure, it has been shown that optic nerve sheath diameter ( onsd ) measurements correlate with elevated intracranial pressures. ( 1, 2 ) the optic nerve attaches to the globe posteriorly and is wrapped in a sheath that contains cerebral spinal fluid. the optic nerve sheath is contiguous with the dura mater and has a trabeculated arachnoid space through which cerebrospinal fluid slowly percolates. onsd normal ranges | normal adults | | < 5 mm | | children > 1 yr | | < 4. 5 mm | | infants < 1 yr | | < 4 mm | the onsd is measured 3 mm posterior to the globe for both eyes. a position of 3 mm behind the globe is recommended because the ultrasound contrast is greatest. it is best to average two measurements of each eye. an average onsd greater than 5 mm is considered abnormal and elevated intracranial pressure should be suspected. in severe cases of elevated icp, one can see an echolucent circle within the optic nerve sheath separating the sheath from the nerve due to increased subarachnoid fluid surrounding the optic nerve. ophthalmologists refer to this as the crescent sign. 40 yo female patient presents with several months of frontal headache associated with photophobia and blurry vision. symptoms have gotten much worse over the last few days and she has had difficulty reading and watching tv because of her visual symptoms. she denies fevers, chills, nausea, vomiting, or focal weakness. pt is hypertensive 170 / 100. her vital signs are otherwise normal. - visual acuity - 20 / 30 od, 20 / 70 os - ct head is normal - bedside point of care ultrasound this patient had enlarged onsd ( measurements were 6 mm bilaterally ) as well as papilledema ( arrow ). lumbar puncture was performed. opening pressure was 44. 30 cc ’ s of csf was drained and the closing pressure was 11. the patient ’ s headache and visual symptoms improved. she was started on acetazolamide and admitted to the neurology service. mri brain prior to lumbar puncture showed posterior scleral flattening bilaterally with protrusion of the optic nerve in the the globes bilaterally consistent with increased icp. this patient ’ s papilledema and increased on


brain prior to lumbar puncture showed posterior scleral flattening bilaterally with protrusion of the optic nerve in the the globes bilaterally consistent with increased icp. this patient ’ s papilledema and increased onsd correlated with a markedly increased opening pressure during lumbar puncture and suggests that ocular ultrasound may play a role in the ed management of patients with suspected pseudotumor cerebri. elevated intracranial pressure in the abscence of intracranial mass lesion. most common in young, over weight women. if the diagnosis is missed, persistently elevated intracranial pressure can lead to optic atrophy and blindness. - lumbar puncture to drain csf to a normal opening pressure. - medical : diomox ( acetazolamide ), high dose steroids - surgical : optic nerve sheath fenestration, vp shunt the ability to diagnose papilledema using bedside sonography is useful to emergency physicians, as many non - ophthalmologist clinicians do not feel confident in their ability to perform an accurate nondilated fundoscopic examination. ( 3 ) ultrasound provides a useful alternative means of determining the presence or absence of papilledema in a patient in whom fundoscopy cannot be adequately performed. geeraerts t, launey y, martin l, et al. ultrasonography of the optic nerve sheath may be useful for detecting raised intracranial pressure after severe brain injury. intensive care med 2007 ; 33 ( 10 ) : 1704 - 11 [ electronic publication 2007 aug 1 ]. pmid : 17668184 kimberly hh, shah s, marill k, noble v. correlation of optic nerve sheath diameter with direct measurement of intracranial pressure. acad emerg med 2008 ; 15 ( 2 ) : 201 - 4. pmid : 18275454 wu eh, fagan mj, reinert se, diaz ja. self - confidence in and perceived utility of the physical examination : a comparison of medical students, residents, and faculty internists. j gen intern med 2007 ; 22 ( 12 ) : 1725 - 30 [ electronic publication 2007 oct 6 ]. pmid : 17922165


to be more active than previously believed, with winds of 1100 km per hour. hydrogen was found to be the most common atmospheric element, although the abundant methane gives the planet its blue appearance. voyager data on triton, neptune ' s largest moon, revealed the coldest known planetary body in the solar system and a nitrogen ice volcano on its surface. the spacecraft ' s flyby of neptune set it on a course below the ecliptic plane that will ultimately take it out of the solar system. after neptune, nasa formally renamed the entire project ( including both voyager spacecraft ) the voyager interstellar mission ( vim ). approximately 56 million km past the neptune encounter, voyager 2 ' s instruments were put into low - power mode to conserve energy. in november 1998, twenty - one years after launch, nonessential instruments were permanently turned off. six instruments are still operating. data from at least some of the instruments should be received until at least 2025. sometime after that date, power levels onboard the spacecraft will be too low to operate even one of its instruments. as of march 2010, voyager 2 was about 92 au ( 13. 7 billion km ) from the sun, increasing its distance at a speed of about 3. 3 au ( about 494 million km ) per year.


" he was of an active, restless, indefatigable genius even almost to the last, and always slept little to his death, seldom going to sleep till two three, or four a clock in the morning, and seldomer to bed, often continuing his studies all night, and taking a nap in the day. his temper was melancholy.... " these words were intended to describe robert hooke, but have been said to equally describe isaac newton. both men played vital roles in the development of science in the seventeenth century, though at first glance newton appears to outshine and outclass robert hooke. when hooke is mentioned to this day, we usually speak of newton as well, but not the other way around. they influenced one another far more than either would ever admit and, though each deserves his own separate identity, hooke has rarely been granted his. this is largely because, though newton and hooke had much in common, they were bitter enemies, and newton was able to exert far more influence over the royal society and, thereby, over the entire scientific community of his day. robert hooke ' s genius is hidden in shadows created partly by hooke himself, but largely by isaac newton, a man who could not speak without contempt for hooke, even long after hooke ' s death, and who may well have taken steps to obliterate much of hooke ' s contributions to science. hooke ' s reputation is riddled by exaggerated accusations and misconceptions. robert hooke was a significant influence in the advancement of science as well as newton. an established physicist and astronomer, hooke was with the royal society from its inception, and served it tirelessly and loyally for over forty years ; it was he who had worded the society ' s credo " to improve the knowledge of natural things, and all useful arts, manufactures, mechanic practices, engines and inventions by experiments ( not meddling with divinity, metaphysics, morals, politics, grammar, rhetoric or logic ). " but the rancor between newton and hooke did much to tarnish hooke ' s reputation. hooke was born on the isle of wight, july 18, 1635. as a child he survived smallpox, but was scarred physically and emotionally for life. when hooke was thirteen years old, his father, john hooke, a clergyman hanged himself. young robert had much emotional pain in his youth. receiving a 100 pound inheritance from his father, robert hooke became an orphan of sorts


to have been an extreme case. descriptions of him such as " scarred to the point of ugliness " and his condition of " twistedness, which grew worse with age " and references to a great deal of pain, seem to imply a tortured person. certainly there were those who avoided him because of his condition, some even mocked him, newton once made a reference to a " dwarf " that was most certainly a barb directed at hooke. hooke devoted a great deal of time to the universe and its mysteries. the search for parallax was on in the seventeenth century, and hooke made an attempt to find it using a zenith telescope. the idea of using zenith telescopes was based on atmospheric distortion being at a minimum directly overhead, and therefore making for the most accurate measurements. hooke used the star gamma draconis, but the telescope was too crude to reach any definite conclusions. hooke anticipated some of the most important discoveries and inventions of his time. among hooke ' s contributions are the correct formulation of the theory of elasticity, the kinetic hypothesis of gases and the nature of combustion. he was the first to use the balance spring for the regulation of watches and devised improvements in pendulum clocks and invented a machine for cutting the teeth of watch wheels. an expert micro - scopist, his microstudies of the composition of cork led him to suggest the use of the word cell ( meaning a tiny bare room, like a monk ' s cell ), and the word survived as the name for living cells. the publication of his micrographia in 1665, published in english, with its engraved magnifications of minute bodies, was a major milestone of english science. hooke was the first to report the great red spot of jupiter and the first to establish the rotation of the giant planet. he formulated the theory of planetary motion as a problem in mechanics, and pioneered the scientific trail that led newton to his goal in the formulation of the law of gravitation. as a scientist, hooke made useful contributions to the wave theory of light. his interests ranged from these matters to pre - daltonian atomic studies, astronomy, earthquakes and the physics of spring mechanisms. he set the thermo - metrical zero at the freezing point of water and studied the relationship of barometrical readings to changes in the weather ; he invented a land carriage, a diving bell, a method of telegraphy and he and ascertained the number of vibrations corresponding to musical notes. the first confrontation between hooke and


the relationship of barometrical readings to changes in the weather ; he invented a land carriage, a diving bell, a method of telegraphy and he and ascertained the number of vibrations corresponding to musical notes. the first confrontation between hooke and newton came in 1672. newton had written a paper on his demonstration of white light being a composite of other colours. it was presented to the royal society just prior to newton ' s reception as a fellow of the society. newton thought a great deal of his demonstration, referring to it as " the oddest if not the most considerable detection wch hath hitherto beene made in the operations of nature. " 1 but newton was met with a strong rebuff by hooke. hooke had his own wave theory of light, he had gone into some detail about it in the micrographia, and he still believed in it strongly. he claimed newton had not proven his idea clearly, and needed more detail. newton had the equivalent of a temper tantrum. the situation was made worse for newton because hooke was not the only one attacking newton ' s theory, he had been joined by christian huygens, ignace pardies and the jesuits of liege. newton had since childhood, reacted strongly to criticism. he constantly challenged authority, and to rebuff him, was to become an enemy. newton demonstrated this over and over during his lifetime ; his response was often either complete withdrawal, or open battle. on this occasion, newton chose withdrawal ( though usually for newton withdrawal was some form of manipulation in battle plans. ) in march 1673, newton wrote to henry oldenburg, the current secretary of the royal society. newton requested to withdraw from the society. it took much gushing of admiration, respect, etc. on oldenburg ' s part, as well as an offer to wave dues to the society to get newton to change his mind. oldenburg also offered an apology for the behavior of an " unnamed member. " the stage was set. newton had successfully established his place in the society, and had scored a victory, of sorts, over hooke. in many ways, the problems between hooke and newton could be attributed to the traits they had in common, rather than to their differences of opinion on scientific matters. both were short tempered. both were quick to make someone an enemy. newton once threw a colleague out of his office and refused to speak with him for years because the man had made a joke about a nun. and newton refused to speak with


him if he was to do a proper job as curator of experiments, flitted from one topic to another. he was, similar to halley, curious to a fault about everything. it was quite probably the demands of his job as curator of experiments that kept hooke from concentrating adequate time on any one subject. the very job at which he had worked so diligently and so faithfully would be the cause of later accusations of hooke ' s work being " broken " and " disjointed. " the next major confrontation between hooke and newton surfaced openly in 1684. it concerned newton ' s principia, and the involvement hooke had in it. newton claimed hooke had none, and quite a few historians have agreed ; but a closer look at the events prior to the principia ' s publication, leave little doubt that hooke was indeed involved. the idea of gravity and its force of attraction was a common topic of interest in those days. newton, halley, wren and hooke all played with the concept. in 1679, there were several letters exchanged between hooke and newton. both had made a slight attempt to work out their differences. hooke had suggested it was other people ( namely oldenburg ) who had made problems, and they should correspond with each other in order to avoid misunder - standings. newton seemed agreeable. the topic of the first letters between them was the old trajectory problem. what path would an object follow falling to the earth. newton had suggested an experiment to prove it. but newton made a mistake, suggesting that the trajectory would be a spiral. hooke grabbed this and ran with it. he announced to the society that newton was wrong. newton was incensed, he felt hooke had no right to take their correspondence to the society, and that the major issue was one of a conduct problem on the part of hooke. hooke had no right to announce newton wrong to the society. it is entirely possible that hooke was making the most of it, but one can hardly blame him when one considers the godlike esteem in which many people held newton. newton may have been the " giver of laws " but he often upstaged the others of his time, and was not inclined to give credit to anyone else. newton refused to correspond with hooke any further, hooke had written a third letter to newton, that newton refused to answer. and it is this third letter that is of particular interest. this letter was written january


to give credit to anyone else. newton refused to correspond with hooke any further, hooke had written a third letter to newton, that newton refused to answer. and it is this third letter that is of particular interest. this letter was written january 6, 1680, and in it, hooke spoke of his theory of gravity. hooke wrote ; " but my supposition is that the attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the distance from the center reciprocal, and consequently that the velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the attraction and consequently as kepler supposes reciprocal to the distance. " this was the main letter hooke used as evidence when he claimed newton had robbed him of his theory, but hooke had no answer from newton acknowledging hooke ' s theory. hooke first appealed to halley saying that newton had taken all credit for the theory of gravity, when in fact, he, hooke, had given the idea to newton. this put halley in a difficult situation. halley was himself paying for the principia to be published, and the last thing he needed was for newton to get temperamental. however, halley had to know first hand, because of previous communication with hooke, that hooke was not unreasonable in his claims. halley and hooke had long before discussed the idea that the force of gravitation must diminish by the square of the distance across which it is propagated and agreed that the inverse square law could explain kepler ' s discovery that the planets move in elliptical orbits, each sweeping out an equal area within its orbit in equal time. halley wrote newton and told him, " he sais you had the notion from him, though he owns the demonstration of the curves generated thereby to be wholly your own : how much of this is so you know best, as likewise what you have to do in this matter, only mr. hooke seems to expect you should make some mention of him in the preface, which, it is possible, you may see reason to prefix. " 3 newton vehemently denied any such accusation to halley. a second letter to newton from halley pointed out that hooke had not made a formal complaint of the matter, and that he felt that others had made hooke ' s conduct seem worse than it was. halley further pointed out again that hooke was not trying to lay claim to the entire theory. it must have been a terribly uncomfortable situation for the easy going halley. newton had


had made hooke ' s conduct seem worse than it was. halley further pointed out again that hooke was not trying to lay claim to the entire theory. it must have been a terribly uncomfortable situation for the easy going halley. newton had another temper tantrum and told halley he would not write the third book of the principia. halley thought this an incredible loss to mankind, and he had already invested much of his own resources in the publication of the first two books ; he stopped at nothing to appease newton. this incident only served to further harm hooke ' s reputation. newton still maintained hooke was wrong ; newton would share his credit with no one, most certainly not with hooke, and refused to do anything for him. the principia was formally presented to the royal society in 1687 with no mention of hooke in the preface ; clearly, newton had scored another victory over hooke. the year 1687 was indeed a dark year for robert hooke. the principia was published, without recognition to hooke. as if that was not enough, hooke ' s niece also died that year. she was the niece who had captured the heart of the aging scientist. after the principia publication and the death of hooke ' s niece, his health declined at a greater rate. it is possible, judging by some descriptions, that hooke was inflicted with scoliosis, a crippling degenerative disease that causes an unnatural curvature of the spine and would account for his " incurvature " and stooping posture. but he stayed active until the last year of his life when he possibly had a stroke and was confined to bed. but waller reported that his mind stayed clear until his death, though he became increasingly melancholy and disagreeable. hooke died on march 3, 1703, having been blind and bedridden the last year of his life. there had been little justice for hooke during his life, and there would be little to follow after his death. his grave location is not even known. moreover, richard waller published some of hooke ' s works in 1705, dedicated to none other than isaac newton. this posthumous insult did little for hooke and it is quite doubtful newton appreciated it anyway. what remained of hooke ' s works then passed to the reverend william derham, who was an old friend of newton ' s and took until 1725 to publish any more of hooke ' s works. what part newton played in the


walls, after which he sent out a band of daring men, who stealthily made their way through the lines and started the fire with loud shouts and yells. simultaneously, a glare of light shot up from the city walls, and huang - fu sung, sounding his drums, led a rapid charge, which threw the rebels into confusion and put them to headlong flight. " [ hou han shu, ch. 71. ] ( 5 ) when you start a fire, be to windward of it. do not attack from the leeward. # chang yu, following tu yu, says : " when you make a fire, the enemy will retreat away from it ; if you oppose his retreat and attack him then, he will fight desperately, which will not conduce to your success. " a rather more obvious explanation is given by tu mu : " if the wind is in the east, begin burning to the east of the enemy, and follow up the attack yourself from that side. if you start the fire on the east side, and then attack from the west, you will suffer in the same way as your enemy. " a wind that rises in the daytime lasts long, but a night breeze soon falls. # cf. lao tzu ' s saying : " a violent wind does not last the space of a morning. " ( tao te ching, chap. 23. ) mei yao - ch ` en and wang hsi say : " a day breeze dies down at nightfall, and a night breeze at daybreak. this is what happens as a general rule. " the phenomenon observed may be correct enough, but how this sense is to be obtained is not apparent. in every army, the five developments connected with fire must be known, the movements of the stars calculated, and a watch kept for the proper days. # tu mu says : " we must make calculations as to the paths of the stars, and watch for the days on which wind will rise, before making our attack with fire. " chang yu seems to interpret the text differently : " we must not only know how to assail our opponents with fire, but also be on our guard against similar attacks from them. " hence those who use fire as an aid to the attack show intelligence ; those who use water as an aid to the attack gain an accession of strength. # by means of water, an enemy may be intercepted, but not robbed of all his belongings. # ts ` ao kung ' s note is : " we can merely obstruct


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the current state of arctic sea ice ( see graph below ) sends a chill down my spine. so what it says is that the ice is melting furiously, and looks like it ’ s not yet slowing down even though the days have started to draw in. however, any scientist will tell you that no single data point can be used as evidence of global warming, there are simply too many fluctuations for anything to be concluded over anything but the longest timescales. we cannot simply look at the mean temperature for a hot year and say, there you go, global warming! now, the issue is, there are well - known cycles over pretty much all timescales – this pretty much undermines all serious attempts at prediction. so, what to do? well all is not lost ; there are still some clever little leading indicators we can look at to give us that sobering wake up call. firstly, we know co2 concentration is up, no doubt or argument, this can be seen in the famous hawaii data above, complete with the seasonal ‘ breathing ’ by global plant - life. the argument is about whether the greenhouse models that say this will result in warming will turn out right. i honestly don ’ t know, but i wouldn ’ t even have to wonder if the co2 levels weren ’ t going up, would i? # 2 : a record breaking rate of record breaking secondly, rather looking at averages or ‘ new records ’, we can look at the frequency of records. so rather than saying, “ we just had the hottest summer ever in some parts of the us, there ’ s the proof ” we can look at how often records are set all over the world – hottest, coldest, wettest, dryest and so on. this approach creates a filter ; if it shows there are more records being broken on the hot side than the cold side, could this be an indicator? i hope not, because there are. again, it could be part of a long - term cycle that could bottom out any time now. but on the other hand, if it was going the other way, i wouldn ’ t have to hope, would i? # 3 : sea ice now the sea ice. the sea ice is another proxy for temperature. the reason it ’ s interesting to climatologists is because it is a natural way to ‘ sum - up ’ the total warmth for the year and longer ; if ice is reducing over several years, it means that there has been a net surplus of warmth. today we are seeing


a lucid account of the suffolk bank system which operated in massachusetts between 1825 and 1858. dr trivioli shows that during this period a free enterprise central bank and clearing system operated with great success, bringing stability to a stuation where competing banks issued their own notes. synopsis : in tracing the history of the leading ideas of the social market economy in germany to their various intellectual roots, konrad zweig offers some pertinent insights into the fundamentals of german economic thinking and policies, little known in the english – speaking world. in his foreword to this work, professor christian watrin of the university of cologne comments : " i see great merit in dr. konrad zweig ' s essay in clarifying and describing the leading ideas of the german position to an english – speaking public. his paper shows a profound knowledge of the historical roots, but at the same time, his aim is to show the compatibility of a competitive market and social protection. a report looking at the transport problems in the uk, and at one potential solution to it. michael forsyth provides the solutions for the abject failure of public services in the late 1970s and early 1980s : " local authorities seeking to make cuts in expenditure and increase benefits to ratepayers must now undertake extensive privatization of their services. the best method is just to do it, to put out services for private contract. the arguments of theory against the success of such action melt away in the practical results gained wherever it is done. the british people have come to expect that public services will become lower in quality and ' more expensive to provide. this need not be so. privatization has its part to play, therefore, not only in re – servicing britain, but in helping to restore the country ' s faith in itself. " a critical analysis of britain ' s planning system. not much has changed positively in the years since 1982 making this report still relevant today. it also outlines solutions that would free up the planning system.... to the economic and political thought of our time. this book, written by dr eamonn butler, gives an introduction to the great austrian economist and political philosopher friedrich a. hayek. the book covers the themes of hayek ' s work, which consists more than 25 books and numerous articles. the topics include hayek ' s understanding of the market process ; his critique of socialism and the meaningless term of social justice, and hayek ' s suggestions for the constitution of the liberal state. an indepth look at the options available for the process of privatizing britain


to th ' iga. " - use of " over yonder " in place of " over there " or " in or at that indicated place, " especially when being used to refer to a particularly different spot, such as in " the house over yonder " - use of " the grocery " in place of " the supermarket " or " the grocery store. " for example " i went to the grocery earlier today " or " we ' re fixin ' to go to the grocery " - use of a quasi - reflexive pronoun " me " or " him ". for example, " i ' m fixin ' to paint me a picture. " - use of " to love on someone or something " in place of " to show affection to " or " be affectionate with someone or something. " for example : " he was lovin ' on his new kitten. " - word use tendencies from the harvard dialect survey : - a carbonated beverage in general as " coke " ( likely influenced by the coca - cola company being headquartered in atlanta, georgia and the resultant dominance of coca - cola in the region ). - the small land crustaceans that roll when you touch them as " roley - poleys " rather than " pill bugs " or " woodlouse " - the push - cart at the grocery store as a " buggy " - the small freshwater crustacean in lakes and streams as a " crawdad, " " crawfish, " or " crayfish " depending on the location the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details


1997 - 1999 : children ' s book completed ae projects when someone is suffering from dementia, the whole family is affected. it can be difficult for everyone, but particularly for children who do not always understand what is going on. in 1999, alzheimer europe ( in collaboration with the association luxembourg alzheimer ) produced a book aimed at helping children understand more about alzheimer ’ s disease and possibly come to terms with it. the book is aimed at children between the age of 8 and 11 and is suitable for those who have a relative with dementia, as well as those who do not. participants from eight of our member associations were involved in the project : - france : association france alzheimer - greece : greek alzheimer association - iceland : f. a. a. s. - luxembourg : association luxembourg alzheimer - portugal : apfada - switzerland : association alzheimer suisse - the netherlands : alzheimerstichting - united kingdom : alzheimer scotland - action on dementia funding and duration the european commission granted the necessary funds for the “ alzheimer children ’ s book project ” to the association luxembourg alzheimer. alzheimer europe worked in close cooperation with the association luxembourg alzheimer on this project which started in december 1997 and finished in june 1999. the main aims of this project were to produce a book about alzheimer ' s disease which would provide children with basic information about alzheimer ' s disease ( though the story ), answer some of the questions they may have, remove some of the stigma associated with having a relative with alzheimer ' s disease and provide a tool for the topic to be discussed in schools, at home and amongst friends. moreover, it was our aim to write a book which would be directly accessible to a young audience rather than the parents of children with a relative with dementia. the first stage of this project involved collecting copies of existing information in order to analyse its content, produce a summary and compile an inventory. before starting to write the story, alzheimer luxembourg association, in close collaboration with alzheimer europe, organised interviews with young children in order to assess their real needs with regard to information about alzheimer ' s disease and their preferences concerning the style of the book. these interviews enabled us to analyse the language used by young children in order to write a story in a style which was understandable and adapted to the needs of the target group. finally, two meetings were held with the project participants in luxembourg. these meetings enabled the participants to define guidelines for the book, the overall structure of the story, the audience, the specific aspects of the disease to be dealt with, the characters, the setting,


using scientific techniques and cutting - edge equipment, researchers at the indianapolis museum of art conservation science laboratory have recently solved mysteries about paintings by vincent van gogh and giorgio de chirico. since opening in early 2011, the conservation science laboratory has undertaken multiple projects that have provided the museum world with new research, techniques and advances in the field of conservation. a partnership between the ima conservation science laboratory and the cincinnati art museum ( cam ) has shed new light on the colors that vincent van gogh used in his 1890 painting undergrowth with two figures. van gogh was known to use vibrant colors in his paintings but many of his works today have lost this original vibrancy. undergrowth with two figures is one such work and during a cleaning of the work, former cam paintings conservator per knutas unearthed miniscule traces of bright pink colorant in areas where the frame covered the edge of the painting. this discovery prompted knutas to contact dr. gregory d. smith, the ima otto n. frenzel iii senior conservation scientist. smith agreed to help identify the paint colorant used by van gogh and worked with visiting researcher dr. jeffrey fieberg, associate professor of chemistry at centre college in danville, ky, to examine the painting and solve the mystery. i gladly accepted the challenge to identify the colorant, knowing this project would allow the conservation science laboratory to build ongoing partnerships within the museum community, contribute useful research on paint fading and fully utilize the state - of - the - art instruments available in the lab, smith said. this project is a shining example of the type of research the lab is equipped to conduct. van gogh painted undergrowth within the last five weeks of his lifea period when he was known to have used a bright geranium lake organic dye and the brilliance of geranium lake is short lived when exposed to light. a helpful clue in the process came from a letter written by van gogh to his brother, theo, while he was painting the work stating it contained... undergrowth, lilac trunks of poplars, and underneath them some flower - dotted grass, pink, yellow, white and various greens. since the pink flowers rapidly faded to white, the question addressed by the ima lab was which flowers were white because of the fading, and which ones were always white. the painting was brought to the ima for an in - depth, nondestructive analysis. smith utilized a small broken paint chip found lodged in the varnish to analyze the dye by raman


the fading, and which ones were always white. the painting was brought to the ima for an in - depth, nondestructive analysis. smith utilized a small broken paint chip found lodged in the varnish to analyze the dye by raman microspectroscopya process that collects a characteristic spectral fingerprint from the dye by measuring changes in laser light scattered by the molecules. comparison of the spectrum to a digital library of thousands of materials identified the dye as eosin, which gives geranium lake its vibrant color. after identifying the ink, smith and fieberg painstakingly mapped out its location by elemental spectroscopy in the 387 dobs of white paint used by van gogh to represent the flowers. the team used adobe photoshop to record all the spots in which the dyestuff was detected, creating a virtual restoration of the aged painting. the research collaboration between smith, fieberg and cam is ongoing. an upcoming scholarly publication by the projects core collaborators will make the information more widely known to art history scholars. smith is now working with forensic scientists at indiana university purdue university indianapolis to refine the coloration used in the virtual restoration based on actual microcolorimetry measurements of small paint flakes from the van gogh painting. van gogh said,... in the colours there is adulteration as in wines. how can one judge correctly when, like myself, one knows nothing of chemistry. although the damage has already been done, through chemistry the ima is now working to understand the changes in this work and others by van gogh in the museums collection and to give todays admirers of his work a more accurate picture of his artworks brilliance. the conservation science lab did similar work on a giorgio de chirico painting from the imas permanent collection. ima associate curator for research, annette schlagenhauff, gained assistance from the science lab and conservation imaging specialists while studying the provenance and authenticity of de chiricos the mysterious departure. the piece was taken off view for more than 30 years because of the belief that it might be a forgery. closer examination revealed a figure study underneath that was characteristic of de chiricos later works. it is now believed that de chirico painted this work in the 1930s as a copy of one of his earlier pieces to take advantage of the popularity of this metaphysical style later in his career. other ongoing projects in the conservation science lab include : developing internship opportunities for high school, undergraduate and graduate students offering sabbatical programs for university professors who


logging in or signing up ecological pyramids bothrops download post to : url : related presentations : share add to flag embed email send to blogs and networks add to channel uploaded from authorpoint lite insert youtube videos in powerpont slides with as desktop copy embed code : embed : flash ipad dynamic copy does not support media & animations automatically changes to flash or non - flash embed wordpress embed customize embed url : copy thumbnail : copy the presentation is successfully added in your favorites. views : 11910 category : education license : all rights reserved like it ( 4 ) dislike it ( 2 ) added : november 30, 2008 this presentation is public favorites : 3 presentation description a level ecology - looks at trophic levels and diiferences between pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy comments posting comment... premium member presentation transcript ecological pyramids : ecological pyramids revision : revision we have looked at the use of food chains and food webs to the direction of energy flow in ecological systems. what is a trophic level? a secondary consumer? an autotroph? a heterotroph? ecological pyramids : ecological pyramids there are three types of pyramid that can be used to display ecological systems pyramids of number pyramids of biomass pyramids of energy pyramids of number : pyramids of number the simplest example of an ecological pyramid produced by a simple count of the organisms in each trophic level of the ecosystem. the number of each type of organism is represented by a rectangle that ’ s length is proportional to the number of individual organisms in a given area ( or volume ) pyramids of number : a typical pyramid of numbers pyramids of number log numbers producers herbivores 1st level carnivore 2nd level carnivore 3rd level carnivore pyramids of number : an inverted pyramid of numbers pyramids of number numbers producers herbivores 1st level carnivore 2nd level carnivore pyramids of number : advantage data relatively easy to collect using simple sampling disadvantages producers vary in size large range of numbers trophic level difficult to work out pyramids of number pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass these are based on an estimation of the total mass of the organisms at each trophic level how might this data be collected? individual organisms weighed and counted. dry mass should be compared to eliminate errors due to water content pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass advantages the data is more accurate. eliminates misleading problems


each trophic level how might this data be collected? individual organisms weighed and counted. dry mass should be compared to eliminate errors due to water content pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass advantages the data is more accurate. eliminates misleading problems of producer size differences disadvantages laborious and expensive destructive can also be misleading in some circumstances pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass for example, in certain aquatic ecosystems a pyramid of biomass may look like this phytoplankton zooplankton 1st level carnivore why? pyramids of biomass : sample only takes into standing biomass not productivity misleading when ; producers are small with a high turnover rate the rate of consumption is about equal to rate of production pyramids of biomass pyramids of energy : pyramids of energy each bar represents the total amount of energy used by the trophic level per unit area over a set period of time ( remember kjm - 2yr - 1? ) pyramids of energy : pyramids of energy gross production herbivores to carnivores producers to herbivores carnivores to top carnivores 87110 88 1603 14098 energy ( in kjm - 2yr - 1 ) pyramids of energy : advantages takes into account the productivity addresses the fact that weight for weight, two species do not necessarily have the same energy content disadvantages very difficult to obtain data destructive problems identifying trophic level pyramids of energy please get out your information booklets! : please get out your information booklets! you do not have the permission to view this presentation. in order to view it, please contact the author of the presentation.