policies of the soviet union. the term was originally meant as a pejorative, and was labeled by moscow as a heresy during the period of tensions between the soviet union and yugoslavia known as the informbiro period from 1948 to 1955. unlike the rest of east europe, which fell under stalin ' s influence post - world war ii, yugoslavia, due to the strong leadership of marshal tito and the fact that the yugoslav partisans liberated yugoslavia with only limited help from the red army, remained independent from moscow. it became the only country in the balkans to resist pressure from moscow to join the warsaw pact and remained " socialist, but independent " right up until the collapse of soviet socialism in the late 1980s and early 1990s. throughout his time in office, tito prided himself on yugoslavia ' s independence from russia, with yugoslavia never accepting full membership of the comecon and tito ' s open rejection of many aspects of stalinism as the most obvious manifestations of this. since the early 1970s, the term eurocommunism was used to refer to moderate, reformist communist parties in western europe. these parties did not support the soviet union and denounced its policies. such parties were politically active and electorally significant in italy ( pci ), france ( pcf ), and spain ( pce ). council communism is a far - left movement originating in germany and the netherlands in the 1920s. its primary organization was the communist workers party of germany ( kapd ). council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both left - wing marxism and libertarian socialism. the central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of social democracy and leninist communism, is that democratic workers ' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working class organisation and governmental power. this view is opposed to both the reformist and the leninist ideologies, with their stress on, respectively, parliaments and institutional government ( i. e., by applying social reforms ), on the one hand, and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other ). the core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by workers ' councils composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. as such, council communists oppose state - run authoritarian " state socialism " / " state capitalism ". they also oppose the idea of a " revolutionary party ", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. council communists support a worker ' s democracy, which


" state socialism " / " state capitalism ". they also oppose the idea of a " revolutionary party ", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. council communists support a worker ' s democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of workers ' councils. council communism ( and other types of " anti - authoritarian and anti - leninist marxism " such as autonomism ) are often viewed as being similar to anarchism because they criticize leninist ideologies for being authoritarian and reject the idea of a vanguard party. luxemburgism, based on the writing of rosa luxemburg, is an interpretation of marxism which, while supporting the russian revolution, as luxemburg did, agrees with her criticisms of the politics of lenin and trotsky ; she did not see their concept of " democratic centralism " as democracy. the chief tenets of luxemburgism are commitment to democracy and the necessity of the revolution taking place as soon as possible. in this regard, it is similar to council communism, but differs in that, for example, luxemburgists don ' t reject elections by principle. it resembles anarchism in its insistence that only relying on the people themselves as opposed to their leaders can avoid an authoritarian society, but differs in that it sees the importance of a revolutionary party, and mainly the centrality of the working class in the revolutionary struggle. it resembles trotskyism in its opposition to the totalitarianism of stalinist government while simultaneously avoiding the reformist politics of modern social democracy, but differs from trotskyism in arguing that lenin and trotsky also made undemocratic errors. luxemburg ' s idea of democracy, which stanley aronowitz calls " generalized democracy in an unarticulated form ", represents luxemburgism ' s greatest break with " mainstream communism ", since it effectively diminishes the role of the communist party, but is in fact very similar to the views of karl marx ( " the emancipation of the working classes must be conquered by the working classes themselves " ). according to aronowitz, the vagueness of luxembourgian democracy is one reason for its initial difficulty in gaining widespread support. however, since the fall of the soviet union, luxemburgism has been seen by some socialist thinkers as a way to avoid the totalitarianism of stalinism. early on, luxemburg attacked undemocratic tendencies present in the russian revolution. | this section does not


soviet union, luxemburgism has been seen by some socialist thinkers as a way to avoid the totalitarianism of stalinism. early on, luxemburg attacked undemocratic tendencies present in the russian revolution. | this section does not cite any references or sources. | please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( november 2008 ) in 1992, juche replaced marxism - leninism in the revised north korean constitution as the official state ideology, this being a response to the sino - soviet split. juche was originally defined as a creative application of marxism - leninism, but after the 1991 collapse of the soviet union ( north korea ’ s greatest economic benefactor ), all reference to marxism - leninism was dropped in the revised 1998 constitution. the establishment of the songun doctrine in the mid - 1990s has formally designated the military, not the proletariat or working class, as the main revolutionary force in north korea. all reference to communism had been dropped in the 2009 revised constitution. according to kim jong - il ' s on the juche idea, the application of juche in state policy entails the following : - the people must have independence ( chajusong ) in thought and politics, economic self - sufficiency, and self - reliance in defense. - policy must reflect the will and aspirations of the masses and employ them fully in revolution and construction. - methods of revolution and construction must be suitable to the situation of the country. - the most important work of revolution and construction is molding people ideologically as communists and mobilizing them to constructive action. prachanda path refers to the ideological line of the communist party of nepal ( maoist ). this thought doesn ' t make an ideological break with marxism, leninism and maoism but it is an extension of these ideologies totally based on home - ground politics of nepal. the doctrine came into existence after it was realized that the ideology of marxism, leninism and maoism couldn ' t be practiced completely as it were done in the past. and an ideology suitable, based on the ground reality of nepalese politics was adopted by the party. after five years of armed struggle, the party realized that none of the proletarian revolutions of the past could be carried out on nepal ’ s context. so moving further ahead than marxism, leninism and maoism, the party determined its own ideology, prachanda path. having analyzed the serious challenges and growing changes in


became one of the dominant forms of anarchist organization, arguing that labor unions, as opposed to communist parties, are the organizations that can change society. consequently, many anarchists have been in opposition to marxist communism to this day. anarchist communists propose that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of self - governing communes with collective use of the means of production, organized by direct democracy, and related to other communes through federation. however, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy. christian communism is a form of religious communism centered on christianity. it is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of jesus christ urge christians to support communism as the ideal social system. christian communists trace the origins of their practice to teachings in the new testament, such as this one from acts of the apostles at chapter 2 and verses 42, 44, and 45 : 42 and they continued steadfastly in the apostles ' doctrine and in fellowship [... ] 44 and all that believed were together, and had all things in common ; 45 and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. ( king james version ) christian communism can be seen as a radical form of christian socialism. also, due to the fact that many christian communists have formed independent stateless communes in the past, there is also a link between christian communism and christian anarchism. christian communists may or may not agree with various parts of marxism. christian communists also share some of the political goals of marxists, for example replacing capitalism with socialism, which should in turn be followed by communism at a later point in the future. however, christian communists sometimes disagree with marxists ( and particularly with leninists ) on the way a socialist or communist society should be organized. karl heinrich marx saw primitive communism as the original, hunter - gatherer state of humankind from which it arose. for marx, only after humanity was capable of producing surplus, did private property develop. in the history of western thought, certain elements of the idea of a society based on common ownership of property can be traced back to ancient times. examples include the spartacus slave revolt in rome. the fifth century mazdak movement in what is now iran has been described as " communistic " for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society. at one time or another,


in what is now iran has been described as " communistic " for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society. at one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of scripture. in the medieval christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and other property ( see religious communism and christian communism ). these groups often believed that concern with private property was a distraction from religious service to god and neighbor. communist thought has also been traced back to the work of 16th century english writer thomas more. in his treatise utopia ( 1516 ), more portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason. in the 17th century, communist thought arguably surfaced again in england. in 17th century england, a puritan religious group known as the diggers advocated the abolition of private ownership of land. eduard bernstein, in his 1895 cromwell and communism argued that several groupings in the english civil war, especially the diggers espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that oliver cromwell ' s attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile. criticism of the idea of private property continued into the age of enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as jean jacques rousseau in france. later, following the upheaval of the french revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine. francois noel babeuf, in particular, espoused the goals of common ownership of land and total economic and political equality among citizens. various social reformers in the early 19th century founded communities based on common ownership. but unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis. notable among them were robert owen, who founded new harmony in indiana ( 1825 ), and charles fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the united states such as brook farm ( 1841 – 47 ). later in the 19th century, karl marx described these social reformers as " utopian socialists " to contrast them with his program of " scientific socialism " ( a term coined by friedrich engels ). other writers described by marx as " utopian socialists " included saint - simon. in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century europe. as the industrial revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat — a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often - hazardous conditions. foremost among


communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century europe. as the industrial revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat — a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often - hazardous conditions. foremost among these critics were the german philosopher karl marx and his associate friedrich engels. in 1848, marx and engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet the communist manifesto. engels, who lived in manchester, observed the organization of the chartist movement ( see history of british socialism ), while marx departed from his university comrades to meet the proletariat in france and germany. growth of modern communism in the late 19th century, russian marxism developed a distinct character. the first major figure of russian marxism was georgi plekhanov. underlying the work of plekhanov was the assumption that russia, less urbanized and industrialized than western europe, had many years to go before society would be ready for proletarian revolution to occur, and a transitional period of a bourgeois democratic regime would be required to replace tsarism with a socialist and later communist society. ( eb ) in russia, the 1917 october revolution was the first time any party with an avowedly marxist orientation, in this case the bolshevik party, seized state power. the assumption of state power by the bolsheviks generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the marxist movement. marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. marx had explicitly stated that russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeoisie capitalism. other socialists also believed that a russian revolution could be the precursor of workers ' revolutions in the west. the moderate mensheviks opposed lenin ' s bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. the bolsheviks ' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans " peace, bread, and land " and " all power to the soviets ", slogans which tapped the massive public desire for an end to russian involvement in the first world war, the peasants ' demand for land reform, and popular support for the soviets. the usage of the terms " communism " and " socialism " shifted after 1917, when the bolsheviks changed their name to the communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved


soviets. the usage of the terms " communism " and " socialism " shifted after 1917, when the bolsheviks changed their name to the communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the separate national parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front against the war, instead generally supporting their respective nation ' s role. lenin thus created the third international ( comintern ) in 1919 and sent the twenty - one conditions, which included democratic centralism, to all european socialist parties willing to adhere. in france, for example, the majority of the french section of the workers ' international ( sfio ) party split in 1921 to form the french section of the communist international ( sfic ). henceforth, the term " communism " was applied to the objective of the parties founded under the umbrella of the comintern. their program called for the uniting of workers of the world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat as well as the development of a socialist economy. ultimately, if their program held, there would develop a harmonious classless society, with the withering away of the state. during the russian civil war ( 1918 – 1922 ), the bolsheviks nationalized all productive property and imposed a policy of war communism, which put factories and railroads under strict government control, collected and rationed food, and introduced some bourgeois management of industry. after three years of war and the 1921 kronstadt rebellion, lenin declared the new economic policy ( nep ) in 1921, which was to give a " limited place for a limited time to capitalism. " the nep lasted until 1928, when joseph stalin achieved party leadership, and the introduction of the first five year plan spelled the end of it. following the russian civil war, the bolsheviks formed in 1922 the union of soviet socialist republics ( ussr ), or soviet union, from the former russian empire. following lenin ' s democratic centralism, the communist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base ; they were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline. after world war ii, communists consolidated power in eastern europe, and in 1949, the communist party of china ( cpc ) led by mao zedong established the people ' s republic of china, which would later follow its own ideological path of communist development. cuba, north korea,


in south africa, the communist party is a partner in the anc - led government. in india, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. in nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament. the people ' s republic of china has reassessed many aspects of the maoist legacy ; and the people ' s republic of china, laos, vietnam, and, to a far lesser degree, cuba have reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. the people ' s republic of china runs special economic zones dedicated to market - oriented enterprise, free from central government control. several other communist states have also attempted to implement market - based reforms, including vietnam. theories within marxism as to why communism in eastern europe was not achieved after socialist revolutions pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the transition press in its own interests. ( scott and marshall, 2005 ) marxist critics of the soviet union, most notably trotsky, referred to the soviet system, along with other communist states, as " degenerated " or " deformed workers ' states ", arguing that the soviet system fell far short of marx ' s communist ideal and he claimed the working class was politically dispossessed. the ruling stratum of the soviet union was held to be a bureaucratic caste, but not a new ruling class, despite their political control. anarchists who adhere to participatory economics claim that the soviet union became dominated by powerful intellectual elites who in a capitalist system crown the proletariat ’ s labor on behalf of the bourgeoisie. non - marxists, in contrast, have often applied the term to any society ruled by a communist party and to any party aspiring to create a society similar to such existing nation - states. in the social sciences, societies ruled by communist parties are distinct for their single party control and their socialist economic bases. while some social and political scientists applied the concept of " totalitarianism " to these societies, others identified possibilities for independent political activity within them, and stressed their continued evolution up to the point of the dissolution of the soviet union and its allies in eastern europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s. a diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as : - soviet bloc dissidents lech wałesa, aleksandr solzhenitsyn


union and its allies in eastern europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s. a diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as : - soviet bloc dissidents lech wałesa, aleksandr solzhenitsyn and vaclav havel ; - social theorists hannah arendt, raymond aron, ralf dahrendorf, seymour martin lipset, and karl wittfogel ; - economists ludwig von mises, friedrich hayek, and milton friedman ; - historians and social scientists robert conquest, stephane courtois, richard pipes, and r. j. rummel ; - anti - stalinist leftists ignazio silone, george orwell, saul alinsky, richard wright, arthur koestler, and bernard - henri levy ; - russian - born novelist and philosopher ayn rand - philosophers leszek kołakowski and karl popper. part of this criticism is on the policies adopted by one - party states ruled by communist parties ( known as " communist states " ). critics are specially focused on their economic performance compared to market based economies. their human rights records are thought to be responsible for the flight of refugees from communist states, and are alleged by some scholars to be responsible for famines, purges and warfare resulting in deaths far in excess of previous empires, capitalist or axis regimes. some writers, such as courtois, argue that the actions of communist states were the inevitable ( though sometimes unintentional ) result of marxist principles ; thus, these authors present the events occurring in those countries, particularly under stalin and mao, as an argument against marxism itself. some critics were former marxists, such as wittfogel, who applied marx ' s concept of " oriental despotism " to communist states such as the soviet union, silone, wright and koestler ( among other writers ) who contributed essays to the book the god that failed ( the title refers not to the christian god but to marxism ). czesław miłosz, author of the influential essay the captive mind, was an example of a sceptic holding a party post, that of cultural attache. there have also been more direct criticisms of marxism, such as criticisms of the labor theory of value or marx ' s predictions. nevertheless, communist parties outside of the warsaw pact, such as the communist parties in western europe, asia, latin america, and africa, differed greatly. economic criticisms of communal and / or government property are described under criticisms of socialism. - ^ a b


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date of award master of public health ( mph ) dr. frances mccarty - chair dr. carol hoban postpartum depression is recognized as an important maternal and child health issue. postpartum depression is the most common perinatal psychiatric disorder and one of the most common complications of childbirth. studies show prevalence rates in women ranging from 10 % to 25 %. postpartum depression affects the emotional wellbeing of mothers, infant behavior, mother - infant bonding, and marital relationships. however, the majority of women who experience postpartum depression do not seek care. the purpose of this analysis is to examine the demographic differences between women in georgia who report symptoms of postpartum depression but do not seek care, versus women who report postpartum depression symptoms and seek care. approximately 15 % of respondents in this study reported postpartum depression. of these women, approximately 80 % did not seek care for their symptoms. this analysis found that women with the following characteristics were more likely to not seek care for depression : non - white and hispanic women ; women that were uninsured before their pregnancy ; women that had their prenatal care paid for by medicaid or the military ; and women who did not seek care for depression during their pregnancy. the results of this study may help to guide the implementation of public health interventions among postpartum women in georgia. tennyson, sarah elizabeth, " an analysis of postpartum depression and care seeking behaviors in georgia " ( 2009 ). public health theses. paper 120.