adult life. it might mean we don ' t take up opportunities even if they are there, because they are outside our script. let ' s imagine what happens to jane as an adult. let ' s say she achieves well at work and develops her career in an outstanding way. she marries a man who is also very invested in his work and they get along fine. so far jane has stayed within her script of " work hard ", " life is a struggle ", " men like my dad who do well are attractive ". you could say she is doing well too. however, there are also blind spots which her script has created. she doesn ' t spend a lot of time socializing and she doesn ' t notice when people want to spend time with her. the only friend she has is someone she met at a book club. they still spend a lot of time talking about books ( like she did with her sister ), but actually jane and her friend are neither emotionally open nor do they feel close to each other. jane married a man who was more invested in his career than in spending time with her and she often feels lonely beside him. she may have broken up with an earlier boy friend, who was much more loving, because she thought he was lazy ( or what the parent ego state in her head would have called lazy ), because he wanted to sit around and have a good time with his friends on the weekends. jane may also not have been able to appreciate his warmth and kindness, because it was completely off her radar. jane may suffer from physical pain due to overworking, like back pain or frequent infections. she would be a prime candidate for depression as she neglects her emotional and psychological well - being and gives out a lot more energy than she takes in. to reiterate, life script is an ongoing process of a self - defining and sometimes self - limiting psychological construction of reality. as long as we stick with it, life seems to be more predictable. however, the price we pay for a sense of certainty is that we are excluding new possibilities - even the good ones. the question you might want to ask yourself now is : what might your own script look like? one way to determine this is to look at your favorite fairy tales or mythological stories. which story did you like best as a kid? often children use fairy tales as a model for their own life stories or they experiment with different scenarios. for example, jane might have liked the story of odysseus, who endured a lot of


ideal, therefore, is to become script free, or be able to apply the strengths in your script consciously. for instance, jane could keep her drive to work hard and use it to be successful, but might also learn how to be emotionally close and have fun. we talk about being script - free as being autonomous. autonomy is behaving, thinking or feeling in direct response to here and now reality rather than reacting to things based on a script belief. imagine, if jane didn ' t have all this baggage, she might take time out for herself in response to feeling low, rather than working even harder to be able to ignore the feelings for a little while longer. autonomy is manifested by the release or recovery of three capacities : awareness, spontaneity and intimacy. and of course, once you know what your unconscious life plan is you can change it. you decided on it as a child, but you can now change your mind as an adult. remember that whatever you decided about yourself and your life as a child, it was done from a very limited perspective. what seemed a generalized truth about life then might not be true for you anymore today. the emphasis on the decision of the child in script formation is based on the premise that " what has been decided can be re - decided ". re - decision is an emotional, cognitive and behavioral process. scripts can be changed and disbanded all together. as an adult you are free to write your own story - and have fun doing it! if you want to find out more about how this applies to your relationship, have a look at applying scripts. other related psychological topics are games, relational needs, life positions, and transference.


definitions of stiff : - noun : an ordinary man example : " a lucky stiff " - noun : the dead body of a human being - adjective : not moving or operating freely example : " a stiff hinge " - adjective : powerful example : " a stiff current " - adjective : lacking ease in bending ; not limber example : " a stiff neck " - adjective : hard to overcome or surmount example : " a stiff hike " - adjective : incapable of or resistant to bending example : " a palace guardsman stiff as a poker " - adjective : of a collar ; standing up rather than folded down example : " a stiff collar " - adjective : rigidly formal example : " the letter was stiff and formal " - adjective : very drunk - adverb : extremely example : " bored stiff " - adverb : in a stiff manner example : " his hands lay stiffly " - name : a surname ( rare : 1 in 100000 families ; popularity rank in the u. s. : # 11622 ) search for stiff at other dictionaries : onelook, answers. com, merriam - webster " works flawlessly! " : rhymezone apps for iphone / ipad and android! help, feedback, customize, android app, iphone / ipad app copyright © 2013 datamuse


issue number : 93 ‘ enlightenment, ’ wrote immanuel kant in his 1784 essay what is enlightenment? ‘ is man ’ s emergence from his self - imposed immaturity. immaturity is the inability to use one ’ s understanding without guidance from another. this immaturity is self - imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. sapere aude! [ dare to know! ] have the courage to use your own understanding! that is the motto of enlightenment. ’ age of reason an encyclopdedia of the age of enlightenment by adam dant. an encyclopdedia of the age of enlightenment by adam dant. neither kant nor his eighteenth - century contemporaries believed that they lived in an enlightened age. by ‘ enlightenment ’, they meant a process : the lessening of darkness, the dawning of light. the human mind was liberating itself from traditional authority over thought and belief. ‘ nothing is required for enlightenment except freedom, ’ wrote kant, ‘ and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters. ’ kant and his fellow leaders of the enlightenment were opposed to hegemonies, whether intellectual or political. ‘ on all sides i hear : do not argue! ’ kant continues. ‘ the officer says, “ do not argue, drill! ” the taxman says, “ do not argue, pay! ” the pastor says, “ do not argue, believe! ” ’ but, whereas the officer and the taxman serve authorities who dislike anyone questioning the political and social status quo, the pastor is a different matter : he represents the authority that dislikes any kind of questioning, and certainly not the kind that is sceptical about received wisdom. the project that served as a flagship for enlightenment in the eighteenth century was the encyclopedie, edited by denis diderot and jean le rond d ’ alembert. a compendium of knowledge, its emphatic and rationalist war on the authority of past pieties was premised on the recognition of how obstinately they stood in the way of intellectual and social progress. in taking this stance, the encyclopedists were following the lead of voltaire who, with his battle - cry of ecrasez l ’ infame! ( ‘ wipe out the infamy ’, by which he meant superstition


this stance, the encyclopedists were following the lead of voltaire who, with his battle - cry of ecrasez l ’ infame! ( ‘ wipe out the infamy ’, by which he meant superstition ), challenged tradition with weapons of logic and satire. ‘ have courage to free yourselves, ’ diderot exhorted his fellow men in words echoed by kant, ‘ examine the history of all peoples in all times and you will see that we humans have always been subject to one of three codes : that of nature, that of society, and that of religion, and that we have been obliged to transgress all three in succession, because they could never be in harmony. ’ in essence, the enlightenment was a call to individuals to stand up for themselves in the light of reason. that meant understanding the world through philosophy and science, especially by applying the latter beyond physics and chemistry to the social world of politics, education and morality. the enlightenment had its negative aspects and consequences, no doubt, but it was motivated by a real desire for the improvement of humankind ’ s lot and, accordingly, represents a key moment in the progress of civilisation. one of the many results of its new ambition was a shift in portraiture : in enlightenment painting and sculpture, individuals – be they citizens, members of families or clubs – share a place once exclusively occupied by saints and princes. in its way, this represents the first dawning of the modern democratic spirit, and it would not have been possible without the enlightenment ’ s belief in the universality of the human good and the ‘ rights of man ’.


materials enable the ideas of scientists to meet the needs of engineers. research into the relationships between the atomic structure of materials and their physical and mechanical properties, both in the united states and elsewhere, is leading to exciting new alloys and compounds that can be designed to exhibit a wide range of useful properties. for this reason a number of federal agencies, including the department of energy, department of defense, department of commerce, and advisory bodies, such as the office of science and technology policy and the national research council, have identified materials as a critical technology vital to our nation ' s national security and economic competitiveness. the integrated materials research laboratory ( imrl ) enables sandia to develop new and superior materials that meet government and industrial needs. this 140, 000 square foot building houses most of the advanced materials research and development functions at sandia. the facility integrates research from the atomic scale, through the development of electronic devices, to full scale mechanical components. the experimental work is augmented by advanced computer modeling and simulation techniques, another area of sandia ' s expertise. a wide variety of types of materials will be investigated : advanced metallic alloys, semiconductors for electronic and photonic applications, high temperature superconductors, ceramics, metals with properties tailored for improved resistance to friction, wear, corrosion and erosion, etc., and laser, optical and dielectric materials. the imrl has been built outside of sandia ' s secure area to facilitate technical cooperation with researchers from industry and universities. the new four story building has permitted sandia to bring together some 250 materials researchers previously scattered about the campus. it also includes space for postdoctoral researchers and guests from other organizations, facilitating the collaborative generation of new ideas, and the subsequent transfer of novel pre - competitive technologies to practice. the imrl is strategically located with our microelectronics development, compound semiconductor research and robotics manufacturing science and engineering laboratories. this drives the integration of materials research with advanced microelectronic component development creating a set of leading edge facilities in what may be termed an integrated microsystems technology park. we have developed a variety of solution chemistry routes to ceramic powders in order to control such important powder properties as particle size, agglomerate structure, dopant levels, and impurities. the ability to control powder properties is important because the microstructural and electrical properties of ceramics are strongly influenced by the nature of the powder used in their fabrication. this solution processing approach is illustrated above for the sandia - developed process to prepare high field zno varisto


types : mf, df and sf. fifteen areas were sampled. three of these areas represent some of the larger continuous portions within their respective forest types in the parana state : parque nacional do iguacu ( 185, 000 ha ) in the sf, floresta nacional de irati ( 3, 500 ha ) in the mf and area de preservacao ambiental de guaraquecaba ( 192, 000 ha ) in the df. four areas are smaller ( between 656 and 1, 000 ha ), but also legally protected. another five areas are not protected, but are also as well preserved as the conservation units ( table i ). the three forest types studied differ in biotic and abiotic characteristics. in the df, where our study areas were distributed from sea level up to 800 m ( although this forest type can reach 2, 000 m ), annual rainfall and average temperatures are high. there is no obvious dry season and the rainfall is well distributed throughout the year. the complex canopy is composed of a great variety of plant species ( around 700 species of trees are found ), displaying an abundance of epiphytes and large biomass of bamboo and vine tangles ( morellato and haddad 2000, oliveira - filho and fontes 2000 ). the mf, which occupies elevations ranging from 800 to 1, 200 m, is dominated by a single plant species : araucaria angustifolia, which represents more than 40 % of the individual trees. this type of forest is poor in bamboo and vine tangles, but rich in epiphytes. the annual average temperatures and rainfall are lower than those found in the df, and there is no distinct dry season ( mazza et al. 2005 ). the sf, ranging from 200 to 800 m in elevation, is dominated by a few plant species, of which aspidosperma polyneuron, tabebuia heptaphylla and peltophorum dubium are noteworthy. this type of forest is rich in vine tangles and bamboo, but poor in epiphytes. the average annual rainfall is similar to that observed in the mf ; however, the average temperature is similar to that in the df. a distinct dry season of 160 days can be observed in this type of forest ( morellato and haddad 2000, oliveira - filho and fontes 2000 ). bird sampling methods point counts were performed to obtain the abundance data in all study areas ( blondel et


harsh criticism of the way many jesus scholars investigate the single sayings of jesus is given by richard horsley ( 2008 : 131145 ), who bases his critique on the examination of the memory and the gospels as ' social memory ' rather than ' containers of data '. every text and every moment of oral proclamation and performance makes best sense within its context. overman ( 1996 ) writes : the whole story of matthew is a crucial context and, in fact, an absolute necessity for understanding smaller parts or units of the gospel. the story itself, written by the author as best we can reconstruct it, is the first place a sensible reader will look for clues and for a context that will help supply meaning to words, instruction, and stories in the gospel. and there is little doubt that cross - cultural analogies, and stories and events from our own time, can indeed help to shed more light on the gospel texts, their meanings, and their application. secondly, i learned that it is much easier to know the context of jesus than jesus himself. we know a great deal about the roman empire in 1st century palestine. we have trustworthy information about the cultural context that jesus and his disciples lived in. with the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, we can create the social context of jesus and his disciples. it is much more difficult to place the figure of jesus into that context. thirdly, the gospels, as we have them today, are not in their original form. originally, they were distributed in both oral and written forms, with several different forms of each, depending on the context. the gospels also differ from other contemporary literature because of the fact that, although authored by the elite, they do contain some traditions that have been produced by ordinary people, even poor people. this seems to me to be especially true in the sayings gospel q and the gospel of mark and on some occasions the gospel of matthew and the gospel of thomas. even the theologically constructed gospel of john contains some traditions that might have been born in rural peasant circles and the gospel of luke based his admittedly elite gospel on earlier traditions found in q and mark. thus, as horsley ( 2008 : 31 ) writes, the gospels ' are some of those rare historical cases of literature that represents the view from below '. most of the people in the nascent ' christian ' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by


the gospels ' are some of those rare historical cases of literature that represents the view from below '. most of the people in the nascent ' christian ' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. their history needs to be written. horsley ( 2008 : 2124 ) makes an interesting distinction between ' standard history ' and ' people ' s history ' and applies this distinction to new testament studies. to use his terms, my study would be a ' people ' s history '. in this article the focus is not on theological concepts or the rise of christian beliefs. the focus is rather on the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century roman empire. in choosing this focus i have approached the gospels from the viewpoint of the poor. what follows is a necessarily brief analysis of one of the poverty texts that i chose for the interviews amongst people living in poverty today. a more detailed study will be forthcoming in my book on the same subject. in these interviews, i listened to the stories of the villagers as well as their interpretations of the gospel texts and documented them on a voice recorder. findings from this field research amongst the poor living in villages in tanzania in the spring of 2010 will be studied further and then compared to current biblical scholarly investigations concerning the poverty texts. one example text, matthew 6 : 2534, will be presented here from a contextual standpoint, that is, from the perspective of the materially poor. the field research in tanzanian villages one contemporary setting to read the poverty texts within the context of poverty is tanzania. in many places in africa, especially in rural areas, people still live in a pre - industrial, agrarian society. in many villages, there is no electricity and virtually no motor vehicles or telephones. some tribes still live in a gatherer society whilst some tribes are nomadic. but most of the rural people are peasants who make their living from agriculture. they have tiny fields and a small number of cattle that affords them, in normal times, a modest living for themselves and their families. most people do not produce anything for sale and almost nobody gets a salary. also, in recent times hiv and aids has struck the african continent, especially sub - saharan africa, more heavily than any other part of the world, making, at worst, one in every four adults hiv - positive ( unaids 2008 ). 2 i chose to focus on the villages in the iringa district in the middle of tanzania because of my earlier contacts in


any other part of the world, making, at worst, one in every four adults hiv - positive ( unaids 2008 ). 2 i chose to focus on the villages in the iringa district in the middle of tanzania because of my earlier contacts in the area and the support of the finnish evangelical lutheran mission society as well as tumaini university. their familiarity with village life in the district was very useful when arranging visits to local villages where people speak mainly swahili and their own tribal languages, like hehe, bena or kinga. 3 the focus during the visits to the villages was twofold. firstly, i wanted to become familiar with the social structure of the village. i asked the village chief or executive secretary the following kinds of questions : how many people live in the village? do all villagers belong to the same tribe or kin? what do villagers do for a living? what professions or occupations do they have? how many villagers work outside of the village? how and why, do villagers keep contact with neighbouring villages and towns? what are the major problems in the village? 4 in light of the issues regarding land ownership in the gospels it was especially interesting to learn that in tanzania, the land was appropriated by the state in the 1960s. the older generation still remembers the time when the land was either owned by a tribe or by kin, or was free to anyone. nowadays people pay rent for the land they want to cultivate. this data works not only as a necessary context for reading the poverty texts with the villagers, but offers a comparison to the hypothesis regarding the origins of q, namely that it was supposed to have originated in the galilean villages where loss of land was prevalent. secondly and most importantly, i discussed the poverty texts with the villagers. i call this discussion a ' reading ' but the texts were not read from a book with leather covers, but rather performed in narrative style. in tanzania the oral culture and narrative tradition is still alive and well. by telling the stories from memory i tended to get their first reactions, which may have been different had i simply read to them from the bible. some of the villagers were non - christians, so they were not too closely acquainted with the stories beforehand. even the christians heard the stories differently compared to the way they heard them from pastors and evangelists or even in liturgical sermons. i had hoped to have a lively discussion of the poverty stories in the gospels and that i most certainly did. often the religious authorities ( a pastor, an evangelist or some other religious leader


' and therefore not only a spiritual entity. quite the contrary, the palestinians, who suffered from injustice by the israelites, understood the kingdom of god as a movement of oppressed people who have god as their shelter when they do god ' s will. the kingdom of god was equivalent to the intifada. william r. herzog ii ( 2010 ) has written : in the hierarchy of rural life, then, there are two thresholds at which peasants may lose their previous status, and it is at these moments that they will resist their decline most fiercely. ( herzog ii 2010 : 5152 ) quoting james c. scott ( 1976 ), he concludes that : when threatened with the loss of their land and the security of their village, they will form movements and perhaps even rebel. the same is true when peasants reach the second, more desperate threshold, ' when the subsistence guarantees within dependency collapse ', and the relative stability of tenancy gives way to the perilous life of a day laborer. ( james c. scott 1976 : 3940 ) this had obviously not happened in kinywang ' anga, where most people still had the security offered by village life and their small farms. in the palestinian territories, in contrast, the people had suffered from injustice and loss of land. the life of many palestinians had become very difficult. in that context it is much easier to imagine how they would react to the exhortation ' do not worry '. especially young men would eagerly join any movement resisting the unjust oppressor. they could stop worrying about the questions of daily life and strive for the movement that they believed brings justice, peace and welfare. 11 the context of do not worry in the gospels in the gospels we can find three groups where jesus ' words on not worrying about daily life could have been understood and maybe even hailed as good news. the first one is the group of landless peasants, who had quite recently lost all their property to some rich landowners, probably absentee landlords, as a result of debts they were not able to pay. such people would have quickly fallen under the sustenance level and their future was either to become slaves, beggars, criminals, bandits or some other social outcast. these are just the kind of people who might form movements for resistance. if the group believed that their plight triggered an eschatological turn in the immediate future, some kind of a collapse of the normal system of social stratification leading to the possibility of shared goods, they could have


might form movements for resistance. if the group believed that their plight triggered an eschatological turn in the immediate future, some kind of a collapse of the normal system of social stratification leading to the possibility of shared goods, they could have heard the words of jesus as a proclamation of power. however, in the literal context of matthew ' s gospel there are no clear indications that the words should be understood this way. the do not worry passage is a part of the sermon on the mount and although the gospel of matthew also contains an apocalypse later in chapter 24, it would be a stretch to read the chapter 6 passage in light of this. rather, the verbal context of matthew leads one to think about one ' s relation to property rather than to the end times. preceding mattew 6 : 2534 the evangelist talks about almsgiving ( 6 : 14 ), prayer, including central petitions concerning daily living ( 6 : 515 ), fasting ( 6 : 1618 ), 12 storing property or treasures ( 6 : 1921 ), envy, or the evil eye ( 6 : 2223 ) 13 and the impossibility of serving both god and mammon ( 6 : 24 ). in chapter 7, the themes change from property to one ' s relationships with other people. therefore, it seems to me that, at least in its matthean context, jesus ' words would not have made sense as an eschatological proclamation. in the context of q this might have been possible, but the sequence of q ( its different phases and the social context of q ) are still debated so much that it is not possible to enter into that discussion in this article. the second possible group for whom jesus ' do not worry saying would have been understandable was in a group made up of ' itinerant charismatic preachers '. the earliest followers of jesus were supposedly people living in galilean villages where jesus ' proclamation of the kingdom of god was welcomed and understood as a liberating action that would soon free them from subjugation to the roman empire. heavy taxation, wars, punishments and other consequences of the occupation were a tremendous burden on the peasant population. the message of the kingdom of god was spread from village to village by jesus ' disciples, who had left their earlier lives ( whether voluntarily or under pressure ) and lived solely on the support of villagers who accepted the movement ' s message. these are the people that were sent to proclaim the kingdom of god without carrying a purse, a bag or sandals ( lk


apr. 1, 2003 after years of frustrating searches for genes that contribute to mental illness, researchers at johns hopkins studying families with a severe form of manic depressive illness, called psychotic bipolar disorder, may be one step closer to finding the genetic underpinnings of both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. " finding a gene for bipolar disorder is like finding a needle in a haystack, but by focusing our search on families with a distinctive form of the illness we were able to pinpoint a region of the genome where disease genes are likely to be found, " said james potash, m. d., assistant professor of psychiatry at johns hopkins and lead author of a report on the study in the april issue of the american journal of psychiatry. although genes are unlikely to tell the whole story of major psychiatric diseases, the persistent frequency of mental illness in about 1 percent of the global human population, regardless of cultural or ethnic differences, and its tendency to run in families have always pointed to a strong genetic role. " but pinning down that role is complicated by the many variations in symptoms, even within the same family, " says potash. " there are probably many different genes and environmental factors that can cause any given mental illness. " motivated by previous suggestions that certain broad regions of the dna sequence, especially on human chromosomes 13 and 22, may contain genes that contribute to both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, potash and colleagues focused on those families with the psychotic form of bipolar disorder. like bipolar disorder, psychotic bipolar disorder is characterized by see - sawing episodes of depression and mania, but it is distinctive because these mood changes often are accompanied by such psychotic symptoms as hallucinations and delusions. the concept for the new study is that of two slightly overlapping circles, explains potash. in one circle are all of the genes that contribute to schizophrenia. the other circle has all of the genes that contribute to bipolar disorder, while the intersection of the two circles contains genes that are common to both diseases as well as for psychotic bipolar disorder. the researchers carefully evaluated and took blood samples from 65 patients with bipolar disorder and from their extended families. they extracted blood cell dna and scanned it with dna probes, looking for matching sequences that are more likely to appear in those with mental illness than in those without it. by noting where these markers lay on chromosomes, the researchers were able to narrow in on where the genes were located. out of 65 bipolar disorder families studied, the 10 families in which 3 or more members had psychotic bipolar disorder showed strong genetic " linkage


targeted by white cells responsible for killing cancer cells. scientific knowledge around using drugs to stimulate the body ' s natural defences against cancer is becoming more prominent. the researchers believe that these findings provide more evidence that, in the future, this treatment method may provide further options for patients that could be used in combination with existing cancer drug treatment. " using the body ' s own immune system is a relatively new way of thinking in the development of cancer treatments, and scientists are still building up a knowledge base about it. if successful, this method of treatment could be used in combination with existing cancer drugs. it could potentially see patients taking less medication, having fewer and less severe side effects and recovering quicker, " says dr liu. " this research is at an early stage of investigation, and so far has analysed the reaction of human blood outside of the body, so more work is needed before these findings can be used in practice. the next stage will be to develop a compound suitable for clinical trials, " he concludes. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - w m liu, d w fowler, a m gravett, p smith, a g dalgleish. supernatants from lymphocytes stimulated with bacillus calmette - guerin can modify the antigenicity of tumours and stimulate allogeneic t - cell responses. british journal of cancer, 2011 ; doi : 10. 1038 / bjc. 2011. 306 note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.


aug. 20, 2012 botany is plagued by the same problem as the rest of science and society : our ability to generate data quickly and cheaply is surpassing our ability to access and analyze it. in this age of big data, scientists facing too much information rely on computers to search large data sets for patterns that are beyond the capability of humans to recognize - - but computers can only interpret data based on the strict set of rules in their programming. new tools called ontologies provide the rules computers need to transform information into knowledge, by attaching meaning to data, thereby making those data retrievable by computers and more understandable to human beings. ontology, from the greek word for the study of being or existence, traditionally falls within the purview of philosophy, but the term is now used by computer and information scientists to describe a strategy for representing knowledge in a consistent fashion. an ontology in this contemporary sense is a description of the types of entities within a given domain and the relationships among them. a new article in this month ' s american journal of botany by ramona walls ( new york botanical garden ) and colleagues describes how scientists build ontologies such as the plant ontology ( po ) and how these tools can transform plant science by facilitating new ways of gathering and exploring data. when data from many divergent sources, such as data about some specific plant organ, are associated or " tagged " with particular terms from a single ontology or set of interrelated ontologies, the data become easier to find, and computers can use the logical relationships in the ontologies to correctly combine the information from the different databases. moreover, computers can also use ontologies to aggregate data associated with the different subclasses or parts of entities. for example, suppose a researcher is searching online for all examples of gene expression in a leaf. any botanist performing this search would include experiments that described gene expression in petioles and midribs or in a frond. however, a search engine would not know that it needs to include these terms in its search - - unless it was told that a frond is a type of leaf, and that every petiole and every midrib are parts of some leaf. it is this information that ontologies provide. the article in the american journal of botany by walls and colleagues describes what ontologies are, why they are relevant to plant science, and some of the basic principles of ontology development. it includes an overview of the ontologies that are relevant to botany, with a more detailed description


of botany by walls and colleagues describes what ontologies are, why they are relevant to plant science, and some of the basic principles of ontology development. it includes an overview of the ontologies that are relevant to botany, with a more detailed description of the po and the challenges of building an ontology that covers all green plants. the article also describes four keys areas of plant science that could benefit from the use of ontologies : ( 1 ) comparative genetics, genomics, phenomics, and development ; ( 2 ) taxonomy and systematics ; ( 3 ) semantic applications ; and ( 4 ) education. although most of the examples in this article are drawn from plant science, the principles could apply to any group of organisms, and the article should be of interest to zoologists as well. as genomic and phenomic data become available for more species, many different research groups are embarking on the annotation of their data and images with ontology terms. at the same time, cross - species queries are becoming more common, causing more researchers in plant science to turn to ontologies. ontology developers are working with the scientists who generate data to make sure ontologies accurately reflect current science, and with database developers and publishers to find ways to make it easier for scientist to associate their data with ontologies. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - r. l. walls, b. athreya, l. cooper, j. elser, m. a. gandolfo, p. jaiswal, c. j. mungall, j. preece, s. rensing, b. smith, d. w. stevenson. ontologies as integrative tools for plant science. american journal of botany, 2012 ; 99 ( 8 ) : 1263 doi : 10. 3732 / ajb. 1200222 note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.


item by the amount of time that it will run and write that number down in the last column. after you have calculated the watt hour consumption for each item, simply add each item ' s watt hour rating together and you ' ll have your total consumption.. for example : once we have this information, it ' s a simple matter to match the number of batteries that you will need in order to store enough power for what you choosing an inverter for your backup power system dc to ac inverters are available as inverter units only, or may have additional circuits added that allows them to charge batteries when an external ac source is fed into the inverter. this type of configuration is know as an inverter / charger. in addition to the charger circuit, these units will typically include a device known as an ac transfer switch. the advantage to purchasing an inverter / charger with transfer switch is that it can function as a highly reliable automatic power backup unit or ups. when the utility company is operating normally the inverter / charger passes the utility company power through its internal transfer switch to your appliances and maintains a charge on your battery bank. as soon as the utility power fails, the inverter automatically stops charging the battery bank and begins producing its own ac power which is passed on to your appliances through its internal ac when the utility power returns, the inverter goes back to charging the batteries and again passes the utility power though the transfer switch to your appliances. most inverter / chargers switch from utility power to inverter power and back again so fast that most of your appliances will hardly miss a beat. sizing the wattage rating of an inverter for your backup system is a simple matter of determining the total number of appliances that you would typically be operating on a concurrent basis, and adding a buffer of at least 500 watts. in other words if there was a possibility that you would have your 600 watt microwave, a 200 watts coffee maker and a 200 watt stereo running at the same time, you would be drawing 1000 watts, then you should choose a 1500 watt inverter. an inverter should never be run at it ' s maximum rating for prolonged periods of time, doing so will shorten the life of the inverter. another issue to consider is the amount of surge current that your appliances draws. any appliance that uses a transformer, motor or other magnetic device draws what is known as surge current at startup. these devices are otherwise known


the inverter. another issue to consider is the amount of surge current that your appliances draws. any appliance that uses a transformer, motor or other magnetic device draws what is known as surge current at startup. these devices are otherwise known as inductors. inductors appose the flow of electrical current. when an inductor is first energized there is a great degree of inertia that must be overcome for the magnetic field which surrounds the inductor to reach it ' s maximum field. just as it ' s difficult to initially push a car by hand that is at rest and gets easier to push as it gets going. initially starting an inductor takes a great deal of current to get it started but backs off on the current after it gets going. devices such as microwave ovens, refrigerator compressors, fan motors and large transformer based appliances can draw from 3 to 6 times it ' s normal wattage in an initial surge of current. this initial surge of current typically only lasts milliseconds but it ' s enough to shut down an inverter if it ' s not sized properly. thus it ' s important to choose an inverter that has enough surge capacity to start such appliances. for example a meager 600 watt microwave oven will typically require a 2000 watt inverter just to get it started. if all of this information seems a little overwhelming, don ' t worry our friendly knowledgeable staff are here to help you every step of and finally, be cautious when purchasing a backup power system for your home or place of the internet. get to know who you ' re dealing with. many of the backup power kits that are available on the internet are actually home made configurations. many websites on the internet that would appear to be large reputable companies are actually home based affairs that operate from an impossible to trace pob ( po box ). remember, you ' re about to give this individual your personal information and more importantly your credit card number. is his company solvent? does he have liability insurance? does he really have the items that you ' re about to purchase in stock? does he have any stock? with the advent of the energy crisis, dozens of home based dealers with little or no formal training or experience have cropped up on the internet. even if you don ' t live nearby, ask the dealer if you can get directions to his place of business so you can stop by and take a look at some products. if you can ' t get directions or


problems of philosophy chapter 5 - knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description after distinguishing two types of knowledge, knowledge of things and knowledge of truths, russell devotes this fifth chapter to an elucidation of knowledge of things. he further distinguishes two types of knowledge of things, knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. we have knowledge by acquaintance when we are directly aware of a thing, without any inference. we are immediately conscious and acquainted with a color or hardness of a table before us, our sense - data. since acquaintance with things is logically independent from any knowledge of truths, we can be acquainted with something immediately without knowing any truth about it. i can know the color of a table " perfectly and completely when i see it " and not know any truth about the color in itself. the other type of knowledge of things is called knowledge by description. when we say we have knowledge of the table itself, a physical object, we refer to a kind of knowledge other than immediate, direct knowledge. " the physical object which causes such - and - such sense - data " is a phrase that describes the table by way of sense - data. we only have a description of the table. knowledge by description is predicated on something with which we are acquainted, sense - data, and some knowledge of truths, like knowing that " such - and - such sense - data are caused by the physical object. " thus, knowledge by description allows us to infer knowledge about the actual world via the things that can be known to us, things with which we have direct acquaintance ( our subjective sense - data ). according to this outline, knowledge by acquaintance forms the bedrock for all of our other knowledge. sense - data is not the only instance of things with which we can be immediately acquainted. for how would we recall the past, russell argues, if we could only know what was immediately present to our senses. beyond sense - data, we also have " acquaintance by memory. " remembering what we were immediately aware of makes it so that we are still immediately aware of that past, perceived thing. we may therefore access many past things with the same requisite immediacy. beyond sense - data and memories, we possess " acquaintance by introspection. " when we are aware of an awareness, like in the case of hunger, " my desiring food " becomes an object of acquaintance. introspective acquaintance is a kind of acquaintance with our own minds that may be understood as self - consciousness. however, this self - consciousness is really more


in the case of hunger, " my desiring food " becomes an object of acquaintance. introspective acquaintance is a kind of acquaintance with our own minds that may be understood as self - consciousness. however, this self - consciousness is really more like a consciousness of a feeling or a particular thought ; the awareness rarely includes the explicit use of " i, " which would identify the self as a subject. russell abandons this strand of knowledge, knowledge of the self, as a probable but unclear dimension of acquaintance. russell summarizes our acquaintance with things as follows : " we have acquaintance in sensation with the data of the outer senses, and in introspection with the data of what may be called the inner sense — thoughts, feelings, desires, etc. ; we have acquaintance in memory with things which have been data either of the outer senses or of the inner sense. further, it is probable, though not certain, that we have acquaintance with self, as that which is aware of things or has desires towards things. " all these objects of acquaintance are particulars, concrete, existing things. russell cautions that we can also have acquaintance with abstract, general ideas called universals. he addresses universals more fully later in chapter 9. russell allocates the rest of the chapter to explaining how the complicated theory of knowledge by description actually works. the most conspicuous things that are known to us by description are physical objects and other people ' s minds. we approach a case of having knowledge by description when we know " that there is an object answering to a definite description, though we are not acquainted with any such object. " russell offers several illustrations in the service of understanding knowledge by description. he claims that it is important to understand this kind of knowledge because our language uses depends so heavily on it. when we say common words or proper names, we are really relying on the meanings implicit in descriptive knowledge. the thought connoted by the use of a proper name can only really be explicitly expressed through a description or proposition. bismarck, or " the first chancellor of the german empire, " is russell ' s most cogent example. imagine that there is a proposition, or statement, made about bismarck. if bismarck is the speaker, admitting that he has a kind of direct acquaintance with his own self, bismarck might have voiced his name in order to make a self - referential judgment, of which his name is a constituent. in this simplest case, the " proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply


own self, bismarck might have voiced his name in order to make a self - referential judgment, of which his name is a constituent. in this simplest case, the " proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply standing for a certain object, and not for a description of the object. " if one of bismarck ' s friends who knew him directly was the speaker of the statement, then we would say that the speaker had knowledge by description. the speaker is acquainted with sense - data which he infers corresponds with bismarck ' s body. the body or physical object representing the mind is " only known as the body and the mind connected with these sense - data, " which is the vital description. since the sense - data corresponding to bismarck change from moment to moment and with perspective, the speaker knows which various descriptions are valid. still more removed from direct acquaintance, imagine that someone like you or i comes along and makes a statement about bismarck that is a description based on a " more or less vague mass of historical knowledge. " we say that bismarck was the " first chancellor of the german empire. " in order to make a valid description applicable to the physical object, bismarck ' s body, we must find a relation between some particular with which we have acquaintance and the physical object, the particular with which we wish to have an indirect acquaintance. we must make such a reference in order to secure a meaningful description. to usefully distinguish particulars from universals, russell posits the example of " the most long - lived of men, " a description which wholly consists of universals. we assume that the description must apply to some man, but we have no way of inferring any judgment about him. russell remarks, " all knowledge of truths, as we shall show, demands acquaintance with things which are of an essentially different character from sense - data, the things which are sometimes called ' abstract ideas ', but which we shall call ' universals '. " the description composed only of universals gives no knowledge by acquaintance with which we might anchor an inference about the longest - lived man. a further statement about bismarck, like " the first chancellor of the german empire was an astute diplomatist, " is a statement that contains particulars and asserts a judgment that we can only make in virtue of some acquaintance ( like something heard or read ). statements about things known by description function in our language as statements about the " actual thing described ; " that is, we intend to refer to that thing.


judgment that we can only make in virtue of some acquaintance ( like something heard or read ). statements about things known by description function in our language as statements about the " actual thing described ; " that is, we intend to refer to that thing. we intend to say something with the direct authority that only bismarck himself could have when he makes a statement about himself, something with which he has direct acquaintance. yet, there is a spectrum of removal from acquaintance with the relevant particulars : from bismarck himself, " there is bismarck to people who knew him ; bismarck to those who only know of him through history " and at a far end of the spectrum " the longest lived of men. " at the latter end, we can only make propositions that are logically deducible from universals, and at the former end, we come as close as possible to direct acquaintance and can make many propositions identifying the actual object. it is now clear how knowledge gained by description is reducible to knowledge by acquaintance. russell calls this observation his fundamental principle in the study of " propositions containing descriptions " : " every proposition which we can understand must be composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted. " indirect knowledge of some particulars seems necessary if we are to expressively attach meanings to the words we commonly use. when we say something referring to julius caesar, we clearly have no direct acquaintance with the man. rather, we are thinking of such descriptions as " the man who was assassinated on the ides of march " or " the founder of the roman empire. " since we have no way of being directly acquainted with julius caesar, our knowledge by description allows us to gain knowledge of " things which we have never experienced. " it allows us to overstep the boundaries of our private, immediate experiences and engage a public knowledge and public language. this knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description theory was a famous epistemological problem - solver for russell. its innovative character allowed him to shift to his moderate realism, a realism ruled by a more definite categorization of objects. it is a theory of knowledge that considers our practice of language to be meaningful and worthy of detailed analysis. russell contemplates how we construct a sense of meaning about objects remote from our experience. the realm of acquaintance offers the most secure references for our understanding of the world. knowledge by description allows us to draw inferences from our realm of acquaintance but leaves us in a more vulnerable position. since knowledge by description also depends on truths, we are prone to


of acquaintance offers the most secure references for our understanding of the world. knowledge by description allows us to draw inferences from our realm of acquaintance but leaves us in a more vulnerable position. since knowledge by description also depends on truths, we are prone to error about our descriptive knowledge if we are somehow mistaken about a proposition that we have taken to be true. critics of this theory have held that russell ' s hypothesis of knowledge by description is confusing. his comments when defining sense - data, that the physical world is unknowable to us, contradict his theory of knowledge by descriptions. he implies that " knowledge by description " is not really a form of knowledge since we can only know those things with which we are acquainted and we cannot be acquainted with physical objects. russell ' s theory amounts to the proposition that our acquaintance with mental objects appears related in a distant way to physical objects and renders us obliquely acquainted with the physical world. sense - data are our subjective representations of the external world, and they negotiate this indirect contact. while innovative, russell ' s theory of knowledge by description is not an attractive theory of knowledge. it is clearly unappealing because our impressions of the real world, on his view, are commensurate with muddy representations of reality. though we have direct access to these representations, it seems impossible to have any kind of direct experience of reality. reality, rather, consists in unconscious, inferential pieces of reasoning. readers ' notes allow users to add their own analysis and insights to our sparknotes — and to discuss those ideas with one another. have a novel take or think we left something out? add a readers ' note!


the idea that many athletes need to learn to breathe properly might sound ridiculous at first. but many young athletes are breathing improperly during their workouts, thus failing to maximize their strength training. think of how many bright red faces you ’ ve seen at the gym. that doesn ’ t necessarily mean their owners are having a great workout. it could mean they ’ re breathing backwards, or not at all. “ breathing backwards ” refers to those who take in a big gulp of air as they struggle to lift the weight, exhaling after they finally get to the top of the exercise. “ not at all ” refers to the valsalva maneuver, which is the practice of forcefully exhaling against a closed airway. weightlifters commonly use this technique, believing the trapped air in the body helps stabilize the spine during a lift, preventing injury. this is actually dangerously inaccurate. in fact, “ a study published in the june 1986 issue of the journal spine found that the valsalva maneuver actually increases the pressure of the spine, ” says personal trainer and livestrong. com contributor kimberly wonderly. “ dr. michael hall, a family physician for dubois regional medical center in dubois, pennsylvania, states that the valsalva maneuver increases your risk of stroke, raises the amount of pressure within your eyes and greatly elevates your blood pressure. ” breathing in this manner also risks dizziness and fatigue, either of which would probably end your workout early. wonderly continues, “ proper breathing brings focus to both your breath and your body, which allows your body to signal you if a lift poses a risk of injury through improper form or too much resistance. ” let ’ s break down proper breathing techniques for the bench press as an example of when you should inhale and exhale : in short, the rule is to exhale when you exert force [ push the bar ] and inhale as you relax [ lower the bar ]. this pattern of breathing will allow you to focus on your form and engage the muscles needed to complete the exercise. like a sport - specific skill, proper breathing can take time and practice to master. but in the end, it ’ s worth it, and you ’ ll notice benefits in your workouts. for more help in mastering your breathing technique during strength training, tweet us at @ stackmedia.


a concussion is a minor traumatic brain injury that may occur when the head hits an object, or a moving object strikes the head. it can affect how the brain works for a while. a concussion can lead to a bad headache, changes in alertness, or loss of consciousness. causes, incidence, and risk factors : a concussion can result from a fall, sports activities, or car accidents. a big movement of the brain ( called jarring ) in any direction can cause a person to lose alertness ( become unconscious ). how long the person stays unconscious may be a sign of the severity of the concussion. concussions do not always result in loss of consciousness. most people who have a concussion never pass out. but they may describe seeing all white, black, or stars. a person can also have a concussion and not realize it. symptoms of a concussion range from mild to severe. they can include : - acting confused, feeling spacey, or not thinking straight - being drowsy, hard to wake up, or similar changes loss of consciousness - memory loss ( amnesia ) of events before the injury or right after - nausea and vomiting - seeing flashing lights - feeling like you have " lost time " the following are emergency symptoms of a concussion. seek medical care right away if there are : - changes in alertness and consciousness - confusion that does not go away - muscle weakness on one or both sides - persistent confusion - pupils of the eyes that are not equal in size - remaining unconsciousness ( coma ) - repeated vomiting - unequal pupils - unusual eye movements - walking or balance problems - unconsciousness ( coma ) that continues head injuries that cause a concussion often occur with injury to the neck and spine. take special care when moving people who have had a head injury. while recovering from a concussion, the person may : - be withdrawn, easily upset, or confused - have a hard time with tasks that require remembering or concentrating - have mild headaches - be less tolerant of noise - be very tired signs and tests : the doctor will perform a physical exam. the person ' s nervous system will be checked. there may be changes in the person ' s pupil size, thinking ability, coordination, and reflexes. tests that may be ordered include : a more serious head injury that involves bleeding or brain damage must be treated in a hospital. for a mild head injury no treatment may be needed. but be aware that the symptoms of a head injury can show up later. - friends or family may need to keep an eye on adults for symptoms after


- introduction to hubble - the current science instruments - mission operations and observations - previous instruments - technical overview introduction to hubble the hubble space telescope ( hst ) is a cooperative program of the european space agency ( esa ) and the national aeronautics and space administration ( nasa ) to operate a space - based observatory for the benefit of the international astronomical community. hst is an observatory first envisioned in the 1940s, designed and built in the 1970s and 80s, and operational since the 1990. since its preliminary inception, hst was designed to be a different type of mission for nasa - - a long - term, space - based observatory. to accomplish this goal and protect the spacecraft against instrument and equipment failures, nasa planned on regular servicing missions. hubble has special grapple fixtures, 76 handholds, and is stabilized in all three axes. hst is a 2. 4 - meter reflecting telescope, which was deployed in low - earth orbit ( 600 kilometers ) by the crew of the space shuttle discovery ( sts - 31 ) on 25 april 1990. responsibility for conducting and coordinating the science operations of the hubble space telescope rests with the space telescope science institute ( stsci ) on the johns hopkins university homewood campus in baltimore, maryland. stsci is operated for nasa by the association of universities for research in astronomy, inc. ( aura ). hst ' s current complement of science instruments includes three cameras, two spectrographs, and fine guidance sensors ( primarily used for accurate pointing, but also for astrometric observations ). because of hst ' s location above the earth ' s atmosphere, these science instruments can produce high - resolution images of astronomical objects. ground - based telescopes are limited in their resolution by the earth ’ s atmosphere, which causes a variable distortion in the images. hubble can observe ultraviolet radiation, which is blocked by the atmosphere and therefore unavailable to ground - based telescopes. in the infrared portion of the spectrum, the earth ’ s atmosphere adds a great deal of background, which is absent in hubble observations. when originally planned in the early 1970s, the large space telescope program called for return to earth, refurbishment, and re - launch every 5 years, with on - orbit servicing every 2. 5 years. hardware lifetime and reliability requirements were based on that 2. 5 - year interval between servicing missions. in the late 70s, contamination and structural loading concerns associated with return to earth aboard the shuttle eliminated the concept of ground return from the program. nasa decided that on - orbit servicing might be adequate to maintain hst


5 - year interval between servicing missions. in the late 70s, contamination and structural loading concerns associated with return to earth aboard the shuttle eliminated the concept of ground return from the program. nasa decided that on - orbit servicing might be adequate to maintain hst for its 15 - year design life. a three - year cycle of on - orbit servicing was adopted. hst servicing missions in december 1993, february 1997, december 1999, march 2002 and may 2009 were enormous successes and validated the concept of on - orbit servicing of hubble. the years since the launch of hst in 1990 have been momentous, with the discovery of spherical aberration in its main mirror and the search for a practical solution. the sts - 61 ( endeavour ) mission of december 1993 corrected the effects of spherical aberration and fully restored the functionality of hst. since then, servicing missions have regularly provided opportunities to repair aging and failed equipment as well as incorporate new technologies in the telescope, especially in the science instruments that are the heart of its operations. see opo ' s hubble primer for more information about hst. the current science instruments space telescope imaging spectrograph a spectrograph spreads out the light gathered by a telescope so that it can be analyzed to determine such properties of celestial objects as chemical composition and abundances, temperature, radial velocity, rotational velocity, and magnetic fields. the space telescope imaging spectrograph ( stis ) can study these objects across a spectral range from the uv ( 115 nanometers ) through the visible red and the near - ir ( 1000 nanometers ). stis uses three detectors : a cesium iodide photocathode multi - anode microchannel array ( mama ) for 115 to 170 nm, a cesium telluride mama for 165 to 310 nm, and a charge coupled device ( ccd ) for 165 to 1000 nm. all three detectors have a 1024 x 1024 pixel format. the field of view for each mama is 25 x 25 arc - seconds, and the field of view of the ccd is 52 x 52 arc - seconds. the main advance in stis is its capability for two - dimensional rather than one - dimensional spectroscopy. for example, it is possible to record the spectrum of many locations in a galaxy simultaneously, rather than observing one location at a time. stis can also record a broader span of wavelengths in the spectrum of a star at one time. as a result, stis is much more efficient at obtaining scientific data than the


in a galaxy simultaneously, rather than observing one location at a time. stis can also record a broader span of wavelengths in the spectrum of a star at one time. as a result, stis is much more efficient at obtaining scientific data than the earlier hst spectrographs. a power supply in stis failed in august 2004, rendering it inoperable. during the servicing mission in 2009, astronauts successfully repaired the stis by removing the circuit card containing the failed power supply and replacing it with a new card. since stis was not designed for in - orbit repair of internal electronics, this task was a substantial challenge for the astronaut crew. near infrared camera and multi - object spectrometer the near infrared camera and multi - object spectrometer ( nicmos ) is an hst instrument providing the capability for infrared imaging and spectroscopic observations of astronomical targets. nicmos detects light with wavelengths between 0. 8 and 2. 5 microns - longer than the human - eye limit. the sensitive hgcdte arrays that comprise the infrared detectors in nicmos must operate at very cold temperatures. after its deployment, nicmos kept its detectors cold inside a cryogenic dewar ( a thermally insulated container much like a thermos bottle ) containing frozen nitrogen ice. nicmos is hst ' s first cryogenic instrument. the frozen nitrogen ice cryogen in nicmos was exhausted in early 1999, rendering the instrument inoperable at that time. an alternate means of cooling the nicmos was developed and installed in the march 2002 servicing mission. this device uses a mechanical cooler to cool the detectors to the low temperatures necessary for operations. the technology for this cooler was not available when the instrument was originally designed, but fortunately became available in time to support the reactivation of the instrument. since late 2008, the nicmos cooling system ( ncs ) has experienced difficulties maintaining the instrument ’ s nominal scientific operating state, in which the detectors are maintained at ~ 77k. repeated restart attempts have demonstrated that it is not possible to restart the ncs in a cold state immediately following safing events. the main culprit for the problems is believed to be water ice in the primary ( circulator ) loop of the ncs. an inefficient approach to this problem would be to put the ncs through a several - month warm - up / cooldown cycle and hope that there is an opportunity for science prior to the next payload safing event. the only feasible path towards satisfactory operation of nic


to this problem would be to put the ncs through a several - month warm - up / cooldown cycle and hope that there is an opportunity for science prior to the next payload safing event. the only feasible path towards satisfactory operation of nicmos is to remove the putative water by venting the existing contaminated ne coolant and replacing it with a fresh charge, which is available onboard but has never actually been used on - orbit. based on the cycle 18 proposal review results, stsci and goddard hst project, with the concurrence of nasa headquarters, have decided that nicmos will not be available for science in cycle 18. a decision on the availability of nicmos beyond cycle 18 has not yet been made and awaits further discussion. advanced camera for surveys the acs is a camera designed to provide hst with a deep, wide - field survey capability from the visible to near - ir, imaging from the near - uv to the near - ir with the point - spread function critically sampled at 6300 a, and solar blind far - uv imaging. the primary design goal of the acs wide - field channel is to achieve a factor of 10 improvement in discovery efficiency, compared to wfpc2, where discovery efficiency is defined as the product of imaging area and instrument throughput. these gains are a direct result of improved technology since the hst was launched in 1990. the charge coupled devices ( ccds ) used as detectors in the acs, are more sensitive than those of the late 80s and early 90s, and also have many more pixels, capturing more of the sky in each exposure. the wide field camera in the acs is a 16 megapixel camera. the acs was installed during the march 2002 servicing mission. as a result of the improved sensitivity it instantly became the most heavily used hubble instrument. it has been used for surveys of varying breadths and depths, as well as for detailed studies of specific objects. the acs worked well until january 2007, at which time a failure in the electronics for the ccds occurred and has prevented use of those detectors. engineers and astronauts then developed an approach to remove and replace the failed electronics, which was carried out during the 2009 servicing mission. as with the stis repair, the acs repair was challenging, since the instrument was not designed originally with this type of repair in mind. fine guidance sensors the fine guidance sensors ( fgs ), in addition to being an integral part of the hst pointing control system ( pcs ), provide


repair was challenging, since the instrument was not designed originally with this type of repair in mind. fine guidance sensors the fine guidance sensors ( fgs ), in addition to being an integral part of the hst pointing control system ( pcs ), provide hst observers with the capability of precision astrometry and milliarcsecond resolution over a wide range of magnitudes ( 3 < v < 16. 8 ). its two observing modes - position mode and transfer mode - have been used to determine the parallax and proper motion of astrometric targets to a precision of 0. 2 mas, and to detect duplicity or structure around targets as close as 8 mas ( visual orbits can be determined for binaries as close as 12 mas ). cosmic origins spectrograph the cosmic origins spectrograph ( cos ) is a fourth - generation instrument that was installed on the hubble space telescope ( hst ) during the 2009 servicing mission. cos is designed to perform high sensitivity, moderate - and low - resolution spectroscopy of astronomical objects in the 115 - 320 nm wavelength range. it significantly enhances the spectroscopic capabilities of hst at ultraviolet wavelengths, and provides observers with unparalleled opportunities for observing faint sources of ultraviolet light. the primary science objectives of the cos are the study of the origins of large scale structure in the universe, the formation and evolution of galaxies, the origin of stellar and planetary systems, and the cold interstellar medium. the cos achieves its improved sensitivity through advanced detectors and optical fabrication techniques. at uv wavelengths even the best mirrors do not reflect all light incident upon them. previous spectrographs have required multiple ( 5 or more ) reflections in order to display the spectrum on the detector. a substantial portion of the cos improvement in sensitivity is due to an optical design that requires only a single reflection inside the instrument, reducing the losses due to imperfect reflectivity. this design is possible only with advanced techniques for fabrication, which were not available when earlier generations of hst spectrographs were designed. cos has a far - uv and near - uv channel that use different detectors : two side - by - side 16384 x 1024 pixel cross - delay line microchannel plates ( mcps ) for the far - uv, 115 to 205 nm, and a 1024x1024 pixel cesium telluride mama for the near - uv, 170 to 320 nm. the far - uv detector is similar to detectors flown on the fuse spacecraft, and takes advantage of improved technology over


nm, and a 1024x1024 pixel cesium telluride mama for the near - uv, 170 to 320 nm. the far - uv detector is similar to detectors flown on the fuse spacecraft, and takes advantage of improved technology over the past decade. the near - uv detector is a spare stis detector. wide field camera 3 the wide field camera 3 ( wfc3 ) is also a fourth generation instrument that was installed during the 2009 servicing mission. equipped with state - of - the - art detectors and optics, wfc3 provides wide - field imaging with continuous spectral coverage from the ultraviolet into the infrared, dramatically increasing both the survey power and the panchromatic science capabilities of hst. the wfc3 has two camera channels : the uvis channel that operates in the ultraviolet and visible bands ( from about 200 to 1000 nm ), and the ir channel that operates in the infrared ( from 900 to 1700 nm ). the performance of the two channels was designed to complement the performance of the acs. the uvis channel provides the largest field of view and best sensitivity of any ultraviolet camera hst has had. this is feasible as a result of continued improvement in the performance of charge coupled devices designed for astronomical use. the ir channel on wfc3 represents a major improvement on the capabilities of the nicmos, primarily as a result of the availability of much larger detectors, 1 megapixel in the wfc3 / ir vs. 0. 06 megapixels for the nicmos. in addition, modern ir detectors like that in the wfc3 have benefited from improvements over the last decade in design and fabrication. mission operations and observations : although hst operates around the clock, not all of its time is spent observing. each orbit lasts about 95 minutes, with time allocated for housekeeping functions and for observations. " housekeeping " functions includes turning the telescope to acquire a new target, switching communications antennas and data transmission modes, receiving command loads and downlinking data, calibrating the instruments and similar activities. on average, the telescope spends about 50 % of the time observing astronomical targets. about 50 % of the time the view to celestial targets is blocked by the earth, and that time is used to carry out these support functions. each year the stsci solicits ideas for scientific programs from the worldwide astronomical community. all astronomers are free to submit proposals for observations. typically, 700 - 1200 proposals are submitted each year. a series of panels, involving roughly 100 astronomers from around the world


the stsci solicits ideas for scientific programs from the worldwide astronomical community. all astronomers are free to submit proposals for observations. typically, 700 - 1200 proposals are submitted each year. a series of panels, involving roughly 100 astronomers from around the world, are convened to recommend which of the proposals to carry out over the next year. there is only sufficient time in a year to schedule about 1 / 5 of the proposals that are submitted, so the competition for hubble observing time is tight. after proposals are chosen, the observers submit detailed observation plans. the stsci uses these to develop a yearlong observing plan, spreading the observations evenly throughout the period and taking into account scientific reasons that may require some observations to be at a specific time. this long - range plan incorporates calibrations and engineering activities, as well as the scientific observations. this plan is then used as the basis for detailed scheduling of the telescope, which is done one week at a time. each event is translated into a series of commands to be sent to the onboard computers. computer loads are uplinked several times a day to keep the telescope operating efficiently. when possible, two scientific instruments are used simultaneously to observe adjacent target regions of the sky. for example, while a spectrograph is focused on a chosen star or nebula, a camera can image a sky region offset slightly from the main viewing target. during observations the fine guidance sensors ( fgs ) track their respective guide stars to keep the telescope pointed steadily at the right target. engineering and scientific data from hst, as well as uplinked operational commands, are transmitted through the tracking data relay satellite ( tdrs ) system and its companion ground station at white sands, new mexico. up to 24 hours of commands can be stored in the onboard computers. data can be broadcast from hst to the ground stations immediately or stored on a solid - state recorder and downlinked later. the observer on the ground can examine the " raw " images and other data within a few minutes for a quick - look analysis. within 24 hours, gsfc formats the data for delivery to the stsci. stsci is responsible for calibrating the data and providing them to the astronomer who requested the observations. the astronomer has a year to analyze the data from the proposed program, draw conclusions, and publish the results. after one year the data become accessible to all astronomers. the stsci maintains an archive of all data taken by hst. this archive has become an important research tool in itself. astronomers regularly check the archive to


draw conclusions, and publish the results. after one year the data become accessible to all astronomers. the stsci maintains an archive of all data taken by hst. this archive has become an important research tool in itself. astronomers regularly check the archive to determine whether data in it can be used for a new problem they are working on. frequently they find that there are hst data relevant for their research, and they can then download these data free of charge. hubble has proven to be an enormously successful program, providing new insight into the mysteries of the universe. previously flown instruments : - wide field planetary camera - wide field planetary camera 2 - faint object spectrograph - goddard high resolution spectrograph - corrective optics space telescope axial replacement - faint object camera - high speed photometer wide field / planetary camera the wide field / planetary camera ( wf / pc1 ) was used from april 1990 to november 1993, to obtain high resolution images of astronomical objects over a relatively wide field of view and a broad range of wavelengths ( 1150 to 11, 000 angstroms ). wide field planetary camera 2 the original wide field / planetary camera ( wf / pc1 ) was replaced by wfpc2 on the sts - 61 shuttle mission in december 1993. wfpc2 was a spare instrument developed by the jet propulsion laboratory in pasadena, california, at the time of hst launch. it consisted of four cameras. the relay mirrors in wfpc2 were spherically aberrated in just the right way to correct for the spherically aberrated primary mirror of the observatory. ( hst ' s primary mirror is 2 microns too flat at the edge, so the corrective optics within wfpc2 were too high by that same amount. ). the " heart ' ' of wfpc2 consisted of an l - shaped trio of wide - field sensors and a smaller, high resolution ( " planetary " ) camera tucked in the square ' s remaining corner. wfpc2 was removed in the may 2009 servicing mission and replaced by the wide - field camera 3 ( wfc3 ). faint object spectrograph a spectrograph spreads out the light gathered by a telescope so that it can be analyzed to determine such properties of celestial objects as chemical composition and abundances, temperature, radial velocity, rotational velocity, and magnetic fields. the faint object spectrograph ( fos ) was one of the original instruments on hubble ; it was replaced by nicmos during the second servicing mission in 1997


composition and abundances, temperature, radial velocity, rotational velocity, and magnetic fields. the faint object spectrograph ( fos ) was one of the original instruments on hubble ; it was replaced by nicmos during the second servicing mission in 1997. the fos examined fainter objects than the high resolution spectrograph ( hrs ), and could study these objects across a much wider spectral range - - from the uv ( 1150 angstroms ) through the visible red and the near - ir ( 8000 angstroms ). the fos used two 512 - element digicon sensors ( light intensifiers ). the " blue " tube was sensitive from 1150 to 5500 angstroms ( uv to yellow ). the " red " tube was sensitive from 1800 to 8000 angstroms ( longer uv through red ). light entered the fos through any of 11 different apertures from 0. 1 to about 1. 0 arc - seconds in diameter. there were also two occulting devices to block out light from the center of an object while allowing the light from just outside the center to pass on through. this could allow analysis of the shells of gas around red giant stars of the faint galaxies around a quasar. the fos had two modes of operation : low resolution and high resolution. at low resolution, it could reach 26th magnitude in one hour with a resolving power of 250. at high resolution, the fos could reach only 22nd magnitude in an hour ( before noise becomes a problem ), but the resolving power was increased to 1300. goddard high resolution spectrograph the goddard high resolution spectrograph ( ghrs ) was one of the original instruments on hubble ; it failed in 1997, shortly before being replaced by stis during the second servicing mission. as a spectrograph, hrs also separated incoming light into its spectral components so that the composition, temperature, motion, and other chemical and physical properties of the objects could be analyzed. the hrs contrasted with the fos in that it concentrated entirely on uv spectroscopy and traded the extremely faint objects for the ability to analyze very fine spectral detail. like the fos, the hrs used two 521 - channel digicon electronic light detectors, but the detectors of the hrs were deliberately blind to visible light. one tube was sensitive from 1050 to 1700 angstroms ; while the other was sensitive from 1150 to 3200 angstroms. the hrs also had three resolution modes : low, medium, and high.


deliberately blind to visible light. one tube was sensitive from 1050 to 1700 angstroms ; while the other was sensitive from 1150 to 3200 angstroms. the hrs also had three resolution modes : low, medium, and high. " low resolution " for the hrs was 2000 - - higher than the best resolution available on the fos. examining a feature at 1200 angstroms, the hrs could resolve detail of 0. 6 angstroms and could examine objects down to 19th magnitude. at medium resolution of 20, 000 ; that same spectral feature at 1200 angstroms could be seen in detail down to 0. 06 angstroms, but the object would have to be brighter than 16th magnitude to be studied. high resolution for the hrs was 100, 000, allowing a spectral line at 1200 angstroms to be resolved down to 0. 012 angstroms. however, " high resolution " could be applied only to objects of 14th magnitude or brighter. the hrs could also discriminate between variations in light from objects as rapid as 100 milliseconds apart. corrective optics space telescope axial replacement costar was not a science instrument ; it was a corrective optics package that displaced the high speed photometer during the first servicing mission to hst. costar was designed to optically correct the effects of the primary mirror ' s aberration for the faint object camera ( foc ), the high resolution spectrograph ( hrs ), and the faint object spectrograph ( fos ). all the other instruments that have been installed since hst ' s initial deployment, have been designed with their own corrective optics. when all of the first - generation instruments were replaced by other instruments, costar was no longer be needed and was removed from hubble during the 2009 servicing mission. faint object camera the faint object camera ( foc ) was built by the european space agency as one of the original science instruments on hubble. it was replaced by acs during the servicing mission in 2002. there were two complete detector systems for the foc. each used an image intensifier tube to produced an image on a phosphor screen that is 100, 000 times brighter than the light received. this phosphor image was then scanned by a sensitive electron - bombarded silicon ( ebs ) television camera. this system was so sensitive that objects brighter than 21st magnitude had to be dimmed by the camera ' s filter systems to avoid saturating the detectors


##or image was then scanned by a sensitive electron - bombarded silicon ( ebs ) television camera. this system was so sensitive that objects brighter than 21st magnitude had to be dimmed by the camera ' s filter systems to avoid saturating the detectors. even with a broad - band filter, the brightest object that could be accurately measured was 20th magnitude. the foc offered three different focal ratios : f / 48, f / 96, and f / 288 on a standard television picture format. the f / 48 image measured 22 x 22 arc - seconds and yielded a resolution ( pixel size ) of 0. 043 arc - seconds. the f / 96 mode provided an image of 11 x 11 arc - seconds on each side and a resolution of 0. 022 arc - seconds. the f / 288 field of view was 3. 6 x 3. 6 arc - seconds square, with resolution down to 0. 0072 arc - seconds. high speed photometer the high speed photometer ( hsp ) was one of the four original axial instruments on the hubble space telescope ( hst ). the hsp was designed to make very rapid photometric observations of astrophysical sources in a variety of filters and passbands from the near ultraviolet to the visible. the hsp was removed from hst during the first servicing mission in december, 1993. for more complete technical information about hst and its instruments, see the hst primer.


some of the founders and leading lights in the fields of artificial intelligence and cognitive science gave a harsh assessment last night of the lack of progress in ai over the last few decades. during a panel discussion — moderated by linguist and cognitive scientist steven pinker — that kicked off mit ’ s brains, minds, and machines symposium, panelists called for a return to the style of research that marked the early years of the field, one driven more by curiosity rather than narrow applications. “ you might wonder why aren ’ t there any robots that you can send in to fix the japanese reactors, ” said marvin minsky, who pioneered neural networks in the 1950s and went on to make significant early advances in ai and robotics. “ the answer is that there was a lot of progress in the 1960s and 1970s. then something went wrong. [ today ] you ’ ll find students excited over robots that play basketball or soccer or dance or make funny faces at you. [ but ] they ’ re not making them smarter. ” patrick winston, director of mit ’ s artificial intelligence laboratory from 1972 to 1997, echoed minsky. “ many people would protest the view that there ’ s been no progress, but i don ’ t think anyone would protest that there could have been more progress in the past 20 years. what went wrong went wrong in the ’ 80s. ” winston blamed the stagnation in part on the decline in funding after the end of the cold war and on early attempts to commercialize ai. but the biggest culprit, he said, was the “ mechanistic balkanization ” of the field, with research focusing on ever - narrower specialties such as neural networks or genetic algorithms. “ when you dedicate your conferences to mechanisms, there ’ s a tendency to not work on fundamental problems, but rather [ just ] those problems that the mechanisms can deal with, ” said winston. winston said he believes researchers should instead focus on those things that make humans distinct from other primates, or even what made them distinct from neanderthals. once researchers think they have identified the things that make humans unique, he said, they should develop computational models of these properties, implementing them in real systems so they can discover the gaps in their models, and refine them as needed. winston speculated that the magic ingredient that makes humans unique is our ability to create and understand stories using the faculties that support language : “ once you have stories, you have the kind of creativity that makes the species different to any other. ” smaller design teams can now prototype and


the a - z of programming languages : lua - 11 september, 2008 20 : 29 this time we chat to prof. roberto ierusalimschy about the design and development of lua. prof. ierusalimschy is currently an associate professor in the pontifical catholic university of rio de janeiro ' s informatics department where he undertakes research on programming languages, with particular focus on scripting and domain specific languages. prof. ierusalimschy is currently supported by the brazilian council for the development of research and technology as an independent researcher, and has a grant from microsoft research for the development of lua. net. he also has a grant from finep for the development of libraries for lua. please note that due to popular demand we are no longer following alphabetical order for this series. if you wish to submit any suggestions for programming languages or language authors you would like to see covered, please email firstname. lastname @ example. org. what prompted the development of lua? was there a particular problem you were trying to solve? in our paper for the third acm history of programming languages conference we outline the whole story about the origins of lua. to make a long story short, yes, we did develop lua to solve a particular problem. although we developed lua in an academic institution, lua was never an " academic language ", that is, a language to write papers about. we needed an easy - to - use configuration language, and the only configuration language available at that time ( 1993 ) was tcl. our users did not consider tcl an easy - to - use language. so we created our own configuration language. how did the name lua come about? before lua i had created a language that i called sol, which stood for " simple object language " but also means " sun " in portuguese. that language was replaced by lua ( still nameless at that time ). as we perceived lua to be " smaller " than sol, a friend suggested this name, which means " moon " in portuguese. were there any particularly difficult problems you had to overcome in the development of the language? no. the first implementation was really simple, and it solved the problems at hand. since then, we have had the luxury of avoiding hard / annoying problems. that is, there have been many problems along the way, but we never had to overcome them ; we have always had the option to postpone a solution. some of them have waited several years before being


the luxury of avoiding hard / annoying problems. that is, there have been many problems along the way, but we never had to overcome them ; we have always had the option to postpone a solution. some of them have waited several years before being solved. for instance, since lua 2. 2, released in 1995, we have wanted lexical scoping in lua, but we didn ’ t know how to implement it efficiently within lua ' s constraints. nobody did. only with lua 5. 0, released in 2003 did we solve the problem, with a novel algorithm. what is the most interesting program that you ' ve seen written with lua and why? i have seen many interesting programs written in lua, in many different ways. i think it would be unfair to single one out. as a category, i particularly like table - driven programs, that is, programs that are more generic than the particular problem at hand and that are configured for that particular problem via tables. - the a - z of programming languages : awk - the a - z of programming languages : ada - the a - z of programming languages : asp - the a - z of programming languages : bash / bourne - again shell - the a - z of programming languages : c + + - the a - z of programming languages : forth - the a - z of programming languages : intercal - the a - z of programming languages : yacc - the a - z of programming languages : modula - 3 - the a - z of programming languages : d - the a - z of programming languages : python - pontifical catholic university - our paper review : sony xperia sp coming to a shopping centre near you : 3d body scanners asic debacle : conroy open to transparency over website blocks verizon, jennifer lopez partner on latino - focused wireless stores wikileaks party closer to registering


development of a centre for excellence in corporate social responsibility to develop and disseminate high - quality csr tools and training to stakeholders. well - designed regulations provide predictability for business thus supporting innovation and economic growth while meeting environmental performance objectives. an example of canadian environmental policies and regulations that support these goals include canada ' s approach to managing chemical substances through the chemicals management plan ( cmp ), designed to protect the environment and human health by setting stringent standards, while also spurring innovation and investment in the economy by being flexible, predictable, and cost effective. canada was the first country in the world to categorize the thousands of chemical substances in use before comprehensive environmental protection laws were created. this has facilitated priority setting for those substances suspected to have the most dangerous properties and those requiring further research. canada ' s risk - based approach relies on sound science, assessment, and monitoring, combined with a variety of tools to manage the potential risks posed by chemicals. the goal is to safeguard human health and our environment while supporting economic growth. the air quality health index ( aqhi ) is a public information tool that provides current conditions and daily forecasts about air quality levels. it is the first of its kind to communicate the short - term health risks posed by the air pollutant mixture ( ground level ozone, particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide ) which are known to harm human health including cardiovascular and respiratory effects. aqhi forecasts are currently available across canada through environment canada ' s airhealth. ca website and disseminated by a private broadcaster. the success of the aqhi can be attributed to strong partnerships between environment canada, health canada, provincial governments and key stakeholder groups who share a common interest in ensuring that canadians have access to information that can help them protect their health. it demonstrates environment - health linkages and as such can contribute to the green economy by influencing the behaviour of canadians. sustainable development technology canada ( sdtc ) was created by canada to finance and support the development and demonstration of clean technologies which provide solutions to issues of climate change, clean air, water quality and soil, and which deliver economic, environmental and health benefits to canadians. sdtc, which unep ' s sustainable energy finance initiative ( sefi ) has called " a carefully crafted hybrid between grant and venture capital ", targets the gap in earlystage venture capital financing, as well as the risk of proving a technology worthy of private investment. sdtc operates two funds aimed at the development and demonstration of innovative technological solutions. the $ 590 million


and venture capital ", targets the gap in earlystage venture capital financing, as well as the risk of proving a technology worthy of private investment. sdtc operates two funds aimed at the development and demonstration of innovative technological solutions. the $ 590 million sd tech fundtm supports projects that address climate change, air quality, clean water, and clean soil. the $ 500 million nextgen biofuels fundtm supports the establishment of first - of - kind large demonstration - scale facilities for the production of next - generation renewable fuels. since 2002, sdtc has completed seventeen funding rounds and allocated a total of $ 515 million to 210 projects. that amount has been leveraged with an additional $ 1. 2 billion in funding from other project partners for a total project value of $ 1. 8 billion. sdtc has been recognized as a model by the oecd, which has stated that " sdtc plays a very positive role in enhancing canada ' s competitive position in the environmental field. " sefi has noted that " sdtc ' s strategy exemplifies how taking aspects of different financial mechanisms can be very to help support sustainable development initiatives and spur green innovation at the local level, the canada endowed the federation of canadian municipalities ( fcm ) with $ 550 million to establish the green municipal fund ( gmf ), which is co - managed by natural resources canada and environment canada at arm ' s length ( the fcm board of directors, the decision - making body for the gmf, is advised by a 15 member council with five appointees from the federal government ). the fund supports municipal initiatives to improve local air, water and soil quality and promote renewable energy with grants and below - market loans. through gmf, fcm provides funding to three types of initiatives : plans, studies and projects. grants are available for sustainable community plans, feasibility studies and field tests, while a combination of grants and loans are available for capital projects. funding, for which all canadian municipalities and their partners are eligible, is allocated in five sectors of municipal activity : brownfields, energy, transportation, waste and water. the fund promotes partnerships between, and leverages funds from, the public and private sectors. further, support for community investment in clean energy is also available from the gmf as well as the ecoenergy for aboriginal and northern communities program, which funds energy efficiency and renewable energy projects in first nations, inuit, metis and northern communities agriculture is vital to addressing climate change, food security, poverty reduction and sustainable development. the objective of the