{"text": "article posted april 11, 2013 at 08 : 30 pm gmt \u2022 comment ( 1 ) \u2022 reads 4267 we ended our sound unit by making recycled instruments. each student was taped while he / she presented their instrument to the class. the students also wrote a paragraph about the instrument and took a photo of it using an ipad. the students created a glog ( an interactive poster ) incorporating all of the components. click on the glogster image below to see all of the recycled instrument glogs. the slideshow gives you a front row seat to the \" 3h jam session. \" enjoy! article posted march 8, 2013 at 08 : 19 pm gmt \u2022 comment \u2022 reads 1427 this is it, the last set of clues. the clock is ticking and we need to figure out where these landmarks are! it ' s research time 3h crew! good luck! landmark primary clues 2013 - week 3 ( 1a ) abanskaya school ( world explorers ) aban, russia 1. the head of all landmarks 2. the oldest in the city 3. northern hemisphere 4. named in honor of the builder 5. there is the legend about a thing in it 6. lighting of this place change in december 7. chinese room 8. about 122. 3 longitude 9. opened on the independence day ( 2a ) abanskaya school 3 ( team kazakova ) aban, russia 1. tatar burial mound 2. metal, metal 3. black snow, no grass 4. the leader lies at it 5. 40 - 50 n 6. the bloodiest battle 7. world war ii 8. was the largest when it was built 9. the woman on the top ( 3a ) abanskaya school 3 ( team vinokurova ) aban, russia 1. it was founded in a cave. 2. there is a museum there. 3. there was a big fire in 1718 4. 500 people were killed there by the nazi soldiers. 5. it is one of 7 wonders of its country. 6. it is inscribed as a unesco world heritage site. 7. northern hemisphere 8. you can find this landmark between 29 and 31 degrees east longitude. 9. its area is 2, 533, 825 sq ft ( 4a ) aginskaya secondary 2 ( siberian experts ) krasnoyarsk, russia 1. it is a unique place in the world 2. it is situated in the eastern siberia 3. it was founded in 1925 4. it is a nice place for animals to live, for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5310599230962447, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.873723"} {"text": "mr. gonzalez ' s science classes we have three 6th grade science classes and two 8th grade science classes blogging here from the pacific northwest in chimacum, wa! sixth graders are learning a bit about mt saint helens, environmental science through fresh water ecology, and physical science this year. eighth graders are learning about life science this year. please join us as we learn science by exploring our world. mr. g ' s blog mr. g ' s class facebook page here ' s what the creator of this graph wrote, \" i tried to come up with the reason for the daylight saving time change by just looking at the data for sunset and sunrise times. the figure represents sunset and sunrise times thought the year. it shows that the daylight saving time change marked by the lines ( dls ) is keeping the sunrise time pretty much constant throughout the whole year, while making the sunset time change a lot. the spread of sunrise times as measured by the standard deviation is 42 minutes, which means that the sunrise time changes within that range the whole year, while the standard deviation for the sunset times is 1 : 30 hours. whatever the argument for doing this is, it ' s pretty clear that reason is to keep the sunrise time constant. \" article posted january 31, 2013 at 07 : 27 am gmt - 8 \u2022 comment ( 4 ) \u2022 reads 85400 \" the acoustic levitator uses two small speakers to generate sound waves at frequencies slightly above the audible range \u2013 roughly 22 kilohertz. when the top and bottom speakers are precisely aligned, they create two sets of sound waves that perfectly interfere with each other, setting up a phenomenon known as a standing wave. at certain points along a standing wave, known as nodes, there is no net transfer of energy at all. because the acoustic pressure from the sound waves is sufficient to cancel the effect of gravity, light objects are able to levitate when placed at the nodes. \" about the blogger i started my teaching career in south central los angeles teaching in modified to full bilingual 4th and 5th grade classes. then i moved to wa state where i have taught mainly 6th through 8th grade. i have enjoyed the culture clash but notice that kids are the same everywhere : o ) my areas of interest are science and technology but i also love studying ancient cultures and learning about different peoples and cultures.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5445558666399828, "token_count": 469, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.884813"} {"text": "over the last ten thousand years, virtually every aspect of human culture has changed. the food we eat, the homes and shelters we live in, the clothes we wear, our language, music, stories, science, technology, social organization have all changed in fundamental ways that make modern cultures unrecognizably different from hunter - gatherer cultures. one aspect of human culture has remained unchanged over the last ten thousand years \u2013 all humans have retained a basic ability to recognize and interpret footprints on a beach. when you look at footprints on a beach, what you see and the way you interpret them is essentially exactly what a hunter - gatherer would have seen and interpreted a hundred thousand years ago. we still use the same reasoning to understand what we are looking at. the hunter - gatherer may have been a more sophisticated tracker, but looking at human footprints on a beach may be one of the few aspects, perhaps the only aspect, of human culture that links us with hunter - gatherer cultures more than a hundred thousand years ago. the art of tracking is the one aspect of hunter - gatherer culture that can be applied in a modern context. it is also the one aspect of hunter - gatherer culture that all modern humans can identify with. not only can traditional trackers benefit by working as trackers in a modern economy. by sharing their tracking expertise, people from other modern cultures can benefit by learning more about the roots of science. the implications for community participation in science are far - reaching. imagine communities throughout the world gathering data... from remote villages in the kalahari, the congo, australia and mongolia,... to school children in new york ' s central park, to london, paris, tokyo, new delhi and beijing... citizens gathering data on birds, animals, plants... millions of people all over the world sharing their data on the internet ( the cloud ), creating a worldwide network to monitor the global ecosystem in real time. the origin of science looks at practical applications of the art of tracking in a modern context. these examples demonstrate continuity between \" indigenous knowledge \" and modern western science. it demonstrates the ease with which traditional trackers, who cannot read or write, can adopt and take ownership of modern computer technology. these examples break down barriers between conventional notions of \" science \" and \" indigenous knowledge \" and between literate and pre - literate cultures. breaking down these barriers challenges us to redefine the boundaries of science.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5658960863997513, "token_count": 499, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.906315"} {"text": "mail email @ example. com. copyright 2005, kitsapsun. com. all rights reserved. by larry pynn the shared waters of the strait of georgia and puget sound are home to 63 marine species at risk, with over - harvesting, habitat loss, and pollution rated as the biggest threats, according to a research study being released at an international conference starting today. the study by joseph gaydos and nicholas brown also finds that the four jurisdictions responsible for protecting marine species - - b. c., washington state, and the canadian and u. s. governments - - cannot reach consensus on the level of threat facing all of those 63 species. of the 63 species, washington officially considered 73 per cent of them at risk, b. c. 50 per cent, the canadian government 36 per cent, and the u. s. government 31 per cent. as an example, b. c. lists 12 seabirds that neighbouring washington state does not list, even though it is common for various species to fly back and forth across the international boundary. the high number of species at risk in the region ' s marine waters are evidence of \" ecosystem decay, \" the report ' s authors conclude, and reflect the need for the various levels of governments to work harder on conservation and to adopt an international ecosystem approach. gaydos and brown are with the seadoc society, a marine ecosystem health program administered through the university of california, davis, wildlife health centre, and based in washington ' s san juan islands. as of september 2004, the 63 species at risk consisted of 27 fish, 23 birds, nine mammals ( including the grey whale, harbour porpoise, humpback whale, and killer whale ), three invertebrates, and one reptile. within the puget sound - georgia basin marine ecosystem, the number of invertebrate species is much greater than vertebrate species, yet only three invertebrates are listed at risk - - newcomb ' s littorine snail, olympic oyster, and northern abalone - - suggesting the category is not receiving as much attention as it should. the results of the study are being presented at the puget sound georgia basin research conference running today through thursday in seattle and co - sponsored by environment canada. commenting on the study, tony pitcher, a professor at the university of b. c. fisheries centre, said in vancouver that governments have been slow to adopt an ecosystem approach to marine management. and while states and provinces can have different mandates, he agreed that the international border poses a political obstacle to good management of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.508526444793078, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.948798"} {"text": "- active driver a device driver that implements advanced power management tasks, such as determining device idleness and performing pre - shutdown tasks. see also passive driver - base class in c + +, the class from which another class ( a subclass ) inherits. it can also be used to specify a class from which all classes in a hierarchy ultimately derive ( also known as a root class ). berkeley software distribution. formerly known as the berkeley version of unix, bsd is now simply called the bsd operating system. the bsd portion of darwin is based on 4. 4bsd lite 2 and freebsd, a flavor of 4. 4bsd. a directory in the file system that typically stores executable code and the software resources related to that code. ( a bundle can store only resources. ) applications, plug - ins, frameworks, and kernel extensions are types of bundles. except for frameworks, bundles are file packages, presented by the finder as a single file instead of a folder. see also kernel extension a transmission path on which signals can be dropped off or picked up by devices attached to it. only devices addressed by the signals pay attention to them ; the others discard the signals. buses both exist within the cpu and connect it to physical memory and peripheral devices. examples of i / o buses on darwin are pci, scsi, usb, and firewire. - bus master a program, usually in a separate i / o controller, that directs traffic on the computer bus or input / output paths. the bus master actually controls the bus paths on which the address and control signals flow. dma is a simple form of bus mastering where the bus master controls i / o transfers between a device and system memory and then signals to the cpu when it has done so. see also dma a driver object that consumes services of some kind supplied by its provider. in a driver stack, the client in a provider / client relationship is farther away from the platform expert. see also provider - command gate a mechanism that controls access to the lock of a work loop, thereby serializing access to the data involved in i / o requests. a command gate does not require a thread context switch to ensure single - threaded access. iocommandgate event - source objects represent command gates in the i / o kit. another name for the os x core operating system, or kernel environment. the darwin kernel environment is equivalent to the os x kernel plus the bsd libraries and commands essential to the bs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5838072492626013, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.978617"} {"text": "event - source objects represent command gates in the i / o kit. another name for the os x core operating system, or kernel environment. the darwin kernel environment is equivalent to the os x kernel plus the bsd libraries and commands essential to the bsd commands environment. darwin is open source technology. ( direct memory access ) a capability of some bus architectures that enables a bus controller to transfer data directly between a device ( such as a disk drive ) and a device with physically addressable memory, such as that on a computer ' s motherboard. the microprocessor is freed from involvement with the data transfer, thus speeding up overall computer operation. see also bus master computer hardware, typically excluding the cpu and system memory, which can be controlled and can send and receive data. examples of devices include monitors, disk drives, buses, and keyboards. - device driver a component of an operating system that deals with getting data to and from a device, as well as the control of that device. a driver written with the i / o kit is an object that implements the appropriate i / o kit abstractions for controlling hardware. - device file in bsd, a device file is a special file located in / devthat represents a block or character device such as a terminal, disk drive, or printer. if a program knows the name of a device file, it can use posix functions to access and control the associated device. the program can obtain the device name ( which is not persistent across reboots or device removal ) from the i / o kit. - device interface in the i / o kit, a mechanism that uses a plug - in architecture to allow a program in user space to communicate with a nub in the kernel that is appropriate to the type of device the program wishes to control. through the nub the program gains access to i / o kit services and to the device itself. from the perspective of the kernel, the device interface appears as a driver object called a user client. - device matching in the i / o kit, a process by which an application finds an appropriate device interface to load. the application calls a special i / o kit function that uses a \u201c matching dictionary \u201d to search the i / o registry. the function returns one or more matching driver objects that the application can then use to load an appropriate device interface. also referred to as device discovery. see device driver - driver matching in the i / o kit, a process in which a nub, after discovering a specific hardware device,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5955565355610091, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.979690"} {"text": "driver objects that the application can then use to load an appropriate device interface. also referred to as device discovery. see device driver - driver matching in the i / o kit, a process in which a nub, after discovering a specific hardware device, searches for the driver or drivers most suited to drive that device. matching requires that a driver have one or more personalities that specify whether it is a candidate for a particular device. driver matching is a subtractive process involving three phases : class matching, passive matching, and active matching. see also personality - driver stack in an i / o connection, the series of driver objects ( drivers and nubs ) in client / provider relationships with each other. a driver stack often refers to the entire collection of software between a device and its client application ( or applications ). - event source an i / o object that corresponds to a type of event that a device driver can be expected to handle ; there are currently event sources for hardware interrupts, timer events, and i / o commands. the i / o kit defines a class for each of these event types, respectively iointerrupteventsource, iotimereventsource, and iocommandgate. a collection of software abstractions that are common to all devices of a particular category. families provide functionality and services to drivers. examples of families include protocol families ( such as scsi, usb, and firewire ), storage families ( disk drives ), network families, and families that describe human interface devices ( mouse and keyboard ). in the virtual - memory system, faults are the mechanism for initiating page - in activity. they are interrupts that occur when code tries to access data at a virtual address that is not mapped to physical memory. see also page ; virtual memory a type of bundle that packages a dynamic shared library with the resources that the library requires, including header files and reference documentation. note that the kernel framework ( which contains the i / o kit headers ) contains no dynamic shared library. all library - type linking for the kernel framework is done using the mach _ kernelfile itself and kernel extensions. this linking is actually static ( with vtable patch - ups ) in implementation - idle sleep a sleep state that occurs when there has been no device or system activity for the period of time the user specifies in the energy saver pane of system preferences. see also system sleep - information property list a property list that contains essential configuration information for bundles such as kernel extensions. a file named info.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5983608595693508, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.980697"} {"text": "or system activity for the period of time the user specifies in the energy saver pane of system preferences. see also system sleep - information property list a property list that contains essential configuration information for bundles such as kernel extensions. a file named info. plist ( or a platform - specific variant of that filename ) contains the information property list and is packaged inside the bundle. an asynchronous event that suspends the currently scheduled process and temporarily diverts the flow of control through an interrupt handler routine. interrupts can be caused by both hardware ( i / o, timer, machine check ) and software ( supervisor, system call, or trap instruction ). - interrupt handler a routine executed when an interrupt occurs. interrupt handlers typically deal with low - level events in the hardware of a computer system, such as a character arriving at a serial port or a tick of a real - time clock. - i / o catalog a dynamic database that maintains entries for all available drivers on a darwin system. driver matching searches the i / o catalog to produce an initial list of candidate drivers. - i / o kit a kernel - resident, object - oriented environment in darwin that provides a model of system hardware. each type of service or device is represented by one or more c + + classes in a family ; each available service or device is represented by an instance ( object ) of that class. - i / o kit framework the framework that includes iokitlib and makes the i / o registry, user client plug - ins, and other i / o kit services available from user space. it lets applications and other user processes access common i / o kit object types and services. see also framework - i / o registry a dynamic database that describes a collection of driver objects, each of which represents an i / o kit entity. as hardware is added to or removed from the system, the i / o registry changes to accommodate the addition or removal. the complete os x core operating - system environment, which includes mach, bsd, the i / o kit, drivers, file systems, and networking components. the kernel resides in its own protected memory partition. the kernel includes all code executed in the kernel task, which consists of the file mach _ kernel ( at file - system root ) and all loaded kernel extensions. also called the kernel environment. - kernel extension ( kext ) a dynamically loaded bundle that extends the functionality of the kernel. a kext can contain zero or one kernel modules as well as other ( sub ) kexts", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5924025870755998, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.981823"} {"text": "loaded kernel extensions. also called the kernel environment. - kernel extension ( kext ) a dynamically loaded bundle that extends the functionality of the kernel. a kext can contain zero or one kernel modules as well as other ( sub ) kexts, each of which can contain zero or one kernel modules. the i / o kit, file system, and networking components of darwin can be extended by kexts. see also kernel module - kernel module ( kmod ) a binary in mach - o format that is packaged in a kernel extension. a kmod is the minimum unit of code that can be loaded into the kernel. see also kernel extension a data structure used to synchronize access to a shared resource. the most common use for a lock is in multithreaded programs where multiple threads need access to global data. only one thread can hold the lock at a time ; by convention, this thread is the only one that can modify the data during this period. see also mutex a central component of the kernel that provides such basic services and abstractions as threads, tasks, ports, interprocess communication ( ipc ), scheduling, physical and virtual address space management, virtual memory, and timers. to translate a range of memory in one address space ( physical or virtual ) to a range in another address space. the virtual - memory manager accomplishes this by adjusting its vm tables for the kernel and user processes. - memory cursor an object that lays out the buffer ranges in a memory descriptor in physical memory, generating a scatter / gather list suitable for a particular device or dma engine. the object is derived from the iomemorycursor class. see also dma ; memory descriptor - memory descriptor an object that describes how a stream of data, depending on direction, should either be laid into memory or extracted from memory. it represents a segment of memory holding the data involved in an i / o transfer and is specified as one or more physical or virtual address ranges. the object is derived from the iomemorydescriptor class. see also dma ; memory cursor - memory protection a system of memory management in which programs are prevented from being able to modify or corrupt the memory partition of another program. although os x has memory protection, mac os 8 and 9 do not. a mutual - exclusion locking object that allows multiple threads to synchronize access to shared resources. a mutex has two states : locked and unlocked", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.581615585201253, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.983823"} {"text": "partition of another program. although os x has memory protection, mac os 8 and 9 do not. a mutual - exclusion locking object that allows multiple threads to synchronize access to shared resources. a mutex has two states : locked and unlocked. once a mutex has been locked by a thread, other threads attempting to lock it will block. when the locking thread unlocks ( releases ) the mutex, one of the blocked threads ( if any ) acquires ( locks ) it and uses the resource. the thread that locks the mutex must be the one that unlocks it. the work - loop lock ( which is used by a command gate ) is based on a mutex. see also lock ; work loop a programmatic mechanism for alerting interested recipients ( sometimes called observers ) that an event has occurred. an i / o kit object that represents a detected, controllable entity such as a device or logical service. a nub may represent a bus, disk, graphics adaptor, or any number of similar entities. a nub supports dynamic configuration by providing a bridge between two drivers ( and, by extension, between two families ). see also device ; driver ( 1 ) the smallest unit ( in bytes ) of information that the virtual memory system can transfer between physical memory and backing store. in darwin, a page is currently 4 kilobytes. ( 2 ) as a verb, page refers to the transfer of pages between physical memory and backing store. refer to kernel. framework / headers / mach / machine / vm _ params. hfor specifics. see also fault ; virtual memory - passive driver a device driver that performs only basic power - management tasks, such as joining the power plane and changing the device \u2019 s power state. see also active driver a set of properties specifying the kinds of devices a driver can support. this information is stored in an xml matching dictionary defined in the information property list ( info. plist ) file in the driver \u2019 s kext bundle. a single driver may present one or more personalities for matching ; each personality specifies a class to instantiate. such instances are passed a reference to the personality dictionary at initialization. - physical memory electronic circuitry contained in random - access memory ( ram ) chips, used to temporarily hold information at execution time. addresses in a process \u2019 s virtual memory are mapped to addresses in physical memory. see also virtual memory ( programmed input / output ) a way to move data between a device and system memory in which each byte", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6068991173545546, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.985322"} {"text": "used to temporarily hold information at execution time. addresses in a process \u2019 s virtual memory are mapped to addresses in physical memory. see also virtual memory ( programmed input / output ) a way to move data between a device and system memory in which each byte is transferred under control of the host processor. see also dma a subset of driver ( or service ) objects in the i / o registry that have a certain type of provider / client relationship connecting them. the most general plane is the service plane, which displays the objects in the same hierarchy in which they are attached during registry construction. there are also the audio, power, device tree, firewire, and usb planes. - platform expert a driver object for a particular motherboard that knows the type of platform the system is running on. the platform expert serves as the root of the i / o registry tree. a module that can be dynamically added to a running system or application. core foundation plug - in services uses the basic code - loading facility of core foundation bundle services to provide a standard plug - in architecture, known as the cfplugin architecture, for mac apps. a kernel extension is a type of kernel plug - in. a heavily overloaded term which in darwin has two particular meanings : ( 1 ) in mach, a secure unidirectional channel for communication between tasks running on a single system ; ( 2 ) in ip transport protocols, an integer identifier used to select a receiver for an incoming packet or to specify the sender of an outgoing packet. the portable operating system interface. an operating - system interface standardization effort supported by iso / iec, ieee, and the open group. - power child - power parent - preemptive multitasking a type of multitasking in which the operating system can interrupt a currently running program in order to run another program, as needed. a phase of active matching in which a candidate driver communicates with a device and verifies whether it can drive it. the driver \u2019 s probemember function is invoked to kick off this phase. the driver returns a probe score that reflects its ability to drive the device. see also driver matching a bsd abstraction for a running program. a process \u2019 resources include a virtual address space, threads, and file descriptors. in os x, a process is based on one mach task and one or more mach threads. a driver object that provides services of some kind to its client. in a driver stack, the provider in a provider / client relationship is closer to the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5974579162956767, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.986468"} {"text": ". in os x, a process is based on one mach task and one or more mach threads. a driver object that provides services of some kind to its client. in a driver stack, the provider in a provider / client relationship is closer to the platform expert. see also client decrementing the reference count of an object. when an object \u2019 s reference count reaches zero, it is freed. when your code no longer needs to reference a retained object, it should release it. some apis automatically execute a release on the caller \u2019 s behalf, particularly in cases where the object in question is being \u201c handed off. \u201d retains and releases must be carefully balanced ; too many releases can cause panics and other unexpected failures due to accesses of freed memory. see also retain incrementing the reference count of an object. an object with a positive reference count is not freed. ( a newly created object has a reference count of one. ) drivers can ensure the persistence of an object beyond the present scope by retaining it. many apis automatically execute a retain on the caller \u2019 s behalf, particularly apis used to create or gain access to objects. retains and releases must be carefully balanced ; too many retains will result in wired memory leak. see also release a service is an i / o kit entity, based on a subclass of ioservice, that has been published with the registerservicemethod and provides certain capabilities to other i / o kit objects. in the i / o kit \u2019 s layered architecture, each layer is a client of the layer below it and a provider of services to the layer above it. a service type is identified by a matching dictionary that describes properties of the service. a nub or driver can provide services to other i / o kit objects. in bsd - derived systems such as darwin, a socket refers to different entities in user and kernel operations. for a user process, a socket is a file descriptor that has been allocated using socket ( 2 ). for the kernel, a socket is the data structure that is allocated when the kernel \u2019 s implementation of the socket ( 2 ) call is made. - system sleep a sleep state that occurs when the user chooses sleep from the apple menu or closes the lid of a laptop computer. see also idle sleep in mach, the unit of cpu utilization. a thread consists of a program counter, a set of registers, and a stack pointer. see also task a kernel resource that triggers an event at a specified interval. the event can occur", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.547866813291426, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.987469"} {"text": "see also idle sleep in mach, the unit of cpu utilization. a thread consists of a program counter, a set of registers, and a stack pointer. see also task a kernel resource that triggers an event at a specified interval. the event can occur only once or can be recurring. timers are one of the event sources for work loops. - user client an interface provided by an i / o kit family, that enables a user process ( which can \u2019 t call a kernel - resident driver or other service directly ) to access hardware. in the kernel, this interface appears as a driver object called a user client ; in user space, it is called a device interface and is implemented as a core foundation plug - in services ( cfplugin ) object. see also device interface - user space virtual memory outside the protected partition in which the kernel resides. applications, plug - ins, and other types of modules typically run in user space. - virtual address a memory address that is usable by software. each task has its own range of virtual addresses, which begins at address zero. the mach operating system makes the cpu hardware map these addresses onto physical memory only when necessary, using disk memory at other times. - virtual memory the use of a disk partition or a file on disk to provide the same facilities usually provided by ram. the virtual - memory manager in os x provides 32 - bit ( minimum ) protected address space for each task and facilitates efficient sharing of that address space. - wired memory a range of memory that the virtual - memory system will not page out or move. the memory involved in an i / o transfer must be wired down to prevent the physical relocation of data being accessed by hardware. in the i / o kit memory is wired when the memory descriptor describing the memory prepares the memory for i / o ( which happens when its preparemethod is invoked ). - work loop a gating mechanism that ensures single - threaded access to the data structures and hardware registers used by a driver. specifically, it is a mutex lock associated with a thread. a work loop typically has several event sources attached to it ; they use the work loop to ensure a protected, gated context for processing events. see also event source \u00a9 2001, 2007 apple inc. all rights reserved. ( last updated : 2007 - 05 - 17 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5845941578992734, "token_count": 471, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:34.988609"} {"text": "exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of a code block in order to handle errors or other exceptional conditions. an exception is the python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run - time error ( such as division by zero ). a python program can also explicitly raise an exception with the raise statement. exception handlers are specified with the try... except statement. the try... finally statement specifies cleanup code which does not handle the exception, but is executed whether an exception occurred or not in the preceding code. python uses the ` ` termination ' ' when an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates execution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop. in either case, it prints a stack backtrace, except when the exception is exceptions are identified by string objects or class instances. selection of a matching except clause is based on object identity ( i. e., two different string objects with the same value represent different exceptions! ) for string exceptions, the except clause must reference the same string object. for class exceptions, the except clause must reference the same class or a base class of it. when an exception is raised, an object ( maybe none ) is passed as the exception ' s ` ` parameter ' ' or ` ` value ' ' ; this object does not affect the selection of an exception handler, but is passed to the selected exception handler as additional information. for class exceptions, this object must be an instance of the exception class see also the description of the try statement in section 7. 4 and raise statement in section 6. 8.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5308659222034877, "token_count": 326, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.006498"} {"text": "reading this tutorial has probably reinforced your interest in using python - - you should be eager to apply python to solve your real - world problems. now what should you do? you should read, or at least page through, the python library reference, which gives complete ( though terse ) reference material about types, functions, and modules that can save you a lot of time when writing python programs. the standard python distribution includes a lot of code in both c and python ; there are modules to read unix mailboxes, retrieve documents via http, generate random numbers, parse command - line options, write cgi programs, compress data, and a lot more ; skimming through the library reference will give you an idea of what ' s available. the major python web site is http : / / www. python. org / ; it contains code, documentation, and pointers to python - related pages around the web. this web site is mirrored in various places around the world, such as europe, japan, and australia ; a mirror may be faster than the main site, depending on your geographical location. a more informal site is http : / / starship. python. net /, which contains a bunch of python - related personal home pages ; many people have downloadable software there. many more user - created python modules can be found in the python package index ( pypi ). for python - related questions and problem reports, you can post to the newsgroup comp. lang. python, or send them to the mailing list at firstname. lastname @ example. org. the newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed, so messages posted to one will automatically be forwarded to the other. there are around 120 postings a day ( with peaks up to several hundred ), asking ( and answering ) questions, suggesting new features, and announcing new modules. before posting, be sure to check the list of frequently asked questions ( also called the faq ), or look for it in the misc / directory of the python source distribution. mailing list archives are available at http : / / www. python. org / pipermail /. the faq answers many of the questions that come up again and again, and may already contain the solution for your problem. see about this document... for information on suggesting changes.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5115780704027417, "token_count": 477, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.009314"} {"text": "the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is separated into the right and left hemispheres. the right hemisphere is in charge of the functions on the left - side of the body, as well as many cognitive functions. a right - side stroke happens when the brain \u2019 s blood supply is interrupted in this area. without oxygen and nutrients from blood, the brain tissue quickly dies. a stroke is a serious condition. it requires emergency care. there are two main types of stroke : an ischemic stroke ( the more common form ) is caused by a sudden decrease in blood flow to a region of the brain, which may be due to : - a clot that forms in another part of the body ( eg, heart or neck ) breaking off and blocking the flow in a blood vessel supplying the brain ( embolus ) - a clot that forms in an artery that supplies blood to the brain ( thrombus ) - a tear in an artery supplying blood to the brain ( arterial dissection ) a hemorrhagic stroke is caused by a burst blood vessel that results in bleeding in the brain. examples of risk factors that you can control or treat include : certain conditions, such as : - high blood pressure - high cholesterol - high levels of the amino acid homocysteine ( may result in the formation of blood clots ) - atherosclerosis ( narrowing of the arteries due to build - up of plaque ) - atrial fibrillation ( abnormal heart rhythm ) - metabolic syndrome - type 2 diabetes - alcohol or drug abuse - medicines ( eg, long - term use of birth control pills ) - lifestyle factors ( eg, smoking, physical inactivity, diet ) risk factors that you cannot control include : - history of having a stroke, heart attack, or other type of cardiovascular disease - history of having a transient ischemic attack ( tia ) \u2014 with a tia, stroke - like symptoms often resolve within minutes ( always in 24 hours ). they may signal a very high risk of having a stroke in the future. - age : 60 or older - family members who have had a stroke - gender : males - race : black, asian, hispanic - blood disorder that increases clotting - heart valve disease ( eg, mitral stenosis ) the immediate symptoms of a right - side stroke come on suddenly and may include : - weakness or numbness of face, arm, or leg, especially on the left side of the body - loss of balance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.521762141318239, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.014601"} {"text": "as a graduate student working for ligo ( the laser interferometer gravitational wave observatory ), one of my responsibilities was maintaining date - time code, including accounting for leap seconds, and calculating dates and time thousands of years in the past. what is a leap second? well, the earth ' s rotation rate is slowing down. so, as time goes on the length of the day is longer. this rate is very slow. every few years, the added length must be taken into account, much like the leap day takes into account that the orbital period of the earth around the sun is not exactly 365 days. when a leap second must be inserted is not predictable. the international earth rotation and reference systems service is tasked with making observations of the earth, and producing a twice - yearly report on whether a leap second is due to be added. this comes out by email, and on their website. the report gives a 6 - month or so lead time before the leap second is inserted, at midnight on jan 1 and on jul 1. so, apparently, a leap second was inserted last night : all standard atomic clocks around the world paused for a second. this caused all sorts of havoc with computers and networking devices, causing lots of sites to go down. notably, google was prepared.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5202937321767447, "token_count": 258, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.037482"} {"text": "handbook of engaged learning projects subject / content area : science, language arts, math, and social target audience : this multigrade level unit will involve third and sixth grade students. this is an interactive, interdisciplinary, thematic project. this is appropriate for students at all ability levels. program requires hardware / software for internet access. project goal : when posed with the problem of destruction of the rainforest, students will develop interpersonal skills, research skills, content objectives, technical skills, and higher order thinking skills. learner outcomes : through cooperative activities, students will be able to : - demonstrate the ability to collect data using various technologies ( internet, cd rom, computer software / hardware, and e - mail ). - analyze the impact of specific human activities on the destruction of tropical rainforests. - organize and analyze collected information gained through interaction - explain the important biological, social, and aesthetic values of the tropical rainforest to their environment. alignment with standards ( national - science standards : 7, 15, 18 - language arts : 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11 - math : 4, 6 - geography : 1, 2, 4, 8, 14, 16, 18 assessment of students : students ' performance will be assessed formatively through teacher observations. students and teachers will cooperatively develop a rubric for the final product. summative evaluation will include self - evaluation and teacher evaluation. author : patti furlano, joyce nelson, teri rakes and amy willis, braceville elementary school, braceville, il. of engaged learning projects sponsored by fermi national accelerator laboratory education office and friends of fermilab. funded by the north central regional technology in education consortium based at the north central regional educational laboratory ( ncrel ). created : august, 1997", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5060365322144098, "token_count": 360, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.142120"} {"text": "at any point in the song. the brain has a certain number of entry nodes in the motor - action plan, so you can only access the information from particular points in the song. \" even though it feels like it ' s in your fingers, it ' s not, \" levitin said. \" it ' s in the finger representation in your head. \" music and pleasure music is strongly associated with the brain ' s reward system. it ' s the part of the brain that tells us if things are valuable, or important or relevant to survival, said robert zatorre, professor of neurology and neurosurgery at montreal neurological institute. one brain structure in particular, called the striatum, releases a chemical called dopamine in response to pleasure - related stimuli. imaging of the brain can reveal this process is similar to what happens in your brain in response to food or sex. but unlike those activities, music doesn ' t have a direct biological survival value. \" it ' s not obvious that it should engage that same system, \" zatorre said. musicians can ' t see inside their own brains, but they ' re aware of moments of tension and release in pieces, and that ' s what arrangers of music do. zatorre and colleagues did an experiment where they used whatever music participants said gave them pleasure to examine this dopamine release. they excluded music with words in order to focus on the music itself rather than lyrics - - the melodic structure, for example. at the point in a piece of music when people experience peak pleasure, part of the brain called the ventral striatum releases dopamine. but here ' s something even more interesting : dopamine is released from a different brain area ( the dorsal striatum ) about 10 to 15 seconds before the moment of peak pleasure. why would we have this reaction before the most pleasurable part of the piece of music? the brain likes to investigate its environment and figure out what ' s coming next, zatorre explains. \" as you ' re anticipating a moment of pleasure, you ' re making predictions about what you ' re hearing and what you ' re about to hear, \" he said. \" part of the pleasure we derive from it is being able to make predictions. \" so if you ' re getting such a strong dopamine rush from music - - it could even be comparable to methamphetamines, zatorre said - - why not make drug addicts listen to music? it ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5188498690322453, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.163033"} {"text": "s patients remember things better, and that learning new skills such as musical instruments might even stave off dementia. there still needs to be more research in these areas to confirm, but limb is hopeful about the prospect of musical engagement as a way to prevent, or at least delay, dementia. \" that ' s a pretty amazing thing that, from sound, you can stimulate the entire brain, \" limb said. \" if you think about dementia as the opposite trend, of the brain atrophying, i think there ' s a lot of basis to it. \" music and emotions you may associate particular songs with events in your life - - green day ' s \" good riddance ( time of your life ) \" might remind you of your graduation day, if you had a graduation in the 1990s or 2000s, for example. despite variation in any given person ' s life experience, studies have shown that music listeners largely agree with one another when it comes to the emotions presented in a song. this may be independent of lyrics ; musical sounds themselves may carry emotional meaning, writes cornell university psychologist carol krumhansl in current directions in psychological science. educational shows such as \" sesame street \" have been tapping into the power of music to help youngsters remember things for decades. even babies have been shown to be sensitive to beats and can recognize a piece of music that they ' ve already heard. advertisers exploit music in many commercials to make you excited about products. as a result, you may associate songs with particular cars, for instance. here ' s one way you might not already be using music : making a deliberate effort to use music to alter mood. listen to something that makes you energetic at the beginning of the day, and listen to a soothing song after an argument, levitin says. music as a language victor wooten of bela fleck and the flecktones isn ' t a scientist, but he has thought a lot about the process of learning to play music. for him, introducing a child to music shouldn ' t be different from the way a child begins speaking. \" i just approach music as a language, because it is, \" wooten said. \" it serves the same purpose. it ' s a form of expression. a way for me to express myself, convey feelings, and sometimes it actually works better than a written or verbal language. \" traditionally, a child learns to play music by being taught how an instrument works, and learning to play easy pieces that they practice over and over. they might also play music", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5184579098769333, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.168243"} {"text": "ece497 project ideas we have both mini projects and projects in ece497. mini projects involved finding something interested in the beagle world and installing it to your beagle and demoing it to the class. you would also create a wiki page documenting what you did to get it installed. often you may find multiple efforts do to something, for example there are a few efforts to port android on the beagle. your task is to figure out which one should be used. generally mini projects won ' t require you to write new code ; however they are the background work that may lead to a full project. you should do a couple mini projects for the class. generally they are done alone, but working in pairs is ok. these will be about 1 / 3 of your grade and should be done in the first 5 weeks or so. only one full project is done for the class and it ' s done with a team of 3 or 4. these projects can take a mini project ( or a whole new idea ) and add to it. the goal is to have your work contribute to the open source world. any code is generated will be kept on github and a bitbake receipt will be created to automatically download and create the object files. what follows are - places to look for project ideas - feel free to add your own suggestions. - mini project ideas - add your own suggestions, and do some of them. mark the ones you ' ve done. - full project ideas sources for project ideas here are some links where you ' ll find ideas for your project. - etechdays community lightning talks, this is a one - day web - based conference where many project ideas are presented. one of our 2009 - 2010 senior design projects was found here. - official list of beagle projects, there are many beagle specific projects listed here. many are inactive. list your project here once it running. - augmented reality project, here ' s an idea that i think we can do on the beagle. rather than using augmented reality glasses, i ' d suggest we use a ti dlp pico projector. here ' s ar running on the beagle. - android, this is one of a couple of efforts to port google ' s android os to the beagle. - beagleboard / ideas - 2009 google summer code ideas 2009. mini project ideas | mark a. yoder | | jack ma | | work up an example of controlling the pwm registers from the shell. | |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5230680216313581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.188687"} {"text": "the beagle. - beagleboard / ideas - 2009 google summer code ideas 2009. mini project ideas | mark a. yoder | | jack ma | | work up an example of controlling the pwm registers from the shell. | | pwm via the shell | | mark a. yoder | | weather station | | ultrasonic weather | | mark a. yoder | | mike yuhas | | interface the beagleboard with an srf08 ultrasonic ranger over i2c | | ultrasonic ranger | | mark a. yoder | | compile the powervr examples | | powervr insider sdk downloads | | mark a. yoder | | work up some gstreamer ps eye demos | | gstreamer ps eye demos and ridgerun | | mark a. yoder | | douglas selby | | get ti ' embedded speech recognizer installed and demo the examples. | | ti embedded speech recognizer | | mark a. yoder | | david zitnik | | demo last year ' s ti speech project. i have a microphone amplifier and mike you can use. | | ece597 project pywikireader | | mark a. yoder | | stephen mayhew | | find who is doing what with kinect on the beagle and install and run it. | | google - beagleboard kinect | | mark a. yoder | | greg harrison | | i have several sony playstation eye web cams and i have examples of how to pull video from them via v4l2 ( ece497 davinci workshop labs ). the eye also has a 4 microphone array. i don ' t know how to get audio from it. figure out how. this may expand to a full project if there is no solution out there. | | google - beagleboard playstation eye microphone array | | mark a. yoder | | find some examples of how to use cmem. cmem is an api and library for managing one or more blocks of physically contiguous memory. it also provides address translation services ( e. g. virtual to physical translation ) and user - mode cache management apis. it ' s used for managing the shared memory between the arm and the dsp on the processor. i ' ve been unable to find examples of how to use it. | | cmem overview | | mike lester | | connect to your beagleboard using ethernet over usb. this allows your beagleboard to share", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5151999181456914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.189599"} {"text": "dsp on the processor. i ' ve been unable to find examples of how to use it. | | cmem overview | | mike lester | | connect to your beagleboard using ethernet over usb. this allows your beagleboard to share the host computer ' s internet connection and allow you to connect via vnc / ssh without the need for an external router / switch. this should make development much easier. | | vnc | | brian hulette | | experiment with audio synthesis and / or sampling / processing. you could either synthesize and play a few tones to generate a song, or have the beagle sample an audio signal then process and output it to create a sort of effects pedal. | | david mcginnis | | david mcginnis | | look into connecting the beagleboard to a phone or headphones using bluetooth. this could involve either outputting audio and taking in audio from a bluetooth headset, allowing you to have audio i / o with the beagleboard, or could involve connecting with phones automatically as they come into range of the beagleboard, allowing for an automatic attendence registration system, among other things. | | david bliss | | david bliss | | get a video stream from a ps eye, and identify the relevant device files. | | playstation _ eye # cite _ note - linux _ support - 32 | | william gerth | | william gerth | | explore the possibility of implementing openaos on the beagle, to make a portable media player and etc. | | http : / / www. openaos. org / | | joel carlson | | lacking a serial port and don ' t have a usb - serial converter? why not find a way to make the beagleboard boot over a usb console connection? | | beagleboard xm u - boot without serial | | joel carlson | | joel carlson | | depending on what one is working on, it might be useful to mount the beagleboard root filesystem over nfs. the link to the right does that using a usb - ethernet connection, but one that just runs over an ethernet cable would be nice. | | mount beagleboard root filesystem over nfs via usb here ' s an example of mounting dfs / afs on the beagle | lei liu | | lei liu | | build communication with fpga via usb port. | | aaron bamberger | | aaron bamberger | | play around with the beagle", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.505265395595113, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.190602"} {"text": "the dsp. it currently runs on the arm. | | mark a. yoder | | kinect | | here and here are some interesting things people are doing with kinects. maybe we could port it to the beagle. | | mike lester | | accelerometer - based auto - leveled projection | | several projects have been started to add accelerometer support to the beagleboard. this project would involve getting an accelerometer installed and working, perhaps using a trainer board, as well the ti pico projector. the orientation data from the accelerometer would be used to rotate, skew, keystone the projected image in order to keep it level and normalized. | | aaron bamberger | | kinect based 3d scanner | | build some sort of motorized gantry that allows the kinect to be rotated around ( and possibly from top to bottom ) of an arbitrary object. the motors would be controlled using the beagleboard ' s i2c or spi interfaces. use libfreenect to capture depth information from every side of the object as the kinect rotates around the object. use this data and opengl to build a 3d model of the scanned object | | mark a. yoder | | port windsk6 to the beagle | | windsk6 is a windows program that talks to a ti ' c6711 dsk and performs many interesting audio effects. this project would implement the code running on the windows side on the arm. the arm could capture a frame of audio and send it to the dsp for processing. the arm could then send the processed audio to the speakers. c6run would be used to interact with the dsp. | | david bliss | | automated die tester | | make a device that can roll a die, and keep statistics on how random the die is. the build can either be very complex, or very simple, depending on how you define \" rolling a die \". the software doesn ' t necessarily have to know what the numbers mean, it just has to be able to uniquely identify the sides. | | stephen mayhew | | set - playing system | | set is a relatively simple card game that lends itself nicely to image recognition and computer play. the layout is not very structured, and the game play is pretty simple. this project would incorporate image recognition, projection of possible moves ( using the pico projector ), and maybe even speech synthesis, and recognition. for example,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5018581792745173, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.193391"} {"text": "computer play. the layout is not very structured, and the game play is pretty simple. this project would incorporate image recognition, projection of possible moves ( using the pico projector ), and maybe even speech synthesis, and recognition. for example, if someone didn ' t know how to play set, then the board could take them through a tutorial, asking questions of the user as it went along ( \" if i have these 2 cards, what 3rd card would make a set? \" ). this would make for an interesting demo at conferences. | | michael fuson | spectrum analyzer | | create a real - time audio spectrum analyzer on the beagleboard. project page | | team members | | project title | | description | | yannick polius | | pywikireader | | this project is mostly software, with the hardware element being the use of the dsp. the idea is to tie together three technologies : speech recognition, speech synthesis, and internet access in order to create an interface capable of orating information to the user based on a vocal command. the implementation i have in mind is to use the pocket sphinx speech recognition engine to first understand what the user wants through speech, such as \" rose - hulman \". once the speech is translated, the software can execute a wikipedia search to pull said item ' s page. most of the important info is contained within the introductory paragraph, so the software will take only that chunk and feed it into the flite speech synthesis engine. the end result is a simple machine with \" mother box \" like usability, that is, no interaction besides what is natural to the user ( speaking ) should be necessary to retrieve the information. | | paul morrison | 3d chess with networking | | this project would simulate a hand - held chess game, and the game would allow two player games using two beagleboards over a network connection. the graphics would use the beagle ' s powervr sgx for hardware accelerated graphics by using opengl. in addition to 3d graphics and networking, a third portion of the project would be to optimize the boot time because a chess computer should start up quickly. | | tom most | sumo robot | | the goal of this project is to create a robot capable of competing in the 3. 0 kg weight class of a sumo competition ( an example ). this would have minor hardware and electronics elements, but would focus on communication with sensors using the beagleboard and the linux kernel. at minimum, this involves sensors", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5539324950586505, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.194445"} {"text": "competing in the 3. 0 kg weight class of a sumo competition ( an example ). this would have minor hardware and electronics elements, but would focus on communication with sensors using the beagleboard and the linux kernel. at minimum, this involves sensors to detect the edge of the ring and the opposing robot. this would likely be implemented using sharp ir rangefinders, a ultrasonic rangefinders, and ideally a camera. sumo rules. | | ece597 network based mp3 player | | network based mp3 player. the beagle will be programmed using a custom, protocol for transferring files from a network based server ( x86 pc ) to a beagle. speakers will be attached to the beagle, where the file will be played back. possible extensions are a lcd for displaying id3 tag information, and buttons for user interaction ( next track, previous track, etc. ) on the gpio interface. | | chris routh j. cody collins greg jackson keqiong xin | ece597 : auto hud | | use the beagle board to run image recognition on a camera feed located inside a car, and then signaling to the driver via a pico projector various objects of interest. | | adam jesionowski | adding sense to beagle ( see beagleboard / gsoc / ideas ) | | sensory aware applications are becoming more mainstream with the release of the apple iphone. this project would combine both hw and sw to add sensory awareness to beagle. first, additional modules such as gps, 3 - axis accelerometers, gyroscopes, temperature sensors, humidity sensors, pressure sensors, etc, would be added to beagle to compliment the microphone input in order to allow sensing of the real world environment. then sw apis would need to be layered on top to allow easy access to the sensory data for use by applications. | | mitch garvin | interactive pong | | run classic pong, projecting the screen and using a camera to track user ' s hands for input. |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5248452330280236, "token_count": 418, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.195192"} {"text": "| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( march 2011 ) | nuclear meltdown is an informal term for a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating. the term is not officially defined by the international atomic energy agency or by the u. s. nuclear regulatory commission. however, it has been defined to mean the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor, and is in common usage a reference to the core ' s either complete or partial collapse. \" core melt accident \" and \" partial core melt \" are the analogous technical terms for a meltdown. a core melt accident occurs when the heat generated by a nuclear reactor exceeds the heat removed by the cooling systems to the point where at least one nuclear fuel element exceeds its melting point. this differs from a fuel element failure, which is not caused by high temperatures. a meltdown may be caused by a loss of coolant, loss of coolant pressure, or low coolant flow rate or be the result of a criticality excursion in which the reactor is operated at a power level that exceeds its design limits. alternately, in a reactor plant such as the rbmk - 1000, an external fire may endanger the core, leading to a meltdown. once the fuel elements of a reactor begin to melt, the fuel cladding has been breached, and the nuclear fuel ( such as uranium, plutonium, or thorium ) and fission products ( such as cesium - 137, krypton - 88, or iodine - 131 ) within the fuel elements can leach out into the coolant. subsequent failures can permit these radioisotopes to breach further layers of containment. superheated steam and hot metal inside the core can lead to fuel - coolant interactions, hydrogen explosions, or water hammer, any of which could destroy parts of the containment. a meltdown is considered very serious because of the potential, however remote, that radioactive materials could breach all containment and escape ( or be released ) into the environment, resulting in radioactive contamination and fallout, and potentially leading to radiation poisoning of people and animals nearby. nuclear power plants generate electricity by heating fluid via a nuclear reaction to run a generator. if the heat from that reaction is not removed adequately, the fuel assemblies in a reactor core can melt. a core damage incident can occur even after a reactor is shut down because the fuel continues to produce decay heat. a core damage accident is caused by the loss of sufficient cooling for the nuclear fuel within the reactor core. the reason may be one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.589576307149515, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.241348"} {"text": "melt. a core damage incident can occur even after a reactor is shut down because the fuel continues to produce decay heat. a core damage accident is caused by the loss of sufficient cooling for the nuclear fuel within the reactor core. the reason may be one of several factors, including a loss - of - pressure - control accident, a loss - of - coolant accident ( loca ), an uncontrolled power excursion or, in reactors without a pressure vessel, a fire within the reactor core. failures in control systems may cause a series of events resulting in loss of cooling. contemporary safety principles of defense in depth ensure that multiple layers of safety systems are always present to make such accidents unlikely. the containment building is the last of several safeguards that prevent the release of radioactivity to the environment. many commercial reactors are contained within a 1. 2 - to - 2. 4 - metre ( 3. 9 to 7. 9 ft ) thick pre - stressed, steel - reinforced, air - tight concrete structure that can withstand hurricane - force winds and severe earthquakes. - in a loss - of - coolant accident, either the physical loss of coolant ( which is typically deionized water, an inert gas, nak, or liquid sodium ) or the loss of a method to ensure a sufficient flow rate of the coolant occurs. a loss - of - coolant accident and a loss - of - pressure - control accident are closely related in some reactors. in a pressurized water reactor, a loca can also cause a \" steam bubble \" to form in the core due to excessive heating of stalled coolant or by the subsequent loss - of - pressure - control accident caused by a rapid loss of coolant. in a loss - of - forced - circulation accident, a gas cooled reactor ' s circulators ( generally motor or steam driven turbines ) fail to circulate the gas coolant within the core, and heat transfer is impeded by this loss of forced circulation, though natural circulation through convection will keep the fuel cool as long as the reactor is not depressurized. - in a loss - of - pressure - control accident, the pressure of the confined coolant falls below specification without the means to restore it. in some cases this may reduce the heat transfer efficiency ( when using an inert gas as a coolant ) and in others may form an insulating \" bubble \" of steam surrounding the fuel assemblies ( for pressurized water reactors ). in the latter case, due to localized heating of the \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5563806954159174, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.242357"} {"text": "efficiency ( when using an inert gas as a coolant ) and in others may form an insulating \" bubble \" of steam surrounding the fuel assemblies ( for pressurized water reactors ). in the latter case, due to localized heating of the \" steam bubble \" due to decay heat, the pressure required to collapse the \" steam bubble \" may exceed reactor design specifications until the reactor has had time to cool down. ( this event is less likely to occur in boiling water reactors, where the core may be deliberately depressurized so that the emergency core cooling system may be turned on ). in a depressurization fault, a gas - cooled reactor loses gas pressure within the core, reducing heat transfer efficiency and posing a challenge to the cooling of fuel ; however, as long as at least one gas circulator is available, the fuel will be kept cool. - in an uncontrolled power excursion accident, a sudden power spike in the reactor exceeds reactor design specifications due to a sudden increase in reactor reactivity. an uncontrolled power excursion occurs due to significantly altering a parameter that affects the neutron multiplication rate of a chain reaction ( examples include ejecting a control rod or significantly altering the nuclear characteristics of the moderator, such as by rapid cooling ). in extreme cases the reactor may proceed to a condition known as prompt critical. this is especially a problem in reactors that have a positive void coefficient of reactivity, a positive temperature coefficient, are overmoderated, or can trap excess quantities of deleterious fission products within their fuel or moderators. many of these characteristics are present in the rbmk design, and the chernobyl disaster was caused by such deficiencies as well as by severe operator negligence. western light water reactors are not subject to very large uncontrolled power excursions because loss of coolant decreases, rather than increases, core reactivity ( a negative void coefficient of reactivity ) ; \" transients, \" as the minor power fluctuations within western light water reactors are called, are limited to momentary increases in reactivity that will rapidly decrease with time ( approximately 200 % - 250 % of maximum neutronic power for a few seconds in the event of a complete rapid shutdown failure combined with a transient ). - core - based fires endanger the core and can cause the fuel assemblies to melt. a fire may be caused by air entering a graphite moderated reactor, or a liquid - sodium cooled reactor. graphite is also subject to accumulation of wigner energy, which can overhea", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5980965183140237, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.243435"} {"text": "the core and can cause the fuel assemblies to melt. a fire may be caused by air entering a graphite moderated reactor, or a liquid - sodium cooled reactor. graphite is also subject to accumulation of wigner energy, which can overheat the graphite ( as happened at the windscale fire ). light water reactors do not have flammable cores or moderators and are not subject to core fires. gas - cooled civilian reactors, such as the magnox, ungg, and agcr type reactors, keep their cores blanketed with non reactive carbon dioxide gas, which cannot support a fire. modern gas - cooled civilian reactors use helium, which cannot burn, and have fuel that can withstand high temperatures without melting ( such as the high temperature gas cooled reactor and the pebble bed modular reactor ). - byzantine faults and cascading failures within instrumentation and control systems may cause severe problems in reactor operation, potentially leading to core damage if not mitigated. for example, the browns ferry fire damaged control cables and required the plant operators to manually activate cooling systems. the three mile island accident was caused by a stuck - open pilot - operated pressure relief valve combined with a deceptive water level gauge that misled reactor operators, which resulted in core damage. light water reactors ( lwrs ) before the core of a light water nuclear reactor can be damaged, two precursor events must have already occurred : - a limiting fault ( or a set of compounded emergency conditions ) that leads to the failure of heat removal within the core ( the loss of cooling ). low water level uncovers the core, allowing it to heat up. - failure of the emergency core cooling system ( eccs ). the eccs is designed to rapidly cool the core and make it safe in the event of the maximum fault ( the design basis accident ) that nuclear regulators and plant engineers could imagine. there are at least two copies of the eccs built for every reactor. each division ( copy ) of the eccs is capable, by itself, of responding to the design basis accident. the latest reactors have as many as four divisions of the eccs. this is the principle of redundancy, or duplication. as long as at least one eccs division functions, no core damage can occur. each of the several divisions of the eccs has several internal \" trains \" of components. thus the eccs divisions themselves have internal redundancy \u2013 and can withstand failures of components within them. the three mile island accident was a compounded", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5601116850237073, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.244444"} {"text": "occur. each of the several divisions of the eccs has several internal \" trains \" of components. thus the eccs divisions themselves have internal redundancy \u2013 and can withstand failures of components within them. the three mile island accident was a compounded group of emergencies that led to core damage. what led to this was an erroneous decision by operators to shut down the eccs during an emergency condition due to gauge readings that were either incorrect or misinterpreted ; this caused another emergency condition that, several hours after the fact, led to core exposure and a core damage incident. if the eccs had been allowed to function, it would have prevented both exposure and core damage. during the fukushima incident the emergency cooling system had also been manually shut down several minutes after it started. if such a limiting fault were to occur, and a complete failure of all eccs divisions were to occur, both kuan, et al and haskin, et al describe six stages between the start of the limiting fault ( the loss of cooling ) and the potential escape of molten corium into the containment ( a so - called \" full meltdown \" ) : - uncovering of the core \u2013 in the event of a transient, upset, emergency, or limiting fault, lwrs are designed to automatically scram ( a scram being the immediate and full insertion of all control rods ) and spin up the eccs. this greatly reduces reactor thermal power ( but does not remove it completely ) ; this delays core becoming uncovered, which is defined as the point when the fuel rods are no longer covered by coolant and can begin to heat up. as kuan states : \" in a small - break loca with no emergency core coolant injection, core uncovery [ sic ] generally begins approximately an hour after the initiation of the break. if the reactor coolant pumps are not running, the upper part of the core will be exposed to a steam environment and heatup of the core will begin. however, if the coolant pumps are running, the core will be cooled by a two - phase mixture of steam and water, and heatup of the fuel rods will be delayed until almost all of the water in the two - phase mixture is vaporized. the tmi - 2 accident showed that operation of reactor coolant pumps may be sustained for up to approximately two hours to deliver a two phase mixture that can prevent core heatup. \" - pre - damage heat up \u2013 \" in the absence of a two - phase mixture going through the core", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5409617066738801, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.245524"} {"text": "operation of reactor coolant pumps may be sustained for up to approximately two hours to deliver a two phase mixture that can prevent core heatup. \" - pre - damage heat up \u2013 \" in the absence of a two - phase mixture going through the core or of water addition to the core to compensate water boiloff, the fuel rods in a steam environment will heat up at a rate between 0. 3 \u00b0c / s ( 0. 5 \u00b0f / s ) and 1 \u00b0c / s ( 1. 8 \u00b0f / s ) ( 3 ). \" - fuel ballooning and bursting \u2013 \" in less than half an hour, the peak core temperature would reach 1, 100 k ( 1, 520 \u00b0f ). at this temperature the zircaloy cladding of the fuel rods may balloon and burst. this is the first stage of core damage. cladding ballooning may block a substantial portion of the flow area of the core and restrict the flow of coolant. however complete blockage of the core is unlikely because not all fuel rods balloon at the same axial location. in this case, sufficient water addition can cool the core and stop core damage progression. \" - rapid oxidation \u2013 \" the next stage of core damage, beginning at approximately 1, 500 k ( 2, 240 \u00b0f ), is the rapid oxidation of the zircaloy by steam. in the oxidation process, hydrogen is produced and a large amount of heat is released. above 1, 500 k ( 2, 240 \u00b0f ), the power from oxidation exceeds that from decay heat ( 4, 5 ) unless the oxidation rate is limited by the supply of either zircaloy or steam. \" - debris bed formation \u2013 \" when the temperature in the core reaches about 1, 700 k ( 2, 600 \u00b0f ), molten control materials [ 1, 6 ] will flow to and solidify in the space between the lower parts of the fuel rods where the temperature is comparatively low. above 1, 700 k ( 2, 600 \u00b0f ), the core temperature may escalate in a few minutes to the melting point of zircaloy [ 2, 150 k ( 3, 410 \u00b0f ) ] due to increased oxidation rate. when the oxidized cladding breaks, the molten zircaloy, along with dissolved uo2 [ 1, 7 ] would flow downward and freeze in the cooler, lower region of the core. together with solidified control materials from earlier down - flows, the relocated zircaloy and uo2 would form the lower crust of a developing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5473994391837873, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.246525"} {"text": "[ 1, 7 ] would flow downward and freeze in the cooler, lower region of the core. together with solidified control materials from earlier down - flows, the relocated zircaloy and uo2 would form the lower crust of a developing cohesive debris bed. \" - ( corium ) relocation to the lower plenum \u2013 \" in scenarios of small - break locas, there is generally a pool of water in the lower plenum of the vessel at the time of core relocation. release of molten core materials into water always generates large amounts of steam. if the molten stream of core materials breaks up rapidly in water, there is also a possibility of a steam explosion. during relocation, any unoxidized zirconium in the molten material may also be oxidized by steam, and in the process hydrogen is produced. recriticality also may be a concern if the control materials are left behind in the core and the relocated material breaks up in unborated water in the lower plenum. \" at the point at which the corium relocates to the lower plenum, haskin, et al relate that the possibility exists for an incident called a fuel - coolant interaction ( fci ) to substantially stress or breach the primary pressure boundary when the corium relocates to the lower plenum of the reactor pressure vessel ( \" rpv \" ). this is because the lower plenum of the rpv may have a substantial quantity of water - the reactor coolant - in it, and, assuming the primary system has not been depressurized, the water will likely be in the liquid phase, and consequently dense, and at a vastly lower temperature than the corium. since corium is a liquid metal - ceramic eutectic at temperatures of 2, 200 to 3, 200 k ( 3, 500 to 5, 300 \u00b0f ), its fall into liquid water at 550 to 600 k ( 530 to 620 \u00b0f ) may cause an extremely rapid evolution of steam that could cause a sudden extreme overpressure and consequent gross structural failure of the primary system or rpv. though most modern studies hold that it is physically infeasible, or at least extraordinarily unlikely, haskin, et al state that that there exists a remote possibility of an extremely violent fci leading to something referred to as an alpha - mode failure, or the gross failure of the rpv itself, and subsequent ejection of the upper plenum of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5361280075920801, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.247474"} {"text": "al state that that there exists a remote possibility of an extremely violent fci leading to something referred to as an alpha - mode failure, or the gross failure of the rpv itself, and subsequent ejection of the upper plenum of the rpv as a missile against the inside of the containment, which would likely lead to the failure of the containment and release of the fission products of the core to the outside environment without any substantial decay having taken place. breach of the primary pressure boundary there are several possibilities as to how the primary pressure boundary could be breached by corium. - steam explosion as previously described, fci could lead to an overpressure event leading to rpv fail, and thus, primary pressure boundary fail. haskin, et al. report that in the event of a steam explosion, failure of the lower plenum is far more likely than ejection of the upper plenum in the alpha - mode. in the even of lower plenum failure, debris at varied temperatures can be expected to be projected into the cavity below the core. the containment may be subject to overpressure, though this is not likely to fail the containment. the alpha - mode failure will lead to the consequences previously discussed. - pressurized melt ejection ( pme ) it is quite possible, especially in pressurized water reactors, that the primary loop will remain pressurized following corium relocation to the lower plenum. as such, pressure stresses on the rpv will be present in addition to the weight stress that the molten corium places on the lower plenum of the rpv ; when the metal of the rpv weakens sufficiently due to the heat of the molten corium, it is likely that the liquid corium will be discharged under pressure out of the bottom of the rpv in a pressurized stream, together with entrained gases. this mode of corium ejection may lead to direct containment heating ( dch ). severe accident ex - vessel interactions and challenges to containment haskin, et al identify six modes by which the containment could be credibly challenged ; some of these modes are not applicable to core melt accidents. - dynamic pressure ( shockwaves ) - internal missiles - external missiles ( not applicable to core melt accidents ) standard failure modes if the melted core penetrates the pressure vessel, there are theories and speculations as to what may then occur. in modern russian plants, there is a \" core catching device \" in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5002711452789954, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.248450"} {"text": "missiles ( not applicable to core melt accidents ) standard failure modes if the melted core penetrates the pressure vessel, there are theories and speculations as to what may then occur. in modern russian plants, there is a \" core catching device \" in the bottom of the containment building, the melted core is supposed to hit a thick layer of a \" sacrificial metal \" which would melt, dilute the core and increase the heat conductivity, and finally the diluted core can be cooled down by water circulating in the floor. however there has never been any full - scale testing of this device. in western plants there is an airtight containment building. though radiation would be at a high level within the containment, doses outside of it would be lower. containment buildings are designed for the orderly release of pressure without releasing radionuclides, through a pressure release valve and filters. hydrogen / oxygen recombiners also are installed within the containment to prevent gas explosions. in a melting event, one spot or area on the rpv will become hotter than other areas, and will eventually melt. when it melts, corium will pour into the cavity under the reactor. though the cavity is designed to remain dry, several nureg - class documents advise operators to flood the cavity in the event of a fuel melt incident. this water will become steam and pressurize the containment. automatic water sprays will pump large quantities of water into the steamy environment to keep the pressure down. catalytic recombiners will rapidly convert the hydrogen and oxygen back into water. one positive effect of the corium falling into water is that it is cooled and returns to a solid state. extensive water spray systems within the containment along with the eccs, when it is reactivated, will allow operators to spray water within the containment to cool the core on the floor and reduce it to a low temperature. these procedures are intended to prevent release of radiation. in the three mile island event in 1979, a theoretical person standing at the plant property line during the entire event would have received a dose of approximately 2 millisieverts ( 200 millirem ), between a chest x - ray ' s and a ct scan ' s worth of radiation. this was due to outgassing by an uncontrolled system that, today, would have been backfitted with activated carbon and hepa filters to prevent radionuclide release. however in case of fukushima incident this design also at least partially failed : large amounts of highly radioactive water were produced and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5610954135140892, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.250703"} {"text": "system that, today, would have been backfitted with activated carbon and hepa filters to prevent radionuclide release. however in case of fukushima incident this design also at least partially failed : large amounts of highly radioactive water were produced and nuclear fuel has possibly melted through the base of the pressure vessels. cooling will take quite a while, until the natural decay heat of the corium reduces to the point where natural convection and conduction of heat to the containment walls and re - radiation of heat from the containment allows for water spray systems to be shut down and the reactor put into safe storage. the containment can be sealed with release of extremely limited offsite radioactivity and release of pressure within the containment. after a number of years for fission products to decay - probably around a decade - the containment can be reopened for decontamination and demolition. unexpected failure modes another scenario sees a buildup of hydrogen, which may lead to a detonation event, as happened for three reactors during fukushima incident. catalytic hydrogen recombiners located within containment are designed to prevent this from occurring ; however, prior to the installation of these recombiners in the 1980s, the three mile island containment ( in 1979 ) suffered a massive hydrogen explosion event in the accident there. the containment withstood the pressure and no radioactivity was released. however, in fukushima recombiners did not work due the absence of power and hydrogen detonation breached the containment. speculative failure modes one scenario consists of the reactor pressure vessel failing all at once, with the entire mass of corium dropping into a pool of water ( for example, coolant or moderator ) and causing extremely rapid generation of steam. the pressure rise within the containment could threaten integrity if rupture disks could not relieve the stress. exposed flammable substances could burn, but there are few, if any, flammable substances within the containment. another theory called an ' alpha mode ' failure by the 1975 rasmussen ( wash - 1400 ) study asserted steam could produce enough pressure to blow the head off the reactor pressure vessel ( rpv ). the containment could be threatened if the rpv head collided with it. ( the wash - 1400 report was replaced by better - based [ original research? ] newer studies, and now the nuclear regulatory commission has disavowed them all and is preparing the overarching state - of - the - art reactor consequence analyses [ soarca ] study - see the disclaimer in nureg - 115", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5393016343748174, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.251808"} {"text": "newer studies, and now the nuclear regulatory commission has disavowed them all and is preparing the overarching state - of - the - art reactor consequence analyses [ soarca ] study - see the disclaimer in nureg - 1150. ) it has not been determined to what extent a molten mass can melt through a structure ( although that was tested in the loss - of - fluid - test reactor described in test area north ' s fact sheet ). the three mile island accident provided some real - life experience, with an actual molten core within an actual structure ; the molten corium failed to melt through the reactor pressure vessel after over six hours of exposure, due to dilution of the melt by the control rods and other reactor internals, validating the emphasis on defense in depth against core damage incidents. some believe a molten reactor core could actually penetrate the reactor pressure vessel and containment structure and burn downwards into the earth beneath, to the level of the groundwater. by 1970, there were doubts about the ability of the emergency cooling systems of a nuclear reactor to prevent a loss of coolant accident and the consequent meltdown of the fuel core ; the subject proved popular in the technical and the popular presses. in 1971, in the article thoughts on nuclear plumbing, former manhattan project ( 1942 \u2013 1946 ) nuclear physicist ralph lapp used the term \" china syndrome \" to describe a possible burn - through, after a loss of coolant accident, of the nuclear fuel rods and core components melting the containment structures, and the subsequent escape of radioactive material ( s ) into the atmosphere and environment ; the hypothesis derived from a 1967 report by a group of nuclear physicists, headed by w. k. ergen. the geographic, planet - piercing concept of the china syndrome derives from the misperception that china is the antipode of the united states ; to many americans, it is the \u201c the other side of the world \u201d. moreover, the hypothetical transit of a meltdown product to the other side of the earth ( i. e. china ) ignores the fact that the earth ' s gravity tends to pull all masses towards its center. assuming a meltdown product could persist in a mobile molten form for long enough to reach the center of the earth ; gravity would prevent it continuing to the other side. other reactor types other types of reactors have different capabilities and safety profiles than the lwr does. advanced varieties of several of these reactors have the potential to be inherently safe. candu reactors candu reactors, canadian - invented de", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5325860375188383, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.252978"} {"text": "to the other side. other reactor types other types of reactors have different capabilities and safety profiles than the lwr does. advanced varieties of several of these reactors have the potential to be inherently safe. candu reactors candu reactors, canadian - invented deuterium - uranium design, are designed with at least one, and generally two, large low - temperature and low - pressure water reservoirs around their fuel / coolant channels. the first is the bulk heavy - water moderator ( a separate system from the coolant ), and the second is the light - water - filled shield tank. these backup heat sinks are sufficient to prevent either the fuel meltdown in the first place ( using the moderator heat sink ), or the breaching of the core vessel should the moderator eventually boil off ( using the shield tank heat sink ). other failure modes aside from fuel melt will probably occur in a candu rather than a meltdown, such as deformation of the calandria into a non - critical configuration. all candu reactors are located within standard western containments as well. gas - cooled reactors one type of western reactor, known as the advanced gas - cooled reactor ( or agcr ), built by the united kingdom, is not very vulnerable to loss - of - cooling accidents or to core damage except in the most extreme of circumstances. by virtue of the relatively inert coolant ( carbon dioxide ), the large volume and high pressure of the coolant, and the relatively high heat transfer efficiency of the reactor, the time frame for core damage in the event of a limiting fault is measured in days. restoration of some means of coolant flow will prevent core damage from occurring. other types of highly advanced gas cooled reactors, generally known as high - temperature gas - cooled reactors ( htgrs ) such as the japanese high temperature test reactor and the united states ' very high temperature reactor, are inherently safe, meaning that meltdown or other forms of core damage are physically impossible, due to the structure of the core, which consists of hexagonal prismatic blocks of silicon carbide reinforced graphite infused with triso or quadriso pellets of uranium, thorium, or mixed oxide buried underground in a helium - filled steel pressure vessel within a concrete containment. though this type of reactor is not susceptible to meltdown, additional capabilities of heat removal are provided by using regular atmospheric airflow as a means of backup heat removal, by having it pass through a heat exchanger and rising into the atmosphere due to convection, achieving full residual heat", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.51626026832837, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.253955"} {"text": "is not susceptible to meltdown, additional capabilities of heat removal are provided by using regular atmospheric airflow as a means of backup heat removal, by having it pass through a heat exchanger and rising into the atmosphere due to convection, achieving full residual heat removal. the vhtr is scheduled to be prototyped and tested at idaho national laboratory within the next decade ( as of 2009 ) as the design selected for the next generation nuclear plant by the us department of energy. this reactor will use a gas as a coolant, which can then be used for process heat ( such as in hydrogen production ) or for the driving of gas turbines and the generation of electricity. a similar highly advanced gas cooled reactor originally designed by west germany ( the avr reactor ) and now developed by south africa is known as the pebble bed modular reactor. it is an inherently safe design, meaning that core damage is physically impossible, due to the design of the fuel ( spherical graphite \" pebbles \" arranged in a bed within a metal rpv and filled with triso ( or quadriso ) pellets of uranium, thorium, or mixed oxide within ). a prototype of a very similar type of reactor has been built by the chinese, htr - 10, and has worked beyond researchers ' expectations, leading the chinese to announce plans to build a pair of follow - on, full - scale 250 mwe, inherently safe, power production reactors based on the same concept. ( see nuclear power in the people ' s republic of china for more information. ) experimental or conceptual designs some design concepts for nuclear reactors emphasize resistance to meltdown and operating safety. the pius ( process inherent ultimate safety ) designs, originally engineered by the swedes in the late 1970s and early 1980s, are lwrs that by virtue of their design are resistant to core damage. no units have ever been built. power reactors, including the deployable electrical energy reactor, a larger - scale mobile version of the triga for power generation in disaster areas and on military missions, and the triga power system, a small power plant and heat source for small and remote community use, have been put forward by interested engineers, and share the safety characteristics of the triga due to the uranium zirconium hydride fuel used. the hydrogen moderated self - regulating nuclear power module, a reactor that uses uranium hydride as a moderator and fuel, similar in chemistry and safety to the triga, also possesses these extreme safety and stability characteristics, and has attracted a good deal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5691331529969466, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.255135"} {"text": "the hydrogen moderated self - regulating nuclear power module, a reactor that uses uranium hydride as a moderator and fuel, similar in chemistry and safety to the triga, also possesses these extreme safety and stability characteristics, and has attracted a good deal of interest in recent times. the liquid fluoride thermal reactor is designed to naturally have its core in a molten state, as a eutectic mix of thorium and fluorine salts. as such, a molten core is reflective of the normal and safe state of operation of this reactor type. in the event the core overheats, a metal plug will melt, and the molten salt core will drain into tanks where it will cool in a non - critical configuration. since the core is liquid, and already melted, it cannot be damaged. advanced liquid metal reactors, such as the u. s. integral fast reactor and the russian bn - 350, bn - 600, and bn - 800, all have a coolant with very high heat capacity, sodium metal. as such, they can withstand a loss of cooling without scram and a loss of heat sink without scram, qualifying them as inherently safe. soviet union - designed reactors soviet designed rbmks, found only in russia and the cis and now shut down everywhere except russia, do not have containment buildings, are naturally unstable ( tending to dangerous power fluctuations ), and also have eccs systems that are considered grossly inadequate by western safety standards. the reactor from the chernobyl disaster was a rbmk reactor. rbmk eccs systems only have one division and have less than sufficient redundancy within that division. though the large core size of the rbmk makes it less energy - dense than the western lwr core, it makes it harder to cool. the rbmk is moderated by graphite. in the presence of both steam and oxygen, at high temperatures, graphite forms synthesis gas and with the water gas shift reaction the resultant hydrogen burns explosively. if oxygen contacts hot graphite, it will burn. the rbmk tends towards dangerous power fluctuations. control rods used to be tipped with graphite, a material that slows neutrons and thus speeds up the chain reaction. water is used as a coolant, but not a moderator. if the water boils away, cooling is lost, but moderation continues. this is termed a positive void coefficient of reactivity. control rods can become stuck if the reactor suddenly heats up and they are moving. xenon - 135", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5159738963508722, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.256133"} {"text": "moderator. if the water boils away, cooling is lost, but moderation continues. this is termed a positive void coefficient of reactivity. control rods can become stuck if the reactor suddenly heats up and they are moving. xenon - 135, a neutron absorbent fission product, has a tendency to build up in the core and burn off unpredictably in the event of low power operation. this can lead to inaccurate neutronic and thermal power ratings. the rbmk does not have any containment above the core. the only substantial solid barrier above the fuel is the upper part of the core, called the upper biological shield, which is a piece of concrete interpenetrated with control rods and with access holes for refueling while online. other parts of the rbmk were shielded better than the core itself. rapid shutdown ( scram ) takes 10 to 15 seconds. western reactors take 1 - 2. 5 seconds. western aid has been given to provide certain real - time safety monitoring capacities to the human staff. whether this extends to automatic initiation of emergency cooling is not known. training has been provided in safety assessment from western sources, and russian reactors have evolved in result to the weaknesses that were in the rbmk. however, numerous rbmks still operate. it is safe to say that it might be possible to stop a loss - of - coolant event prior to core damage occurring, but that any core damage incidents will probably assure massive release of radioactive materials. further, dangerous power fluctuations are natural to the design. lithuania joined the eu recently, and upon acceding, it has been required to shut the two rbmks that it has at ignalina npp, as such reactors are totally incompatible with the nuclear safety standards of europe. it will be replacing them with some safer form of reactor. the mker is a modern russian - engineered channel type reactor that is a distant descendant of the rbmk. it approaches the concept from a different and superior direction, optimizing the benefits, and fixing the flaws of the original rbmk design. there are several unique features of the mker ' s design that make it a credible and interesting option : one unique benefit of the mker ' s design is that in the event of a challenge to cooling within the core - a pipe break of a channel, the channel can be isolated from the plenums supplying water, decreasing the potential for common - mode failures. the lower power density of the core greatly enhances thermal regulation. graphite moderation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5538421347463646, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.257122"} {"text": "within the core - a pipe break of a channel, the channel can be isolated from the plenums supplying water, decreasing the potential for common - mode failures. the lower power density of the core greatly enhances thermal regulation. graphite moderation enhances neutronic characteristics beyond light water ranges. the passive emergency cooling system provides a high level of protection by using natural phenomena to cool the core rather than depending on motor - driven pumps. the containment structure is modern and designed to withstand a very high level of punishment. refueling is accomplished while online, ensuring that outages are for maintenance only and are very few and far between. 97 - 99 % uptime is a definite possibility. lower enrichment fuels can be used, and high burnup can be achieved due to the moderator design. neutronics characteristics have been revamped to optimize for purely civilian fuel fertilization and recycling. due to the enhanced quality control of parts, advanced computer controls, comprehensive passive emergency core cooling system, and very strong containment structure, along with a negative void coefficient and a fast acting rapid shutdown system, the mker ' s safety can generally be regarded as being in the range of the western generation iii reactors, and the unique benefits of the design may enhance its competitiveness in countries considering full fuel - cycle options for nuclear development. the vver is a pressurized light water reactor that is far more stable and safe than the rbmk. this is because it uses light water as a moderator ( rather than graphite ), has well understood operating characteristics, and has a negative void coefficient of reactivity. in addition, some have been built with more than marginal containments, some have quality eccs systems, and some have been upgraded to international standards of control and instrumentation. present generations of vvers ( the vver - 1000 ) are built to western - equivalent levels of instrumentation, control, and containment systems. however, even with these positive developments, certain older vver models raise a high level of concern, especially the vver - 440 v230. the vver - 440 v230 has no containment building, but only has a structure capable of confining steam surrounding the rpv. this is a volume of thin steel, perhaps an inch or two in thickness, grossly insufficient by western standards. - has no eccs. can survive at most one 4 inch pipe break ( there are many pipes greater than 4 inches within the design ). - has six steam generator loops, adding unnecessary complexity. - however, apparently steam", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5568378042658616, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.258177"} {"text": "insufficient by western standards. - has no eccs. can survive at most one 4 inch pipe break ( there are many pipes greater than 4 inches within the design ). - has six steam generator loops, adding unnecessary complexity. - however, apparently steam generator loops can be isolated, in the event that a break occurs in one of these loops. the plant can remain operating with one isolated loop - a feature found in few western reactors. the interior of the pressure vessel is plain alloy steel, exposed to water. this can lead to rust, if the reactor is exposed to water. one point of distinction in which the vver surpasses the west is the reactor water cleanup facility - built, no doubt, to deal with the enormous volume of rust within the primary coolant loop - the product of the slow corrosion of the rpv. this model is viewed as having inadequate process control systems. bulgaria had a number of vver - 440 v230 models, but they opted to shut them down upon joining the eu rather than backfit them, and are instead building new vver - 1000 models. many non - eu states maintain v230 models, including russia and the cis. many of these states - rather than abandoning the reactors entirely - have opted to install an eccs, develop standard procedures, and install proper instrumentation and control systems. though confinements cannot be transformed into containments, the risk of a limiting fault resulting in core damage can be greatly reduced. the vver - 440 v213 model was built to the first set of soviet nuclear safety standards. it possesses a modest containment building, and the eccs systems, though not completely to western standards, are reasonably comprehensive. many vver - 440 v213 models possessed by former soviet bloc countries have been upgraded to fully automated western - style instrumentation and control systems, improving safety to western levels for accident prevention - but not for accident containment, which is of a modest level compared to western plants. these reactors are regarded as \" safe enough \" by western standards to continue operation without major modifications, though most owners have performed major modifications to bring them up to generally equivalent levels of nuclear safety. during the 1970s, finland built two vver - 440 v213 models to western standards with a large - volume full containment and world - class instrumentation, control standards and an eccs with multiply redundant and diversified components. in addition, passive safety features such as 900 - tonne ice condensers have been installed, making these two units safety - wise the most advanced vver", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5083313444823466, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.259117"} {"text": "- class instrumentation, control standards and an eccs with multiply redundant and diversified components. in addition, passive safety features such as 900 - tonne ice condensers have been installed, making these two units safety - wise the most advanced vver - 440 ' s in the world. the vver - 1000 type has a definitely adequate western - style containment, the eccs is sufficient by western standards, and instrumentation and control has been markedly improved to western 1970s - era levels. chernobyl disaster in the chernobyl disaster the fuel became non - critical when it melted and flowed away from the graphite moderator - however, it took considerable time to cool. the molten core of chernobyl ( that part that did not vaporize in the fire ) flowed in a channel created by the structure of its reactor building and froze in place before a core - concrete interaction could happen. in the basement of the reactor at chernobyl, a large \" elephant ' s foot \" of congealed core material was found. time delay, and prevention of direct emission to the atmosphere, would have reduced the radiological release. if the basement of the reactor building had been penetrated, the groundwater would be severely contaminated, and its flow could carry the contamination far afield. the chernobyl reactor was an rbmk type. the disaster was caused by a power excursion that led to a meltdown and extensive offsite consequences. operator error and a faulty shutdown system led to a sudden, massive spike in the neutron multiplication rate, a sudden decrease in the neutron period, and a consequent increase in neutron population ; thus, core heat flux very rapidly increased to unsafe levels. this caused the water coolant to flash to steam, causing a sudden overpressure within the reactor pressure vessel ( rpv ), leading to granulation of the upper portion of the core and the ejection of the upper plenum of said pressure vessel along with core debris from the reactor building in a widely dispersed pattern. the lower portion of the reactor remained somewhat intact ; the graphite neutron moderator was exposed to oxygen containing air ; heat from the power excursion in addition to residual heat flux from the remaining fuel rods left without coolant induced oxidation in the moderator ; this in turn evolved more heat and contributed to the melting of the fuel rods and the outgassing of the fission products contained therein. the liquefied remains of the fuel rods flowed through a drainage pipe into the basement of the reactor building and solidified in a mass later dubbed co", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5384760193294688, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.260156"} {"text": "to the melting of the fuel rods and the outgassing of the fission products contained therein. the liquefied remains of the fuel rods flowed through a drainage pipe into the basement of the reactor building and solidified in a mass later dubbed corium, though the primary threat to the public safety was the dispersed core ejecta and the gasses evolved from the oxidation of the moderator. although the chernobyl accident had dire off - site effects, much of the radioactivity remained within the building. if the building were to fail and dust was to be released into the environment then the release of a given mass of fission products which have aged for twenty years would have a smaller effect than the release of the same mass of fission products ( in the same chemical and physical form ) which had only undergone a short cooling time ( such as one hour ) after the nuclear reaction has been terminated. however, if a nuclear reaction was to occur again within the chernobyl plant ( for instance if rainwater was to collect and act as a moderator ) then the new fission products would have a higher specific activity and thus pose a greater threat if they were released. to prevent a post - accident nuclear reaction, steps have been taken, such as adding neutron poisons to key parts of the basement. the effects of a nuclear meltdown depend on the safety features designed into a reactor. a modern reactor is designed both to make a meltdown unlikely, and to contain one should it occur. in a modern reactor, a nuclear meltdown, whether partial or total, should be contained inside the reactor ' s containment structure. thus ( assuming that no other major disasters occur ) while the meltdown will severely damage the reactor itself, possibly contaminating the whole structure with highly radioactive material, a meltdown alone should not lead to significant radiation release or danger to the public. in practice, however, a nuclear meltdown is often part of a larger chain of disasters ( although there have been so few meltdowns in the history of nuclear power that there is not a large pool of statistical information from which to draw a credible conclusion as to what \" often \" happens in such circumstances ). for example, in the chernobyl accident, by the time the core melted, there had already been a large steam explosion and graphite fire and major release of radioactive contamination ( as with almost all soviet reactors, there was no containment structure at chernobyl ). also, before a possible meltdown occurs, pressure can already be rising in the reactor, and to prevent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5261538943045354, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.261329"} {"text": "and graphite fire and major release of radioactive contamination ( as with almost all soviet reactors, there was no containment structure at chernobyl ). also, before a possible meltdown occurs, pressure can already be rising in the reactor, and to prevent a meltdown by restoring the cooling of the core, operators are allowed to reduce the pressure in the reactor by releasing ( radioactive ) steam into the environment. this enables them to inject additional cooling water into the reactor again. reactor design although pressurized water reactors are more susceptible to nuclear meltdown in the absence of active safety measures, this is not a universal feature of civilian nuclear reactors. much of the research in civilian nuclear reactors is for designs with passive nuclear safety features that may be less susceptible to meltdown, even if all emergency systems failed. for example, pebble bed reactors are designed so that complete loss of coolant for an indefinite period does not result in the reactor overheating. the general electric esbwr and westinghouse ap1000 have passively activated safety systems. the candu reactor has two low - temperature and low - pressure water systems surrounding the fuel ( i. e. moderator and shield tank ) that act as back - up heat sinks and preclude meltdowns and core - breaching scenarios. fast breeder reactors are more susceptible to meltdown than other reactor types, due to the larger quantity of fissile material and the higher neutron flux inside the reactor core, which makes it more difficult to control the reaction. accidental fires are widely acknowledged to be risk factors that can contribute to a nuclear meltdown. united states there have been at least eight meltdowns in the history of the united states. all are widely called \" partial meltdowns. \" - borax - i was a test reactor designed to explore criticality excursions and observe if a reactor would self limit. in the final test, it was deliberately destroyed and revealed that the reactor reached much higher temperatures than were predicted at the time. - the reactor at ebr - i suffered a partial meltdown during a coolant flow test on november 29, 1955. - the sodium reactor experiment in santa susana field laboratory was an experimental nuclear reactor which operated from 1957 to 1964 and was the first commercial power plant in the world to experience a core meltdown in july 1959. - stationary low - power reactor number one ( sl - 1 ) was a united states army experimental nuclear power reactor which underwent a criticality excursion, a steam explosion, and a meltdown on january 3,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.506092962272606, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.262461"} {"text": "- the fukushima i nuclear accidents following the earthquake and tsunami in japan, march 2011. other core meltdowns have occurred at : - nrx ( military ), ontario, canada, in 1952 - borax - i ( experimental ), idaho, u. s. a., in 1954 - ebr - i ( military ), idaho, u. s. a., in 1955 - windscale ( military ), sellafield, england, in 1957 ( see windscale fire ) - sodium reactor experiment, ( civilian ), california, u. s. a., in 1959 - fermi 1 ( civilian ), michigan, u. s. a., in 1966 - chapelcross nuclear power station ( civilian ), scotland, in 1967 - saint - laurent nuclear power plant ( civilian ), france, in 1969 - a1 plant, ( civilian ) at jaslovske bohunice, czechoslovakia, in 1977 - saint - laurent nuclear power plant ( civilian ), france, in 1980 china syndrome the china syndrome ( loss - of - coolant accident ) is a fictional nuclear reactor operations accident characterized by the severe meltdown of the core components of the reactor, which then burn through the containment vessel and the housing building, then notionally through the crust and body of the earth until reaching the other side, which in the united states is jokingly referred to as being china. the system design of the nuclear power plants built in the late 1960s raised questions of operational safety, and raised the concern that a severe reactor accident could release large quantities of radioactive materials into the atmosphere and environment. by 1970, there were doubts about the ability of the emergency cooling systems of a nuclear reactor to prevent a loss of coolant accident and the consequent meltdown of the fuel core ; the subject proved popular in the technical and the popular presses. in 1971, in the article thoughts on nuclear plumbing, former manhattan project ( 1942 \u2013 1946 ) nuclear physicist ralph lapp used the term \" china syndrome \" to describe a possible burn - through, after a loss of coolant accident, of the nuclear fuel rods and core components melting the containment structures, and the subsequent escape of radioactive material ( s ) into the atmosphere and environment ; the hypothesis derived from a 1967 report by a group of nuclear physicists, headed by w. k. ergen. in the event, lapp \u2019 s hypothetical nuclear accident was cinematically adapted as the china syndrome ( 1979 ). the geographic, planet - piercing concept of the china syndrome derives from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5036816352000498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.264325"} {"text": "of nuclear physicists, headed by w. k. ergen. in the event, lapp \u2019 s hypothetical nuclear accident was cinematically adapted as the china syndrome ( 1979 ). the geographic, planet - piercing concept of the china syndrome derives from the misperception that china is the antipode of the united states ; to many americans, it is the \u201c the other side of the world \u201d. moreover, the hypothetical transit of a meltdown product to the other side of the earth ( i. e. china ) ignores the fact that the earth ' s gravity tends to pull all masses towards its center. assuming a meltdown product could persist in a mobile molten form for long enough to reach the center of the earth ; momentum loss due to friction ( fluid viscosity ) would prevent it continuing to the other side. see also - behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident - chernobyl compared to other radioactivity releases - chernobyl disaster effects - high - level radioactive waste management - international nuclear event scale - list of civilian nuclear accidents - lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents - nuclear fuel response to reactor accidents - nuclear safety - nuclear power - nuclear power debate - martin fackler ( june 1, 2011 ). \" report finds japan underestimated tsunami danger \". new york times. - international atomic energy agency ( iaea ) ( 2007 ). iaea safety glossary : terminology used in nuclear safety and radiation protection ( 2007edition ed. ). vienna, austria : international atomic energy agency. isbn 92 - 0 - 100707 - 8. retrieved 2009 - 08 - 17. - united states nuclear regulatory commission ( nrc ) ( 2009 - 09 - 14 ). \" glossary \". website. rockville, maryland, usa : federal government of the united states. pp. see entries for letter m and entries for letter n. retrieved 2009 - 10 - 03. - reactor safety study : an assessment of accident risks in u. s. commercial nuclear power plants, volume 1 - hewitt, geoffrey frederick ; collier, john gordon ( 2000 ). \" 4. 6. 1 design basis accident for the agr : depressurization fault \". introduction to nuclear power ( in technical english ). london, uk : taylor & francis. p. 133. isbn 978 - 1 - 56032 - 454 - 6. retrieved 2010 - 06 - 05. - \" earthquake report no. 91 \". jaif. may 25, 2011. retrieved may 25, 2011. - kuan,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5541073436165032, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.265239"} {"text": ". 133. isbn 978 - 1 - 56032 - 454 - 6. retrieved 2010 - 06 - 05. - \" earthquake report no. 91 \". jaif. may 25, 2011. retrieved may 25, 2011. - kuan, p. ; hanson, d. j., odar, f. ( 1991 ). managing water addition to a degraded core. retrieved 2010 - 11 - 22. - haskin, f. e. ; camp, a. l. ( 1994 ). perspectives on reactor safety ( nureg / cr - 6042 ) ( reactor safety course r - 800 ), 1st edition. beltsville, md : u. s. nuclear regulatory commission. p. 3. 1 \u2013 5. retrieved 2010 - 11 - 23. - haskin, f. e. ; camp, a. l. ( 1994 ). perspectives on reactor safety ( nureg / cr - 6042 ) ( reactor safety course r - 800 ), 1st edition. beltsville, md : u. s. nuclear regulatory commission. pp. 3. 5 \u2013 1 to 3. 5 \u2013 4. retrieved 2010 - 12 - 24. - haskin, f. e. ; camp, a. l. ( 1994 ). perspectives on reactor safety ( nureg / cr - 6042 ) ( reactor safety course r - 800 ), 1st edition. beltsville, md : u. s. nuclear regulatory commission. pp. 3. 5 \u2013 4 to 3. 5 \u2013 5. retrieved 2010 - 12 - 24. - ans : public information : resources : special topics : history at three mile island : what happened and what didn ' t in the tmi - 2 accident - nuclear industry in russia sells safety, taught by chernobyl - ' melt - through ' at fukushima? / govt. suggests situation worse than meltdown http : / / www. yomiuri. co. jp / dy / national / t110607005367. htm - test area north - walker, j. samuel ( 2004 ). three mile island : a nuclear crisis in historical perspective ( berkeley : university of california press ), p. 11. - lapp, ralph e. \" thoughts on nuclear plumbing. \" the new york times, 12 december 1971, pg. e11. - \" china syndrome \". merriam - webster. retrieved december 11, 2012. - presenter : martha raddatz ( 15 march 2011 ). \" abc world news \". abc. - allen", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5073269701494296, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.266981"} {"text": "signal - to - noise ratio ( often abbreviated snr or s / n ) is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. it is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power. a ratio higher than 1 : 1 indicates more signal than noise. while snr is commonly quoted for electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal ( such as isotope levels in an ice core or biochemical signaling between cells ). signal - to - noise ratio is sometimes used informally to refer to the ratio of useful information to false or irrelevant data in a conversation or exchange. for example, in online discussion forums and other online communities, off - topic posts and spam are regarded as \" noise \" that interferes with the \" signal \" of appropriate discussion. where p is average power. both signal and noise power must be measured at the same or equivalent points in a system, and within the same system bandwidth. if the signal and the noise are measured across the same impedance, then the snr can be obtained by calculating the square of the amplitude ratio : where a is root mean square ( rms ) amplitude ( for example, rms voltage ). because many signals have a very wide dynamic range, snrs are often expressed using the logarithmic decibel scale. in decibels, the snr is defined as which may equivalently be written using amplitude ratios as the concepts of signal - to - noise ratio and dynamic range are closely related. dynamic range measures the ratio between the strongest un - distorted signal on a channel and the minimum discernable signal, which for most purposes is the noise level. snr measures the ratio between an arbitrary signal level ( not necessarily the most powerful signal possible ) and noise. measuring signal - to - noise ratios requires the selection of a representative or reference signal. in audio engineering, the reference signal is usually a sine wave at a standardized nominal or alignment level, such as 1 khz at + 4 dbu ( 1. 228 vrms ). snr is usually taken to indicate an average signal - to - noise ratio, as it is possible that ( near ) instantaneous signal - to - noise ratios will be considerably different. the concept can be understood as normalizing the noise level to 1 ( 0 db ) and measuring how far the signal ' stands out '. difference from conventional power in physics power ( physics ) of an ac signal is defined as but in signal processing and communication we usually assume that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6171691443564662, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.298763"} {"text": "as normalizing the noise level to 1 ( 0 db ) and measuring how far the signal ' stands out '. difference from conventional power in physics power ( physics ) of an ac signal is defined as but in signal processing and communication we usually assume that so that usually we don ' t include that resistance term while measuring power or energy of a signal. this usually causes some confusions among readers but the resistance term is not significant for operations performed in signal processing. most of cases the power of a signal would be where ' a ' is the amplitude of the ac signal. in some places people just use as the constant term doesn ' t affect much during the calculations. alternative definition where is the signal mean or expected value and is the standard deviation of the noise, or an estimate thereof. [ note 2 ] notice that such an alternative definition is only useful for variables that are always non - negative ( such as photon counts and luminance ). thus it is commonly used in image processing, where the snr of an image is usually calculated as the ratio of the mean pixel value to the standard deviation of the pixel values over a given neighborhood. sometimes snr is defined as the square of the alternative definition above. the rose criterion ( named after albert rose ) states that an snr of at least 5 is needed to be able to distinguish image features at 100 % certainty. an snr less than 5 means less than 100 % certainty in identifying image details. snr for various modulation systems amplitude modulation channel signal - to - noise ratio is given by where w is the bandwidth and ka is modulation index output signal - to - noise ratio ( of am receiver ) is given by frequency modulation channel signal - to - noise ratio is given by output signal - to - noise ratio is given by improving snr in practice all real measurements are disturbed by noise. this includes electronic noise, but can also include external events that affect the measured phenomenon \u2014 wind, vibrations, gravitational attraction of the moon, variations of temperature, variations of humidity, etc., depending on what is measured and of the sensitivity of the device. it is often possible to reduce the noise by controlling the environment. otherwise, when the characteristics of the noise are known and are different from the signals, it is possible to filter it or to process the signal. for example, it is sometimes possible to use a lock - in amplifier to modulate and confine the signal within a very narrow bandwidth and then filter the detected signal to the narrow band where it resides, thereby eliminating most of the broadband noise.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6305031053158217, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.303722"} {"text": ". for example, it is sometimes possible to use a lock - in amplifier to modulate and confine the signal within a very narrow bandwidth and then filter the detected signal to the narrow band where it resides, thereby eliminating most of the broadband noise. when the signal is constant or periodic and the noise is random, it is possible to enhance the snr by averaging the measurement. in this case the noise goes down as the square root of the number of averaged samples. digital signals when a measurement is digitised, the number of bits used to represent the measurement determines the maximum possible signal - to - noise ratio. this is because the minimum possible noise level is the error caused by the quantization of the signal, sometimes called quantization noise. this noise level is non - linear and signal - dependent ; different calculations exist for different signal models. quantization noise is modeled as an analog error signal summed with the signal before quantization ( \" additive noise \" ). this theoretical maximum snr assumes a perfect input signal. if the input signal is already noisy ( as is usually the case ), the signal ' s noise may be larger than the quantization noise. real analog - to - digital converters also have other sources of noise that further decrease the snr compared to the theoretical maximum from the idealized quantization noise, including the intentional addition of dither. although noise levels in a digital system can be expressed using snr, it is more common to use eb / no, the energy per bit per noise power spectral density. the modulation error ratio ( mer ) is a measure of the snr in a digitally modulated signal. fixed point assuming a uniform distribution of input signal values, the quantization noise is a uniformly distributed random signal with a peak - to - peak amplitude of one quantization level, making the amplitude ratio 2n / 1. the formula is then : this relationship is the origin of statements like \" 16 - bit audio has a dynamic range of 96 db \". each extra quantization bit increases the dynamic range by roughly 6 db. assuming a full - scale sine wave signal ( that is, the quantizer is designed such that it has the same minimum and maximum values as the input signal ), the quantization noise approximates a sawtooth wave with peak - to - peak amplitude of one quantization level and uniform distribution. in this case, the snr is approximately floating point note that the dynamic range is much larger than fixed - point,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6289738223771097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.304888"} {"text": "then can be calculated from data where the signal is zero or relatively constant. - often special filters are used to weight the noise : din - a, din - b, din - c, din - d, ccir - 601 ; for video, special filters such as comb filters may be used. - maximum possible full scale signal can be charged as peak - to - peak or as rms. audio uses rms, video p - p, which gave + 9 db more snr for video. - michael a. choma, marinko v. sarunic, changhuei yang, joseph a. izatt. sensitivity advantage of swept source and fourier domain optical coherence tomography. optics express, 11 ( 18 ). sept 2003. - d. j. schroeder ( 1999 ). astronomical optics ( 2nd ed. ). academic press. p. 433. isbn 978 - 0 - 12 - 629810 - 9. - bushberg, j. t., et al., the essential physics of medical imaging, ( 2e ). philadelphia : lippincott williams & wilkins, 2006, p. 280. - rafael c. gonzalez, richard eugene woods ( 2008 ). digital image processing. prentice hall. p. 354. isbn 0 - 13 - 168728 - x. - tania stathaki ( 2008 ). image fusion : algorithms and applications. academic press. p. 471. isbn 0 - 12 - 372529 - 1. - jitendra r. raol ( 2009 ). multi - sensor data fusion : theory and practice. crc press. isbn 1 - 4398 - 0003 - 0. - john c. russ ( 2007 ). the image processing handbook. crc press. isbn 0 - 8493 - 7254 - 2. - defining and testing dynamic parameters in high - speed adcs \u2014 maxim integrated products application note 728 - fixed - point vs. floating - point dsp for superior audio \u2014 rane corporation technical library - taking the mystery out of the infamous formula, \" snr = 6. 02n + 1. 76db, \" and why you should care. analog devices - adc and dac glossary \u2013 maxim integrated products - understand sinad, enob, snr, thd, thd + n, and sfdr so you don ' t get lost in the noise floor \u2013 analog devices - the relationship of dynamic range to data word size in digital audio processing - calculation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5817080422276804, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.306943"} {"text": "july 24, 2011 the photo above shows a lovely group of mushrooms nestled against the trunk of a eucalyptus tree. the association between the fungi and the tree however is no accident. this is a mutualistic relationship, where the two species assist each other, and in fact probably would be poorer without each other. mutualism is any relationship between two species of organisms that benefits both species. up to a quarter of the mushrooms you see while walking through the woods actually make their living through a mutualistic relationship with the trees in the forest. remember of course that the mushroom is just the reproductive structure of a far more extensive organism consisting of a highly intertwined mass of fine white threads called a mycelium. the word mycorrhiza is derived from the classical greek words for \" mushroom \" and \" root. \" in a mycorrhizal association, the fungal hyphae of an underground mycelium are in contact with plant roots but without the fungus parasitizing the plant. while it ' s clear that the majority of plants form mycorrhizas, the exact percentage is uncertain, but it ' s likely to lie somewhere between 80 and 90 percent. when the fungus \u2019 mycelium envelopes the roots of the tree the effect is to greatly increase the soil area covered by the tree \u2019 s root system. this essentially extends the plant \u2019 s reach to water and nutrients, allowing it to utilize more of the soil \u2019 s resources. this mutualistic association provides the fungus with a relatively constant and direct access to carbohydrates, such as glucose and sucrose, supplied by the plant. in return the plant gains the benefits of the mycelium ' s higher absorptive capacity for water and mineral nutrients ( due to comparatively large surface area of mycelium - to - root ratio ), thus improving the plant ' s mineral absorption capabilities. photo taken on may 7, 2011. photo details : camera maker : canon ; camera model : canon eos 50d ; focal length : 70. 0mm ; aperture : f / 10. 0 ; exposure time : 0. 013 s ( 1 / 80 ) ; iso equiv : 1250 ; exposure bias : - 1. 00 ev ; metering mode : matrix ; exposure : aperture priority ( semi - auto ) ; white balance : auto ; flash fired : no ( enforced ) ; orientation : normal ; color space : srgb.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5333075417827402, "token_count": 489, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.309790"} {"text": "peel - and - stick solar cells available in near future the nrel and stanford are teaming up to develop peel - and - stick solar cells, which could become devices to charge battery operated products, such as cell phones, in the future. peel - and - stick, or water - assisted transfer printing ( wtp ), technologies were developed by the stanford group and have been used before for nanowire based electronics, but the stanford - nrel ( u. s. department of energy \u2019 s national renewable energy laboratory ) partnership has conducted the first successful demonstration using actual thin film solar cells. the university and nrel showed that thin - film solar cells less than one - micron thick can be removed from a silicon substrate used for fabrication by dipping them in water at room temperature. then, after exposure to heat of about 90\u00b0c for a few seconds, they can attach to almost any surface. nrel \u2019 s cells could be made easily on stanford \u2019 s peel off substrate. nrel \u2019 s amorphous silicon cells were fabricated on nickel - coated si / sio2 wafers. a thermal release tape attached to the top of the solar cell serves as a temporary transfer holder. an optional transparent protection layer is spin - casted in between the thermal tape and the solar cell to prevent contamination when the device is dipped in water. the result is a thin strip much like a bumper sticker : the user can peel off the handler and apply the solar cell directly to a surface. the cells \u2019 ability to adhere to a universal substrate is unusual ; most thin - film cells must be affixed to a special substrate. the peel - and - stick approach allows the use of flexible polymer substrates and high processing temperatures. the resulting flexible, lightweight, and transparent devices then can be integrated onto curved surfaces such as military helmets and portable electronics, transistors and sensors.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5098154934529018, "token_count": 375, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.324749"} {"text": "onto a wide range of roofs - white paint is typically cheaper than dark paint - it is a win - win solution that gives an effective action plan that many people can do themselves instead of waiting for others to take action. i have written elsewhere in happyzine about the science and benefits and simplicity of white roofs so i won \u2019 t repeat it in this article. a couple of studies have compared both white roofs and green roofs with traditional dark roofs, such as one carried out at the university of columbia \u2019 s centre for climate systems research in 2010, which was commissioned by con edison, one of the largest energy companies in the us. an earlier study was carried out by walmart, the largest retailer in the us. thanks to the following environmentally responsible businesses for supporting happyzine : nelson \u2019 s busy organic shop \u2013 healthy food, happy people, great service, caring for the environment. corner tasman & grove streets, nelson. ph 03 548 3650. the columbia study found that both white and green roofs perform equally well in preventing the heat island effect, which is the heat concentration found in many cities resulting from replacing vegetation with man - made buildings and roads that absorb sunlight and convert it into heat. the study was carried out on adjacent roofs of con edison. the green roof ( using 21, 000 plants ), the white roof and the dark roof each had embedded sensors to measure heat flows through the roof structure. it was found that both white roofs and green roofs produced significant energy savings compared to a standard dark roof, that the green roof savings were greater than the white, which is to be expected considering the amount of insulation 150 mm of soil would provide. note that these studies did not include for the amount of global cooling produced by the white roofs directly reflecting sunlight back into space, which green roofs do not offer, and which has been found to be a very effective mechnism for global warming reduction in other studies with that focus. the emphasis of the columbia study was more focused on energy savings that also put money in your pocket, and did not include for global cooling of the planet. the goal of the study was to provide the best science to help these companies make choices and cost - benefit estimates in how they might achieve better energy efficiency. which perhaps gives understanding to why companies like con edison and walmart have embraced white roofs, with con edison having installed 25, 000 square metre of white roof at the time this report was written, with at least a further 22, 000 m2 planned by the end of 2010, and walmart has had a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.505829866819035, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.609743"} {"text": "nonperishable food collection - the collection of processed foods with long shelf lives. - food banks provide food to other organizations like food pantries, soup kitchens, hunger relief centers, or other food or feeding centers. usually, food banks do not distribute food directly to individuals. - food pantries distribute food to low - income and unemployed households to take home. - soup kitchens provide meals to the needy and the homeless on a regular basis. in addition to perishable and non - perishable commercial foods donated by retailers, manufacturers, food service establishments, etc., many of the agencies listed in this booklet distribute usda commodities made available through the emergency food assistance program ( tefap ). under tefap, commodity foods are distributed to organizations ( i. e., soup kitchens ) in the state that use them in congregate feeding facilities for the needy, including the homeless, and to organizations ( i. e., food pantries ) that provide them to eligible households for home consumption. to be eligible to take commodities home, households must meet established income requirements or participate in another government program such as food stamps, temporary assistance for needy families ( tanf ), supplemental security income ( ssi ) ; medicaid, or reside in public housing. there are many worthwhile organizations, not included in this booklet, that provide food assistance directly to the needy. contact the local food bank to find the location of a food pantry or soup kitchen in your area. to obtain contact information go to the second harvest website and enter your zip code where it says \" find your local food bank or food rescue organization. \" the operation of a good food recovery program is three - fold : - locate unsold or unmerchantable food and fresh produce. - coordinate its transportation and storage. - distribute it to the needy. there are various ways to get involved in the fight against hunger and demonstrate commitment to the community. food service professionals - organize a food drive and donate food to a local food bank or pantry. - donate excess prepared food from restaurants, school cafeterias or catered events. - assist organizations in training their volunteers in safe food - handling practices. - work independently or with existing organizations to assist ongoing food recovery efforts. - support or develop a community or regional coalition against hunger. - develop a community financial fund to fight hunger. - plan tours of food recovery facilities or arrange for knowledgeable speakers to increase community awareness of hunger and poverty problems, and what people are doing to address them. youth service groups and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5189436401322273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.633549"} {"text": "in sections is costly because of the labor and time involved, and leaves overlaps in the coating that can become failure points over time. \u201d mudri contacted jeff cox, lead industrial technician for the northern united states region for polygon, to design a system to control moisture and temperature during the blasting and coating process. cox analyzed the project ' s parameters and recommended a combination of dehumidification and heat to maintain ideal blasting and coating conditions. polygon technicians delivered a 4500 - cfm desiccant dehumidifier and two inline electric heaters from the company ' s plaistow, n. h., office and configured the equipment near the tanks. polygon personnel used ductwork to connect the climate - control equipment to the tanks via manways at the base of each structure. once operational, the equipment provided a dew - point differential of 17\u00b0f and steel - surface temperatures of 50\u00b0f. this allowed g. c. zarnas to blast an entire tank before coating it. \u201c the larger tanks took up to a week to sandblast, \u201d cox said. \u201c after sandblasting, the tank was cleaned and then the coating was applied. \u201d \u201c without the proper climate, we would have had to put a coat of paint or primer on each day after finishing to prevent rust, \u201d mudri said. \u201c it would have taken much longer \u2014 possibly twice as long \u2014 because we would have to sandblast, clean, and then paint. \u201d mudri said work continued even with temperatures dropping significantly during the harsh new england winter. \u201c it was a brutal winter with temperatures below zero at times, \u201d mudri said. \u201c even so, conditions inside the tank were always at the necessary standard and the project was completed as planned. \u201d information and photograph courtesy of polygon.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5073583527196276, "token_count": 371, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.657870"} {"text": "an alternative to salt - based water softening although the varied climatic conditions along california ' s central coast, home of hahn family wines, are ideal for the growing of grapes, the water underground, which the vintner uses for closed - loop heat - cleaning of fermenting barrels and bottles, is mineral - rich and scale - producing. gritty deposits collect and become troublesome with the application of heat. after years of using salt - based water softening for critical boiler - treatment applications, hahn family wines sought an environmentally friendlier form of water treatment, one free of chemicals, salt, and waste discharge. for its main water supply, it commissioned the installation of a template - assisted - crystallization ( tac ) central treatment system. tac falls into a category often referred to as \u201c physical water treatment \u201d ( pwt ). the primary goals of pwt are to : avoid the use of chemical additives. minimize or avoid discharge water, regenerates, and waste water. avoid pollution and disposal costs. minimize capital costs and ongoing maintenance. the technology behind tac treatment systems was developed in germany about 15 years ago and used throughout europe before coming to the united states about eight years ago. tac media start out as polymeric beads ( resin ) in the 20 - to - 40 - mesh size range. catalytically active sites, or templates, are imprinted on the beads ' surface through a batch - coating process. pwt works by changing the physical characteristics of a solution, with little or no change in the solution ' s chemical composition. pwt is used chiefly to reduce water hardness ( calcium carbonate ) in plumbing systems, appliances, and equipment ( boilers, water heaters, dish washers, automotive - and process - washing equipment ), valves, and other components that generate or use heated water. most pwt devices promote hardness crystallization in a bulk solution to prevent scale formation on downstream surfaces. tac is technology that influences a water solution at localized sites ( on the media surface ) so that hardness ions and their counter - ions ( bicarbonate ) combine to form inert nanometer - size \u201c seed crystals. \u201d called nucleation, this is the process by which dissolved molecules or ions dispersed throughout a solution gather to create clusters in the submicron size range. the sum of the seeds provides an enormous area for preferential growth of remaining hardness ions still in solution. making use of the phenomenon of low - energy heterogeneous transfer, by which solubility shift is achieved, the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5203301768719093, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.664223"} {"text": "what is the basic foundation for a family unit? a family is more than a household unit. in the bible, every family represented a microcosm of the community within which it lived. therefore, when families failed, the community itself failed. in times of crisis, families were relied upon to support and strengthen the community. for example, moses was charged to offer the following order to his followers : \" make sure there isn ' t a man or woman among your families or tribes who turns away from the lord our god ( deuteronomy 29 : 18 ). \" the family served as a keeper of the core values of the community in which it lived. thus, family is something more than a household unit. a family is more than a political or religious concept. according to the bible, \" family \" is not a man - made concept. rather, it originates from the mind of god. as recorded in the book of genesis, family is an intentional creation of the creator, and it is directly blessed by god. no sooner after god create man and woman that he blessed them and told them to create a family : \" god blessed them, \" states genesis 1 : 28, continuing, \" he said to them, ' have children and increase your numbers. ' \" the concept of family predates politics and organized religions. so, rather than simply being a political or religious concept, family is an undeniably divine concept. a family is more than an old testament biblical teaching. even deep into the new testament, the concept of family is valued as a foundation that was especially designed by god. paul verifies this fact in his letter to the ephesians, commenting, \" i bow my knees unto the father of our lord jesus christ, from whom the whole family in heaven and earth is named ( ephesians 3 : 14 - 15 ). \" the new testament reminds us that you will find families in heaven and earth, and in ancient and modern day times. families are a universal concept that supersedes the old testament. what is a family? it is an important part of today ' s society. family is more than a domestic unit that is only defined by the number of parents and children. it connects us to others outside of our households. your bloodline is only one part of your family construct. although your family unit is defined by you, it is measured by your community. your culture, religion, and language are also important ingredients and they will bind you with others of like conviction. family is natural and spiritual", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5519544520692639, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.678599"} {"text": "giuseppe donati invented the modern 10 - hole ocarina. although oceanography has been recognized as a formal scientific discipline for only 150 years, the quest for this understanding and its practical application to commerce and war - often unwitting - goes back much further. history of the odometer. in the late 19th century, commercial offices for conducting business first appeared in the united states. see also - office machinary ellen ochoa invented the optical analysis system. tuan vo - dinh invented optical diagnostic equipment. vo - dinh ' s patents were for a badge worn on a worker ' s shirt that recorded exposure to toxic chemicals and for a optical scanner that would read that badge. david paul gregg first envisioned the optical or laser disc in 1958 and patented it in 1969. the inventors behind the first oral contraceptives. dr wilhelm reich invented the orgone accumulator. today ' s dynamic o - ring was the result of experimental work done in the early 1930 ' s by mr. niels christensen. ole evinrude invented the outboard motor. the first historical record of an oven being built refers to a stove built in 1490 made entirely of brick and tile. if you cannot find what you want by invention, try by the inventor.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5243130283448998, "token_count": 257, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.679951"} {"text": "the bavli, chulin 60 : 2, says ( in my own loose translation ) : rabbi shim ' on ben pazi noted a contradiction : [ b ' reshis 1 : 16 ] says, \" god made the two big luminaries \" and \" the big luminary \u2026 and the small luminary \". the moon said to god : \" master of the world, is it possible for two kings to use one crown? \" he told her : \" go diminish yourself. \" she told him : \" master of the world, because i said something proper to you i have to diminish myself? \" he told her : \" go and rule [ = shine ] by day and night. \" ( and the conversation continued further. ) presumably this midrash is not meant literally. ( moons don ' t talk, for one thing. ) but my question will assume it ' s literal. in other words, my question will be about the storyline of the midrash, assuming its premise. my question is : in what sense was the moon diminished? here are the two most reasonable possibilities i can see : - the sun and moon were the same size ( say, a million kilometers ' diameter, like the sun is now ), and the moon shrank to the 3500 kilometers ' diameter it is now. - the sun and moon were the same apparent size as viewed from earth ( same angular diameter ) \u2014 as they are in fact now! \u2014 and the moon shrank in the sense that now it wanes.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.531397850520553, "token_count": 316, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.694853"} {"text": "you can ' t touch it, but it affects how you feel. you can ' t see it, but it might be there when you look at yourself in the mirror. you can ' t hear it, but it ' s there when you talk about yourself or when you think about yourself. what is this important but mysterious thing? it ' s your self - esteem! what is self - esteem? self - esteem can have a big part to play in how you feel about yourself and also how much you enjoy things or worry about things. to understand self - esteem, it helps to break the term into two words. let ' s first take a look at the word esteem ( say : ess - teem ), which means that someone or something is important, special, or valuable. for example, if you really admire your friend ' s dad because he volunteers at the fire department, it means you hold him in high esteem. and the special trophy for the most valuable player on a team is often called an esteemed trophy. this means the trophy stands for an important accomplishment. and self means, well, yourself! so put the two words together and it ' s easier to see what self - esteem is. it ' s how much you value yourself and how important you think you are. it ' s how you see yourself and how you feel about the things you can do. self - esteem isn ' t about bragging, it \u2019 s about getting to know what you are good at and not so good at. a lot of us think about how much we like other people or things, but don ' t really think much about whether we like ourselves. it ' s not about thinking you ' re perfect, because nobody is perfect. even if you think some other kids are good at everything, you can be sure they have things they ' re good at and things that are difficult for them. the most important thing to know about self - esteem is that it means seeing yourself in a positive way that ' s realistic, which means that it ' s the truth. so if you know you ' re really good at piano but can ' t draw so well, you can still have great self - esteem! self - esteem isn ' t like a cool pair of sneakers you really want but can wait until your next birthday to get. all kids have self - esteem, and having healthy or positive self - esteem is really important. it can help you hold your head high and feel proud of yourself and what you can do, even when things", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.552215478390575, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.715966"} {"text": "many things just seem to come naturally to some people. maybe you know a girl who ' s a natural at sports \u2014 put her in a uniform and she ' s off and running. some people are naturals at playing an instrument ; it ' s like they were born knowing how to count in 4 / 4 time. others are naturals at math ; give them a test on theorems or equations and they ' re happy. but some people have a problem with something that you ' d think would come naturally to everyone : breathing. when someone has asthma, it can make breathing very difficult. and when it ' s hard to breathe, it can affect a person ' s game, that trumpet solo, and even the all - important geometry test. what is asthma? asthma ( pronounced : az - muh ) is a lung condition that causes difficulty breathing. asthma is a common condition : about 7 million kids and teens in the united states have it. asthma affects the bronchial ( pronounced : brahn - kee - ul ) tubes, also known as airways. when a person breathes normally, air is taken in through the nose or mouth and then goes into the trachea ( windpipe ), passing through the bronchial tubes, into the lungs, and finally back out again. but people with asthma have airways that are inflamed. this means that they swell and produce lots of thick mucus. they are also overly sensitive, or hyperreactive, to certain things, like exercise, dust, or cigarette smoke. this hyperreactivity causes the smooth muscle that surrounds the airways to tighten up. the combination of airway inflammation and muscle tightening narrows the airways and makes it difficult for air to move through. in most people with asthma, the difficulty breathing happens periodically. when it does happen, it is known as an asthma flare - up also known as an asthma attack, flare, episode, or exacerbation. someone having an asthma flare - up may cough, wheeze ( make a whistling sound while breathing ), be short of breath, and feel an intense tightness in the chest. many people with asthma compare a flare - up to the sensation of trying to breathe through a straw \u2014 it feels extremely hard to get air in and out of their lungs. an asthma flare - up can last for several hours or longer if a person doesn ' t use asthma medication. when an asthma flare - up is over, the person usually feels better. between flare - ups, breathing can seem completely normal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.501915565218584, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.755767"} {"text": "kottke. org posts about pimovie pi, god, and apartment supercomputers jul 18 2005 the new yorker recently ran a feature on how a couple of mathematicians helped the met photograph a part of the hunt of the unicorn tapestries. that same week, they ran from their extensive archives a 1992 profile of the same mathematicians, brothers david and gregory chudnovsky. the chudnovskys were then engaged in calculating as many digits of pi as they could using a homemade supercomputer housed in their manhattan apartment. there ' s some speculation that director darren aronfsky based his 1998 film, pi, on the chudnovskys and after reading the above article, there ' s little doubt that ' s exactly what he did : they wonder whether the digits contain a hidden rule, an as yet unseen architecture, close to the mind of god. a subtle and fantastic order may appear in the digits of pi way out there somewhere ; no one knows. no one has ever proved, for example, that pi does not turn into nothing but nines and zeros, spattered to infinity in some peculiar arrangement. if we were to explore the digits of pi far enough, they might resolve into a breathtaking numerical pattern, as knotty as \" the book of kells, \" and it might mean something. it might be a small but interesting message from god, hidden in the crypt of the circle, awaiting notice by a mathematician. the chudnovsky article also reminds me of contact by carl sagan in which pi is prominently featured as well. according to wolfram research ' s mathworld, the current world record for the calculation of digits in pi is 1241100000000 digits, held by japanese computer scientists kanada, ushio and kuroda. kanada is named in the article as the chudnovskys main competitor at the time. ( oh, and as for patterns hidden in pi, we ' ve already found one. it ' s called the circle. just because humans discovered circles first and pi later shouldn ' t mean that the latter is derived from the former. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5228390286999642, "token_count": 435, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.773862"} {"text": "substances bioflavonoids ( or flavonoids ) are plant substances that bring color to many fruits and vegetables. citrus fruits are a rich source of bioflavonoids, including diosmin, hesperidin, rutin, and naringen ; studies have found these bioflavonoids may help decrease bruising. two types of natural compounds related to bioflavonoids \u2014 opcs ( oligomeric proanthocyanidins ) and anthocyanosides \u2014 have also shown promise for decreasing the tendency to bruise. anthocyanosides, which are present in high concentrations in bilberry, may also strengthen capillaries through their effects on collagen. some european physicians believe that these vessel - stabilizing properties make bilberry useful as a treatment for easy bruising, but the evidence as yet is only suggestive. vitamin c is essential for healthy collagen ; severe vitamin c deficiency, called scurvy, can lead to easy bruising. fortunately, scurvy is extremely rare in western countries today \u2014 but marginal vitamin c deficiency is not rare, and might lead to increased risk of bruising. if your diet is low in fresh fruits and vegetables, you may wish to supplement it with vitamin c. in the study mentioned above, bruising in elderly people decreased significantly with 1 g of oral vitamin c given daily for 2 months. for more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full vitamin c article. trypsin and chymotrypsin for more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full proteolytic enzymes article. for more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full horse chestnut article. other proposed natural treatments for more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full bromelain article. other herbs used for bruising the herbs comfrey, arnica, and sweet clover are widely used externally on bruises and other minor injuries, but despite this traditional use, there is no real scientific evidence that they work. note : there are various safety concerns involved in using comfrey, arnica, and sweet clover internally. for the treatment of bruising, they are used as topical ointments and salves. for a discussion of homeopathic approaches to easy bruising, see the chapter on bruises in the homeopathy database - reviewer : ebsco cam review board - review date : 07 / 2012 - - update date : 07 / 25", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5430138593181106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.796765"} {"text": "mind - body medicine and stress management tradition - tested therapies for modern lives by marcia murphy, lcsw what is mind - body medicine? mind - body medicine explores the influence of the mind and emotions on the body and immune system, and vice versa. mind - body specialists are typically therapists or other mental health professionals who examine the effects of the mind \u2013 thoughts, attitudes and beliefs \u2013 on physical health and well - being. specialists use a variety of techniques to promote health, such as talk therapy, deep breathing, guided imagery, relaxation therapy, meditation and yoga. using these techniques, mind - body medicine helps direct energies toward healing and health. psychoneuroimmunology ( pni ), according to dr. kenneth pelletier, is \u201c the study of the intricate interaction of consciousness ( psycho ), brain and central nervous system ( neuro ), and the body \u2019 s defenses against external infection and internal aberrant cell division ( immunology ). \u201d dr. pelletier serves as a medical and business consultant to the united states department of health and human services, the world health organization and major corporations, such as ibm and disney. when we are under stress, our immune system becomes suppressed and our natural ability to fight disease is compromised unless we take steps to manage the stress in our lives. mental strength and physical strength are interconnected. dr. candace pert, the author of molecules of emotion and a research professor in the department of physiology and biophysics at georgetown university medical center in washington, d. c., expressed it well when she wrote, \u201c the body isn \u2019 t there simply to carry the head. \u201d her research has shown that \u201c when emotions are expressed, that is to say, when the biochemicals that are the substrate of emotion are flowing freely, all systems are united and made whole. when emotions are repressed, denied or not allowed to be whatever they may be, our network pathways get blocked, stopping the flow of the vital, \u201c feel - good, \u201d unifying chemicals that run both our biology and our behavior. \u201d \u201c stress makes you physically sick, \u201d explains steven maier, professor of psychology at the university of colorado. researchers know that behavioral and psychological events can influence the immune system. the immune system sends signals to the brain \u201c that potently alter neural activity and, thereby, alter everything that flows from neural activity, mainly behavior, thought and mood, \u201d said maier. the immune system also activates a classic stress response, releasing stress hormones such as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5159352557627415, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.810788"} {"text": "to the brain \u201c that potently alter neural activity and, thereby, alter everything that flows from neural activity, mainly behavior, thought and mood, \u201d said maier. the immune system also activates a classic stress response, releasing stress hormones such as cortisol. not only does stress produce the expected biochemical stress response, it also produces predictable behavioral changes, including decreased food and water intake. ancient wellness traditions have understood the mind - body interaction for centuries and have incorporated it into their approaches and therapies. in india for example, the yogic philosophy teaches that the body, breath, emotion and mind are inextricably linked. the chinese systems of qi gong and tai chi have also taught this principle for centuries. mind - body medicine can benefit a cancer patient by ensuring that the patient understands that he / she is not defined by the illness. at cancer treatment centers of america\u00ae patients are treated as whole persons, and are surrounded by a multi - disciplinary team of experts, including a medical oncologist, registered dietician, naturopathic physician, chiropractor and mind - body therapist. we encourage our patients who participate in our mind - body therapies to take advantage of the stress management techniques we offer. some of those techniques include : allowing an objective third party to listen to a patient \u2019 s feelings can be life changing. a therapist may be able to point out distorted thinking and re - orient the patient toward a more positive and helpful direction. dr. andrew weil said, \u201c improper breathing is a common cause of ill health. if i had to limit my advice on healthier living to just one tip, it would be simply to learn how to breathe correctly. there is no single more powerful \u2013 or more simple \u2013 daily practice to further your health and well - being than breath work. \u201d this is one of the greatest and quickest activities for reducing stress. laughter works because it gets your brain thinking and working in a different way. it distracts you from having a stressed mindset. as you start to smile and chuckle, the stress begins to dissipate. keep taking the laughter medicine until you feel relaxed and recharged. rest is essential for a healthy life - balance. adults need seven to nine hours of sleep each night. only in very recent times have modern heating, lighting, and communication and entertainment technologies enabled and encouraged us to keep unnatural waking and working hours. this behavior is at odds with our biological preferences. this strategy builds on deep breathing, and takes it a step further", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5126579603901782, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.811960"} {"text": "in very recent times have modern heating, lighting, and communication and entertainment technologies enabled and encouraged us to keep unnatural waking and working hours. this behavior is at odds with our biological preferences. this strategy builds on deep breathing, and takes it a step further. when you meditate, your brain initiates a sort of functioning that is similar to sleep, but carries some added benefits that aren \u2019 t achieved in any other state, such as the release of certain hormones. the practice of guided imagery is somewhat more time - consuming, but is a great way to reduce stress and relax the body. some people find it easier to practice guided imagery than meditation, because it is easier to focus on something rather than on nothing. playing natural sounds in the background during guided imagery promotes a more immersive experience. progressive muscle relaxation : tensing, then releasing, all the muscle groups in the body can produce feelings of increased relaxation in minutes, with no special training or equipment. start by tensing all the muscles of the face, hold a tight grimace for ten seconds, then completely relax for ten seconds. repeat this procedure in the neck area, then the shoulder area, and so on, throughout the rest of the body. listening to music results in numerous health benefits for people with a range of conditions, both mild and severe. studies have shown that listening to certain classical music can help lower blood pressure, relieve muscle tension and promote deep breathing. the array of stress management techniques \u2013 from acupuncture to walking \u2013 is extensive enough to provide something that will appeal to, and work for, just about everyone. marcia murphy, lcsw, is a mind - body therapist at cancer treatment centers of america ( ctca ) at western regional medical center. murphy joined the mind - body medicine department at ctca in 2010 after a deeply personal experience with cancer.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5352315164619379, "token_count": 370, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.812779"} {"text": "produced and more and more their receptors become resistant. body fat, being an organ of storage, eventually receives the calories unable to be delivered by other insulin receptors. and as more and more calories are stored in fat, new fat cells are created and the cycle continues. the primal eating plan prioritizes protein, which comes from a greek root meaning \u201c of prime importance \u201d, because of its role in cellular repair, cellular health, and muscular growth and maintenance. there are varying sources and opinions on the quantity of protein an individual \u201c should \u201d take in everyday, but among sources which i read and trust, it is generally accepted that 1 gram of protein per pound of lean body mass ( lbm ) is a good aim, while recommendations range from. 8 grams per pound of lbm to 1 gram per pound of mass. these are good ranges to just keep in mind when thinking of what to eat on a weekly basis and what major foods to consider at the grocery store. lean body mass is calculated by determining your body fat percentage and total weight, and subtracting that body fat percentage in pounds of total mass from total mass. the number of pounds left over after body fat pounds have been subtracted from total weight is lean body mass, or the muscle and non - fat tissue of the body. there are various professional services available, which should be researched first, that can help determine these numbers for an individual. fat is also of prime importance within the primal blueprint eating plan. dietary fat plays an important role in every process of the body, being necessary for brain health, where it constitutes estimates of 60 - 70 percent of the brain, necessary for cellular generation, and necessary for organ and hormonal health. fats do provide 9 calories per gram, which is where the notorious \u201c fat makes you fat \u201d arose from, among other chemical reactions within the body. but with an individual gram of fat \u2019 s nine calories, comes nutrition necessary for the aforementioned functions, necessary fat - soluble vitamins, and satiety that limits excess caloric consumption and \u201c sweet tooth \u201d expenditures. carbohydrate may come off as the enemy of all things healthy in preliminary discussion of the primal eating plan, but further reading, discussion, and research will explain the importance of even carbohydrate in the diet. it is not carbohydrate that is the enemy, it is the excess of it, and the consequential unique reactions of its excess ( possibly insulin resistance ) that are of concern.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5056117154323139, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.849117"} {"text": ", small local paper - making businesses, etc. there was also room for small economic success with the \" inn keeper, the petty diviner, the drug seller, the cloth trader, \" and many others. rural families that sold a large agricultural surplus to the market not only could afford to buy more charcoal, tea, oil, and wine, but they could also amass enough funds to establish secondary means of production for generating more wealth. besides necessary agricultural foodstuffs, farming families could often produce wine, charcoal, paper, textiles, and other goods they sold through brokers. farmers in suzhou often specialized in raising bombyx mori to produce silk wares, while in fujian, sichuan, and guangdong farmers often grew sugarcane. in order to ensure the prosperity of rural areas, technical applications for public works projects and improved agricultural techniques were essential. the system of china had to be furnished with multitudes of wheelwrights and square - pallet chain pumps that could lift water from lower planes to higher irrigation planes. for clothing, silken robes worn by the wealthy and elite while hemp was worn by the poor ; by the late song clothes were also in use. shipment of all these materials and goods was aided by the 10th century innovation of the canal pound in china ; the song scientist and statesman shen kuo ( 1031 \u2013 1095 ) wrote that the building of pound lock gates at zhenzhou ( presumably kuozhou along the yangtze ) during the 1020s and 1030s freed up the use of five hundred working laborers at the canal each year, amounting to the saving of up to 1, 250, 000 strings of cash annually. he wrote that the old method of hauling boats over limited the size of the cargo to 300 tan of rice per vessel ( roughly 21 tons / 21337 kg ), but after the pound locks were introduced, boats carrying 400 tan ( roughly 28 tons / 28449 kg ) could then be used. shen wrote that by his time ( c. 1080 ) government boats could carry cargo weights of up to 700 tan ( 49\u00bd tons / 50294 kg ), while private boats could hold as much as 800 bags, each weighing 2 tan ( i. e. a total of 113 tons / 114813 kg ). sea trade abroad to the south east, the hindu world, and the east african world brought merchants great fortune. although the massive amount of indigenous trade along the grand canal, river, its tributaries and lakes, and other canal systems trumped the commercial gains of overseas trade", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5161403422536799, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.939450"} {"text": "it on maritime trade missions abroad : [ song era ] investors usually divided their investment among many ships, and each ship had many investors behind one observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash. he wrote, \" people along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade, either because they are fellow - countrymen or personal acquaintances... [ they give the merchants ] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods. they invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash, and regularly make profits of several hundred percent. \" wealthy landholders were still typically those who were able to educate their sons to the highest degree. hence small groups of prominent families in any given local county would gain national spotlight for having sons travel far off to be educated and appointed as ministers of the state. yet downward social mobility was always an issue with the matter of divided inheritance. suggesting ways to increase a family ' s property, yuan cai ( 1140 \u2013 1190 ) wrote in the late 12th century that those who obtained office with decent salaries shouldn ' t convert it to gold and silver, but instead could watch their values grow with investment : for instance, if he had 100, 000 strings worth of gold and silver and used this money to buy productive property, in a year he would gain 10, 000 strings ; after ten years or so, he would have regained the 100, 000 strings and what would be divided among the family would be interest. if it were invested in a pawn broking business, in three years the interest would equal the he would still have the 100, 000 strings, and the rest, being interest, could be divided. moreover, it could be doubled again in another three years, ad infinitum. ( 1031 \u2013 1095 ), a minister of finance, was of the same opinion ; in his understanding of the velocity of circulation, he stated in 1077 : the utility of money derives from circulation and loan - making. a village of ten households may have 100, 000 coins. if the cash is stored in the household of one individual, even after a century, the sum remains 100, 000. if the coins are circulated through business transactions so that every individual of the ten households can enjoy the utility of the 100, 000 coins, then the utility will amount to that of 1, 000, 000 cash. if circulation continues without stop, the utility of the cash will be beyond the author zhu yu wrote in his (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5232585775998073, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.941845"} {"text": "a. d. 220, 545 - 607. edited by denis twitchett and michael loewe. cambridge : cambridge university press. isbn 0521243270. - shen, fuwei ( 1996 ). cultural flow between china and the outside world. beijing : foreign languages press. isbn - smith, paul j. ( 1993 ) \" state power and economic activism during the new policies, 1068 \u2013 1085 ' the tea and horse trade and the ' green sprouts ' loan policy, \" in ordering the world : approaches to state and society in sung dynasty china, ed. robert p. hymes, 76 \u2013 128. berkeley : berkeley university of california press. isbn - temple, robert. ( 1986 ). the genius of china : 3, 000 years of science, discovery, and invention. with a forward by joseph needham. new york : simon and schuster, inc. isbn 0671620282. - wagner, donald b. \" the administration of the iron industry in eleventh - century china, \" journal of the economic and social history of the orient ( volume 44 2001 ) : 175 - 197. - walton, linda ( 1999 ). academies and society in southern sung china. honolulu : university of hawaii press. - west, stephen h. \" playing with food : performance, food, and the aesthetics of artificiality in the sung and yuan, \" harvard journal of asiatic studies ( volume 57, number 1, 1997 ) : - yang, lien - sheng. \" economic justification for spending - an uncommon idea in traditional china, \" harvard journal of asiatic studies ( volume 20, number 1 / 2, 1957 ) : 36 \u2013 52. - yunming, zhang ( 1986 ). isis : the history of science society : ancient chinese sulfur manufacturing processes. chicago : university of chicago press. - zhou qufei, ( 1178 ) ling wai dai da ( report from lingnan ), zhong hua book co isbn7 - 101 - 01665 - 0 / k", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5121738114455381, "token_count": 409, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.975220"} {"text": "visualizing 1 + 1 / x date : 10 / 10 / 2003 at 21 : 25 : 38 from : mary subject : logic how can i show that the sum of a positive number and its reciprocal is at least two? date : 10 / 11 / 2003 at 06 : 06 : 27 from : doctor luis subject : re : logic hi mary, adding a positive number x > 0 and its reciprocal 1 / x gives you the function f ( x ) = x + 1 / x if you ' re familiar with calculus, you can see that solving for the extrema points gives you f ' ( x ) = 1 - 1 / x ^ 2 = 0 1 = 1 / x ^ 2 x ^ 2 = 1 x = 1 ( reject negative root since x > 0 ) since f \" ( x ) = 2 / x ^ 3 is positive for x > 0, we know that f ( x ) is concave upward. this means that the critical point x = 1 gives you a minimum. this minimum value is f ( 1 ) = 1 + 1 / 1 = 2. in the following diagram, i ' ve graphed the two functions y = x + 1 / x and y = 2. even if you are not familiar with calculus maybe you can follow the following chain of reasoning : the square of any nonzero real number is positive. as an inspired guess, pick x - 1 as the real number to be squared. then, ( x - 1 ) ^ 2 > = 0 ( true for all x. equality holds only for x = 1. ) x ^ 2 - 2x + 1 > = 0 x ^ 2 + 1 > = 2x now, let x > 0, since we are only interested in positive numbers. this means that 1 / x > 0 too. so, we can multiply by 1 / x without reversing the sign of our inequality : ( 1 / x ) * ( x ^ 2 + 1 ) > = ( 1 / x ) * ( 2x ) x + 1 / x > = 2 this proves that the sum of x > 0 and its reciprocal 1 / x adds up to at least 2. i hope this helped! let us know if you have any more questions. - doctor luis, the math forum http : / / mathforum. org / dr. math / search the dr. math library : ask dr. mathtm \u00a9 1994 - 2013 the math forum", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5473457795115668, "token_count": 494, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:35.985676"} {"text": "work continues on readying curiosity for surface operations on mars, with characterisation phase well underway. the week has seen the rover \u2019 s chemistry and camera system \u2013 chemcam \u2013 undergoing its calibration tests using a target system located towards the back of the rover, while scientists have been looking for candidates for the first full test firing of the system at a suitable surface target. chemcam is a complex system split between curiosity \u2019 s mast and body. the mast unit is the large box - like unit at the top of the mast. it contains a laser unit, a remote micro - imager ( rmi ) and a telescope for focusing both. the body unit carries three spectrographs for chemical analysis and has its own power supply and an electronic interface to the rover \u2019 s central computer system. chemcam has two main functions, split between the laser system ( the laser - induced breakdown spectroscopy ( libs ), to give it its proper name ) and the remote micro - imager ( rmi ). libs is designed to fire series of laser pulses at a target spot smaller than 1 millimetre on the surface of rocks and soils, vaporizing it. light from the resultant plasma is captured by the telescope and sent via fibre - optics to the on - board spectrographs for analysis, which should provide information in unprecedented detail about minerals and micro structures in martian rocks. additionally, the laser can be used to remove dust from the surfaces of rocks, allowing the drill on curiosity \u2019 s hand to obtain samples of the rock free from surface contaminants. the rmi provides black - and - white images at 1024\u00d71024 resolution in a 0. 02 radian ( 1. 1 degree ) field of view \u2013 approximately equivalent to a 1500mm lens on a 35mm camera. rmi has two functions. in the first, it will be used in conjunction with libs to identify suitable targets and target locations ( targets can be selected autonomously or via earth - based selection and command ). working independently of libs, it will be used to obtain close - up images in support of robot arm - mounted experiments or provide images of very distant objects. this week, chemcam was calibrated using a target system mounted on the rear section of the rover, mounted below the uhf antenna. as a result of this, chemcam was confirmed ready for operations, and is expected to make it first test - firing on an actual martian rock sample on saturday august 18th. the sample is provisionally designated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5298708800070333, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.011770"} {"text": "examples of patterns of dyslexia in four different people. \u2018 you don \u2019 t hear what is said, you hear something else \u2019. this pattern causes sounds to be distorted in the ear.. a pattern contains sounds and noises and the way in which they are perceived. this causes sounds and noises to be perceived in a distorted way.. you can \u2019 t read.. not being able to distinguish letters, he perceives a group of letters as one block. he can \u2019 t clearly perceive the outlines of a separate letter. for example, the difference between \u2018 m \u2019 and \u2018 n \u2019, \u2018 b \u2019 and \u2018 p \u2019, \u2018 o \u2019 and \u2018 a \u2019 is difficult to see.. if he wants to read a letter, it \u2019 s as if there is a barrier on his forehead, so that the information can \u2019 t get through to the brain. the process of taking in information stops at the forehead.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t see letters \u2019. this activates a pattern in connection with the functioning of the brain whereby the letter he thinks he is reading is retrieved from the brain. this letter is stored as chemical data. this reacts with substances so that the letter is distorted. the information retrieved becomes something unfamiliar and creates an additional confusion, so that a totally different letter is read or written. when this happens for various subsequent letters, we get bizarre words.. he doesn \u2019 t see the space between the words. consequently he will link up the words. he loses words, he simple doesn \u2019 t see them. for example, he sees the first and the third word from a series of three words. he doesn \u2019 t see the second. this pattern isn \u2019 t in the form of a concept, like for example \u2018 you don \u2019 t see spaces between words \u2019, nor in the form of an image. however, when i sense the pattern, i do know the meaning of the contents.. an inclination to make two letters into one whole, for example \u2018 kk \u2019 in \u2018 bookkeeper \u2019 becomes \u2018 k \u2019, \u2018 nn \u2019 in \u2018 nanny \u2019 becomes \u2018 n \u2019.. you can \u2019 t write letters.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t write \u2019. this activates another pattern : the letters are not visible, the eyes don \u2019 t see how the letters are written. there is a signal from the brain that influences the movement of the hand during writing, so that a wrong letter is written.. you may not see letters ( the letters can be vaguely perceived ).. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5948385016669657, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.143008"} {"text": "t see how the letters are written. there is a signal from the brain that influences the movement of the hand during writing, so that a wrong letter is written.. you may not see letters ( the letters can be vaguely perceived ).. the letters belong together ; everything is one block, there is no separation.. you may not see a word. a word can only be perceived vaguely or isn \u2019 t visible, not seeing a word that is there, skipping it.. when seeing a letter or a word, a signal is sent to the brain so that the eyes are influenced and perceive vaguely or perceive something else.. \u2018 you make mistakes, you can \u2019 t write without mistakes, there are always mistakes \u2019. this activates a pattern regarding the functioning of the brain that causes retrieved data from the brain to react with the substance, so that the data is distorted and a mistake is written.. \u2018 insecurity when reading or writing. a doubt crops up when reading or writing. not being sure of the letters or the words. no longer knowing how something is written \u2019. this activates a pattern regarding the functioning of the brain that causes the brain functions to stop when retrieving data, so that no information can be retrieved from the brain, so that he can \u2019 t know.. the letters dance, the eyes don \u2019 t see. this activates a pattern that causes a signal to be sent to the brain, so that the eyes don \u2019 t perceive perfectly.. a mistake occurs during the conversion of a letter into chemical data in the brain. distorted data are stored in the brain when learning about letters and words and the structure of language.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t remember words, you can \u2019 t remember spelling \u2019. this causes information to be lost in the brain.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t form words \u2019. this causes an absence of feeling for language and it prevents an automatism from coming after the rules concerning the construction of words have been learnt for some time.. you can \u2019 t distinguish letters ( in a word ), you see one whole.. everything is one block.. not being able to see a sharp outline. not being able to perceive a letter in a clearly defined way, perceiving vaguely.. the eyes don \u2019 t see, the eyes can \u2019 t distinguish.. you can \u2019 t read, you can \u2019 t see, you can \u2019 t write.. you can \u2019 t read, you don \u2019 t see the letters, it happens in a stumbling", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5844825339856234, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.156386"} {"text": "\u2019 t see, the eyes can \u2019 t distinguish.. you can \u2019 t read, you can \u2019 t see, you can \u2019 t write.. you can \u2019 t read, you don \u2019 t see the letters, it happens in a stumbling way. you skip parts, you don \u2019 t see the words.. the letters stand close together, you can \u2019 t see the difference between them.. not being able to see a word, not being able to see a text. when she sees a text, then she doesn \u2019 t see some words and she sees other words instead of the ones that are there. the text is formed in the brain, the signal picked up by the eyes is formed in the brain, so that she sees something else.. you may not be able to read, you have to be stupid, you may not read.. when she has read a sentence, then she immediately forgets it, and she rereads the sentence.. not being able to distinguish words ( or a sequence of letters ), like for example, the word \u2018 block \u2019 is seen by her as \u2018 bolck \u2019.. not wanting to make an effort when the level of reading becomes more difficult ( for example, she skips difficult words ).. \u2018 you can \u2019 t remember \u2019. this prevents her from knowing the words she reads and then she just reads something at random.. the brain can \u2019 t follow anymore. when a text is read, a signal is given to the brain as a result of which the brain functioning is briefly interrupted.. when processing information in connection with language, a wrong chemical process in the brain starts so that data are converted into chemical compounds in a wrong way.. misinterpreting a letter. when seeing a letter, a signal is sent to the brain, as a result of which the formula of the chemical encoding of the letter is changed, so that another letter is perceived.. the brain processes for converting data into chemicals are functioning randomly and don \u2019 t follow a fixed formula, so that mistakes occur.. not being able to remember a word. she keeps the word in mind and when she starts to write, she has forgotten the word.. you can \u2019 t write, you can \u2019 t form letters. this activates a pattern that blocks the motor system of the hands so that she starts to write slowly and consequently loses words, because the writing can \u2019 t keep up with the thinking.. there is a space of time between hearing and writing. in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5703043080398136, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.164471"} {"text": "this activates a pattern that blocks the motor system of the hands so that she starts to write slowly and consequently loses words, because the writing can \u2019 t keep up with the thinking.. there is a space of time between hearing and writing. in this space of time, the sound is changed in the brain, so that she writes something else or some letters aren \u2019 t heard correctly, hence writing wrong.. you don \u2019 t know how you write something, therefore you just write something. you don \u2019 t think, you can \u2019 t think. you act on impulse, you just write something at random.. when she reads something, there is a signal from the brain to the eyes, so that the view is interrupted for a moment, and she perceives another letter than the one that is there. the eyes perceive a letter in a distorted way.. hastily, quickly, quickly. thinking too little before she writes something down, writing something at random as a result of which there are mistakes.. you can \u2019 t learn a language, you can \u2019 t master a language.. you may not know letters, you may not be able to write.. you don \u2019 t have an insight in a language, you can \u2019 t remember spelling rules.. not being able to think when writing. the brain processes that normally occur when reasoning about language, stop.. \u2018 you may not write \u2019 combined with a signal to the brain as a result of which the processes for retrieving data are temporarily interrupted.. when she sees or has to write a letter, then a signal is sent to a wrong location in the brain ( where another letter is stored ) so that wrong data is retrieved.. not being able to remember words, not being able to remember the sequence of words. a wrong formula of how letters are interconnected is stored in the brain ( according to the rules of a language ).. not being able to assess words correctly. misunderstanding words, turning words around, hearing different words.. words in the sentences get lost. words that don \u2019 t succeed are linked together so that a word in between is omitted.. you can \u2019 t understand the words ( i. e. difficult words ).. not being able to understand special sounds ( \u0259\u026a, \u028a, \u0251\u028a, \u2026 ) s\u03c7, \u03c7, \u2026 or hear them correctly and therefore turning them into another sound or another spelling, namely writing them as you hear them.. when a sound is heard, then it is looked up in the brain,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5400610337141258, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.171675"} {"text": "\u0251\u028a, \u2026 ) s\u03c7, \u03c7, \u2026 or hear them correctly and therefore turning them into another sound or another spelling, namely writing them as you hear them.. when a sound is heard, then it is looked up in the brain, but when it isn \u2019 t found, another sound is used.. not knowing what to do with long words. not being able to overlook the whole and therefore splitting up compulsively. not being able to understand a long word, not being able to understand too many letters linked together. hence, a word has to be split up.. when she sees or hears a word : doubting the meaning, not being able to place it immediately, and not being able to write it as a result.. not knowing how she has to write something, not being able to remember how she has to write something. this activates a pattern in connection with the functioning of the brain : the brain functions are interrupted briefly when retrieving data, as a result of which the information retrieved gets lost once more ( she has forgotten once again ) and hence she writes something different. or there is a mistake when addressing the location of a word and another word is retrieved from the brain.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t remember \u2019, activates a pattern in connection with the functioning of the brain that prevents letters, words and spelling rules from being stored in the brain. the brain processes are briefly interrupted so that the information doesn \u2019 t get lost.. data are normally converted into chemical information and these chemical compounds react with other chemicals and the end product is stored in the brain. a pattern causes the data to be converted into a wrong chemical form and hence these substances react with wrong chemical compounds for storage so that they are stored at a wrong location. when a word has to be remembered once again, then the word can \u2019 t be found anymore because it is stored at a wrong location. therefore words aren \u2019 t recognized when reading and she doesn \u2019 t know how to write words either, because she doesn \u2019 t remember. it \u2019 s as if it \u2019 s a new word and then she just writes something at random.. the letters are linked together. there is no distinction between two or more letters. the letters are perceived as one block. the letters aren \u2019 t perceived separately.. you can \u2019 t see.. the letters dance.. a pattern clouds the eyes : the eyes can \u2019 t perceive some letters sharply. there is a signal in the brain that causes the electrical signaling to the eyes by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5839063603216671, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.173382"} {"text": "\u2019 t perceived separately.. you can \u2019 t see.. the letters dance.. a pattern clouds the eyes : the eyes can \u2019 t perceive some letters sharply. there is a signal in the brain that causes the electrical signaling to the eyes by the nervous system to pass in thrusts, so that the letters are otherwise perceived differently, since the eyes don \u2019 t perceive continuously, but with very small pauses. hence it \u2019 s difficult to distinguish letters that look alike.. there is a catch in the eyes when writing ( the transmission once again happens in thrusts, with interruptions ) and in the motor system : the muscles of the hand are blocked and contorted, hence writing slowly and with difficulty due to an altered functioning of the brain.. when writing, he can no longer see the letters that have already been written correctly due to the catch in the eyes. the letters that have already been written, become one block, so that he can \u2019 t trust this to write the next letters. he can \u2019 t perceive clearly what he has already written.. the knowledge of the form of the letters comes through from the brain too slowly : the brain slows down during the process of retrieving information from the brain, so that he writes more slowly.. yet another memory blockage : the letters don \u2019 t emerge from the brain during writing. hence doubting very much about the right letters.. a pattern makes him lose parts of what is dictated : he doesn \u2019 t hear some parts. he thinks he has already written parts that are not there yet. he hears things that aren \u2019 t there, so that he writes things that aren \u2019 t dictated ( this information is stored in the form of image in the pattern, not in concept form ).. you have to write mistakes.. \u2018 it \u2019 s not like this, it \u2019 s different \u2019. this makes him doubt about the spelling of a letter when writing.. he has to deform the letters, he has to write another letter than the one it has to be ( pattern in the form of an image ).. he can \u2019 t see the whole ( pattern in the form of an image ).. he can \u2019 t remember. he can \u2019 t remember the spelling of a word. he can \u2019 t remember the rules of spelling. it confuses him. he can \u2019 t think logically with regard to the rules of a language. hence he writes things as he hears them.. when he has to remember or apply the rules, there is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5678975515682485, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.174798"} {"text": "t remember the rules of spelling. it confuses him. he can \u2019 t think logically with regard to the rules of a language. hence he writes things as he hears them.. when he has to remember or apply the rules, there is a very unpleasant feeling in his head and his thinking blocks. he simply writes what he hears in order to escape this.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t write \u2019 activates a pattern that blocks the brain when reasoning when he writes. the brain processes that normally take place when reasoning ( retrieving and comparing data very quickly ), are blocked. person 4 : patterns of dyslexia combined with poor language abilities.. letters belong together, letters are one whole. an image of letters that flow into one another. ( this pattern will cause letters to flow into each other when looking at it, so that it \u2019 s difficult to perceive the separate letters of a word ).. a pattern with an image of a horizontal beam. this beam has to represent a collection of letters ( a word ), but the individual letters can \u2019 t be distinguished.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t see \u2019. it \u2019 s fixed in the pattern that it \u2019 s about letters that have become faint. the outlining of a letter has become faint as a result, so that the form of a letter is difficult to distinguish.. the letters dance, you can \u2019 t see the letters.. \u2018 you don \u2019 t write \u2019 and the joint of the wrist going tense, so that it \u2019 s difficult to form letters.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t understand \u2019. it \u2019 s about writing, the writing of a language. \u2018 you can \u2019 t understand how the letters belong together \u2019.. a pattern with the formula of a chemical. this chemical has to do with the storage of letters in the brain. there is another variation of the chemical according to the kind of letter, so that it is stored at another address in the brain according to the kind of letter. the variant of the chemical isn \u2019 t present for some letters, so that some letters are understood with great difficulty.. an image of a sentence that consists of separate parts ( words ). there is confusion about the words and how they belong together. hence, he will split up the words the wrong way or link them the wrong way, or add or omit words.. the letters of a words are not clearly visible, hence letters at the end and in the middle of a word are omitted or added, it is difficult to perceive whether", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5446171480033362, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.176025"} {"text": "wrong way or link them the wrong way, or add or omit words.. the letters of a words are not clearly visible, hence letters at the end and in the middle of a word are omitted or added, it is difficult to perceive whether there is an \u2018 i \u2019, \u2018 \u026a \u2019 of \u2018 \u025b \u2019, or, for example, he doesn \u2019 t see whether there is a single or a double \u2018 n \u2019 or \u2018 d \u2019 or whatever, and whether there is an \u2018 e \u2019 or \u2018 a \u2019 or whatever at the end of the word.. there is confusion about difficult combinations of letters. he can \u2019 t understand this, like for example, the sound \u2018 \u03c7t \u2019. so, he \u2019 ll write a sound he doesn \u2019 t understand in the way he hears it. for example, he can \u2019 t understand the sound \u2018 \u0259\u026a \u2019, and he \u2019 ll write something else.. there is confusion about difficult combinations of parts of words. he has difficulty distinguishing between the separate parts, like for example \u2018 responsible \u2019. so, he \u2019 ll write : \u2018 resonsile \u2019.. \u2018 you can \u2019 t learn a language \u2019. knowledge with regard to language is very poorly stored in the brain. hence when having to remember language ( when reading and writing ), the knowledge isn \u2019 t an automatism and he has to think hard how to read and write time and again.. when he sees or hears a word ( for example in a dictation ), it \u2019 s not immediately clear how he has to read or write this word. he has to analyze the word letter by letter, he has to think about it. little or no knowledge of words and combinations of letters is stored in his brain ( and in the energies around him ). he has to analyze a word letter by letter time and again.. you can \u2019 t understand the rules of a language. hence writing something at random.. you can \u2019 t learn a language, you don \u2019 t know how to write. together with this, there is a feeling of confusion.. in the same way he doesn \u2019 t see all the parts of a word, he doesn \u2019 t hear all parts of a word either. for example, he doesn \u2019 t see the ending, therefore he will write the word wrong.. he can in fact understand the rules about the endings of verbs in dutch ( the dt - rule ), but he has difficulty applying it because he has difficulty perceiving whether a \u2018 d \u2019 or a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5239001969699362, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.178350"} {"text": "according to the international continence society, overactive bladder is a symptom - defined condition characterized by urinary urgency, with or without urgency incontinence, usually with urinary frequency and nocturia ( night - time urination ). the term overactive bladder is appropriate if there is no proven urinary tract infection or other obvious pathology. overactive bladder was identified in 6. 5 % of finnish men and 9. 3 % of women. in younger age groups the condition was more common among women, but among those over 60 years old it was more common among men. urinary frequency and nocturia were generally more common than usual among those with an overactive bladder. however, most reported urinary frequency and nocturia was not overactive bladder. the research is based on a questionnaire conducted 2003 - 2004 among 3, 000 finnish women and 3, 000 finnish men. their ages ranged from 18 to 79. the subjects were taken from the population register. professor teuvo tammela and professor anssi auvinen are in charge of the research group, whose members are from the university of tampere, tampere university hospital, helsinki university central hospital and the south karelian central hospital in lappeenranta.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5085250752114938, "token_count": 261, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.188268"} {"text": "this comment has been deleted images courtesy peter vrsansky, slovak academy of sciences published august 30, 2012 a glowing green cockroach would seem much easier to kill than our more familiar kitchen pests, but this particular insect evolved its own set of lights to avoid exactly such predatory attention, according to a new study. luchihormetica luckae glows to mimic the bioluminescent click beetle, whose glow warns predators of its toxicity. for one thing, while many life - forms have evolved their own flashiness, most are found in the deep - sea \u2014 making bioluminescence a relatively rare trait on land. but l. luckae is particularly rare, in that it glows to mimic another insect. other uses of bioluminescence in the insect world, as in the case of the common firefly, are more attuned to attracting mates \u2014 lighting up to find love in the dark simply saves time. unfortunately, it also makes one much more visible to predators. \" bioluminescence is like any evolutionary tool \u2014 there is no single use for it. it can attract, deter, or even be used as an invisibility cloak of sorts, \" said olivia judson, an evolutionary biologist and author of dr. tatiana ' s sex advice to all creation. land animals glowed later than thought? the scientists studied an l. luckae cockroach collected in 1939 and housed at the national museum of natural history in washington, d. c. the team employed new technology to scan and analyze the biological mechanism responsible for the luminescence. they determined that the wavelengths of light released from both the click beetle and l. luckae \u2014 though developed via distinct evolutionary processes \u2014 are precisely the same. the new research may also provide evidence for a much later evolution of land - based bioluminescence, according to the study authors. that ' s because click beetles evolved their predator - deterring glow only 65 million years ago \u2014 recently compared with the 400 - million - year - old development of underwater bioluminescence. ( see a prehistoric time line. ) glowing roach a flash in the pan? l. luckae could prove to be a flash in the evolutionary - science pan. the one specimen analyzed in the study had been collected from a very specific region recently decimated by volcanic eruption. scientists now consider the creature so rare that collecting further specimens could cause its extinction. so chances are you won ' t be finding these little glowing pests raiding your cabinets. the glowing - cockroach study", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5150404879201392, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.203308"} {"text": "what is freedom? i did not understand president bush \u2019 s inauguration speech. he used the word \u201c freedom \u201d twenty - seven times, but what freedom means to him was not clear. words can mean different things to different people and freedom is an example of that. to some people freedom means no responsibility. to others it means having power and ability to assume responsibility. is it freedom to be taken care of, or does freedom mean to be able to take care of oneself? is a baby free before it is born when it has no responsibility for its own physical needs, or is it free when it has been released from the confinement of the womb and must begin to do for itself? does freedom mean we are free to use the bible as a guide to our behavior? or does it mean freedom from god? \" freedom \" is a good word, but it cannot stand alone. it needs an implied or stated explanation and that was not evident in president bush \u2019 s speech. when a prisoner is allowed to leave his place of confinement, he gains his freedom from jail. those who knew that he was imprisoned would understand his new situation if they were told he gained his freedom, because jail is implied. a recently divorced man or woman might say, \" i ' m free! \", but only those who knew the situation would understand that they meant free of the obligations of marriage. on the last day of school in spring the children shout that they are free. they mean they are free from the necessity of going to school. they are free to play and have fun. if a merchant gives you a gift with no strings attached you might say it was free of cost or obligation. if you no longer hurt, you have freedom from pain. when our country was born its first citizens said they were free. they meant their country was free from the political domination of england. people use the words, \" free \" and \u201c freedom \u201d to mean many things. \u201c free \u201d is even heard at funerals, especially when a person has suffered in his lifetime : \" at last he is free! \" in this case \" free \" means freedom from pain and suffering, but it also means dead. what about freedom from want and fear? couldn \u2019 t that mean the same thing as freedom from pain and suffering? couldn \u2019 t it also mean dead? what about being free to have an abortion? that certainly does mean freedom to make someone dead. in the western world we often speak of personal freedom, but here, too, the meaning is vague. the idea of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5641792348287524, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.269137"} {"text": "\u2019 t it also mean dead? what about being free to have an abortion? that certainly does mean freedom to make someone dead. in the western world we often speak of personal freedom, but here, too, the meaning is vague. the idea of personal freedom is a subjective concept. a situation of freedom to one person can seem like unbearable bondage to another. i have two relatives from one family whose ideas on personal freedom are totally different. the sister likes to travel, meet new people, participate in group activities, and face new challenges. she is married to a man whose work provides many such opportunities. she is happy and emotionally comfortable with her choice. if she had to live all her life on the farm where she was born, and see mostly the people she had known in her own community she would be miserable. her brother, no less intelligent, owns a farm and loves farming. he enjoys being in surroundings familiar to him since childhood. even a single day ' s journey away from his beloved land is a chore and a burden to him. his idea of freedom is staying close to home. both of my relatives live lives of freedom because they were able to choose the type of life they wanted to live. their concepts of freedom involved choices, and those choices were personal and emotional. how far does personal freedom go? does personal freedom mean believing, doing, and saying whatever we wish to believe, do, or say, whenever or wherever we wish - - having no obligations to anyone? some would claim their right to total release from all laws, rules, and obligations. living with those who have this total concept of freedom could be extremely unpleasant and perhaps dangerous. president bush seems to believe that democracy means freedom. he said it is the policy of the united states to seek and support the growth of democratic movements and institutions in every nation and culture, with the ultimate goal of ending tyranny in our world. does this leave united states citizens in a state of freedom? or has the president placed a perpetual burden on citizens of his own country? does freedom mean we must accept every burden we are told to bear and every restriction that this all - encompassing concept of freedom demands? in the bush speech we were also told that there now is a broader definition of liberty. that also troubles me. what it seems to mean is that the government is always at liberty to give away, rather than sell public lands and public goods, as was done following the homestead act. it means that the government is at liberty to control citizens \u2019 retirement savings since the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5549163688881357, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.272831"} {"text": "what it seems to mean is that the government is always at liberty to give away, rather than sell public lands and public goods, as was done following the homestead act. it means that the government is at liberty to control citizens \u2019 retirement savings since the passage of the social security act. it means the government was at liberty to give veterans extra compensation for their service only if they used that compensation for education, as was the case with the gi bill of rights. and i do not understand what president bush meant when he said, \u201c we will widen ownership of homes and businesses, retirement savings and health insurance. \u201d did he mean more individuals would own homes and businesses? or did he mean that individual ownership would be widened and eventually give way to communal ownership? i don \u2019 t know. do you? the concept of self government was discussed in the speech, but not clarified. i know that there are philosophers and writers who sincerely believe there is no such thing as individual self government or human freedom because humans are merely biological automata or robots who have no real control over their own thoughts, feelings, and actions. these materialist thinkers believe that everything we do can be explained by material causes. heredity and environment account for everything. they deny the directing and controlling power of the will. this materialist concept is used to justify the notion that environmental influences should be set up for the masses and controlled by social, psychological, political, and economic \u201c scientists. \u201d president bush used the word freedom twenty seven times and the word liberty more than a dozen. i have heard it said that he made a wonderful speech, but to me it seemed to be full of contradictions. i do not really know what freedom and liberty mean to our president, and it worries me. \u00a9 2005 erica carle - all rights reserved e - mails are used strictly for nwvs alerts, not for sale erica carle is an independent researcher and writer. she has a b. s. degree from the university of wisconsin. she has been involved in radio and television writing and production, and has also taught math and composition at the private school her children attended in brookfield, wisconsin. for ten years she wrote a weekly column, \" truth in education \" for wisconsin report, and served as education editor for that publication. her books are give us the young - - $ 5 plus $ 2. 00 p & h why things are the way they are - - $ 16 plus $ 4. 00 p & h both books - - $ 25 total. a loose leaf collection of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.537298646155018, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.275725"} {"text": "our main goal here is to give a quick visual summary that is at once convincing and data rich. these employ some of the most basic tools of visual data analysis and should probably become form part of the basic vocabulary of an experimental mathematician. note that traditionally one would run a test such as the anderson - darling test ( which we have done ) for the continuous uniform distribution and associate a particular probability with each of our sets of probability, but unless the probability values are extremely high or low it is difficult to interpret these statistics. experimentally, we want to test graphically the hypothesis of normality and randomness ( or non - periodicity ) for our numbers. because the statistics themselves do not fall into the nicest of distributions, we have chosen to plot only the associated probabilities. we include two different types of graphs here. a quantile - quantile plot is used to examine the distribution of our data and scatter plots are used to check for correlations between statistics. the first is a quantile - quantile plot of the chi square base 10 probability values versus a a discrete uniform distribution. for this graph we have placed the probabilities obtained from our square roots and plotted them against a perfectly uniform distribution. finding nothing here is equivalent to seeing that the graph is a straight line with slope 1. this is a crude but effective way of seeing the data. the disadvantage is that the data are really plotted along a one dimensional curve and as such it may be impossible to see more subtle patterns. the other graphs are examples of scatter plots. the first scatter plot shows that nothing interesting is occurring. we are again looking at probability values this time derived from the discrete cramer - von mises ( cvm ) test base 10, 000. for each cube root we have plotted the point, where is the cvm base 10, 000 probability associated with the first 2500 digits of the cube root of i and is the probability associated with the next 2500 digits. a look at the graph reveals that we have now plotted our data on a two dimensional surface and there is a lot more ` structure ' to be seen. still, it is not hard to convince oneself that there is little or no relationship between the probabilities of the first 2500 digits and the second 2500 digits. the last graph is similar to the second. here we have plotted the probabilities associated with the anderson - stephens statistic of the first 10, 000 digits versus the first 20, 000 digits. we expect to find a correlation between these tests since there is a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5782893013857106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.319823"} {"text": "[ en ] hydrothermal vent environments, particularly those associated with the vestimentiferan riftia pachyptila, are believed to be among the highest chitin - producing systems. in order to elucidate the chitin cycle in these environments, we estimate the in situ chitin degradation rates of tube - worm exoskeletons. our in situ experiments show that the tubes of riftia are highly stable structures. comparative measurements of the degradation rates of riftia tubes and crab shells immersed at deep - sea vents show that the tubes would be degraded within 2. 5 years, whereas the time for the total degradation of the vent crab ( bythograea thermydron ) carapaces would not exceed 36 days. the importance of the microbial participation in this degradation was estimated for riftia tubes. based on previous work, we calculated chitin production by a population of riftia tubes of about 750 g m ( - 2 ) year ( - 1 ) ( 763 ). from our in situ experiments, we estimated a microbial chitinolysis rate of about 500 g m ( - 2 ) year ( - 1 ) ( 496 ) ( 65 % of the chitin produced ). exoskeletons containing beta - chitin appear more stable in natural environments than those containing alpha - chitin and would thus be less available as carbon and nitrogen sources. in contrast, isolated beta - chitin was hydrolysed faster than alpha - chitin during in vitro degradation experiments ; for instance, riftia beta - chitin was degraded about 3 - to 4 - fold faster than bythograea alpha - chitin. a stabilization process by disulfide bonds of the proteins - chitin link, rather than the crystalline form of the chitin ( alpha / beta ), accounts for the resistance of riftia tubes to enzymatic attacks.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5168408240364051, "token_count": 381, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.338963"} {"text": "deep within the labyrinth of monash university ' s clayton campus in melbourne is a metallurgy laboratory so significant in what it is doing that it has attracted some of the biggest companies in the global aerospace industry from the other side of the world. they are keeping close to the technology that could make this laboratory the genesis of the next generation of aerospace manufacturing. they are also keeping close to a scientist in whose hands their futures may well sit. when professor xinhua wu, recognised internationally as a leader in advanced light metals research, agreed to head the australian research council ' s ( arc ) centre of excellence for design in light metals, her research moved with her from the uk to melbourne. such is the importance placed on her work that the giants of european aerospace \u2013 bombardier, airbus, european space agency and safran - microturbo \u2013 followed. at stake for these european aircraft manufacturers is finding the technological means to ward off increasingly aggressive competition from new manufacturers in brazil, canada, china, india and russia, while concurrently meeting stringent greenhouse reduction targets imposed by the european union. manufacturers are looking for new materials that are lighter yet stronger, cheaper to manufacture, reliably safe and which will also help them halve aviation ' s overall carbon emissions by 2050. for professor wu and her centre it means changing the very nature of metals such as titanium, aluminium and magnesium, modifying their fine - scale structures to give them new and improved characteristics. it requires advanced industrial research underpinned by fundamental science that is exploring new paradigms in metals and their properties. a spokesperson for safran - microturbo said the company followed professor wu to australia because of her focus on the industrial applicability of fundamental research. this is a critical industry \u2013 academia link and for the european union companies, an essential relationship through which to keep ahead of rivals. one of the centre ' s projects is a new aluminium alloy that will make an aircraft 30 to 40 per cent lighter, twice as fuel - efficient and still structurally as strong. it is already known this can be achieved by adding a tiny amount of a rare element such as scandium to the aluminium when it is alloyed. just a fraction of a per cent of scandium or other rare earth element is enough to make aluminium stronger, less prone to corrosion and easier to weld. russia used such an aluminium - scandium alloy for its mig fighter planes during the cold war era. but from a commercial perspective, the alloy is prohibitively expensive. the scientific challenge that professor wu ' s centre has", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5146897016925227, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.397405"} {"text": "corrosion and easier to weld. russia used such an aluminium - scandium alloy for its mig fighter planes during the cold war era. but from a commercial perspective, the alloy is prohibitively expensive. the scientific challenge that professor wu ' s centre has taken on is to determine how scandium works when added to aluminium alloys, and to then find a cheaper substitute. \" we are working at the atomic level. in metallurgy, just a few atoms in a million added to an alloy can influence engineering at the macro - scale ; how we control the homogeneity of metal sheeting when it is rolled, or the integrity of the metal when it is fabricated into a component. \" however, professor wu says the key factor with such industrial research is achieving this economically. \" from just a materials research perspective, without worrying about costs, we can make the most wonderful metal and alloy materials. but the goal is not just to develop stronger, lighter, more durable and more stable metals. they must also be produced through more efficient and cheaper manufacturing with lower energy consumption, both during construction and during the aircraft ' s operational life over 25 or more years. we have to create new materials that not only have the best performance but are also the cheapest. \" this is what makes industrial science exciting. yes, the fundamental science must be good, but it is the industrial science that has to deliver this material, functionally and cost - effectively, to industry. and it doesn ' t stop with developing the material ; new manufacturing processes have to be designed for each new material developed. \" professor wu ' s approach to science has been strongly influenced by the 20 years she worked with the rolls - royce aerospace division \u2013 \" a technology - driven company and world leader in materials technology and manufacturing \". it has imbued her with a robust ' can - do ' attitude, which is why other major european companies have set up collaborations with her and her centre. \" it is because we deliver on the promise, \" professor wu says. her own special field of interest is titanium metallurgy. aside from the offer by monash to replicate her research facilities in melbourne, the other attraction of moving from the uk was that australia has 51 per cent of the world ' s known titanium ore deposits. she was keen to apply her metals science closer to its raw materials. professor wu has been involved extensively in developing titanium and titanium aluminide ( tial ) alloys, and in advanced powder processing for titanium and nickel alloy powders. her most recent research has", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5192540401831873, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.398574"} {"text": "to apply her metals science closer to its raw materials. professor wu has been involved extensively in developing titanium and titanium aluminide ( tial ) alloys, and in advanced powder processing for titanium and nickel alloy powders. her most recent research has been into the development of innovative manufacturing technologies such as ' laser additive ' manufacturing and net - shape hot isostatic pressing ( hipping ), which are able to produce complex 3 - d components from computer designs in a single step. it is anticipated that this alone will reduce material wastage by 90 per cent, cut overall manufacturing costs by 30 to 50 per cent, and reduce the lead time from 24 to three months for titanium, nickel, aluminium and steel components. this is the advanced technology that professor wu has brought to the arc centre of excellence for design in light metals, which is a collaboration of six universities and more than 100 researchers. professor wu wants to build an australian aerospace industry from this core research. \" it is a global industry. it doesn ' t matter where you are, \" she says. \" industry will follow the delivery of innovation and science. \" already her team has developed several new engine components for one of the european aerospace companies, and these are undergoing early evaluation trials. \" if they pass \u2013 if they are lighter, equally durable and cheaper to manufacture \u2013 this company is prepared to offer an exclusive six - year manufacturing deal for an australian company to manufacture these components. this demonstrates the incentives on offer to encourage australian manufacturers to take up the challenge, noting the preference for new technology manufacturing to be close to the innovation and science. \" we are delivering on the science and innovation, but so far haven ' t found a manufacturing partner. we realise there are no existing companies with the expertise, but that is what we are providing \u2026 in abundance. we need a far - sighted company willing to invest in this. \" it is an interesting challenge, coming at a time when the traditional manufacturing sectors in many of the world ' s so - called rich countries are suffering a crisis of confidence. professor wu is trying to overcome this by articulating her belief in the ' third industrial revolution ' : the discovery of new materials and engineering these materials at the molecular or ' nano - structural ' level. coupled with this is the emergence of laser additive manufacturing and net - shape hipping technologies, which she says set free the production of complex 3 - d components from the shackles of dated manufacturing practice and can bring manufacturing from low - cost economies to the innovative, high - technology ones. in her own", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5111367377076786, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.400510"} {"text": "reading shakespeare has dramatic effect on human braindecember 18th, 2006 in medicine & health / medical research research at the university of liverpool has found that shakespearean language excites positive brain activity, adding further drama to the bard ' s plays and poetry. shakespeare uses a linguistic technique known as functional shift that involves, for example using a noun to serve as a verb. researchers found that this technique allows the brain to understand what a word means before it understands the function of the word within a sentence. this process causes a sudden peak in brain activity and forces the brain to work backwards in order to fully understand what shakespeare is trying to say. professor philip davis, from the university ' s school of english, said : \" the brain reacts to reading a phrase such as \u2018 he godded me ' from the tragedy of coriolanus, in a similar way to putting a jigsaw puzzle together. if it is easy to see which pieces slot together you become bored of the game, but if the pieces don ' t appear to fit, when we know they should, the brain becomes excited. by throwing odd words into seemingly normal sentences, shakespeare surprises the brain and catches it off guard in a manner that produces a sudden burst of activity - a sense of drama created out of the simplest of things. \" experts believe that this heightened brain activity may be one of the reasons why shakespeare ' s plays have such a dramatic impact on their readers. professor neil roberts, from the university ' s magnetic resonance and image analysis research centre, ( mariarc ), explains : \" the effect on the brain is a bit like a magic trick ; we know what the trick means but not how it happened. instead of being confused by this in a negative sense, the brain is positively excited. the brain signature is relatively uneventful when we understand the meaning of a word but when the word changes the grammar of the whole sentence, brain readings suddenly peak. the brain is then forced to retrace its thinking process in order to understand what it is supposed to make of this unusual word. \" professor roberts and professor davis together with dr guillaune thierry, from the university of wales, bangor, monitored 20 participants using an electroencephalogram ( eeg ) as they read selected lines from shakespeare ' s plays. in this initial test electrodes were placed on the subject ' s scalp to measure brain responses. professor roberts said : \" eeg gives graph - like measurements and when the brain reads a sentence that does not make semantic sense it registers what we call", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5252009036515257, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.405590"} {"text": ". in this initial test electrodes were placed on the subject ' s scalp to measure brain responses. professor roberts said : \" eeg gives graph - like measurements and when the brain reads a sentence that does not make semantic sense it registers what we call a n400 effect \u2013 a negative wave modulation. when the brain reads a grammatically incorrect sentence it registers a p600 effect \u2013 an effect which continues to last after the word that triggered it was first read. \" researchers also found that when participants read the word producing the functional shift there was no n400 effect indicating that the meaning was accepted but a p600 effect was observed which indicates a positive re - evaluation of the word. the team is now using magnetoencephalography ( meg ) and functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fmi ) to test which areas of the brain are most affected and the kind of impact it could have in maintaining healthy brain activity. professor davis added : \" this interdisciplinary work is good for brain science because it offers permanent scripts of the human mind working moment - to - moment. it is good for literature as it illustrates primary human thinking. through the two disciplines, we may discover new insights into the very motions of the mind. \" source : university of liverpool \" reading shakespeare has dramatic effect on human brain. \" december 18th, 2006. http : / / phys. org / news85664210. html", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6023846964145965, "token_count": 282, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.406169"} {"text": "80, 429 - 434. 9. berg, k., et al. ( 1989 ). measuring balance in the elderly : preliminary development of an instrument. physio therapy canada, 41 ( 6 ), 304 - 311. 10. rubenstein, l., & josephson, k. ( 2002 ). the epidemiology of falls and syncope. clinical geriatric medicine, 18, 141 - 158. 11. national safety council. ( 2004 ). injury facts. itasca, il : author. dr. lewis is a physical therapist in private practice and president of premier physical therapy of washington, dc. she lectures exclusively for great seminars and books, inc. dr. lewis is also the author of numerous textbooks. her website address is www. greatseminarsandbooks. com. dr. shaw is an assistant professor in the physical therapy program at the university of south florida dedicated to the area of geriatric rehabilitation. she lectures exclusively for great seminars and books in the area of geriatric function. apta encouraged by cap exceptions new process grants automatic exceptions to beneficiaries needing care the most calling it \" a good first step toward ensuring that medicare beneficiaries continue to have coverage for the physical therapy they need, \" ben f massey, jr, pt, ma, president of the american physical therapy association ( apta ), expressed optimism that the new exceptions process will allow a significant number of medicare patients to receive services exceeding the $ 1, 740 annual financial cap on medicare therapy coverage. the new procedure, authorized by congress in the recently enacted deficit reduction act ( pl 109 - 171 ), will be available to medicare beneficiaries on march 13 under rules released this week by the centers for medicare and medicaid services ( cms ). \" apta is encouraged by the new therapy cap exceptions process, \" massey said. \" cms has made a good effort to ensure that medicare beneficiaries who need the most care are not harmed by an arbitrary cap. \" as apta recommended, the process includes automatic exceptions and also grants exceptions to beneficiaries who are receiving both physical therapy and speech language pathology ( the services are currently combined under one $ 1, 740 cap ). \" we have yet to see how well medicare contractors will be able to implement and apply this process. even if it works well, congress only authorized this new process through 2006. congress must address this issue again this year, and we are confident that this experience will demonstrate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5021900255003886, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.419820"} {"text": "no for \" dry \", yes for \" wet \". for \" dry friction \", such as a box on a floor, it is relatively constant. why is this? most objects are microscopically rough with \" peaks \" that move against each - other. as more pressing force is applied, the peaks deform more and the true contact area is increases proportionally. the surfaces adhere forming a bond that will take a certain amount of shear force to break. since the molecules are moving much faster ~ 300m / s than the box they have plenty of time to adhere ( so velocity is not an issue ). however, static friction is sometimes be higher, in one explanation because the peaks have time to settle and interlock with each - other. neglecting static friction, force is constant. the simplest case in wet friction is two objects separated by a film of water. in this case there is zero static friction, as the thermal energy is sufficient to disrupt any static, shear - bearing water molecule structure. however, water molecules still push and pull on each - other, transferring momentum from the top to the bottom. the rate of momentum transfer i. e. \" friction \" grows in proportion to how much momentum is available, which in turn grows with velocity. thus, force is linear with velocity. however, interesting things happen when the bulk mass of the water gets important. in this case, bumps, etc on the surface push on the water creating currents that can ram into bumps on the other surface. if you double the velocity, your bumps will push twice as much water twice as fast for 4 times the force ; force is quadratic to velocity. you can plug in formulas for the linear case ( which depends on viscosity ) and quadratic case ( which depends on density ) to see which one \" wins \" ( this is roughly the reynolds number ), if there is no clear winner the answer is complex ( see the moody diagram ). nevertheless these are approximations and the real answer could fail to follow these \" rules \".", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5387397372336991, "token_count": 411, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.422690"} {"text": "major section : history example forms : acl2! > : puff * : max acl2! > : puff * : x acl2! > : puff * 15 acl2! > : puff * \" book \" where general form : : puff * cd cdis a command descriptor ( see command - descriptor ) for a ` ` puffable ' ' command. see puff for the definition of ` ` puffable ' ' and for a description of the basic act of ` ` puffing ' ' a command. puff * is just the recursive application of puff. puff * prints the region puffed, using to puff a command is to replace it by its immediate subevents, each of which is executed as a command. to puff * a command is to replace the command by each of its immediate subevents and then to each of the puffable commands among the newly introduced ones. for example, suppose \" ab \" is a book containing the following ( in - package \" acl2 \" ) ( include - book \" a \" ) ( include - book \" b \" ) suppose that book defuns for the functions now consider an acl2 state in which only two commands have been executed, the first being ( include - book \" ab \" ) and the second being ( include - book \" c \" ). thus, the relevant part of the display pbt 1 would be : 1 ( include - book \" ab \" ) 2 ( include - book \" c \" ) call this state the ` ` starting state ' ' in this example, because we will refer to it several times. : puff 1 is executed in the starting state. then the first command is replaced by its immediate subevents and : pbt 1 would 1 ( include - book \" a \" ) 2 ( include - book \" b \" ) 3 ( include - book \" c \" ) contrast this with the execution of : puff * 1in the starting state. puff * would first puff ( include - book \" ab \" ) to get the state shown above. but then it would recursively puff * the puffable commands introduced by the first puff. this continues recursively as long as any puff introduced a puffable command. the end result of : puff * 1in the starting state is 1 ( defun a1... ) 2 ( defun a2... ) 3 ( defun b1... ) 4 ( defun b2... ) 5 ( include - book \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5116207396615147, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.425160"} {"text": "c + + is the canonical example of a language that combines low - level and high - level features1. it doesn ' t simulate anything, it provides native support for almost every high - level construct you ' ll usually find in a common high - level language and almost every low - level construct you ' ll find in c. but of course the terms are highly relative, there was a point in time ( not that long ago2 ) where c was considered a very high level language. and there are quite a few other languages that offer considerable low - level functionalities while still commonly regarded as high - level, and vice versa, the lines are kind of fuzzy. as for the syntax, that ' s something that naturally affected by the language ' s level of abstraction. low - level generally means : in computer science, a low - level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a computer ' s instruction set architecture. generally this refers to either machine code or assembly language. the word \" low \" refers to the small or nonexistent amount of abstraction between the language and machine language ; because of this, low - level languages are sometimes described as being \" close to the hardware. \" so naturally a low - level language adopts a syntax that ' s closer to machine code, which is inherently non human friendly. quite a few languages, like c + +, have adopted a wide variety of syntactic sugar, as a mechanism to make things easier to read or to express. but syntactic sugar is something that almost every high level language has opted for, c + + ' s sugar alone doesn ' t make it a low - level language. as for the complexity of a low & high - level language, it ' s also natural : it ' s a tool with multiple goals, every single goal adds to its complexity. that ' s unavoidable regardless of the goal. high - level languages are not \" better \" than low - level one, they are just more concentrated on one goal. languages that are designed with ease of use as a primary goal tend to be high - level, but that ' s only important if the necessary trade - offs to achieve the goal don ' t affect your applications. low or high level doesn ' t really matter, languages are primarily tools. you should choose the one that best fits whatever you ' re building in combination with what skills you have. most popular languages are multi - purpose and turing complete, in theory they are valid choices for building almost anything.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5554808366467594, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.429177"} {"text": "individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | in psychology, biological psychology, also known as biopsychology and psychobiology, is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior. a psychobiologist, for instance, may compare the imprinting behavior in goslings to the early attachment behavior in human infants and construct theory around these two phenomena. biological psychologists may often be interested in measuring some biological variable, e. g. an anatomical, physiological, or genetic variable, in an attempt to relate it quantitatively or qualitatively to a psychological or behavioral variable, and thus contribute to evidence based practice. the study of biological psychology dates back to avicenna ( 980 - 1037 ), a persian psychologist and physician who in the canon of medicine, recognized physiological psychology in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of the word association test. avicenna also gave psychological explanations for certain somatic illnesses, and he always linked the physical and psychological illnesses together. he explained that humidity inside the head can contribute to mood disorders, and he recognized that this occurs when the amount of breath changes : happiness increases the breath, which leads to increased moisture inside the brain, but if this moisture goes beyond its limits, the brain would lose control over its rationality and lead to mental disorders. biological psychology as a scientific discipline later emerged from a variety of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries. in philosophy, men like rene descartes proposed physical models to explain animal and human behavior. descartes, for example, suggested that the pineal gland, a midline unpaired structure in the brain of many organisms, was the point of contact between mind and body. descartes also elaborated on a theory in which the pneumatics of bodily fluids could explain reflexes and other motor behavior. this theory was inspired by moving statues in a garden in paris. other philosophers also helped give birth to psychology. one of the earliest textbooks in the new field, the principles of psychology by william james ( 1890 ), argues that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology : | \u201c | | bodily experiences, therefore, and more particularly brain - experiences, must take a place amongst those conditions of the mental life of which psychology need take account. the spiritualist and the associationist must both be ' cerebralists,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5559153697885628, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.440836"} {"text": "biology : | \u201c | | bodily experiences, therefore, and more particularly brain - experiences, must take a place amongst those conditions of the mental life of which psychology need take account. the spiritualist and the associationist must both be ' cerebralists, ' to the extent at least of admitting that certain peculiarities in the way of working of their own favorite principles are explicable only by the fact that the brain laws are a codeterminant of their result. our first conclusion, then, is that a certain amount of brain - physiology must be presupposed or included in psychology. james, like many early psychologists, had considerable training in physiology. the emergence of both psychology and biological psychology as legitimate sciences can be traced from the emergence of physiology from anatomy, particularly neuroanatomy. physiologists conducted experiments on living organisms, a practice that was distrusted by the dominant anatomists of the 18th and 19th centuries. the influential work of claude bernard, charles bell, and william harvey helped to convince the scientific community that reliable data could be obtained from living subjects. the term \" psychobiology \" has been used in a variety of contexts, but was likely first used in its modern sense by knight dunlap in his book an outline of psychobiology ( 1914 ). dunlap also founded the journal psychobiology. in the announcement of that journal, dunlap writes that the journal will publish research \"... bearing on the interconnection of mental and physiological functions \", which describes the field of biological psychology even in its modern sense. relationship to other fields of psychology and biologyedit in many cases, humans may serve as experimental subjects in biological psychology experiments ; however, a great deal of the experimental literature in biological psychology comes from the study of non - human species, most frequently rats, mice, and monkeys. as a result, a critical assumption in biological psychology is that organisms share biological and behavioral similarities, enough to permit extrapolations across species. this allies biological psychology closely with comparative psychology, evolutionary psychology, and evolutionary biology. biological psychology also has paradigmatic and methodological similarities to neuropsychology, which relies heavily on the study of the behavior of humans with nervous system dysfunction ( i. e., a non - experimentally based biological manipulation ). synonyms for biological psychology include biopsychology, behavioral neuroscience, and psychobiology. physiological psychology is another term often used synonymously with biological psychology, though some authors would make physiological psychology a subfield of biological", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5377831448385731, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.441977"} {"text": "experimentally based biological manipulation ). synonyms for biological psychology include biopsychology, behavioral neuroscience, and psychobiology. physiological psychology is another term often used synonymously with biological psychology, though some authors would make physiological psychology a subfield of biological psychology, with an appropriately more narrow definition. research methods edit the distinguishing characteristic of a biological psychology experiment is that either the independent variable of the experiment is biological, or some dependent variable is biological. in other words, the nervous system of the organism under study is permanently or temporarily altered, or some aspect of the nervous system is measured ( usually to be related to a behavioral variable ). disabling or decreasing neural functionedit - lesions - a classic method in which a brain - region of interest is enabled. lesions can be placed with relatively high accuracy thanks to a variety of brain ' atlases ' which provide a map of brain regions in 3 - dimensional stereotactic coordinates. - electrolytic lesions - neural tissue is destroyed by the use of electric run through. - chemical lesions - neural tissue is destroyed by the infusion of a neurotoxin. - temporary lesions - neural tissue is temporarily disabled by cooling or by the use of anesthetics such as tetrodotoxin. - transcranial magnetic stimulation - a new technique usually used with human subjects in which a magnetic coil applied to the scalp causes unsystematic electrical activity in nearby cortical neurons which can be experimentally analyzed as a functional lesion. - psychopharmacological manipulations - a chemical receptor antagonist enduces neural activity by interfering with neurotransmission. antagonists can be delivered systemically ( such as by intravenous injection ) or locally ( intracebrally ) during a surgical procedure. enhancing neural function edit - electrical stimulation - a classic method in which neural activity is enhanced by application of a small electrical current ( too small to cause significant cell death ). - psychopharmacological manipulations - a chemical receptor agonist facilitates neural activity by enhancing or replacing endogenous neurotransmitters. agonists can be delivered systemically ( such as by intravenous injection ) or locally ( intracebrally ) during a surgical procedure. - transcranial magnetic stimulation - in some cases ( for example, studies of motor cortex ), this technique can be analyzed as having a stimulatory effect ( rather than as a functional lesion ). measuring neural activity edit - single unit recording - the measurement of the electrical activity of one ne", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5697962843856401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.442983"} {"text": "for example, studies of motor cortex ), this technique can be analyzed as having a stimulatory effect ( rather than as a functional lesion ). measuring neural activity edit - single unit recording - the measurement of the electrical activity of one neuron, often in the context of an ongoing behavioral ( psychological ) task. - multielectrode recording - the use of a bundle of fine electrodes to record the simultaneous activity of up to hundreds of neurons. - fmri - functional magnetic resonance imaging, a technique most frequently applied on human subjects, in which changes in cerebral blood flow can be detected in an mri apparatus and are taken to indicate relative activity of larger scale brain regions ( i. e., on the order of hundreds of thousands of neurons ). - electroencephalography - or eeg ; and the derivative technique of event - related potentials, in which scalp electrodes monitor the average activity of neurons in the cortex ( again, used most frequently with human subjects ). - functional neuroanatomy - in which the expression of some anatomical marker is taken to reflect neural activity. for example, the expression of immediate early genes is thought to be caused by vigorous neural activity. likewise, the injection of 2 - deoxyglucose prior to some behavioral task can be followed by anatomical localization of that chemical ; it is taken up by neurons that are electrically active. genetic manipulations edit - qtl mapping - the influence of a gene in some behavior can be statistically inferred by studying inbred strains of some species, most commonly mice. the recent sequencing of the genome of many species, most notably mice, has facilitated this technique. - selective breeding - organisms, often mice, may be bred selectively among inbred strains to create a recombinant congenic strain. this might be done to isolate an experimentally interesting stretch of dna derived from one strain on the background genome of another strain to allow stronger inferences about the role of that stretch of dna. - genetic engineering - the genome may also be experimentally - manipulated ; for example, knockout mice can be engineered to lack a particular gene, or a gene may be expressed in a strain which does not normally do so ( the ' knock in ' ). advanced techniques may also permit the expression or suppression of a gene to occur by injection of some regulating chemical. topic areas in biological psychology edit in general, biological psychologists study the same issues as academic psychologists, though limited by the need to use nonhuman species", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6065778769586356, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.444020"} {"text": "techniques may also permit the expression or suppression of a gene to occur by injection of some regulating chemical. topic areas in biological psychology edit in general, biological psychologists study the same issues as academic psychologists, though limited by the need to use nonhuman species. as a result, the bulk of literature in biological psychology deals with mental processes and behaviors that are shared across mammalian species, such as : - sensation and perception - motivated behavior ( hunger, thirst, sex ) - control of movement - learning and memory - sleep and biological rhythms however, with increasing technical sophistication and with the development of more precise noninvasive methods that can be applied to human subjects, biological psychologists are beginning to contribute to other classical topic areas of psychology, such as : - reasoning and decision making biological psychology has also had a strong history of contributing to the understanding of medical disorders, including those that fall under the purview of clinical psychology and psychopathology ( also known as abnormal psychology ). although animal models for all mental illnesses do not exist, the field has contributed important therapeutic data on a variety of conditions, including : - parkinson ' s disease, a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer ' s motor skills and speech. - huntington ' s disease, a rare inherited neurological disorder whose most obvious symptoms are abnormal body movements and a lack of coordination. it also affects a number of mental abilities and some aspects of personality. - alzheimer ' s disease, a neurodegenerative disease that, in its most common form, is found in people over the age of 65 and is characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining activities of daily living and by neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes. - clinical depression, a common psychiatric disorder, characterized by a persistent lowering of mood, loss of interest in usual activities and diminished ability to experience pleasure. - schizophrenia, a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental illness characterized by impairments in the perception or expression of reality, most commonly manifesting as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking in the context of significant social or occupational dysfunction. - autism, a brain development disorder that impairs social interaction and communication, and causes restricted and repetitive behavior, all starting before a child is three years old. - anxiety, a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. these components combine to create the feelings that are typically recognized as fear, apprehension, or worry. - drug abuse, including", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5526778826326133, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.445066"} {"text": "a child is three years old. - anxiety, a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. these components combine to create the feelings that are typically recognized as fear, apprehension, or worry. - drug abuse, including alcoholism nobel laureates edit the following nobel prize winners could reasonably be considered biological psychologists. ( this list omits winners who were almost exclusively neuroanatomists or neurophysiologists ; i. e., those that did not measure behavioral or psychological variables. ) - charles sherrington ( 1932 ) - edgar adrian ( 1932 ) - walter hess ( 1949 ) - egas moniz ( 1949 ) - georg von bekesy ( 1961 ) - george wald ( 1967 ) - ragnar granit ( 1967 ) - konrad lorenz ( 1973 ) - niko tinbergen ( 1973 ) - karl von frisch ( 1973 ) - roger w. sperry ( 1981 ) - david h. hubel ( 1981 ) - torsten n. wiesel ( 1981 ) - eric r. kandel ( 2000 ) - arvid carlsson ( 2000 ) - richard axel ( 2004 ) - linda b. buck ( 2004 ) - behavioural genetics - behavioral neuroscience - biological psychiatry - biopsychcosocial approach - cognitive neuroscience - developmental psychobiology - embodied philosophy - evolutionary psychology references & bibliographyedit | this page uses creative commons licensed content from wikipedia ( view authors ). | < ref > tags exist, but no < references / > tag was found", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5719160839587514, "token_count": 308, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.445644"} {"text": "underfloor heating is a form of central heating that uses heat conductivity and radiant heat for indoor climate control. it can be used with concrete and wooden floors and with all types of flooring. it warms the lower part of both the room and the body giving off a feeling of natural warmth. most systems are either warm water systems or electric systems. systems can be a poured floor system, in which the system is encapsulated in a masonry mix, or it can be a sub floor system in which it is attached directly to the subfloor. while there are differences and similarities between the two systems, both are energy efficient, space saving, and fitter than conventional heating systems. water underfloor heating consists of warm water being circulated through pipes or tubes that are set into the floor. since this system allows water to circulate by thermosiphon, it is prostrate to blockage by air bubbles that accumulate in the high spots and block the flow of water. a ticker will need to be used for purging to allow the water to circulate through the tubing fast enough to dislodge the air bubble. the heart will activate when the system stable and will shut off when circulation is restored. with the electric alternative, the heat is spread throughout cables placed in the floor. there is no need to be implicated about blockage or purging with an electric heating system. with hot water heating, you will need a pressure reduction valve to reduce the city water pressure to the lowest point needed for the heating system, an air centrifuge to take the air out of fresh water, and an expansion tank to accommodate the change in water volume in the system as the water heats up and cools down. electric underfloor heating does not require such advanced equipment. you will need cable or a cable mat, insulation, tile adhesive, and a thermostat to install the system. water underfloor heating systems can also be used in reverse with cold water being placed in the system to take the heat out of a building. when using this method, the surface temperatures mustiness remain above the air \u2019 s dew point temperature to prevent mold growth and slithering hazards. electric heating systems ar not intentional to take the heat out of a building or room. however, if the sun is shining on an area that is heated by electric cables, the heat will turn off and allow the sun to naturally heat the area. with water systems, soil can influence downward heat loss.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5481105896612631, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.452568"} {"text": "out of a building or room. however, if the sun is shining on an area that is heated by electric cables, the heat will turn off and allow the sun to naturally heat the area. with water systems, soil can influence downward heat loss. heated and cooled surfaces need to be isolated from vents, cold plumbing lines, and appliances. dew point control is a major concern for wet systems. another concern is control and expansion of the floor joints and crack suppression in concrete and tiled surfaces. with the electric heating systems, floor buildup is non a trouble because the electric cables are installed onto an insulation board or directly onto the subfloor with the floor covering placed directly over the heating system. adhesive is applied between the layers and prevents cracks from forming in the floor. water systems are expensive to install but increase energy efficiency in the home from ten to forty percent. the piping can have a lifespan of up to one hundred years and is almost maintenance free. the central heating equipment, pumps, and controls will require periodic maintenance and replacement. electric underfloor heating systems have a very low installation cost because they are easy to install and have a low start up cost. all that is required is a thermostat. all you need to do is start astatine your thermostat and roll the heating cable or heating cable mat out over the floor. they also need no maintenance and can be more easy controlled to run when they are needed. both hot water and electric heating systems can heat an entire room or heat particular zones in the room. for a hot water underfloor heating system to control specific zones, you will need zone valves on the heart to divide the hot water flow to each zone that requires heat. with an electric system, you will simply use more than one thermostat for zone control heating. both hot water and electric underfloor heating allows the lower part of the room and body to be warmed by heat. since the heating is installed close to the floor surface, warming up a room is faster than conventional heating. the heat spreads over the entire area which reduces heat loss without overheating the surrounding area. since both hot water electric heating are buried under the floor, the floor is like one giant radiator. there are no hot spots creating large air currents that carry dust particles around the room. since both underfloor heating systems cause less air movement, they reduce the circulation of pollution, dust, and allergens. both systems make it possible to lower the thermostat without any", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5272094712708626, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.453528"} {"text": "when faced with the possibility of cooperating for mutual gain, states that feel insecure must ask how the gain will be divided.. a state worries about a division of possible gains that may favor others more than itself. that is the first way in which the structure of international politics limits the cooperation of states. a state also worries lest it become dependent on others through cooperative endeavors and exchanges of goods and services... the world ' s well - being would be increased if an ever more elaborate divisions of labor were developed, but states would thereby place themselves in situations of ever closer interdependence... in an unorganized realm each unit ' s incentive is to put itself in a position to be able to take care of itself since no one can be counted on to do so. the international imperative is \" take care of yourself \"! some leaders of nations may understand that the well - being of all of them would increase in their participation in a fuller division of labor. but to act on the idea would be to act on a domestic imperative, an imperative that does not run internationally... waltz ' s argument may not apply perfectly to the eu, since he claims that the fundamental impediment to cooperation is the threat of conflict. the era of european wars is long over, but there may nonetheless be something to waltz ' s argument. in the midst of economic crisis, tensions between european countries have hardened, and the crisis has caused bickering among eu member nations. on another note, a recent ft / harris poll of the british public found that only one in three brits wants to remain in the eu.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.524796841594958, "token_count": 331, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.460107"} {"text": "| noah webster ' s dictionary | 1. ( n. ) a change of place from higher to lower ; as, a descent from a mountaintop. 2. ( n. ) incursion ; sudden attack ; especially, hostile invasion from sea ; - - often followed by upon or on ; as, to make a descent upon the enemy. 3. ( n. ) progress downward, as in station, virtue, as in station, virtue, and the like, from a higher to a lower state, from a higher to a lower state, from the more to the less important, from the better to the worse, etc. 4. ( n. ) derivation, as from an ancestor ; procedure by generation ; lineage ; birth ; extraction. 5. ( n. ) transmission of an estate by inheritance, usually, but not necessarily, in the descending line ; title to inherit an estate by reason of consanguinity. 6. ( n. ) inclination downward ; a descending way ; inclined or sloping surface ; declivity ; slope ; as, a steep descent. 7. ( n. ) that which is descended ; descendants ; issue. 8. ( n. ) a step or remove downward in any scale of gradation ; a degree in the scale of genealogy ; a generation. 9. ( n. ) lowest place ; extreme downward place. 10. ( n. ) a passing from a higher to a lower tone. int. standard bible encyclopedia de - send ', de - sent ' ( yaradh ; katabaino, \" go down \" ) ; ( katabasis ) : of yahweh ( exodus 34 : 5 ) ; of the spirit ( matthew 3 : 16 ) ; of angels ( genesis 28 : 12 matthew 28 : 2 john 1 : 51 ) ; of christ ( 1 thessalonians 4 : 16 ephesians 4 : 9 ). \" he also descended into the lower parts of the earth \" is variously interpreted, the two chief interpretations being the one of the incarnation, and the other of the \" descent into hell \" ( 1 peter 3 : 19 ). the former regards the clause \" of the earth, \" an appositive genitive, as when we speak of \" the city of rome, \" namely, \" the lower parts, i. e. the earth. \" the other regards the genitive as possessive, or, with meyer, as governed by the comparative, i. e. \" parts lower than the earth. \" for the former view,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5599468476576204, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.465197"} {"text": "faculdade de ciencias e tecnologia ( fct ) > fct departamentos > fct : departamento de ciencias da terra > fct : dct - ciencias da terra > please use this identifier to cite or link to this item : | title : | | dinossaurios eocretacicos de lagosteiros | | authors : | | antunes, m. t. | | issue date : | | 10 - jul - 2008 | | abstract : | | according to an ancient folkloric legend, our lady, stepping down from the sea, would have rided on a mule to the platform above the cliffs named pedra da mua at lagosteiros ' bay, near espichel cape. mule ' s footprints, regarded by fishermen as evidence, would be clearly recognizable on exposed surfaces of the rocks. indeed there are footprints but from dinosaurs of latest jurassic, portlandian age, this spectacular locality being specially rich in giant sauropod tracks ( that have seldom been found elsewhere in europe ). as we proceeded to its study, another locality with dinosaur footprints, lower cretaceous ( hauterivian ) in age, was found on the northern cliffs at lagosteiros. it is probably the richest one in european lower cretaceous and the only of this age known in portugal, so we decided to give priority to its study. dinosaur tracks have been printed on calciclastic sands in a lagoonal environment protected by fringing coral reefs. there have been emersion episodes ; beaches were frequented by dinosaurs. later on, the marine barremian ingression restablished a gulf and such animals could not come here any more. under a paleogeographical viewpoint, the evidence of a marine regression near the end of hauterivian is to be remarked. five types of tracks and footprints have been recognized : - neosauropus lagosteirensis, new morphogenus and species, tracks from a giant sauropod, perhaps from camarasaurus ; with its proportions the total length of the author would be about 15, 5 m. these are the only sauropod tracks known till now in europe ' s lower cretaceous. - tracks from a not so big quadruped, maybe a sauropod ( young individual? ) ; however it is not impossible that they were produced by stegosaurians or ankylosaurians. - megalosauropus (? eutynichnium ) go", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5053558897478136, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.472793"} {"text": "a look at why william gibson ' s vision of a washed - up computer hacker navigating his way through a dystopian future is a vital piece of literature... there are few books that have been published in my lifetime that have had such a profound influence on not only literature, but on the world at large, as william gibson \u2019 s 1984 novel neuromancer. in simple terms, neuromancer, at its core, is a detective noir story set in a dystopian future. but this isn \u2019 t a novel that can be accounted for in simple terms. neuromancer is told from the perspective of our narrator, henry dorsett case. case is the novel \u2019 s reluctant anti - hero : a suicidal, drug - addled ex - hacker residing without work in chiba city, japan. almost from the outset, we see case as a world - weary cynic who bums around in bars trying not to let his past catch up with him. the last time he was caught, his captors destroyed his nervous system, making it impossible for case to access cyberspace, \u2013 a term coined by gibson that has become part of our common lexicon : \u201c cyberspace. a consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical concepts \u2026 a graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system. unthinkable complexity. lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. like city lights, receding. \u201d though gibson saw this through dystopian eyes, the word and the concept of cyberspace is now an inescapable part of modern life. i \u2019 m not sure how true this is, but author jack womack argued that gibson \u2019 s conception of cyberspace inspired the structure of the world wide web, asking \u201c what if the act of writing it down, in fact, brought it about? \u201d if there is even a shred of truth to this assertion, then this alone surely secures gibson \u2019 s legacy as one of the most important creative imaginations of the last century, and i say this without exaggeration. the drama of the story begins when case is tracked down by molly, a \u201c street samurai \u201d who works as a mercenary for an ex - army officer who goes by the name of armitage. through case \u2019 s drug - fuelled paranoia, he convinces himself that molly works for his", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5420651719551054, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.481347"} {"text": "conjecture ). beyond the techno - fetishism and the cybernetic - dystopia of neuromancer, there is also oodles of charm and humour. neuromancer is not a funny book : it takes itself quite seriously, but with this seriousness, the wit and personality of some of its characters can \u2019 t help but add an extra dimension to the proceedings. for example, when armitage arranges for the repair of case \u2019 s nervous system he says, \u201c you needed a new pancreas. the one we bought for you frees you from a dangerous dependency. \u201d to which case responds, \u201c thanks, but i was enjoying that dependency. \u201d beyond the techno - fetishism and the cybernetic - dystopia of neuromancer, there is also oodles of charm and humour. neuromancer is not a funny book : it takes itself quite seriously, but with this seriousness, the wit and personality of some of its characters can \u2019 t help but add an extra dimension to the proceedings though the novel is set in the future, there are many points in the story that give a direct nod to popular culture of the early 1980s. indeed, the concept of cyberspace is simply gibson \u2019 s speculative extrapolation of early video games. but it \u2019 s not just technology and science that gibson draws on in his vision of the future. with the proliferation of rastafarianism in the late 1970s, it is perhaps of little wonder that a band of rastafarian outlaws are key to the development of neuromancer \u2019 s narrative. gibson draws on the imagery of the dreadlocked, dub - loving pot - smoker adorned with bright colours, and combines it with a space ship ( called zion, no less ). case spends much of the latter part of the novel hooked up to the matrix ( sound familiar? ). sometimes he experiences the real - world, but from the perspective of molly \u2019 s cybernetic lenses, at others, he \u2019 s interacting with artificial intelligence constructs, that end up forming a key part of the plot. one such construct is wintermute, who spends much of the novel attempting to break its programme and develop a personality. it \u2019 s difficult to outline wintermute without spoiling some key elements of the plot, but all i \u2019 ll say is that wintermute adds a great sense of mystery and intrigue to the novel. indeed, the inclusion of wintermute ( and other ai constructs )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5380542387084015, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.484562"} {"text": "outline wintermute without spoiling some key elements of the plot, but all i \u2019 ll say is that wintermute adds a great sense of mystery and intrigue to the novel. indeed, the inclusion of wintermute ( and other ai constructs ) has a similar uncanny effect that asimov and dick capture, in that it raises questions about the nature of consciousness, intelligences, determinism and freewill \u2013 essentially, you empathise with wintermute. the novel is full of incredibly vivid descriptions that manage to capture a real sense of the world and its characters with a few well - chosen turns of phrase. \u201c the sky above the port was the colour of television, tuned to a dead channel \u201d, as an opening line couldn \u2019 t be more perfect in conveying a feeling of the world. or the description of a speed - freak \u2019 s eyes as \u201c eggs of unstable crystal, vibrating with a frequency whose name was rain and the sound of trains, suddenly sprouting a humming forest of hair - fine glass spines. \u201d the importance and influence of neuromancer cannot be underestimated, even if we dismiss completely the idea that gibson \u2019 s creative imagination was the catalyst for the invention of the world wide web. the term cyberpunk was coined by a critic in reaction to this novel. the imagery, ideas and concepts associated with cyberpunk have become a frequently visited well for creative people from fashion designers to tv writers, from game designers to musicians. i am in absolute awe that the residue of one creative mind has left such indelible marks on our world. it is a humble man, indeed, who can create such an important work of literature, and resist the urge to shout arrogantly from the rooftops : \u201c i created this! \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5250063424843374, "token_count": 359, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.485264"} {"text": "waves and hemispheres in numerous studies, researchers have compared the physical \" body signs \" of hypnotic subjects with those of unhypnotized people. in most of these studies, the researchers found no significant physical change associated with the trance state of hypnosis. the subject ' s heart rate and respiration may slow down, but this is due to the relaxation involved in the hypnotism process, not the hypnotic state itself. do it yourself! you don ' t necessarily need a highly - trained hypnotist to induce hypnosis. with the proper relaxation and focusing techniques, almost everyone can enter a hypnotic state themselves and make their own suggestions to the unconscious mind ( check out selfhypnosis. com to find out how ). some hypnotism experts hold that all hypnosis is self - hypnosis. whether a trance state is brought on by a long, boring drive down the highway or by a skilled psychiatrist, the subject is always the one who initiates the trance. in this view, the hypnotist is only a guide who facilitates the process. there does seem to be changed activity in the brain, however. the most notable data comes from electroencephalographs ( eegs ), measurements of the electrical activity of the brain. extensive eeg research has demonstrated that brains produce different brain waves, rhythms of electrical voltage, depending on their mental state. deep sleep has a different rhythm than dreaming, for example, and full alertness has a different rhythm than relaxation. in some studies, eegs from subjects under hypnosis showed a boost in the lower frequency waves associated with dreaming and sleep, and a drop in the higher frequency waves associated with full wakefulness. brain - wave information is not a definitive indicator of how the mind is operating, but this pattern does fit the hypothesis that the conscious mind backs off during hypnosis and the subconscious mind takes a more active role. researchers have also studied patterns in the brain ' s cerebral cortex that occur during hypnosis. in these studies, hypnotic subjects showed reduced activity in the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, while activity in the right hemisphere often increased. neurologists believe that the left hemisphere of the cortex is the logical control center of the brain ; it operates on deduction, reasoning and convention. the right hemisphere, in contrast, controls imagination and creativity. a decrease in left - hemisphere activity fits with the hypothesis that hypnosis subdues the conscious mind ' s inhibitory influence. conversely, an increase in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5626247221933814, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.554983"} {"text": "in an increasingly wired and interconnected world, you may be tempted to access your online banking from public wi - fi, accept files from people you know only through social - media connections, try out numerous freeware smartphone apps and assume that password protection offers sufficient security for your wireless home network. in the real world of online crooks, scams and fraud, however, these practices can make you a sitting duck for keystroke logger scams. how keylogging works keystroke loggers act as data recorders that compile a record of every keystroke you type on your computer. they can be used to obtain illicit access to usernames, passwords, social security numbers and other personally identifiable information, financial data, proprietary technical or business secrets, and formal or casual communications between individuals who use chat or text methods. some keyloggers run as software programs in the background of your regular computer operations. others hook directly into your operating system and take over the functions of keystroke interpretation. finally, some run from hardware devices plugged in to your computer. these virtual or physical pieces of malware can store captured data for physical retrieval or transmit it through your internet connection to a remote a location. a scammer with physical access to your desktop computer can attach a device that contains a keylogging payload to one of the ports on your system. designed to look like a dongle, plug or cable, these gadgets work most effectively when they attach to the back of your computer, minimizing the likelihood that you recognize their presence. the size and shape of a laptop computer reduces the chances of a keylogger attachment escaping your view, but a keylogger delivered through a usb flash drive could escape your notice. alternatively, however, one of these devices plugged in to a public computer can bypass the awareness of everyone who used an unfamiliar system. avoid flash drives of unknown origin and remain alert to changes in your computer ' s configuration. at the same time, restrict your use of public wi - fi to activities that don ' t disclose your personal and financial information. phishing email scams often include either an attachment that a message encourages you to activate by clicking on it or a link to a site you ' re encouraged to visit. these messages and their directly attached or indirectly acquired malware payloads can serve as an effective means of introducing software - based keyloggers onto your computer. if you ' ve educated yourself about phishing scams and carefully resist the temptation to click on attachments in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5486760257123312, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.559030"} {"text": "their directly attached or indirectly acquired malware payloads can serve as an effective means of introducing software - based keyloggers onto your computer. if you ' ve educated yourself about phishing scams and carefully resist the temptation to click on attachments in suspicious messages or those from unknown senders, you can limit your vulnerability to keyloggers, but maintaining an up - to - date anti - malware program in addition can halt an attack that comes from a dubious file or website destination. smartphones can act as pocket computers, providing unparalleled mobile access to your personal data and files as well as online destinations. their power, flexibility and mobility also make them ideal targets for phishing scams that can install malware. free apps can consist entirely of keylogging routines, activated when you install a product only to find that it lacks any business or entertainment value, and become infected in the process. some freeware products incorporate keyloggers into routines that offer some actual value - - entertainment or otherwise - - but that also record the websites you visit or other aspects of your online behavior, reporting these details to a company that sells consumer - behavior information. - tompkins trust company : trojans and keystroke logging - dark reading : fbi warns of scams targeting financial industry - symantec : introduction to spyware keyloggers - securelist : keyloggers : how they work and how to detect them ( part 1 ) - nedbank : keystroke logging - eweek : police foil $ 420 million keylogger scam - the register : hardware keyloggers found in manchester library pcs - the register : police cuff us student keystroke logger - securityfocus : guilty plea in kinko ' s keystroke caper - msn money : your smartphone may be spying on you - cnet : faq : demystifying id fraud - identity guard resource center : keylogging : identity theft threat or useful tool for employers? - western australia police : what are keystroke loggers? - community financial services bank : fraud security : protecting yourself from online banking fraud - msn money : financial privacy : be wary of these 9 credit card scams - visa data security alert : key logger malware : key stroke and screen capture - nerdwallet : beware of scams during the holidays - the register : mission impossible at the sumitomo bank - jupiterimages / comstock / getty images", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5127123515266032, "token_count": 498, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.560040"} {"text": "a v12 engine often just called a v12 is an internal combustion engine with 12 cylinders. the engine has six cylinders on each side called banks. the two banks form a \" v \" shaped angle. in most engines, the two banks are at a 60\u00b0 angle to each other. all twelve pistons turn a common crankshaft. it can be powered by different types of fuels, including gasoline, diesel and natural gas. each cylinder bank is basically a straight - 6. this set - up has perfect balance no matter which v angle is used. a v12 engine does not need balance shafts. a v12 angled at 45\u00b0, 60\u00b0, 120\u00b0, or 180\u00b0 from each other has even firing and is smoother than a straight - 6. this provides a smooth running engine for a luxury car. in a racing car, the engine can be made much lighter. this makes the engine more responsive and smoother. in a large heavy - duty engine, a v12 can run slower, and prolonging engine life. the rolls - royce merlin v12 powered the hawker hurricane and supermarine spitfire fighters that played a vital role in britain ' s victory in the battle of britain. the long, narrow configuration of the v12 contributed to good aerodynamics, while its exceptional smoothness allowed its use with relatively light and fragile airframes. road cars [ change ] in cars, v12 engines are not common because of their complexity and cost. they are normally found only in high - end sports cars and luxury cars. for these cars, they are desired for their power, low vibration, and distinctive sound. before world war ii, v12 engines were found in many luxury cars. in the 1930s, v8 engines started to replace the v12s. the v8 engine design was improved to make it lighter and produce more power than the v12. since world war ii, only a few car manufactures have used v12 engines. in 1997, toyota equipped their century limousine with a 5. 0 l v12, making it the first japanese production passenger car with a v12. in 2009, china faw group corporation equipped their hongqi hqe with a 6. 0 l v12, making it the first chinese production passenger car so equipped. auto racing [ change ] in the past, v12 engines were common in formula one and endurance racing. ferrari used v12 engines in 1950, the first year of formula one. several factors made teams stop using the v12 engine. improvements to the v8 engine, in particular ford co", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5235376044979914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.577492"} {"text": "analog input channels temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter expressed in units of degrees on a standard scale. you can measure temperature in many different ways that vary in equipment cost and accuracy. the most common types of sensors are thermocouples, rtds, and thermistors. figure 1. thermocouples are inexpensive and can operate over a wide range of temperatures. thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensors because they are relatively inexpensive yet accurate sensors that can operate over a wide range of temperatures. a thermocouple is created when two dissimilar metals touch and the contact point produces a small open - circuit voltage as a function of temperature. you can use this thermoelectric voltage, known as seebeck voltage, to calculate temperature. for small changes in temperature, the voltage is approximately linear. you can choose from different types of thermocouples designated by capital letters that indicate their compositions according to american national standards institute ( ansi ) conventions. the most common types of thermocouples include b, e, k, n, r, s, and t. for more information on thermocouples, read the engineer ' s toolbox for thermocouples. figure 2. rtds are made of metal coils and can measure temperatures up to 850 \u00b0c. a platinum rtd is a device made of coils or films of metal ( usually platinum ). when heated, the resistance of the metal increases ; when cooled, the resistance decreases. passing current through an rtd generates a voltage across the rtd. by measuring this voltage, you can determine its resistance and, thus, its temperature. the relationship between resistance and temperature is relatively linear. typically, rtds have a resistance of 100 \u03c9 at 0 \u00b0c and can measure temperatures up to 850 \u00b0c. for more information on rtds, read the engineer ' s toolbox for rtds. figure 3. passing current through a thermistor generates a voltage proportional to temperature. a thermistor is a piece of semiconductor made from metal oxides that are pressed into a small bead, disk, wafer, or other shape and sintered at high temperatures. lastly, they are coated with epoxy or glass. as with rtds, you can pass a current through a thermistor to read the voltage across the thermistor and determine its temperature. however, unlike rtds, thermistors have a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6130548365502275, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.580224"} {"text": "anguispira alternata angulata from mnra. both shells were from an area about 40 m x 10 m. one of the abundant species in monocacy natural resources area where i did a land snail survey was what pilsbry1 called anguispira alternata angulata, a keeled or carinated morph of anguispira alternata. according to pilsbry ' s synonymy, this morph was first described by ferussac in 1822 as helix alternata var. carinata. in 1896, pilsbry & rhoads changed the name to pyramidula alternata carinata and then in 1948, pilsbry came up with the new name anguispira alternata form angulata. figure from pilsbry1. according to pilsbry1, the shell of angulata differs from the typical a. alternata \" by the distinctly to strongly angular periphery \". although he makes the point that the periphery is \" hardly to be called keeled \", to me \" carinated \", \" angular \" and \" keeled \" all mean more or less the same thing, especially when the degree of carination is variable. pilsbry also notes that the prominent ribs on the upper surface of the shell \" are much reduced ( or sometimes subobsolete ) \" below the periphery, that is on the bottom of the shell. leaving aside the question of what he might have possibly meant by \" subobsolete \", i will point out that the prominence of the ribs on the bottom of my shells are indeed quite variable even in specimens collected from the same location. for example, the photo below shows the bottoms of the 2 shells from mnra shown in the first picture. the one on the left in the first picture is the one on the bottom in the picture below. its bottom is smoother than that of the other shell. and these shells were from an area about 40 m x 10 m. so speculating that there may have been differences in their habitats is not justified in this case. i don ' t know if shell size is a factor that contributes to shell sculpture ( the shell with the smoother bottom is smaller ). bottoms of the shells in the first photo. the one on the left in the first picture is the one on the bottom here. pilsbry gave records of angulata from several eastern states including, kentucky, pennsylvania, tennessee, virginia and maryland. earlier, f. c. baker", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5026890747248796, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.597629"} {"text": "scientific linux 6. 0 ( 2011 / x86 / x64 ) | 5. 05 gb scientific linux ( sl ) - distribution of the operating system linux, which was created jointly by fermilab and cern, with support from various laboratories and universities from around the world. its original purpose was to reduce duplication of laboratories and have a total installed base for the various experiments and other research projects. the base sl distribution is based on red hat enterprise linux, recompiled from source. the main purpose of the base distribution - to provide full binary compatibility with red hat enterprise linux with a few to make minor additions or changes. examples of such additions are pine, and openafs. scientific linux uses ' yum to download and install updates from the repository, such as fedora, unlike red hat enterprise linux, which receives updates from the servers, red hat network. scientific linux can be used to create a working environment of the user, developer, administrator. the distribution package includes components to support virtualization xen. the distribution includes a complete set of software components for server infrastructure for both internal network and the internet. on its base can be created a file and print server, mail server, web server, database server ( mysql, postgresql ), or metadirectory ldap, etc. the kit includes components to create a cluster infrastructure for various purposes : computing clusters, clusters of high reliability and clusters with load balancing. the main differences from rhel 6. 0 : * added icewm ; * supported by openafs - distributed file system ; * there is yum - autoupdate, allowing every day automatically update distribution ; * supplied revisor, livecd - tools, liveusb - creator - the tools to create livecd / liveusb ; * available for additional yum - repository.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5360517597732923, "token_count": 377, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.601571"} {"text": "| project overview > introduction solar muri is a collaborative project studying magnetic eruptions on the sun and their effects on the earth ' s space environment. ( \" muri \" stands for multidisciplinary university research initiative, a research program funded by dod. ) the aim of the project is to improve our ability to predict space weather from solar observations. the project will construct a series of physically connected, observationally tested models of the sun and its interplanetary environment. these models will allow us to use observations of the sun ' s atmosphere and magnetic configuration to determine : | a solar prominence observed by the eit instrument on soho ultimately, our goal is to provide several extra days of notice prior to an sep event or geomagnetic storm. - when a magnetic eruption is imminent - if that magnetic eruption will impact the earth ' s space environment - whether this will result in a solar energetic particle ( sep ) bombardment and / or a geomagnetic storm a number of intermediate goals must be achieved to complete the solar muri project. these are summarized below : - measure the solar magnetic field with sufficient accuracy and coverage to discern which magnetic properties are the key to determining whether eruptions will occur - understand the physics governing magnetic eruptions on the sun sufficiently well to construct realistic numerical simulations - simulate the interplanetary propagation of coronal mass ejections ( cmes ) out to 1. 0 au with sufficient accuracy to construct accurate models of conditions upstream of the earth - couple models of the sun ' s magnetic lower atmosphere, lower corona, upper corona, and solar wind in such a way that a model of an unstable magnetic configuration on the sun can be propagated out to the earth - verify the performance of these coupled models with test cases based on observed magnetic eruptions, their interplanetary disturbances ( interplanetary coronal mass ejections - icmes ), the sep events, and the general levels of geomagnetic response - years 1 - 3 : collect the necessary observations. develop the numerical modelling codes and the interfaces between these codes. - years 4 - 5 : apply the coupled simulation codes to a set of observed cmes. evaluate their performance in determining the consequences of solar observations.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5056851921800537, "token_count": 444, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.605308"} {"text": "17 december 2012 the do : the principle of full and empty space the following is an excerpt from the book taekwondo : the spirit of korea ( 2000 ) by steven d. carpener, jae sik suh and edward h. kim, from the chapter \" the technical philosophy of taekwondo \" ( p. 23 - 25 ). i ' m sharing this excerpt as it very effectively explains the very important princple of full and empty space. interestingly, while this book was published by korea ' s ministry of culture and tourism as a type of glossy coffee table book rather than an official reference book, this is one of the few english sources that so succinctly explains this core principle in taekwondo.... taekwondo ' s taoist philosophy is expressed in the tao ( or do in korean ) character found in taekwondo ' s name. the do is generally understood as a way, path, or process one follows in anything one attempts. do, as an eastern philosophical concept is difficult to express in words. however, in describing taekwondo training it is possible to demonstrate how the do elevates taekwondo from merely a spirited combat sport or self - defense technique to a way of expressing harmony between one ' s mental and physical states, and with one ' s environment. the way the do operates in taekwondo training must be understood in asian philosophical terms. the general understanding of the do is that it is a proper way to do something. in physical terms, this means when the body moves there is a proper way or path which that movement should follow to be most efficient, graceful, or appropriate. in taekwondo training, especially in sparring, this means that there is one most correct way to execute techniques in any given situation. this is the stage of skill. when one teaches a point where the body moves naturally according to the proper way or path, we say that one has mastered a particular skill. in taekwondo sparring, when one ' s movements are performed correctly according to the demands of the situation, one has experienced a moment of harmony between oneself and the opponent. one of the key principles of the do that makes this harmony possible is the principle of empty and full space. according to this principle, when two bodies interacts, the relative positions of those bodies in space and time create a continuous flowing exchange of full and empty space. due to the limited number of ways the legs and arms can be used within the restrictions ( rules ) of sparring there are a fixed number of possible techniques. the result of this is that for every attack there are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5692537117467587, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.609574"} {"text": "exchange of full and empty space. due to the limited number of ways the legs and arms can be used within the restrictions ( rules ) of sparring there are a fixed number of possible techniques. the result of this is that for every attack there are one or more perfectly complimentary counterattacks. and for every counterattack, there are one or more perfectly complimentary re - counterattacks. this means that each person knows what the likely responses to any given attack or counterattack will be. therefore, the superior player is the one who can take advantage of the empty space created in the opponent ' s position by using speed, timing, and strategy. the strategic aspect of taekwondo is especially fascinating. no other martial art uses kicking techniques with such finesse and accuracy. the superior player ' s body is able to predict or sense the moment when his or her opponent will surrender an instant of empty space which, if \u201c filled \u201d with the appropriate technique, results in a scoring strike that has the symmetry of two perfectly meshing gears. this moment, when a point is achieved by manipulating the principle of full and empty space, is not only the goal of sparring and competition, but can also be a moment of physical and mental harmony : the harmony of one ' s own spirit and body resulting in right action, and the harmony of one ' s fullness with the opponent ' s emptiness. when approached in this way, taekwondo sparring is ripe with the potential for philosophical ( educational ) value. the moment of right action is very important not only in the sense that one ' s technique and spirit are correct but also because this is the instant when one has entered the level of the do. it is the ultimate moment when one ' s body has found the way to fill the opponent ' s emptiness in the midst of fierce resistance. when one repeatedly experiences this harmony, the doors to higher understanding can be flung open. in fact, it may seem as if the secrets of the universe are being revealed through these quick, precise movements. the taekwondo practitioner then comes to see the opponent not as an adversary but rather, as the potential medium for creating a work of art, much as the sculptor does not merely see a piece of stone but, rather the creation waiting to be liberated. just as there is a technical or physical aesthetic in taekwondo, so also is there a spiritual aesthetic. in order to teach the level where one ' s techniques and movements approach the ideal, a great deal of training is needed. this training is a process which brings about mental and spiritual change..", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5578985792353457, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.610635"} {"text": "there is a book called \" the statistics problem solver \" for $ 4 ( used ) on amazon. buy it! these problem - solver books are great for math & science classes. with thousands of solved problems and the steps for solving them shown, its like having a grad student tutor at your elbow. you have to use the book correctly, though. the wrong way is to look at your homework problem, thumb thru the book until you see a similar one, then apply it blindly to your hw. a 5th grader could do that. instead, use the book as a way to get practice until you understand the concepts. go to the chapter matching your current classwork, cover up the answers and start working problems. if you get it wrong, read the correct steps, cover them up, do it again. keep working problems until you get it. when you get midterms in class you ' ll almost be laughing because you know you can do them all. keep in mind that a standard expectation for a college class is 2 - 3 hours outside of the class for every hour in it. your class will meet 3x a week for an hour, which means you ought to be putting in 6 - 9 hours outside of class for it. do this, and use your time effectively, you ' ll do well in the class.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5207977824054909, "token_count": 272, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.619010"} {"text": "ieps ). 4. decide how to present the clues to students ( strips of paper within envelopes at stations, single sheets of paper for them to cut apart, etc. ). see examples of clues for additional clues. teachers should read through materials to pull clues that fit students \u2019 needs and abilities. 1. students read through clues and sort them according to common elements. once the clues are sorted, students begin to work on their hypothesis. 2. as students analyze the clues and arrive at a hypothesis, use guiding questions such as, \u201c tell me how the two things relate \u201d and \u201c what \u2019 s your reason for thinking that? \u201d to keep students focused on solving the mystery. avoid guiding them in a direction. the goal is for students to work with the clues and arrive at their own hypothesis. students can use the mystery writing guide worksheet to record ideas. 3. in a whole group, have small groups share their hypotheses and evaluate them. are they logical based on the clues? do they make sense? write group responses on the board so students can track their findings as they move through the evidence. the goal is to test each group hypothesis and arrive at the best conclusion. for example, if one group understands there is a connection between the mountain men and the beaver yet they also think the railroads had a role in the problem, do the clues support or refute these ideas? remind students they are like historians looking at information to form a hypothesis, test it, and arrive at a conclusion. 4. assign each student a written reflection piece on the content learned and the process used to uncover the mystery. this is the most important part of the mystery strategy and should go beyond merely reporting content. prompt students with questions such as : what happened in the activity? what things did you do well? most importantly, ask, which hypothesis best answers the mystery question? why? - data should tease the student without revealing too much. - data should hone inference skills. - clues should provide information not an explanation ( see mystery strategy clues worksheet ). students are presented with the following problem : why did the american beaver almost become extinct in 1840? write the question on the board so it is visible throughout the activity. anticipatory set : begin by employing a student \u2019 s knowledge of science and ecosystems learned earlier. give a short presentation about the american beaver. this would include the fact that beavers maintain dams that create ponds. the water level in these ponds is constant, encouraging the growth of vegetation that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5357168819434293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.626758"} {"text": "telnet server overview applies to : windows server 2008 telnet is an internet - standard utility and protocol based on request for comments ( rfc ) 854. this rfc specifies a method for transmitting and receiving unencrypted ascii characters ( plaintext ) across a network. you can use a telnet client running on one computer to connect to a command line - based session to run applications. only character - based interfaces and applications are supported. there is no graphics capability in the telnet environment. the rfc documents that define telnet can be found at the internet engineering task force web site ( http : / / go. microsoft. com / fwlink /? linkid = 121 ). on that page, click rfc pages, and then type 854 in the rfc number text box and click go. telnet consists of two components : telnet client and telnet server. telnet server hosts the remote sessions for telnet clients. when telnet server is running on a computer, users can connect to the server with a telnet client from a remote computer. telnet server is implemented in windows as a service that can be configured to always run, even when no one is logged on to the server. when a telnet client connects to a computer running telnet server, the remote user is asked to enter a user name and password. the user name and password combination must be one that is valid on the telnet server. telnet server on windows supports two types of authentication : ntlm and password ( or plaintext ). once logged on, a user is presented with a command prompt that can be used as if it had been started locally on the server console. commands that you type at the telnet client command prompt are sent to the telnet server and executed there, as though you were locally logged on to a command prompt session at the server. output from the commands you run are sent back to the telnet client where they are displayed for you to view. telnet does not support applications that require a graphical user interface. however, telnet server and telnet client understand special character sequences that provide some level of formatting and cursor positioning within the telnet client window. telnet server and telnet client support the emulation of four types of terminals : ansi, vt - 100, vt - 52, and vt - nt. installing telnet server telnet server is a feature included with microsoft\u00ae windows server\u00ae 2008 and windows vista\u00ae. on windows server 2008, you can install tel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5349853696799669, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.630699"} {"text": "the white house immediate release \u2014 august 6, 1945 statement by the president of the united states sixteen hours ago an american airplane dropped one bomb on hiroshima, an important japanese army base. that bomb had more power than 20, 000 tons of t. n. t. it had more than two thousand times the blast power of the british \u201c grand slam \u201d which is the largest bomb ever yet used in the history of warfare. the japanese began the war from the air at pearl harbor. they have been repaid many fold. and the end is not yet. with this bomb we have now added a new and revolutionary increase in destruction to supplement the growing power of our armed forces. in their present form these bombs are now in production and even more powerful forms are in development. it is an atomic bomb. it is a harnessing of the basic power of the universe. the force from which the sun draws its power has been loosed against those who brought war to the far east. before 1939, it was the accepted belief of scientists that it was theoretically possible to release atomic energy. but no one knew any practical method of doing it. by 1942, however, we knew that the germans were working feverishly to find a way to add atomic energy to the other engines of war with which they hoped to enslave the world. but they failed. we may be grateful to providence that the germans got the v - 1 \u2032 s and the v - 2 \u2032 s late and in limited quantities and even more grateful that they did not get the atomic bomb at all. the battle of the laboratories held fateful risks for us as well as the battles of the air, land, and sea, and we have now won the battle of the laboratories as we have won the other battles. beginning in 1940, before pearl harbor, scientific knowledge useful in war was pooled between the united states and great britain, and many priceless helps to our victories have come from that arrangement. under that general policy the research on the atomic bomb was begun. with american and british scientists working together we entered the race of discovery against the germans. the united states had available the large number of scientists of distinction in the many needed areas of knowledge. it had the tremendous industrial and financial resources necessary for the project and they could be devoted to it without undue impairment of other vital war work. in the united states the laboratory work and the production plants, on which a substantial start had already been made, would be out of reach of enemy bombing, while at that time britain was exposed to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.511441646673038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.637587"} {"text": "it without undue impairment of other vital war work. in the united states the laboratory work and the production plants, on which a substantial start had already been made, would be out of reach of enemy bombing, while at that time britain was exposed to constant air attack and was still threatened with the possibility of invasion. for these reasons prime minister churchill and president roosevelt agreed that it was wise to carry on the project here. we now have two great plants and many lesser works devoted to the production of atomic power. employment during peak construction numbered 125, 000 and over 65, 000 individuals are even now engaged in operating the plants. many have worked there for two and a half years. few know what they have been producing. they see great quantities of material going in and they see nothing coming out of those plants, for the physical size of the explosive charge is exceedingly small. we have spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history \u2013 and won. but the greatest marvel is not the size of the enterprise, its secrecy, nor its cost, but the achievement of scientific brains in putting together infinitely complex pieces of knowledge held by many men in different fields of science into a workable plan. and hardly less marvelous has been the capacity of industry to design, and of labor to operate, the machines and methods to do things never done before so that the brain child of many minds came forth in physical shape and performed as it was supposed to do. both science and industry worked under the direction of the united states army, which achieved a unique success in managing so diverse a problem in the advancement of knowledge in an amazingly short time. it is doubtful if such another combination could be got together in the world. what has been done is the greatest achievement of organized science in history. it was done under high pressure and without failure. we are now prepared to obliterate more rapidly and completely every productive enterprise the japanese have above ground in any city. we shall destroy their docks, their factories, and their communications. let there be no mistake ; we shall completely destroy japan \u2019 s power to make war. it was to spare the japanese people from utter destruction that the ultimatum of july 26 was issued at potsdam. their leaders promptly rejected that ultimatum. if they do not now accept our terms they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5175249956490537, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.638588"} {"text": "of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware. the secretary of war, who has kept in personal touch with all phases of the project, will immediately make public a statement giving further details. his statement will give facts concerning the sites at oak ridge near knoxville, tennessee, and at richland near pasco, washington, and an installation near santa fe, new mexico. although the workers at the sites have been making materials to be used in producing the greatest destructive force in history they have not themselves been in danger beyond that of many other occupations, for the utmost care has been taken of their safety. the fact that we can release atomic energy ushers in a new era in man \u2019 s understanding of nature \u2019 s forces. atomic energy may in the future supplement the power that now comes from coal, oil, and falling water, but at present it cannot be produced on a basis to compete with them commercially. before that comes there must be a long period of intensive research. it has never been the habit of the scientists of this country or the policy of this government to withhold from the world scientific knowledge. normally, therefore, everything about the work with atomic energy would be made public. but under present circumstances it is not intended to divulge the technical processes of production or all the military applications, pending further examination of possible methods of protecting us and the rest of the world from the danger of sudden destruction. i shall recommend that the congress of the united states consider promptly the establishment of an appropriate commission to control the production and use of atomic power within the united states. i shall give further consideration and make further recommendations to the congress as to how atomic power can become a powerful and forceful influence towards the maintenance of world peace. [ cross - posted at redstate ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5055101956291601, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.639382"} {"text": "question by alexis : chemistry reaction problem?? about mass? please help! thanks!? an experiment that led to the formation of the new field of organic chemistry involved the synthesis of urea, cn2h4o, by the controlled reaction of ammonia and carbon dioxide. 2 nh3 ( g ) + co2 ( g ) cn2h4o ( s ) + h2o ( l ) what is the mass of urea when ammonia is reacted with 100. g of carbon dioxide? answer by jreut use dimensional analysis and stoichiometry : 100 g co2 x 1 mole co2 / 44 g co2 x 1 mol urea / 1 mole co2 x 60 g urea / 1 mole urea = 100 / 44 * 60 = 136. grams of urea produced. the first term, 100 g co2, is your starting amount. the second fraction, 1 mol co2 / 44 g co2, is a conversion factor that equals 1, since there are 44 g co2 in a mole of co2. the third fraction is the stoichiometric ratio in the chemical equation : for every one mole of co2 consumed, 1 mol of urea is formed. the fourth fraction is the conversion factor back to grams. add your own answer in the comments! - installing virtue oled board & laser eyes in dye dm9 paintball gun - bridging digital and physical worlds with sixthsense - official angry birds 3 star walkthrough theme 3 levels 1 - 5 - htc schubert - sketching out a future for the stylus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5029731370070838, "token_count": 328, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.642275"} {"text": "generation. to add to this, now it is also imperative that our fragile environment suffers the least damage possible. in more technical terms, sustainable development is the need of the hour. sustainable development is the only way we can keep mother nature, our growth hungry economies and our very demanding present generation and future lineage happy and smiling. sustainable development is defined by the brundtland commission as \u201c development that meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs \u201d. the field of sustainable development is broadly categorized into the following dimensions : social, economic, environmental and institutional. the future of our planet depends on our use of the available resources. this does not mean that we stall all progress to save the resources for our future generation. this calls for efficient use of non - renewable resources. wastage of such resources must be minimized and alternative sources should be made more feasible for even the common man. by shifting the energy burden from non - renewable to renewable resources, we can stand up to the challenges of the future. a lot can be done using biomass, biofuels, hydroelectric energy, tidal energy, nuclear energy, fusion power, wind power, solar power, and geothermal energy. these are welcome options to ease the burden on our over pressed fossil fuels. these very inviting options are, infact, keeping our scientists busy as they try to find out different ways in which we can use these inexhaustible powerhouses of energy to our advantage. hydroelectric energy serves as an alternative way of generating electricity. the gravitational descant of a river is compressed to a dam or flume. at high pressure, this is used to turn gigantic turbines which in turn produce electricity. this way we can spare some of the coal which would have otherwise been used for this very process. who would have thought that that stinky, disgusting garbage would be such an amazing friend to us in the time of need? biomass involves using garbage, vegetable matter to produce electricity. on decomposing, garbage releases methane ( the root cause of all the stench ) which is captured in pipes and can later on be used to produce electricity. garbage can aptly be called a blessing in disguise! nuclear energy is the king of all alternate sources of energy. by using nuclear fission, electricity can be generated. in fact, by using 1kg of uranium or thorium energy, equivalent to 3. 5 million kg of coal can be produced. this is an area in which extensive research and development is being carried out. since", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5071399578116922, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.663013"} {"text": ", electricity can be generated. in fact, by using 1kg of uranium or thorium energy, equivalent to 3. 5 million kg of coal can be produced. this is an area in which extensive research and development is being carried out. since nuclear energy does not release any polluting gases like carbon dioxide or sulphur dioxide, hence no acid rain or global warming. the limiting factor, which is keeping nuclear energy from being the mother of all energy sources, is that setting up a nuclear plant which meets the safety norms requires huge capital investments. disposing off the toxic nuclear waste is also a problem. it will still be some time before the world can confidently rely on nuclear energy. wind energy is also being harnessed to produce electricity. but this form also has its shortfalls. the wind is rather unpredictable. also, a large land area is required to set up the windmills. the location and type of turbines used in this process can adversely affect bird migration patterns. the sun god has also not stayed behind. its power is also being used to generate electricity and on a smaller scale, to cook food, heat water etc. the development of photovoltaic and solar cells is quite an expensive operation. yet, solar energy is being seen as a very attractive source of energy. there are many other sources which are contributing in their own way to save us from the day of doom. in addition, many new experiments are being carried out to minimize the use of fossil fuels and save the environment from degradation. battery powered vehicles are being created. in fact in agra, only battery powered locomotives are allowed in the vicinity of the tag mahal. these vehicles use a battery which is charged from a grid when the vehicle is not in use. many more such innovations are under way every hour of the day. man, the sublime being, will not give up so easily. he plans to face the threat of depleting resources which looms large by innovating, experimenting and manipulating alternative energy sources so that we don \u2019 t have to halt either our progress or compromise on that of our progeny.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5200786101053902, "token_count": 425, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.663864"} {"text": "mit professor \u2019 s book digs into the eclectic, textually linked reading choices of people in medieval london. the glitter of gold may hold more than just beauty, or so says a team of mit researchers that is working on ways to use tiny gold rods to fight cancer, deliver drugs and more. but before gold nanorods can live up to their potential, scientists must figure out how to overcome one major difficulty : the surfaces of the tiny particles are coated with an uncooperative molecule ( a byproduct of the synthesis process ) that prevents researchers from creating nanorods with the features they want. \" the surface chemistry is really key to everything, \" said kimberly hamad - schifferli, assistant professor of biological and mechanical engineering at mit. \" for all of these nifty applications to work, someone ' s got to sit down and do the dirty work of understanding the surface. \" hamad - schifferli and her colleagues published two papers this month describing ways to manipulate the nanorods ' surface, which could allow researchers to design nanorods with specific useful functions. as their name implies, gold nanorods are tiny cylinders of gold, about 10 billionths of a meter wide and 40 billionths of a meter long. they differ from traditional, spherical gold nanoparticles in one very important respect - - they can absorb infrared light. that means they can theoretically be activated by infrared laser without damaging surrounding cells, which do not absorb infrared light. before that can happen, scientists must figure out how to deal with an organic molecule known as ctab that coats the outer surface of gold nanorods and tends to detach from and reattach itself to the surface. the molecule, a byproduct of the synthesis reaction that produces the nanorods, makes it difficult to attach other molecules for delivery, such as drugs or dna. the team ' s two recent papers describe how the ctab influences heat dissipation and how to remove the ctab and replace it with another organic molecule. in the first paper, published online aug. 12 in the journal of physical chemistry c, they found that a low concentration of the ctab in the surrounding solution accelerates heat dissipation after the nanorod is hit with infrared light. when the concentration of ctab is high, heat is dissipated more slowly. that information could help scientists design nanorods that fight cancer agents by burning away tumor cells when activated with infrared light. in the second paper, published online aug", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5708102820701764, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.722061"} {"text": "infrared light. when the concentration of ctab is high, heat is dissipated more slowly. that information could help scientists design nanorods that fight cancer agents by burning away tumor cells when activated with infrared light. in the second paper, published online aug. 22 in the journal langmuir, the team demonstrated how to replace ctab with a more useful molecule - - a sulfur - containing group known as a thiol. this molecule binds more strongly to the nanorod, so it doesn ' t detach and reattach like ctab. in addition, other molecules, such as dna, can be easily attached to the end of the thiol. these surface chemistry studies are critical to lay the groundwork for development of gold nanorods, according to hamad - schifferli. \" people have dreamed up all of these cool applications for nanorods, but one of the biggest bottlenecks to making this a reality is this interface, \" she said. in the future, hamad - schifferli and her colleagues hope to build gold nanorods that carry dna designed for a specific function in the target cell. for example, the dna could shut down production of a protein that is being overexpressed. lead author of the langmuir paper is andy wijaya, a graduate student in chemical engineering. lead authors of the jpcc paper are aaron schmidt, a postdoctoral associate in mechanical engineering, and joshua alper, a graduate student in mechanical engineering. other authors are matteo chiesa, a visiting scholar in the technology and development program, gang chen, the rohsenow professor of mechanical engineering, and sarit das, a visiting professor in mechanical engineering. the work was funded by the norwegian research council, the ford - mit alliance and the national science foundation.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5736369913386477, "token_count": 364, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.722949"} {"text": "i hold onto heredity. genes must be present in order to be passed along. this is true. randomness ignores heredity, claiming that changes come by chance. hmm, no, not really. the changes do come by chance, but the random mutation aspect of it does not ignore heredity at all. in fact, its an integral part of the process. you see, we know random mutations happen. they are errors in the copying process. how do we know they happen? because of genetic disorders and how they present. there are lots of them to chose from. but let me show a little bit about how it works. lets say we have a strand of dna that looks like this.... there are a few ways we can get things to happen here. first, we can have a single letter change... for example the third letter somehow ( randomly, by chance. as an error in the copying process ) is changed to a t. now, when that dna strand codes for a protein, ( or is part of the on / off sequencing of the coding ), that random mutation gives a certain characteristic that is different than it would have been previously. ( for the sake of understanding, lets say it is... fur pigmentation in a rabbit or something ). if that particular difference makes a change that is beneficial to the individual ( for our rabbit, if they live in the arctic, lets assume that maybe the fur is a bit more white than that of his neighbors ), then that particular individual will be more likely to pass on its dna ( new and improved ) to the next generation simply by being better adapted to survive in that particular environment. you ' ve already agreed to heredity, so that ' s not up for discussion. another way it can happen is to have an additional letter added in. maybe add a t in between the first 2 g ' s up there. in that respect, everything on down the line is going to be effected ( pushed down one ), and depending on where this addition is, this can have massive effects on the dna sequence. if the addition is late in the dna strand, the effects might be less noticeable than if it were early in the sequence pushing everything on down the line. there are a few other ways that i can ' t remember off hand right now, but you get the point here. these random changes ( errors in the copying process for whatever reason ) can be either good, bad or completely benign to the organism. do you see that now?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5765979820912266, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.729027"} {"text": "that i can ' t remember off hand right now, but you get the point here. these random changes ( errors in the copying process for whatever reason ) can be either good, bad or completely benign to the organism. do you see that now? which ignores natural selection, which claims that whis is is better than that which was. really? so with our rabbit in the previous example... if his random mutation gives him fur that is a bit more white than other individuals of his species... and he ' s living in the arctic ; does that offer him it a better chance at survival? of course it does. that one tiny copying error just happened to give the rabbit less fur pigmentation, and therefore an increased chance of survival over its neighbors. what is the deciding factor between passing the genes on or not? it ' s whether the rabbit gets killed ( maybe by a wolf with good eyesight ) before it mates. in the arctic, does a white rabbit or an off white rabbit have a better chance to pass on it ' s genes? the white rabbit does, obviously. now that one tiny error might have given the rabbit increased muscle length, or better vision, or better hearing.. or it might have made it slower, or darker in color, or decreased it ' s sense of smell. natural selection determines whether or not it was beneficial simply by whether or not the new trait helps the individual live or die. that ' s it. it ' s as simple as that, really. which ignores heredity which claims that the genes of a progeny must be passed by the parent. which ignores randomness through the claim that what is has been passed by one who has it already no, and no. evolution has taken these thrown them in the soup of the past, and said it is how we were made. because it offers the very best explanation as to how all life came to be. not because we like it, or because it ' s super cool and all we want to do is mash any silly creationist nonsense. it ' s because it explains in great detail how all the facts fit together. really, its not a conspiracy against you. even if evolution wasn ' t true, creationism or id would still be utter bullshit. it just so happens that evolution is true. it would be true regardless of what invisible sky man you or anyone else thinks exists. not scientific. not rational, not logical. you ' re absolutely wrong here. it ' s all 3. very much all 3.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5545388447926581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.729987"} {"text": "viticulture - n. : the cultivation or culture of grapes enology - n. : a science that deals with wine and wine making the v & e department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. for over one hundred years the university of california has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. the continuing excellence of the department has enabled california growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the golden state to achieve its potential and become a premier wine - producing region. the hilgard project and the future the hilgard project : web - based, automated wine fermentations at uc davis winery. scott professor of enology and chemical engineering the university of california is in the design and construction phases of a building complex that will be known as the robert mondavi institute for wine and food ( rmi ). the generous gift of $ 20m by robert and margrit mondavi and the matching funds from the state of california, will establish a unique centre that is home to the departments of viticulture and enology and of food science ( see : http : / / robertmondaviinstitute. ucdavis. edu / ). some of the greatest limitations to small - scale research winemaking are irreprod...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5269948537815536, "token_count": 297, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.732611"} {"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( n ) abscission, cutting off ( the act of cutting something off ) - s : ( n ) cut, cutting, cutting off ( the act of shortening something by chopping off the ends ) \" the barber gave him a good cut \" - s : ( v ) interrupt, disrupt, break up, cut off ( make a break in ) \" we interrupt the program for the following messages \" - s : ( v ) cut, cut off ( cease, stop ) \" cut the noise \" ; \" we had to cut short the conversation \" - s : ( v ) cut off, chop off, lop off ( remove by or as if by cutting ) \" cut off the ear \" ; \" lop off the dead branch \" - s : ( v ) cut off, cut out ( cut off and stop ) \" the bicyclist was cut out by the van \" - s : ( v ) chip, knap, cut off, break off ( break a small piece off from ) \" chip the glass \" ; \" chip a tooth \" - s : ( v ) amputate, cut off ( remove surgically ) \" amputate limbs \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5985092545937034, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.750198"} {"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( n ) guard ( a person who keeps watch over something or someone ) - s : ( n ) guard ( the person who plays that position on a football team ) \" the left guard was injured on the play \" - s : ( n ) guard, safety, safety device ( a device designed to prevent injury or accidents ) - s : ( n ) guard ( a posture of defence in boxing or fencing ) \" keep your guard up \" - s : ( n ) guard ( the person who plays the position of guard on a basketball team ) - s : ( n ) guard ( a military unit serving to protect some place or person ) - s : ( n ) precaution, safeguard, guard ( a precautionary measure warding off impending danger or damage or injury etc. ) \" he put an ice pack on the injury as a precaution \" ; \" an insurance policy is a good safeguard \" ; \" we let our guard down \" - s : ( n ) guard duty, guard, sentry duty, sentry go ( the duty of serving as a sentry ) \" he was on guard that night \" - s : ( n ) guard ( ( american football ) a position on the line of scrimmage ) \" guards must be good blockers \" - s : ( n ) guard ( a position on a basketball team ) - s : ( v ) guard ( to keep watch over ) \" there would be men guarding the horses \" - s : ( v ) guard, ward ( watch over or shield from danger or harm ; protect ) \" guard my possessions while i ' m away \" - s : ( v ) defend, guard, hold ( protect against a challenge or attack ) \" hold that position behind the trees! \" ; \" hold the bridge against the enemy ' s attacks \" - s : ( v ) guard ( take precautions in order to avoid some unwanted consequence ) \" guard against becoming too friendly with the staff \" ; \" guard against infection \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6007549896693509, "token_count": 445, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.752716"} {"text": "| the surprising appearance of nanotubular fullerene d5h ( 1 ) - c90 | the previously undetected fullerene d5h ( 1 ) - c90 \u2014 with a distinct nanotubular shape \u2014 has been isolated as the major c90 isomer produced from sm2o3 - doped graphite rods and structurally identified by single - crystal x - ray diffraction. fullerenes are well - defined molecules that consist of closed cages of carbon atoms and distinct inside and outside surfaces. they tend to form very small crystals ; consequently, high - resolution data was collected using small - molecule crystallography at als beamline 11. 3. 1. the discovery of nanotubular d5h ( 1 ) - c90, which is a fullerene with 90 carbon atoms and d5h symmetry, opens a bridge between molecular fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. in recent years, the well - known solid allotropes diamond and graphite have been joined by new allotropes : fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene. diamond consists of four - coordinate carbon atoms with tetrahedral geometry, while the other allotropes involve three - coordinate carbon atoms. in graphite, these carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal sheets that are stacked upon one another. graphene is simply a single hexagonal graphitic sheet with a thickness of only one atom. carbon nanotubes can be conceived as hexagonal graphene sheets rolled into cylindrical shapes. these tubes may consist of a single wall of carbon atoms ( single - walled carbon nanotubes ) or may consist of multiple layers of tubes nested inside one another ( multi - wall carbon nanotubes ). carbon nanotubes are produced as mixtures in which the individual tubes can vary in length, width, precise alignment of the component hexagons, and the chemical nature of the unique carbon atoms at the two ends of the tube. graphene is likewise produced as sheets of varying size with generally less well - defined structures for those carbon atoms at the outer edges. fullerenes of varying sizes ( from 60 to more than 500 carbon atoms ) have also been observed, and individual molecules such as c60 and c70 have been isolated in pure form. each fullerene is constructed of 12 pentagonal rings of carbon atoms and a number of hexagonal rings. for example, the prototypical c60, the most readily prepared fullerene, has 20 hexagonal rings in addition to the 12 pentagons", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.570345724479725, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.761875"} {"text": "fullerene is constructed of 12 pentagonal rings of carbon atoms and a number of hexagonal rings. for example, the prototypical c60, the most readily prepared fullerene, has 20 hexagonal rings in addition to the 12 pentagons. isolating higher fullerenes in an isomerically pure form is challenging, especially since the number of isomers increases as the size of the fullerene cage expands, as per the isolated pentagon rule ( ipr ). the ipr requires that each pentagon be surrounded by five hexagons to avoid strain - inducing pentagon \u2013 pentagon contact. there are 46 isomers of c90 that obey the ipr, but none of these isomers had previously been obtained in pure form. indeed, in the absence of sm2o3, no d5h ( 1 ) - c90 has ever been detected. the oblong fullerene d5h ( 1 ) - c90 belongs to a set of nanotube - like fullerenes with the formula c60 + 10n, which have alternating d5h symmetry ( when n is odd and the end caps are eclipsed ) or d5d symmetry ( when n is even and the end caps are staggered ). the structure of d5h ( 1 ) - c90 ( n = 3 ) is thus closely related to that of c70 ( n = 1 ). however, within this family only c60, c70, and d5h ( 1 ) - c90 have been isolated in pure form and characterized crystallographically. the isolation of d5h ( 1 ) - c90 provides a unique molecular model for carbon nanotubes that will allow scientists to explore the chemical and physical properties of a distinctly cylindrical fullerene. the armchair - style belts that are found at the waist of d5h ( 1 ) - c90 are a unique feature of this particular fullerene, but are the fundamental building block of carbon nanotubes. research conducted by h. yang, a. jiang, z. wang, and z. liu ( zhejiang university, p. r. china ) ; h. jin ( jiliang university, p. r. china ) ; b. q. mercado, m. m. olmstead, and a. l. balch ( university of california, davis ) ; and c. m. beavers ( berkeley lab ). research funding : national science foundation and the natural science foundation of china. operation of the als is supported by the u. s.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5732374257658727, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.762733"} {"text": "yoga has been recognized for some time as being effective in reducing high blood pressure, particularly the diastolic ( lower ) number, which is the most crucial. you can experience the relaxing effects of yoga by committing to a short daily routine of breathing, exercise, and meditation. yoga techniques improve your body \u2019 s strength and flexibility, teach you how to relax mentally and physically, and show you how to better manage stress reactions such as muscle tension ( most commonly in the face, stomach, neck, shoulders, and breath ), rapid heart rate, constricted breathing, and anxiety. the fastest and most effective way to reduce reaction to stress is to change your breath, and an immediate way to improve your breathing is to improve your posture. in yoga, you learn to strengthen your back and stomach muscles so that you can sit and stand straighter ; this releases pressure on your heart and lungs and allows you to breathe easier. yoga breathing exercises teach you how to breathe more deeply and rhythmically ; this has many effects, both physical and mental. your respiratory muscles become stronger, and more oxygen reaches your bloodstream. regular practice of breathing exercises will give you greater concentration, willpower, and steadiness. you \u2019 ll feel calmer, too, as you breathe, because your mind can \u2019 t think about upsetting things when it is focused on the breath. you can learn to use the breathing techniques whenever you feel stressed, fatigued, or anxious for immediate relief. yoga exercise benefits your entire circulatory system, beginning with the production of blood, which takes place in the marrow of the long bones in the thighs. improving circulation in the legs with daily yoga stretching exercises helps to rejuvenate the blood. yoga exercises stretch the body ' s major blood vessels, keeping them free - flowing and elastic ; yoga oxygenates the blood and pushes fresh nutrients to all peripheral vessels and capillaries. improved circulation means that your brain will receive more oxygen, improving alertness, memory, and mood ; vital organs receive a steady supply of the nutrients they need for optimal functioning. yoga relaxation and meditation training teach you how to relax at will, allowing your body to release muscle tension almost as it occurs. meditation training shows you how to access your inner source of strength and personal power, creating a support system that builds confidence and self - esteem, helps you learn to enjoy the present - moment, and increases self - awareness. the choice to practice yoga will help you control your high blood pressure as it contributes to greater general health and well - being", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5278145199550341, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.773247"} {"text": "freeway noise can be much louder than expected over 300m in some atmospheric conditions ovenden, shaffer, frenando. impact of meteorological conditions on noise propagation from freeway corridors. j. acous. soc. am. 126 ( 1 ), july 2009, 25 - 35. this study combined field recordings and new acoustic modeling to describe the effects of wind shear and temperature differentials on the distance over which road noise exceeds regulatory limits. the particular concern here is whether reducing the height of barrier walls ( which is sometimes allowed when quiet road surfaces are used ) will lead to increased noise at a distance. this study could offer important additional information for use in recent us national park service efforts to understand the ways that road noise affects the \" effective listening distance \" of animals nearby. the results may also have applicability to some wind farm noise issues, though extrapolation from these results must be made with extreme caution. the essence of this study ' s results is that sound may bounce off a layer boundary that is caused by wind shear or temperature layers at 30 - 50 meters high ( a wind shear is a situation in which wind speed increases substantially with height, especially when there is a relatively sharp boundary between low and higher wind speeds ). most sound propagation models assume relative uniformity in the atmosphere ; this study aimed to see how propagation differs from traditional models when the atmosphere is more varied. in some conditions, the researchers here found that while sound levels remain close to what traditional sound models would suggest at ranges of 200 - 300 meters, noise levels can actually increase at ranges of 300 meters and beyond, creating conditions in which regulatory limits are exceeded at these greater distances. in some conditions, increases occur in chaotic patterns at closer ranges, as well. the difference between traditonal sound models and the results here were as high as 15 - 20db, and quite commonly occurred at 5 - 10db. while there is much interest in what may be causing reports of excessive noise from wind farms, and this work may inform these inquiries, it should be noted that the wind shears studied here may not apply to many industrial wind farms. most notably, the hub heights of turbines may well be above the level of the wind shears addressed here ( especially in problematic situations in which night time wind shears trigger turbines into action ), so that the noise is not reflected downward in patterns similar to those of ground - based noise such as traffic. however, there clearly are some atmospheric conditions in which wind farm noise is higher than expected, sometimes at surprisingly large distances,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5041368106983968, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.883649"} {"text": "into action ), so that the noise is not reflected downward in patterns similar to those of ground - based noise such as traffic. however, there clearly are some atmospheric conditions in which wind farm noise is higher than expected, sometimes at surprisingly large distances, so consideration of these effects would be a very useful topic for further study. it is quite possible that the turbine sound that does project down toward the ground during wind shear conditions is subject to the same factors that create chaotic and at times surprisingly high levels at larger distances ; this could partially account for unusually high noise levels reported by some neighbors at certain times. exciting new models for assessing and visualizing extent of noise impacts in the ocean clark, ellison, southall, hatch, van parijs, frankel, ponirakis. acoustic masking in marine ecosystems : intuitions, analysis, and implication. mar ecol prog ser, vol. 395 : 201 - 222, 2009. [ download ( pdf ) ] this has to be one of the most exciting papers i ' ve seen this year ; reading it was downright joyous, especially in contrast to decidedly unsatisfying previous attempts to address cumulative impacts of ocean noise ( mostly undertaken by large committees and resulting in vague and complex conceptual approaches that are nearly impossible to implement ). by contrast, here we have, at last, a clear and strikingly rigorous approach to assessing the impacts of ocean noise sources on the communication of whales. as promised in the introduction, the authors \" present an analytical paradigm to quantify changes in an animal ' s acoustic communication space \" and \" a metric to quantify the potential for communication masking. \" while of course, much uncertainty remains, both in some of the specific terms used in these metrics and in assessing the biological impact of reduced communication space, the tools provided here will open a vast and exceedingly useful new doorway for biologists and ocean managers. researchers will find much to work with in the suite of new metrics and relatively simple functions used to calculate them, including factors that reflect \" ancient ambient \" conditions as well as \" present ambient \" and \" present noise sources \", a more nuanced twist on signal - to - noise ration called the \" recognition differential \", acknowledgement of subtle biological inputs such as \" signal processing gain \", and \" potential communication space \" for a sender, and for a receiver hearing multiple other animal senders \u2026. this is just a hint of the power of these combined metrics, and surprisingly, most of the functions are really quite", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5582865039008285, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.884834"} {"text": "gain \", and \" potential communication space \" for a sender, and for a receiver hearing multiple other animal senders \u2026. this is just a hint of the power of these combined metrics, and surprisingly, most of the functions are really quite simple, though they do of course interact in complex ways. the present examples focus on the effects of low - frequency shipping noise on low - frequency communication by large whales, and incorporate differences in the specific frequency ranges used by the three species addressed ; the model can easily be used to address mid - or high - frequency noise sources and higher frequency animal sounds such as those used for echolocation. for the rest of us who are not designing new studies, though, the power of this approach is equally clear, and can readily inform both public awareness and policy - making. extending the nascent idea of \" communication space \" ( which has recently been introduced in terrestrial ecosystems by researchers at the national park service and colorado state ) into ocean habitats, we are presented with an intuitively obvious way to both imagine and assess the effects of ocean noise \u2013 measuring the area in which an animal can hear or be heard by others of its species. as its first application, this paper presents data from ongoing work at stellwagen bank national marine sanctuary offshore from boston harbor. there, a network of hydrophones is collecting soundscape data that allows researchers to both pinpoint and track the locations of whales and ships, along with the actual received sound levels throughout an extended area. by plugging this data into their new equations, the researchers are able to, for the first time, quantify the effects of shipping noise on local populations of fin, humpback, and right whales. the results are both fascinating and sobering. thanks to slightly different frequency bands used by each species, and the lower source level of right whale calls, the impacts of shipping noise on these three species vary substantially. on the day used for this initial analysis, two ships passed through the region ( an average of six ships has been noted here ). on a low - traffic day with two ships, the communication space for humpbacks were reduced by an average of 11 %, fins by 33 %, and right whales by a staggering 84 %. for most of the day ( from 5am until 5pm ), right whale communication space was diminished by 88 - 98 %. while we do not know how this vastly shrunken communication range affected the whales, the authors note that \" we do know that these whales counter - call and use", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5434147262727536, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.885872"} {"text": "until 5pm ), right whale communication space was diminished by 88 - 98 %. while we do not know how this vastly shrunken communication range affected the whales, the authors note that \" we do know that these whales counter - call and use these episodes of calling to find each other and to aggregate, so one immediate cost is the loss of opportunities to form social groups. right whales form aggregations during mating and during feeding, so one likely cost is the loss of mating and feeding opportunities. \" back to the science - advancement side of things, the authors stress that this metric provides \" a critical missing link to the major current dilemma of assessing noise impacts \" that can, for the first time, \" quantify biological cost within an ecological framework. \" they note that this model is a key step toward giving some practical form to the previous pcad ( population consequences of acoustic disturbance ) model proposed by the national research council in 2005. there is still uncertainty in some key variables. most strikingly, we don ' t know how far these species actually communicate ; while we know they can be heard for tens to hundreds of kilometers, limited studies have only confirmed communication exchanges in the range of 20km, which is used in this model for now ( if actual communication ranges are longer, as is entirely possible, then reductions in communication space would be much greater, especially for the fin and humpback whales ). the authors note it was 1971 when payne and webb first raised the question of whether shipping might reduce long - range communication for some large whales, and that \" that hypothesis was ignored for a quarter of a century. \" they conclude : \" as the planet ' s dominant species, humans have choices to make. in the case of the ocean ' s acoustic ecological habitat, the choices we are making now have profound implications for the future of marine mammals. it is our opinion that the right choice cannot wait another 3 decades. \" summary of human and natural noise in the sea john a. hildebrand. anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean. mar ecol prog ser, vol. 395 : 5 - 20, 2009. [ download ] this is a good current overview of the known sources of both human and natural sounds that contribute to the cumulative background ambient noise level of the seas. for each noise source, the author includes frequency bands and source levels, as well as a sense of how widespread the source is. some lesser - considered noise sources are included, such as acoustic modems used to transmit data from industrial", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5069633575021733, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.886874"} {"text": "of the seas. for each noise source, the author includes frequency bands and source levels, as well as a sense of how widespread the source is. some lesser - considered noise sources are included, such as acoustic modems used to transmit data from industrial and scientific sites at sea. the key omissions are sources that are still relatively rare, though increasing in number : undersea mining and oil and gas subsea processing installations. unlike a similar presentation to the iwc a few years ago, the author does not attempt the much harder challenge of calculating the total sound energy that each noise source contributes to the global ambient noise budget ( that paper ruffled some feathers by suggesting that seismic surveys may contribute nearly as much as shipping ; it is likely that there is not enough solid data to assess how much air gun sound actually moves from continental shelves and slopes into the ocean basins ). the paper also includes a good basic summary of sound measurement systems, and is a good starting place for those wishing to get up to speed on the diversity of ocean noise sources. the main take - away is familiar : at low frequencies, shipping is the dominant noise source ( with some indications that seismic surveys are contributing more as they move to deeper water ) and has impacts at ocean - basin scales ; in mid - frequencies, sounds travel tens of kilometers, with wave and wind sounds dominant ( with mid - frequency sonars from 300 ships, operating up to 10 % of the time each, also significant ) ; at high frequencies, sounds travel only tens to hundreds of meters, and the main source of noise is actually thermal noise of water molecules ( with depth - sounder sonars on many to most ships also a factor ). specific data that may be worth holding in mind includes source levels of two important low - frequency sounds. pile driving ( increasingly used for siting offshore wind turbines ) can be close to 200db at 100m, with repetition every 2 to 4 seconds ; since this takes place in relatively shallow waters, the impact is fairly local despite being low - frequency. shipping noise varies from 195db re upa2 / hz for fast - moving supertankers to 140db for small fishing vessels and 150 - 180db re 1upa for small private motorboats. also of note is that wind turbines, after installation, are relatively quiet : the highest tonal component yet measured is 151db re 1upa at 180hz, and broadband low frequency noise at four different wind farms was just 100 - 120db re 1upa. parks and sanctuaries :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5246951798560853, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.887956"} {"text": "are relatively quiet : the highest tonal component yet measured is 151db re 1upa at 180hz, and broadband low frequency noise at four different wind farms was just 100 - 120db re 1upa. parks and sanctuaries : collaborative noise management in protected areas leila t. hatch, kurt m. fristrup. no barrier at the boundaries : implementing regional frameworks for noise management in protected areas. mar ecol prog, vol. 395 : 223 - 244, 2009. [ download ] yet another excellent and ground - breaking synthesis, this one highlighting the similar challenges and opportunities present in managing protected areas on land and in the sea. the authors, one of whom works for the national park service, and the other a national marine sanctuary, have both been active in focusing on the noise intrusions and impacts relevant to their respective jurisdictions. this paper addresses several important themes and calls for a more integrated and dynamic approach to managing the acoustic resources in protected areas. it ' s well worth reading the entire paper, which includes many useful insights, ideas, and case studies, including cogent discussions of the various management challenges that need to be overcome ( including different cultures and priorities within agencies that need to collaborate, and a natural resistance to bringing more detailed and expensive - to - collect data requirements into eis processes that have been sufficient in the past ). here, i ' ll highlight a few of the key passages. this excerpt frames the impacts of noise in a concise and new way : \" hearing extends animal awareness under all conditions, and is essential when vision is compromised. \" \" noise presents at least 4 threats : diversion of attention and disruption of behavior, habituation or \u2018 learned deafness \u2019, masking of important signals, and spurious physiological stimulation. these threats present several costs : compromised physiological function, diversion of time and energy, failure to detect important cues, impaired acoustical advertisement and communication, and reduced utilization of important habitats or resources. all of these costs have consequences for fitness. \" \" terrestrial noise management is informed and encumbered by the history of community noise management. historical noise studies and regulations focused on maximum tolerable conditions for humans, in terms of health effects or annoyance. the concept of preserving a high quality acoustic environment has been largely ignored until very recently \u2026. an enormous gulf separates the outstanding acoustical conditions that the nps is required to protect and the noise exposures that result in health effects or high levels of annoyance. \" however, \" in the marine realm, emerging noise management practices", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5281628338193891, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.889224"} {"text": "very recently \u2026. an enormous gulf separates the outstanding acoustical conditions that the nps is required to protect and the noise exposures that result in health effects or high levels of annoyance. \" however, \" in the marine realm, emerging noise management practices are not burdened by the history of community noise management \u2026. the broad mandate of the national marine sanctuaries act provides a unique opportunity to create noise management practices and regulations that represent today \u2019 s best available science. \" \" parks and sanctuaries should be afforded heightened levels of noise protection. sanctuaries should become quiet refugia for species, as well as enhanced environments for the development of science and technology that promote the research and management objectives throughout the regions they occupy. \" the authors note that current regulatory responses to noise are focused on the impacts of discrete sound sources on individual animals ; they encourage a broader view that would take into account the ways that effects on species ripple through an ecosystem ( e. g., effects on prey species will have an indirect but crucial impact on predators ). they summarize several leading - edge computer models that are capable of ever more accurate and dynamic modeling of multiple sound sources and entire populations of animals in a region ( though note that even these cannot yet take into account inter - relationships between species ). there is also a time - scale limitation on most current impact analyses : the five - year span of most permits. as examples of noise in protected areas, the authors discuss both data and management approaches taken in grand canyon national park and stellwagen bank national marine sanctuary ( in each case, the protected unit with the longest history of acoustic monitoring ). in the grand canyon, aircraft are audible for a third or more of the day in the entire park : \" if a visitor does not want to hear aircraft at grand canyon, they need to be in a busy parking lot or near one of the rapids on the colorado river. \" in stellwagen, low frequency noise in the shipping lanes \" were > 82 db 50 % of the day and as high as 110 db 5 % of the day. \" the paper concludes with for elements of a \" common ground \" that these case studies suggest as cornerstones of a constructive forward motion in managing noise impacts : - investment in expanded and continued acoustic monitoring, especially for \" evaluating which sanctuaries contain relatively quiet versus relatively noisy conditions. \" - development of new impact assessment tools, such as visual representations of acoustic data, and effective metrics with which to summarize and compare results. they stress", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5197622028985474, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.890432"} {"text": ", especially for \" evaluating which sanctuaries contain relatively quiet versus relatively noisy conditions. \" - development of new impact assessment tools, such as visual representations of acoustic data, and effective metrics with which to summarize and compare results. they stress that these metrics are most useful when they relate directly to \" functional consequences \" for animals that are easy for managers to interpret and for the public to understand ( such as the newly emerging metric of reduced listening area ). new modeling techniques offer several advantages, including \" a rigorous framework for spatial interpolation, when acoustical monitoring data are sparsely distributed. \" the authors stress that the degree of uncertainty in the models ' results needs to be emphasized, and that \" in the face of considerable scientific uncertainty, the precautionary principle should be applied to ensure that areas of designated national importance fulfill their protective mandates. \" - enhanced interagency coordination. in particular, \" noise should be addressed by emerging regional management frameworks ( i. e. the gulf of mexico program, west coast governors \u2019 agreement on ocean health, northeast regional ocean council ), and during the design, implementation and evaluation of protected areas. \" - public engagement and education regarding the benefits of quieting natural areas. humpbacks avoid boat noise at nearly 5 miles sousa - lima and clark. whale sound recording technology as a tool for assessing the effects of boat noise in a brazilian marine park. park science 26 : 59 - 63. [ download ] using an array of pop - up recorders, this study was able to track eleven individual singing humpback whales and monitor their movements in response to four separate approaches by a tourist boats in the abrolhos marine national park off brazil, in the main humpback breeding grounds in the southwest atlantic. nine of the eleven whales moved away from the boat ; of these, four continued singing and five stopped singing ( these did not resume singing for at least 20 minutes ). six of the nine began moving away while the boat was more than 4km ( 2. 5mi ) away ; this distance was chosen as the onset of the \" exposure \" period, since it had been previously shown to be the median distance at which humpbacks respond to boats. in fact, the mean distance at which the nine whales began moving away was 7. 5km ( 4. 7mi ) ; previous studies have suggested that 8km is the greatest distance at which humpbacks would exhibit avoidance, with some studies suggesting they would not move until boats were within 300 meters. the authors note that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5598481554768409, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.891573"} {"text": "7. 5km ( 4. 7mi ) ; previous studies have suggested that 8km is the greatest distance at which humpbacks would exhibit avoidance, with some studies suggesting they would not move until boats were within 300 meters. the authors note that earlier studies suggesting whales would only move when boats are closer \" could be a reflection of smaller sampling areas or specific close - range analytical designs, it could also be a bias toward less sensitive whales. \" earlier, the authors point out that other research had proposed that \" individuals that are most sensitive to boat approaches would abandon preferred areas because of increased boat disturbance. assuming this is true, only the individuals less sensitive to boat disturbances would remain in the area. \" this is a proposition that is gaining increasing credence within the research community ( see bejder et all 2009, below ). the present authors continue, \" the effect this selection for boat noise \u2013 habituated males could have on the population structure is unknown ; it could affect female choice and consequently the distribution of breeding success among the males of this population. \" importantly, the authors note that \" during the post - exposure period, singers were still moving away from the boat, which suggests a residual avoidance of the disturbance area. \" overview of new autonomous ocean noise recorders for use in small and large areas van parijs sm, clark cw, sousa - lima rs, parks se, rankin s, risch d, van opzeeland ic. management and research applications of real - time and archival passive acoustic sensors over varying temporal and spatial scales. mar ecol prog ser, vol. 395 : 21 - 36, 2009. [ download ] very good overview of the range of recent research using acoustic recorders, including both archival systems ( deployed for weeks to years, with data downloaded periodically ) and real - time systems ( in which data is available on an ongoing basis remotely ). includes discussion of acoustic systems deployed in brazil, antarctica, the us, and norway, as well as a series of studies using towed hydrophone arrays in the pacific. the authors stress the importance of the different research designs and baseline information necessary to effectively study behavior that takes place on different scales, and suggest adaptation of long - standing terminology used in other fields to discuss relevant oceanic scales ( synoptic scales for regional marine areas of > 2000 km2, mesoscale as areas between 1 and ~ 2000 km2 in size and microscales as areas < 1 km2 ). the importance and the flexibility of these new technologies is well expressed in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5071810459156698, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.892647"} {"text": "regional marine areas of > 2000 km2, mesoscale as areas between 1 and ~ 2000 km2 in size and microscales as areas < 1 km2 ). the importance and the flexibility of these new technologies is well expressed in the paper ' s conclusion : \" archival and real - time passive acoustic arrays are now among the lowest cost approaches for mesoscale monitoring of marine areas and can be used to monitor vocal marine life in areas difficult to survey by traditional visual methods. fixed autonomous passive acoustic arrays sample continuously for prolonged periods of time, allowing assessment of seasonal changes in distribution and acoustic behavior of individuals without introducing into the environment the types of disturbances generated by the presence of survey vessels or aircrafts. unlike more traditional visual methods, passive acoustic technologies can survey in darkness and remain active during adverse weather conditions. further, the ability to retrieve and redeploy archival arus provides a level of flexibility in data acquisition that is not available with other fixed long - term monitoring systems. \" whale watching boat noise and impacts on dolphins \u2013 including some key new findings on high levels of masking and sound peaks during frequent gear - shifting jensen, bejder, wahlberg, aguilar soto, johnson, madsen. vessel noise effects on delphinid communication. mar ecol prog ser, vol. 395 : 161 - 175, 2009. [ download ] this study was designed to determine how much the sounds of motorboats ( whale watching or private recreation ) reduce the communication ranges of dolphins and pilot whales. the researchers assessed natural background ambient noise in shallow ( dolphin ) and deep water ( pilot whale ) environments, as well as doing field measurements of the noise from two outboard motorboats, then deployed d - tags on pilot whales to assess received levels. the results reinforce some standard whale - watching guidelines, and highlighted some previously un - noticed impacts. engine noise at 5 knots and 50m ( typical limits for whalewatching ) did reduce communication ranges significantly : by 26 % in dolphins and 58 % in pilot whales ( living in quieter deepwater habitats ). slower speeds of 2. 5 knots produced virtually no masking noise, suggesting that at the closest ranges, slower speeds are important ( the authors take special note of the need for research vessels using \" close follow \" techniques to be aware of this, so as not to change behavior by their presence ). speeds of 10 knots produced dramatic reductions in communication range, even at 100 and 200 meters, though the researchers note more uncertainty about these results. in the tagging experiments", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5467860579046993, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.893676"} {"text": "to be aware of this, so as not to change behavior by their presence ). speeds of 10 knots produced dramatic reductions in communication range, even at 100 and 200 meters, though the researchers note more uncertainty about these results. in the tagging experiments, the pilot whales experienced often extreme masking noise levels within pilot whale whistle frequencies, up to 55db above the levels that would begin to obscure communication ; which the authors note that this \" suggest ( s ) that vessel noise may be an important factor in determining range of communication signals in this deep - water environment with significant whale - watching and commercial marine traffic activities. \" in addition, whale watching boats shift shift gears quite often in order to remain in proximity of the dolphins or whales they are observing ( as often as 2 or 3 times a minute ) ; this study found that gear shifting creates pulses of much louder sound ( up to 200db re 1 upa peak - peak ) containing a much broader range of frequencies, especially higher frequencies. since such unpredictable bursts of sound tend to elicit more powerful short - term behavioral responses, \" steps taken to lessen the erratic movement and number of gear shifts of vessels \u2026 would lessen the impact. \" finally, the authors note that this study only addresses communications masking, and that, while not investigated here, some higher frequency noises created by cavitation ( especially at higher speeds ) \" has the potential to impact foraging toothed whales by masking weak echoes from their echolocation signals. \" acknowledging differing underlying values as a key to breakthroughs in conservation conflicts raphael d. sangarin and larry b. crowder. breaking through the crisis in marine conservation management : insights from the philosophies of ed ricketts. conservation biology, volume 23, no. 1, 24 - 30. [ download ] this short paper is well worth a read by all who have been frustrated by the lack of constructive progress in moving beyond contentious conflict in addressing environmental challenges. here, two contemporary researchers ( one with a focus on policy, and the other on marine conservation ) sketch the three - part approach of ed ricketts, a mid - 20th century marine ecologist ( immortalized as \" doc \" in steinbeck ' s cannery row ). in addition to his scientific work, ricketts articulated an approach to science and policy that drew from taoism, buddhism, and his friendships with steinbeck and joseph campbell. while the three aspects of rickett ' s approach are far more philosophical than practical, they bear consideration in light of the seeming", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5442639197451229, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.894725"} {"text": "articulated an approach to science and policy that drew from taoism, buddhism, and his friendships with steinbeck and joseph campbell. while the three aspects of rickett ' s approach are far more philosophical than practical, they bear consideration in light of the seeming inability of the best intentions of both scientists and policy - makers to effectively turn the tide of ocean ecosystem collapse. at its heart, ricketts ' approach contains two key aspects. first, a clear and ongoing commitment to observing what is, rather than a focus on what should be \u2013 with a related emphasis on shifting relationships rather than facile attempts to assess simple cause and effect in what are always complex, holistic systems. central to this approach is a conscious intent to avoid neatly preconceived ideas about who or what is to blame for the problem under consideration. second, and most resonant for me, ricketts emphasizes that most intractable conflicts over policy are, at root, reflective of differing underlying priorities, worldviews, or \" sacred values. \" the key factor that drives \" breakthroughs \" is a shared commitment to be forthcoming about each party ' s underlying values. sharing the diverse \" core needs \" is, in ricketts ' view, the foundation of a constructive search for mutually favorable solutions, rather than a mutually damaging fight to chip away at two widely different, predetermined positions. the authors suggest that today ' s rapidly expanding toolbox of monitoring technologies provides us opportunities to initiate the sorts of ongoing observations that underlay ricketts ' approach, and that developments over the last generation in policy and public engagement support an attempt to be more explicit about the underlying values that are too often unspoken as competing advocates argue their sides in a fight to \" win \" in policy decisions which have turned unwittingly into battles, thanks to a simplistic focus on particular causes and effects within systems that are spinning out of control due to countless inter - related factors. as in his time, it is not altogether obvious how to apply ricketts ' ideas in practice, but reading this brief overview of his thoughts, along with the context provided in relation to current attempts to define and enact ecosystem based management in the oceans, is bound to spur some new perspectives among reflective policy players today. related : a key paper cited by sangarin and crowder is another short essay perspectives piece, which suggests that the repeated failure of worldwide fisheries management might be ameliorated by inverting the traditional \" trophic pyramid \" that places humans at the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5633350680650415, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.895756"} {"text": "key paper cited by sangarin and crowder is another short essay perspectives piece, which suggests that the repeated failure of worldwide fisheries management might be ameliorated by inverting the traditional \" trophic pyramid \" that places humans at the top, and instead using a model that puts humans at the bottom, or at the tipping point of a circle which explicitly includes consideration of three key factors : ethics, corporate responsibility, and social justice. bundy, chuenpagdee, jentoft, mahon. if science is not the answer, what is? an alternative governance model for the world ' s fisheries. front ecol environ 2008 ; 6 ( 3 ) : 152 - 155. [ download ] moderate seismic survey noise linked to increase in blue whale calling l. di lorio and c. w. clark. exposure to seismic survey alters blue whale acoustic communication. biology letters doi : 10. 1098 / rsbl. 2009. 0651 [ download ] this study found that a seismic survey in wide bay at the mouth of the st. lawrence seaway caused blue whales feeding and socializing nearby to double or triple their call rates. the calls were near - range communication signals, rather than the long, loud songs that are heard over hundreds of miles. the research was meant to simply learn more about these social calls, but during the study, their recordings began to pick up the pulses from a seismic survey. \u201c the whales made more calls on days when the testing was happening. it seems they are having to repeat themselves in order to not lose information, \u201d said lead researcher lucia di lorio. during the four days in which survey sounds were heard, the whales also increased their call rates when the sparkers were audible than when they were not, and tended to rapidly increase call rates when the sounds appeared. the results were especially surprising, since the survey in question was using a much lower - power sound source ( sparkers ) than the airguns used in most surveys. the electronic sparkers top out at only 190db, rather than the 230 - 240db of airguns. sparkers are slightly higher frequency as well, but still solidly centered in low - frequency bands of 30 - 450hz, primarily 60 - 250hz, very similar to airguns, and matching key blue whale communication frequencies. the study notes that \u201c our results clearly show that blue whales change their calling behaviour in response to a low - medium power technology that is presumed to have minor environmental impact. in fact", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5295179865054249, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.896792"} {"text": "similar to airguns, and matching key blue whale communication frequencies. the study notes that \u201c our results clearly show that blue whales change their calling behaviour in response to a low - medium power technology that is presumed to have minor environmental impact. in fact, the mean sound pressure impinging on the ( study ) area, and thus probably on the whales present there, was relatively low, 131 db re 1 upa ( peak to peak, 30 \u2013 500 hz ) with a mean sound exposure level ( sel ) of 114 db re 1 mpa2 s. the increase in calls was a contrast to some other studies, which have found call rates reduced near seismic surveys, perhaps in part due to animals moving away ; in some cases, animals call louder or change the pitch of their calls to cope with noise intrusions. this is the first study to find a marked increase in call rates, or repeating themselves, which di lorio suspects may be due to the key role of this area in socializing and feeding ( i. e., the communication is time - and place - dependent, and cannot easily be postponed until a quieter time ). the study concludes by noting that the st. lawrence estuary \u201c is an important feeding area where blue whales acquire energy and also a place where this wide - roaming, highly dispersed population congregates to engage in social interactions. reducing an individual \u2019 s ability to detect socially relevant signals could therefore affect biologically important processes. this study suggests careful reconsideration of the potential behavioural impacts of even low source level seismic survey sounds on large whales. this is particularly relevant when the species is at high risk of extinction as is the blue whale. \u201d update : a skeptical note received by email from a longtime correspondent : \u201c to me, given a detectable new sound, mammals tend to decrease vocalization if it induces fear, or increase vocalization if it stimulates interest. how a sparker could block communications rather eludes me, but whales responding to a pulse \u2014 be it noncoherent noise stimulates noise, or actual whale talk directed at the pulse \u2014 comes to mind \u2026. sperm whales in the gom seemed to alter click patterns and perhaps anticipated a pulse once they got the beat. that was a casual observation by one of the acoustic team - always thought that would have been a great add - on study but we were already at overload working on acoustic tracking for tagging purposes. more at home, my grey parrot, who talks quite a bit, of course becomes completely silent when", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5145617611466887, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.897939"} {"text": "habituation often misused or wrongly assumed in impact assessments bejder, samuels, whitehead, finn, allen. impact assessment research : use and misuse of habituation, sensitization and tolerance in describing wildlife responses to anthropogenic stimuli. mar ecol prog ser, vol. 395 : 177 - 185, 2009. [ download ] this paper serves as an excellent review of an important line of reasoning that is skeptical of facile claims that animals readily habituate to human disturbances such as noise. while the paper may be seen by some as little more than a set of \" what if \" propositions designed to undermine the simple observation of animals not being affected by a disturbance ( and in this way, proposing an extreme precautionary view that supposes the worst in situations where we do not have complete information ), the underlying intent is more serious than this : when policy decisions are being made based on a simplistic assessment of the situation, then we should at least be aware of the limitations of our terms and our study designs. this paper adds clarity to these issues in important ways. the authors distinguish between true habituation ( which is a learning process that occurs over time ) and tolerance ( which can be measured instantaneously ), and suggest that most impact studies are designed in ways that can only confirm tolerance, since they do not track the responses of individual animals over time. further, they point out that even studies of tolerance can be easily distorted if the most sensitive animals leave at the first disturbance, leaving more tolerant individuals as the \" study group. \" another key \u2013 and often ignored \u2013 factor is that any behavioral response is influenced by many factors, not just the invasive human disruption being studied ; for example, increased human noise may be one factor in an animal ' s decision about moving away, but this decision is also dependent on other key factors, such as the quality of the site where the animal current is ( e. g. for feeding, mating, resting ), the distance to and quality of other suitable sites, the relative risk of predation or density of competitors in other sites, and any investment the individual or group has made to the site ( e. g., establishing a territory, gaining dominant status, or acquiring environmental information ). it is commonly assumed that avoidance or lack of avoidance of a human sound source is a good indicator of whether that sound has a negative impact ; the authors stress that this is an unwarranted and often incorrect assumption, and point out that the few studies that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5299653442751784, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.901934"} {"text": "commonly assumed that avoidance or lack of avoidance of a human sound source is a good indicator of whether that sound has a negative impact ; the authors stress that this is an unwarranted and often incorrect assumption, and point out that the few studies that have assessed both behavioral responses and physiological measures ( heart rate, stress hormones ) have often found physiological markers of a negative response even when animals exhibited little or no behavioral reaction, i. e., when they appeared to tolerate the intrusion. this paper serves as a good starting point for examining previous research that has raised similar questions about the design of behavioral response studies, and the use of these studies in making policy decisions ( in particular, previous work by ja gill and l bejder ). the core message here is that managers should be very cautious in assessing claims of habituation ( since few studies truly are designed to prove habituation ), and likewise that habituation or tolerance do not necessarily imply the lack of negative impacts on individuals or populations. as they conclude, \" most studies are restricted to monitoring short - term, observable, behavioral responses, ( which ) limits the scope of conclusions that can be drawn \u2026 the conclusion is likely to be specific only to the response variable that has been monitored \u2026 ( while ) animals may become habituated in one modality but not in another \u2026. the most effective course of action in impact studies would therefore be to complement behavioral assessment with monitoring of physical condition and physiological measures such as heart rate, body temperature and / or hormonal levels. \" \" worst case \" wind turbine noise can occur 30 % of summer / fall nights clifford p. schneider. measuring background noise with an attended, mobile survey during nights with stable atmospheric conditions. internoise 2009. [ download paper ( pdf ) ] this well - designed study, by a retired new york state department of the environment staffer, sheds light on several key questions surrounding standard noise assessments of wind farms. most strikingly, it quantifies the extent of one of the key atmospheric components of excessive wind farm noise, finding that stable night time atmospheres may occur two - thirds of the time in the summer and fall, with wind high enough at turbine height to trigger them into action on 30 % of nights, increasing to 40 % in june and july. on these \" worst case \" nights, turbine noise is likely to be significantly louder than local background ambient noise from late evening until the beginning of the pre - dawn bird chorus. schneider ' s study also included a brief but useful test of whether a quick but", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5262676771518041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.903009"} {"text": "conflict of interest in research on anthropogenic noise and marine mammals : does funding bias conclusions? marine policy 34 ( 2010 ) 320 - 327. ( ed. note : this lay summary includes more analysis and interpretation by aei than we generally include ; some of this commentary questions the conclusions of the paper, and some of it addresses the underlying controversies surrounding ocean noise issues. i have attempted to be clear about which statements are simple summations of the report ' s data and findings, and which are aei ' s reflections or perspectives. it is a long read, but the issues that triggered this study are important ones. though the clear - cut results reported here are difficult to take at face value, it is well worth considering the underlying forces that drive tensions between environmental groups and navy / industry actions in the seas. ) in the united states, the us navy funds about half of the research into the effects of ocean noise on wildlife. for many years, conservation groups have questioned whether this preponderance of funding is skewing research results, whether by constraining the types of questions being studied, or by leading researchers to downplay negative impacts of noise in order to continue receiving funding. this paper investigates the latter possibility, by comparing five recent reviews of the effects of ocean noise on wildlife, one funded by a leading environmental group, three that received substantial navy funding, and two funded by organizations with no particular stake in the debate. the researchers compared the number of citations in each that showed an effect of noise, or not, or that showed both an effect and lack of effect. they also attempted to identify funding sources of the primary papers cited in each of these secondary reports, and to correlate the funding source with the same three parameters ( noise shown to have an effect, noise causing no effect, or aspects of the primary research showing both effects and no effect ). using both simple citation counts and g - test statistical analysis to test for a null hypothesis of random connection between funding sources and outcomes, the authors report a significant correlation between funding source and proportion of citations reporting \" no effect \" of noise. the five review papers certainly show a trend, though it appears to aei that three papers that form the anchors of that trend each may be somewhat shaped by its original intention. reviews : proportion of citations of each stance the authors recognize that the one conservation - funded paper ( \" oceans of noise \", wdcs ) drew almost only on studies that did show an effect of noise, and re - analyzed the trend with that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5218063959383951, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.909610"} {"text": "reviews : proportion of citations of each stance the authors recognize that the one conservation - funded paper ( \" oceans of noise \", wdcs ) drew almost only on studies that did show an effect of noise, and re - analyzed the trend with that one excluded ; a significant effect remained, though it was half as strong. however, one of the \" independent \" papers, a chapter in a book on the ocean environment ( hildebrand ), was perhaps similarly constrained by its purpose ; it was titled \" impacts of anthropogenic noise, \" and was not necessarily intended as a comprehensive assessment of what does and does not cause an effect. on the other end of the spectrum of the five surveys, the only navy - funded survey that diverged notably from the other independent paper ( from ices ), was the third national research council report, which addressed the difficulties in determining when repeated behavioral disruptions of a portion of a population accumulates to the point of becoming \" biologically significant. \" thus, this survey could be expected to include more papers that were exploring the edges of impacts, and so it is not surprising that to do so, more citations would appear that show no effect. given these underlying intentions of the two reports showing the fewest \" no effect \" citations, and the one showing the most \" no effect \" citations, it appears that the five papers being compared are not quite on the same playing field. the other three papers ( ices and the first two nrc reports on noise and marine mammals ) showed no marked differences in balance between citations, with the navy - funded reports actually having a lower proportion of \" no effect \" papers and higher proportion of \" effect \" papers than the ices survey. primary papers : funding sources and results reported turning to the primary papers, the situation is not muddied by the variable intentions of the reviews. here, there is a clearer trend of increasing conclusions of \" no effect \" as funding moves from conservation to no - agenda to industry and military funding. again, the 19 conservation - funded papers nearly all reported an effect, with just one showing both effect and no effect to separate questions being investigated. the 67 military - funded papers, by contrast, were far more likely ( 2. 3 times as likely ) to come to a no - effect conclusion than papers funded by other ( non - conservation and non - industry ) sources. however, and significantly, less than 30 % of military - funded papers came to that conclusion, while about 50 % did report an effect of noise, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5073522211428988, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.910663"} {"text": "- effect conclusion than papers funded by other ( non - conservation and non - industry ) sources. however, and significantly, less than 30 % of military - funded papers came to that conclusion, while about 50 % did report an effect of noise, and 20 % showed both effects and lack of effects. likewise, in the first two nrc reviews, about 20 % of citations showed \" no effect, \" while over 60 % showed an effect ; even the most \" extreme \" review had more citations showing an effect than not. of special note is that the authors did not find any strong trend toward bias of results reported by independent, academic researchers receiving navy funding for research studies - these studies showed a similar proportion of effect and no effect results as studies funded by neither the military nor conservation groups ( though when comparing military - funded studies with all the others, including consevation - funded, a non - statisticially significant trend of 1. 64 times more \" no effect \" findings was observed ). as the authors stress in consideration of the possible bias of conservation - funded primary studies, conflicts of interest would be dangerous if scientists \" orient ( ed ) their goals, methods, analysis or interpretation towards the perceived interests of the \u2026. community that funded them. \" the authors conclude that \" much of the bias in military - funded research was in work carried out at military institutions, rather than in studies funded by the military but carried out at universities and other institutions. \" this seems to suggest that the concern about bias in funding alone is negligible, thus diffusing concerns that cash - strapped academic researchers are \" cooking the books \" to retain navy funding. research coming directly out of military offices is likely to remain less reliable as representing \" the whole picture, \" as may research entirely funded by conservation groups. still, by integrating and considering the full range of studies reported in all of these reviews, the public can get a pretty decent picture of current state of our understanding of the effects of ocean noise. of note, though, is that the proportion of \" no effect \" to \" effect \" findings is slightly lower in military - funded studies. in addition, military - funded studies are more likely to report both effects and lack of effects in a single paper ; this could indicate either a more careful assessment of the margins where effects are just noticeable, or a tendency to split the difference in order to either underplay the effects or accentuate the non - effects to assuage funders. overall, at both layers of analysis, it seems clear to ae", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5234255561445678, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.911675"} {"text": "the margins where effects are just noticeable, or a tendency to split the difference in order to either underplay the effects or accentuate the non - effects to assuage funders. overall, at both layers of analysis, it seems clear to aei that the conservation - funded papers and survey report showed the most obvious \" bias. \" however, this is not necessarily problematic ( unless used as a baseline to suggest bias in others ). as the authors note, \" conservation groups do not fund research unless they have previously identified a potentially damaging effect, \" and since conservation groups ' focus on precautionary approaches, and their mandate to \" publicize activities that are potentially damaging to the environment \" is quite transparent, it \" should not be problematic unless threats are ' hyped ' where there are none. \" ( note : while non - existent threats are rarely hyped by conservation groups, a more difficult question arises when moderate or minor threats are presented to the public as more dramatic than they may be. ) the authors note that while these results could suggest that conservation funding may be considered problematic, \" the argument can be made that their role as a preventative authority is necessary. \" indeed, while primary research and even survey reviews funded by the military are evidently not overly biased toward finding no effect ( since in both cases, they include far more results showing effects than not ), it also appears to aei that in practical terms, the eis ' s generated by the navy and the mitigation measures imposed by regulators on both military and oil and gas activities are largely grounded in the belief \u2013 and regulatory determination \u2013 that any effects of these activities are \" negligible, \" to use the formal term. thus the focus of the conservation community on funding research and publishing overviews that emphasize credible studies outlining observed negative effects is understandable, given these groups ' role in raising public awareness and balancing the singular interpretation of the more nuanced research by the military and industry. it might be more fruitful to explore ways that the \" balance \" of navy - funded studies and reviews serve as a fig leaf for actions that nearly always presume no harm. another key question not yet considered with the rigor brought to this study is whether navy - funded research is oriented toward studies that, by the questions being asked, may be more likely to come up with \" no effect \" findings, as apparently the investigations that conservationists tend to fund ask questions that lean toward those that are likely to show an effect. similarly, the questions being asked", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5258729234985113, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 26, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.912711"} {"text": "by the questions being asked, may be more likely to come up with \" no effect \" findings, as apparently the investigations that conservationists tend to fund ask questions that lean toward those that are likely to show an effect. similarly, the questions being asked can color the perceived importance of changing our ways of using sound in the sea. for example, a study might seek to identify \" recoverable thresholds \" of exposure ( the maximum sound can an animal experience, causing temporary hearing shifts, but with their hearing returning to normal after a few minutes or hours ), while another study may be looking for \" behavioral thresholds \" ( the sound exposure that triggers behavioral changes ). implicit in the first question is the thought that as long as the effect is not permanent, it ' s acceptable ; conversely, the second question implies a desire to minimize disturbance of animals. indeed, the first question seeks the maximum sound level we can feel comfortable imposing, while the second inquires as to the minimal sound that the animal might be affected by. more to the point, though, many or most of the studies that do show effects are somewhat ambiguous ( e. g., only a proportion of the population shows the effect, or the practical import of the change or effect is difficult or impossible to determine ), while a finding of \" no effect \" is more clear - cut. it is not outlandish on the face of it for the navy to say, as it does, that their actions are not likely to cause any major disruption of animal life : the only clear - cut evidence we have is that extremely loud sounds at very close range ( tens of meters ) can injure animals, while the rest of the research really is shades of grey. nearly all of the controversy over military and oil and gas noise today boils down to differing interpretations of how important moderate behavioral changes are, and whether they should be avoided or not. and science is nearly incapable of shedding any definitive light on how important behavioral changes are, thus leaving the two sides largely reliant on their divergent faith : the navy and oil industry ' s faith that the behavioral changes are transient and negligible, and environmentalists ' faith that chronic behavioral disruption by human noise is bound to have negative consequences. meanwhile, ethical questions about humanity ' s relationship to the natural world are outside the bounds of discussion on one side, and central to the whole discussion, on the other. in the end, studies like this \u2013 and indeed, reviews such as those considered here \u2013 are largely diligent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5369011803375858, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 27, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.913985"} {"text": "of sound. clownfish were found to detect sound from 75hz to 1. 8khz, and to be most sensitive to sounds below 200hz. it \u2019 s long been known that the sounds made by fish are closely related to their size, with lower frequency sounds made by larger fish. interestingly, younger ( i. e. smaller ) fish have best hearing sensitivity at frequencies lower than the sounds they make, but close to the dominant frequencies of larger fish calls. it is suggested that this allows juvenile fish to hear and localize the position of adults, which may be useful as juveniles return to their home reefs. offshore wind farms : impact area on porpoises is small during operation, but potentially over 20km during construction these two papers, from related research teams, assessed the impacts of construction and operation of wind farms in europe on local populations of harbor porposeis and harbor seals. tougaard, henriksen, miller. underwater noise from three types of offshore wind turbines : estimation of impact zones for harbor porpoises and harbor seals. j. acoust. soc. am. 125 ( 6 ), june 2009. 3766 - 3773. underwater noise was recorded from three different types of wind turbines in denmark and sweden. the authors note that virtually all airborne noise from the turbine blades is reflected off the surface of the water, while vibrations from the machinery are transmitted through the tower and into the foundation, from where it radiates out into the water column and seabed. in general, turbine noise was only measurable above ambient noise at frequencies below 500hz, with total spls of 109 - 127db re 1upa rms, measured at 14 - 20m from the turbines \u2019 foundations. by comparing measured sound levels with audiograms of harbor seals and harbor porpoises, the researchers determined that the sounds were only slightly audible for the porpoises at ranges of 20 - 70m, whereas harbor seals may hear the sounds at ranges of 100m to several kilometers. as a bottom line, researchers suggest that behavioral changes are very unlikely in harbor porpoises except at very close ranges, while seals may have some behavioral reaction out to a few hundred meters. for both species, masking is predicted here to be low to non - existent ( due to differences between vocalization frequency patterns and the predominantly low - frequency turbine noise ), and the sound is too low to cause physical injury, no matter how close the animals are. tougaard, carstensen, teilmann", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5034358522562348, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 30, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.917378"} {"text": "existent ( due to differences between vocalization frequency patterns and the predominantly low - frequency turbine noise ), and the sound is too low to cause physical injury, no matter how close the animals are. tougaard, carstensen, teilmann, skov, rasmussun. pile driving zone of responsiveness extends beyond 20km for harbor porpoises ( phocoena phocoena ( l. ) ) ( l ). j. acous. soc. am. 126 ( 1 ), july 2009. 11 - 14. this study took place during construction of an offshore wind farm in the north sea. acoustic t - pods were placed in the wind farm and in two locations outside the wind farm, at 7 and 20km away. during pile driving operations, which generate high - intensity impulsive sounds ( 235db peak - peak ), detections of harbour porpoises declined at all listening stations. ( the baseline was detections during construction, but without pile driving activity taking place ) the declines were not dramatic ( within the 95 % confidence bars in most cases, barely beyond them in some cases ), but were consistently found. there was no clear difference in detection rates at 7 and 20km, which implies that the displacement effect extends well beyond 20km. the differences inside the wind farm were minimal when pile driving was occurring, though total detections were lower inside the farm than outside at all times, suggesting that animals inside the construction zone were individuals who were more acclimated or tolerant of the ongoing construction noise. a summary of recent studies of wind farm noise annoyance and possible health effects the take - away from these new reports appears to be that while significant proportions of the population are affected by moderate wind farm noise, neither increasing wind farm noise nor even annoyance to it lead inevitably to health effects. there is an entire separate body of research investigating various attitudinal aspects related to stress and health, which only muddy the waters as we try to interpret these direct studies on wind farm noise. some studies indicate that attitudes toward a noise source can affect both annoyance and stress responses, and that a subjective sense of being threatened can likewise increase physiological responses to noise ; however, once again, these correlations are far from universal, so they cannot be used to \" explain away \" either annoyance or health impacts that do take place, any more than annoyance can be used as a clear indication of eventual health effects. there is far more gray than black and white in these reports. still, they provide a concrete picture of annoyance and sleep", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.530855875317235, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 31, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.918627"} {"text": "either annoyance or health impacts that do take place, any more than annoyance can be used as a clear indication of eventual health effects. there is far more gray than black and white in these reports. still, they provide a concrete picture of annoyance and sleep deprivation increasing as turbine noise increases, along with a better sense of the proportion of affected neighbors who will experience these impacts at various distances and received sound levels. clearly, 35 - 45db is a range at which impacts on neighbors become far more widespread. the social question that will need to addressed is what proportion of nearby neighbors we will accept causing sleep deprivation or annoyance in : 10 %? 20 %? where will we draw the line, beyond which we consider turbine placement too close? minnesota dept of health minnesota department of health, environmental health division. public health impacts of wind turbines. may 2009. [ download report here ] this state agency report provides a good overview of the current state of knowledge regarding wind farm noise propagation, with particular attention given to possible low frequency noise impacts. the report makes no dramatic recommendations, though the data presented suggests that audible and low - frequency noise could affect neighbors within a half mile to mile. among the key pieces of information contained in this report, gleaned from previous research studies : - a reminder that the 2007 report on wind farms and human health from the national academies of science concluded that \" noise produced by wind farms is generally not a major concern beyond a half mile \" ( i. e., under a half mile can be problematic ). - some individuals have extraordinary sensitivity to low frequency sound, up to 25db more sensitive than presumed ( average ) thresholds at some frequencies - some people can dismiss and ignore repetitive but low intensity noise, while for others, the signal will grow and become more apparent and unpleasant over time. these reactions may have little relationship to will or intent, and more to do with previous exposure history and personality. - the difference, in db, between soft ( acceptable ) and loud ( annoying ) noise is much less at low frequencies, due to the our perceptual compression of the full audible range. - compiled data from two recent swedish studies ( summarized below ) suggest that wind farm noise levels of over 40db ( a ) lead to annoyance in about half the population, while slightly lower sound levels of 35 - 40db ( a ) leads to annoyance in about a quarter of the population. - a surprising study from new zealand found that over half of household 2 - 2. 5km and 5 - 9. 5km from wind farms", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.514757547544942, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 32, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.919723"} {"text": "sound levels of 35 - 40db ( a ) leads to annoyance in about a quarter of the population. - a surprising study from new zealand found that over half of household 2 - 2. 5km and 5 - 9. 5km from wind farms could hear them at times ( fewer in between heard them ) ; these wind farms were in mountainous terrain, which likely explains the great distances at which they could be heard. - two charts from a 2006 report by the uk department of transport and industry suggest that low frequency noise ( lfn ) from wind turbines can be well above audible levels, and above the uk ' s night noise lfn criterion, at frequencies of 50 - 200hz. summary of three european studies eja pederson. effects of wind turbine noise on humans. third international meeting on wind turbine noise, aalborg, denmark, june 2009. this review by one of the leading researchers of wind turbine noise, annoyance, and health, compiles data from three studies, two in sweden and one in holland. the results, while indicating clear thresholds for annoyance and sleep disruption at sound levels often experienced by wind farm neighbors, also illustrate the subtleties inherent in making generalizations based on ambiguous data. the author makes a key introductory point : that wind farms \" often are placed in rural settings considered places with low exposure ( to ) environmental stressors \u2026. in such a setting, even when the levels are comparably low, ( wind farm noise could ) be perceived as a potential health risk. \" the heart of the studies shows a correlation between increasing noise levels and annoyance. this effect was clearly stronger in the two flat, rural areas, than in a study that took place in a more suburban, rolling landscape that had more other noises present. a dramatic increase in proportion of people annoyed by turbine noise took place when the noise was over 40db ( a ) ; here, 25 - 45 % reported annoyance in rural settings, and 10 % in the suburban area. at 35 - 40db, annoyance ranged from 16 - 20 % in rural settings but was only 5 % in suburban ; at 30 - 35db, annoyance hovered around 10 % in rural areas. the studies showed no direct correlation between noise levels and health effects related to stress ( including headaches, tiredness, tenseness, and irritability ) ; this is not surprising, since at all noise levels, a majority of the population was not annoyed, so also not likely to be stressed. among those experiencing annoyance, there was a correlation with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5157257432644955, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 33, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.920810"} {"text": "tiredness, tenseness, and irritability ) ; this is not surprising, since at all noise levels, a majority of the population was not annoyed, so also not likely to be stressed. among those experiencing annoyance, there was a correlation with stress effects, but it was far from universal ( correlations generally in the 1. 25 range ). sleep disruption from any source was reported by 15 - 20 % of rural respondents even at sound levels under 30db ; some may interpret this as evidence of impact from wind turbines at very low sound levels, but it could as well be considered a baseline of sleep disturbance from non - wind farm causes. at sound levels of 30 - 40db, 5 - 8 % more rural residents reported sleep disruption, and as levels rose above 40db, a total of 30 - 40 % of rural residents reported being awakened. more insight into noise perception and annoyance kerstin persson waye. perception and environmental impact of wind turbine noise. presentation at inter - noise 2009. this is another paper that re - analyzes results from the several previous studies, including the swedish and dutch ones cited above ( waye and pederson were co - authors of one of these earlier studies ), and adds several interesting and important points to the discussion. first, she cites studies that suggest that the swishing nature of turbine noise is especially problematic, leading to a much higher correlation with annoyance than simple db level measurements. indeed, even at sound levels of only 35 - 40db ( a ), when swishing was present, 45 % of respondents reported being \" rather \" or \" very \" annoyed ; over 20 % were similarly annoyed at 30 - 35db. waye delves too - briefly into studies addressing the connection between seeing turbines and being annoyed by them. this is an especially difficult question, but she cites studies suggesting very high correlations between visibility and annoyance, much higher than the related correlation between visibility and audibility. this ties into other studies suggesting that those who don ' t like seeing turbines, also don ' t like hearing them ; again, though, it ' s important to remember that even these strong correlations are not universal, and many who experience noise issues are content to see turbines, if they are far enough away to not create audible disruptions to their recreational, work, and sleep life. in parsing the data from the three studies also addressed by pederson, above, waye adds two key pieces of information : first, all these wind farms consist of relatively small turbines, by current", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.545400098840293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 34, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.921954"} {"text": "their recreational, work, and sleep life. in parsing the data from the three studies also addressed by pederson, above, waye adds two key pieces of information : first, all these wind farms consist of relatively small turbines, by current standards : 500 - 800kw. second, our consideration of annoyance thresholds at various db levels is greatly enhanced by also including a graph showing that, in addition to those annoyed at each sound level, another 40 - 70 % of the population could hear the turbines, but did not report annoyance. for example, at 30 - 35db, over half of rural residents reported hearing the turbines, while only 8 - 12 % were annoyed ; at 35 - 40db ( within most global regulatory limits ), 85 % heard them, while just under 20 % were annoyed ; and at 40 - 45db ( within common us regulatory limits ), 95 % heard them, while 45 % were annoyed. finally, waye addresses a commonly reported finding : that annoyance levels are higher for wind turbines than for noise from less dynamic industrial sources, such as factories. she cites a study that shows that annoyance when indoors is pretty much the same, but that outdoors in rural settings, annoyance is significantly higher at sound levels above 35db ( annoyance at the one suburban wind farm was nearly identical to that from factory noise, again suggesting that expectations in rural setting plays a key role ). waye suggests that in rural settings, recreational and \" restorative \" aspects of outdoor experiences are impinged upon by wind farm noise. a final fascinating tidbit in her paper is that people who move from cities to the country are significantly more sensitive to noise than people who had always lived in the country ; that is, those who actively chose to relocate to the country are more attached to the quiet nature of the landscape, while those who grew up there are more accepting of changes. ( ed. note : as with so many statistics in these studies, though, this should not be over - emphasized ; surely many long - time locals also struggle with noise impacts. indeed, the difference in sensitivity to noise, while an interesting finding, is just 15 % ) low - frequency active sonar annual report to nmfs annual report no. 1 : operation of the surveillance towed array sensor system low frequency active ( surtass lfa ) sonar aboard the r / v cory chouest and usns impeccable ( t - agos 23 ) under the national marine fisheries service letters of authorization of 15 august 2007. department of the navy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5267611441391437, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 35, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.923041"} {"text": "frequency active ( surtass lfa ) sonar aboard the r / v cory chouest and usns impeccable ( t - agos 23 ) under the national marine fisheries service letters of authorization of 15 august 2007. department of the navy, chief of naval operations, september 2008. [ download ( pdf ) ] this report details the actual operations of the us navy ' s two lfas - equipped ships, from mid - august 2007 to mid - august 2008. both ships remained close to the asian pacific coast, near china, the philippines, and japan. the letter of authorization issued by nmfs, allows the navy to use lfas for up to 432 hours per vessel each year. during this year, the cory chouest used the system for 25 days, totaling 71 hours of transmissions, and the impeccable used it on 24 days for a total of 65 hours of transmissions. during these missions, both passive acoustic detection and an active \" whale - finder \" high frequency sonar were used to supplement visual marine mammal observers ; no whales were heard via passive listening, one group of whales was spotted visually, and on 19 occasions, whales or turtles were spotted by the whale - finder sonar. operations were suspended 43 times, including the 20 encounters just noted, and 23 times when the whale - finder sonar was not working correctly. such shut - downs occur when whales may move within 1km of the ship ; the whale - finder sonar reliably detects whales out to 2km away. based on current population studies of whales in the region, the report estimates that lfas operations injured no animals, and created possible behavioral reactions ( received levels of 120db or more ) in less than 1 % of most cetacean species, with no more than 3 % of any species affected. the report notes that the lfas source transmitter send out sound in a full 360 degrees, at a source level of 215db or less, using a variety of signal types at 100 - 500hz. the document provides a good overview of the navy ' s eis process since it began in 1996, along with court challenges and rulings from 2002 - 2008. safety thresholds for ocean noise should address character of signal, not just loudness michael stocker. the importance of incorporating signal characteristics in the evaluation of noise exposure impacts on marine life. acoustical society of america presentation, may 2009. this paper is a literature review that presents evidence suggesting that our current reliance on simple amplitude ( db level )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5328143636316834, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 36, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.924124"} {"text": "injury ; he proposes evaluation of the following signal characteristics : - rise time of impulse signals - periodicity of intermittent signals - kurtosis, evaluated three ways : fft of spectral distribution, amplitude variability, and spectral variability. measuring air gun propagation from new nsf research ship r / v langseth tolstoy, diebold, doermann, nooner, webb, bohnenstiehl, crone, holmes. broadband calibration of the r / v marcus g. langseth four - string seismic sources. geochemistry geophysics geosysytems, vol. 10, number 8. august 2009. [ download ( pdf ) ] this study marks the primary calibration of the new seismic survey vessel managed by columbia university ' s lamont - doherty earth observatory ( ldeo ) and often chartered by the national science foundation for academic surveys. the langseth ' s air gun arrays are different than those on the previous vessel, the r / v ewing, as it uses four identical 9 - gun linear arrays of somewhat smaller air guns, rather than up to 20 separately towed and larger air guns. tests were run in a deep water site and a shallow water site, since sound propagation varies considerably with depth. sound levels were calculated using both 90 % rms ( re 1upa ) and sel ( re : 1upa2s ). the resulting exposure radii ( safety zones to prevent exposure at the given level ) are as follows : | db threshold rms | db threshold sel interestingly, actual received levels at distances over 3km at the deep site were below the slope of the statistical \" line \" the data created at closer ranges ; thus the very distant exposure radii are likely over - estimates. as has been widely noted in recent years, sound energy was concentrated in the 10 - 300hz range ( 120 - 150db energy spectral density at 1km ), but continued to have significant energy up to 1khz ( 100 - 120db shallow, 90 - 110db deep ) and 20khz ( 60 - 80db shallow, 20 - 60 esl deep ). of special note in this study is the further clarification that, contrary to previous assumptions, differences between rms and sel are not consistent, but rather vary greatly with water depth. reverberations in shallow environments create a smaller difference ( about 8db ) than in deep water ( about 14db ). fin whales seem to avoid seismic survey castellote, clark, esteban. mediterranean", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.542897102274644, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 38, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.928104"} {"text": "; the authors note that effects can be sizable at middle frequencies. ( ed. note : for both papers, pre - conference abstracts do not quantify the mid - frequency effects ; details will follow after the presentations and with later publication of results. ) sleep \" arousal \" and awakening could be cause of wind farm health woes christopher hanning. sleep disturbance and wind turbine noise. june 2009 [ download report ] ( ed. note : this is not a peer - reviewed paper ; it was written for an anti - wind group in swinford, uk. however, dr. hanning, unlike some other physicians wading into industrial wind noise issues, is not writing outside his area of expertise. he ' s a renowned sleep disturbance expert : his school hospital named their sleep lab after him. ) this report by a uk md whose specialty is sleep disorders takes a comprehensive look at factors affecting sleep disturbance caused by nearby wind farms, and is highly recommended reading for anyone working to develop regulations at the local or state level. hanning \u2019 s primary point is that external noise need not wake a sleeper to cause problems, and the repeated \u201c arousals \u201d can break the most restful periods of sleep. he notes that \u201c the sleep, because it is broken, is unrefreshing, resulting in sleepiness, fatigue, headaches and poor memory and concentration. \u201d these are precisely the symptoms often reported by people living near wind farms. he stresses that arousals are also associated with \u201c physiological changes, an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, which are thought to be responsible for the increase in cardiovascular risk. arousals occur naturally during sleep and increase with age ( boselli 1998 ) which may make the elderly more vulnerable to wind turbine noise. arousals may be caused by sound events as low as 32 dba and awakenings with events of 42dba ( muzet and miedema 2005 ), well within the measured noise levels of current wind farms \u201d and the levels permitted by most jurisdictions. the report also summarizes other studies suggesting that night - time noise levels are often higher than sound models predict, as well as one that suggests that wind farms cause high levels of annoyance at lower sound levels than other common noise sources. he concludes that \u201c while it may be possible to produce a reasonable acoustically based theoretical approach to calculating set back distances ( kamperman and james 2008b ), it makes more sense to rely on recommendations from observations of the effects on real people at established wind farms. \u201d some birds choose noisy areas for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5389724060394137, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 41, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.931298"} {"text": "a reasonable acoustically based theoretical approach to calculating set back distances ( kamperman and james 2008b ), it makes more sense to rely on recommendations from observations of the effects on real people at established wind farms. \u201d some birds choose noisy areas for nests francis, c. d., ortega, c. p., and a. cruz. 2009. noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions. current biology doi : 10. 1016 / j. cub. 2009. 06. 052 a new study surveyed nesting birds in new mexico woodlands with oil and gas compressors, and came up with a surprising result. while, as expected, most birds were more numerous in areas farther from the compressors, two species seemed to prefer these areas. black - chinned hummingbirds and house finches had more than 90 percent of their nests at the noisy sites. the researchers dug a bit deeper, and found that nests in the quiet areas were more likely to be attacked by predators, with predator birds significantly less abundant around noisy sites. it is suggested that the noise may mask their calls or make it harder for them to find their prey. increase in noise levels leads to more annoyance than similar noise in steady state brown, kamp. response to a change in transport noise exposure : competing explanations of change effects. j. acoust. soc. am. 125 ( 2 ), february 2009 this literature review addresses an interesting question, and one that may be relevant to concerns about noise from wind farms. a long history of studies of human annoyance responses to traffic noise seems to suggest that a change in noise levels ( for example, traffic noise increasing from 50db to 60db ) triggers more annoyance than occurs when exposure is steady at the higher level ( in this case, a steady 60db ). this paper reviews many proposed explanations for this affect ; while no single explanation is identified as most likely, several common ones are shown to be unlikely, and a set of plausible explanations remains. among the explanations that are rejected is the common assumption that the annoyance after an increase is transient, and over time will dissipate as people adapt to the new noise level ; in fact, evidence suggests that annoyance remains for years after a change. also of note is that the one study that looked closely at whether attitudes toward a noise source is related to annoyance after an increase in noise found that neither prior attitude nor changes in attitude could account for the increased annoyance. this paper, and its many citations, are highly recommended for anyone addressing community responses to new or increased noise sources", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5272856112958192, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 42, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.932423"} {"text": "a noise source is related to annoyance after an increase in noise found that neither prior attitude nor changes in attitude could account for the increased annoyance. this paper, and its many citations, are highly recommended for anyone addressing community responses to new or increased noise sources. harbor porpoise tts, behavioral response at moderate noise levels in lab tests lucke, seibert, lepper, blanchet. temporary shift in masked hearing thresholds in a harbor porpoise ( phocoena phocoena ) after exposure to seismic airgun stimuli. j. acoust. soc. am. 125 ( 6 ), june 2009. field researchers have observed for years that harbor porpoises appear more sensitive to noise than most other cetacean species, moving away from noise sources at greater distances than typically considered problematic ( belugas and bowhead whale mothers are also more behaviorally sensitive to noise ). this study was the first that measured harbor porpoise auditory sensitivity in the lab, using auditory evoked potential measurements ( brain - wave scanners that note auditory brain activity ), and the results confirm that this species ' avoidance behavior occurs at relatively low sound levels, and may be linked to a similarly low threshold of tts ( temporary hearing loss ). the test animal was a wild - born ten - year old porpoise who has lived in captivity in denmark for most of his life ; the testing facility is open to the sea, so background noise ( ranging roughly from 60 - 80db pressure spectral density ) is dominated by local shipping sounds. a single small ( 20 cubic inches ) airgun was used as the sound source, gradually moving closer until a tts was observed at one of the 3 tested hearing frequencies ( 4, 32, and 100khz ). the airgun source sound was, as is typical, loudest at low frequencies ( max of 150db spl at 300hz ), but had significant energy at higher frequencies as well ( 100 - 110db spl from 2khz to 5khz ), at the relatively close range used in this test ( 14 - 150m ). the key finding was that the airgun sounds caused tts in the 4khz hearing range at received levels of 165. 5db sel ( 202. 1db peak to peak ) ; perhaps more importantly, recovery was quite slow, with reduced sensitivity ( i. e., sound had to be louder than normal to be heard ) still measured at 29 hours post - exposure. based on the pattern of recovery", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5012294527771156, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 43, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.934524"} {"text": "tts ; temporary decline in hearing sensitivity ) after exposure to loud noise in dolphins, calls into question one of the key advantages of the sound exposure level metric. sel measurements are designed to measure total sound exposure over a given period of time ; simply stated, sel remains constant when sound intensity increases while duration decreases ( e. g., twice as loud for half as long should result in \" equal energy \", or the same sel ). the assumption was that sel offered an \" equal energy \" metric that could allow biologists and ocean regulators to set a sel threshold that would apply to many types of noise exposure. however, this study indicates that a given sel db level ( arrived at via a mathematical equation combining sound energy from many noise pulses over time ) did not seem to induce tts in the single captive dolphin used in this study. as with other metrics, higher sels were required to induce tts with shorter duration sounds. by extension, the hypothesis that tts is caused by a given level of sound energy ( the \" equal energy \" hypothesis ) is called into question. the relationship appears to be logarithmic, rather than linear. in this study, the sound source was short ( 20ms ) digitally generated tone bursts. related : mid - frequency sonar must be very loud / close to trigger tts mooney, nachtigall, vlachos. sonar - induced temporary hearing loss in dolphins. biology letters, doi : 10. 1098 / rsbl. 2009. 0099 the same team more recently found the same difficulty with using sel to predict tts when using a recording of a us naval mid - frequency active sonar ; short duration mfa \" pings \" had to be ramped up to a sel of 214db ( equivalent to 203db spl rms ) to induce a modest tts of 6db, which faded rapidly back to normal hearing levels in 20 - 40 minutes, a higher sel than had induced tts using longer duration sounds in the above study. this was the first hearing test on dolphins to use actual mid - frequency active sonar signals ; previous studies had used sonar simulations or tones at similar frequencies. ed. note : the usual caveats are in order here, as a long - time captive dolphin may not hear as well as his wild relatives ; it is often assumed that captive dolphins are less sensitive both physiologically ( hearing loss from living in noisy pens ) and behaviorally ( habituated to noise, and given food to remain in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5386072143399232, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 45, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.936612"} {"text": "captive dolphin may not hear as well as his wild relatives ; it is often assumed that captive dolphins are less sensitive both physiologically ( hearing loss from living in noisy pens ) and behaviorally ( habituated to noise, and given food to remain in the test area ), though the relative lack of clear studies on wild animals makes this assumption difficult to confirm. wind turbines do not seem to displace wintering farmland birds devereaux, denny, whittingham. minimal effects of wind turbines on the distribution of wintering farmland birds. journal of applied ecology 2008, 45, 1689 - 1694. in what be the first study examining whether wind farms displace birds, this team studied bird distributions around two small wind farms in england ( each had 8 2mw 60m hub - height turbines in two rows ). birds of four different functional groups ( seed - eaters, corvids, gamebirds, and skylarks ) were counted at five distances ( multiples of 150m, out to 750m ). after controlling for crop types and boundary effects, there was no overall significant difference in distribution by distance. one species was an exception to the overall findings : the largest and least maneuverable bird, the common pheasant, was more common as distance increased. two other species not included in the overall study of functional groups were also less abundant within 150m : the mallard and the wood pigeon, also both less maneuverable than most of the other birds in the area ( the authors note that counts were low enough for these that the pattern may have been skewed by a few large flocks ). in some cases ( skylarks and corvids ), the data showed statistically significant increases in bird numbers closer to the turbines. the authors make a point of noting that this winter study needs to be complemented by similar investigations of distribution during the breeding season, when birds may be affected differently. this study did not study noise, but just the presence of the turbines. related : compressor station noise can reduce forest bird abundance bayne, habib, boutin. impacts of chronic anthropogenic noise form energy - sector activity on abundance of songbirds in the boreal forest. conservation biology, volume 22, no. 5, 1186 - 1193, 2008. this study used an innovative study design to separate the effect of noise from the also - important effects of habitat disruption and edge effects caused by energy development. the authors compared bird distributions around ( quiet ) well pads and ( constantly noise", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5055140952276022, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 46, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.938069"} {"text": "1193, 2008. this study used an innovative study design to separate the effect of noise from the also - important effects of habitat disruption and edge effects caused by energy development. the authors compared bird distributions around ( quiet ) well pads and ( constantly noise - producing ) coalbed methane compressor stations in the forest of alberta. they found that areas near well pads had a passerine density of 1. 5 times higher than areas near compressor stations ; one - third of the species studied showed this affect. the noise levels produced by the compressor stations is typically 75 - 95 db ( a ) at the source, sometimes reaching 105db ( a ) at large facilities ; compressor noise is commonly heard at distances of well over 1km in the boreal forest ; with 5000 compressor stations in boreal alberta, the question of noise - related displacement is potentially significant. in addition to the overall tendency for passerines to be found in greater numbers near quiet energy installations than noisy ones ( with three species especially affected ), seven other species showed less dramatic but still noticeable differences, while eleven other species showed no difference. red - eyed vireos, white - throated sparrows, and yellow - rumped warblers were particularly affected, with chickadees, jays, and wrens showing little effect. right whales experience dramatic variations in noise during annual movements along north american coast parks, urazghildiiev, clark. variability in ambient noise levels and call parameters of north atlantic right whales in three habitat areas. j. acous. soc. am. 125 ( 2 ), february 2009. this study used pop - up recorders to examine ambient noise conditions and right whale calls in three of the species ' annual habitats : the bay of fundy, cape cod bay, and the coast of georgia. while the variability of calls was subtle, there was some indication that louder call patterns were in response to the peak sound in an area, rather than the overall noise level. however, the seasonal variability of noise experienced by this population is the key finding here. overall sound levels were highest during the summer season spent in the bay of fundy, and lowest in the winter off georgia. likewise, the percentage of time that the habitat was \" loud \" ( ambient noise over 105db re 1upa in the 50 - 350hz frequency range of right whale contact calls ) varied dramatically : in the bay of fundy, it was loud 85 - 95 % of the time, in cape cod bay it was loud 53 - 63 % of the time, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5270784608372598, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 47, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.939435"} {"text": "resident killer whales orcinus orca. endangered species research, vol. 6 : 199 - 209, 2009. this companion paper by the same research team does not address foraging, but rather looks at overall behavioral effects of the same boat traffic measured in the above study. they find that behavioral changes such as swimming speed and directness of travel path changed slightly in response to boats, and in general, they found that changes were more correlated to the number of boats within 400 yards than by the proximity of the boats, whereas current whale watching standards address only how close each boat is, rather than total numbers of boats. they also note that, given the difficulties in finding clear patterns within this noisy environment, it may be hard for managers to feel that the data is solid enough to warrant additional protections. however, the authors conclude with the observation that it appears that this population is food - limited ( many researchers consider declining salmon runs to be a primary factor in population stagnation and sometimes dips ), and suggest that reducing the ambient noise levels would improve the whales ' ability to find the limited food that remains in the region. ed. note : this paper ' s focus on numbers of vessels corresponds well with the holt paper directly above, which finds overall ambient noise is closely tied to the number of boats in the vicinity. soundscapes, acoustic daylight, and fish hearing richard fay. soundscapes and the sense of hearing in fishes. integrative zoology 2009 ; 4 : 26 - 32. this fascinating review offers a wide - ranging consideration of the implications of a simple observation : goldfish have an acute sense of hearing, though they do not vocalize or engage in any known sound communication. what are they listening to? fay introduces several key lines of research into fish hearing, some dating from the 80s, and some from the past decade. his own research, along with that of several others, has demonstrated that fish can isolate multiple sound sources ( though studies cited are limited to two distinct sounds, rather than much more complex mixes of sound ). from there, fay suggests that fishes ' sensitivity to particle motion in water, via their lateral lines, provides them the ability to engage in what in human perception is termed \" auditory scene analysis, \" or the perception of a complex environment by distinguishing the many sound sources and their motion through the soundscape. the most intriguing suggestion in the paper is less solidly fleshed out : that fish make use of reflections of ambient sound to build this \" auditory scene. \" that is, ambient noise can act as \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5157075317670619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 50, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.944414"} {"text": "sources and their motion through the soundscape. the most intriguing suggestion in the paper is less solidly fleshed out : that fish make use of reflections of ambient sound to build this \" auditory scene. \" that is, ambient noise can act as \" acoustic daylight, \" with subtle differences in the echoes of the overall ambient sound bouncing off specific objects being a source of perception ( as light reflects off objects to create visual perception ). fay mentions one study in which goldfish were shown to be able to perceive a single point source of delayed ( as if echoed ) signal in a noise field ; this was apparently done with artificial noise sources, though the researchers ( and fay ) propose that it represents an ability of goldfish to perceive the fish bladder of another fish re - radiating ambient noise. this may well be true, though this ( and one other related study that showed fish using echoes from self - produced sound ) do not yet cross the chasm of showing that fish process complex acoustic scenes by using reflections of ambient noise. yet the point of this review is not to \" make a case \" for these higher order perceptual abilities, but rather to open our minds to the likely fact that fish listen to much more than simply communication signals, which have been overlooked due to our \" profound ignorance of the other possible sounds and sources that probably have biological significance to fish, \" and to suggest that \" environmental soundscapes ( are ) most probably important sources of information. \" this more modest first step is clearly successful here, opening the way to future studies of the undoubtedly subtle and complex sensory world of fishes. iucn report highlights noise impact of shipping in mediterranean, calls for mpas to provide \" acoustic comfort \" ameer abdulla, olof london ( editors ). 2008. maritime traffic effects on biodiversity in the mediterranean sea : review of impacts, priority areas and mitigation measures. malaga, spain : iucn centre for mediterranean cooperation. 184 pp. [ download ( pdf ) ] [ website ] this comprehensive look at mediterranean shipping, from the international union for the conservation of nature and natural resources, includes a long section in the early pages on noise impacts. due to the concentration of shipping in the mediterranean, ambient noise is 40db higher than in relatively shipping - free seas such as the sea of cortez. among the recommendations made in regards to noise are that \" much effort should be devoted to developing a legal framework within which underwater noise is recognized and regulated as a threat, \" and the advocacy of mpas that are designed to provide acoustic protection to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5500241909939834, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 51, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.945420"} {"text": "only made in quite calm seas ( beaufort 2 or lower ). a large local population of dolphins offered plenty of data, and the population is generally stable in place, engaging in a series of regular behaviors over relatively prolonged timeframes. behavior \" without \" boats present was noted when no boats ( other than the observation inflatable ) were within 350m ; behavior \" with \" boats present was noted when tour boats came within 150m. ( ed. note : it would be interesting to consider the data when tour boats were 150 - 350m distant, to assess whether the observed effects extend to greater distances ). over the course of 65 hours of observation by a single observer, 1028 3 - minute behavioral samples were taken, 781 with no boat ( average duration 69 min. ), and 247 with a tour boat present ( average duration 47 min. ). as usual with such studies, several behavioral states were analyzed : traveling, socializing, resting, milling, feeding, and diving. all showed some change in the presence of boats, with traveling, milling, and diving all increasing in the presence of boats, and socializing, feeding, and resting decreasing. of these, the most relevant to an animal ' s energy budget all were negatively affected : traveling increased from 27 % of the time to 46 %, resting decreased from 31 % to 20 %, and by far the largest energetic impact was seen in feeding, which reduced from 20 % of the time to just 7. 6 % of the time. this is the most dramatic decrease in feeding seen in such studies ( others have tended to find a 25 - 35 % decrease in foraging ). this may indicate that the relatively localized population had plenty of time to eat when the boats were not present, and chose to either leave or play with the boats when they were present. the study did look at attraction / deterrence, finding that in in 20 % of cases, dolphins moved closer to the boats, while in 28 % of encounters, they moved away ( about half the time, there was no spatial difference, though behaviors may still have changed ). the discussion section of this paper includes an unusually detailed comparison of the findings and the contexts of this and several similar studies, as well as consideration of the ways that in other settings, were human activity is more prevalent, these behavioral changes could have longer - term, population - level impacts. excellent review of the effects of human - generated sound on fish popper and hastings. the effects of human - generated sound on fish. integrative zoology", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5098767510793302, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 53, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.947717"} {"text": "passive acoustic detection of beaked whales : easy within 1km, nearly impossible beyond 4km zimmer, harwood, tyack, johnson, madsen. passive acoustic detection of deep - diving beaked whales. the journal of the acoustical society of america, november 2008, volume 124, issue 5, pp. 2823 - 2832. beaked whales spend very little time at the surface, with foraging dives that last an hour or more, including about 30 minutes of active echolocation at the feeding depth. visual detection is very difficult, so the possibility of using passive acoustic detection ( pad ) is an attractive complement to visual spotting. however, these high - frequency clicks attenuate rapidly. according to this paper, acoustic modeling suggests that in \" good conditions, \" e. g. wind speed of 2 m / s, a hydrophone close to the surface should detect beaked whales with a high probability within. 7km. at the other end of the detection range, no whales would be detected at distances greater than 4km, except in very low ambient noise or unusually good propagation conditions. the detection curve generated by the models, drops steeply as distance increases, with a relative leveling off that suggest roughly 50 % detection when whales are 1. 5 - 3. 5km distant. additionally, the researchers substituted some actual dive profile data obtained in d - tag studies, and found that in these instances, detection probability may rise somewhat, with 80 % detection being possible at distances of 1. 5 - 2. 5 km. actual detection of real whales is complicated by the fact that the sound of the clicks is highly directional ; only clicks directed nearly directly toward the receiver will be heard at the modeled distances, but echolocating whales do scan in many directions, so at least some clicks from any whale should be detected. finally, the relatively quiet interval between deep foraging dives can be as long as 110 minutes, meaning that listening time should be roughly 140 minutes to have a high probability of detecting if beaked whales are present. this, in turn, suggests that a slow - moving vessel ( such as gliders or drifting buoys ) will be more successful than a fast - moving active sonar vessel. ( that is, if detections are only going to occur within roughly 4km, the listening platform should not move out of a relatively similar area during the 2 - hour - plus pad session. ) ed. note : while it has still not been confirmed to all observers ' satisfaction, there is some evidence that beak", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5247525525349772, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 56, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.952104"} {"text": "roughly 4km, the listening platform should not move out of a relatively similar area during the 2 - hour - plus pad session. ) ed. note : while it has still not been confirmed to all observers ' satisfaction, there is some evidence that beaked whales affected by mid - frequency active sonar may well have been tens of km from sonar vessels. thus, pad may be useful for avoiding nearby exposure, but may not fully mitigate for effects that could occur at greater distances, including fleeing in ways that disrupt the whales ' post - dive recovery and oxygen / nitrogen rebalancing. detailed review of sound exposure impacts on puget sound orcas released by noaa marla holt, sound exposure and southern resident killer whales ( orcinus orca ) : a review of current knowledge and data gaps. noaa technical memorandum nmfs - nwfsc - 89, february 2008. 77pp. [ download report ( pdf ) ] this review includes summaries of most of the studies of ambient and shipping noise in the range of the southern resident orca pods of the pacific northwest. topics covered include ambient sound patterns, shipping noise, whale watching noise, orca auditory capabilities and auditory effects of sound exposure, including masking and hearing loss, and behavioral changes in the presence of excess sound. an important section looks at the emerging concept of \" zones of influence \" of sound : the zones of audibility, response, masking, and hearing loss or injury. the report concludes with a section that assesses the likelihood of acoustic impacts and suggestions for future research. the report is a treasure - trove of clear information on noise / sound impacts. among the points that stood out in my reading are the following. ambient noise is generally elevated at least 10 - 15db by small boats, and 20 - 25db by large ships ( another study indicates increases more in the range of 50 - 70db in the presence of various boats ). the section on hearing sensitivity makes a point about captive animal testing that is rarely noted : when animals receive negative reinforcement for reporting a \" false positive \" ( i. e. responding as if hearing a sound, when no sound was played ), they may well become conditioned to be conservative in their response to faint sounds, and so the results can easily underestimate the hearing sensitivity of the species ( for orcas, only two studies have been done on captive whales to assess hearing sensitivity curves ). tentative measurements of the critical ratios for orcas ( tentative because, again, there are few test subjects ) suggest that they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.524422176709186, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 57, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.953908"} {"text": ", miller, doksaeter, knudsen, tyack, nordlund, lam, samarra, kleivane, godo. herring ( slid ), killer whales ( spekknogger ) and sonar - the 3s - 2006 cruise report with preliminary results. norwegian defence research establishment ( ffi ). 30 april 2007 this paper reports preliminary results from an ambitious multi - national controlled exposure experiment using acoustic d - tags, which allow researchers to record received sound levels while charting dive patterns. six orcas were tagged, with 17 hours of data collected, with one animal exposed to lfas signals, two to mid - frequency active sonar signals, and one used as a control, fewer samples than hoped. the whale exposed to lfas signal did not change its behavior, nor did its companions. however, the group exposed to mid - frequency sonar signals ceased feeding and moved rapidly away ; in addition, they exhibited an unusual dive pattern, diving roughly twice as deep ( over 60m ) as normal ( 20 - 45m ), including a highly unusual reversal of their ascent ( coming up to 15m from the surface, then retreating again to 60m ). [ ed. note, not part of the report narrative, based on observation of included diagrams : four other dives during the 35 - minute sonar transmission were within the normal range of depth ( the deep dive was the third of five dives during sonar transmission ), with three longer than normal rest periods at the surface during the hour after sonar transmission ceased. ] received levels did not exceed 150db re 1upa. looking at longer - term responses, while the experimental use of sonar in the herring trials did not seem to deter orcas from the general area, by contrast, no orcas were seen during three days of a planned navy exercise in the area that included mid - frequency sonar use. the herring trials used bottom - mounted sensors to chart the mean depth of a school of herring as a sonar vessels passed nearby. herring at shallow depths ( 25 - 50m ) tended to show a minor downward reaction as the sonar source ship passed overhead, while herring located deeper, or in less dense schools, showed no detectable reaction ; no horizontal avoidance was seen. while herring hearing curves suggest they should be able to clearly hear lfas signals, but not mid - frequency signals, the responses were the same for all signals ( including ship - only, no sonar ), suggesting that the herring may have been responding to the sound of the ship, rather", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5453037165921465, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 61, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.960030"} {"text": "killer whales staying 4km away from acoustic harassment signals near fish farms, dolphin numbers dropping to 8 % of normal within 3. 5 km of similar noise - makers on other fish farms ( with those small numbers implying that the avoidance distance was far greater ). he notes that the degree of displacement or behavioral response is not necessarily a direct indicator of the severity of impact, suggesting that \" if an animal is in bad enough condition that the risk of altering behavior is high, then it may be less likely to show a disturbance response. \" for example, hungry animals will linger in a feeding area the longest. he also notes that some responses to noise may be caused by noise sources that resemble a predator ' s call ( as in recent modeling tyack has done that suggests beaked whale decompression sickness may result from a long series of near - surface dives as the whales flee sonar signals that they mistake for orca calls ). he cites some compelling studies on terrestrial animals showing that repeated disturbance exacts high costs in reproductive success and overall health ( including a study of geese that showed that when undisturbed, geese increased their body mass and had a 46 % breeding success, whereas in nearby areas where farmers scared them off their fields, they did not gain mass and had a breeding success of only 17 % ). to conclude, tyack suggests that there are several lines of research that have so far received little attention, which could help to move key understanding of noise impacts forward, including : focusing on the most vulnerable animals as subject of study into the effects of disturbance, further study of the possibility that predator responses underlay key behavioral impacts ( including fleeing, increased vigilance, and avoiding habitats ), and following up on the recent theory of allostasis ( behavioral changes that allow an animal to maintain equilibrium in the face of external environmental changes or stressors ) as a way of understanding the costs and benefits of changing behavior in the face of noise. workshop report : encouraging establishment of noise - free zones in and around marine protected areas agardy, aguilar, canadas, engel, frantzis, hatch, hoyt, kashner, labrecque, martin, notarbartolo di sciara, pavan, servidio, smith, want, weilgart, wintle, wright. 2007. a global scientific workshop on spatio - temporal management of noise. report of the scientific workshop. 44 pages. [ download ( pdf ) ] in june 2007, a workshop was held in the canary", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5049130642438594, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 64, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.963516"} {"text": "weilgart, wintle, wright. 2007. a global scientific workshop on spatio - temporal management of noise. report of the scientific workshop. 44 pages. [ download ( pdf ) ] in june 2007, a workshop was held in the canary islands to consider the potentials for extending the management principles used in marine protected areas to provide some protection from anthropogenic noise. fundamental to the purpose and effectiveness of mpas are \" spatio - temporal restrictions \" ( strs ) of specific human activities : for example, excluding fishing, from a specific area ( spatial restriction ), or sometimes at times of special biological importance, such as spawning ( temporal restriction ). few of today ' s mpas are large enough to provide protection from \" elevated levels of ensonification : \" buffers of tens of kilometers would be necessary for protection from mid - frequency sound, and a hundred or more kilometers from low - frequency sound. of today ' s 350 mpas that include some cetacean habitat, 64 are large enough to provide some mid - frequency protection, 20 are large enough to provide at least some low - frequency protection ( e. g. shipping ), and only the 6 largest are probably sufficient to protect from shipping noise. ( of course, shipping is not generally excluded from mpas : this is merely a hint at the scale of noise strs that would be useful. ) the workshop report includes several key sections : - descriptions of some existing attempts to provide strs focused on noise : in 2003, brazil established a large buffer zone around a small existing mpa, to exclude the sounds of seismic survey airguns from entering the mpa ( the buffer was withdrawn by a court due to jurisdictional issues ; attempts are underway to re - establish it ). in the canary islands, a 50 nautical mile buffer zone has been established around the islands, in which active sonar is not allowed ( there have been some subsequent strandings that raise questions whether this is large enough a buffer ). - recommendations for mpa managers, centered on a framework for making management decisions regarding possible noise - related strs. - recommendation that noise - producers provide more information, and longer lead times prior to operations near mpas, to allow for analysis of effects of proposed noise. a far - reaching element of this is a call for use of \" detectability curves \" to reflect how easy it is to find various species of whales, and to insure that more effort is made to find hard - to - detect whales, rather than assuming that they are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.531868129252219, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 65, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.964653"} {"text": "of this is a call for use of \" detectability curves \" to reflect how easy it is to find various species of whales, and to insure that more effort is made to find hard - to - detect whales, rather than assuming that they are not present if none are found using standard observational techniques. - recommended measures that could reduce the noise impacts of the primary noise producing activities. - suggested mpas or proposed mpas where noise - oriented strs could be introduced, as case studies for future mpa management protocols. these include the pelagos sanctuary in the northwestern mediterranean, off france, italy, and monaco, the alborian sea / strait of gibraltar, the bay of bengal, and east asian waters off japan, china, and the philippines. ocean fish vary widely in startle response to noise kastelein, van der heul, verboom, jennings, van der veen, de haan. startle response of captive north sea fish species to underwater tones between 0. 1 and 64khz. marine environmental research 65 ( 2008 ) 369 - 377. this study exposed eight marine fish species to pure tones ranging from 100hz to 64khz. the tests took place in specially designed quiet tanks ; species were chosen in part due to their economic importance to fisheries. some species did not respond to the sound at all, even at the highest db levels that could be produced, while others exhibited very clear startle responses to a relatively narrow range of frequencies ( generally 100 - 700hz ), at received levels of about 100db ( re 1upa, rms ) for the lowest frequencies, with the startle threshold increasing to the range of 160db as frequency increased to 700hz. only one species responded to higher frequencies than this : horse mackerel responses extended up to 2khz. the species that did not startle at all were atlantic cod, pollack, common eel, and atlantic herring. horse mackerel startled to the widest range of frequencies, with sea bass also quite responsive ; thicklip mullet and pout both startled to a narrower range of frequencies. interestingly, for fish that have established audiograms, it appears that the startle response does not begin until the noise is 10 - 30db above the hearing threshold ; and, again, some fish showed no startle even at levels up to 45db above their presumed hearing threshold. the researchers note that these results on captive fish to pure tones can not be reliably extrapolated to wild", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5293823275245837, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 66, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.966596"} {"text": "in situ measurement and equalization of sound reproduction systems the concept of frequency response is of basic importance to audio reproduction equipment. when analyzing electronic equipment, this characteristic is seldom a problem of measurement or interpretation. it is a problem, however, for acoustical transducers such as loudspeakers. unlike electronic equipment which has both electrical input and output terminals, the loudspeaker has an electrical input terminal but an acoustical output. this acoustical output is further complicated by the fact that a room is always interposed between the loudspeaker and the acoustical measuring device. with the human as the ultimate evaluation instrument, various measurement and interpretation questions arise regarding frequency response, variations among listeners, and effect of program material. the major question, however, is just what the frequency response of a particular sound reproduction system should be. in order to answer these questions, several psychoacoustical experiments were devised, based upon a listener ' s ability to detect differences. these experiments and their results are described in detail as they relate to the following types of sound reproduction systems : 1 ) sound reinforcement systems, 2 ) studio monitoring systems, 3 ) home high - fidelity systems. click to purchase paper or login as an aes member. if your company or school subscribes to the e - library then switch to the institutional version. if you are not an aes member and would like to subscribe to the e - library then join the aes! this paper costs $ 20 for non - members, $ 5 for aes members and is free for e - library subscribers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5672476598849631, "token_count": 320, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.981212"} {"text": "smart phones are changing real world privacy settings thursday, may 10, 2012 tau research finds that smart phone users develop new concepts of privacy in public spaces with endless applications, high - speed wireless internet access, and free messaging services, smart phones have revolutionized the way we communicate. but at what cost? according to researchers at tel aviv university, the smart phone is challenging traditional conceptions of privacy, especially in the public sphere. dr. tali hatuka of tau ' s department of geography and dr. eran toch of tau ' s department of industrial engineering have teamed to measure the impact of the smart phone phenomenon on privacy, behavioral codes, and the use of public space. their early results indicate that although spaces such as city squares, parks, or transportation were once seen as public meeting points, smart phone users are more and more caught up in their technology - based communications devices than their immediate surroundings. smart phone users are 70 percent more likely than regular cellphone users to believe that their phones afford them a great deal of privacy, says dr. toch, who specializes in privacy and information systems. these users are more willing to reveal private issues in public spaces. they are also less concerned about bothering individuals who share those spaces, he says. inside a private bubble dr. hatuka says that smart phones create the illusion of \" private bubbles \" around their users in public spaces. she also believes that the design of public spaces may need to change in response to this technology, not unlike the ways in which some public areas have been designated as \" smoking \" and \" non - smoking. \" dr. toch also notes that smartphones and personal computing devices are becoming more \" context - aware, \" adjusting themselves in terms of brightness and volume to the user ' s location and activity. to examine how smart phones have impacted human interactions in public and private spaces, the researchers designed an in - depth survey. nearly 150 participants, half smart phone users and half regular phone users, were questioned about how telephone use applied to their homes, public spaces, learning spaces, and transportation spaces. while regular phone users continued to adhere to established social protocol in terms of phone use \u2014 postponing private conversations for private spaces and considering the appropriateness of cell phone use in public spaces \u2014 smart phone users adapted different social behaviors for public spaces. they were 50 percent less likely to be bothered by others using their phones in public spaces, and 20 percent less likely than regular phone users to believe that their private phone conversations were irritating to those around them, the researchers found.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5421391737264685, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.986355"} {"text": "behaviors for public spaces. they were 50 percent less likely to be bothered by others using their phones in public spaces, and 20 percent less likely than regular phone users to believe that their private phone conversations were irritating to those around them, the researchers found. feeling lost without a phone according to the researchers, smart phone users were also more closely \" attached \" to their mobile devices. when asked how they felt when they were without their phones, the majority of smart phone owners chose negative descriptors such as \" lost, \" \" tense, \" or \" not updated. \" regular phone users were far more likely to have positive associations to being without their phones, such as feeling free or quiet. the next phase of the study will be a more in - depth analysis of how smart phone users incorporate this technology into their daily lives. it requires users to install an application that the researchers developed called smart spaces. the application is designed to track where the participants go over a three - week period and how they use their phones while there. this will give researchers a better idea of how smart phone users interact in both public and private spaces during the course of a typical day. dr. hatuka and dr. toch believe that their complete findings can reveal clues about the future of public space and how it will be designed in order to meet the needs of those it serves. \" we are entering a new phase of public and private spaces, \" says dr. hatuka, suggesting that physical spaces need to be redesigned as arenas which could enhance personal interaction. for more technology news from tel aviv university, click here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5171736390146426, "token_count": 320, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:36.987021"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia pressure cooking is a method of cooking in a sealed vessel that does not permit air or liquids to escape below a preset pressure. because water ' s boiling point increases as the pressure increases, the pressure built up inside the cooker allows the liquid in the pot to rise to a temperature higher than 100 \u00b0c ( 212 \u00b0f ) before boiling. the higher temperature causes the food to cook faster. cooking times can be reduced by a factor of three or four. for example, shredded cabbage is cooked in one minute, fresh green beans take about five, small to medium - sized potatoes ( up to 200 g ) may be ready in five minutes or so and a whole chicken takes no more than twenty - five minutes. it is often used to simulate the effects of long braising or simmering in shorter periods of time. a safety valve releases steam when the pressure exceeds the safety limit for the cooker ; usually the steam pressure lifts a weighted stopper allowing excess pressure to escape. there is usually a backup pressure release mechanism, in the form of a hole in the lid blocked by a plug of low melting - point alloy. if internal temperature ( and hence pressure ) gets too high, the metal plug will melt, resulting in a release of the pressure. a pressure cooker is often used by mountain climbers to compensate for the low atmospheric pressure at high altitude. without it, water boils off before reaching 100 \u00b0c, leaving the food improperly cooked, as described in charles darwin ' s voyage of the beagle : at the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it does in a less lofty country ; the case being the converse of that of a papin ' s digester. hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. the pot was left on the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the potatoes were not cooked. i found out this, by overhearing my two companions discussing the cause, they had come to the simple conclusion, \" that the cursed pot [ which was a new one ] did not choose to boil potatoes. \" a larger scale version of a pressure cooker, used by laboratories and hospitals to sterilise biological waste materials, surgical instruments etc. is known as an autoclave. the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5648151784052142, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.021207"} {"text": "backward and forward both run to need may they, faster run to are computers if a turing machine is fine for reasoning about computers, but it ' s not an ideal model for building them. some more practical components of reversible logic were introduced in the 1980s by edward f. fredkin and tommaso toffoli, who were then working together at mit. ( fredkin is now at carnegie mellon university, toffoli at boston university. ) the components are logic gates, somewhat like and and or gates but designed for reversibility. in any reversible gate the number of inputs must equal the number of outputs. moreover, each possible set of inputs must yield a distinct set of outputs. if this were not the case \u2014 that is, if two or more input patterns had the same output \u2014 then the reverse action of the gate would be ambiguous. the devices now known as the fredkin gate and the toffoli gate ( see illustration on page 109 ) both have three inputs and three outputs ; and, as required for reversibility, each input pattern maps to a unique output. in the fredkin gate, one signal controls whether the other two data lines pass straight through the gate or else have their positions swapped. in the toffoli gate, two of the signals control the third ; if the first two bits are both 1, then the third bit is inverted. like the not gate, both the fredkin and the toffoli gates are their own inverses : no matter what the values of the three input signals, running them through two successive copies of the same gate will return the signals to their original values. both gates are also computationally universal, meaning that a computer assembled from multiple fredkin or toffoli gates ( and no other components ) could simulate a turing machine or any other device of equivalent computational power. thus the gates might be considered candidates for a real reversible computer. of course logic gates are still just abstract devices ; they have to be given some physical implementation with transistors or other kinds of hardware. starting in the early 1990s, several groups have been designing and building prototypes of reversible ( or nearly reversible ) digital circuits. for example, at mit a group including michael frank and thomas f. knight, jr., fabricated a series of small but complete processor chips based on a reversible technology ; frank continues this work at florida state university. at the university of gent in belgium, alexis de vos and his colleagues have built several reversible", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5857042116058255, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.046932"} {"text": "., fabricated a series of small but complete processor chips based on a reversible technology ; frank continues this work at florida state university. at the university of gent in belgium, alexis de vos and his colleagues have built several reversible adders and other circuits. it ' s important to note that building a computer according to a reversible logic diagram does not guarantee low - power operation. reversibility removes the thermodynamic floor at kt ln 2, but the circuit must still be designed to attain that level of energy savings. the current state of the art is far above the theoretical floor ; even the most efficient chips, reversible or not, dissipate somewhere between 10, 000 and 10 million times kt ln 2 for each logical operation. thus it will be some years before reversible technology can be put to the ultimate test of challenging the three - zeptojoule barrier. in the meantime, however, it turns out that some concepts derived from reversible logic are already useful in low - power circuits. one of these is charge recovery, which attempts to recycle packets of electric charge rather than let them drain to ground. another is adiabatic switching, which avoids wasteful current surges by closing switches only after voltages have had a chance to equalize. \u00bb post comment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.623589243860692, "token_count": 276, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.047496"} {"text": "shallow water surface drifters in response to noaa / cop funded research needs for high resolution lagrangian analysis of florida bay interior basin flow fields, a shallow water drift buoy was designed and developed by aoml and rsmas in miami, florida. primary design guidelines required a device capable of operating in water depths of one meter or less for up to a two week period. small size was a factor both in minimizing windage at the surface and in aiding deployment and recovery efforts. the drifter would also require onboard gps for accurate positioning. the need for a high - resolution record of the driftera\u20ac\u2122s track required gps data to be logged onboard for post - recovery upload. however, in attempts to aid users in the driftera\u20ac\u2122s recovery, a subset of these data would need to be transmitted to the users during deployment ; this is handled by an onboard argos transmitter. the hull is constructed of a 0. 125 inch thick lexan, two - piece thermoformed shell in the general shape of a disc. the top is slightly domed and the bottom has molded fins in an attempt to couple the buoy to the water. unfortunately, in the first bay drift test the molded fins proved to be insufficient to keep windage to a minimum, so a \" window shade \" drogue has been incorporated with excellent results to improve coupling to the water ( see figure ). the drogue is constructed of two crossed, flexible pvc sheets and is approximately 0. 75 meters long. the shape of the buoy was analyzed to insure that it would be self - righting if turned over by a wave. when deployed, the hull floats with the top of the dome approximately 3 cm above the waterline. the dimensions of the hull are 33 cm in diameter by 15 cm high and the weight ready for deployment is less than 5 kg. to derive high - resolution currents, the position of the buoy must be determined frequently. a motorola 12 channel gps receiver is built into the electronics to collect this data. it computes 3 dimensional position information at pre - selected rates which are then stored in the buoy memory for later retrieval and subsequent data analysis. a relocation argos satellite transmitter system is included in the electronics to recover the buoy at the end of each experiment. the argos positions are used to get within the general vicinity of the buoy, and then a handheld argos receiver on the boat is used to locate and retrieve the buoy.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5017714307460639, "token_count": 506, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.052515"} {"text": "submitted to : veterinary parasitology publication type : peer reviewed journal publication acceptance date : october 1, 2000 publication date : n / a interpretive summary : sarcocystis neurona is a single - celled parasite of companion animals. it causes a fatal neurologic syndrome in horses in the u. s., called eqine protozoal myeloencephalitis ( epm ). its full life cycle is not known. opossums are its reservoir ( definitive ) host and horses are considered aberrant hosts. scientists at the beltsville agricultural research center and the montana state university describe the ultrastructure of sarcocysti neurona stages ( schizonts ) found in tissues of horses. these results will be of interest to biologists and parasitologists. the ultrastructure events associated with nuclear division were studied in schizonts of sarcocystis neurona. merozoites developed by type 2 endopolygeny in which numerous merozoites began development internally and later budded at the schizont surface. the nuclear envelope remained intact during all nuclear divisions. the schizont nucleus enlarged to form numerous lobes, each of which contained an intranuclear spindle. many spindles were formed before merozoite formation. spindles were conical - shaped with the apex of the spindle located immediately beneath a pore in the nuclear envelope. most spindle microtubles were discontinous, terminating at kinetochores on chromosomes, whereas a few microtubules were continuous extending between each pole of the nuclear spindle. two centrioles, a golgi complex and a plastid were closely associated with each pole of the nuclear spindle. spindle microtubules shortened during spindle edivisions that occurred in early and intermediate schizonts prior to the formation of merozoite primoridia. the length of the spindle microtubules remained the same during the last spindle during merozoite formation. separation of the chromosomes appeared to result from enlongation of each nuclear lobe which occurred simultaneously with elongation of the inner membrane complex and subpellicular microtubules surrounding the merozoite primordia. in schizonts, the plastid was disc - shaped, variable in size, and consisted of a granular core with ribosomes and small vesicles surrounded by 2 - 4 membranes. plastids in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5439843972019751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.086518"} {"text": "trees of life a visual history of evolution written by theodore w pietsch john hopkins university | isbn 9781421404790 hardback \u2013 376 pages member \u2019 s price : $ 82. 80 usually ships within 2 \u2013 11 business days. for the past 450 years, tree - like branching diagrams have been created to show the complex and surprising interrelationships of organisms, both living and fossil, from viruses and bacteria to birds and mammals. this stunning book celebrates the manifest beauty, intrinsic interest, and human ingenuity of these exquisite trees of life. theodore w. pietsch has chosen 230 trees of life - from among thousands of possible contenders - dating from the sixteenth century to the present day. his arrangement gives readers a visual sense of the historical development of these diagrams and shows how, in darwin ' s words, \" from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. \" pietsch ' s brief, accessible prose accompanies the diverse trees to fully reveal the engrossing history of human theories of evolution. over the centuries, trees of life appeared in a wide variety of forms ; some were revered as iconic while others incited intense controversy. the earliest examples were meant to portray the imagined temporal order in which god created life on earth. more recent scientific trees represent hypothetical histories of life. never before has the full spectrum of trees of life been brought together in a single volume. pietsch has spent decades collecting and researching the origin and meaning of these evolutionary trees and presents a visually breathtaking and intellectually brilliant history of the form.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5132044444794484, "token_count": 326, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.089651"} {"text": "- ignatius donnelly, \u201c atlantis : the antediluvian world \u201d ancient symbols like the cross and the swastika already existed in the americas long before the europeans came. egyptian symbols like the \u201c akeru \u201d back to back lion gods hieroglyph are found in olmec temples from ancient mexico. we have also found mayan art and glyphs in egypt. modern mayans and tribal egyptians both recognize the languages found in their countries as that of their ancestors and both can read much of it. we \u2019 ve discovered artwork 2 - 3000 years old clearly depicting negroes and caucasians in central america. the establishment remains silent on all these issues. the similarities between old world european and american peoples are vast and difficult to accept as mere coincidence. the use of cement, bricks, arches and advanced masonry / architecture is found on both sides of the atlantic, as well as roads, stone and suspension bridges ; metallurgy, ore mining of copper, tin, bronze, gold, silver, and iron ; sculpture, painting, engraving, agriculture, navigation, large sailing vessels, pottery, glasswork, and music ; both old and new worlders fashioned the same weapons like bows and arrows, spears, swords, battle - axes, darts and slings ; baptism, confession, penance all long existed on both continents. \u201c if we find on both sides of the atlantic precisely the same arts, sciences, religious beliefs, habits, customs, and traditions, it is absurd to say that the peoples of the two continents arrived separately, by precisely the same steps, at precisely the same ends. when we consider the resemblance of the civilizations of the mediterranean nations to one another, no man is silly enough to pretend that rome, greece, egypt, assyria, phoenicia, each spontaneously and separately invented the arts, sciences, habits, and opinions in which they agreed ; but we proceed to trace out the thread of descent or connection from one to another. why should a rule of interpretation prevail, as between the two sides of the atlantic, different from that which holds good as to the two sides of the mediterranean sea? if, in the one case, similarity of origin has unquestionably produced similarity of arts, customs, and condition, why, in the other, should not similarity of arts, customs, and condition prove similarity of origin? is there any instance in the world of two peoples, without knowledge of or intercourse with each other, happening upon the same invention, whether that invention be an arrow -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5069689951167053, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.111929"} {"text": "the sun \u2019 s energy is an incredible bounty. the energy contained in solar rays make their way through our filtering atmosphere and is critical to life on this planet... and is fundamental to human survival. it can also provide for our comfort. the use of the sun \u2019 s power in solar energy design is usually identified in 2 contexts - passive solar - that which uses natural processes without mechanical equipment and additional electrical or gas energy to operate, and active solar - that which uses nature \u2019 s resources with the inclusion of mechanical equipment and hardware driven by electricity and gas. all solar design starts from a simple base - passive solar first. what can be achieved by using all of the natural resources available to meet specific needs? this is the basic question and tenet of passive solar applications whether it be applied to heating and cooling a building, lighting, heating water, cooking, etc. passive solar applies both to buildings and equipment. sound fundamentals of good passive applications and integration can beneficial and are directly related to active solar equipment use and implementation : by meeting needs with no mechanical equipment dependent on external energy incorporation, in improving conditions which reduce the amount and size of equipment required to meet needs, by improving the conditions for active solar equipment applications, and in minimizing the commensurate costs that accompany the purchase and use of any equipment, solar or non - solar. in short, passive solar design and applications is the base which sets the conditions for effective active solar incorporation and use. passive and active solar applications should be considered as elements of the same palette - sort of the one - two punch of living with the sun, and the mutuality is undeniable. both rely on the same design considerations of orientation, access to the sun, behavior of materials, and appropriate use of site resources, and vary only in the inclusion external energy of electricity and gas. most active system guidelines even point out starting with passive considerations first. besides providing for direct meeting of needs, passive solar design is a primary basis for enhancing the quality of active solar systems. passive solar actions can result in the reduction of quantity of equipment needed to meet a particular task. for example, daylight is an available resource to meet illumination needs. good day lighting design of buildings uses that resource effectively, and reduces the need and cost of daytime artificial lighting and equipment. the beginning point consideration is at the end use side of things whether using traditional equipment or using solar equipment. considerable savings can be gained in applying natural energy actions to reduce the cost of both supplying equipment as well as running and maintaining it.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5454889630147733, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.149557"} {"text": "and equipment. the beginning point consideration is at the end use side of things whether using traditional equipment or using solar equipment. considerable savings can be gained in applying natural energy actions to reduce the cost of both supplying equipment as well as running and maintaining it. quite simply, the less work that needs to be accomplished by equipment, the less amount of equipment is needed, and the less it needs to run when used - this all translates to less cost for purchase of the equipment, and less on - going cost for running and maintaining. passive solar applications mitigate the quantity of active solar equipment needed, and resulting the tandem of both is optimal. information about the sun and how to use it effectively is common in both applications. traditionally, the term passive solar has been identified with heating and cooling of buildings, but it has a broader context and application. there is, of course passive solar heating and cooling of buildings. there is also passive solar water heating, solar cooking, natural lighting, passive solar heating of pools, and even passive solar devices which move things - equipment, air, etc. even the process of direct conversion of sunlight to electricity can be considered a \u201c passive \u201d action since it occurs through the appropriate use and placement of materials and capitalizes on the behavior of the combinations created, without infusing man - made energy sources and machines to make it work. knowledge and understanding of natural processes is the heart of passive solar. knowledge about the composition, attributes and behavior of sunlight and heat ; the behavior of heat flow ; the behavior and capacities of materials, both in nature and man - made ; the sun \u2019 s annual, seasonal, and daily movement ; diurnal and seasonal temperatures and conditions ; human sensory response and comfort ; the patterns of nature and of people ; and the physiology and psychology of the interaction between people and nature, all are applied to effective solar application and utilization. nature \u2019 s contribution - a gift that also keeps us on our toes intense heat, cold ) the conditions that nature provides, in the form of climate, is variable. cold in the winter, hot in the summer, nice other times of the year. arizona climate covers the entire spectrum with extremes at the desert and mountain locations. simultaneously, nature also provides the tools for mitigation of the extreme conditions. sunlight and materials for a warming system ; breezes, water, earth, gravity, and materials for a cooling system. it is the application of these resources into a system that addresses conditions that makes passive, and active, solar so effective. the sun \u2019 s available", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5376566720200701, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.152205"} {"text": "for a warming system ; breezes, water, earth, gravity, and materials for a cooling system. it is the application of these resources into a system that addresses conditions that makes passive, and active, solar so effective. the sun \u2019 s available energy varies in amount and impact through the year. the amount and intensity of energy from the sun that impacts the earth is affected by the composition of the earth \u2019 s atmosphere, and the angle of the solar radiation waves. the more dense the atmosphere, whether by clouds or smog, the less solar energy reaches the ground. additionally the more directly perpendicular the sun is to the earth \u2019 s surface, the more concentrated the energy is in a given area and the more intense its impact. the highest capitalization of solar radiation for heat is when surfaces are perpendicular to the sun, allowing the most density of radiation at a given point. | we know the sun \u2019 s position every day of the year and the amount of radiation that position provides, both to the earth \u2019 s surface, as well as to various positions of building walls and / or equipment. a south facing wall, or piece of equipment gets more energy from the sun than any other position. an angle directly perpendicular to the sun gets more energy per square foot than one that is at an angle. the sun is less available in the winter ( shorter days ) than in the summer. there is less solar energy availability in the winter than the summer due to the sun \u2019 s position at an angle to the earth and therefore more atmosphere to penetrate. we also know that cool air settles and warm air rises, and that this action occurs with fluids like water. we know about heat flow and capabilities of materials in their capacity to absorb, hold, and give up heat. we know how to let sunlight in, how to capture and create air movement for cooling, and prevent unwanted heat. the built environment in tune with nature | passive solar buildings are environmentally responsive and use nature \u2019 s elements in providing shelter and comfort to people in a manner that is healthy and minimally destructive of the environment ; are non - depleting of natural resources ; and use the building itself in the comfort creating process. they are characterized throughout the recent years with terms as \u201c sustainable \u201d, \u201c renewability \u201d, and \u201c green \u201d. quite simply, these terms refer to the same thing - a nature incorporating, comfort generating, security providing environment in which the building composition itself is the \u201c machinery \u201d that creates protection, health and comfort, and incorporates appropriate solar equipment to attain higher degrees", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5590374118162814, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.153395"} {"text": ". quite simply, these terms refer to the same thing - a nature incorporating, comfort generating, security providing environment in which the building composition itself is the \u201c machinery \u201d that creates protection, health and comfort, and incorporates appropriate solar equipment to attain higher degrees of performance. | arizona history is replete with examples of people living with the sun - both in using it as a resource as well as dealing with it \u2019 s negatives. passive solar was integrated into arizona architecture and buildings, both in private and public buildings. while incorrectly called arizona \u2019 s first solar building, ( there is no indication that this was a conscious effort since a number of cliff dwellings built in the same period by the same people do not show the same kind of solar application ) the construction of montezuma \u2019 s castle does embody some solar principles of orientation, thermal mass, \u201c overhangs \u201d for summertime shading, and south facing winter courts | desert buildings used proper orientation, thick masonry walls, natural cross ventilation, indoor and outdoor living spaces, and natural and man - made shade for summer cooling, and south facing courts, and windows with tile floors which, when coupled with the thick masonry walls, provided for capture and storage of warmth during winter conditions. higher elevations of arizona utilized the similar principles with differing amounts of wall mass and windows for heating, and porches and cross ventilation for summer evening relaxation and sleeping. | arizona desert buildings, both private and public, used passive means of shading to provide respite from the intense sun. passive solar equipment, in the form of water heaters, were prevalent in arizona as well as southern california. the historic ellis - shackleford house in phoenix and the historic tempe bakery had direct gain solar hot water heaters. passive solar energy - prelude to solar equipment consideration there are a number of passive energy fundamentals which can be considered in reducing the amount of equipment and / or its \u2019 operation. orientation - it \u2019 s a necessary thing... like all direct solar applications, capturing the sun as a resource is as simple as providing for its clear path to where it can do its work - be it heating water, cooking food, or warming a space. orientation is a fundamental concept of solar use for passive, and active, systems - | orientation of a solar device | | or orientation of a building | | or a solar cooker | orientation and a direct relationship with the sun is the first rule of solar energy use when trying to capitalize on its heat providing attributes. the sun \u2019 s traverse", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5352943465333166, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.154511"} {"text": "a solar device | | or orientation of a building | | or a solar cooker | orientation and a direct relationship with the sun is the first rule of solar energy use when trying to capitalize on its heat providing attributes. the sun \u2019 s traverses the sky every day - in the winter it is a low and short path and in the summer a long and high path - and even though the sun \u2019 s location is constantly changing, it is a predictable path that can be used in incorporating the sun \u2019 s energy to meet needs, and to exclude when we want to minimize the same. applied knowledge of both the sun \u2019 s movement, position at any given time, and time of the year, as well as impact in the form of radiation ( solar incidence ), enables us to take advantage of these attributes to meet needs, and to make use of our buildings and our equipment more effective and efficient. proper orientation is critical to optimizing the solar resource. a properly oriented building can optimize solar gain for human comfort heating, and with proper shape and overhangs can minimize summertime overheating. likewise, properly oriented solar equipment, be it a solar water heating panel or a photovoltaic electricity generating panel, will have optimum production and minimal negative impact. using natural winter heating and minimizing summer heat impacts reduces the size of heating and air conditioning equipment as well as the energy, traditional or photovoltaic, needed to provide energy to these systems. additionally, proper orientation allows for full benefit of the operation of electric solar panels and maximizing solar water heating operations. | proper building orientation also eases the integration of active solar equipment into the building form and shape, and mitigates the conflicts of solar installations contested in numerous subdivisions regulations. proper orientation with direct exposure to the south, is best for passive solar heating of building spaces as well as the operation of solar equipment ( water heaters, pv panels, cookers, pool panels, etc. ). slight adjustments to the east or west of south allow for earlier or later use of the sun ' s energy, or for mitigating it. form - it \u2019 s a right thing | solar buildings employ a form and shape that is responsive to the elements of nature that impact upon it, as well as the solar equipment that is part of the passive / active solar approach. elongated along the east west axis, an arizona building optimizes the southern exposure for good wintertime direct heating, while minimizing the east and west exposures which are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.513397183288028, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.155562"} {"text": "location planning extends to the integration of solar equipment as a building component by reducing piping runs and the commensurate \u201c line losses \u201d, thereby allowing more of the solar heat captured in a water heating system to get to the storage and / or use point. materials - it \u2019 s the smart thing : all solar heating and cooling systems are based on the ability to gather and store solar energy within a material for a period of time. this is accomplished by using a material which will hold heat until it is needed for heating, or capturing heat that will be dispelled at a later time. solar water heaters use water. solar buildings use their own structure - floors, walls, even roofs. of course, some materials are better for this purpose than others. glass, wood, and insulation are not good holders of heat. more dense materials like earthen materials ( adobe, stone, brick, etc ) and man - made materials like concrete are very good. this attribute is called thermal mass. heating application of thermal mass is to select material ( s ) that will absorb heat from solar exposure during the day, hold that heat for a time during non - solar periods, then give it up as conditions warrant. the same action can be incorporated for building cooling. as an area heats up, heat can be absorbed into the thermal mass material in the walls, floor or ceiling, like a thermal sponge, then held until evening time where effective cooling practices using cross ventilation, night sky radiation and even whole house mechanical ventilation ( remember - nighttime electricity rates are lower than daytime ). this action is based upon fundamental principles of thermal transfer. nature is always seeking to even out things so if there is a \u201c difference \u201d, there is a natural action which moves to make every thing the same or to even out. in the case of heat transfer, heat migrates to cold, so in a building, hot walls will radiate into cold spaces, and conversely, hot, summertime spaces will have their heat migrate to cooler walls. an analogy that has been used is one of 2 buckets of water - 1 full and one empty. if they are placed at an equal height, and there is a connection between the 2, below the water line of the first, water will flow to the second until there is an equal amount in the second where all action will stop because a balance has passive solar buildings utilize the very fabric of the building as part of the comfort system for heating and cooling, and the addition of active solar system for running naturally heated or cooled", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.545254388210783, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.157539"} {"text": "is an equal amount in the second where all action will stop because a balance has passive solar buildings utilize the very fabric of the building as part of the comfort system for heating and cooling, and the addition of active solar system for running naturally heated or cooled water to through a thermal mass wall, floor, or roof structure enhances the performance of the system by the additional thermal mass capacity and heat capture / transfer attributes of the windows - it \u2019 s the clear thing. one of the major design considerations affecting a building \u2019 s energy consumption is the location and size of windows. windows are the weakest point of the building envelope and usually the leakiest when it comes to energy, both in terms of losing heat in the winter, and gaining heat in the summer. a square foot of glass will lose 12 time more energy than a wood wall with insulation. as a rule, windows should be located primarily on the south side where they can be used as part of the heating system, as well as provide for natural lighting. that is the side where the sun is!. east and west sides of desert buildings should have minimal or no windows since these are the 2 worst exposures for early morning and late afternoon summer sun. east windows allow for early summer morning heat up and west windows allow for late afternoon negative impacts. solar windows should be sized in accordance with the heating and cooling performance of the building. typical oversizing to have the \u201c feel of the great outdoors \u201d is not an optimal situation when it comes to solar design. clerestorey windows are a design tool for getting sunlight benefits ( heating and lighting ) to areas not able to be located at the south face. clerestories also provide a mechanism for diffusing the direct impact of sunlight and moderating glare. additionally, operable clerestorey windows are a good device for house ventilation cooling in the summer. reverse clerestories, those opening to the north can be a benefit in desert conditions. facing north, they provide even natural light to interiors and their angled backs can be a perfect mounting structure and angle for solar equipment like photovoltaic and solar water heating panels. thermal decompression - it \u2019 s the healthy thing a building trying to maintain a comfortable internal temperature will always be in conflict with the temperatures adjacent to the exterior. heat always moves to cold - in the winter, interior warmth is moving toward the exterior cold. in the summer, the external heat is trying to move to the interior coolness. in both situations, the greater the difference in temperature", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5165787903526142, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.158626"} {"text": "to the exterior. heat always moves to cold - in the winter, interior warmth is moving toward the exterior cold. in the summer, the external heat is trying to move to the interior coolness. in both situations, the greater the difference in temperature between inside and outside conditions, the faster the movement of heat and the greater the amount of heat moved, and the more equipment is required to mitigate conditions. in temperate times when inside and outside are at or near the same temperatures, there is minimal movement and therefore minimal need for equipment. add to this the fact that sudden and abrupt changes in temperature are not positive to the human body which has to react rapidly to changed conditions, and good passive site planning of thermal decompression is important for not only comfort, but for health. thermal decompression simply means that there is layering of vegetation, landscape features, and built elements that gradually temper the environment to a point where the temperatures adjacent to the building are much closer to its internal temperature. this decompression approach establishes a condition where the difference between the internal temperature and the temperature on the building skin are much closer, so less heat is gained ( or lost ) and less mitigating equipment, and commensurate energy, is required. passive solar applications - it \u2019 s first thing natural lighting - | the sunlight received by a building will provide more than sufficient illumination to meet daily needs. use of day lighting is a passive solar application. the sun \u2019 s capacity to provide light, when integrated correctly in a building, means no need to use artificial lighting during the day, which means no energy used for those lights, which means no utility cost, except at night when the sun doesn \u2019 t shine. solar building design incorporates day lighting strategies of letting light into all spaces either directly with proper window placement, clerestories and even skylights, or indirectly with light reflecting color choices, light shelves, and transparent and translucent walls. this glazing has dual benefit - while providing for illumination, it can also provide for wintertime heating. good passive design then incorporates both attributes of sunlight - illumination and heating, and the building construction and finishes are used to capitalize on both. light colored surfaces and transparent / translucent interior panels for \u201c bouncing \u201d or directing sunlight for illumination, and dark, thermal mass surfaces for absorbing the sun \u2019 s rays for heating. multi - faceted and multi - applicable, day lighting design is an effective passive solar approach which has a direct impact on the building \u2019 s however, addition of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.582409413963658, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.159754"} {"text": ", and dark, thermal mass surfaces for absorbing the sun \u2019 s rays for heating. multi - faceted and multi - applicable, day lighting design is an effective passive solar approach which has a direct impact on the building \u2019 s however, addition of a solar electricity generation system ( photovoltaics ) allows for the capture of daytime sunlight and its transformation into electricity, which can then be stored and used in the night. add to this the use of efficient fixtures and systems, and costs in both resources and dollars are further reduced. water heating - batch or integrated collector / storage ( ics ) system simply water in a tank within a container and exposed directly to the sun. this is the basis of batch / breadbox, systems which combine collection, heating, and storage of water into a single component. direct heating of the storage tank or tanks, makes this system compact, simple, and effective. these units are called a passive systems because they do not rely on equipment to make them function. when hot water is removed, it is replaced by an equal amount of \" new \" water. the \" batch \" approach has been used for quite some time and improvements in design have enhanced their effectiveness in increasing water heating capabilities. newer systems use a number of small - diameter connected storage tanks connected to expose more of the water surface to the sunlight, heating the water at a faster rate. in some cases reflectors are integrated, bouncing more of the sun ' s rays onto the water tank, and when the sun falls, the reflectors, made of highly insulating material, fold over the glazing to insulate the tank. some systems use evacuated glass tubes ( like a thermos bottle ) around the collector to keep heat loss to a minimum. thermosyphon systems. | hot water rises and cold water settles. this is because hot water is less dense than cold water due to its molecular \" excitement \" in being heated. in a typical water heater, colder water is at the bottom of a tank. when it is heated by the heating element or burner, it becomes less dense and rises to the top of the tank, while being replaced by cooler, settling water, which is, in turn heated, rises, etc.. this cycle is called a convective action. a thermosyphon solar water heating system incorporates natural convection to move fluid heated by the collector to a storage tank. in order to do this naturaly, the collector is located at some point below the storage storage tank. as the fluid at", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5732612521262819, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.160979"} {"text": "a thermosyphon solar water heating system incorporates natural convection to move fluid heated by the collector to a storage tank. in order to do this naturaly, the collector is located at some point below the storage storage tank. as the fluid at the bottom of the storage tank cools ( more dense ) it flows to the bottom of the collector where it is reheated making it rise back to the top of the storage tank. this process is continuous. as a result, thermosyphon systems do not need pumps and for that reason they are considered a passive system - that system that does not rely on equipment to make it function. | passive solar applications for heating and cooling a building mitigate expensive heating and cooling with conventional equipment driven by electricity and gas, and good passive design reduces the energy consumed and the allied cost of utility resources to maintain comfort. there are basic elements of passive energy buildings which use the form and materials to provide comfort. some of these are applicable to solar equipment design and use, even to the point where there is solar equipment which are passive in their operation - i. e. thermal energy flows in the system naturally. solar water heating is one type of equipment that can be a passive solar piece of equipment. a \u201c batch \u201d water heater and a thermosiphon water heater can be considered passive solar equipment - since they do not rely on out side energy source to make them function. of course, when talking about passive and active solar, optimum conditions and control occur best when these two are coupled. basics of passive applications are rooted in dealing with the sun ( exposure to and capture of the sun \u2019 s energy when we want heat ; protection from the sun when we want cooling ), the materials used ( for effective capture, storage, and use ), and natural processes of physics for both ). every passive system for solar heating, whether it is heating water, or heating a building, requires exposure to the sunlight and trapping it - this is done by glazing - windows for a building and glass covers for solar panels. every passive system is dependent upon materials which will absorb the sun \u2019 s heat, store a good quantity of it and easily distribute it. in a building, the effective material can be the structure itself, in the form of thermal mass. thermal mass is characterized by those dense materials like concrete and earthen materials, and also by an extremely good material - water. these materials can readily absorb solar radiation, hold its warmth, and easily and evenly give it up to adjacent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5416358508754977, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.162183"} {"text": "of thermal mass. thermal mass is characterized by those dense materials like concrete and earthen materials, and also by an extremely good material - water. these materials can readily absorb solar radiation, hold its warmth, and easily and evenly give it up to adjacent spaces. | heat capture, storage and distribution follow a natural and predictable behavior. sunlight heats the surfaces it strikes. the amount of heat held within the material depends on the material composition - straw is a terrible holder, concrete is a better holder. when sunlight is no longer available the material gives its \u2019 captured heat to adjacent cooler conditions. generally there are 3 passive heating building concepts - direct gain, indirect gain and isolated gain these concepts have inherent within them cooling strategies and applications as well. direct gain - simply stated, sunlight comes directly through windows into the space to be heated. the building materials struck by the sunlight are thermal mass materials - concrete / tile floor, masonry walls, or even strategically placed containers of water. building windows act in exactly the same way as solar panel glazing - they let the sunlight ( short wave radiation ) in and inhibit heat ( long wave radiation ) from escape. direct gain design system is always working, letting in not only direct sunlight but also the diffuse light of cloudy days, and the intense light of summer. like any system, optimization is the goal - so the building eaves and overhangs become a designed - in optimizing element - summertime conditions, when heating is not required, are mitigated by keeping the sunlight off of the windows via the overhang, while in the winter, the sun is much lower in the sky and can easily skirt under the building \u2019 s brow. heating is quite simple in this approach - sunlight, absorbed by the thermal mass materials, solid and / or liquid, is stored as heat. when the space cools in the evening, the heat migrates to the cooling spaces directly ( radiation ) or by air movement across the surface of the material ( convection ). for this approach, a careful consideration of the site, solar energy availability, and seasonal conditions, are all necessary to determine the appropriate amount of windows and thermal mass. too many windows in an arizona desert setting will result in a human cooker ; too few windows in a rim setting will result in not enough capture. this system has worked effectively in arizona designs, as well as that sunniest of place of liverpool, england. for effective cooling, such as the desert setting, direct gain avoidance is the rule, but the thermal mass of the building can still", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5636994207433836, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.163401"} {"text": "capture. this system has worked effectively in arizona designs, as well as that sunniest of place of liverpool, england. for effective cooling, such as the desert setting, direct gain avoidance is the rule, but the thermal mass of the building can still be used in the cooling cycle. the materials, by nature of their thermal mass attribute, remain cool ( or can be cooled during nighttime conditions - naturally by cross ventilation, or mechanical y by lowest cost energy driven fans ). this coolness allows their absorption of unwanted heat in the building - acting as a sort of thermal sponge, moving heat away from people and holding to the evening, where cross ventilation or even whole house fans can dispose of the captured heat. control of direct gain systems is done with the addition of movable insulation, either on the exterior or with interior blinds, and cross ventilation planning with placement of low wall vents on the cool side of the building, and high wall vents on the warm side of the building. indirect gain - indirect gain is an \u201c next step \u201d of a direct gain system. sunlight penetrates south facing windows, then strikes thermal mass located behind the window and between the sun and living space. there are basically three types of indirect gain systems, each defined by where the thermal mass is located. the three strategies are : thermal wall and plenum thermal wall and plenum - south facing windows front a thermal mass wall of masonry, and / or water, placed directly behind to create a vertical plenum or chase. the sun side of the thermal wall is typically dark to capture more of the solar spectrum. this mass absorbs, stores and distributes heat while acting as a buffer to the interior spaces, and moderates temperature changes and provides for extended use of thermal gain well into the evening. sunlight passes through the glass and converts to heat energy as it impacts the thermal mass and is absorbed, slowly saturating or moving through the mass until it radiates into the living space - the wall is a delayed action radiator. at the same time the air trapped between the windows and the mass heats up, and the addition of vents at the top and bottom of the wall allow for direct passive heating. warmed between the glass and the wall spills into the living space through the opened upper vent and since nature abhors a vacuum, cooler room area enters the plenum through the bottom vent, and is heated by the sun warmed wall, rises, spills into the room and is replaced by cooler air again, and this natural convection process", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5310571910935307, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.164555"} {"text": "since nature abhors a vacuum, cooler room area enters the plenum through the bottom vent, and is heated by the sun warmed wall, rises, spills into the room and is replaced by cooler air again, and this natural convection process continues as long as there is sunlight. there are a number of examples of this application - the trombe wall which uses masonry, earthen materials like, and water like steve baer \u2019 s water barrel. variations in thermal mass wall materials vary from commercial water tubes to incorporation of stone. the baer barrel wall installation provides for optimizing the heating capabilities as well as cooling of the adjacent spaces with the addition of movable insulating panels. during winter conditions, insulating panels are moved to allow for solar access to heat the water barrels, then at night the insulating panels are raised to cover the glazing and the barrels radiate their warmth to the space. in the summer heat, the insulation is raised and the barrels, with their cool water, act as absorbers, pulling unwanted heat from the spaces. at nightfall, the insulation is lowered, and the barrels give up their stored heat to the exterior by radiation and convection. the water, now cooled, is ready to act as a cooling absorber the next day. sunspaces are a combination of direct gain and thermal wall systems, utilizing both approaches in tandem with a dedicated direct gain area ( sunspace ) adjacent ( fronting ) the living space, with a thermal wall placed between the two. the sunspace, has extensive south glazing and large daily fluctuations, while the adjacent living space is protected from these fluctuations by the thermal wall separating the spaces. vents or operable doors and windows in the thermal wall allow warmed sunspace heat to circulate to adjacent living spaces by natural convective actions during the day, and radiate the absorbed sunspace heat to the living spaces in the evening. an additional usable area, sunspaces are often used as solar greenhouses. temperature control is best achieved with operable venting windows and cross ventilation. sunspaces - green houses : thermal roof - the thermal roof approach places thermal mass on the roof rather than at a wall, and is very effective as both a passive heating and cooling strategy. the system is both a radiator and an absorber and replaces standard heating and cooling mechanical systems and the inherent ductwork distribution system. using water as thermal mass, roof ponds are constructed directly on top of heat conducting ceilings of metal pans or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5599870541911238, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.165960"} {"text": "the system is both a radiator and an absorber and replaces standard heating and cooling mechanical systems and the inherent ductwork distribution system. using water as thermal mass, roof ponds are constructed directly on top of heat conducting ceilings of metal pans or metal decking so there is direct thermal transfer. movable insulation is placed above the ponds to facilitate better retention of heat in the winter and to prevent absorption of external heat in the summer. the operation is quite simple. during wintertime conditions, insulating panels are rolled or pivoted back, exposing water contained in uv inhibiting water beds to the sun. the ponds gather the sun \u2019 s warmth and at nightfall, the insulating panels are replaced to contain the gained heat and prevent loss to the cold night air. the heat stored in the bags, warms the supporting metal decking and the entire ceiling is a radiant ceiling throughout the cold winter night. the next morning, the insulating panels are removed when the sun appears and the cycle begins again. summer cooling is a reverse process. ponds, covered during the daytime heat, remain cool and act in concert with the supporting metal ceilings as a thermal sponge absorbing interior heat generated from people, equipment, and infiltration from the outside. at night, panels are removed and the ponds throw off their gathered heat to the night sky by means of radiation, convections, and if wet down, by evaporation. roof pond heating and cooling is optimized when all living spaces except the bathrooms and high water use areas are covered by the system. in areas that generate humidity, like a shower, the metal ceilings will tend to \u201c rain \u201d due to the temperature difference of steam vapors and cool metal. roof ponds, like harold hay \u2019 s skytherm system, have been designed and used in the hot climate of arizona and new mexico to the moderate temperatures of the california coast and even planned for the twin cities of minneapolis / st. paul. isolated gain - | this is basically an indirect system where solar collection for heating are isolated from the living spaces, and while the system functions independently, heating can be called for by simply opening some floor vents and letting the natural behavior of hot air rise through the spaces. the most common application of this approach is the convective loop. much like a thermosiphon water heater, heat transfer material of air or water, is moved across a collector panel system facing the sun, and circulated into a tank surrounded by rock ( water transfer system ) or a rock bin ( air transfer system )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5164811870057263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.167748"} {"text": "a thermosiphon water heater, heat transfer material of air or water, is moved across a collector panel system facing the sun, and circulated into a tank surrounded by rock ( water transfer system ) or a rock bin ( air transfer system ) in a continuous operating loop. natural thermosiphoning occurs when the collector is lower than the heat storage area which is usually located under the building. a hybrid of this system can include moving heated water or air through a radiant floor system where the masonry floor itself acts as the thermal mass storage. this variation can also use cool water to create a \u201c cool \u201d floor by running house supply water, or water from an adjacent pool, through a floor system. cool towers - | evaporative cooling systems which utilize gravity effect on dense, cooled air to drop and spill into living spaces. the system is comprised of wet cooler pads mounted high in an area which provides no obstructions to air movement, which comes into contact with the pads. the warm dry air contacting the wet pads, cool and becomes more dense and heavier and falls down the tower, usually positioned over or adjacent to a major living space. the falling cool air, spills into the living space, pushing warmer out at strategic venting areas. as the process continues, the cooler air ponds in the area, providing a cool environment in az. desert conditions. a variation to this system is the addition of a south facing thermal chimney to pull cool tower air through the house. located at an opposite location from the cool tower, the thermal chimney provides an escape vent for interior warm air, which moves more quickly as it get heated and is driven out. this rapid venting has a drawing effect on the cool tower air and it is distributed more extensively through the building. the solar chimney can be set up to become a recirculating air heater during winter conditions. natural cooling - there are three sources of undesirable heat - direct summer sun solar gains through windows and glazing ; heat transmission through the building envelope ; and internal heat produced by people, their activities, and their equipment. direct solar heat gain at windows and glazing can be easily controlled by shading the house - preventing the sun from reaching it ( except for good day lighting and operation of solar equipment ) and with external shading devices and vegetation as well as thermal insulating shutters. heat transmission conditions can be nullified by setting up layers of thermal decompression with vegetation, built structure like porches, and water features. while there", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5531798065297928, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.168902"} {"text": ") and with external shading devices and vegetation as well as thermal insulating shutters. heat transmission conditions can be nullified by setting up layers of thermal decompression with vegetation, built structure like porches, and water features. while there is not much that can be done to reduce natural heat production by people, equipment heat generation can be impacted by careful selection of energy efficient equipment and by good timing - do the laundry in the evening. use of the sun for food preparation is fun, energy saving, and saves money, both in the cooking operation, and in the cooling costs saved when the heat is taken out of the kitchen during the summer. a variety of cooking tools from box cookers to slat faced ovens are available - whether they be commercial products or hand built by the inspiring solar chef. passive solar energy has many faces and applications and an effective passive solar building incorporates many of these elements. natural processes and incorporation of building and site elements to provide for comfort as well as mitigation of untoward conditions are the hallmark of good passive design, and results in establishing a basis for reduction of equipment ( solar and otherwise ) for achieving comfort, and reduction of equipment purchase and operations costs. passive solar energy is direct, this presentation was constructed by the arizona solar energy association for the arizona solar center, inc. under contract with the arizona dept. of commerce energy office, funded by the dept. of energy million solar roofs program. materials and information were provided by a number of sources. financial support for this presentation has been provided by the arizona department of commerce ( energy office ) and the u. s. department of energy through ( doe ) grant no. de - fg51 - 01r021250. however, any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed herein are those of the author ( s ) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the energy office or u. s. doe. the state of arizona and u. s. doe assume no liability for damages arising from errors, omissions or representations contained in this presentation.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5428311139918867, "token_count": 418, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.169707"} {"text": "punctuated equilibrium and molecular clocks? dr. peter gegenheimer pgegen at ukans. nolospamare. edu fri sep 4 18 : 37 : 39 est 1998 on wed, 2 sep 1998 15 : 16 : 45, johnjoe mcfadden < j. mcfadden at surrey. ac. uk > wrote : > punctuated equilibrium and molecular clocks? > the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of gould and eldridge, in which > evolution is proposed to go through long periods of stasis interspersed > with bursts of rapid evolution, is of course related to the fossil > record. however, periods of rapid evolution should also leave their > trace in molecular clocks. > does the phylogenetic analysis of protein gene sequences suggest that > their evolution has in some cases been episodic? i guess the evidence, > if it existed, would come from comparison of sequence divergence of a > protein like globin with a molecular clock sequence ( e. g. ribosomal rna ) > for the same group of species. is their any evidence that over > geological periods of time ( measured by the clock sequence ) the protein > undergoes episodic bouts of evolution? punctuated equilibrium is almost certainly driven by large - scale genome and chromosome rearrangements which will not be reflected in the sequences of individual genes. rather, it is the organization & spatial / temporal patterns of gene expression which vary, driven perhaps by the relocation of epigeneitc regulation ( e. g. dna methylation or protein binding ). as you can see, this is the hard - core mcclintock line, and i think it will prove to be right. sequences of core enzymes, such as rrna ( the catalytic component of the ribosome ), cannot vary greatly over time without losing function. sequences involved in developmental regulation and external form of an organism can vary | dr. peter gegenheimer | vox : 785 - 864 - 3939 fax : 785 - 864 - 5321 | | molecular biosciences | pgegen at ukans. edu | | ecol & evol biology | http : / / rnaworld. bio. ukans. edu / | | | | | university of kansas | | | 2045 haworth hall | \" the sleep of reason produces | | lawrence ks 66045 - 2106 | monsters. \" goya | more information about the mol - evol", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5462475826017694, "token_count": 497, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.190800"} {"text": "an outline for the research of specific archaeological sites formulated by professor martha sharp joukowsky center for old world archaeology and art this is a guide that students in professor joukowsky ' s classes use when completing site abstract - term papers. site abstract - term paper select a site or wait for the site lottery and research it using the original excavation report ( s ), and write a site abstract - term paper that includes a paragraph on each section below represented with capital letters ( these should provide you with a guide for the logical development of the report ). this is to be a typewritten paper ; the body is to be 4 - 9 pages in length. the \" harvard system \" of in - text references is to be used, i. e., \" joukowsky ( 196245 ) states that there was... \" ; footnotes are to be descriptive. the purpose of this research is to allow you to choose a specific site of interest and explore it in depth, using original archaeological site reports as part of your analysis. be sure you cover the earliest report on the site, the most important work on it, and the latest book or article on it. an indispensable technique in archaeology is to be able to analyze sometimes verbose and confused reports, to extract the facts and to be able to organize them succinctly. write up the results of your research using the form below as a guide. if you have any questions call martha joukowsky - site name and location - name of country, nearest modern township and local name of the site - environmental description - historical background - discovery ( who discovered the site and when ) - excavation aims and purposes - reasons for excavation - goals of the project - statement of archaeological problems resolved through excavation - sponsoring institution ( s ) and name of the director ( s ) - dates when work was carried out - area and extent of work - specialist studies and analysis - artifact studies - what was found ( synopsis of strata ) - summary and synthesis of stratified cultural levels and assemblages ; occupation levels and / or structures that relate to each ; dates and periods of cultural levels, if possible. mention how the dating of various levels was confirmed. - artifact range and variations - interpretation and conclusions - cultural connections with other sites ( parallels with similar or dissimilar cultures ). what does the site bring to our knowledge of the area? - cultural context and ideas the site represents, i. e., your subjective analysis of the remains - - this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.504096568357126, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.208360"} {"text": "we have seen that the grand disparity that was believed to exist between the way nature works here on earth and in the heavens is not valid. the question remains, however, can we learn everything we need to know by investigating phenomena here on earth and extending that result to the universe at large? the answer must be no for the following reasons : 1 ) who would have thought to look for a law of universal gravitation without the precise measurements and detailed analysis of brahe and kepler? cavendish ' s laboratory measurement of g was done in response to interpret results obtained for the solar system. 2 ) even if someone would have used the cavendish apparatus to map out the gravitational force between two bodies, independently of knowing kepler ' s results, would we be able to infer a complete understanding of celestial motion? no. we know newton ' s law of universal gravitation is for example, there are certain aspects of mercury ' s motion that can not be explained using the newtonian form. the correct explanation of mercury ' s orbital motion requires general relativity. in fact, general relativity predicts that the path of a beam of light will be bent in a gravitational field. this effect is too feeble to see in a lab on earth. it was first observed by starlight being bent near the disk of the sun in a solar eclipse. 3 ) if we consider then the solar system to be our laboratory, is that a big enough laboratory to establish all that could be known? the answer to this must be no too. in the 20th century, since zwicky in the 1930 ' s, it is known that either the gravitational force deviates from newtonian gravity at large distances, or that there is substantial dark matter in and between galaxies. the density of dark matter is so low that it has an imperceptible effect on small scale motions, like that in the solar system. the data seem to favor the existence of some very large amount of unknown, maybe even exotic ( is this the new celestial matter? ) type of matter. 4 ) is the galaxy large enough as a laboratory to pin down all the laws of nature? this seems to require a negative answer as well. there are structures that encompass groups of galaxies, and the non isotropy of the cosmic background radiation is a pattern on an extremely large scale. we have also seen that the luminosity vs distance plot for supernovae ( sne1a ) suggest that the universe is accelerating in its expansion. this was the discussion about \" dark energy \" or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5744940963593516, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.237554"} {"text": "sane, undeluded adult could literally believe in. that god must either be turned into a symbol for something less concrete or abandoned altogether. ( 18 ) such rhetoric rests both on the assumption that the gospels are fanciful myth and that the authors of the new testament ( and their readers ) were clueless about the difference between historical events and fictional stories. there is an overbearing sense of chronological snobbery at work : we are smarter than people who lived 2, 000 years ago. yet the second epistle of peter demonstrates a clear understanding of the difference between myth and verified historical events : \" for we did not follow cleverly devised myths when we made known to you the power and coming of our lord jesus christ, but we were eyewitnesses of his majesty \" ( 2 pet. 1 : 16 ). the opening verses of luke ' s gospel indicate that the author undertook the task of writing about real people and events : inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the things which have been accomplished among us, just as they were delivered to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word, it seemed good to me also, having followed all things closely for some time past, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent theophilus, that you may know the truth concerning the things of which you have been informed. ( luke 1 : 1 - 4 ) and the fourth gospel concludes with similar remarks : this is the disciple who is bearing witness to these things, and who has written these things ; and we know that his testimony is true. but there are also many other things which jesus did : were every one of them to be written, i suppose that the world itself could not contain the books that would be written. ( john 21 : 24 - 25 ) these quotations do not, of course, prove the historicity of the new testament. rather, they suggest that the authors, far from being knuckle - dragging simpletons, set about to write works depicting real people and events \u2014 especially since they believed the narratives they recounted had meaning only if they really did occur. as such, their historical content should be judged not against tales of unicorns and easter bunnies, but against other first - century works of history and historical narrative. the word gospel comes from the greek word euangelion, meaning \" good news \" and refers to the message of christian belief in the person of jesus christ. there has been much scholarly debate about the genre of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5024253067578812, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.260235"} {"text": "century works of history and historical narrative. the word gospel comes from the greek word euangelion, meaning \" good news \" and refers to the message of christian belief in the person of jesus christ. there has been much scholarly debate about the genre of \" gospel \" and how it might relate to other forms of writings found in first - century palestine and the larger ancient world. obviously, they do contain biographical details, and some scholars have argued in recent years that the gospels are as biographical in nature as anything in the ancient greco - roman world. \" the majority of recent specialized studies, \" writes evangelical biblical scholar craig l. blomberg in making sense of the new testament, \" has recognized that the closest parallels are found among the comparatively trustworthy histories and biographies of writers like the jewish historian josephus, and the greek historians herodotus and thucydides \" ( 28 ). in his commentary on the gospel of matthew, catholic theologian and biblical scholar erasmo leiva - merikakis writes : we must conclude, then, that the genre of the gospel is not that of pure \" history \" ; but neither is it that of myth, fairy tale, or legend. in fact, evangelion constitutes a genre all its own, a surprising novelty in the literature of the ancient world. matthew does not seek to be \" objective \" in a scientific or legal sense. he is writing as one whose life has been drastically changed by the encounter with jesus of nazareth. hence, he is proposing to his listeners an objective reality of history, but offered as kerygma, that is, as a proclamation that bears personal witness to the radical difference that reality has already made in his life. ( fire of mercy, heart of the word, vol. ii : meditations on the gospel according to st. matthew, 44 ) many early christian authors, such as justin martyr, referred to the gospels as memoirs of the apostles. blomberg has used the descriptive \" theological biographies, \" which captures well the supernatural and human elements found within them. those supernatural elements \u2014 especially the miracles of jesus and his claims to divinity \u2014 are, as we ' ve noted, why skeptics call the gospels \" myth \" while remaining unruffled about anything written about julius caesar and the rubicon by velleius paterculus, plutarch, suetonius, and appian. yes, suetonius did write in his account ( lives of the twelve caesars ) about \" an apparition of superhuman size and beauty..", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5123845020635154, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.261196"} {"text": "this lecture is about ways of looking at dna sequences in complete genomes and chromosomes, in terms of symmetry elements. there are two parts to this talk. in part 1, i will discuss the fact that we simply have \" too much information \" becoming available, and the problem will only get worse in the near future. there are ways of cataloging and organising the data, of course. i have found that the true diversity of genome sizes in nature is often neglected, so we ' ll talk for a few minutes about the \" c - value paradox \", along with some possible ideas for why certain organisms have so much dna. i would like to think that one way of dealing with the explosion of sequence information, in terms of dna sequences, is to think about it in biological terms, in particular in physical - chemical terms of structure and function of symmetry elements. for example, there are specific dna sequences which \" code \" for a telomere, and different dna sequences which are specific for centromeres. specific dna sequences, their structures, and biological functions will be discussed. in part 2, i will introduce \" dna atlases \", first having a look at base composition throughout sequenced chromosomes, and then looking at gene expression throughout the whole genome. i have also made separate file, containing specific learning objectives for this lecture, as well as a \" self - test quiz \", which i recommend having a look at, before the lecture, if possible. i ' ve incorporated the answers to questions 1 and 2 into part 1 of the lecture notes. brevis esse laboro, obscuro fio. - horace the information in genbank is doubling every 10 months. what are the implications of this? a look at genome sequencing since 1994 : | year | | # genomes sequenced | although the number of genomes being sequenced is increasing rapidly, one has to this into perspective - the organisms can be placed into four different classes : | organism group | | size ( bp ) | | no. sequenced | | viruses | | ~ 300 bp to ~ 350, 000 bp | | 545 | | prokaryotes | | ~ 250, 000 to ~ 15, 000, 000 bp | | > 100 | | | ~ 12, 000, 000 to ~ 600, 000, 000, 000 bp | | 4 | | multi - celled eukaryotes | | ~ 20, 000, 000 to ~ 500, 000, 000, 000 bp | | 3 | | drosophila species |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5815084518773866, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.275844"} {"text": "about 2. 4x1012 years. that ' s about 160 times longer than the estimated age of the universe! 2. the piece of paper would be quite thick - it would reach outside the earth ' s atmosphere and beyond the orbit of the planet mars. today ' s lecture will cover : next tuesday ' s lecture will cover : one way of dealing with the problem of how to display so much sequence information is to have a look at the whole chromosome at once, smoothing over a large window. the entire bacterial chromosome is displayed as a circle, with different colours representing various parameters. first, as an introduction to atlases, we will look at base - composition. then we will have a look at levels of expression of mrna and proteins throghout the chromosome. as examples, i will use my very favourite organism, escherichia coli k - 12. there are several things to notice in this plot. first, the concentration of the bases are not uniformly distributed throughout the genome, but there are \" clumps \" or clusters where specific bases are a bit more concentrated. also, the g ' s ( turquoise ) clearly are seen to be favoured on one half of the chromosome, whilst the c ' s ( magenta ) are on the other strand. this shows up in the \" gc - skew \" lane as well ( 2nd circle from the middle ). i have labelled the entire terminus region, which ranges from tere ( around 1. 08 million bp ( mbp ) to terg ( ~ 2. 38 mbp ) in escherichia coli k - 12. finally, several genes corresponding to the darker bands ( e. g., more biased nucleotide composition ) are labelled. the same pattern can be seen for the other three escherichia coli chromosomes which have been sequenced ( so far! ), as shown in the table below. strain : k - 12, isolate w3110 ddbj ncbi tax strain : k - 12, isolate mg1655 u. wisconsin tigr cmr ncbi tax ncbi entrez strain : o157 : h7 ( substrain edl93 ) u. wisconsin ncbi tax ncbi entrez strain : o157 : h7 ( substrain rimd 0509952 ) miyazaki, japan ncbi tax ncbi entrez | | dna res. 8 : 11 - 22 in addition to showing overall global properties of the chromosome ( such as replication origin and terminus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.564004360942413, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.277965"} {"text": "substrain rimd 0509952 ) miyazaki, japan ncbi tax ncbi entrez | | dna res. 8 : 11 - 22 in addition to showing overall global properties of the chromosome ( such as replication origin and terminus ), the base composition can also highlight regions different from the rest of the genome. for example, in the plasmid po157, there are some regions which are much more at rich ( probably these came about as a result of horizontal gene transfer - we will discuss this again in the next lecture... ) note that the \" toxb \" gene is much more at rich than the average for the rest of the plasmid. this could be due to the fact that this gene came from an organism with a more at rich genome, or ( more likely in my opinion ) it is more at rich because it is important for this gene to vary in sequence ( e. g., have a higher mutational frequencey ). escherichia coli is probably the best characterised organism. there are 4085 predicted genes in escherichia coli strain k - 12 isolate w3110. there are 4289 predicted genes in escherichia coli strain k - 12 isolate mg1665. there are 5283 predicted genes in escherichia coli strain o157 : h7 isolate edl933 ( enterohemorrhagic pathogen ). there are about 5361 predicted genes in escherichia coli strain o157 : h7 substrain rimd 0509952 ( enterohemorrhagic pathogen ). roughly 2600 genes have been found to be expressed in escherichia coli strain k - 12 cells, under standard laboratory growth conditions. about 2100 spots can be seen on 2 - d protein gels. very roughly 1000 different genes ( only about 600 mrna transcripts ) are expressed at \" detectable levels \" in e. coli cells grown in lb media. only about 350 proteins exist at concentrations of > 100 copies per cell. ( these make up 90 % of the total protein in e. coli! ) most ( > 90 % ) of the proteins are present in very low amounts ( less than 100 copies per cell ). it has been known since the 1960 ' s that genes closer to the replication origin are more highly expressed. however, it has only been in the past few years that technology has allowed the simultaneous monitoring of all the genes in escher", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5362218477959548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.279070"} {"text": "per cell ). it has been known since the 1960 ' s that genes closer to the replication origin are more highly expressed. however, it has only been in the past few years that technology has allowed the simultaneous monitoring of all the genes in escherichia coli. there are 4397 annotated genes in the e. coli k - 12 genome. shown below is an \" atlas plot \" of the e. coli k - 12 genome, with the outer circle representing the concentration of proteins ( roughly in number of molecules / cell ) and mrna ( again, roughly number of molecules / cell ). under these conditions ( e. g., cells grown to late log phase, in minimal media ), there were 2005 genes expressed at detectable levels, and only 233 proteins have been found to exist in \" abundant \" conditions ( e. g., very roughly more than 100 molecules per cell ). for e. coli k - 12 cells, grown in minimal media to late log phase : 4397 annotated genes - > 2005 mrnas expressed - > 233 abundant proteins ( note that these numbers will vary for different experimental conditions.... ) in this picture, the outer lane represents the concentration of proteins ( blue ), the next lane the concentration of mrna ( green ), and then the annotated genes. the inner three circles represent different aspects of the dna base composition throughout the genome. the innermost circle ( turquoise / violet ) is the bias of g ' s towards one strand or the other ( that is, a look at the mono - nucleotide distribution of the 4 dna bases ). the next lane is the density of stretches of purine ( or pyrimidine ) stretches of 10 bp or longer. note that in both cases purines tend to favour the leading strand of the replicore, whilst pyrimidine tracts are more likely to occur on the lagging strand. finally, the next circle ( turquoise / red ) is simply the at content of the genome, averaged over a 50, 000 bp window. note that the terminus is slightly more at rich, whilst the rest of the genome is slightly gc rich. ( the at content scale ranges from 45 % to 55 % ). link to more atlases for escherichia coli genomes. link to the main \" genome atlas \" web page friday ( 6 april, 2001 ) link to a list of recent papers and talks on dna structures. watson, james d. \" a passion for dna : genes,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5237978119679498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.279960"} {"text": "energy industry skill standardsthe goal of the energy industry skill standards project is to specify the critical work functions, key activities, performance indicators and knowledge, skills, and abilities an individual needs to succeed in certain energy - related occupations. the result of this project will support the development of new curriculum and the strengthening of existing curriculum in programs leading to certain careers in the energy industry. power generation skill standardsthe power generation skill standards were made available by the washington state workforce training and education coordinating board for industry skill panels. for more information or to download the complete manual, go to the washington state skill standards energy industry web site. wind technician skill standardsskills standards for wind turbine technicians ( 2009 ) | pdf skill panel publications - evaluating industry skill panels : a model framework ( june 2008 ) | pdf what is a skill panel? a skill panel is a group of skilled workers who have in - depth knowledge of the hands - on skills required to perform the job tasks in a technical position. the skills required to perform the job tasks are identified by the skill panel as the skill standards. how are skill standards used? - industry : recruiting, hiring, training and promoting employees - incumbent workforce : advancing careers and / or reentering the workforce - future workforce / students : understanding and acquiring skills needed to attain high wage jobs - labor : ensuring employees benefit from high paying career opportunities - government : linking education reform initiatives, workforce training and economic development - educators and trainers : developing curriculum and teaching to the required skills sets have skill standards been developed for the energy industry? yes, walla walla community college developed skill standards with industry support for the following positions : - instrument / control / relay / meter technician skill standards for the energy industry - 2006 projectalan hardcastle, wsu research analyst skills standards for operators and mechanicsskill standards are the industry - defined skills, knowledge and abilities required for individuals to succeed in the workplace. the standards specify what students, job seekers and current employees must know and be able to do within a particular industry and occupation, including the required levels of performance. the standards can be used by colleges, high schools and training organizations to make sure that their programs are up - to - date, to attract students to careers in the industry, and to ensure that students and workers get high quality training. the standards can also be used as the basis for awarding college credit for prior learning. employers and labor can use the results to better understand the foundational skills workers need to do their jobs effectively, to design or improve training programs, and as a precursor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5268154992074782, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.286301"} {"text": "the standards can also be used as the basis for awarding college credit for prior learning. employers and labor can use the results to better understand the foundational skills workers need to do their jobs effectively, to design or improve training programs, and as a precursor to existing programs like apprenticeship. who participates? employees are the expertsskill standards are defined through focus groups of employees who actually work in the occupations being studied. the focus groups will consist of 12 front - line employees who represent similar kinds of occupations, from many different companies and energy sectors ( hyrdo, thermal ). the group may also contain managers or other knowledgeable persons with extensive, current knowledge about those occupations. how industry can contribute - recruiting participantsour goal is to recruit 12 participants for each two - day focus group meeting : one group for operators, and one for mechanics. we need employers and labor partners to identify and support employees to participate in the meetings. it is imperative that we have an adequate number of knowledgeable employees from each occupation participate so the standards will be valid for the industry. each 12 - person focus group should have a roughly equal number of participants from each sector : hydro and thermal. we also want employees from many different organizations to ensure that a range of work environments is represented. responding to surveys : written surveys will be used to supplement data collection from industry about foundation skills required for these occupations. the processthe focus group meeting will last two consecutive days. a facilitator with experience in developing skill standards leads the meeting. there is a set agenda, but the format is very interactive and discussion - based. getting input from all participants about their work functions, activities, knowledge and skills is one key goal. reaching agreement about the scope and content of the information is another. the process includes fast - paced and intensive discussions about work functions, activities and skills, but it is also a fun and rewarding experience for participants. draft copies of the standards will be reviewed by industry before a final document is produced this summer. questions and contactsbarbara hins - turner pacific northwest center of excellence for clean energy 600 centralia college blvd centralia wa 98531 ( 360 ) 736 - 9391, ext. 477", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5545709892689614, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.287261"} {"text": "building electrical system design phase, are shown in the construction documents \u2019 respective equipment schedules in va or kva. a general approach to determining transformer capacity and selecting the proper rating for the design application is to obtain the calculated design load from the respective electrical schedule and add 20 % spare capacity for future load growth to be shown in the equipment schedule, unless otherwise directed by the facility based on design parameters. for example, the code - based demand load of a 208 y / 120 v, 3 - phase, 4 - wire panelboard is 42 kva, which does do not include spare capacity for future growth. therefore, the transformer size required for converting the system voltage from 480 v, 3 - phase, 3 - wire to 208 y / 120 v, 3 - phase, 4 - wire is : transformer size in kva = 42 kva x 1. 25 = 52. 5 kva therefore, a 75 kva transformer would be selected for this application out of the available standard ratings for a 480 v primary to 208 y / 120 v secondary. the most common building industry standard ratings are 3, 6, 9, 15, 30, 37. 5, 45, 75, 112. 5, 150, 225, 300, 500, 750, and 1, 000 kva. the above simple calculation meets the intent to achieve the normal life expectancy of a transformer, which is based on the following basic conditions : - the transformer is equal to or less than its rated kva and rated voltage. - the average temperature of the cooling air during a 24 - hour period is 86 f. - the temperature of the cooling air at no time exceeds 104 f. transformer selection starts with the kva rating required to supply the loads connected in the electrical system. another consideration for indoor distribution transformers is the type of load : linear or nonlinear. linear loads include resistive heating and induction motors ; nonlinear loads are produced by electronic equipment that contributes to the distortion of the electrical power signals by generating harmonics. the harmonics resulting from nonsinusoidal currents generate additional losses and heating of the transformer coils, which reduce the transformer life expectancy. indoor transformers for nonlinear loads can be selected with a k rating, which allows the transformer to withstand nonlinear conditions in the electrical system. k - rated transformers do not mitigate or eliminate harmonics. however, they do protect the transformer itself from damage caused by harmonics. for harmonic mitigation, k - rated transformers can be combined with harmonic filters or choke", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5026943271675275, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.345498"} {"text": "about the renminbi ( yaun ) the renminbi is the official currency of the people ' s republic of china. however, it is more commonly known by its primary unit, the yuan. renminbi is a decimalized currency system with subunits in tenths called jiao and subunits in hundredths called fen. although hong kong and macau are politically parts of china, these two locations use a separate currency. therefore, the renminbi is not legal tender in hong kong and macau. the renminbi is issued and managed by the people ' s bank of china, which was established in 1948. it remained the only legal bank in the country until 1978. the renminbi was introduced in the same year the people ' s bank was founded. after introduction, the currency maintained its value by being pegged to the us dollar, but as china progressed to a free - market economy, it was devalued on several occasions in an attempt to increase china ' s industries. today, many economists and international financial experts claim that the exchange rate of the renminbi is undervalued compared to its buying power by as much as 37. 5 per cent. as of 2005, the renminbi has been floating on the foreign exchange market in a narrow margin that is determined by a basket of leading world currencies. the basket includes the us dollar, euro, japanese yen, south korean won and several other currencies in a smaller proportion. after being removed from the us dollar peg, the renminbi immediately increased in value on the foreign exchange by two per cent. in 2008, the peg to the us dollar was reinstituted. in 2010, it was announced by china that the restrictions placed on the renminbi will be relaxed so the renminbi will once again have market flexibility. china is also working to internationalize the renminbi with the goal of it being used widespread as a foreign reserve currency. deals have already been struck with russia, vietnam and thailand that allows trade to be settled directly in renminbi. although the yuan has been the primary unit of currency in china for decades before, the renminbiyuan was not introduced until the communist party of china gained control of the country. the renminbi, or \" people ' s currency, \" was introduced to bring a unified currency system to the nation at the end of its civil war. currency is circulated through coins and banknotes, which are minted and printed by the china banknote printing and minting corporation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.528545751131509, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.368602"} {"text": "2 flight zone. cattle are herd animals and are classified as a prey species. they have natural defenses against predators, such as escape or flight behaviors. the flight or escape zone is generally referred to as the area around them that, when invaded by the unwelcome, will cause them to move away. as cattle interact more with their handlers and regular surroundings, the flight zone can become smaller and they can be approached more readily. 3 stimulus area. this is the buffer area outside the flight zone in which controlled stimulus, when applied efficiently, will cause the cow to move as intended by the handler. \u201c stimulus \u201d here refers to human presence and action only, not prods, whips or any other physical tools. it is also more successful when only one person applies stimulus at a time. 4 depth perception. cows have limited close - up depth perception, making stepping over a curb, onto a shadow, or walking off the edge of a bedded pack potentially new to them. if those conditions are present in their environment, they will need to be handled repeatedly in order for them to learn not to over - react. 5 hearing. cattle have a broader hearing range than humans in frequency of kilohertz and will respond to quieter noises and higher pitches that humans cannot hear. reducing or eliminating loud noises, including shouting, whistling and clanging gates, will help reduce stress and adrenaline production. 6 stage of life. regular, calm interaction with humans should begin with newborn calves. young animals of all species ( including humans ) have \u201c brain plasticity, \u201d which means they have a tremendous ability to absorb and retain knowledge when they are very young. the transition period between hutches and group housing is a critical time to practice stockmanship to help them interact more calmly with humans, find out where their feed and water are, and become acclimated to having pen mates. calving time is another period that requires careful stockmanship, because maternal instincts can cause cows to become more aggressive and more easily startled. as a stockman, always leave yourself an escape route when handling close - up animals. 7 flow of movement. once a cow is moving in the intended direction, it is ideal to keep her moving and not interrupt that positive flow. facility design plays an important role here. placing cows in holding areas before they enter the parlor is not ideal, and crowd gates and \u201c cow pushers \u201d can cause severe stress. an example of constant, positive flow is the rotary parlor, which promotes positive flow and provides a very calming, regular routine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5206180039676994, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.379999"} {"text": "intel corporation ( intc ) is an american multinational semiconductor chip maker corporation headquartered in santa clara, california, united states and the world ' s largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. it is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. intel was founded on july 18, 1968, as int egrated el ectronics corporation ( though a common misconception is that \" intel \" is from the word intel ligence ). intel also makes motherboard chipsets, network interface controllers and integrated circuits, flash memory, graphic chips, embedded processors and other devices related to communications and computing. founded by semiconductor pioneers robert noyce and gordon moore and widely associated with the executive leadership and vision of andrew grove, intel combines advanced chip design capability with a leading - edge manufacturing capability. though intel was originally known primarily to engineers and technologists, its \" intel inside \" advertising campaign of the 1990s made it and its pentium processor household names. intel was an early developer of sram and dram memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business until 1981. although intel created the world ' s first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the personal computer ( pc ) that this became its primary business. during the 1990s, intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. during this period intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for pcs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes illegal tactics in defense of its market position, particularly against advanced micro devices ( amd ), as well as a struggle with microsoft for control over the direction of the pc industry. the 2011 rankings of the world ' s 100 most powerful brands published by millward brown optimor showed the company ' s brand value at number 58. intel has also begun research in electrical transmission and generation. intel has recently introduced a 3 - d transistor that may improve performance and energy efficiency. intel will be mass producing this 3 - d transistor, called tri - gate transistors, with their upcoming 22nm process in the near future. in 2011, spectrawatt inc., a solar cell spinoff of intel, filed for bankruptcy under chapter 11.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5135013837038584, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.423532"} {"text": "this week \u2019 s top news story has been hiding in plain sight on the internet for two years. even so, a september, 2010 report from deutsche bank group entitled \u201c climate change : addressing the major skeptic arguments, \u201d is big news. in earth preservers \u2019 opinion, the report has the potential to be a game - changer because it has the clearest, simplest explanation for why man - made climate change is real. \u201c ( this report \u2019 s ) clear conclusion is that the primary claims of the skeptics do not undermine the assertion that human - made climate change is already happening and is a serious long term threat. \u201c to us, \u201d report continues, \u201c the most persuasive argument in support of climate change is that the basic laws of physics dictate that increasing carbon dioxide levels in the earth \u2019 s atmosphere produce warming. ( this will be the cause irrespective of other climate events. ) the only way that warming can be mitigated by natural resources is if there are countervailing \u2018 feedback mechanisms \u2019, such as cooling from increased cloud cover caused by the changing climate. \u201c a key finding of the current research is that there has far been no evidence of such countervailing factors. in fact, most observed and anticipated feedback mechanisms are actually working to amplify the warming process, not cool it. \u201d the report goes on to answer each argument skeptics make in the often rancorous public debate in the us over whether climate change is real, among them : * global average temperatures have not risen since 1998 * climate models are defective and therefore cannot provide reliable projections of future climate trends. what makes the deutsche bank report compelling reading isn \u2019 t so much that the information is new. rather, it \u2019 s the way mark fulton, global head of climate change investment research, and his team at db climate change advisors, have presented the information, the source of which is the columbia climate center at the earth institute, columbia university. each of the skeptics \u2019 arguments is answered simply and directly.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.525799927473061, "token_count": 416, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.441949"} {"text": "alternative power sources are able to do more than just save the planet. now, they can help save people, too. spectra watermakers, inc. of san rafael, calif. has introduced the new solar cube, a portable water treatment machine powered by solar and wind that can provide clean drinking water in disaster situations. powered by 24 - volt batteries, which are charged by integrated photovoltaic panels and a wind - powered generator on the machine, the solar cube is portable and easily assembled on - site in less than an hour. by placing a pump, which is also attached to the machine, into a polluted or saltwater source, the solar cube captures the water and pumps it through a series of filters, including a reverse osmosis membrane in the final stage, which eliminates microscopic bacteria, viruses, salts and dangerous chemicals. the solar cube can provide up to 3, 500 gallons of clean drinking water a day, enough to sustain hundreds of families during a disaster. it can provide enough energy to power other vital emergency functions, such as refrigeration equipment, laptops and communications equipment. it can be used also to provide water and electricity to remote locations or for developers working in rural areas. spectra watermakers manufactured the solar cube in cooperation with trunz metallchnik ag of switzerland. ec", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.556138169191482, "token_count": 267, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.446278"} {"text": "positive. the saving schedule above can also be converted into a linear equation, or saving function : s = \u2013 40 +. 20 ( di ) the constant $ \u2013 40 is referred to as autonomous savingbecause it does not change as di changes. with zero disposable income, the household would need to borrow $ 40 to consume $ 40 worth of goods. the slope of the saving function is. 20. this function is plotted in figure 13. 2 marginal propensity to consume and save an important lesson from the study of microeconomics is the marginal concept. you can think of it in two equivalent ways. marginal always means an incremental change caused by an external force, or it is always the slope of a \" total \" function. the same is true here. the marginal propensity to consume ( mpc ) is the change in consumption caused by a change in disposable income. another way to think about it is the slope of the consumption function. mpc = \u03b4c / \u03b4di = slope of consumption function using table 13. 1, we see that for every additional $ 100 of di, cincreases by $ 80 so the mpc =. 80. the marginal propensity to save ( mps ) is the change in saving caused by a change in disposable income. another way to think about it is the slope of the saving function. mps = \u03b4s / \u03b4di = slope of saving function using table 13. 1, we can see that for every additional $ 100 of di, sincreases by $ 20 so the mps =. 20. there is a nice relationship between the mpc and the mps. for every additional dollar not consumed, it is saved. so if the consumer gains $ 100 in disposable income, he increases his consumption by $ 80 and increases saving by $ 20. in other words, mpc + mps = 1. if you know one, you can find the other. add your own comment today on education. com workbooksmay workbooks are here! activitiesget outside! 10 playful activities - kindergarten sight words list - the five warning signs of asperger ' s syndrome - what makes a school effective? - child development theories - why is play important? social and emotional development, physical development, creative development - 10 fun activities for children with autism - bullying in schools - test problems : seven reasons why standardized tests are not working - should your child be held back a grade? know your rights - first grade", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5223005421154265, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.460048"} {"text": ". the robot \u2019 s arm then puts the tray in a digital imaging device that scans the sample for changes in the cell that could mean biological activity. the robot receives software instructions on what types of biological activity to \u201c look for \u201d in the exposed cells. positive results are flagged, triggering an alert that the computer sends to project scientists \u2019 computers outside the 20 - by - 20 foot robot lab. scientists interpret the results so they can then identify chemicals that warrant further screening or study. just because a chemical shows a reaction with an isolated cell ( skin, liver, etc. ) does not necessarily mean that it will have the same effect when interacting with a living person. to address this, dr. kavlock \u2019 s team at epa is developing algorithms that predict whether a person \u2019 s organs and body as a whole will react to chemical exposure the same way their individual cells did in the preliminary tests. tox21 is revolutionizing the way chemical testing is done. traditional toxicity testing is built on animal - based studies that require relatively large investments in time and resources, including money. in the past, epa has had to test one chemical at a time, completing only a couple dozen assessments a year : \u201c a single human researcher may work on ten chemicals a year, or 20, \" says kavlock. \" we are doing 10, 000 in a week. \u201d tox21 \u2019 s new robot system significantly reduces the cost and duration of chemical testing, which will allow epa to better identify potentially harmful chemicals and serve its core mission to safeguard human health and the environment. it also allows the fda to better analyze unexpected toxicity, opening the door for better drug development. the partnership built around tox21 and the high - tech robot testing is also an exemplary government partnership. \" you read a lot in the papers about the duplications of government, \" kavlock explained in a recent new york times article about the project. \" this is the case where there ' s un - duplication. we are really bringing \u2014 between niehs, nih genomics center and epa \u2014 a really significant complementary expertise. \" tox21 \u2019 s robot system is now testing chemicals found in industrial and consumer products, food additives and drugs, for evidence they might lead to adverse health effects. the end goal is to create a comprehensive database detailing tested chemicals with particular emphasis on toxic and harmful ones. thanks to the tox21 collaboration and its new robot technology, the future of toxicity testing \u2014 and the protection of human health \u2014 is now.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5010127546898753, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.498763"} {"text": "distribution map : based on vouchered plant specimens only. view county names by placing the mouse cursor over a particular county. * * not applicable or data not available. \u2013 denotes synonyms that are applicable to the state. show these synonyms only wetland assessment procedure ( wap ) : source - southwest florida water management district, wetland assessment procedure instruction manual for isolated wetlands ( march 2005 ). source - florida exotic pest plant council ' s 2007 list of florida ' s most invasive species category i - species that are invading and disrupting native plant communities in florida. this definition does not rely on the economic severity or geographic range of the problem, but on the documented ecological damage caused. category ii - species that have shown a potential to disrupt native plant communities. these species may become ranked as category i, but have not yet demonstrated disruption of natural florida communities. wetland status, department of environmental regulation ( dep ) : source - delineation of the landward extent of wetlands and surface waters, chapter 62 - 340, florida administrative code. 1994. wetland status ( nwi ) : source - national list of vascular plant species that occur in wetlands. us fish & wildlife service biological report 88 ( 24 ). national wetlands inventory, us fish & wildlife service. 1988. a positive ( + ) or negative ( - ) sign is used with the facultative indicator category to more specifically define the regional frequency of occurrence in wetlands. the positive sign indicates a frequency toward the higher end of the category ( more frequently found in wetlands ), and a negative sign indicates a frequency toward the lower end of the category ( less frequently found in wetlands ). identifying species that appear as waifs or only periodically appear in the flora for a few seasons. ( definitions from : american heritage science dictionary ) intro paragraph to be provided by new york. this numeric rank provides the relative rarity for each species based on a scale from 1 ( very rare ) to 5 ( common ). these ranks carry no legal status. each species ' global rank is determined by natureserve. these ranks carry no legal weight. the global rank reflects the species worldwide rarity. view a list of all ecological communities for more information, contact : dr. richard wunderlin or dr. bruce hansen \u00a9 2013 institute for systematic botany | data last modified : 5 / 23 / 2013 web development : | the florida center for community design + research a member of the university of south florida family of plantatlas. org websites wunderlin, r. p., and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5238233035823956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.679160"} {"text": "nanobiosensors hold considerable potential as future areas of development for nanotechnology, according to a recent study. however, \u2018 nanobiotechnology perspectives. role of nanotechnology in the food industry : a review \u2019, which is to be published in the journal of food science and technology, claims case - by - case toxicity studies are needed. \u201c advances in microfluid and inorganic nanoparticle production have enabled the preparation of efficient sensors to rapidly detect pathogens or pesticides in food or on the farm or in the product on the market, \u201d the authors conclude. \u201c the nanobiosensor can also be applied in environmental pollution control in the food industry. functionalised food with nanoparticles as flavours and nutrients carriers can enhance food quality and safety. \u201c the important issue in the immediate future will be the toxicity of these nanomaterials in plants, animals and humans and then it must be studied case to case. \u201d electronic noses and tongues, which use arrays of nanosensors, have considerable potential in assessing beer quality, especially at the fermentation stage, the research claims. recently developed electronic noses have also been applied to the detection of fungal contamination of cereal grain samples. in particular, the researchers state : \u201c electrochemical nanosensors, especially amperometric ones, are of great interest nowadays, because of their high sensitivity for the detection of important components or pollutants in agriculture and in foods. \u201d pathogen and mycotoxin detection studies suggest nanobiosensors can be used in pathogen and mycotoxin detection in foods, they add, with salmonella, e. coli and listeria being most studied. for example, an antibody - functionalised carbon nanotube nanosensor has been used for detecting salmonella in a nutrient broth solution. and a cholesterol biosensor containing multiwall carbon nanotubes and cholesterol oxidase has been constructed on glassy carbon electrodes with excellent performance. there is evidence to suggest that nanoparticles of poly ( lactide - co - glycolide ) ( plga ) could combat salmonella and listeria, the researchers state. shelf life could be improved through encapsulation of nitric oxide in nanostructures that improve its stability, they note, citing one example in which its incorporation into packaging had enhanced the preservation of button mushrooms. use of edible nanofilm could also help preserve food such as fresh produce, meat, confectionery,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5127404657904023, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.702012"} {"text": "the price of energy has a very strong influence on the energy choices governments and individuals make. i sometimes hear people ask \" why are we still building coal - fired power plants? \" or \" why don \u2019 t we replace more petroleum with biomass? \" one reason is that biomass is generally more difficult to use from a logistical point of view. another is that there just isn \u2019 t enough biomass to meet present energy demands. but a major factor comes down to price. the price and convenience of energy sources are ultimately the keys to customer acceptance. homes can be heated with wood, heating oil, natural gas, or electricity. automobiles can be fueled with gasoline, ethanol, natural gas, diesel, electricity, and a wide variety of more unconventional fuels. if consumers have a choice and the supply is convenient, they will tend toward the cheapest energy source they can get. below i have compiled a list of current prices for some of the more common energy options on an energy equivalent basis \u2013 the british thermal unit ( btu ). a btu is simply the amount of heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of one pound of water by 1 degree fahrenheit. everything has been converted into u. s. dollars per million btu ( mmbtu ). the sources for the data are listed below. i have included the cost of electricity, although it is important to note that the efficiency of electric motors is higher than for internal combustion engines. for comparison, i have also included the cost of the federal ethanol tax credit ( volumetric ethanol excise tax credit ), which is $ 0. 45 per gallon of ethanol for 2010. energy prices per million btu the list above illustrates why wood pellets for home heating are flowing out of canada and the u. s. and into europe. wood pellets are much more expensive and generally less convenient to use than natural gas in north america. it isn \u2019 t difficult then to see why wood pellets have a difficult market in north america. for people with access to natural gas, the lower price and convenience of natural gas is compelling. in europe, natural gas supplies aren \u2019 t as secure, so they have more incentive to consider wood pellets as an option. the cost of the ethanol subsidy is interesting. taxpayers presently pay more for the subsidy than natural gas costs. however, if you consider that the subsidy is on a per gallon basis \u2013 and a large fraction of that gallon of ethanol is fossil fuel - derived, the subsidy for the renewable component is higher. for instance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5205701859524965, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.771117"} {"text": "an abbrev is a word that has been defined to expand into a specified expansion. when you insert a word - separator character following the abbrev, that expands the abbrev \u2014 replacing the abbrev with its expansion. for example, if \u2018 foo \u2019 is defined as an abbrev expanding to \u2018 find outer otter \u2019, then typing f o o. will insert \u2018 find outer otter. \u2019. abbrevs expand only when abbrev mode, a buffer - local minor mode, is enabled. disabling abbrev mode does not cause abbrev definitions to be forgotten, but they do not expand until abbrev mode is enabled again. the command m - x abbrev - mode toggles abbrev mode ; with a numeric argument, it turns abbrev mode on if the argument is positive, off otherwise. see minor modes. abbrevs can have mode - specific definitions, active only in one major mode. abbrevs can also have global definitions that are active in all major modes. the same abbrev can have a global definition and various mode - specific definitions for different major modes. a mode - specific definition for the current major mode overrides a global definition. you can define abbrevs interactively during the editing session, irrespective of whether abbrev mode is enabled. you can also save lists of abbrev definitions in files, which you can the reload for use in later sessions.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5584316685330124, "token_count": 305, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.790967"} {"text": "two researchers from the state key laboratory of millimeter waves at southeast university from nanjing, china, have discovered and prototyped a device that acts like a black hole for electromagnetic waves in the microwave spectrum. it consists of 60 concentric rings of metamaterials, a class or ordered composites that can distort light and other waves. qiang cheng and tie jun cui called their device \u201c omnidirectional electromagnetic absorber \u201d. the 60 rings of circuit board are arranged in concentric layers and coated in copper. each of the layers is printed with alternating patterns, which resonate or don \u2019 t resonate in electromagnetic waves. what is indeed very amazing is that their device can spiral 99 % of the radiations coming from all directions inside it and convert them into heat, acting like an \u201c electromagnetic black body \u201d ( or \u201c hole \u201d ). the omnidirectional electromagnetic absorber could be used in harvesting the energy that exists in form of electromagnetic waves and turn them into usable heat. of course, turning the heat back into electricity isn \u2019 t a 100 % efficient process ( far from it ), but directly harvesting electromagnetic waves in the classic antenna - fashion is way too inefficient compared to this black hole. \u201c since the lossy core can transfer electromagnetic energies into heat energies, we expect that the proposed device could find important applications in thermal emitting and electromagnetic - wave harvesting. \u201d possible uses can vary from powering your phone with the existing electromagnetic energy that surrounds it, to wireless power transmission and even powering space ships \u2013 it all depends on the wavelength that the device is tuned to. the question that arises is : would this kind of devices have other uses than these constructive ones mentioned above? more like this article not what you were looking for? search the green optimistic! join the discussion4046 total comments so far. what ' s your opinion? electromagnetic wave harvesting? extremely fascinating. when one thinks about it, it makes sense. electromagnetism is one of the more powerful forms of the universe ( next to gravity and strong / weak nuclear forces ). the inner sci - fi geek in me loves the idea and can only imagine what an em device could do for humanity in the future. but of course the part of me stuck in reality is still skeptical of such technologies and what their applicable use would be. very very cool science though! - consumer energy alliance \" a balanced approach towards america ' s energy future \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6100286685466307, "token_count": 500, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.812715"} {"text": "does this test have other names? what is this test? this test measures the level of iron in your blood. iron is an essential trace element in your blood. it helps your body make healthy red blood cells. red blood cells carry oxygen throughout your bloodstream. having too little or too much iron can lead to health problems. too little iron in your body can cause a condition called anemia. when this happens, your blood doesn ' t have enough iron to make the number of red blood cells needed to provide the amount of oxygen your body needs. iron - deficiency anemia is most often caused by blood loss, such as after an injury or surgery, or because of heavy menstrual bleeding. too much iron can be caused by hemochromatosis. this is a genetic condition that causes your blood to absorb too much iron. why do i need this test? you may need this test if your doctor suspects that you have too much or too little iron in your blood. common symptoms of anemia include : less common symptoms of anemia are brittle nails, restless leg syndrome, and a sore tongue. signs and symptoms of too much iron include liver problems, weakness, fatigue, darkening of the skin, and joint pain. what other tests might i have along with this test? your doctor may also order a total iron binding capacity test to measure the level of transferrin in your blood. transferrin is a protein that carries iron from your digestive system to the cells in your body that need it. your doctor may also measure your level of ferritin, another protein that helps store iron in your body. he or she may also order a complete blood count, or cbc, to get the full picture of the parts of your blood. what do my test results mean? many things may affect your lab test results. these include the method each lab uses to do the test. even if your test results are different from the normal value, you may not have a problem. to learn what the results mean for you, talk with your health care provider. results are given in micrograms per deciliter ( mcg / dl ). normal ranges of iron in the blood are 60 to 170 mcg / dl. if your results are lower, it means you may have iron - deficiency anemia. your doctor will confirm this with other tests. if your results are higher, it means you may have hemochromatosis. too much iron in the blood can also be from taking too many iron supplements or iron - enriched", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5165666352424392, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.825848"} {"text": "\u0438\u0440\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432 \u043b\u0438\u043f\u0448\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0442 holocaust denial on trial, trial judgment : electronic edition, by charles graytable of contents 6. 60 whilst it would not be right to say that there is no issue between the parties in relation to the existence of a policy of deporting jews eastwards, the differences in the parties ' respective case appear to me to be comparatively unimportant. the topic can therefore be taken quite shortly. 6. 61 according to longerich, the nazi policy towards the jews evolved over the years. in the 1920s and 30s various legal and economic sanctions were applied to jews in germany with a view to compelling them to emigrate. longerich draws attention to various statements made by hilter at this time which foreshadow a more radical solution to the jewish question. towards the end of the 1930s pressure for the emigration and even expulsion of the jews intensified. the term endlosung ( final solution ) came into use, carrying with it the implication that all jews would be removed from nazi germany. 6. 62 hitler ' s attitude at this time is reflected in an entry in goebbels ' s diary for 24 august 1938 : \" we discuss the jewish question. the fuhrer approves my procedures in berlin. what the foreign press writes is insignificant. the main thing is that the jews be pushed out. in 10 years they must be removed from germany. but in the interim we still want to keep the jews here as pawns \". 6. 63 from the outbreak of war in september 1939 the policy towards the european jews in those countries invaded by the nazis was to find for them a \" territorial solution \", that is, to find an area at the periphery of the nazi empire to which the jews might be deported and where they might very well perish. at this stage, longerich agrees, the policy was not a homicidal one, although he adds the rider that there already existed what he called the \" perspective \" of mass murder. his argument is that this is discernible from the comments made at the time which suggest that it was recognised that it was unlikely that the jews would survive for long after their deportastion. they would perish through disease or starvation. 6. 64 it is the defendants ' case, largely although not entirely accepted by irving, that the hard - line policy towards the jews manifested itself when the nazis invaded and conquered poland in september 1939. there were two aspects : the first was the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5126748804068841, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.862863"} {"text": "january 09, 2008 global warming is a hot topic in today \u2019 s news. people are seeking ways to save energy and protect the environment. reducing household energy consumption is one effective way to slow the trend toward global warming. utilities have successfully implemented demand response programs for commercial and industrial consumers. now more and more energy companies, such as san diego gas & electric ( sdg & e ) and burbank power and water ( bpw ), are switching residential consumers \u2019 old mechanical meters to new smart digital meters, in order to implement demand response programs in the residential sector ( see \u201c developing affordable smart thermostats, \u201d p. 16 ). these smart meters connect the utility to the home over a network. they can help consumers monitor and control their energy consumption, and help utilities decrease peak demand, reducing the need to use or build more inefficient and dirty power plants that come online only to meet peak loads. to read complete online articles, you need to sign up for an online subscription. once an order has been placed there is an automatic $ 10 processing fee that will be deducted with any cancellation. the home energy online articles are for personal use only and may not be printed for distribution. for permission to reprint, please send an e - mail to firstname. lastname @ example. org.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5243860294809756, "token_count": 267, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.890132"} {"text": "to be bullied into shifting towards technologies that they cannot afford when the masses of their people remain in poverty. there is also a longstanding colonial tendency to assume that modern civilisation rightly belongs in the white west but should not corrupt the rest of the world. this romantic nonsense is just a ploy to keep the people in the global south in their place, and their countries attractive playgrounds for the global elite. all countries have the same right to modernise and to meet their people ' s needs. when environmentalists in the global south echo this colonial language that says that the natives are best left to their traditional ways they are often feted in the north. the indian environmentalist vandana shiva is a good example of this. but we should not forget that many progressive indian academics and activists are extremely critical of her romantic anti - modernism, which they see as being deeply complicit with colonial ideas about the noble savage. marxists, who are committed to modern forms of economic development, are often appalled by her ideas. the fact that china and india are now rapidly industrialising is sending all kinds of shock waves through the west, which is rapidly losing its position of dominance over the rest of the world. when the language of environmentalism is used in the north to question the rapid advance of india and china it often masks a desire to reserve industrialisation, and the economic power it brings, to the west. but the discomfort that many of us feel with the green agenda on the global scale is also replicated at home. many black south africans are deeply suspicious of the green agenda and there is good reason for this. conservation was historically used to evict africans from their land and the practise of evicting people in the name of ' eco - tourism ' has continued after apartheid. so called ' eco - estates ', in rural areas and in cities ', are very often nothing other than zones in which the more extreme edge of white privilege uses a green language to make its exclusionary privilege seem like some sort of ethical commitment. it ' s not unusual for middle class environmentalists that want to get rid of unsightly pollution, rubbish dumps or industrialisation in their areas to also want to get rid of poor african people from these areas. there is often a clear connection between environmentalism and racism in south africa and its quite unusual for the green agenda to take questions of social justice seriously. in fact its quite clear that for many white people, and some wealthy black people too, the language of environmentalism is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.502446062045636, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.900734"} {"text": "book authors : warren g. bennis, robert j. thomas book review by : anil kumar kartham faculty associate, icmr ( ibs center for management research ) dleadership, cross - generational leadership, wisdom, skill, era, changing the world, organization, how people become leaders, crucible, individual factors, iq, self - grooming, adaptive capacity, leadership competencies the theory of leadership attempts to describe the process of leadership making. era is an important aspect of their theory of leadership. thus, it is relevant to ask how is \" era \" different in case of geeks and geezers? at the age of 25 - 30, geeks are more ambitious and have larger goals compared to geezers at the same age. they dream of \" changing the world \" and \" making history. \" the geezers on the other hand, were concerned more about making a living. the geeks seek to balance their lives by giving enough importance to both work and family. the geezers hardly bothered about balance at this age. the geezers worshiped heros. they chiseled their image of successful leader based on these heroes. the geeks had none of that sort. their parents or teachers or even their friends were their heroes. the authors point to \" era \" as the creator of these differences. this doesn ' t mean they had no commitment to their jobs. they were dedicated as long as they were with the company. and they were ready to leave whenever they found greener pastures. the loyalty described by whyte in organization man lost favor in 1980s. the geeks valued \" balanced life \" more than the geezers did. they were persistent in maintaining the balance. the following quote of a geek makes it clear : if i can ' t do it with balance, then i don ' t want to do it. or i ' m not buying into your model of success. they were not shy in acquiring wealth, unlike the geezers. they did not see money as evil. rather the love of it as evil. the geeks and the geezers are not as dissimilar as they appear on the surface. they are made of the same stuff and in the same process. they are similar in their learning. both groups of leaders are highly enthusiastic about learning. and they yearn and struggle to go beyond limits : individual limits such as strength or learning ability or institutional limits such as racial and / or sexual discrimination. more important similarity, the authors say they uncovered, is a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5637735763483344, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.909288"} {"text": "the civilian, noninstitutionalized population of the united states aged 12 and older, including residents of noninstitutional group quarters such as college dormitories, group homes, shelters, rooming houses, and civilians dwelling on military installations. data types : survey data data collection notes : data were collected and prepared for release by research triangle institute, research triangle park, nc. the national household survey on drug abuse questionnaire and estimation methodology changed with the implementation of the 1994 - b survey. therefore, estimates produced from the 1998 survey are not comparable to those produced from the 1994 - a and earlier surveys. this version of the 1998 nhsda public release file does not contain data collected on the parenting experiences answer sheet ( # 21 ) or the questionnaire roster ( qd - 47 ) contained in the \" non - core \" demographics section, nor does this file include various recoded variables that are typically created from the roster data and have been included in past public release files. all the necessary processing of these data and weight calculations for use of these data had not been completed by the data producers at the time of the data deposit. the data producers anticipate release at a later date of an updated version of the 1998 nhsda public use file, containing additional questionnaire data, variables derived using these data, and additional weights. for selected variables, statistical imputation was performed following logical imputation to replace missing responses. these variables are identified in the codebook as \"... logically imputed \" and \"... imputed \" for the logical procedure or by the designation \" imputation - revised \" in the variable label when the statistical procedure was also performed. the names of statistically imputed variables begin with the letters \" ir \". for each imputation - revised variable there is a corresponding imputation indicator variable that indicates whether a case ' s value on the variable resulted from an interview response or was imputed by the hot - deck technique. hot - deck imputation is described in the codebook. the \" basic sampling weights \" are equal to the inverse of the probabilities of selection of sample respondents. to obtain \" final nhsda weights, \" the basic weights were adjusted to take into account dwelling unit - level and individual - level nonresponse and then further adjusted to ensure consistency with intercensal population projections from the united states bureau of the census. to protect the privacy of respondents, all variables that could be used to identify individuals have been encrypted or collapsed in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5146042971762731, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.921606"} {"text": "a new kind of computer interface, combining advantages of a computer mouse, a touchpad and a touch screen. introduction - current state and proposed solutionthe advantages of touch screens are commonly known and include, inter alia, simplicity and comfort of use. however, such screens are at the same time not free from defects. these include above all provoking painful fatigue of the operator \u2019 s hand, especially when the display is situated in the position close to vertical, which is common while working on a notebook pc for instance ( so - called gorilla arm ). another drawback is the very limited precision of pointing caused by relatively big sizes of human fingers. also, this type of interface results in fingering the screen of the computer device and making it opaque. the possibility of working with a hand resting on a basis / mouse and greater precision are the main merits of a computer mouse. but yet, the necessity to move the whole device as well as the pointing system \u2019 s incompatibility with the spreading prevalence of the touch technique ( e. g. windows 8 ) are on the minus side. by contrast, although a touchpad eliminates the necessity to move the whole device, its week point is - like in a mouse - the limited compatibility with the touch technology. generally speaking, the touch technique is being widely implemented as the most intuitive and comfortable. on the other hand it is not fully functional in certain situations. the proposed device is supposed to eliminate these shortcomings. it introduces a new quality in non - keyboard computer handling. the interface combines the feature of a computer mouse, that makes it possible to work with a hand supported by a basis, with the feature of a touch screen, which is the possibility to point with fingers ; it also brings additional benefits such as no need to move the whole hand ( just the fingers ) and the more accurate - than in touch display - pointing. the system of precise pointing has been named the \u201c virtual finger \u201d. device description and principle of operationthe device is a kind of a \u201c sensor \u201d in the shape of a flat plate with applicable software. it is used for \u201c scanning \u201d the movements of the operator \u2019 s fingers, wireless \u201c transmitting \u201d of the movements to the computer system, their visualization on the screen, and for activating the right action after touching the surface of the device ( called \u201c sensory surface \u201d hereinafter ). the device recognizes and follows the movement of the fingers above the \u201c sensory surface \u201d starting with certain boundary distance and transmits it to the computer display", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.602529287056224, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.930846"} {"text": "iii, on the subject of penance. what was lacking was afterward added from the fourth book of his commentary on the \u201c sentences \u201d of peter lombard as a supplementum, which is not found in manuscripts of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. the summa consists of three parts. part i treats of god, who is the \u201c first cause, himself uncaused \u201d ( primum movens immobile ) and as such existent only in act ( actu ), that is pure actuality without potentiality and, therefore, without corporeality. his essence is actus purus et perfectus. this follows from the fivefold proof for the existence of god ; namely, there must be a first mover himself unmoved, a first cause in the chain of causes, an absolutely necessary being, an absolutely perfect being, and a rational designer. in this connection the thoughts of the unity, infinity, unchangeableness, and goodness of the highest being are deduced. the spiritual being of god is further defined as thinking and willing. his knowledge is absolutely perfect since he knows himself and all things as appointed by him. since every knowing being strives after the thing known as end, will is implied in knowing. inasmuch as god knows himself as the perfect good, he wills himself as end. but in that everything is willed by god, everything is brought by the divine will to himself in the relation of means to end. therein god wills good to every being which exists, that is he loves it ; and, therefore, love is the fundamental relation of god to the world. if the divine love be thought of simply as act of will, it exists for every creature in like measure : but if the good assured by love to the individual be thought of, it exists for different beings in various degrees. in so far as the loving god gives to every being what it needs in relation practical reason, affording the idea of the moral law of nature, so important in medieval ethics. the first part of the summa is summed up in the thought that god governs the world as the universal first cause. god sways the intellect in that he gives the power to know aid impresses the species intelligibileson the mind ; and he ways the will in that he holds the good before it as aim, and creates the virtus volendi. to will is nothing else than a certain inclination toward the object of the volition which is the universal good. god works all in all,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5270031466706233, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.955775"} {"text": "such a lower good as end, the will is misled by self - love, so that this works as cause in every sin. god is not the cause of sin, since, on the contrary, he draws all things to himself. but from another side god is the cause of all things, so he is efficacious also in sin as * - ctio but not as ens. the devil is not directly the cause of sin, but he incites by working on the imagination and the sensuous impulse of man, as men or things may also do. sin is original. adam \u2019 s first sin passes upon himself and all the succeeding race ; because he is the head of the human race and \u201c by virtue of procreation human nature is transmitted and along with nature its infection. \u201d the powers of generation are, therefore, designated especially as \u201c infected. \u201d in every work of god both justice and mercy are united, and his justice always presupposes his mercy since he owes no one anything and gives more bountifully than is due. as god rules in the world, the \u201c plan of the order of things \u201d preexists in him ; i. e., his providence and the exercise of it in his government are what condition as cause everything which comes to pass in the world. hence follows predestination : from eternity, some are destined to eternal life ; while others \u201c he permits some to fall short of that end. \u201d reprobation, however, is more than mere foreknowledge ; it is the \u201c will of permitting anyone to fall into sin and incur the penalty of condemnation for sin. \u201d the effect of predestination is grace. since god is the first cause of everything, he is the cause of even the free acts of men through predestination. determinism is deeply grounded in the system of thomas ; things with their source of becoming in god are ordered from eternity as means for the realization of his end in himself. on moral grounds thomas advocates freedom energetically ; but, with his premises, he can have in mind only the psychological form of self - motivation. nothing in the world is accidental or free, although it may appear so in reference to the proximate cause. from this point of view miracles become necessary in themselves and are to be considered merely as inexplicable to man. from the point of view of the first cause all is unchangeable ; although from the limited point of view of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5151613096083496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.957594"} {"text": "from this point of view miracles become necessary in themselves and are to be considered merely as inexplicable to man. from the point of view of the first cause all is unchangeable ; although from the limited point of view of the secondary cause miracles may be spoken of. in his doctrine of the trinity, thomas starts from the augustinian system. since god has only the functions of thinking and willing, only twoprocessiones can be asserted from the father. however, these establish definite relations of the persons of the trinity to each other. the relations must be conceived as real and not as merely ideal ; for, as with creatures relations arise through certain accidents, since in god there is no accident but all is substance, it follows that \u201c the relation really existing in god is the same as the essence according to the thing. \u201d from another side, however, the relations as real must be really distinguished one from another. therefore, three persons are to be affirmed in god. man stands opposite to god ; he consists of soul and body. the \u201c intellectual soul \u201d consists of intellect and will. furthermore the soul is the absolutely indivisible form of man ; it is immaterial substance, but not one and the same in all men ( as the averrhoists assumed ). the soul \u2019 s power of knowing has two sides ; a passive ( the intellectus possibilis ) and an active ( theintellectus agens ). it is the capacity to form concepts and to abstract the mind \u2019 s images ( species ) from the objects perceived by sense. however, since the abstractions of the intellect from individual things is a universal, the mind knows the universal primarily and directly, and knows the singular only indirectly by virtue of a certain reflection. as certain principles are immanent in the mind for its speculative activity, so also a \u201c special disposition of works, \u201d or the synderesis ( rudiment of conscience ), is inborn in the scholastics. held to creationism, they therefore taught that the souls are created by god. two things according to thomas constituted man \u2019 s righteousness in paradise - the justitia originalis or the harmony of all man \u2019 s powers before they were blighted by desire, and the possession of the gratia gratum faciens ( the continuous indwelling power of good ). both are lost through original sin, which in form is the \u201c loss of original righteousness. \u201d the consequence of this loss is the disorder and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.533799206481976, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.958521"} {"text": "the gratia gratum faciens ( the continuous indwelling power of good ). both are lost through original sin, which in form is the \u201c loss of original righteousness. \u201d the consequence of this loss is the disorder and maiming of man \u2019 s nature, which shows itself in \u201c ignorance, malice, moral weakness, and especially in concupiscentia, which is the material principle of original sin. \u201d the course of thought here is as follows : when the first man transgressed the order of his nature appointed by nature and grace, he, and with him the human race, lost this order. this negative state is the essence of original sin. from it follow an impairment and perversion of human nature in which thenceforth lower aims rule contrary to nature and release the lower element in man. since sin is contrary to the divine order, it is guilt, and subject to punishment. guilt and punishment correspond to each other ; and since the \u201c apostasy from the invariable good which is infinite, \u201d fulfilled by man, is unending, it merits everlasting punishment. the way which leads to god is christ : and christ is the theme of part iii. it can not be asserted that the incarnation was absolutely necessary, \u201c since god in his omnipotent power could have repaired human nature in many other ways \u201d : but it was the most suitable way both for the purpose of instruction and of satisfaction. the unio between the logos and the human nature is a \u201c relation \u201d between the divine and the human nature which comes about by both natures being brought together in the one person of the logos. an incarnation can be spoken of only in the sense that the human nature began to be in the eternal hypostasis of the divine nature. so christ is unum since his human nature lacks the hypostasis. the person of the logos, accordingly, has assumed the impersonal human nature, and in such way that the assumption of the soul became the means for the assumption of the body. this union with the human soul is the gratia unionis which leads to the impartation of the gratia habitualis from the logos to the human nature. thereby all human potentialities are made perfect in jesus. besides the perfections given by the vision of god, which jesus enjoyed from the beginning, he receives all others by the gratia habitualis. in so far, however, as it is the limited human nature which receives these perfection", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5076842777473657, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.959420"} {"text": "spiritual effects for the christian life. although, later this distinction was ignored. in a single statement the effect of the sacraments is to infuse justifying grace into men. christ \u2019 s humanity was the instrument for the operation of his divinity ; the sacraments are the instruments through which this operation of christ \u2019 s humanity passes over to men. christ \u2019 s humanity served his divinity as instrumentum conjuncture, like the hand ; the sacraments are instruments separate, like a staff ; the former can use the latter, as the hand can use a staff. of thomas \u2019 eschatology, according to the commentary on the \u201c sentences, \u201d only a brief account can here be given. everlasting blessedness consists for thomas in the vision of god ; and this vision consists not in an abstraction or in a mental image supernaturally produced, but the divine substance itself is beheld. in such a manner, god himself becomes immediately the form of the beholding intellect ; that is, god is the object of the vision and at the same time causes the vision. the perfection of the blessed also demands that the body be restored to the soul as something to be made perfect by it. since blessedness consist in operation, it is made more perfect in that the soul has a definite opcralio with the body. although, the peculiar act of blessedness ( that is, the vision of god ) has nothing to do with the body. the author of this article is anonymous. the iep is actively seeking an author who will write a replacement article last updated : may 6, 2009 | originally published : may / 6 / 2009 article printed from internet encyclopedia of philosophy : http : / / www. iep. utm. edu / aquinas / copyright \u00a9 the internet encyclopedia of philosophy. all rights reserved.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5190223019483744, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:37.961980"} {"text": "idea award winner 2008 geography - independent cancer research tools - george thoma, chief, communications engineering branch, national library of medicine at the national institutes of health - sameer antani, staff scientist, national library of medicine at the national institutes of health - rodney long, electronics engineer, national library of medicine at the national institutes of health - mark schiffman, senior investigator, national cancer institute oncologists, gynecologists, and healthcare workers are increasingly relying on network - based tools developed by the national library of medicine. these tools include databases with images that range from 20 megabytes to tens of gigabytes, real - time collaboration tools, as well as professional education and development tools. these tools have changed the way geographically distant cancer researchers are able to collaborate. over 40 researchers across 6 countries have conducted over 10 studies in just 2 years. prior to these tools, collaboration relied on the physical exchange of photographic and glass histology slides via postal mail, with considerable logistical challenges and delays. moreover, the convenient and accurate correlation of patient records and physical slides posed further challenges. taking advantage of high speed networks the nlm - developed tools have made it possible to implement simultaneous views, searches, and exchange of large volume data. these and other tools being developed aid current cancer research, and are being extended to other areas of biomedical research. for example, one tool module now enables shape - based retrieval for a collection of 17, 000 digitized x - ray images of cervical and lumbar spine x - ray images and related text information. furthermore, by extending accessibility to images and information, these tools help meet the urgent need to apply the results of biomedical research to clinical medicine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5264231125817582, "token_count": 341, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.005121"} {"text": "the arrow of time we are all aware of an intuitive \" flow \" of time from past to future. not only do we feel this flow of time, but we also see it manifested in the behaviour of objects which change over time. many objects seem to behave differently in the forward time direction when compared to the backward time direction. for example, we don ' t see a spilt glass of water jumping up and going back into the glass, we don ' t see a broken egg reforming itself. these effects all add to the impression that there is some sort of \" forward direction \" in the time dimension. this directionality is called the arrow of time. however, this \" arrow of time \" is something of a mystery to physicists because, at the microscopic level, all fundamental physical processes appear to be time - reversible ( we ' ll consider this later ). also, as shown on the time and the block universe page, our universe appears to have a spacetime structure in which all of time is laid - out in a \" block universe \", i. e., there is no actual \" flow \" of time, no movement of a \" now \" point. so on this page we will investigate the cause of this mysterious \" arrow of time \". entropy can be considered the amount of disorder in a system. for example, a car that has rusted could be said to have a greater entropy value than a new car : bits of the car may have fallen off, the paint may be flaking. basically, the molecules of the car have become more disordered over time : entropy has increased. as has just been just discussed, all microscopic processes appear to be time - reversible. the question of why we see an \" arrow of time \" in macroscopic processes has therefore presented physics with a long - standing conundrum. for this reason, much attention has focussed on the fact that the entropy of a closed system increases with time, i. e., a system will gradually become more disordered with time. eventually the system ( gas in a closed container, for example ) will reach a state when all its molecules are completely randomly orientated. this state is called thermal equilibrium. the rule that entropy increases with time is called the second law of thermodynamics. the reason for this increase in entropy can be seen from a purely probabilistic argument : a system will have many more possible disordered states than ordered states, so a system which changes state randomly will most likely move to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6439141224802722, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.024939"} {"text": "perfect unbroken eggs in egg cups. and these objects are basically falling apart around us as they inevitably move to higher entropy states : cars rust, eggs fall on the floor and break. hence, the increase in entropy in our ordered world is one reason why we detect an apparent \" arrow of time \". but change of entropy is fundamentally time - symmetrical!! however, this is a good time to clear - up a very widely - held misconception about the change of entropy : that change of entropy is in some way fundamentally time - asymmetric, that entropy change behaves fundamentally differently in the forward time direction to the backward time direction. this is absolutely not the case. in the general case, entropy increases in the backward time direction in just the same way as it increases in the forward time direction : change of entropy is symmetrical with time. ( however, a very small minority of physicists might still believe change of entropy is time - asymmetric - see my comments at the bottom of this discussion with the notoriously tetchy physicist lubos motl here ). the probabilistic basis of the second law of thermodynamics simply says that a system will have many more possible disordered states than ordered states, so a system which changes state randomly will most likely move to a more disordered state. this seems very clear and obvious - such a simple statement is never going to be the cause of something so mysterious as fundamental time - asymmetry. indeed, this change to a more disordered state is just as applicable in the reverse time direction as in the forward time direction : it ' s just a change of state, independent of time. but what about the second law of thermodynamics which states that \" entropy increases with time \"? this seems to imply a fundamental time - asymmetry to entropy. but we have to realise that the second law only applies to special - case systems : objects with low entropy, the sort of objects we generally encounter in everyday life ( rusting cars, etc. ). in fact, if we consider general - case objects ( i. e., objects in thermal equilibrium ), objects which have never been arranged into any sort of order, then their entropy is at a maximum already so their entropy can only decrease with time - completely at odds with the second law! this generally - held misconception that change of entropy is fundamentally time - asymmetrical is revealed by the loschmidt paradox. the loschmidt paradox considers the apparently fundamental", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5958974811025728, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.027144"} {"text": "with time - completely at odds with the second law! this generally - held misconception that change of entropy is fundamentally time - asymmetrical is revealed by the loschmidt paradox. the loschmidt paradox considers the apparently fundamental time - asymmetry of entropy implied by the second law and states that this is at odds with the known time symmetry of fundamental processes. it is only when we realise that the second law is frequently badly stated and hence contains unstated assumptions ( which have been just considered ) that the loschmidt paradox is resolved. ( wikipedia describes this resolution of the paradox, showing how one of the key assumptions of boltzmann ' s version of the second law of thermodynamics was flawed - see here ). but if change of entropy is time - symmetric, why do we see the entropy of the universe as only increasing? roger penrose considers this question in his book the road to reality. penrose considers what we might expect to happen if we trace the entropy of the universe back in time from the state it is in now. if change of entropy is really time - symmetrical, then we should expect to see entropy increasing as we trace the universe into the past, just as we will see entropy increasing into the future. but we know, in fact, that the universe had a lower entropy in the past : i. e., the entropy of the universe actually reduces in the past. so where does this asymmetry come from? as roger penrose goes on to reveal, the time - asymmetry of change of entropy within the universe is explained by the extraordinarily low entropy of the universe at its origin : basically, the low - entropy past of the universe \" fixes \" the experiment. if we want to get a symmetrical answer then we have to be careful to conduct a symmetrical experiment. rather than starting with a special - case low entropy universe, we have to imagine a universe which started in thermal equilibrium and has reached its current state unaided, purely by chance : after that low - entropy point is reached, we then see entropy starting to increase according to the second law. but the key thing is that if we trace the entropy of the universe back in time past the low - entropy point we now see that symmetry that roger penrose sought. hence, change of entropy is fundamentally symmetrical. in fact, throughout this discussion on the arrow of time we will find that the arrow of time is caused by the time - symmetric second law of thermod", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.601766165761755, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.028101"} {"text": "see that symmetry that roger penrose sought. hence, change of entropy is fundamentally symmetrical. in fact, throughout this discussion on the arrow of time we will find that the arrow of time is caused by the time - symmetric second law of thermodynamics, together with the very special, low - entropy initial conditions of the universe. ( this discussion on time - symmetric entropy change is based on an example by j. richard gott in his book time travel in einstein ' s universe in which the role of the universe is played by an ice cube - see here. the ice cube example is considered in detail in chapter 6 of brian greene ' s book the fabric of the cosmos. ) we all have a very strong feeling of a directionality of time, which has a flow in a forwards direction. as michael lockwood says in his book the labyrinth of time : \" we regard the forward direction in time, in stark contrast to the backward direction, as the direction in which causality is permitted to operate. causes, we assume, can precede their effects, but cannot follow them. \" but we have just seen how physical processes appear to be time - symmetrical, with no distinction between the forward and backward directions. so where does that leave causality? as michael lockwood again says about the passage of time : \" we find no hint of this in the formalism of newtonian physics. not only is there no explicit reference to a passage or flow of time ; there is not even any reference to cause and effect. indeed, there is not even any directionality \". \" but \", you might protest, \" surely causality works in only one direction : forwards in time? i kick a football - the football doesn ' t kick me. \" well, let ' s consider the example immediately below of forward causality. we see a snooker cue coming in from the left, hitting the white ball, which then causes the white ball to hit the red ball : however, if you shoot a movie of that sequence, and then play it backwards, it still makes perfect physical sense. as you can see below, we then have the red ball coming in from the right, hitting the white ball, which then causes the white ball to hit the cue backwards. so, because of the symmetry of the laws of physics, this process of causality - which we thought only applied to the forward direction of time - in fact applies equally to the backward direction of time as well : the reason why we don ' t see causality happening in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6147188723940715, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.029097"} {"text": "symmetry of the laws of physics, this process of causality - which we thought only applied to the forward direction of time - in fact applies equally to the backward direction of time as well : the reason why we don ' t see causality happening in the backward direction is purely because of a bias in our psychological systems : something about the complexity of our psychological system ( our brains! ) causes our thought processes to work only in the forward direction of time ( this will be considered below ). the great advantage of recording the sequence on a movie and then playing the movie backwards ( to reveal the time symmetry of causality ) is that a movie camera works in a much more simple fashion than our brains and thus has no such psychological bias in the forward direction : it works in exactly the same way forward as backward. so if causality is time - symmetrical, we could in fact think of our current situations are being caused by time - reversed future events as much as by past events! for example, as i sit here by my desk in work this morning, i could consider my position as being caused by me being in my apartment this evening, and driving my car from there backward in time, backward down the road the work, to put me in work this morning! it ' s a bit brain - bending, but it ' s equally valid as saying \" i got up this morning, and drove forwards to work \". it seems strange, but that ' s only because of our psychological bias. the movie of my complete day at work would tell the correct ( time - reversible ) story. the quantum mechanical arrow of time as has just been explained, almost all known physical principles ( from newtonian mechanics through to einstein ' s relativity ) have a completely symmetric treatment of past and future. nowhere in any of these equations is there anything which distinguishes a forward direction of time from a backward direction of time. the exception to this rule appears to be quantum mechanics. on the page on the quantum casino it was explained how, when we make a measurement of a quantum observable, there is a \" collapse of the wavefunction \" in which a probability wave collapses to generate a single observed value from a range of possible values. this process appears to work in the forward time direction only, i. e., it is irreversible. an explanation for this apparent \" collapse of the wavefunction \" is presented in detail on the page on quantum decoherence, so i don ' t want to repeat it here. suffice to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6182900742217243, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.030053"} {"text": "., it is irreversible. an explanation for this apparent \" collapse of the wavefunction \" is presented in detail on the page on quantum decoherence, so i don ' t want to repeat it here. suffice to say that the coherent phase relationships of the interference terms are destroyed when a particle interacts with the environment. the dissipation of these terms into the wider environment can be interpreted in terms of increasing entropy ( again, see the section on \" decoherence and entropy \" on the quantum decoherence page for full details ). quantum decoherence can then be understood as a thermodynamic process : after decoherence, the process is said to be thermodynamically irreversible. so once again the underlying physical principles appear to be time symmetric, with no fundamental preference for either the forward or backward time direction. the apparent arrow of time produced by the \" collapse of the wavefunction \" is once again shown to be a result of increasing entropy. as andreas albrecht explains in his paper cosmic inflation and the arrow of time ( when considering decoherence in the double - slit experiment ) : \" a double - slit electron striking a photographic plate is only a good quantum measurement to the extent that the photographic plate is well constructed, and has a very low probability of re - emitting the electron in the coherent ' double slit ' state. good photographic plates are possible because of the thermodynamic arrow of time : the electron striking the plate puts the internal degrees of freedom of the plate into a higher entropy state, which is essentially impossible to reverse. furthermore, different electron positions on the plate become entangled with different states of the internal degrees of freedom, so there is essentially no interference between positions of the electron. from this point of view, the quantum mechanical arrow of time is none other than the thermodynamic arrow of time. \" why can ' t we remember the future? if physical processes all appear to be time - reversible at a fundamental level, we might ask the question \" why can ' t we remember the future? \" after all, we can remember the past, and physics seems to make no distinction between past, present, and future. so why don ' t we already have prior knowledge of what is going to happen in the future? in order to answer this question, we shall consider the reasoning of james hartle which is based around the radiative arrow of time : the radiative arrow of time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6640334066791902, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.031012"} {"text": "we already have prior knowledge of what is going to happen in the future? in order to answer this question, we shall consider the reasoning of james hartle which is based around the radiative arrow of time : the radiative arrow of time in his paper the physics of \" now \", james hartle makes the point that the reason we can ' t remember the future is because we have not yet received any information about future events. this thinking is based on the idea of a \" light cone \", the shape of which is defined by the speed of light : at first glance, this might seem a very straightforward explanation of why we are unable to remember the future : it takes time for a light ray ( photons ) carrying information to reach us from a distant event. basically, in the future we will have more information about distant events than we have at present. it is hard to imagine a situation in which light behaves differently - it would appear that light will always take time to travel from a point a to a point b : this principle - that light will always take time, travelling forwards in time between two points - is called the radiative arrow of time ( also known as the electromagnetic arrow of time ). but this apparently clear - cut principle is not as clear - cut as it first appears. it turns out that the \" world line \" of the photon is the same for a photon travelling forwards in time from point a to b as it is for a photon travelling backward in time from point b to point a : in fact, if we temporarily forget about the little arrows on the world lines ( which indicate \" cause \" and \" effect \" ) then we see that the world lines of both the forward and backward photons are precisely identical : this principle is clearly illustrated by a feynman diagram of particle interactions which can be rotated at will, showing particle interactions work exactly the same backward in time as forward in time : it makes no sense to talk about the entropy of a single photon ( entropy is a statistical property of a large group of particles ), so a single photon has no arrow of time. however, we do not receive our information about distant events in the form of single photons. rather, it appears we receive information in the form of light rays which are composed of billions of photons ( bosons are quite happy to congregate in the same state, and gather together in a cooperative fashion to create light rays ). for this reason, studies of the radiative arrow of time have concentrated on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5979583602718987, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.031977"} {"text": "composed of billions of photons ( bosons are quite happy to congregate in the same state, and gather together in a cooperative fashion to create light rays ). for this reason, studies of the radiative arrow of time have concentrated on studying the maxwell electromagnetic field equations which treats light as a field with a wave nature ( rather than considering the path of individual particles ). it is often quoted that maxwell ' s electromagnetic field equations are time - reversible and so allow for advanced ( backward - in - time ) waves as well as retarded ( forward - in - time ) waves. however, in practice it is much easier to produce a retarded wave than an advanced wave, and this reveals the limitations of maxwell ' s equations as a full description of the behaviour of light. we need to combine maxwell ' s equations with something else in order to derive a radiative arrow of time. james hartle attempts to use maxwell ' s equations to deduce the radiative arrow of time in appendix a of his aforementioned paper the physics of \" now \" which is called the cosmological origin of time ' s arrow. his approach ( based on principles described in h. dieter zeh ' s book the physical basis for the direction of time ) combines the time - symmetric maxwell ' s equations with the time - asymmetric boundary conditions of the universe as a whole ( he considers the asymmetrical total amount of electromagnetic radiation ). the approach suggests that because there were no free electromagnetic fields at the start of the universe, but there are fields in the future, those fields must all be caused by retarded waves that have their sources in the past. however, i don ' t see how the radiative arrow of time can depend on the total of electromagnetic fields in the universe in this way. there ' s no equivalent of the second law of thermodynamics ( increasing entropy ) for electromagnetic fields. the total of electromagnetic field in an isolated system does not tend to increase ( as is the case with entropy ). the radiative arrow of time must surely depend on the increasing sum total of entropy in the universe, not the total of electromagnetic field. surely the radiative arrow of time must have the same cause as the thermodynamic arrow of time. at the beginning of the last century, walter ritz proposed that only retarded ( forward - in - time ) waves were physically possible ( i. e., the process was fundamentally time - asym", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6054199544445495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.034794"} {"text": "time. \" could it be possible to remember the future? if we consider the hypothetical situation in which we have found a way to circumvent the limitations imposed by the radiative arrow of time, it is interesting to ask if it could ever be possible to remember the future. and, if so, what would our \" memories \" by like? in this respect, the scottish philosopher donald mackay suggested an interesting \" thought experiment \". mackay wondered if it could ever be possible to predict how someone will behave in the future, and, if so, what would be the consequences for human free will. if we had complete knowledge of the current state of a person ' s brain, would we be able to accurately predict a person ' s actions in the short - term future? basically, if we are able to predict how a person will behave - and the decisions they will make - in the future then human free will is shown to be a fallacy, an illusion. however, mackay suggested that it would be impossible to predict a person ' s future decisions if that predicted future was made known to the person. this is because the person could then choose to act in a different way from how you have told him he will behave. this is described by john d. barrow in his book impossibility : \" consider a person who is asked to choose between soup or salad for lunch. if we introduce a brain scientist who not only knows the complete state of this person ' s brain, but that of the entire universe as well at present, we could ask whether this scientist can infallibly announce what the choice of lunch will be. the answer is ' no '. the subject can always be stubborn, and adopt a strategy that says ' if you say that i will choose soup, then i will choose salad, and vice versa '. under these conditions it is logically impossible for the scientist to predict infallibly what the person will choose if the scientist makes his prediction known. \" so if a person gains access to knowledge about his future behaviour, it would appear that it becomes impossible to predict that future. but this knowledge about future behaviour is precisely what a person will gain if he is able to remember the future. so if a person is able to remember the future, he could then choose to act in a different way to how his memory of the future tells him he will act! there would appear to be a logical inconsistency here : if a person is able to remember the future, then those memories of the future instantly become", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5770936316884849, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.037381"} {"text": "an animal detection system with the warning lights activated resulted in 1. 52 mi / h lower vehicle speeds ( compared to warning lights off ) for passenger cars and pick - ups. alerting drivers to the presence of large animals in the road at yellowstone national park. the study area was on us highway 191 inside of the yellowstone national park, with a posted speed limit of 55 mi / hour. the data collection period occurred over two weeks in which there was mostly no precipitation. researchers installed three traffic counters and road tubes outside and inside of the detection area. the counters recorded the date, time, vehicle type, vehicle speed and gap ( in seconds ) between vehicles. when vehicles moved in platoons, only the speed of the first vehicle in a platoon was used as a data point when the signs were activated ( since the following vehicles may be influenced by the speed of the first one ). a sample size of 2, 428 vehicles per 24 hour period was used. the deployment of an animal detection system at yellowstone national park found that passenger cars, pick - ups, vans, and trucks with two units or more had lower vehicle speeds by 1. 52 mi / hour with warning signs activated compared to warning signs off. although the difference is small, it is important to note that small reductions when vehicles are traveling at high speeds have a disproportionate decrease in the probability of severe accidents. the data also showed that the number of collisions with large animals was 58 to 67 percent lower than was expected ( but could not be tested for significance due to the variability in the number of collisions and just one year of post installation collision data ). driver opinion of the system documented in interviews revealed that a majority ( 59 percent ) would have liked to see the system stay in place. the system was removed in the fall of 2008 due to high maintenance and a lack of spare parts. author : m. p. huijser, t. d. holland, a. v. kociolek, a. m. barkdoll and j. d. schwalm published by : oregon department of transportation research unit and the federal highway administration source date : march 2009url : http : / / ntl. bts. gov / lib / 31000 / 31600 / 31698 / animal - vehicle _ crash _ mitigation _ phase _ 2. pdf average user rating typical deployment locations", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5096634747512393, "token_count": 484, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.059533"} {"text": "waste is defined as something that is unwanted or unusable. according to the office of national statistics, a staggering 342m tonnes of waste is produced in the uk each year. instead of going to landfill sites to be buried or burnt, a vast proportion of this waste could be cut using the following steps : reduce \u2013 change manufacturing processes so that less materials are used or change consumer habits so that less wasted material is bought reuse \u2013 choose goods and products that can be used again and reuse rubbish for other purposes recycle \u2013 make sure that waste is processed and made into another product wherever possible. composting is also recycling : the nutrients in organic waste are processed and returned to the soil to help more plants to grow reducing your waste any building or environment where people live or work will produce a certain amount of waste, and children \u2019 s centres are no exception. reducing waste may involve taking an in - depth look at the types of resources your centre buys and considering ways of cutting down. there are numerous ways a children \u2019 s centre can reduce the amount of waste produced and handle waste in a more environmentally friendly way. does the centre recycle and, if so, what types of waste do you recycle? could you recycle more or re - use materials such as paper and yoghurt pots? instead of paying companies to remove your waste, by recycling it you will save money in the long - term as you won \u2019 t need to pay contractors to take it away. you may also be able to sell some of your metal and glass to companies who can recycle it. ensure that paper recycling bins are placed in every classroom and discuss with the children what they are and why they are needed. encourage children to use both sides of paper and when they \u2019 re finished to use the recycling bins. composting is a great way of disposing of food waste in an environmentally friendly way. place compost bins around the centre grounds and ask the children to help empty the food into the bins. children could then draw pictures of the different foods which are composted. ask children to look into their lunch box and identify what waste can be composted and what can \u2019 t. explain how certain items such as yoghurt pots can be re - used to make paint pots etc. visit our resources & links to download a rupert bear themed waste dot to dot activity. this section also provides details of organisations that will be able to help your centre tackle the waste topic.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5164071942233217, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.087364"} {"text": "click here for an introduction to some basic concepts and design principles of secret key cryptography. 3 - way is a simple and fast cipher designed by joan daemen. 3 - way features a 96 - bit key length and a 96 - bit block length. 3 - way is an iterated block cipher that repeats some relatively simple operations a specified number of rounds. david wagner, john kelsey, and bruce schneier of counterpane systems have discovered a related key attack on 3 - way that requires one related key query and about 222 chosen plaintexts, described in this paper. 3 - way is unpatented. blowfish is a block cipher designed by bruce schneier, author of applied cryptography. blowfish combines a feistel network, key - dependent s - boxes, and a non - invertible f function to create what is perhaps one of the most secure algorithms available. schneier ' s paper is available is also described in the concepts of cryptography page. the only known attacks against blowfish are based on its weak blowfish is implemented in kremlin. cast, designed by carlisle adams and stafford taveres, is shaping up to be a solid algorithm. its design is very similar to blowfish ' s, with key - dependent s - boxes, a non - invertible f function, and a feistel network - like structure ( called a substitution - permutation network ). david wagner, john kelsey, and bruce schneier have discovered a related - key attack on the 64 - bit version of cast that requires approximately 217 chosen plaintexts, one related query, and 248 offline computations ( described in this paper ). the attack is infeasible at best. cast is patented by entrust technologies, which has generously released it for free use. the cast cipher design process is described in this paper and the 128 - bit version is described in this addendum. carlisle adams has submitted a version of cast ( cast - 256 ) as an aes candidate. cast - 128 is implemented in kremlin. cmea is the encryption algorithm developed by the telecommunications industry association to encrypt digital cellular phone data. it uses a 64 - bit key and features a variable block length. cmea is used to encrypt the control channel of cellular phones. it is distinct from oryx, an also insecure stream cipher that is used to encrypt data transmitted over digital cellular phones. it has been", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6436163141824734, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.120365"} {"text": "block length. cmea is used to encrypt the control channel of cellular phones. it is distinct from oryx, an also insecure stream cipher that is used to encrypt data transmitted over digital cellular phones. it has been broken by david wagner, john kelsey, and bruce schneier of counterpane systems. their paper, which also provides an excellent description of the cmea algorithm, is available here. designed at ibm during the 1970s and officially adopted as the nist standard encryption algorithm for unclassified data in 1976, des has become the bastion of the cryptography market. however, des has since become outdated, its long reign as official nist algorithm ending in 1997. though des accepts a 64 - bit key, the key setup routines effectively discard 8 bits, giving des a 56 - bit effective keylength. des remains widely in use. during the design of des, the nsa provided secret s - boxes. after differential cryptanalysis had been discovered outside the closed fortress of the nsa, it was revealed that the des s - boxes were designed to be resistant against differential cryptanalysis. des is becoming weaker and weaker over time ; modern computing power is fast approaching the computational horsepower needed to easily crack des was designed to be implemented only in hardware, and is therefore extremely slow in software. a recent successful effort to crack des took several thousand computers several months. the eff has sponsored the development of a crypto chip named \" deep crack \" that can process 88 billion des keys per second and has successfully cracked 56 bit des in less than 3 days. des is implemented in kremlin ( accessible through kremlin sdk api ). a variant of des, triple - des ( also 3des ) is based on using des three times. this means that the input data is encrypted three times. the triple - des is considered much stronger than des, however, it is rather slow compared to some new block ciphers. deal is an interesting aes submission and, like all aes submissions, it uses a 128 bit block and accepts 128 bit, 192 bit, and 256 bit keylengths. it uses des as its inner round function and its authors suggest at least 6, preferably 8 rounds ( there are some attacks against deal ). there is a paper available here that describes some attacks, all of which can be cured by using at least developed by the nippon telephone & telegraph as an improvement to des, the fast data encipherment algorithm ( feal )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6170367997357302, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.121627"} {"text": "against deal ). there is a paper available here that describes some attacks, all of which can be cured by using at least developed by the nippon telephone & telegraph as an improvement to des, the fast data encipherment algorithm ( feal ) is very insecure. feal - 4, feal - 8, and feal - n are all susceptible to a variety of cryptanalytic attacks, some requiring as little as 12 chosen plaintexts. feal is patented. gost is a cryptographic algorithm from russia that appears to be the russian analog to des both politically and technologically. its designers took no chances, iterating the gost algorithm for 32 rounds and using a 256 bit key. although gost ' s conservative design inspires confidence, john kelsey has discovered a key - relation attack on gost, described in a post to sci. crypt on 10 february 1996. there are also weak keys in gost, but there are too few to be a problem when gost is used with its standard set of s - boxes. you can read the official gost algorithm description ( translated from russian ) here. there is also a description of the gost algorithm here. idea, developed in zurich, switzerland by xuejia lai and james massey, is generally regarded to be one of the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public today. it utilizes a 128 - bit key and is designed to be resistant to differential cryptanalysis. some attacks have been made against reduced round idea. unfortunately, idea is patented ; licensing information can be obtained from ascom. loki was designed as a possible replacement for des. it operates on a 64 - bit block and a 64 - bit key. the first version of loki to be released was broken by differential cryptanalysis and was shown to have an 8 - bit complementation property ( this means that the number of keys that need to be searched in a brute force attack is reduced by 256 ). loki was revised and re - released as loki91. loki91 is secure against differential cryptanalysis, but loki easily falls to a chosen - key attack. the designers of loki have proposed loki97 as an aes candidate, but linear and differential attacks on loki97 have already been proposed. lucifer was one of the first modern cryptographic algorithms. it was designed at ibm in the 1960s by horst feistel, of feistel network fame. lucifer is often considered to be a precursor to des. there are several incarnations of lucifer, each with the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.611769586754761, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.122925"} {"text": "the first modern cryptographic algorithms. it was designed at ibm in the 1960s by horst feistel, of feistel network fame. lucifer is often considered to be a precursor to des. there are several incarnations of lucifer, each with the same name, which creates a good deal of confusion. no version is secure. a paper on the differential cryptanlysis of lucifer was written by ishai ben - aroya & eli macguffin is a cipher developed by matt blaze and bruce schneier as an experiment in cipher design. it uses a feistel network ( see the cryptography overview for details ), but does not split the input evenly, instead dividing the 64 bit block into one 16 bit part and another 48 bit part. this is called a generalized unbalanced feistel network ( gufn ). details are available here. a differential attack on macguffin has been found that requires approximately 251. 5 chosen plaintexts. mars is ibm ' s aes submission. there is a mars web page with a link to the mars paper. mars uses 128 bit blocks and supports variable key sizes ( from 128 to 1248 bits ). mars is unique in that it combines virtually every design technique known to cryptographers in one algorithm. it uses addition and subtractions, s - boxes, fixed and data dependent rotations, misty is a cryptographic algorithm developed by mitsubishi electric after they broke des in 1994. it is designed to withstand linear and differential cryptanalysis, but has not yet been cryptanalysed. as it has not undergone intensive peer review, the usual caution is recommended. it is being considered for inclusion into the set 2. 0 standard. visit web page or read the author ' s paper mmb was designed as an alternative to idea that uses a 128 - bit block instead of idea ' s 64 - bit block. it was designed using the same principles as idea. unfortunately, it is not as secure as idea and several attacks exist against it. its author, joan daemen, abandoned it and designed although newdes was developed by robert scott to possibly replace des, newdes has fallen short of expectations. newdes has been proven to be weaker than des, requiring 24 related - key probes and 530 chosen plaintext / ciphertext queries, as described in this newdes is implemented in kremlin rc2, like rc4, was formerly a trade secret, but code purporting to be rc2 was posted to sci. crypt. it is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6294954766903259, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.124145"} {"text": "/ ciphertext queries, as described in this newdes is implemented in kremlin rc2, like rc4, was formerly a trade secret, but code purporting to be rc2 was posted to sci. crypt. it is archived here. david wagner, john kelsey, and bruce schneier discovered a related - key attack on rc2 that requires one related - key query and approximately 234 chosen plaintexts. rc2 is not patented by rsa data security, inc ; it is just protected as a trade secret. rc5 is a group of algorithms designed by ron rivest of rsa data security that can take on a variable block size, key size, and number of rounds. the block size is generally dependent on the word size of the machine the particular version of rc5 was designed to run on ; on 32 - bit processors ( with 32 - bit words ), rc5 generally has a 64 - bit block size. david wagner, john kelsey, and bruce schneier have found weak keys in rc5, with the probability of selecting a weak key to be 2 - 10r, where r is the number of rounds. for sufficiently large r values ( greater than 10 ), this is not a problem as long as you are not trying to build a hash function based on rc5. kundsen has also found a differential attack on rc5. rc5 is described in this rsa document. rc5 is patented by rsa rc6 is ronald rivest ' s aes submission. like all aes ciphers, rc6 works on 128 bit blocks. it can accept variable length keys. it is very similar to rc5, incorporating the results of various studies on rc5 to improve the algorithm. the studies of rc5 found that not all bits of data are used to determine the rotation amount ( rotation is used extensively in rc5 ) ; rc6 uses multiplication to determine the rotation amount and uses all bits of input data to determine the rotation amount, strengthening the avalanche effect. there are two versions of the redoc algorithm, redoc ii, and redoc iii. redoc ii is considered to be secure ; an attack has been made against one round of redoc ii, but could not be extended to all 10 recommended rounds. redoc ii is interesting in that it uses data masks to select the values in the s - boxes. redoc ii uses a 160 - bit key and works on an 80 - bit block. redoc iii was an attempt to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5795404145198597, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.125263"} {"text": "10 recommended rounds. redoc ii is interesting in that it uses data masks to select the values in the s - boxes. redoc ii uses a 160 - bit key and works on an 80 - bit block. redoc iii was an attempt to make the painfully slow redoc ii faster. redoc iii, like redoc iii, operates on an 80 - bit block, but can accept keys up to 20480 bits. however, redoc iii falls to differential cryptanalysis, as described in this rijndael is an aes winner by joan daemen and vincent rijmen. the cipher has a variable block and key length, and the authors have demonstrated how to extend the block length and key length by multiples of 32 bits. the design of rijndael was influenced by the square algorithm. the authors provide a rijndael specification and a more theoretical paper on their design principles. the authors have vowed to never patent rijndael. safer was developed by robert massey at the request of cylink corporation. there are several different versions of safer, with 40, 64, and 128 - bit keys. a weakness in the key schedule was corrected, with an s being added to the original safer k designation to create safer sk. there are some attacks against reduced round variants of safer. safer is secure against differential and linear cryptanalysis. however, bruce schneier, author of applied cryptography, recommends against using safer because, \" safer was designed for cylink, and cylink is tainted by the nsa. \" safer sk - 128 is implemented in kremlin. serpent is an aes submission by ross anderson, eli biham, and lars knudsen. its authors combined the design principles of des with the recent development of bitslicing techniques to create a very secure and very fast algorithm. while bitslicing is generally used to encrypt multiple blocks in parallel, the designers of serpent have embraced the technique of bitslicing and incorporated it into the design of the algorithm itself. serpent uses 128 bit blocks and 256 bit keys. like des, serpent includes an initial and final permutation of no cryptographic significance ; these permutations are used to optimize the data before encryption. serpent was released at the 5th international workshop on fast software encryption. this iteration of serpent was called serpent 0 and used the original des s - boxes. after comments, the key schedule of sperpent was changed slightly and the s - boxes were changed ; this new iteration of serpent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5551110010817759, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.126331"} {"text": "workshop on fast software encryption. this iteration of serpent was called serpent 0 and used the original des s - boxes. after comments, the key schedule of sperpent was changed slightly and the s - boxes were changed ; this new iteration of serpent is called serpent 1. serpent 1 resists both linear and differential attacks. the serpent paper is available here. square is an iterated block cipher that uses a 128 - bit key length and a 128 - bit block length. the round function of square is composed of four transformations : a linear transformation, a nonlinear transformation, a byte permutation, and a bitwise round - key addition. square was designed to be resistant to linear and differential cryptanalysis, and succeeds in this respect. the designers of square have developed an attack on square, but it cannot be extended past 6 rounds. a paper on square is and there are links to the paper and source code on the designers ' web in what surely signals the end of the clipper chip project, the nsa released skipjack, its formerly secret encryption algorithm, to the public. skipjack uses an 80 bit key. a fuzzy scan of the official nsa paper is available here at the nist web site, but it has been transcribed by the folks over at jya. com. a reference implementation ( in c ) is available here, and an optimized version is available here. eli biham and adi shamir have published some initial cryptanalytic results ( which are growing more and more interesting as time progresses ). tiny encryption algorithm ( tea ) tea is a cryptographic algorithm designed to minimize memory footprint, and maximize speed. however, the cryptographers from counterpane systems have discovered three related - key attacks on tea, the best of which requires only 223 chosen plaintexts and one related key query. the problems arise from the overly simple key schedule. each tea key can be found to have three other equivalent keys, as described in a paper by david wagner, john kelsey, and bruce schneier. this precludes the possibility of using tea as a hash function. roger needham and david wheeler have proposed extensions to tea that counter the above attacks. twofish is counterpane systems ' aes submission. designed by the counterpane team ( bruce schneier, john kelsey, doug whiting, david wagner, chris hall, and niels ferguson ), twofish has undergone extensive analysis by the counterpane team. there is a paper available from the twofish web page and source", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5987472310481425, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.127482"} {"text": ". sha1 is similar in design to md4. the original published algorithm, known as sha, was modified by nsa to protect against an unspecified attack ; the updated algorithm is named sha1. it produces a 160 - bit digest - - large enough to protect against \" birthday \" attacks, where two different messages are selected to produce the same signature, for the next decade. the official fips description of sha1 can be found sha1 is implemented in kremlin. snefru is a hash function designed by ralph merkle, the designer of the khufu and khafre encryption algorithms. 2 - round snefru has been broken by eli biham. snefru 2. 5, the latest edition of the hash algorithm, can generate either a 128 - bit or a 256 - bit digest. tiger is a new hash algorithm by ross anderson and eli biham. it is designed to work with 64 - bit processors such as the digital alpha and, unlike md4, does not rely on rotations ( the alpha has no such rotate instruction ). in order to provide drop - in compatibility with other hashes, tiger can generate a 128 - bit, a 160 - bit or a 192 - bit digest. the tiger home page contains more information. want to add to the list of algorithms ( or found a mistake )? please", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6068236385392929, "token_count": 276, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.130391"} {"text": "atp hydrolysis in f1 - atpase why is f1fo - atp synthase so important? f1fo - atp synthase, or atp synthase for short, is one of the most abundant proteins in every organism. it is responsible for synthesizing the molecule adenosine tri - phosphate ( atp ), the cells \u2019 energy currency. atp is depicted in fig. 1 and used to power and sustain virtually all cellular processes needed to survive and reproduce. even when at rest, the human body metabolizes more than half its body weight in atp per day, this figure rising to many times the body weight under conditions of physical activity. what do we know about f1fo - atp synthase? researchers have been trying to uncover the \" secret \" behind atp synthase \u2019 s very efficient mode of operation for quite some time. unfortunately, even after more than 30 years of study, we still don \u2019 t fully understand how f1fo - atpase really works. the protein consists of two coupled rotary molecular motors, called fo and f1, respectively, the first one being membrane embedded and the latter one being solvent exposed. one of the most important breakthroughs in the field was the determination of an atomic resolution x - ray crystal structure for the f1 part of atp synthase. this allowed researchers, for the first time, to connect biochemical data to the three dimensional structure of the protein ( abrahams et al., nature 370 : 621 - 628, 1994 ). the x - ray structure beautifully supported paul boyer \u2019 s \" binding change mechanism \" ( boyer, bioch. bioph. acta 215 - 250, 1993 ) as the modus operandi for atp synthase \u2019 s rotational catalytic cycle and lead to the 1997 nobel prize in chemistry for boyer and walker. f1 - atpase in its simplest prokaryotic form ( shown schematically in fig. 2 ) consists of a hexameric assembly of alternating \u03b1 and \u03b2 subunits arranged in the shape of an orange. the central cavity of the hexamer is occupied by the central stalk formed by subunits \u03b3, \u03b4 and \u03b5. due to a lack of high resolution structures for the fo part of atp synthase, much less is known about this subunit. it is currently thought that a transmembrane proton gradient drives rotation of the c - subunit ring of fo which is then coupled to movement of the central stalk. the rotation of the latter eventually causes conformational changes in the catalytic sites located in f1 leading to the synthesis of atp", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5236068365622761, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.139236"} {"text": "and the catalytic core region as well as several computational mutation studies identified the \" arginine finger \" residue \u03b1r373 as the most significant element involved in this change in energetics. several important conclusions can be drawn from our simulations : efficient catalysis proceeds via a multi - center proton pathway and a major factor for atpase \u2019 s efficiency is, therefore, the ability to provide the proper solvent environment by means of its catalytic binding pocket. furthermore, the sidechain of the arginine finger residue \u03b1r373 is found to be a major element in signaling between catalytic sites to enforce cooperation since it controls the reaction barrier height as well as the reaction equilibrium of the atp hydrolysis / synthesis reaction. zooming in on atp hydrolysis in f1. markus dittrich and klaus schulten. journal of bioenergetics and biomembranes, 37 : 441 - 444, 2005. atp hydrolysis in the btp and bdp catalytic sites of f1 - atpase. markus dittrich, shigehiko hayashi, and klaus schulten. biophysical journal, 87 : 2954 - 2967, 2004. on the mechanism of atp hydrolysis in f1 - atpase. markus dittrich, shigehiko hayashi, and klaus schulten. biophysical journal, 85 : 2253 - 2266, 2003. other qm / mm projects this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant no. 0234938. any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author ( s ) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the national science foundation.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5625549816162778, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.141307"} {"text": "what it means for you if you follow discussions about the rising costs of serials or the \u201c crisis \u201d in scholarly communication, you may have heard the term \u201c open access \u201d applied to either journals or publishing in general. and if you are like many people, you can barely keep up with developments in your field, let alone those that may be considered tangential. this article will explain the open access publishing model, and help you understand why it matters to you and how you can participate. open access refers to a publication that meets two conditions according to the bethesda statement on open access publishing. the first condition is that the author ( s ) and / or copyright holder ( s ) of an article grants all readers \u201c free, irrevocable, worldwide, perpetual right of access \u201d to the article as well as the right to \u201c distribute, transmit and display \u201d the work with proper attribution of authorship. the second condition is that a complete version of the article be included in a stable online repository set up for the purpose of enabling open access. open access can be the property of an individual article or it can be the policy of a specific journal. in plain language, this means that the authors retain copyrights to their work, so that no second or third party may profit from it, and the work immediately goes into a publicly accessible archive. the goal of the open access movement is to decrease the obstacles between the discovery of scientific information and the application of it to our lives. under the traditional model of publishing, scientific discoveries were published in journals owned and operated by outside parties, who then assumed all copyrights to the articles, and could turn around and profit from them. based on the traditional model, publishers were able to profit from the research of the scientific community by essentially charging scientists for access to their own work via library subscriptions. during the 1980 \u2019 s and 1990 \u2019 s, the publishing industry experienced significant consolidation through a flurry of corporate mergers. the result of this was not only diminished diversity in the marketplace, but inflation in journal prices. for example, in 1991 reed - elsevier acquired pergamon, which resulted in a 10 percent price increase for reed - elsevier journals. similar increases have been documented in relation to other mergers. most striking, however, is the fact that between 1986 and 2000 inflation rates for journal subscriptions surpassed that of both college tuition and medical care! inflation in journal prices ultimately sucked money away from other areas of the library budget ; students and faculty suffered as librarians made excruciating decisions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5303858048629335, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.153292"} {"text": "what is chiropractic treatment? is an alternative medicine to treat back pain through manipulation of the spine. chiropractic technique involves use of the practitioners \u2019 hands to press, pull and otherwise adjust the spine, neck, joints and surrounding soft tissues. spinal manipulation is thought to correct misaligned vertebrae, helping lessen back pain and reduce muscle spasms. insurance companies typically cover visits to the chiropractor. the hypothesis behind how chiropractic treatment works maintains that disorders of the spine adversely affect overall health and that chiropractic can help improve overall health. however, no evidence has conclusively proven this hypothesis. chiropractors believe the vertebra becomes out of normal alignment, which interferes with the nervous system. this misalignment is called \u201c subluxation. \u201d the u. s. agency for health care policy and research recognizes chiropractic treatment as being effective for lower back pain. who are chiropractors and what do they do? chiropractors are health professionals who diagnose, treat and seek to prevent spine disorders or back pain. chiropractors are considered part of the alternative health care field and focus on improving patients \u2019 health and well - being without resorting to drugs or surgery. chiropractic treatment typically includes not only spinal manipulation, but also a regimen of exercise and counseling about health and lifestyle. chiropractors typically attend college for a bachelor \u2019 s degree \u2013 or obtain a two - year degree \u2013 and attend four postgraduate years in a doctor of chiropractic school. the last year of school, students practice chiropractic techniques while being supervised. students graduate as doctors of chiropractic ( d. c. ). some states require additional exams to practice. some chiropractors focus on musculoskeletal adjustments, while others are also trained in physical therapy, electrical stimulation, soft - tissue therapy and ultrasound. what should i expect during an initial chiropractor appointment? a first visit to a chiropractor takes an hour or longer. the chiropractor will compile a complete medical history and may perform tests, such as x - rays, mris or neurological tests. once a problem is detected, subsequent visits to a chiropractor typically take a few minutes to complete the spinal manipulations and adjustments. from appointment to appointment, a chiropractor will monitor changes in a patient \u2019 s spine and level of back pain using tests, observation,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.500732025302594, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.163412"} {"text": "| vii. why is the progress of evolution cyclic? question is one which necessarily appalls us and makes us wonder. let us, therefore, deal with it as follows : certain ideas are involved in the thought of cyclic progression, and these ideas it might pay us well to contemplate. 1. the idea of repetition this repetition involves the following factors : - repetition in time : the thought of cyclic activity necessitates periods of time of differing length - greater or lesser cycles - but ( according to their length ) of uniform degree. a manvantara, or day of brahma, is always of a certain length, and so is a mahamanvantara. the cycles wherein an atom of any plane revolves upon its axis are uniform on its own plane. - repetition in fact : this involves the idea of a key measure, or sound of any particular group of atoms that go to the composition of any particular form. this grouping of atoms will tend to the makeup of a particular series of circumstances and will repeat the measure or sound when an animating factor is brought to bear upon them. when the vitalizing force is contacting at stated periods a certain set of atoms, it will call forth from them a specific sound which will demonstrate objectively as environing circumstances. in other words, the interplay of the self and the not - self is invariably of a cyclic nature. the same quality in tone will be called forth by the self as it indwells the form, but the key will ascend by gradual degrees. it is similar to the effect produced in striking the same note in different octaves, beginning at the base. - repetition in space : this concept is involved deep in the greater concept of karma, which is really the law that governs the matter of the solar system, and which commenced its work in earlier solar systems. we have, therefore, cycles in order, and repetition in an ever - ascending spiral, under definite law. the thoughts thus conveyed might be expressed likewise as follows : chain repeating its activity - repetition in time. consecutive reverberation of a plane note, of a subplane note, and of all that is called into objectivity by that note - plane repetition. of atoms to perpetuate their activity, and thus produce similarity of circumstance, of environment, and of vehicle - form repetition. - the solar system repeating its activity - repetition in space. carry these ideas on to every plane in the solar system, and from thence to the cosmic planes, we have opened up for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5864745070995075, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.175533"} {"text": "cancer cells in bloodstream show great diversity : study tuesday, may 8 ( healthday news ) - - there is a great deal of genetic diversity in cells shed by cancerous tumors into the bloodstream, a new study has found. some cells have genes that enable them to lodge themselves in new locations, helping the cancer spread between organs, while other cells have different patterns of gene expression that might make them more benign or less likely to survive in other locations in the body. some circulating tumor cells even express genes that could predict their response to a specific cancer treatment, the researchers said. \" within a single blood draw from a single patient, we ' re seeing [ varied ] populations of circulating tumor cells, \" senior study author dr. stefanie jeffrey, chief of surgical oncology research at the stanford university school of medicine, said in a university news release. the researchers said their findings highlight how multiple types of treatment may be needed to cure what appears to be a single kind of cancer and suggest that the current cell - line models of human cancers need to be improved upon. the study, which used blood samples from breast cancer patients, is the first to look at circulating tumor cells one by one instead of taking the average of many of the cells. it also is the first to show the extent of genetic differences between circulating tumor cells, the researchers said. scientists have long known that circulating tumor cells move through the bloodstreams of cancer patients. over the past five years, though, many cancer researchers have begun to think the cells could be the key to tracking tumors noninvasively. the study appears online tuesday in the journal plos one. the u. s. national cancer institute has more about cancer. source : stanford university, news release, may 7, 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5090724855965807, "token_count": 355, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.189437"} {"text": "the previous discussion of entertainment as a world paradigm only hinted at the origin of that paradigm. more to the point, it dabbled in connections between music as art and entertainment, and suggested that such a duality could be relatively recent in origin. in some sense, this distinction is about upper - and lower - class activity, and the simplest historical narrative involves a flip - flop of power between the two. in the current economic climate, the lower classes, by virtue of number ( i. e. democracy ), have achieved \" artistic \" control. one can construct a basic linear progression of this type, from the utter dominance of ancient tyrants to the mass - market politics of today. a progression of that sort can be rather illuminating with regard to the balancing act which established the classical style. however, such a naive progression makes a basic underlying assumption, namely that popular music of earlier centuries was rather distinct from \u2014 even contemptuous of, as it is today \u2014 elite music. in fact, many people take very strong views on this point, related especially to what they retrospectively view as religious & other oppression. they are certain, often on whim alone, that a lively & distinct popular culture existed in the medieval era, and might even ( paradoxically ) associate some surviving songs with it. they reconstruct today ' s divisions in their minds. fundamentally, the survival of sources is about writing, an elite activity, so that associations with a distinct popular culture can only be considered fanciful \u2014 at least insofar as one presumes a distinct or even hostile relation. what sort of historical relation can we find between \" popular \" & elite music? moreover, can we trace art - or entertainment - based musical priorities? any answers must be fairly tentative, given the relative lack of information. working backward in time somewhat to the fringe of the modern era, we know that sacred & secular music intermingled closely. themes \u2014 even forms themselves \u2014 were freely borrowed in the franco - flemish era. i have immediately side - stepped some important terminological concerns, by introducing a sacred - secular juxtaposition. we have no real reason to believe that the polyphonic courtly chanson was related to what we would recognize as popular music today. however, this era also presents us with the survival of manuscripts ( bayeux, say ) which we conclude to have represented the popular music of the time. these themes then intermingle directly in courtly secular and sacred music. as near as we can believe, and by the 1500s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5301056048108745, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.241593"} {"text": "however, all indications are that there was less distinction between music for entertainment and music for ritual. speculating about prehistory, the mere act of creating a song must have been cathartic, as vocal ritual helped to tame the psychological traumas of nature. the courtly love song was created as a sort of ritual, albeit a non - or even anti - religious one. from there, we find some evidence of intellectual divergence in the church ' s protestations regarding increasingly elaborate ars nova liturgical music. presumably there were conservative theologians at several points in medieval history who frowned upon a new artistic license entering the domain of sacred music. nonetheless, if nothing else, surviving protestations prove that these concerns were frequently combined, even as their differing goals were prescribed. again returning to a fifteenth century orientation, sacred works made heavy use of secular ( art ) material. ritual mixed closely with art. to return to our underlying question, given uncertainties regarding earlier eras, we cannot necessarily know if there was a divergence between art & entertainment, but nonetheless i will accept that there was not, and look for such a bifurcation in the modern era. at the very least, one can reasonably suppose that there was a bifurcation after the 1500s. the more unsteady distinction in those earlier eras was between sacred & secular music. one might even hypothesize that ritual music was the basic stuff of lower - class music - making before the arrival of secular literature, seeing as it was intended to provide protection from the hazards of the world. communion was a real need. from this point of extreme historical uncertainty on our part, there are various points at which sacred & secular music - making seem more or less close \u2014 a cyclical pattern which maintained after the 1500s as well, with differing religious or artistic movements sometimes increasing or decreasing that distance. today we cannot necessarily separate art and religious music. for the most part, though, we can separate them from entertainment, at least as i have contrasted aesthetic & entertainment paradigms. jumping ahead from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century, we can again observe clearly that music for art & music for entertainment operated in the same space, indeed were basically interchangeable. so the bifurcation we seek did not occur until the establishment of the composer as supreme alongside the distinct popular markets of the nineteenth century, and was not consummated until the unprecedented technological revolution of the twentieth. with it, we see bifurcations of complexity, masterpieces, and then the dissolution of a mainstream reference", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5127195880740367, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.246497"} {"text": "boston, dec. 19 - - an experimental lab - on - a - chip can accurately detect cancer cells circulating in the blood, researchers here said. the chip - - slightly more than 1. 5 square inches in area - - detected circulating cancer cells in 115 of 116 blood samples from patients with metastatic cancer for a sensitivity of 99. 1 %, according to daniel haber, m. d., director of the massachusetts general hospital cancer center, and colleagues. and it found no cancer cells in the blood of healthy volunteers, for a specificity of 100 %, the researchers reported in the dec. 20 issue of nature. \" clearly this has tremendous potential for early diagnosis, \" dr. haber said, but it also has the potential to allow physicians to monitor the success or failure of treatment more closely and to begin to solve some of the puzzles that surround metastasis. circulating tumor cells are found in patients even before a cancer has begun to spread, but they are rare - - as few as one in a billion hematologic cells even in the metastatic case - - and hard to isolate, the researchers said. current approaches use complicated analytic techniques - - including centrifuging and washing samples - - that generate very low yield and purity, they said. in contrast, their \" microfluidics \" approach is highly sensitive, has a 99 % yield, and a purity approaching 50 %, compared with less than 1 % for other methods, the researchers said. the development of the chip \" bring [ s ] us closer to having a fully automated instrument that can detect circulating tumor cells with exquisite sensitivity, \" said jonathan uhr, m. d., of the university of texas southwestern medical center in dallas, writing in an accompanying comment. dr. uhr said such a device \" would allow routine monitoring of blood for tumor cells as part of a medical examination, and could result in early detection and treatment. \" the researchers said that a number of engineering challenges remain before the system can be used for clinical applications, although it could be used now for research. microchips have been used for a range of analytic chores, such as flow cytometry, but have not been applied to tasks where milliliter - sized samples of whole blood must be analyzed, he and colleagues noted. on theoretical grounds, they concluded that a microchip array of 78, 000 tiny silicon posts - - coated with an antibody to a molecule specific to tumor cells - - would overcome that barrier. the posts were coated with an antibody", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5190673089739647, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.259462"} {"text": "and colleagues noted. on theoretical grounds, they concluded that a microchip array of 78, 000 tiny silicon posts - - coated with an antibody to a molecule specific to tumor cells - - would overcome that barrier. the posts were coated with an antibody to anti - epithelial - cell adhesion - molecule, or epcam, which is found on tumor cells, but not on blood cells. tests showed that when the researchers processed blood samples spiked with tumor cells, the epcam - coated posts captured them easily, although the posts also captured some white blood cells. to test the chip in the real world, the researchers tested 116 blood samples from 68 patients with metastatic epithelial cancers including non - small - cell lung, prostate, pancreatic, breast, and colon, as well as 20 samples from healthy volunteers. except for one sample that was smaller than average - - 0. 9 milliliters compared with 2. 7 milliliters - - the system found circulating tumor cells in all samples from patients, but none in the samples from healthy volunteers. in addition, circulating tumor cells were isolated in seven out of seven patients with early - stage prostate cancer. in a separate analysis, dr. haber and colleagues tested sequential samples from nine patients undergoing treatment and found that the percentage change in the number of tumor cells they captured correlated well with percentage change in tumor size. ( the pearson ' s correlation coefficient was 0. 68, which was significant at p = 0. 03. ) \" much of cancer [ drug ] treatment now is trial and error, \" dr. haber said. the chip might potentially allow doctors to find the correct treatment more quickly. one advantage of the system, dr. haber said, is that captured cells remain alive, opening the door to more detailed understanding of how they function and perhaps what causes some to become the root of new cancers while the majority commit cell suicide. \" we ' d like to study exactly what they are, \" he said. | the study was supported by the nih and a doris duke distinguished clinical scientist award. dr. haber reported no conflicts. | primary source : nature nagrath s, et al \" isolation of rare circulating tumour cells in cancer patients by microchip technology \" nature 2007 ; 450 : 1235 - 41.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5245974061512121, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.262959"} {"text": "definition of aging aging : the process of becoming older, a process that is genetically determined and environmentally modulated. research into aging : to sum up the state of research into aging is well beyond the confines of this space ( and this writer ' s talents ). however, here is one type of research into the genetics of aging. a gene has been discovered that helps determine the life - span of the fruit fly drosophila. when the gene is mutated ( altered ), it can extend the life - span of fruit flies. it doubles their life - span. the gene has been named indy ( for i ' m not dead yet ). it appears that the protein encoded by this gene transports and recycles metabolic byproducts. defects in the gene may lead to production of a protein that renders metabolism less efficient so that its body functions as if the fruit fly were dieting, even though its eating habits are unchanged. mutations in indy thus appear to create a metabolic state that mimics caloric restriction, which has been shown to extend life - span. reference : rogina b, reenan ra, nilsen sp, and helfand sl. extended life - span conferred by cotransporter gene mutations in drosophila. science dec 15 2000 : 2137 - 2140. some useful suggestions for extending life : no known substance can halt aging or extend life, but here are some useful tips for improving the chances of living a long time and staying healthy : last editorial review : 6 / 14 / 2012 back to medterms online medical dictionary a - z list need help identifying pills and medications? get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox free!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5867601319407657, "token_count": 344, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.269501"} {"text": "a group of individuals agreeing in common attributes, and designated by a common name ; a conception subordinated to another conception, called a genus, or generic conception, from which it differs in containing or comprehending more attributes, and extending to fewer individuals. thus, man is a species, under animal as a genus ; and man, in its turn, may be regarded as a genus with respect to european, american, or the like, as species. in science, a more or less permanent group of existing things or beings, associated according to attributes, or properties determined by scientific observation. a sort ; a kind ; a variety ; as, a species of low cunning ; a species of generosity ; a species of cloth. an officinal mixture or compound powder of any kind ; esp., one used for making an aromatic tea or tisane ; a tea mixture. a group of living things that appear to have common ancestry so closely related that their characteristics definitely separate them all from any other group ; a further division of a genus. n. ( l. species, particular kind ) a group of interbreeding individuals, not interbreeding with another such group, being a taxonomic unit including two names in binomial nomenclature, the generic name and specific epithet, similar and related species being grouped into a genus. a group of organisms that differ from all other groups of organisms and that are capable of breeding and producing fertile offspring. this is the smallest unit of classification for plants and animals. a group of closely related plants under the same genus. the lowest group of creatures in the tree of life. the hierarchy is as follows : kingdom ; phylum ; class ; order ; family ; genus ; species. the species is the group of creatures which share a great number of similarities and share a common name with other groups. a group of animals or plants of the same kind....... back a group of organisms ( individuals ) that can interbreed and reproduce with each other. used to distinguish sexually reproducing organisms into groups. individuals from two different species cannot have offspring. they are said to be reproductively isolated. the biologist ernst mayr formulated this definition of a species advancing our understanding of the mechanism of evolution of higher organisms. for microbes, the species definition does not properly apply, because they do not reproduce sexually, but have an efficient mechanism to exchange genetic material even between evolutionarily distant forms. this exchange of genes is known as horizontal gene transfer. unlike sexual reproduction, it usually involves only a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.617655352615557, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.594037"} {"text": "definition does not properly apply, because they do not reproduce sexually, but have an efficient mechanism to exchange genetic material even between evolutionarily distant forms. this exchange of genes is known as horizontal gene transfer. unlike sexual reproduction, it usually involves only a fraction of an organisms genome that is being transferred and is a mechanisms of increasing genetic variability among microorganisms that does not depend on cellular reproduction ( cell division ). the scientific name of a plant ; the genus name and the specific epithet together ; also equal to the latin name or binomial a reproductively isolated aggregate of interbreeding organisms. in chemistry, a distinct kind of molecule, ion, or other structure. groups of actually ( or potentially ) interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. reproductive isolation implies that interbreeding between individuals of two species normally is prevented by intrinsic factors. in biological systematics, group of organisms of common ancestry that are able to reproduce only among themselves and that are usually geographically distinct. see nt chemical species. group of living things that share many common traits. each species is different from every other species in one or more ways. term used to describe the group of like individuals. classically species were defined as organisms that share certain characteristics. kind or sort a group of animals or plants that have one or more characteristics in common.............. back a certain type of plant or animal the division of animal classification below genus. a group of animals having common attributes, designated by a common name, that has the same structure, and that can breed together. a group of organisms that are very much alike and reproduce in their natural environment. we belong to the human species. a cohesive historical lineage of ancestral - descendant populations of organisms that maintains its identity from other such lineages. a species comes into being at a branching event ( when one lineage becomes one or more lineages ), and ceases to exist either at a branching event ( when it gives rise to new species ) or when the lineage is terminated through extinction. a group of animals or plants, whose members breed naturally only with each other. a single kind of organism ; white - tail and mule are different species of deer more information for scientifically naming a plant. the species name follows the genus. caesalpinia ( genus ) pulcherrima ( species ). red bird - of - paradise ( common name ). level of taxonomy below genus. the second part of a bird ' s scientific name", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.578560474593222, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.596582"} {"text": "the species name follows the genus. caesalpinia ( genus ) pulcherrima ( species ). red bird - of - paradise ( common name ). level of taxonomy below genus. the second part of a bird ' s scientific name is the species name. the species name is never capitalized. a group of similar individuals that can breed among themselves. a biological category used to classify organisms. a group of plants or animals that are uniquely distinguished from others, sharing various characteristics, and usually that are able to reproduce. species are often broken down into additional subcategories, such as sub - species or varieties. one of the major classifying categories of taxonomy, representing divisions of a genus, and sometimes further classified into subspecies. used when naming plants. designates a specific species of the ' genus ' and is best described as the plant worlds equivalent to our christian names ( or first names ). will follow the genus name and is usually in latin. note : once a plants full name is used, i. e. hedera helix, future listings will abbreviate the genus name and follow it with the species name. an example would be, h. helix, as the next plant in a listing. group of organisms which interbreed and are reproductively isolated from all other such groups. the basic unit of taxonomic classification, designating a group of closely related individuals that are capable of interbreeding. a group of organisms defined by their ability to interbreed with only each other. a segment of a population - level lineage that is evolving separately from other such lineage segments as indicated by one or more lines of evidence ( e. g., distinguishability, reproductive isolation, monophyly, etc. ). the most specific taxonomic classification ; an interbreeding population of individual organisms ; often abbreviated as ' sp. ' in reference to a single species or ' spp. ' when referencing several species the fundamental biological classification consisting of very similar plants or animals. genetically distinct population ( s ) that interbreed but are reproductively isolated from other such groups. a group of individuals that share features and are able to interbreed under natural conditions to yield fertile offspring. a group of populations capable of successfully interbreeding and reproductively isolated from other such populations ( the white - tailed deer is a common species of mammal found in the pinelands. ) a biological type ; on msdss, species refers to the test animals - - usually rats, mice, or rabbits - - which were used to obtain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.531010452858176, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.598539"} {"text": "( the white - tailed deer is a common species of mammal found in the pinelands. ) a biological type ; on msdss, species refers to the test animals - - usually rats, mice, or rabbits - - which were used to obtain the toxicity test data reported. a class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a common name ; a category of biological classification ranking immediately below the genus or subgenus ; comprising related organisms or populations potentially capable of interbreeding. 1. freely interbreeding population of organisms. the organisms in a species usually share a large number of characters. their offspring are fertile. ( some species can interbreed, but their offspring are infertile. ) 2. generally the lowest level in a taxonomy. a category of animals or plants below a genus. sometimes breed is specified below it, such as for cultivated plants. a group of organisms that are closely related a taxonomic category of individuals or populations capable of breeding among themselves, but not usually with other individual or populations a group of organisms with many common characteristics ; a collection of closely related strains sufficiently different from all other strains to be recognized as a distinct unit. animals, plants or micro - organisms that are so similar that they are able to have offspring. group of similar individuals having a number of correlated characteristics and sharing a common gene pool. the species is the basic unit of taxonomy on which the binomial system has been established. the scientific name of a plant or animal gives the genus first and then the species as in abies ( genus ) grandis ( species ). species is both the singular and plural form of the word. groups or individuals of closely connected plants within a genus. a natural population that can breed and produce fertile offspring. a distinct population that tends, in nature, not to mix reproductively with other populations. a group of organisms that can breed or produce offspring taxonomic designation for the unique name of a living organism. a group of individuals of common ancestry that closely resemble each other structurally and physiologically and that can interbreed, producing fertile offspring. part of the plant classification system. this is used to describe closely related plants. see also genus and family. a class of individuals having some common characteristics or qualities. the taxonomic unit ( the most specific taxonomic category ). it designates individuals with similar morphologic structures, who can reproduce with each other. a particular kind of plant or animal ; all members of a species share certain characteristics and are known by a specific name. a subspecies is a division of a species. it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.572697531510245, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.602028"} {"text": "individuals with similar morphologic structures, who can reproduce with each other. a particular kind of plant or animal ; all members of a species share certain characteristics and are known by a specific name. a subspecies is a division of a species. it is hard to define a species absolutely because the process of one species becoming two or changing into another species is so slow that there is no point at which one can say ' now! it ' s a different species from yesterday! '. the most simple definition is a group of organisms that can breed together to produce fertile offspring. species are the smallest unit of biological taxonomy, and are grouped together with similar species to form a genus. the name given to a single kind of organism. species can be divided into sub - species. a group of interbreeding organisms that can produce offspring with the capacity for viable reproduction. the smallest unit in biological classification. members of the same species are able to breed among themselves successfully. similar species are grouped within one genus. a group of individuals with certain common characteristics a group of individuals or populations that are similar in structure and physiology and are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. separate species typically are different in structure and / or physiology from each other and normally do not interbreed. a species name is the second word of a scientific name and is not capitalized. living things such as plants and animals. a genetic subdivision whose numbers are capable of mating and producing fertile progeny group of animals or plants subordinate in classification to genus that can interbreed and differ only in minor details. a population of individuals that are more or less alike and that are able to breed and produce fertile offspring. a category of biological grouping just below the genus or subgenus level. a group of biologically distinct organisms that are self - perpetuating a naturally occurring population or group of potentially interbreeding populations that is reproductively isolated ( i. e., cannot exchange genetic material ) from such other groups. this definition does not apply to asexually reproducing forms such as many types of monera or protista, etc. individuals of the same type which are able to interbreed to produce fertile offspring under natural conditions contributing to a common gene pool. living things that are grouped by their common attributes and can reproduce only among themselves. human beings are one species ; dogs are another. distinct kinds of individual plants or animals that have common traits and share a common name. population of organisms that can interbreed and produce offspring that can also reproduce with one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6025671870518289, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.603540"} {"text": "can reproduce only among themselves. human beings are one species ; dogs are another. distinct kinds of individual plants or animals that have common traits and share a common name. population of organisms that can interbreed and produce offspring that can also reproduce with one another. a closed gene pool. taxon for biological species based on binomial nomenclature, italicized and using genus and trivial name ; e. g., triceratops horridus, tyrannosaurus rex. a group of related plants or animals that can interbreed to produce offspring. ( spe \u00b7 cies ). a population of interbreeding organisms that are capable of, and do under natural conditions, reproduce fertile offspring. a group of organisms that are similar and can interbreed. a group of animals that can have young who can also have young ( this word should really be in a science glossary ) a group of animals and plants that have many things in common, and are different in at least one other way from all others. a group of similar creatures that produce viable young when breeding. a population or group of populations that are in reproductive contact but are reproductively isolated from all other populations. a group of interbreeding plants or animals. subspecies and races are subgroups of individuals of the same species in the process ( called speciation ) of becoming a separate species. a distinct kind of wood. plants or animals that are the same as each other and breed only with one another. a population of plants whose members are potentially able to breed with each other and which is reproductively isolated from other populations. living things of the same kind that are potentially able to breed together and produce fertile offspring ( i. e., offspring that themselves can reproduce ). usually, different species cannot interbreed but this rule is not absolute ( for example, a horse and donkey can interbreed to produce a mule, although this animal cannot reproduce, see hybrid ). even within one species, interbreeding may not always occur because of natural barriers. among some plants and many micro - organisms, the concept of a species does not always work. in these groups, species that appear different may be able to successfully create offspring under certain circumstances. a group of similar organisms that have a shared origin and the ability to breed freely with one another. the basic category in the linnaean sequence. a species may best be defined as a group of inter - breeding individuals with so many features in common that they form a distinct, and generally recognisable, group", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5761991562585385, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.604741"} {"text": "breed freely with one another. the basic category in the linnaean sequence. a species may best be defined as a group of inter - breeding individuals with so many features in common that they form a distinct, and generally recognisable, group. in practice, the interbreeding criterion cannot always be used, for example with fossils, so species can often only be defined subjectively. one or more species are included in a genus. more on the species concept a group of individuals taxonomically ordered according to common attributes and designated by a common name. a single type of plant or animal, not a group like genus or family. each species has a two - word scientific name that includes the name of the genus it belongs to and then the name of the species. another way to think of this is the genus is the \" generic \" name and the species is the \" specific \" name. a specific kind of something ; \" a species of molecule \" ; \" a species of villainy \" a breeding population that can produce fertile offspring among its members, but not outside its group a classification of life forms that share enough genetic traits that they can interbreed to produce offspring that are still able to breed a collection of genetically similar individuals a collection of organisms that evolved according to darwin ' s five laws a collection of populations, all genetically related a constant succession of similar individuals that can reproduce together a diagnosable cluster of individuals within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent, beyond which there is not, and which exhibits a pattern of phylogenetic ancestry and descent among units of like kind a distinct, qualitatively definite state of living matter a freely interbreeding population whose members do not interbreed with those of other populations a grouping of individuals that interbreed successfully a group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such populations a group of animals or plants all of which are similar enough in form to be considered as minor variations of the same organism a group of animals which can breed together, but who can ' t breed with others a group of animals which have a number of features in common and which are not shared by any other group of animals a group of animals with similar physical characteristics that can and do interbreed and share the same gene pool a group of freely interbreeding individuals that will not interbreed with other members of the same genus in its natural environment a group of individuals that can reproduce together a group of insects having many characteristics in common which differ from all other forms in one or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.616974698756508, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.605825"} {"text": "group of freely interbreeding individuals that will not interbreed with other members of the same genus in its natural environment a group of individuals that can reproduce together a group of insects having many characteristics in common which differ from all other forms in one or more ways a group of living organisms ( plants, animals, or microbes ) that breed under natural and to which many human cultures have become adapted a group of living organisms ( plants, animals, or microbes ) that breed under natural conditions and are reproductively isolated from other populations a group of morphologically similar organisms that can and do interbreed, thus sharing the same gene pool a group of morphologically similar organisms which can and do reproduce with one another a group of organisms - plant, animal, or microbe - of a single kind a group of organisms sharing a closely related common gene pool because of frequent interbreeding a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can interbreed a group of organisms that a ) have the same evolutionary ancestor a group of organisms that are so genetically similar that they can interbreed and produce fertile offspring a group of organisms that can interbreed and create viable offspring a group of organisms that can interbreed in nature to a group of organisms that can willingly and successfully interbreed, creating reproductively capable offspring of a similar type a group of organisms that have structural, functional, and developmental similarities and that are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring a group of organisms that interbreed naturally among themselves but not with individuals from other groups a group of organisms that look alike and can breed among themselves and a genus is a broader division of classification a group of organisms that normally interbreed in nature to produce fertile offspring a group of organisms that recognize each other for the purpose of mating and fertilization a group of organisms whose members can interbreed in nature and produce viable, offspring, though this concept cannot apply to organisms or to fossils a group of organisms with a unique set of characteristics ( body shape and behavior, for example ) that distinguishes them from other organisms a group of plants or animals that are genetically similar and so are able to reproduce with each other a group of plants or animals that breed together but do not breed outside the group a group of plants or animals whose genes are so similar that they can breed together and produce fertile offspring a group of populations through which genes can flow and whose offspring have a fitness equal to the parents a group of population s whose individual members would, if given the opportunity, interbreed a group", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5500302986718395, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.606925"} {"text": "so similar that they can breed together and produce fertile offspring a group of populations through which genes can flow and whose offspring have a fitness equal to the parents a group of population s whose individual members would, if given the opportunity, interbreed a group of populations whose individual members would, if given the opportunity, interbreed with individuals of other populations of that group a group of related individuals or populations which are potentially capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring a group of sexually - reproducing, interbreeding individuals that under normal conditions are unable to interbreed with another group a group of similar organisms that can mate to produce fertile, viable offspring a group or population of similar organisms that reproduce among themselves but do not naturally reproduce with any other kinds of organisms a life form that cannot breed successfully other than with its own kind a lineage ( an ancestor descendant sequence ) of populations or organisms that maintains its identity from other such lineages and which has its own evolutionary tendencies a more finely tuned group whose members share the same general characteristics an actually or potentially interbreeding population that does not interbreed with other such populations when there is opportunity to do so an arbitrary class or cluster of organisms given a name as a handle an array of populations which are actually or potentially interbreeding, and which are reproductively isolated from other such arrays under natural conditions ' an article from the business ( international ) category an assemblage of individuals agreeing with each other in all essential characters of vegetation and fructification, capable of reproducing perfect seed from which progeny can be reared an evolved or evolving, genetically distinctive, reproductively isolated, natural population an excellent diagnostic characteristic for s an important biological grouping of organisms whose members have similar structures, normally interbreed, and produce fertile offspring an intrabreeding population, which rarely breeds with a different breeding population an isolated group of individuals whose sum of characters tends to keep constant by natural inbreeding an organic form which, for periods of great and indefinite length as compared with the duration of human life, fluctuates only within narrow limits a particular kind of organism a pool of organisms that can exchange their genetic information a population of beings that can reproduce sexually and produce fertile offspring a population of individual organisms that can interbreed in nature, mating and producing fertile offspring in a natural setting a population of indiviuals who interbreed, as opposed to a population of organisms who merely share the same environment a population of organisms that can interbreed with eachother, not not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5735832685505744, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.608057"} {"text": "mating and producing fertile offspring in a natural setting a population of indiviuals who interbreed, as opposed to a population of organisms who merely share the same environment a population of organisms that can interbreed with eachother, not not other populations a population of organisms which are capable, under natural conditions, of interbreeding and producing viable offspring, and which are reproductively isolated from other similar groups a population that interbreeds and is reproductively isolated from other populations a set of individuals who can interbreed and have fertile progeny a set of populations capable of combining with each other but not with other similar sets of populations on the basis of affinity and co - direction in ecological speciation a single lineage of ancestral descendant populations of organisms which maintains its identity from other such lineages and which has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate a single organism, not a group a single type of organism a special group a specific name given to a plant or animal a subjective unit insofar as it is based on only a sample of the population and insofar as the point of separation where there is some overlap must be arbitrary a group of related living things that have characteristics in common a group of animals that mate together successfully ; a naming classification a unique group of animals, different from other groups. a class of individuals or objects grouped by virtue of their common attributes and assigned a common name. populations of organisms that may interbreed and produce fertile offspring having similar structure, habits, and functions. a group of related animals or plants that differ only in minor attributes ; able to interbreed among themselves a group of individuals that are capable of breeding and producing fertile offspring under natural conditions. a basic taxonomic group consisting of individuals of common ancestry who strongly resemble each other physiologically and who interbreed, producing fertile offspring. the sub - genus classification of salmonids being sampled. a kind of organism ; organisms that are very similar to one another ; they usually reproduce only among themselves one of the lowest principal biological classification units, which recognizes distinct ( non - interbreeding ) groups of similar organisms. a particular group of plant or animal that can only reproduce with others of the same kind. usually, the smallest unit of classification ; includes individuals which can breed with each other, produce viable offspring, have the same chromosome number, and share a common gene pool. group of similar plants which can freely interbreed. a group of similar plants or animals which will interbreed a group of living things that is very closely related and can interbre", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5957298740108485, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.609122"} {"text": "have the same chromosome number, and share a common gene pool. group of similar plants which can freely interbreed. a group of similar plants or animals which will interbreed a group of living things that is very closely related and can interbreed. a gem with distinctive characteristics that are well defined. a group of very similar plants that can freely interbreed and are signified by the second word of the botanical name. see genus. the smallest taxonomic unit defining a group of animals or plants that are unable to breed to produce fertile offspring. the smallest taxonomic unit defining a group of animals that are unable to breed to produce fertile offspring. ( see classification ) a certain kind of animals within a closely related group subordinate classification to a genus ; reproductively isolated organisms that have common characteristics, such as eastern white pine or white - tailed deer. generally regarded as a group or organisms that resemble each other to a greater degree than members of other groups and that form a reproductively isolated group that will not normally breed with members of another group. the lowest - ranking common taxonomic rank. these names are not capitalized. the lowest major level of classification. a group of organisms that form an interbreeding population that is reproductively isolated from other populations all the individuals in a population that can breed and produce fertile young. a group of organisms different from all others in that they do not interbreed with any others. a group of individuals or populations that are similar and are able to mate and have offspring. a group of plants ( or animals ) showing intergradation among its individuals and having in common one or more characteristics which definitely separate it from any other group ; a kind of plant distinct from other plants. a group of similiar animals, reproductively isolated from all other such groups and able to breed and produce viable offspring. a group of plants or animals that share common characteristics a classification ranking just below the genus and made up of closely related plants that possibly can cross with one another. organisms that can reproduce their own kind ( see also genus ) ( a distinct animal or plant group that shares similar characteristics and can produce offspring within its group. ) a population of organisms which are able to interbreed freely under natural conditions. ( singular or plural ) : a group of plants or animals whose members breed naturally only with each other and resemble each other more closely than they resemble members of any similar group. a class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a common name ; a logical division of a genus or more comprehensive class ( merriam - webster", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6028570024038985, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.610160"} {"text": "breed naturally only with each other and resemble each other more closely than they resemble members of any similar group. a class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a common name ; a logical division of a genus or more comprehensive class ( merriam - webster 1996 ). most specific level of scientific classification ; below genus the basic unit of classification which usually refers to one or several groups of plants or other living organisms that interbreed and maintain their distinctive identity through successive generations a class of individual plants or animals having some common characteristics or qualities which makes them distinct from other classes of plants or animals. the basic category of biological classification, ranking below the genus ; a species consists of related organisms or populations potentially capable of interbreeding ; a species is designated by a two part name consisting of its genus and a specific epithet ; see also subspecies a group of organisms ( living things ) capable of reproducing to give fertile off - spring. momo organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. a group of individuals biologically capable of interbreeding and which have a common ancestor. organisms that are genetically related, similar physically, and can reproduce viable offspring. this is the most useful taxonomical name because every living creature is assigned a unique species name, which is composed of two parts. a class of plants or animals having common attributes and designated by a common name. theoretically, plants or animals of different species cannot interbreed. however, occasionally this does not hold true. espece familienbezeichnung, f especie a population or series of populations whose individuals have the potential to freely breed with one another and that is discontinuous in variation from other populations or series of populations ; a fundamental category of taxonomic classification, ranking a kind of plant that is distinct from other plants. a group of organisms that are biologically capable of breeding and producing fertile offspring. it is the lowest normal taxonomic unit in use. meagher, 1991 a population of morphologically similar organisms that can reproduce sexually among themselves but that cannot produce fertile offspring when mated with other organisms. a group of organisms that have similar characteristics and can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. this is the defining identification of a living organism. based upon taxonomy it is usually a latinised adjective or noun and is never capitalised and is usually italicised. species may only have varieties after it, although the specific name may also be double - barreled. the basic unit of biological classification. generally defined as an aggregation of individuals similar in appearance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6140107673922288, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.611221"} {"text": "noun and is never capitalised and is usually italicised. species may only have varieties after it, although the specific name may also be double - barreled. the basic unit of biological classification. generally defined as an aggregation of individuals similar in appearance and structure, mating freely and producing young that themselves mate freely and bear fertile offspring. abbreviated to sp. for one species and spp. for two or more species. a group of organisms with a unique set of characteristics ( like beak shape and behaviour ) that distinguishes them from other organisms. if they reproduce, individuals within the same species can produce offspring that can make more offspring. groups of plant or animal organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. in the taxonomic hierarchy, ' species ' joins with the higher level ' genus ' to give the binomial term ' genus species '. a taxonomic category ranking which is beneath genus. individuals of the same species are genetically, morphologically, and physiologically differentiated from any other population. the specific name is designated by an uncapitalized latin noun or adjective, and it constitutes the second term in a scientific name. group of related organisms or populations capable of interbreeding. a group of organisms capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with members of other species ( this is a simplified definition ; species concept is much more complex ). - a taxonomic rank below a genus, consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes ( gene ) or interbreeding. creatures that are extremely similar to one another belong to the same species. a group of organisms which are biologically capable of breeding and producing fertile offspring with each other but not with members of other species the fundamental category of biological classification, ranking below the genus and in some species composed of subspecies or varieties ; of various definitions, the most common is the \" biological species concept \" \" species are actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. \" numbers of domains present in a variety of selected taxa ( animal, archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants and protozoa ) are shown in annotation pages. all plants and animals are divided into groups with similar characteristics. the basic building block for this division is the species. organisms of the same species can interbreed. species with common characteristics are grouped into a genus ( plural genera ). genera with similar characteristics are grouped into a family. each species is given a scientific name of two words, the genus and species. these names are latin so they can be recognized worldwide. common names", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6070410388155701, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.612226"} {"text": "characteristics are grouped into a genus ( plural genera ). genera with similar characteristics are grouped into a family. each species is given a scientific name of two words, the genus and species. these names are latin so they can be recognized worldwide. common names, on the other hand, vary from nation to nation, and even within a nation. examples : species : mallard scientific name : anus platyrhynchos species : northern pintail scientific name : anus acuta both the mallard and pintail are in the same genus anus and are also grouped into the family of ducks, geese, and swans. individual plants bearing certain characters in common. the fundamental and unique category in the classification of all living things, for example, the song sparrow, the bluebird, the monarch butterfly, the azure butterfly, the lion, the tiger, etc. a taxonomic level above genotype. all creatures in a species are similar on a functional and structural level, but not necessarily in all instruction positions on their genome. species can be used to study clouds around an archetype ( quasispecies ) in genome space. a biological classification that combines organisms sharing common characteristics and are able to mate and produce fertile offspring. a subdivision of a genus \u2014 second word in a plant ' s botanical name such as rosa moschata \u2014 musk rose a population of individuals that are more or less alike, and that breed and produce fertile offspring under natural conditions. one or more animals which closely resemble one another. a group of them together forms a genus. the category of taxonomic classification, ranking below a genus consisting of related organisms capable of interbreeding. organisms that are capable of interbreeding and is designated by a binomial term in latin. the species designation of timber wolf or gray wolf is canis lupus. a group of organisms which resemble each other to a greater degree than members of other groups and which form a reproductively isolated group that will not normally breed with member of another group. similar species are grouped into genera, genera are grouped into families, families into orders, orders into classes, classes into phyla ( for animals ) and divisions ( for plants ), these are grouped into kingdoms. a group of individuals that share certain physical characteristics and are capable of producing fertile offspring. a group of living organisms that can interbreed to produce viable offspring. a category of biological classification ; a class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a common name. \" species \" is always properly used with the \" s \" when referring", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5713487274677442, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.613302"} {"text": ". a group of living organisms that can interbreed to produce viable offspring. a category of biological classification ; a class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a common name. \" species \" is always properly used with the \" s \" when referring to trees or other biological classifications. a biological species is a group of individuals that can actually or theoretically interbreed successfully with one another but not with members of other groups or species. a class of individual organisms having some common characteristics or qualities ; usually similar or alike in appearance ; always able to breed among themselves ; by some defintions unable to breed with members of other species. the following papers by kenneth cumming provide more information : on the changing definition of the term \" species \" | patterns of speciation | reticulate evolution a group of organisms that is formally recognized as distinct from other groups ; also a taxon of the rank of species, i. e., a category below genus. species is a group of living things that can mate to produce fertile offspring. groups of animals with shared characteristics that can reproduce and produce fertile offspring red - headed and red - bellied woodpeckers are two different species of woodpeckers. one or more populations of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated in nature from all other organisms. populations of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing viable, fertile offspring. the least inclusive taxonomic category commonly used. picture one kind of organism. of sexually reproducing organisms, one or more natural populations in which individuals are interbreeding and are reproductively isolated from other such groups. a population or series of populations whose individuals have the potential to freely breed with one another and that is discontinuous in variation from other populations or series of populations ; a fundamental category of taxonomic classification that ranks below genus. a group containing all the individulas of a particular kind of plant. the basic lower unit of classification. biological species refers to individuals capable of interbreeding. a \" kind \" of bird, usually referring to a group of interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups ; a species represents a unique evolutionary lineage a distinction for a specific type of animals. for example, geese are a species and ducks are a species. there may be many breeds of each species. typically species cannot interbreed successfully, for example a duck and a goose can not produce offspring together. if species can cross the offspring are typically sterile like a mule ( horse x donkey ). the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.574948227551337, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.614363"} {"text": ". there may be many breeds of each species. typically species cannot interbreed successfully, for example a duck and a goose can not produce offspring together. if species can cross the offspring are typically sterile like a mule ( horse x donkey ). the a\u20ac\u0153global familya\u20ac of a organism, that can breed or reproduce with one another ( a\u20ac\u0153global familya\u20ac refers to all of the human, rabbits, cats, dogs ; etc ; they all are the same, no matter the color of fur or eyes ; etc. ) ( both singular and plural ) a natural population or group of populations that are reproductively isolated and transmit specific characteristics from parent to offspring. a group of individuals that has similar characteristics and breeds only with another member of the same group group of organisms with common or similar characteristics and capable of inter breeding. a reproductively isolated group of interbreeding organisms. the main category of taxonomic classification into which living organisms are subdivided, comprising a group of similar individuals having a number of correlated characteristics. a group of closely related organisms capable of mating and producing fertile offspring. a group of natural relations that can interbreed. difficult to define rigorously in two or three lines. defined very simply in a phylogenetic context, species are the smallest lineages that are mutually exclusive of other lineages. the internal branches of a phylogeny may be viewed as ancestral species. note, however, that the unit lineages of a gene phylogeny are not species ( see also terminal ). a singular or plural term for a population or series of populations of organisms that are capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with members of other species. includes a number of cases : endemic species : a species originating in, or belonging to, a particular region. both \" endemic \" and \" indigenous \" are preferred over \" native. \" exotic species : a species introduced accidentally or intentionally to a region beyond its natural range. \" exotic \" is preferred over \" alien, \" \" foreign \" and \" non - native. ' subspecies : a subdivision of a species. a population or series of populations occupying a discrete range and differing genetically from other subspecies of the same species. taxa ) richness : a biological index of river health, species ( taxa ) richness is the number of species or taxa present in a biological sample. a group of similar animals that are isolated reproductively and produce viable offspring. they may include on or more subspecies. all of the organisms that are capable of interbreeding with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5775065964916739, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.615427"} {"text": "richness is the number of species or taxa present in a biological sample. a group of similar animals that are isolated reproductively and produce viable offspring. they may include on or more subspecies. all of the organisms that are capable of interbreeding with each other under natural conditions to produce fertile offsprings ( bisexual organisms ) or all of the morphologically and genetically similar descendants of some inferred ancestral individual ( asexual organisms ). the species is the primary or fundamental concept in the understanding of the forms of life. it is the basic unit in classification. species are combined into genera and variations or subordinate forms of these may be distinguished as subspecies, variety and form in descending order of the botanical hierarchy. a basic taxonomic category. members of a species of plants or animals can breed with another member and produce fertile ( capable of reproducing ) offspring. in this way, a species maintains its \u2018 separateness ' from other species ; for example, yellowfin tuna and bigeye tuna are two distinct tuna species, whereas the general term \u2018 tuna ' includes all tuna species. a type of animal or plant. the species designations of animals under study. the taxanomic category subordinate to a genus. a group of like individuals. the second part of a scientific name identifies a particular species. ( see genus ) species : organisms with similar phenetic and genetic characteristics that can mate and produce viable offspring that can also mate and produce viable offspring. biological _ a small group of organisms formally recognized by the scientific community as distinct from other groups. legal _ refers to joint policy of the usfws and nmfs that considers a species as defined by the esa to include biological species, subspecies, and dpss. ( spee\u00b4 shees ) [ l. : kind ] \u2022 the basic lower unit of classification, consisting of a population or series of populations of closely related and similar organisms. the more narrowly defined \" biological species \" consists of individuals capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with members of other species. taxonomic groups, usually defined by inability to interbreed and produce viable offspring. species are reproductively isolated from each other. genes in one species cannot combine with genes from another species and produce a successfully reproducing vehicle ( individual ). a group of individuals, usually identifiable by a set of distinctive features, with a unique evolutionary history. classically, the members of a species can interbreed only with each other to produce fertile offspring. a class or specific type of organism ; a group of individuals related", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.589001451410775, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.617836"} {"text": ", usually identifiable by a set of distinctive features, with a unique evolutionary history. classically, the members of a species can interbreed only with each other to produce fertile offspring. a class or specific type of organism ; a group of individuals related by descent, and able to breed among themselves but not with other animals ( sp ' sh z ) the category of organization for taxonomy below genus, representing animals capable of interbreeding with each other. the scientific name for a species is generally written with the genus in binomial form. example : homo sapiens. the basic unit of linnaean classification ; a taxonomic subdivision of genus represented by plants that can freely interbreed but rarely with other species. in the scientific name sambucus nigra, the genus is sambucus and the species epithet is nigra ; together sambucus nigra constitutes the species a group of animals or plants having common characteristics and able to breed together to produce fertile ( capable of reproducing ) offspring, so that they maintain their ' from other groups. for example, yellowfin tuna and bigeye tuna are two distinct tuna species, whereas general terms like ' and ' each represent groups of species. a taxon comprising one or more populations of individuals capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. seeing, appearance, shape, kind or quality the smallest classification group of organisms. organisms of the same species mate and produce healthy young subdivision of biological classification composed of related organisms that share common characteristics and can interbreed. group within a genus, the members of which share similar characteristics and can breed successfully together. the basic unit of biological classification. this definition is open to very wide interpretation and what one person regards as just another species, may be seen by someone else, to be a totally separate genus or only a form. a group of plants or animals that have certain common features which set them apart from others. the species, an adjective, often refers to a place, the plant ' s characteristics / appearance, or the name of the person credited with discovering it. species is abbreviated sp. or spp. different definitions are available dependent upon the characters being used to define a species. see also biological species concept, morphospecies concept and phylogenetic species concept.... more a group of animals that have the same characteristics a group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring a group of plants, animals, or microorganisms that have a high degree of similarity and generally can interbreed only among themselves", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5913260835283658, "token_count": 509, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.619023"} {"text": "a group of animals that have the same characteristics a group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring a group of plants, animals, or microorganisms that have a high degree of similarity and generally can interbreed only among themselves. a group of similar organisms whose members can breed with one another to produce fertile offspring. the second or specific part of the scientific name of a plant organisms in the same genus that have similar characteristics. the subdivision of genus ; the second name in latin nomenclature i. e. acer palmatum. a group of organisms that can interbreed with each other and produce fertile offspring. it is the fundamental unit of biological evolution. a population or series of populations of closely related and similar organisms. the individuals within a species are able to interbreed freely with each other, producing healthy, fertile offspring. members of a species are not able to interbreed successfully with members of other species. ( 1 ) a group of organisms that have a unique set of characteristics ( like body shape and behavior ) that distinguishes them from other organisms. if they reproduce, individuals within the same species can produce fertile offspring. ( 2 ) the basic unit of biological classification. scientists refer to species using both their genus and species name. the house cat, for example, is called felis catus. the taxonomic division of freely interbreeding population of wild or naturally occurring individuals below genus. living things of the same kind that are potentially capable of breeding and producing fertile offspring. theoretically, plants or animals of different species cannot interbreed. however, occasionally this does not hold true. database entry containing a sequence and associated information. not necessarily consistent with a taxonomic species any subspecies of fish, wildlife, or plants, and any distinct population segment of any species or vertebrate fish or wildlife that interbreeds when mature. a group of animals that under normal conditions can have offspring together. in the same or like form or kind. there are many species of finches available today, and many look a lot a like. always know what species of finch you have before attempting to locate a mate. society finches and zebra finches are examples of two different species. pl. a category of classification, ranking below a genus, consisting of closely related organisms capable of interbreeding. an organism belonging to a species is represented by an uncapitalized latin name and a capitalized genus name, as in hyacinthoides non - scripta, the bluebell. all the populations of organisms that are capable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5853396635305882, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.620371"} {"text": "the bsc has interesting implications for the nature of the last universal common ancestor of all life, especially if horizontal genetic transfer was extensive then ( as it is today between the different unicellular \" species \" of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes ). a subdivision of a genus, almost identifcal organisms, a clone a group of interbreeding populations that are more or less reproductively isolated from all other kinds of organisms. division of plants or herbs which contain individuals capable of reproducing with each other. a classification of related organisms that can freely interbreed. a group of similar organisms within the same genus which are usually capable of interbreeding, and are distinctly different from other members of the genus. a group of organisms which normally can interbreed organisms that successfully reproduce among themselves and cannot reproduce successfully with other organisms. a group of similar fish that can freely interbreed. a group of animals or plants that are the same and breed together, eg. the new zealand robin. a single kind of plant or animal ; about 34, 000 species of spiders known so far worldwide in a little over 100 families ; presumably many more species are undiscovered the smallest unit of classification. individuals in a species are assumed to have emanated from a single original genetic source and are sexually compatible with each other. a group of generally related tree species for which similar management practices have been developed. depending on how they were listed under the esa, species is defined as species, subspecies, distinct population segment ( dps ), or evolutionarily significant unit ( esu ). a set of creatures which, in their natural setting, breed among themselves. different types of plants e. g. cocksfoot and ryegrass are different species species generally grouped for marketing convenience and identified with a single commercial name. ( see astm d 1165, standard nomenclature of domestic hardwoods and softwoods, for commercial practice in the united states and canada. ) a group of organisms that are similar in structure and can mate and produce fertile offspring species is a group of living things that breed with each other in nature and produce offspring that can also breed. coyotes can breed together, and the pups can breed when they grow up, so all coyotes are one species. bobcats can ' t breed with coyotes, so they ' re a different species. in nature, living things in the same species usually look pretty much alike. a taxon of the rank of species ; in the hierarchy of biological classification the category below", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6063587971873299, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.623465"} {"text": ". bobcats can ' t breed with coyotes, so they ' re a different species. in nature, living things in the same species usually look pretty much alike. a taxon of the rank of species ; in the hierarchy of biological classification the category below genus ; the basic unit of biological classification ; the lowest principal category of zoological classification. organism classification that includes individuals that share the same heredity, are similar in morphology and behaviour, and can produce similar offspring. a subdivion of a genus in the classification of plants. species of plants are distinguished by the characteristics of fruits, flowers, leaves, bark and wood. the basic unit of classification in biology. examples are the bald eagle, the polar bear, the monarch butterfly, and the tawny mole cricket. the word is both singular ( a species ) and plural ( two species ). species are grouped into genera, and genera are grouped into family. the words kind, sort, type, strain, and variety are not part of this classification even though newspaper reporters often use them as if they were. a group of related organisms with common characteristics that are capable of interbreeding. loblolly and virginia pine are examples of two different tree species. a group of biological organisms that interbreed to produce fertile offspring or possess common characteristics derived from a common gene pool. groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reporductively isolated from other such groups the unit of classification for a plant having particular characteristics. in the botanical name of the plant, the species is identified by the second word of the name : for example acer palmatum. one or more populations of freely interbreeding organisms which are reproductively isolated ( for reasons other than geography ) from other closely related populations. a more modern definition might be a chronologically continuous genome which is isolated from other genomes by non - geographical factors. see also subspecies and species complex. the basic unit of linnaean classification ; a taxonomic subdivision of genus represented by plants that can freely interbreed but rarely with other species. in the latin name ulmus americana, the genus is ulmus and the species epithet is americana ; together ulmus americana constitutes the species taxonomic group whose members can interbreed group of animals or plants with common characteristics a taxonomic category subordinate to a genus ( or subgenus ) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. in taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a latin or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.577981161470831, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.624487"} {"text": "to a genus ( or subgenus ) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. in taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a latin or latinised adjective or noun. in the same or like form or kind. for the purposes of the cwcp, we refer to scientific animal groupings of genus and then a subgroup called \" species. \" a group of living things that can interact to produce offspring like themselves. tigers do not have lion cubs, and an eagle and owl cannot interact to produce offspring like themselves. is a group of similar organisms with the ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. distinct populations of plants or animals that can and do interbreed and produce fertile offspring a species is a fundamental category of taxonomic classification ranking after genus and consisting of organisms capable of interbreeding. a category of closely related and similar organisms. more narrowly defined, a population of individuals capable of interbreeding but not of breeding with members of another species. a group of individuals that interbreed with each other but not with other such groups. there are however many definitions of species. a natural group of plants composed of similar individuals that can produce similar offspring. the basic unit of living things, consisting of a group of individuals which all look more or less alike and which can all breed with each other to produce another generation of similar creatures. many species are subdivided into sub - species. these normally inhabit different areas and they may differ in appearance, but they can still all interbreed. a group of living things that share common biological characteristics plant species are usually variable in the wild and may be split into three botanically recognized but occasionally overlapping subdivisions ; the subspecies ( subsp. ), the variety ( var. ) and the form ( forma, f. ). biological classification comprising related organisms that share common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding. type of plant genetically different from others. taxonomic division that generally refers to a group of animals which are similar in structure and descent and are able to breed among themselves. a population or group of potentially interbreeding populations that is reproductively isolated from other such populations or groups. a separate and integral reproductive community. ( eldrege ) a group of plants with very similar characteristics ; and, a plant originally found in the wild and not the result of hybridisation or plant breeding by horticulturalists a group of related organisms having common characteristics and capable of interbreeding. loblolly and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5713662326757327, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.625524"} {"text": "group of plants with very similar characteristics ; and, a plant originally found in the wild and not the result of hybridisation or plant breeding by horticulturalists a group of related organisms having common characteristics and capable of interbreeding. loblolly and virginia pine are common tree species that can interbreed. a group of grasses with similar form and / or reproductive mechanisms ; the basic unit of biological classification. a distinct kind of plant. a fundamental biological classification, comprising a subdivision of a genus and consisting of a number of plants or animals all of which have a high degree of similarity, can generally interbreed only among themselves, and show persistent differences from members of allied species. an established classification into which similar individuals in the plant or animal kingdom are placed. a species is described as a morphologically distinctive and genetically isolated natural population. a particular type of plant, animal, or other organism. species differ from one another in at least one characteristic, and generally do not interbreed. in biology, species is a category that ' s part of the scientific system for grouping together related plants, animals and other organisms ( kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species ). used to refer to individual gems that have distinct characteristics which may be defined and verified. a group of animals or plants that share similiar characteristics such as can reproduce. individuals that are grouped together by having common characteristics and that are capable of interbreeding a group of organisms different fro... basic classification unit of plants comprised of individuals that are recognized as distinct from other species, and which can freely interbreed among themselves. a set of individuals sharing distinctive characteristics likely to produce common, fertile descendents. the notion of species is used in its broadest sense here and refers not only to species proper but also to subspecies, isolated geographic populations, strains and varieties, whether plant or animal. a genetically distinctive group of natural populations that share a common gene pool that are reproductively isolated from all other such groups. a group of closely related individuals that have the potential to reproduce with each other ; a unit of classification. a \" species \" is generally accepted as a group of individuals that look the same and can breed with each other but not usually with individuals of another species. \" species \" is the the lowest level of plant classification. this is part of the science called \" taxonomy \". scientists refer to living things by a combined \" genus \" and \" species \" name, using latin terms. for example, people are called \" homo sap", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6097517298290378, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.626617"} {"text": "is the the lowest level of plant classification. this is part of the science called \" taxonomy \". scientists refer to living things by a combined \" genus \" and \" species \" name, using latin terms. for example, people are called \" homo sapiens \". a white pine would be called \" pinus strobus \". a scientist anywhere in the world can look up information about any living organism by knowing the latin or scientific name. the genus name is always capitalized. the species name is usually not capitalized. incidentally, the word \" specie \" is incorrect. \" species \" is the correct singular and plural form of the word. [ to return to previous page, click your browser ' s back button then scroll through the page to your last location in biology a species generally taken to be either the lowest level of taxonomic classification or a group of interbreeding individuals that are reproductively isolated from other organisms. a species in biology is not a \" kind \" in plato ' s sense of the word. this is the scientific, taxonomic name of a living thing. in plant classification, a group of plants with common characteristics that can cross - breed with one another. a group of organisms that mate freely in nature and can produce viable offspring populations whose individuals freely breed with one another and vary only slightly from one another. the basic category of biological classification consisting of similar organisms that are capable of mating and reproduction is one of the most specific of several levels of classification for a plant. they are ranked in levels from largest to smallest groupings first by kingdom, then by phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. the name of a category that is part of the scientific classification of all organisms. the category species is located in the classification system after kingdom, phylum, class, order, family and genus. humans, for example, belong to the species sapiens and are identified by the scientific name homo ( genus ) sapiens ( species ). a group of closely related organisms that are capable of interbreeding and are reproductively isolated from other groups of organisms ( in other words, they can breed among themselves and not with others ) ; the basic unit of biological classification. major subdivision of a genus of plants. a biological classification composed of related plant individuals. the type of wood, such as spruce or fir. each species has different characteristics as well as strengths and weaknesses. a group of organisms that can interbreed under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring a group of organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5523870488082536, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.627539"} {"text": ". the type of wood, such as spruce or fir. each species has different characteristics as well as strengths and weaknesses. a group of organisms that can interbreed under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring a group of organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. see also \" classification. \" ( n ) a group of animals or plants within a genus differing only in minor details form the others, and able to breed with each other but not with other groups an internationally established botanical classification of trees. a genetically distinct group, consisting of related individuals that resemble each other in appearance and behavior, and can breed among themselves but not, with some exceptions, with other species 1. in biological classifications, it is the lowest and most basic unit of the linnaean taxonomic hierarchy ( although it is also divisible into subspecies ), and one of the two required titles of a binomial name. in nature, a species is a group of organisms that breed only amongst themselves and produce offspring that are also capable of reproducing. 2. in chemistry, a group of constituents or molecules, that share major chemical similarities. for example, hg0 and hg + 2, or co and co2. abbreviated to spp. ( singular = sp. ). a group of individuals which interbreed with each other, but generally not with other species. a fundamental category of taxonomic classification, ranking below a genus. a group of related organisms which are capable of interbreeding. in classification, a species is a group of closely related organisms that can reproduce. a group of similar species forms a genus. in the scientific name of an organism, the second name is its species ( for example, people are homo sapiens - our species is sapiens ). the biological species concept is the most widely accepted method for categorizing living species, especially for vertebrates. it defines a species as members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature, not according to similarity of appearance. although appearance is helpful in identifying species, it does not define a biological species. a single, distinct class of living creature with features that distinguish it from others. a group of plants or animals that are of the same type or origin a group of interbreeding individuals, not interbreeding with another such group, being a taxonomic unit including two names in binomial nomenclature, the generic name and specific epithet, similar and related species being grouped into a genus. from the latin, species, \" particular kind. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5999787428657103, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.628478"} {"text": "not interbreeding with another such group, being a taxonomic unit including two names in binomial nomenclature, the generic name and specific epithet, similar and related species being grouped into a genus. from the latin, species, \" particular kind. \" related strains of a plant that occur naturally. a group of organisms that are biologically capable of exchanging genes with each other but are incapable of exchanging genes with other such groups. n : the boundaries of this taxonomic level ( the most precise in the hierarchical system of binomial nomenclature ) are hotly debated among scientists and there is little real consensus about where to draw the lines between species, subspecies, morphs, races, variants, etc. in general, a species is a group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, general behavior, ecological niche, chemical makeup and processes, and genetic structure. organisms that reproduce sexually are classified as members of the same species only if they can actually or potentially interbreed with one another and produce fertile offspring. it should be noted that some ( though quite few ) taxonomists believe the species level of classification is frequently invalid and these scientists only recognize classifications down to the level of genus ( again, these taxonomists represent a very small minority view ). fundamental unit of biological taxonomy. generally spoken, two individuals belong to the same species if they can produce fertile offspring the basic category of biological classification, displaying a high degree of mutual similarity determined by a consensus of informed opinion ; a subcategory of genus. ( 16 ) group of closely related individuals, resembling one another in certain inherited characteristics. in biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. species is the smallest group of classification. a species generally consists of all the individual organisms of a natural population which are able to interbreed, generally sharing similar appearance, characteristics and genetics due to having relatively recent common ancestors. species ( used as a noun ) in metaphysics are defined by their genus ( genos ) and differentia ( diaphora ). the species film series is the group of films that take place in the species universe.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5862300767739986, "token_count": 424, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 26, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.632609"} {"text": "1. to disable with alarm or apprehensions ; to depress the spirits or courage of ; to deprive or firmness and energy through fear ; to daunt ; to appall ; to terrify. \" be not afraid, neither be thou dismayed. \" ( josh. i. 9 ) \" what words be these? what fears do you dismay? \" ( fairfax ) 2. to render lifeless ; to subdue ; to disquiet. \" do not dismay yourself for this. \" ( spenser ) synonyms : to terrify, fright, affright, frighten, appall, daunt, dishearthen, dispirit, discourage, deject, depress. to dismay, daunt, appall. dismay denotes a state of deep and gloomy apprehension. to daunt supposes something more sudden and startling. to appall is the strongest term, implying a sense of terror which overwhelms the faculties. \" so flies a herd of beeves, that hear, dismayed, the lions roaring through the midnight shade. \" ( pope ) \" jove got such heroes as my sire, whose soul no fear could daunt, nor earth nor hell control. \" ( pope ) \" now the last ruin the whole host appalls ; now greece has trembled in her wooden walls. \" ( pope ) origin : oe. desmaien, dismaien, of. esmaier ; pref. es - ( l. ex ) + ohg. magan to be strong or able ; akin to e. may. in english the pref. es - was changed to dis - ( l. dis - ). see may. ( 01 mar 1998 ) | bookmark with : | | word visualiser | | go and visit our forums |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.508570865838088, "token_count": 376, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.644457"} {"text": "common case and bracelet materials frequently asked questions is my bracelet scratch - proof or scratch - resistant? how do magnetic fields affect my watch? how do i get my watch appraised for insurance purposes? what is a \" swiss \" watch? do i need to wind my automatic ( self - winding ) watch? a mechanical movement that is wound through the motion of the wearer ' s arm during normal daily arm movement ; sufficient activity is required to build up a power reserve. also known as a \" self - winding \" watch. the part of the watch that secures the watch to the wrist. the two common types of bands are strap ( i. e. leather ) and bracelet. the rim which secures the crystal in place on the watch case and may be set with diamonds or other stones. bezels may also be rings which are graduated to track elapsed time, as in a diver ' s watch. some bezels are rotating and can be turned to perform different types of timekeeping. the ornament, often a dome - shaped or faceted precious stone such as a ruby or emerald used to accent the winding crown. also, the raised dome - shaped markers used to indicate the hours on some watch dials. the windows or subdials on the dial of a watch that display the day, date, month and / or year. also known as graphite fiber, carbon fiber consists of extremely thin fibers, predominantly of carbon atoms, bonded together in microscopic crystals. the vertical alignment of the crystals gives carbon fiber its unique texture, and makes it incredibly strong. often combined with a polymer, carbon fiber watch cases and dials are exceptionally tough. the metal housing that contains the internal workings of the watch ( the movement, dial and hands ). high - tech ceramic, an extremely hard material containing titanium carbide, is valued by watchmakers for its lightweight and exceptional scratch - resistance. high - polished ceramic timepieces are smooth - to - the - touch, ultra lightweight and durable. a watch that includes a stop watch feature : a timer that can be started and stopped to time an event. a timepiece that has met very high standards of accuracy, tested and certified by the c. o. s. c. ( an official watch institute in switzerland ). each chronometer comes with an individual certificate of precision. the tiny knob on the winding stem used to move the hands to set the time on the watch, and to wind a watch with a manual movement. the transparent \" glass \" which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5499978500222529, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.665472"} {"text": "). each chronometer comes with an individual certificate of precision. the tiny knob on the winding stem used to move the hands to set the time on the watch, and to wind a watch with a manual movement. the transparent \" glass \" which protects the dial of the watch. there are three common types of crystals : acrylic, mineral and sapphire. a sapphire crystal is the most expensive, scratch - resistant and durable type of crystal. a buckle or clasp with a two or three piece inner element that folds onto itself securing the two ends of a strap or bracelet. this type fastener allows the wearer to slip on or remove the watch from their wrist with ease. also known as the watch \" face. \" it gives a watch its beauty and character, based on the material from which it is crafted and the style of the numerals, markers, texture and other details that define it. a sport watch built to withstand underwater pressure, often worn by scuba divers. among other features, these watches are typically equipped with a screw - down crown that creates a strong seal to prevent water from penetrating the case. must be water resistant to 20 atm ( the pressure equivalent of being 200m or 660 feet under water ) to be classified as a diver \u2019 s watch. a rotating bezel which can be used to indicate the hour in a second time zone, distinct from the time indicated by the hands on the dial. a rubber or plastic ring that is used to seal the watch case against dust, moisture and water. typically used on in conjunction with the crown, crystal and metal case. a type of design in which thin lines are engraved in a crossed or interlaced pattern to create a decorative textural effect on the dial of the watch. another name for a manual wind mechanical movement. see \" mechanical movement \". a small synthetic sapphire or ruby placed at various points in a mechanical or quartz watch movement which have been drilled, chamfered and polished to serve as bearings for watch gears reducing friction of mechanical parts to a minimum. growing in popularity, k1 mineral is a type of watch crystal that is more shatter - resistant than sapphire crystal, and more scratch - resistant than regular mineral crystal. extensions from either end of the case that hold the pin used to fasten the strap or bracelet to the case. watch hands coated with a substance, such as tritium and superluminova, that makes them glow in the dark. they are especially common in sports models for better visibility underwater. a type of mechanical movement, also", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5383661098187484, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.667986"} {"text": "or bracelet to the case. watch hands coated with a substance, such as tritium and superluminova, that makes them glow in the dark. they are especially common in sports models for better visibility underwater. a type of mechanical movement, also known as a \" hand - winding \" movement, in which the mainspring of the movement must be wound by hand daily, using the crown. see \" mechanical movement \". a watch movement comprised of a series of turning cog wheels and jewels, expertly calibrated by hand. a mechanical movement may be : automatic, also known as \" self - winding \" ( wound by the motion of the arm during daily wear ) or \" manual \", also known as \" hand - winding \" ( requiring regular / daily winding of the crown by hand ). a function on a watch that can announce the time in hours, quarter - hours, and minutes by means of a push button. an audible chime sounds when the push piece or button is depressed. a window, often half - moon shaped, in a watch dial that shows the current phase of the moon. this distinctive feature is usually seen in combination with other calendar - related features. the iridescent lining of the interior shell of a freshwater mollusk that can be thinly sliced and used to create a watch dial. while mother - of - pearl generally has a milky white luster, it is also available in other natural pearlescent colors such as gray, blue and pink. to ensure your watch \u2019 s water resistancy, we recommend inspection and maintenance of the case seals and gaskets every 12 - 24 months. this will help keep the watch movement safe from air, dust, and moisture, which over time can get into the watch and affect its ability to function properly. all watch movements will require periodic maintenance. we recommended that a mechanical movement be inspected for possible servicing every 3 to 5 years and quartz movements at each battery change. a calendar feature on a watch that automatically adjusts to account for the different number of days in each month, and for leap years. an aperture or subdial on a mechanical watch, often wedge - shaped, that indicates how much longer the watch will operate before requiring winding. a button that is pressed to operate ( start / stop ) a mechanism. pushers are usually found on chronographs and timepieces with minute strikers and alarms. the letters are an abbreviation for physical vapor deposit, a high - tech vacuum - coating procedure that produces wear - resistant finish. a watch movement", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5627227664699184, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.669041"} {"text": ". pushers are usually found on chronographs and timepieces with minute strikers and alarms. the letters are an abbreviation for physical vapor deposit, a high - tech vacuum - coating procedure that produces wear - resistant finish. a watch movement where time is \" tuned \" to, and measured by, the extremely rapid and consistent vibrations of a quartz crystal. the quartz crystal is powered by a battery. also known as an electronic quartz movement. a device that chimes the time when a button is pushed, or a slide is pulled. see \" minute repeater \". a crown that screws down into the case tube making the watch more water resistant. provides the best underwater shock protection ( against rocks, accidental knocks, scrapes, etc. ) to prevent water leakage. to set the time on a watch with a screw - down crown, the crown must first be unscrewed before it can be pulled out to any hand - setting position. a movement that converts mechanical energy generated by the force of gravity and natural movements of the wearer ' s wrist into electrical energy which is stored in an accumulator which powers a quartz movement. another name for an automatic mechanical movement. see \" automatic \" and \" mechanical \" movements. to be qualified as \" shock resistant \", a watch must have demonstrated the ability to withstand an impact equal to that of being dropped onto a wood floor from a height of three feet during testing. the dial of the watch is \" cut out \" to allow the inner workings of a watch ' s movement to be seen through the transparent crystal and dial on the front side, or a transparent crystal case back. in a watch with a \u201c skeletonized \u201d movement, the rotor, wheels and other moving parts are also painstakingly cut away, creating an elegant transparency all the way through the case. abbreviation stands for \" stock keeping unit \" ; an identifying number used when taking inventory. same as the watch \" model number \". a seconds hand that is mounted in the center of the watch dial ( vs. one positioned in a sub - dial ). a \" true \" sweep seconds hand is found only on mechanical watches, and has a motion that is undetectable to the human eye. on a quartz watch, the advance of the seconds hand is discernible in tiny step - by - step jumps. a feature found on chronographs consisting of a calibrated scale, usually found around the perimeter of the dial, that can be used to measure the wearer ' s speed of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6090426254004129, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.670074"} {"text": "comes from adding copper color cannot \" wear off \" ; the gold is an integral part of the material a base metal with a thin layer of gold ( usually 18k to 23k ) applied in a process called electroplating thickness of the gold - plating can range from 2 - 10 microns in depth gives appearance of solid gold at lower price level not solid gold, so plated finish can wear off over time one of the most rare precious metals, it has a rich, white luster. platinum used in jewelry and watches is at least 85 - 95 % pure platinum, with only 5 - 15 % of a base metal one of the strongest and heaviest metals hypoallergenic and tarnish - resistant white, very durable metal stronger and lighter than stainless steel, but softer non - corrosive ; resistant to salt, perspiration, and high temperatures hypoallergenic ; does not contain nickel a metal that is a combination of tungsten and carbon compressed under extreme pressure extremely durable and highly scratch - resistant heavier than stainless steel will not tarnish or rust frequently asked questions a watch may be made of a scratch - resistant material, however no material is truly scratch - proof. therefore, please follow these steps when handling your watch : wrap your watch in a soft cloth prior to placing it on any hard surface. when possible, store your watch in the original box / case. avoid dropping the watch in a drawer or jewelry box, to prevent it from being scratched by coming in contact with other pieces of jewelry. avoid wearing your watch during high - risk activities, for example, when lifting or moving heavy objects or engaging in sports activities. avoid wearing your watch on the same wrist as another piece of jewelry. they could rub against and scratch each other. the exposure of your watch to strong magnetic fields will affect its time keeping and may cause it to stop. a quartz watch will resume working with original accuracy when it is removed from the magnetic field. a mechanical watch may require demagnetization. mgi can provide appraisals for watch brands that we manufacture. please download, complete and return the repair and service request form with your watch to the address below. on the form, indicate, \" please appraise my watch for insurance purposes \". after we receive your watch, we will mail you an estimate indicating the cost of the appraisal. 109 state street moonachie, nj 07074 movements made in switzerland, where watchmaking began centuries ago, enjoy a reputation throughout the world today for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5078727442535411, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.672228"} {"text": "the following html text is provided to enhance online readability. many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to html. please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. rizes some of the more robust findings by listing some phyla from which rrnas were studied to the right and the inferred branching patterns of the rrnas on the left, with the implied appearance of some design elements in metazoan body plans indicated. a few of the design elements require comment. for present purposes, the unqualified terms \" hemocoel \" and \" coelom \" refer to fluid - filled spaces usually used as hydrostatic skeletons \u2014 the former being developed from the topological position of the blastocoel, the latter being developed within mesoderm. spaces devoted only to serving organs ( commonly as ducts or as buffering against solid tissues ) are termed \" organ hemocoels \" or ' ' organ coeloms. \" \" seriation \" refers to longitudinal repetition of organs, muscles, or other features but not necessarily in a correlated fashion, while \" segmentation \" refers to serial repetition with correlation among organ systems. many of the metazoan relationships indicated in figure 4 are quite conventional, such as the sequence of choanoflagellates / poriferans / cnidarians / platyhelminths, the sister - group relationship of platyhelminths with higher metazoans, and the sister - group relationship of protostomes with deuterostomes. less conventional, though hardly shocking, is the sister - group relationship of the arthropods with the unresolved cluster of protostomes, which includes mollusks and annelids. this is a particularly important branching, because it suggests that the last common ancestor of the protostomes was hemocoelic and that the coelom ( s ) of the deuterostomes arose independently of the coelom ( s ) of the protostomes. this branching also suggests that arthropod and annelid segmentation arose independently. the next deeper branching, between protostomes and deuterostomes, suggests that while their last common ancestor was not coelomic and need not have been hemocoelic, it did have a blood - vascular system. other interpretations are possible but they are less parsimonious. late precambrian body plans. the list of phyla on the right of figure 4 indicates the body plans of the living organisms studied but certainly does not indicate the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5717339827534772, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.685530"} {"text": "radiance. future product developments : for more information about our products or to locate a convenient outlet, neem : the ultimate herb, john conrick. originally issued under the auspices of the neem association. updated edition lotus press, twin lakes, wisconsin, 2001. neem, the ultimate herb is the most comprehensive book about neem, the world ' s most amazing plant. this book provides easy - to - understand instructions for using neem along with credible scientific evidence as to its effectiveness. after finishing this book, you will understand and appreciate the amazing qualities found in neem. you will also be able to more intelligently select quality neem products for your own use. neem : a tree for solving global problems, national research council, 1992. national academy press, washington dc. the national research council is made up of members of the national academy of sciences. they undertook to study the incredible potential of the neem tree. this book is the report of their findings. spanning a wide range of practical applications. the studies that are discussed in the book show that neem is one of the most valuable natural resources to solve a wide variety of global issues and concerns. the book contains extensive information including citations, safety tests and resources for follow up. the yoga of herbs : an ayurvedic guide to herbal medicine, frawley and lad. 1986, lotus press, twin lakes, wisconsin. for the first time, here is a detailed explanation and classification of herbs, using the ancient system of ayurveda. more than 270 herbs are listed, with 108 herbs explained in detail. included are many of the most commonly used western herbs with a profound ayurvedic perspective. important chinese and special ayurvedic herbs are introduced. beautiful diagrams and charts, as well as detailed glossaries, appendices and index are included. miracles of neem tree, verma. rasayan pharmacy, new delhi, india, 1988. neem was featured in the doctors prescription for healthy living newsletter during 2001. how to find our products at retail : neemaura naturals products are available at most major natural products stores and online retailers. if you shop at a store that does not carry the item you are seeking, please ask them to carry it as it is available from their distributors in most cases. if you cannot find our products locally, you are welcome to purchase them through our online store. how to find our products wholesale : if you are a retailer interested in selling neemaura ' s products,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5116829961603153, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.717105"} {"text": "a technical analysis by tepco has concluded that fuel in fukushima daiichi unit 1 has mostly melted out of the reactor pressure vessel and into the primary containment vessel. it also concluded that fuel has melted in units 2 & 3, but has mostly remained within the rpvs. - unit 1. tepco now estimates that most of the fuel has drained out of the reactor pressure vessel, via the bottom - mounted control rod tubes or instrumentation penetrations, into the concrete primary containment vessel. it reasons that the unit ' s decay heat before seawater injection ' significantly exceeded ' rpv water and materials ' heat absorption capacity ; it also explains why the rpv temperature has been low from an early stage. based on what tepco calls ' realistic assumptions ', and pcv gas analysis results, tepco estimates that the corium has eroded the 2m - thick pcv floor by about 70cm, but erosion has now assumed to have stopped. - units 2 & 3. lesser amounts of fuel from units 2 & 3 have dropped out of the rpv and into the pcv, because decay heat was less than the total heat absorption capacity of water in the core, and based on evidence from rpv temperature trends after water injection restarted. the study, presented at a japanese government workshop, remains in japanese ; this article is based on an english - language summary provided by tepco. in other news, tepco has explained how it calculates the total amount of radiation currently being emitted by the damaged fukushima daiichi reactors : 60 million bq / hr. at unit 1, the amount released is combined from two numbers : the product of radioactive dust concentration around the top of the reactor building time the assumed amount of steam generation, plus the dust concentration near the equipment hatch, times the air flow rate ( total : 10 million bq / hr ). deducted from that amount is the effectiveness of the exhaust filtration system. at unit 2, the amount is the dust concentration at the blowout panel times the air flow rate. air flow in unit 2 is caused by air from leaks in the truck bay floor and by rising warm vapour from decay heat ( total : 10 million bq / hr ). the calculation method for unit 3 is the same as at unit 1 ( unit 3 total : 40 million bq / hr ). from these figures, tepco concludes that this discharge equates to a personal exposure of 0. 1 msv / yr at the site", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5154317747810889, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.721888"} {"text": "is the same as at unit 1 ( unit 3 total : 40 million bq / hr ). from these figures, tepco concludes that this discharge equates to a personal exposure of 0. 1 msv / yr at the site boundary, assuming average climactic conditions, and including external atmospheric exposure, external ground - based exposure and internal exposure through inhalation. in other news, fukushima site director masao yoshida has left his post for medical treatment ( unspecified, but not linked to the crisis ). he is replaced by takeshi takahashi, formerly general manager of tepco ' s nuclear power plant management department. also, tepco has changed the method of nitrogen gas injection in units 1 - 3 so that it can reach the rpv as well as the pcv. all three systems will inject nitrogen into the rpv via the head spray line, in addition to their current nitrogen injection arrangements into the pcv by various means. the unit 1 nitrogen supply will be via a hose attachment point in series to pcv injection via the ac line ; the unit 2 & 3 rpv line will be attached through jigs to test valves on the instrument rack. related articlestrio of vendors submit bids for temelin nuclear plant westinghouse announces cooperation with czech construction firm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5029810738248686, "token_count": 268, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.723247"} {"text": "optical fibers are circular dielectric wave - guides that can transport optical energy and information. they have a central core surrounded by a concentric cladding with slightly lower ( by \u2248 1 % ) refractive index. fibers are typically made of silica with index - modifying dopants such as geo2. a protective coating of one or two layers of cushioning material ( such as acrylate ) is used to reduce cross talk between adjacent fibers and the loss - increasing microbending that occurs when fibers are pressed against rough surfaces. for greater environmental protection, fibers are commonly incorporated into cables. typical cables have a polyethylene sheath that encases the fiber within a strength member such as steel or kevlar strands. the fiber as a dielectric wave - guide : fiber modes since the core has a higher index of refraction than the cladding, light will be confined to the core if the angular condition for total internal reflectance is met. the fiber geometry and composition determine the discrete set of electromagnetic fields, or fiber modes, which can propagate in the fiber. there are two broad classifications of modes : radiation modes and guided modes. radiation modes carry energy out of the core ; the energy is quickly dissipated. guided modes are confined to the core, and propagate energy along the fiber, transporting information and power. if the fiber core is large enough, it can support many simultaneous guided modes. each guided mode has its own distinct velocity and can be further decomposed into orthogonal linearly polarized components. any field distribution within the fiber can be expressed as a combination of the modes. the two lowest - order guided modes of a circularly symmetrical fiber designated lp01 and lp11 are illustrated in figure 1. when light is launched into a fiber, the modes are excited to varying degrees depending on the conditions of the launch input cone angle, spot size, axial centration and the like. the distribution of energy among the modes evolves with distance as energy is exchanged between them. in particular, energy can be coupled from guided to radiation modes by perturbations such as microbending and twisting of the fiber increasing the attenuation. bandwidth of an optical fiber determines the data rate. the mechanism that limits a fibers bandwidth is known as dispersion. dispersion is the spreading of the optical pulses as they travel down the fiber. the result is that pulses then begin to spread into one another and the symbols become indistinguishable. there are two main categories of dispersion,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6326428321653126, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.752869"} {"text": "dispersion is the spreading of the optical pulses as they travel down the fiber. the result is that pulses then begin to spread into one another and the symbols become indistinguishable. there are two main categories of dispersion, intermodal and intramodal. figure 1alp01 mode distributionfigure 1blp11 mode distributionfigure 1dispersionfigure 2cross section view of optical fiber and single fiber cable. as its name implies, intermodal dispersion is a phenomenon between different modes in an optical fiber. therefore this category of dispersion only applies to mulitmode fiber. since all the different propagating modes have different group velocities, the time it takes each mode to travel a fixed distance is also different. therefore as an optical pulse travels down a multimode fiber, the pulses begin to spread, until they eventually spread into one another. this effect limits both the bandwidth of multimode fiber as well as the distance it can transport data. intramodal dispersion, sometimes called material dispersion, is a result of material properties of optical fiber and applies to both single - mode and multimode fibers. there are two distinct types of intramodal dispersion : chromatic dispersion and polarization - mode dispersion. the index of refraction varies depending upon wavelength. therefore, different wavelengths will travel down an optical fiber at different velocities. this is known as chromatic dispersion. this principle implies that a pulse with a wider fwhm will spread more than a pulse with a narrower fwhm. dispersion limits both the bandwidth and the distance that information can be supported. this is why for long communications links it is desirable to use a laser with a very narrow line width. distributed feedback ( dfb ) lasers are popular for communications because they have a single longitudinal mode with a very narrow line width. polarization mode dispersion ( pmd ) is actually another form of material dispersion. single - mode fiber supports a mode, which consists of two orthogonal polarization modes. ideally, the core of an optical fiber is perfectly circular. however, the fact that in reality, the core is not perfectly circular, and mechanical stresses such as bending introduce birefringency in the fiber, causes one of the orthogonal polarization - modes to travel faster than the other, hence causing dispersion of the optical pulse. light power propagating in a fiber decay", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6295480092748635, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.753819"} {"text": "mechanical stresses such as bending introduce birefringency in the fiber, causes one of the orthogonal polarization - modes to travel faster than the other, hence causing dispersion of the optical pulse. light power propagating in a fiber decays exponentially with length due to absorption and scattering losses. attenuation is the single most important factor determining the cost of fiber optic telecommunication systems, as it determines spacing of repeaters needed to maintain acceptable signal levels. in the near infrared and visible regions, the small absorption losses of pure silica are due to tails of absorption bands in the far infrared and ultraviolet. impurities notably water in the form of hydroxyl ions are much more dominant causes of absorption in commercial fibers. recent improvements in fiber purity have reduced attenuation losses. state - of - the - art systems can have attenuation on the order of 0. 1 db / km. scattering can couple energy from guided to radiation modes, causing loss of energy from the fiber. there are unavoidable rayleigh scattering losses from small - scale index fluctuations frozen into the fiber when it solidifies. this produces attenuation proportional to l / \u03bb4. irregularities in core diameter and geometry or changes in fiber axis direction also cause scattering. any process that imposes dimensional irregularities such as microbending increases scattering and hence attenuation. typical spectral attenuation in silicafigure 3dispersionfigure 4typical spectral attenuation in silica numerical aperture ( na ) the numerical aperture ( na ) of a fiber is defined as the sine of the largest angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflectance in the core. rays launched outside the angle specified by a fibers na will excite radiation modes of the fiber. a higher core index, with respect to the cladding, means larger na. however, increasing na causes higher scattering loss from greater concentrations of dopant. a fibers na can be determined by measuring the divergence angle of the light cone it emits when all its modes are excited. figure 5numerical aperture qualitatively, na is a measure of the light gathering ability of a fiber. it also indicates how easy it is to couple light into a fiber. the normalized frequency parameter of a fiber, also called the v number, is a useful specification. many fiber parameters can be expressed in terms of v, such as : the number of modes at a given wavelength, mode cut off conditions, and propagation constants. for example, the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6014843764196026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.754863"} {"text": "fiber, also called the v number, is a useful specification. many fiber parameters can be expressed in terms of v, such as : the number of modes at a given wavelength, mode cut off conditions, and propagation constants. for example, the number of guided modes in a step index multimode fiber is given by v2 / 2, and a step index fiber becomes single - mode for a given wavelength when v < 2. 405. mathematically, v = 2\u03c0 \u00b7 na \u00b7 a / \u03bb where a is the fiber core radius. the outer sheath of fiber cables can be removed using electrical cable stripping tools, and scissors or a razor blade can trim the kevlar strength member. however, the fiber coating must be very carefully removed to avoid damaging the fiber surface flaws and scratches are the cause of most fiber failures. the coating can be removed using our f - str fiber strippers. end surface quality is one of the most important factors affecting fiber connector and splice losses. quality endfaces can be obtained by polishing or by cleaving. polishing is employed in connector terminations when the fiber is secured in a ferrule by epoxy. the following describes the popular connectors and their endface preparation styles. fiber optic connector types sma due to its stainless steel structure and low - precision threaded fiber locking mechanism, this connector is used mainly in applications requiring the coupling of high - power laser beams into large - core multimode fibers. typical applications include laser beam delivery systems in medical, bio - medical, and industrial applications. the typical insertion loss of an sma connector is greater than 1 db. st the st connector is used extensively both in the field and in indoor fiber optic lan applications. its high - precision, ceramic ferrule allows its use with both multimode and single - mode fibers. the bayonet style, keyed coupling mechanism featuring push and turn locking of the connector, prevents over tightening and damaging of the fiber end. the insertion loss of the st connector is less than 0. 5 db, with typical values of 0. 3 db being routinely achieved. drilled - out, metallic st connectors, with insertion losses of > 1 db, are used with newports large - core ( > 140 \u00b5m ) fibers. fc the fc has become the connector of choice for single - mode fibers and is mainly used in fiber - optic instruments, sm fiber optic components, and in high - speed fiber optic communication links. this high - precision, ceramic ferrule", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5687869941643645, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.756056"} {"text": "fibers. fc the fc has become the connector of choice for single - mode fibers and is mainly used in fiber - optic instruments, sm fiber optic components, and in high - speed fiber optic communication links. this high - precision, ceramic ferrule connector is equipped with an anti - rotation key, reducing fiber endface damage and rotational alignment sensitivity of the fiber. the key is also used for repeatable alignment of fibers in the optimal, minimal - loss position. multimode versions of this connector are also available. the typical insertion loss of the fc connector is around 0. 3 db. drilled - out, metallic fc connectors, having insertion losses of > 1 db, are being used with newports large - core ( > 140 \u00b5m ) fibers. sc the sc connector is becoming increasingly popular in single - mode fiber optic telecom and analog catv, field deployed links. the high - precision, ceramic ferrule construction is optimal for aligning single - mode optical fibers. the connectors outer square profile combined with its push - pull coupling mechanism, allow for greater connector packaging density in instruments and patch panels. the keyed outer body prevents rotational sensitivity and fiber endface damage. multimode versions of this connector are also available. the typical insertion loss of the sc connector is around 0. 3 db. connector endface preparation once the optical fiber is terminated with a particular connector, the connector endface preparation will determine what the connector return loss, also known as back reflection, will be. the back reflection is the ratio between the light propagating through the connector in the forward direction and the light reflected back into the light source by the connector surface. minimizing back reflection is of great importance in high - speed and analog fiber optic links, utilizing narrow line width sources such as dfb lasers, which are prone to mode hopping and fluctuations in their output. figure 6connector endfacesfigure 7a typical f - bk3 cleave is clean, flat and perpendicular. flat polish a flat polish of the connector surface will result in a back reflection of about - 16 db ( 4 % ). pc polish the physical contact ( pc ) polish results in a slightly curved connector surface, forcing the fiber ends of mating connector pairs into physical contact with each other. this eliminates the fiber - to - air interface, there by resulting in back reflections of - 30 to - 40 db. the pc polish is the most popular connector endface preparation, used in most applications. spc and upc polish in the super pc", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5176708076461811, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.757193"} {"text": "the mode profile of the he11 mode of a step index fiber can be approximated by a gaussian distribution with a 1 / e width w given by : where : d is the core diameter, and v is the v - number. for our f - sv fiber, for which v = 2, the gaussian width is approximately 28 % larger than the core diameter, so the light should be focused to a spot size 1. 28 times the core diameter at the fiber surface. for a gaussian laser beam, the required beam diameter d incident upon focusing lens of focal length f to produce a focused spot of diameter w is d = 4\u03bbf / ( \u03c0w ). given the laser beam waist and divergence, its easy to determine the distance needed between the focusing lens and the laser to expand the beam to the required diameter. the mode field diameter is now given to provide easier matching of lens to optical fiber for a gaussian beam. a high numerical aperture lens must collimate the diverging output beam of a laser diode. newports f - l series diode laser focusing lenses, are ar - coated for high transmittance at popular laser diode wavelengths and with numerical apertures up to 0. 5 are useful for collimating or focusing. mode scrambling and filtering many multimode fiber experiments are sensitive to the distribution of power among the fibers modes. this is determined by the launching optics, fiber perturbations, and the fibers length. mode scrambling is a technique that distributes the optical power in a fiber among all the guided modes. mode filtering simulates the effects of kilometer lengths of fiber by attenuating higher - order fiber modes. figure 8launching conditions in a multimode optical fiber. one scrambling technique is to splice a length of graded - index fiber between two pieces of step - index fiber this ensures that the downstream fibers core is overfilled regardless of launch conditions. mode filtering can be achieved by wrapping a fiber several times around a finger - sized mandrel ; bending sheds the high - order modes. one way to achieve both scrambling and filtering is to introduce microbending to cause rapid coupling between all fiber modes and attenuation of high - order modes. one approach is to place a stripped section of fiber in a box filled with lead shot. a more precise way is to use newports fm - 1 mode scrambler. this specially designed tool uses a calibrated mechanism to introduce microbending for mode scrambling and filtering. ( a )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6076497532929435, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.759535"} {"text": "of fiber in a box filled with lead shot. a more precise way is to use newports fm - 1 mode scrambler. this specially designed tool uses a calibrated mechanism to introduce microbending for mode scrambling and filtering. ( a ) overfilled ( b ) underfilledfigure 9a schematic of coupling of light into an optical fiberfigure 10mode scrambler for optical fibers. the bends tend to couple out higher - order and radiation modes and to distribute the light into a distribution of modes that will remain stable over long distances. cladding mode removal some light is invariably launched into a fibers cladding. though cladding modes dissipate rapidly with fiber length, they can interfere with measurements. for example, the output of a single - mode fiber will not have a gaussian distribution if light is propagating in the cladding. you can remove cladding modes by stripping a length of fiber coating and immersing the bare fiber in an index matching fluid such as glycerin. common optical parameters the following is a list of common optical parameters associated with fiber optic components. please call or visit newports website for application notes on how to measure these parameters. figure 11 port configuration : number of input ports x number of output ports. e. g. 2 x 2 coupling ratio : the ratio of the power at an output port to the launched power expressed in db. e. g. - 10log ( p2 / p1 ). isolation : the ratio of the power at an output port in the transmitted wavelength band to that in the extinguished wavelength band, expressed in db. directivity : the ratio of the power returned to any other input port to the launched power, expressed in db. e. g. - 10log ( p4 / p1 ). bandwidth : the range of operating wavelengths over which performance parameters are specified. excess loss : the ratio of the total power at all output ports to the launched power, expressed in db. e. g. - 10log [ ( p2 + p3 ) / p1 ]. uniformity : the difference between maximum and minimum insertion losses. extinction ratio : the ratio of the residual power in an extinguished polarization state to the transmitted power, expressed in db. return loss : the ratio of the power returned to the input port to the launched power, expressed in db. e. g. - 10log ( p5 / p1 ). polarization - dependent loss ( pdl ) : the maximum (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5998797205304133, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.760602"} {"text": "return loss : the ratio of the power returned to the input port to the launched power, expressed in db. e. g. - 10log ( p5 / p1 ). polarization - dependent loss ( pdl ) : the maximum ( peak - to - peak ) variation in insertion loss as the input polarization varies, expressed in db. fiber optic communications the theoretical bandwidth of optical fiber transmission in the 1550 nm window alone is on the order of terabits. current fiber optic systems have not even begun to utilize the enormous potential bandwidth that is possible. there are two methods that are employed to achieve an increase in bandwidth. the first is known as time division multiplexing or tdm. multiple channels are transmitted on a single carrier by increasing the modulation rate and allotting a time slot to each channel. however, more sophisticated high - speed electronics, at both the transmitting and receiving ends of the communications link, are required when increasing the bit rate of a system. and as the bit rate increases, inherent modulation limiting characteristics of optical fibers become dominant. chromatic and polarization mode dispersion cause pulse spreading, which affects the signal quality over longer transmission distances. an alternate method for increasing the capacity of fiber optic communications systems is known as wavelength division multiplexing, or wdm. by this method, capacity can be increased by using more than one optical carrier ( wavelength ) on a single fiber. therefore, adding a second transmitter and receiver to an optical fiber can double the bandwidth of that communications system. this method of increasing the capacity of an optical system has appeal for a variety of reasons. if a system were to increase in capacity using tdm alone, the existing transmitter and receiver would be replaced with a faster and more expensive transmitter / receiver pair. using wdm, the existing transmitter and receiver do not need to be replaced. a second transmitter / receiver pair of a different wavelength is simply added. this is done by coupling, or multiplexing the output of the two lasers into a single fiber. at the receiving end, the two wavelengths are then separated, or demultiplexed, and each optical carrier is routed to its own receiver. for transmission systems using a 1310 nm laser, a second laser at 1550 nm is usually added. the reason for choosing these wavelengths is that they lie in the windows or ranges of least attenuation. this allows the signal to travel a longer distance. the itu ( international telecommunication union ) has proposed a set of closely spaced wavelengths in the 1550 nm window. this method of w", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6451687604676885, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.761722"} {"text": "that they lie in the windows or ranges of least attenuation. this allows the signal to travel a longer distance. the itu ( international telecommunication union ) has proposed a set of closely spaced wavelengths in the 1550 nm window. this method of wdm is known as dense wavelength division multiplexing, or dwdm. these different wavelengths or channels, are spaced 100 ghz apart, which is approximately 0. 8 nm. this set of channels is commonly known as the itu - t grid, and is specified in frequency. the reason the 1550 nm window was chosen by the itu is twofold : it is in one of the windows that has the smallest amount of attenuation ; and it also lies in the band in which erbium doped optical amplifiers operate. itu - t dwdm grid the following diagram is a conceptual example of a fiber optic network. the all - optical network the all - optical network will be the next evolution in optical communications. current dwdm systems are point - to - point links meaning that the signals have a single distinct starting and ending point. research is being performed to help these networks evolve into fully configurable networks, which are not limited to fixed point - to - point links. transparency in the optical layer opens many possibilities for the future. digital and analog transmission can occur on the same fiber. different bit rates using different protocols will all travel together. current research is being performed on reconfiguring an optical network in real time. wavelength selective switching allows wavelengths to be routed through the network individually. some of the applications of this are for network restoration and redundancy, which may reduce or entirely eliminate the need for an entire back up system to help the network recover from failures such as equipment malfunctions or fiber breaks. a reconfigurable network may offer bandwidth on demand to configure itself to optimize for traffic bottlenecks. the future may also include wavelength translation to convert traffic on one wavelength to another wavelength in the optical domain. all optical switching is still in the research phase ; however, researchers are looking for ways to create reliable, low loss switches with fast switching speeds. investigation into the possibility of optical packet switching and other novel technologies are currently underway. the all - optical network may be just around the corner. photonic crystal fibers ( pcfs ) photonic crystal fiber ( pcf ) is a subset of photonic crystals. the field of pcf was first explored in the latter half of 1990 ' s and quickly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5924564094078819, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.762774"} {"text": "network may be just around the corner. photonic crystal fibers ( pcfs ) photonic crystal fiber ( pcf ) is a subset of photonic crystals. the field of pcf was first explored in the latter half of 1990 ' s and quickly evolved into a commercial technology. pcfs are generally divided into two main categories : index guiding fibers that have a solid core, and photonic bandgap fibers that have periodic microstructured elements and a core of low index material ( e. g. hollow core ). they can provide characteristics that ordinary optical fiber cannot, such as : single - mode operation from the uv to ir with large mode - field diameters, exceptionally high nonlinearity, numerical aperture ( na ) ranging from very low to about 0. 9, and optimized dispersion properties. applications of pcfs are found in a wide range of research fields like spectroscopy, metrology, biomedicine, imaging, telecommunication, industrial machining, and military. fabrication and characteristicsfigure 12close - up view of pcf preform the typical starting point for manufacturing of an index guided pcf is an array of hollow capillary silica tubes bundled around a pure silica rod replacing the center capillary. for photonic bandgap ( pbg ) fibers, one or more capillary tubes may simply be left out in the center of the preform in order to create a hollow ' defect ' core. a sleeving tube surrounds the entire assembly that forms the preform. in a fiber draw tower, the preform is heated to around 2000\u00b0c and it is carefully pulled into fiber with the aid of gravity and pressure. typical outer fiber diameter is 125 \u00b5m, but diameters from 80 to around 700 \u00b5m are routinely fabricated. this fiber maintains the structure of the preform, but now on a microscopic scale. standard protective polymer coatings are applied to the fibers in order to improve handling characteristics. figure 13most pcf fiber can be connectorized too. call newport for more information. the dispersion characteristics of pcfs can be manipulated to create fibers having zero, low, or anomalous dispersion at visible wavelengths. the dispersion can also be flattened. combining these features with small mode field areas results in outstanding nonlinear fibers. by altering the pattern of air holes or the materials used, it is possible to manipulate other characteristics of pcfs, such as the single - mode cut - off wavelength, the na, and the nonlinear coefficient.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6186433004459654, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.764790"} {"text": "field areas results in outstanding nonlinear fibers. by altering the pattern of air holes or the materials used, it is possible to manipulate other characteristics of pcfs, such as the single - mode cut - off wavelength, the na, and the nonlinear coefficient. the design flexibility is very large, and designers can use many different, fascinating, and odd air hole patterns to achieve specific pcf parameters. the triangular arrangement of round air holes in the cladding is typically used to create single - mode fibers. increasing the air - filling fraction in the cladding typically leads to multimode behavior. an elliptical core can create a highly birefringent fiber that is polarization maintaining. silica provides superior fiber performance for most applications with wavelengths between 200 and 2500 nm, but use of other materials can enhance specific parameters like nonlinearity or wave - guiding outside this spectral region. furthermore, a long list of dopants can be added to silica. doped silica is now used in a variety of fiber lasers and amplifiers ; these could be combined with the unique capabilities of pcfs to provide even more useful devices. coupling, splicing and connectorization of pcfs are other important issues because the fibers may have extreme parameters of mode field area and na ; coupling methods are in some cases very different from standard fiber methods. however, users may strip and cleave the pcfs with standard fiber tools. for laboratory use, the fibers are typically just cleaved and used with \" open \" ends. in such cases, it is important to avoid direct exposure of the fiber ends to any liquids since the capillary forces in the holes may draw the liquids several centimeters into the fiber, and thus disturb the wave - guiding properties. pcfs can be spliced to standard fibers ( and take advantage of the various connector schemes of such fibers ), or the pcfs may be connectorized directly. newport provides both pcfs spliced to standard fibers and directly connectorized on a semi - custom basis. note that the mechanical strength of splices, the connectorized fiber core offset and connector - to - connector coupling are not always the same as standard fibers. directly connectorized fibers may furthermore provide beam expansion to lower the fiber end facet intensity and reduce the risk of damage at high power levels. call newport for more details. newport ' s f - sm, and f - nl series are index guided fibers. similar to conventional fibers, index guiding pcfs transport light through a solid core by total internal reflection. the microstructured air -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.555708814968439, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.765911"} {"text": ". call newport for more details. newport ' s f - sm, and f - nl series are index guided fibers. similar to conventional fibers, index guiding pcfs transport light through a solid core by total internal reflection. the microstructured air - filled region in pcfs effectively lowers the index of the cladding effectively creating a step - index optical fiber. the fiber behaves in many ways like standard step - index fibers, but it has a number of advantages. index guiding pcfs are made of undoped silica that provides very low losses, sustains high powers and temperature levels, and may withstand nuclear radiation. depending on pcf design, the air in the cladding may be utilized to yield fibers with extremely low or extremely high index steps. figure 14schematic of an index guided pcffigure 15cross section of triangular cladding pcf a typical cross section of an index guided pcf is shown in fig 14 and 15. the pcf consists of a triangular lattice of air holes where the core is defined by a missing air hole. the pitch is labeled \u03bb, and measures the period of the hole structure ( the distance between the centers of neighboring air holes ). the hole size is labeled d, and measures the diameter of the holes. figure 16cross section of air - clad pcf some pcfs have a cladding refractive index that exhibits a strong wavelength dependence. together with the inherently large design flexibility, pcfs allow for a whole range of novel properties to be explored. such properties include endlessly single - mode fibers ( f - sm series ), extremely nonlinear fibers and fibers with anomalous dispersion in the visible wavelength region ( f - nl series ). a unique feature of pcfs is that a single fiber may support single - mode operation over a wavelength range from around 300 nm to beyond 2000 nm even for large mode field areas ( of several hundred \u00b5m2 ). this allows pcfs to be utilized for transmission of very high powers with high beam quality without running into nonlinear or damage barriers ( several hundred watts for cw operation ). on the other hand, the highly nonlinear fibers made as single - mode fibers have extremely small mode field areas ( typically around 3 \u00b5m2 ) and confine light to the core region efficiently. compared to standard fiber technology, where the light is guided using solid glasses with different refractive indices, several new properties may be realized using pcf technology. for example : - fibers that are single - mode in a very broad spectral range ( in principle all wavelengths )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5598631396247259, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.767364"} {"text": "fiber technology, where the light is guided using solid glasses with different refractive indices, several new properties may be realized using pcf technology. for example : - fibers that are single - mode in a very broad spectral range ( in principle all wavelengths ) - very small mode sizes may be obtained ( down to approx. 1 \u00b5m ) - very large mode sizes may be obtained ( up to 25 \u00b5m or larger ) - zero dispersion wavelengths below 1300 nm is possible ( down to approx. 600 nm ) - exceptionally large birefringence close to 10 - 2 can be realized - very high numerical apertures up to 0. 9 may be obtained hence, pcfs are ideally suited for applications requiring large non - linearities, broadband operation with single - mode guidance, large mode areas, light collection from a large solid angle, etc. figure 17large mode area fiber ( f - sm series ) figure 18near field image of f - sm fiber at 1550 nmfigure 19mode structure of f - sm20 fiber formation of broad continuous spectra through propagation of short femto or picosecond - range high power pulses through nonlinear media ( also known as supercontinuum generation, or scg ) was first observed in 1970 and has since then been studied extensively in many different materials. the term supercontinuum does not cover a specific phenomenon but rather a plethora of nonlinear effects leading to considerable spectral broadening of optical pulses and thereby potentially octave - spanning output. the involved nonlinear effects depend on the dispersion in the material and count effects like self - phase modulation ( spm ), raman scattering, phase matching and solitons. results on scg in pcfs have previously been presented with pumping in the anomalous dispersion regime or at the zero - dispersion wavelength in both the visible and the infrared wavelength range. most experiments utilize femtosecond pumping as this results in spectacularly broad spectra. picosecond pumping yields more narrow spectra, but does so with far cheaper laser sources and is therefore commercially interesting. although scg can be observed in a drop of water given enough pumping power, pcfs are ideal media for scg as the dispersion can be designed to facilitate continuum generation in a specific region. in this way, it is possible to convert light to both higher and lower wavelength, just like super wide spectra covering more than an octave is achievable at previously unthinkable low power levels. practical super", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.615319474121854, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.769874"} {"text": "generation in a specific region. in this way, it is possible to convert light to both higher and lower wavelength, just like super wide spectra covering more than an octave is achievable at previously unthinkable low power levels. practical supercontinuum tips scg - 800 and scg - 800 - cars ( see supercontinuum generation fiber devices ) are ideal in generating supercontinuum using an ultrafast laser. when coupling light from a femtosecond laser into a crystal fiber, a number of issues regarding pulse distortion must be addressed to achieve the optimum performance. in this section, we discuss the precautions taken to couple light from a ti : sapphire laser into a 1. 7 \u00b5m core pcf. the first issue to be addressed is the 4 % reflection from the fiber surface, which can lead to a distortion of the pulse train and in severe cases will stop the laser from mode - locking. cleaving the fiber at an angle can minimize back reflections. however, we recommend that the problem be avoided by the use of a faraday isolator. coupling out a small portion of the beam and directing it to newport ' s pulsescout autocorrelators ( see pulsescout autocorrelator ) allows for real - time monitoring of the pulse width and beam quality. the femtosecond pulses are easily coupled into the fiber through standard microscope objectives. magnifications of 40x and 60x provide good results. aspheric ball lenses can also be used, but as these are not achromatic, they should not be used with short femtosecond pulses due to the broad spectral range of these pulses. the dispersion in the microscope objective should be compensated using a precompensating prism or grating compressor in order to launch the shortest possible ( i. e. highest intensity ) pulse into the fiber. the diameter of the laser beam should match the aperture of the microscope objective. this is easily achieved with a standard telescope. nonlinear effects are inherently very sensitive to variations in the input power, thus a very stable mount is needed. to avoid displacement of the fiber end due to thermal, acoustic and other unwanted effects, the fiber should be mounted as close to the end as possible. gluing the fiber to the mount, or using a connectorized fiber, can create further stability. if polarization - maintaining fibers are used, the polarization axis of the linearly polarized femtosecond pulses should", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5613975900101242, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.771253"} {"text": "colleagues came up with a different explanation. they had gone to northern tanzania to study the foraging habits of the hadza, the last known hunter - gatherers in africa. while there, the scholars were struck by how strong the tribe ' s old women were and how, rather than live off the fruits of others ' labor, they worked hard digging up the tribe ' s main starch staple, a deeply - buried tuber. \" their acquisition rates were similar to the rates of younger women, \" hawkes told me, \" but these old ladies were spending even more time \" than their daughters gathering food, leaving camp earlier, coming back later, and bringing back more than they needed. the anthropologists also noticed that many children with grandmothers or great - aunts had faster growth rates than their counterparts. from these slim clues, hawkes and her colleagues developed the \" grandmother hypothesis, \" which holds that women past childbearing age helped not just their children, but their children ' s children, and lengthened the human lifespan in the process. without babies of their own to lug around, grandmothers had both time and a very good reason to be useful. when they eked out food for their daughters ' children, they reduced the chance that those children would die. that gave the grandmothers a better chance of passing on their own predisposition to longevity. ( in general, grandmothers appear to have helped daughters ' offspring more than sons ' ; evolutionary theorists explain this by pointing out that a daughter ' s maternity affords a surer genetic connection than a son ' s paternity, unless you all but imprison your daughter - in - law. 2 ) the grandmother hypothesis also explains another conundrum : why do humans have shorter birth intervals than other primates? chimp mothers, for instance, wait five or six years to give birth to another neonate. women can pop out infants as soon as they ' ve weaned previous ones. it turns out that, once humans learned the art of collaborative child - rearing, old women started spending more time with their daughters ' toddlers. that freed up the young women to have more. as the grandmother effect spread throughout the population over thousands of generations, it changed humans in another way. it made their brains bigger. as life lengthened, so did each stage of it. children stayed children longer, which let their brains develop a more complex neural architecture. not everyone accepts this triumphantly feminist account of our evolutionary history. when anthropologists first heard it,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5139640896439774, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.781309"} {"text": "bigger. as life lengthened, so did each stage of it. children stayed children longer, which let their brains develop a more complex neural architecture. not everyone accepts this triumphantly feminist account of our evolutionary history. when anthropologists first heard it, most of them dismissed it as ridiculous. for one thing, it cuts man - the - hunter out of the picture. what about all the calories needed to grow our oversized brains? didn ' t those have to come from the meat brought back from the hunt? moreover, throughout recorded history, young women left their villages to move in with their men. so how would mothers have had access to their daughters ' children? the comeback to these objections is that hunter - gatherer families probably made all kinds of arrangements. 3 in the tribes that anthropologists have been able to observe, some couples stayed in the wife ' s village, some moved in with her parents while starting their families, and some women left home. patrilocality \u2014 men staying put \u2014 probably became the norm only when our ancestors settled down to farm, which made men unwilling to leave their land and wealth. and it ' s not as if hunters alone brought in enough food to let the children thrive. hawkes argues that, while meat boosted a tribe ' s overall nutrition, hunters couldn ' t be counted on to come home with a kill. when they did, the demands of status made them just as likely to share the bounty with the tribe as to hold it back for their children. the food grandmothers provided, on the other hand, was steady and reliable. two decades later, the grandmother hypothesis has gone from oddball conjecture to one of the dominant theories of why we live so long, breed so fast, and are so smart. the extra calories and care supplied by women in their long post - fertile period subsidized the long pre - fertile period that is childhood. and that ' s what made us fully human. in a happy coincidence, the grandmother hypothesis comes along just as americans enter what might be called the age of old age. america ' s biggest generation, the baby - boomers, began retiring in 2011. this gerontocracy is expected to drain our wealth. by 2060, more than 20 percent of all americans will be 65 or older, up from 13 percent in 2010. more than 92 million oldsters will roam the land, if roaming is within their power. people who fret about the federal budget point out that, by 2011, social security and medicare were already eating", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5297545186826036, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.783712"} {"text": "stanford university fellow named luba botcheva went home to bulgaria to study how grandparents affected families struggling to survive the fall of communism. in the remote and very traditional region where she did her research, several generations would live under the same roof. the socialist - era factories had been shut down, and jobs were scarce. botcheva discovered that grandparents ' pensions were often the most dependable source of a household ' s income. in addition to paying the bills, however, grandparents buffered grandchildren against the harsh parenting that comes from acute anxiety. children who grew up with grandparents in the home reported less depression than those without. \" it was the opposite of what we expected, \" she said. \" i called it the ' moderation effect. ' \" many of the grandparents had lived through world war ii, so when it came to poverty and uncertainty about the future, they had \" social wisdom \" to share, as botcheva puts it, which kept tension levels down. 5 unsurprisingly, grandmothers often do more for their grandchildren than grandfathers do. \" older women are the neighborhood watch and the neighborhood glue, \" says fried. \" they ' re the community purveyor of norms. \" when older black people in south africa first started getting pensions from the post - apartheid government that were big enough to live on, the grandchildren who lived with grandmothers \u2014 especially the granddaughters \u2014 got taller and heavier, which observers took as a sign that they were eating better. 6 but when it was the grandfathers who got the pensions, the grandchildren didn ' t grow at all. that wouldn ' t surprise economists who work with microfinance lending programs. they have discovered that female borrowers use their loans to improve their children ' s lot, whereas male borrowers, on the whole, do not. not that all grandparents can or want to be useful. as more people in industrialized countries postpone childbearing, parents become grandparents later and have less energy. the divorced ones may have started second or third families of their own. global mobility puts distance between the generations. assisted - living facilities segregate the old. some retirement communities bar children altogether. but children still need the nurture they once got from their mothers ' mothers. so it ' s worth thinking, along with fried, about institutions that would give parents and children that grandparental boost. i dream of communal houses or apartment complexes where families could live near grandparents but not right on top of them. that vision gives rise to others, some of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5210049261695072, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.786518"} {"text": "the avant - garde movements of the early 20th century ushered in a revolution on many fronts : a revolution in the arts, a revolution in political values, and a revolution in thinking itself. in this course, we examine central literary and artistic works of the european avant - garde, studying the movements of italian futurism, german expressionism, dada, and french surrealism. at the heart of this course is an inquiry into the crucial nexus of art and politics. what constitutes the central critiques made by the various avant - garde movements? in what ways did these movements induce social and political change? what legacy have they left on our thinking today? finally, what can we make of the complexities of the avant - garde? how can we understand the futurist leaning toward fascism, the anarchist stance in dada, and the gender violence in expressionist art and literature? attention is paid to the visual and verbal arts. we read the genres of poetry, prose, and drama, as well as manifestoes and political tracts. we also view slides of painting, photography, photomontage and performance art. works by andr breton, leonora carrington, franz kafka, mina loy, f. t. marinetti, tristan tzara, and frank wedekind, amongst others. theoretical texts by walter benjamin, bertolt brecht, peter brger, and georg lukcs.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5298133681114806, "token_count": 287, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.791093"} {"text": "water from space is ' raining ' onto a planet - forming disc at supersonic speeds, new observations from the spitzer space telescope reveal. the unprecedented detail of the observations at this early stage of the disc ' s formation could help reveal which of two competing theories of planet formation is correct. planets form when matter clumps together in swirling discs of gas and dust, called protoplanetary discs, around infant stars. but many details of how this works are still not known. for example, some scientists think giant planets can form in just a few thousand years, while others argue it takes millions of years. now, astronomers led by dan watson of the university of rochester in new york, us, have gained an unprecedented view of a protoplanetary disc at the young age of just a few hundred thousand years old. they used the spitzer space telescope to examine the spectrum of infrared light coming from the vicinity of an embryonic star called iras 4b, which lies about 1000 light years from earth. at this very early stage, an outer cocoon of gas and dust called an envelope still surrounds the star and its swirling disc. previous observations in the microwave portion of the spectrum suggested that this large cocoon is contracting and sending material onto the disc. but the inner region, where the disc meets the cocoon, could not be seen at these wavelengths. the spitzer observations probe this inner region and reveal infrared light emitted by massive amounts of water vapour - the equivalent of five times the content of the earth ' s oceans. the vapour is too hot to be explained by the embryonic star ' s radiation alone, suggesting another process must be heating it up. the team believes ice from the cocoon is pelting the disc at a rate faster than the speed of sound there, creating a shock front. \" the sonic boom that it endures when it lands on the disc heats it up very efficiently \" and vaporises it, watson told new scientist. this supersonic shock \" has been searched for and theorised about for decades \", watson says. it is a short - lived phenomenon that only occurs during the first few hundred thousand years of the star and disc formation, while the envelope is still feeding the disc. the light emitted as the icy particles hit the disc can be used to learn more about the disc itself at this early stage, which could shed light on how planets form. most astronomers believe planets form according to a model known as \" core accretion \", in which small particles snowball into larger and larger", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.551348553452041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.797365"} {"text": "used to learn more about the disc itself at this early stage, which could shed light on how planets form. most astronomers believe planets form according to a model known as \" core accretion \", in which small particles snowball into larger and larger objects over millions of years. a competing idea, called \" disc instability \", is that turbulence in the disc can cause matter to collapse into planets extremely quickly, producing gas giants such as jupiter in just a few thousand years. \" if you wanted to test between those scenarios, one of the most important places to look would be the stage we ' re looking at now, \" watson says. future observations of such young discs could reveal how turbulent the discs are, and thus whether they boast the conditions required for disc instability, he says. \" the whole subject of the very beginnings of the development of solar systems is open to study now, \" watson says. donald brownlee of the university of washington in seattle, us, agrees. \" it ' s interesting to have a new peek into a period of history of what appears to be a forming planetary system, potentially at a timescale that we ' ve never seen before, \" he told new scientist. \" it forms another important clue to how planetary systems form. \" journal reference : nature ( vol 448, p 1026 ) if you would like to reuse any content from new scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. new scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. have your say only subscribers may leave comments on this article. please log in. only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article barking up the wrong tree mon mar 19 19 : 02 : 04 gmt 2012 by tony marshallsay having been schooled in the theory of planet formation by agglomeration of dust particles over a period of thousands or millions of years, i have recently ceased believing in it for a number of reasons : 1. if agglomeration works so well, why has the asteroid belt not agglomerated to a planet? of course, recent examination by spacecraft has revealed that, while some asteroids are solid, other \" potatoes \" are, indeed, agglomerates. 2. the agglomeration theory cannot easily - if at all - explain retrograde planetary spins 3. it is difficult to see how agglomeration and an exceedingly slow increase in self - gravity pressure could result", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5210802176431322, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.798405"} {"text": "agglomerates. 2. the agglomeration theory cannot easily - if at all - explain retrograde planetary spins 3. it is difficult to see how agglomeration and an exceedingly slow increase in self - gravity pressure could result in the creation of \" rocky \" planets like our earth, with molten iron cores including heavier, radioactive elements to generate internal heating, since any heat generated by the compression process would be dissipated into space over such a long time, making fusion reactions extremely unlikely. accordingly, i have come to the opinion that planets of all types are formed initially not over an exceedingly long time but rather almost instantly as core shards of exploding supernovae. this view, again, has several implications, viz : a. outer core shards consisting of light materials would likely be small, lose heat very quickly and cool into misshapes before being able to become spherical under self - gravity. b. inner core shards, on the other hand, would have sufficient thermal capacity and radioactive material to maintain heat long enough to develop a spherical shape and the composition of our earth ( we might thus consider the earth to be a microcosm of a stellar core, albeit under far less heat and pressure ). c. the shards would be flung in all directions, resulting in the multitude of \" free planets \" recently observed by japanese investigators. d. some of those free planets would inevitably - sooner or later - become trapped in the gravitational fields of stars, creating planetary systems, such as our own solar system. e. the inconsistencies of size and composition of the solar system ' s planets can then easily be explained by considering the planets as having been captured \" missiles \" from various supernovae, perhaps even in other galaxies ( do the math - it ' s possible, even at incredibly slow speeds, when you take a few billion years into consideration ). f. a \" gas giant \" can be formed by a heavy, rocky \" seed \" gathering a thick coat of gas through happening to have been ejected in the direction of a large gas cloud. opinions on the above are welcome ( i am becoming accustomed to brickbats descending upon my head from a great height! ). all comments should respect the new scientist house rules. if you think a particular comment breaks these rules then please use the \" report \" link in that comment to report it to us. if you are having a technical problem posting a comment, please contact technical support.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.546681059942274, "token_count": 494, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.799663"} {"text": "american civil religion american civil religion is a term given to a shared set of certain fundamental beliefs, values, holidays, and rituals by those who live in the united states of america. these shared values and holidays are based upon, parallel to, but independent of the theological tenets of each specific denomination or religious belief. the notion of a civil religion originated in the united states due to its origins as a religiously diverse nation. from the pilgrim founders and the other puritan groups to the numerous other groups fleeing religious persecution, the american nation had a unique experience and developed a system that allowed for maximum freedom of religion for individuals and groups while allowing no one religious denomination to dominate. in this context, the nation developed a religious, primarily protestant ethos and set of values based on religion but not overtly based on any one tradition. the term was coined by sociologist robert bellah in 1967. the article in which the term is coined, \" civil religion in america, \" sparked one of the most controversial debates in united states sociology. soon after the paper was published, the topic became the major focus at religious sociology conferences and numerous articles and books were written on the subject. the debate reached it peak with the american bicentennial celebration in 1976. the american civil religion emerged as a means to permit the creation of a distinct national set of values that was not tied to a specific confession. it permitted religion to play a fundamental role in shaping the moral vision of the country but in a way that removed theological concerns from the public arena. the united states was settled in part by religious dissenters from the established church of england, who desired a civil society founded on a different religious vision. consequently, there has never been a state church in the united states and individual state churches have not existed in the united states since the early nineteenth century. religious denominations compete with one another for allegiance in the public square. these facts have created a public discourse which accepts regular displays of religious piety by political leaders but in a vocabulary which captures the common values embraced by diverse religious traditions but eschews the particular theological tenets. unlike countries with established state churches, where the specific religious basis of political discourse is held in common and therefore taken for granted, american civil society developed a way of discussing the intersection of religious and political values in non - theological terms. three periods of crisis in the book the broken covenant bellah argued that america has experienced three periods when a large number of americans were cynical about the american creed : once in each of the last three centuries america has faced a time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5169761746750393, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.812808"} {"text": "non - theological terms. three periods of crisis in the book the broken covenant bellah argued that america has experienced three periods when a large number of americans were cynical about the american creed : once in each of the last three centuries america has faced a time of trial, a time of testing so severe that \u2026 the existence of our nation has been called in question \u2026 the spiritual glue that had bound the nation together in previous years had simply collapsed. creation of the term bellah ' s ideas about civil religion were not novel. before bellah wrote his paper in 1967 coining the term \" american civil religion \" several prominent scholars had alluded to the concept. but there was no common conceptual term to describe, interpret or analyze civic religious faith in america. alexis de tocqueville the french thinker alexis de tocqueville has a special place in the understanding of the role of religion in american history. in addition to defining the economic factors that separated british culture from that of the americans, tocqueville found the role of religion in these societies to be significantly different. he found that many of the differences between the americans and the english stemmed from diverse spiritual practices and freedoms. in democracy of america tocqueville stated : religion in american takes no direct part in the government of society, but it must be regarded as the first of their political institutions ; for if it does not impart a taste for freedom, it facilitates the use of it. indeed, it is in this same point of view that the inhabitants of the united states themselves look upon religious belief. i do not know whether all americans have a sincere faith in their religion for who can search the human heart? \u2014 but i am certain that they hold it to be indispensable to the maintenance of republican institutions. this opinion is not peculiar to a class of citizens or to a party, but it belongs to the whole nation and to every rank of society. throughout his career, tocqueville promoted the importance of religious freedom and education without religious influence. the importance he placed on educational innovation led to his strong defense of religious freedom : they all attributed the peaceful dominion of religion in their country mainly to the separation of church and state. i do not hesitate to affirm that during my stay in america i did not meet a single individual, of the clergy or the laity, who was not of the same opinion on this point. he viewed religious independence as not a threat to society, but as an inspiration for further social freedoms, and believed the basic freedoms of education,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.540052724601174, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.813873"} {"text": "single individual, of the clergy or the laity, who was not of the same opinion on this point. he viewed religious independence as not a threat to society, but as an inspiration for further social freedoms, and believed the basic freedoms of education, religion, and the press to ultimately foster the spirit of freedom worldwide. yet tocqueville believed religion to be essential to human success, particularly in democracies : despotism may govern without faith, but liberty cannot. religion is much more necessary in the republic \u2026 than in the monarchy \u2026 it is more needed in democratic republics than in any others. how is it possible that society should escape destruction if the moral tie is not strengthened in proportion as the political tie is relaxed? and what can be done with a people who are their own masters if they are not submissive to the deity? tocqueville saw in america the realization of the idea that inspired him. scholarly progenitors of this idea include john dewey who spoke of \" common faith \" ( 1934 ) ; robin williams ' s american society : a sociological interpretation, ( 1951 ) which stated there was a \" common religion \" in america ; lloyd warner ' s analysis of the memorial day celebrations in \" yankee city \" ( 1953 ) ; martin marty ' s \" religion in general \" ( 1959 ) ; will herberg who spoke of \" the american way of life \" ( 1960, 1974 ) ; sidney mead ' s \" religion of the republic \" ( 1963 ) ; and g. k. chesterton advanced the thesis that the united states was \" the only nation \u2026 founded on a creed \" and also coined the phrase \" a nation with a soul of a church. \" in the same period, several distinguished historians such as yehoshua arieli, daniel boorstin, and ralph gabriel \" assessed the religious dimension of ' nationalism ', the ' american creed ', ' cultural religion ' and the ' democratic faith ' \". today, according to social scientist rondald wimberley and william swatos, there seems to be a firm consensus among social scientists that there is a part of americanism that is especially religious in nature, which may be termed \" civil religion. \" but this religious nature is less significant than the \" transcendent universal religion of the nation \" which late eighteenth century french intellectuals such as jean - jacques rousseau and alexis de tocqueville wrote about. robert bellah and colleagues bellah and fellow scholar martin e. marty studied civil religion as a cultural phenomenon, attempting to identify the actual ten", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5000703266300912, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.815019"} {"text": "which late eighteenth century french intellectuals such as jean - jacques rousseau and alexis de tocqueville wrote about. robert bellah and colleagues bellah and fellow scholar martin e. marty studied civil religion as a cultural phenomenon, attempting to identify the actual tenets of civil religion in the united states of america, or to study civil religion as a phenomenon of cultural anthropology. marty wrote that americans approved of \" religion in general \" without being particularly concerned about the content of that faith, and attempted to distinguish \" priestly \" and \" prophetic \" roles within the practice of american civil religion, which he preferred to call the \" public theology. \" bellah wrote that civil religion was \" an institutionalized collection of sacred beliefs about the american nation. \" he identified the american revolution, the civil war, and the civil rights movement as three decisive historical events that impacted the content and imagery of civil religion in the united states. he also identified several modalities within u. s. civil religion related to the biblical categories of the priesthood, prophets, and wisdom tradition. empirical evidence supporting bellah ronald wimberley ( 1976 ) and other researchers collected large surveys and factor analytic studies which gave empirical support to bellah ' s argument that civil religion is a distinct cultural phenomena within american society which is not embodied in american politics or denominational religion. examples of civil religious beliefs are reflected in statements used in the research such as the following : - \" america is god ' s chosen nation today. \" - \" a president ' s authority... is from god. \" - \" social justice cannot only be based on laws ; it must also come from religion. \" - \" god can be known through the experiences of the american people. \" - \" holidays like the fourth of july are religious as well as patriotic. \" later research sought to determine who embraces views that could be characterized as part of the american civil religion. in a 1978 study by james christenson and ronald wimberley, the researchers found that a wide cross section of american citizens have such beliefs. in general though, college graduates and political or religious liberals appear to be somewhat less likely to embrace civil religion. protestants and catholics have the same level of civil religiosity. religions that were created in the united states, the mormons, adventists, and pentecostals, have the highest civil religiosity. jews, unitarians and those with no religious preference have the lowest civil religion. even though there is variation in the scores, the \" great majority \" of americans", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5512350532310744, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.816736"} {"text": ". 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 5. 6 william h. swatos. encyclopedia of religion and society. ( rowman altamira, 1998. isbn 0761989560 ), 94. \" the article caused an almost unprecedented burst of excitement among sociologists and other scholars of religion. \" - \u2191 richard t. hughes. myths america lives by. ( university of illinois press, 2004. isbn 0252072200 ), 3 - \u2191 robert neelly. the broken covenant : american civil religion in time of trial. ( university of chicago press, 1992 ), 1 - \u2191 french ministry of culture, alexis de tocqueville. general council for la manche. retrieved june 4, 2007. - \u2191 gerald a. parsons, \" from nationalism to internationalism : civil religion and the festival of saint catherine of siena, 1940 - 2003. \" journal of church and state ( september 22, 2004 ) - \u2191 stjepan gabriel mestrovic. the road from paradise : prospects for democracy in eastern europe. ( university press of kentucky, 1993. isbn 0813118271 ), 125, 130 american civil religion - bellah, robert neelly, \" civil religion in america. \" journal of the american academy of arts and sciences 96 ( 1 ) ( winter 1967 ) : 1 \u2013 21. from the issue entitled religion in america. - bellah, robert neelly. the broken covenant : american civil religion in time of trial. university of chicago press, 1985. isbn 0226041999 - canipe, lee, \" under god and anti - communist : how the pledge of allegiance got religion in cold - war america. \" journal of church and state ( march 22, 2002. } - cloud, matthew w., \" one nation, under god \" : tolerable acknowledgment of religion or unconstitutional cold war propaganda cloaked in american civil religion? \" journal of church and state 46 ( 2 ) ( march 22, 2004 ) : 311 issn 0021 - 969x. - edwords, frederick, \" the religious character of american patriotism. \" the humanist ( november / december 1987 ) : 20 \u2013 24, 36 - gehrig, gail. american civil religion : an assessment. society for scientific study, 1981. isbn 0932566022 - hughes, richard t. myths america lives by. university of illinois press, 2004. isbn 0252072200 - jewett,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5317182264632516, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.818999"} {"text": "##rth \u2013 the circumference of something, like the trunk of a tree. gland ( of a leaf ) \u2013 a small organ on a leaf that gives out oils or similar substances. inflorescence \u2013 the arrangement of all the flowers on a tree. the shape is used to help identify the plant. key \u2013 a tool used to identify groups and species of living things. leaflet \u2013 a subdivision of a leaf - it may look like a leaf but is attached to the leaf stalk or midrib, not to the shoot. lobe \u2013 a rounded or pointed section of a leaf, not divided into a leaflet. margin \u2013 the edge of a leaf. midrib \u2013 the central vein of a leaf. native \u2013 a tree that occurs naturally in an area, as opposed to a non - native tree that has been introduced. opposite \u2013 the arrangement of leaves on a stem - the leaves attach in pairs at the same point, opposite each other, rather than attaching at alternate points. palmate \u2013 a leaf shape in which the lobes or leaflets radiate from a single point, like fingers from a hand. petals \u2013 usually larger and more brightly coloured than sepals. pinnate \u2013 a leaf shape in which the lobes or leaflets are arranged on both sides of the stalk or midrib like a feather. pollarded \u2013 when the upper branches of a tree have been cut back to encourage new growth. sepals \u2013 the outermost parts of a flower which cover and protect the flower when it is in bud. they are usually green. side shoots \u2013 short, spur - like shoots growing from the main shoots. spike \u2013 an elongated cluster of flowers ; a type of inflorescence. stalk \u2013 the structure that supports the blade of a leaf. stigma \u2013 the part at the end of the style. it is covered with a sticky substance that pollen adheres to. stipule \u2013 a small, leaf - like structure, found where the leaf connects to the stem. style \u2013 a tube - like structure in the centre of a flower that supports the stigma. trunk \u2013 the woody stem of a tree, before the branches. urban forest \u2013 the trees in our towns and cities. whorl \u2013 3 or more leaves or needles circling around a stem.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5195050178611289, "token_count": 459, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.837365"} {"text": "tuesday, november 29, 2011 bob kuska, nidcr mouse study explains bacterium ' s unique role in periodontitis nih - supported study solves the mystery of a devious oral bacterium scientists say they have solved in mice the mystery of how an unusual bacterium can trigger the common dental condition periodontitis while residing in low numbers in the space between tooth and gum. the researchers report that the microbe porphyromonas gingivalis hacks into the front - line immune cells that police the space between tooth and gum, known as the subgingival crevice, and reprograms them to create living conditions more to its microbial liking. as more immune cells are co - opted to follow the wrong program, the usually benign bacterial residents of the subgingival crevice \u2014 not p. gingivalis, as long suspected \u2014 opportunistically rise up in number, altering their community dynamics and prompting them to infect the tooth ' s supportive structures, or periodontium. the study in the nov. 17 issue of the journal cell host and microbe was supported by the national institute of dental and craniofacial research ( nidcr ), part of the national institutes of health. \" as the other bacteria attack, and immune cells counterattack, progressively damaging the integrity of the tooth in the process, p. gingivalis sits in the shadows and feasts on the inflammatory spoils, \" said george hajishengallis, d. d. s., ph. d., a researcher at the university of louisville school of dentistry and a co - lead author on the study. \" this is one ingenious little bug. \" according to hajishengallis, their discovery marks the first documented case in microbiology of a keystone species, or more specifically, a keystone pathogen. coined by ecologists in the late 1960s, the keystone concept refers to a low - abundance species that exercises a disproportionate influence on its environment. in this case, low - abundance p. gingivalis shapes a microbial community and catalyzes the onset of an oral disease. the next step is to test whether p. gingivalis follows a comparable evolutionary strategy in people. if so, they already have in their sights drugs that can be applied topically to the affected tooth to block this keystone pathogen from reprogramming the immune cells, providing a more targeted approach to prevent and / or treat periodontitis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5144660191947328, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.845560"} {"text": "people. if so, they already have in their sights drugs that can be applied topically to the affected tooth to block this keystone pathogen from reprogramming the immune cells, providing a more targeted approach to prevent and / or treat periodontitis. periodontitis has afflicted humans from time immemorial, and today remains one of the most common causes of tooth loss worldwide. an estimated 53 million american adults have the condition, approximately 2 out of every 10 adults, at a total annual healthcare expenditure of more than $ 14 billion. in the late 1970s, p. gingivalis became a subject of research interest when scientists noticed this rod - shaped anaerobe popping up consistently at low levels in studies that explored the microbiology of periodontitis. further laboratory work showed that this late colonizer of the subgingival crevice arrives bearing an extensive arsenal of noxious chemicals. the assumption being, p. gingivalis employs them selectively to thwart the native, or innate, immune cells that patrol the gingival crevice and keep bacterial levels in balance. but showing that p. gingivalis actually can cause periodontitis has remained scientifically tricky. the assumption has been that the bacterium could directly cause damage to the periodontium in animal models, independent of periodontitis and its natural disease process. moreover, scientists have found themselves traversing new conceptual territory to explain how such a low - abundance \u2014 some say stealth \u2014 pathogen could wreak such havoc in the mouth. the research story has picked up in recent years as scientists have gained more technologically sophisticated tools to study p. gingivalis, and more biological information from which to form workable hypotheses. a case in point is the progress in understanding how immune cells process incoming information to respond to the threat at hand. studies show that some incoming defense signals converge within innate immune cells, a process called signaling crosstalk, which helps them to coordinate their early internal response to infection. last year, hajishengallis and colleagues reported in mouse studies that p. gingivalis has learned through the millennia to exploit this crosstalk. the bacterium does so by jointly activating convergent defense signals involving the toll - like receptor 2 ( tlr - 2 ), which helps to recognize pathogens, and the c5a receptor that is a part of the complement system that will respond to the threat. \" p. gingivalis exploits both receptors to induce a signal with an emergent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5100643378542824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.846649"} {"text": "contact : ken kingery, nscl, office : 517 - 908 - 7482, kingery @ nscl. msu. edu published january 4, 2012 for immediate release east lansing, mich. \u2013 the recent measurement of the mass of the short - lived rare isotope manganese - 66 has made it possible for nuclear astrophysicists to pin down the underlying heating elements of one of the universe \u2019 s most fantastic phenomena \u2014 accreting neutron stars. out in the cold depths of space, billions of the densest objects known to man sit quietly while their nuclear decomposition processes play out. but some of them are hungry. some neutron stars sit close enough to a neighboring star for its immense gravity to begin pulling matter from its neighbor into its own mass in an ongoing thermonuclear process. but sooner or later, the fuel for the neutron star is exhausted and it begins to cool rapidly. through observations of this cooling process and measurements taken at nuclear physics laboratories such as the national superconducting cyclotron laboratory ( nscl ), scientists can deduce the inner workings of neutron stars. in the recent experiment at nscl, researchers measured the mass of manganese - 66, which sits right next to iron - 66 on the nuclear chart. based on the newly discovered mass and previous measurements of iron - 66, scientists can determine where in the crust of a neutron star the layer of iron - 66 lies, which is one of two heating elements in neutron stars. \u201c on earth, iron - 66 is a rare short - lived isotope with a half - life of about 400 ms, \u201d said alfredo estrade, postdoctoral researcher with st. mary \u2019 s university in halifax, canada, and gsi in darmstadt, germany, and lead author of the study. \u201c however, it also is part of the crust of accreting neutron stars, where it becomes stable due to its high density and it heats the crust by capturing electrons. \u201d scientists at nscl calculated the mass of manganese - 66 by doing a time - of - flight experiment. krypton - 86 was accelerated up to 40 percent of the speed of light and smashed into a thin foil of beryllium. some of the ions shattered after hitting other nuclei in the foil, creating a smorgasborg of new isotopes and particles. the facility then filtered out about 100 desired types of isotopes, some of which they wanted to measure and others that they used for calibrations. the filtered isotopes traveled down", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5730156594734723, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.866888"} {"text": ", creating a smorgasborg of new isotopes and particles. the facility then filtered out about 100 desired types of isotopes, some of which they wanted to measure and others that they used for calibrations. the filtered isotopes traveled down the beamline where they were caught by a detector that identified which isotope was which. due to their different masses, the different isotopes took different amounts of time to complete their journey. by identifying manganese - 66 and measuring the time it took to run the course, the scientists could determine its weight to within one part in 100, 000. the resulting mass was different than what theorists had predicted for the rare isotope, which changes the models of how neutron stars are structured. the result was a bit of a surprise. \u201c the mass difference between iron - 66 and manganese - 66 allows us determines the depth needed to induce the heating reactions and therefore the location of the heat source associated with this reaction inside a neutron star, \u201d explained hendrik schatz, nuclear astrophysicist at nscl and principle investigator for the joint institute for nuclear astrophysics ( jina ), who worked on the paper along with milan matos, a postdoctoral researcher at louisiana state university stationed at oak ridge national laboratory. \u201c with this new measurement, all of the critical heat sources now can be located within a neutron star. the heat source turns out to be located much closer to the surface than was assumed before based on theoretical predictions of the mass difference between iron - 66 and manganese - 66. \u201d michigan state university has been working to advance the common good in uncommon ways for more than 150 years. one of the top research universities in the world, msu focuses its vast resources on creating solutions to some of the world \u2019 s most pressing challenges, while providing life - changing opportunities to a diverse and inclusive academic community through more than 200 programs of study in 17 degree - granting colleges.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5712353580341623, "token_count": 386, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.868392"} {"text": "ask mary jo what is casual contact? q. i don \u2019 t understand what casual contact is. in school, my health teacher said that aids isn \u2019 t spread by casual contact, but nobody explained what that is. \u2013 13 - year - old male mary jo \u2019 s response : an outstanding question that reminds me to never assume someone knows what i \u2019 m teaching. i use this poem, \u201c knots, \u201d by r. d. laing when i do professional trainings. it keeps me focused on the need to articulate the obvious when teaching \u2013 which simply means that a teacher needs to share information clearly : there is something i don \u2019 t know that i am supposed to know. i don \u2019 t know what it is that i don \u2019 t know and yet am supposed to know, and i feel i look stupid if i seem both not to know it and not know what it is i don \u2019 t know. therefore i pretend i know it. this is nerve - racking since i don \u2019 t know what i must pretend to know. therefore i pretend to know everything. i feel you know what i am supposed to know but you can \u2019 t tell me what it is because you don \u2019 t know that i don \u2019 t know it. you may know what i don \u2019 t know, but not that i don \u2019 t know it, and i can \u2019 t tell you. so you will have to tell me everything. casual contact means that people connect with one another but there is no chance for body fluids to go from one person to another \u2013 no sexual contact, no needle - sharing, no breastfeeding, no blood or fluid exchange. let \u2019 s be clear about some myths : research has shown that hiv is not spread by : \u2022 breathing the same air as someone who is hiv - positive \u2022 a mosquito bite \u2022 touching a toilet seat or doorknob handle after an hiv - positive person \u2022 drinking from a water fountain \u2022 hugging, kissing or shaking hands with someone who is hiv - positive \u2022 sharing eating utensils with an hiv - positive person \u2022 using exercise equipment at a gym it is true that hiv can be spread through blood, semen, vaginal fluid or breast milk. i hope that helps make the idea of casual contact clear. if you have more questions or just want to talk, i \u2019 m at 412 - 877 - 4906. youth champions : who said february is a boring month? our peer educators are busy planning two important february events : one billion rising : the public is invited to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5158703139917533, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.882399"} {"text": "new measures governing the use of animals in scientific procedures were set out by the uk government on 17 may. the measures are being introduced to implement the new eu directive 2010 / 63 / eu which uses many of the uk \u2019 s existing standards as a template. however, as some european member states currently offer very limited protection for animals used in experiments, some of the new standards are lower than those of the uk. animal welfare groups including onekind have engaged in detailed dialogue with the government throughout the transposition process so far, aiming to ensure that the uk \u2019 s existing animal welfare standards are maintained. public concern over this issue was also demonstrated by the over 13, 000 individuals and almost 100 organisations who submitted views and ideas to the home office consultation. the government has now clarified that it intends to \u2018 copy out \u2019 most of the provisions of the directive, but to retain current stricter united kingdom standards in some areas. rules being retained by the uk include : - special protection for dogs, cats and horses as well as non - human primates - stricter care and accommodation standards than those set out in the directive ( although there continues to be concern about reduced cage sizes for dogs ). - restrictions on procedures involving endangered species and great apes - a requirement for individuals carrying out regulated procedures on animals to hold a personal licence ( although the government plans to simplify the regime and remove some current requirements ) - a risk - based approach to inspection and a full programme of inspections ( the directive introduces inspection regimes for all member states but with a lower minimum frequency than currently practised in the united kingdom ). on the negative side, the government intends to reduce the extent and nature of the statistics that it collects about experiments in the uk, against the advice of animal welfare groups. on the important issue of freedom of information, where animal welfare groups had called for greater transparency about experiments by means of repealing s. 24 of the animals ( scientific procedures ) act, the government has simply said it will consider the options for revising the section, and publish its conclusions separately, in due course animal protection groups had argued for the transposition process to be pro - active in reducing the use of primates in uk laboratories, for example by clearly defining the medical conditions which would permit the use of non - human primates for research, rather than leaving this open to interpretation. the government has decided not to follow this option, although it does plan to press for a european definition of the relevant conditions. animal welfare groups also pressed for the uk to take a lead in using the new provisions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5384995340092202, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.894377"} {"text": "rather than leaving this open to interpretation. the government has decided not to follow this option, although it does plan to press for a european definition of the relevant conditions. animal welfare groups also pressed for the uk to take a lead in using the new provisions for thematic reviews, to identify areas of research for replacement, an area which offers enormous scope for reducing animal suffering. the government now says that it will consult further with stakeholders to develop a programme of reviews. other key aspects of the directive include a new legal requirement to implement non - animal methods, ensuring that \u2018 a scientifically satisfactory, non - animal method or testing strategy is used wherever possible and that the number of animals used is reduced to a minimum consistent with the objectives of the project \u2019. the directive also creates a new requirement for the retrospective assessment of projects using non - human primates, as well as procedures classified as ' severe '. the uk government plans to extend this mandatory requirement to all specially protected species ( cats, dogs and horses, as well as non - human primates ). other projects will be assessed on a case - by - case basis. the number of experiments on animals in the uk has risen steadily over the last decade to just over 3. 7 million in 2010, a figure which the government has committed to reducing. announcing the proposals, home office minister lynne featherstone mp said that the government would continue to promote measures to \u2018 replace, reduce and refine \u2019 the use of animals, and would introduce a ban on the testing of household products on animals in due course. the uk must transpose eu directive 2010 / 63 / eu by 10 november 2012 with national legislation being implemented from 1 january 2013. onekind will continue to work with partners in the animal protection movement and press the government to deliver on its commitment to reduce animal testing. see the onekind submission to the consultation ( pdf ) from september 2011.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5155340675061677, "token_count": 379, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.895528"} {"text": "the last carriage return ). a simpler alternative would be to place the single line : sys $ share : vaxcrtl / share into a file called vaxcrtl. opt, and then use the link command : $ link object - file, gnu _ cc : gcclib / lib, vaxcrtl. opt / opt if a program has been compiled with / g _ float, then the linking instructions are slightly different. if you are linking with the non - shared library, then the command that you should use would be : link object - file, gnu _ cc : gcclib / lib, sys $ library : vaxcrtlg / lib -, sys $ library : vaxcrtl / lib note that both vaxcrtl and vaxcrtlg must be linked to. if you are using the shared vax c library, then you should use a command like : $ link object - file, gnu _ cc : gcclib / lib, sys $ input : / options sys $ share : vaxcrtlg / share in the case of the sharable library, only one library needs to be linked to. 2 / case _ hack / [ no ] case _ hack d = / case _ hack since the vms linker and librarian are not case sensitive with respect to symbol names, a \" case - hack \" is appended to a symbol name when the symbol contains upper case characters. there are cases where this is undesirable, ( mainly when using certain applications where modules have been precompiled, perhaps in another language ) and we want to compile without case hacking. in these cases the / nocase _ hack switch disables case hacking. 2 / cc1 _ options this specifies additional switches to the compiler itself which cannot be set by means of the compiler driver. 2 / debug / debug includes additional information in the object file output so that the program can be debugged with the vax symbolic debugger. to use the debugger it is also necessary to link the debugger to your program, which is done by specifying the / debug qualifier to the link command. with the debugger it is possible to set breakpoints, examine variables, and set variables to new values. see the vax symbolic debugger manual for more information, or type \" help \" from the debugger prompt. 2 / define / define = (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5221051194405348, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.913641"} {"text": "it is possible to set breakpoints, examine variables, and set variables to new values. see the vax symbolic debugger manual for more information, or type \" help \" from the debugger prompt. 2 / define / define = ( identifier [ = definition ] [,... ] ) / define defines a string or macro ( ' definition ' ) to be substituted for every occurrence of a given string ( ' identifier ' ) in a program. it is equivalent to the # define preprocessor directive. all definitions and identifiers are converted to uppercase unless they are in quotation marks. the simple form of the / define qualifier : / define = vms results in a definition equivalent to the preprocessor directive : # define vms 1 you must enclose macro definitions in quotation marks, as in this example : / define = \" c ( x ) = ( ( x ) & 0xff ) \" this definition is the same as the preprocessor definition : # define c ( x ) ( ( x ) & 0xff ) if more than one / define is present on the gcc command line, only the last / define is used. if both / define and / undefine are present on a command line, / define is evaluated before / undefine. 2 / g _ float instructs the compiler to use \" g \" floating point arithmetic instead of \" d \". the difference is that double precision has a range of approximately + / - 0. 56e - 308 to + / - 0. 9 e + 308, with approximately 15 decimal digits precision. \" d \" floating point has the same range as single precision floating point, with approximately 17 decimal digits precision. if you use the / g _ float qualifier, the linking instructions are different. see \" linking \" for further details. 2 / list / list [ = list _ file _ name ] this does not generate a listing file in the usual sense, however it does direct the compiler to save the preprocessor output. if a file is not specified, then this output is written into a file with the same name as the source file and an extension of. cpp. 2 / include _ directory / include _ directory = ( path [, path... ] ) the / include _ directory qualifier provides additional directories to search for user - defined include files. ' path ' can be either a logical name or a directory specification. there are two forms for specify", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5286860462197015, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.914738"} {"text": ". some common ones will be briefly described here. a complete description can be found in \" using and porting the gnu compiler collection ( gcc ) \" in the chapter entitled \" using gcc on vms \". gnu - c provides case hacking as a means of giving case sensitivity to symbol names. the case hack is a hexadecimal number appended to the symbol name, with a bit being set for each upper case letter. symbols with all lower case, or symbols that have a dollar sign ( \" $ \" ) are not case hacked. there are times that this is undesirable, namely when you wish to link your program against a precompiled library which was compiled with a non - gnu - c compiler. x - windows ( or decwindows ) is an example of this. in these instances, the / nocase _ hack switch should be used. if you require case hacking in some cases, but not in others ( i. e. libg + + with decwindows ), then it is recommended that you develop a header file which will define all mixed case functions that should not have a case hack as the lower case equivalents. gnu - c does not provide the globaldef and globalref mechanism which is used by vax - c to coerce the vms linker to include certain object modules from a library. there are assembler hacks, which are available to the user through the macros defined in gnu _ hacks. h, which effectively give you the ability to perform these functions. while not syntactically identical, they do provide most of the functionality. note that globaldefs of enums is not supported in the way that it is under vax - c. this can be easily simulated, however, by globaldefing an integer variable, and then globalvaluing all of the enumerated states. furthermore, the way that globalvalue is currently implemented, the data type of the globalvalue variable is seen to the compiler to be a pointer to the data type that you specify. this is necessary in order to make the compiler correctly address the globalvalue variables.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5461197548651949, "token_count": 442, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.923599"} {"text": "desired system performance outcomes. planners may find that the activity - based objectives are more appropriate for guiding the development of specific sections of the mtp or for use in supporting documents such as the regional concept for transportation operations. all lower level, activity - oriented operations objectives should support an existing outcome - oriented operations objective, providing a simple check to make sure that operations activities are performed in pursuit of a system performance outcome. by establishing one or more activity - based objectives for each outcome - based objective, planners and operators further define how each outcome - based objective can be accomplished. planners and operators can develop specific m & o strategies or actions to support the objectives and, in turn, the goals by examining how the activity - based objectives can be accomplished. 2. 2 characteristics of operations objectives by creating specific, measurable objectives for operations, regions can use these operations objectives for making investment decisions as well as tracking progress. an operations objective should have the smart characteristics defined below : - specific. the objective provides sufficient specificity ( e. g., decrease travel time delay ) to guide formulating viable approaches to achieving the objective without dictating the approach. - measurable. the objective facilitates quantitative evaluation ( e. g., by 10 percent ), saying how many or how much should be accomplished. tracking progress against the objective enables an assessment of the effectiveness of an action or set of actions. - agreed. planners, operators, and relevant planning participants come to a consensus on a common objective. this is most effective when the planning process involves a wide range of stakeholders to facilitate regional collaboration and coordination. - realistic. the objective can reasonably be accomplished within the limitations of resources and other demands. the objective may require substantial coordination, collaboration, and investment to achieve. because determining the realism of the objective cannot occur until after strategies and costs are defined, the objective may need to be adjusted to be achievable. - time - bound. the objective identifies a timeframe within which it will be achieved ( e. g., within 5 years ). by selecting a performance target as part of the operations objective, regions make decisions knowing the degree of improvement they are striving for rather than just the direction of improvement. for example, the objective of \" decrease travel time delay \" conveys direction ( \" decrease \" ) but does not indicate the desired degree of improvement. the objective \" decrease travel time delay by 10 percent within 5 years \" gives the region a specific and measurable target to reach. it is common for metropolitan transportation plans to have more general objectives", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5256789926781453, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.958891"} {"text": "\" ) but does not indicate the desired degree of improvement. the objective \" decrease travel time delay by 10 percent within 5 years \" gives the region a specific and measurable target to reach. it is common for metropolitan transportation plans to have more general objectives relating to the performance of the transportation system, such as, \" relieve congestion on the freeway and arterial systems in the region. \" this example objective provides the direction \u2014 to relieve congestion \u2014 but does not express to what degree it must be relieved to be met. to make this objective smart, it must define congestion in measurable terms. one measure used for congestion is the travel time index that compares travel during peak periods to travel at free flow or the posted speed limit. in addition, the objective needs a performance target for the region, such as a 0. 10 - point reduction in the index. the objective also must establish the timeframe in which it must be accomplished. establishing a realistic objective and reaching agreement on it must be done within the context of the region and the participating organizations. using the smart characteristics as a guide, the general operations objective, \" relieve congestion on the freeway and arterial systems in the region \" can be transformed into a smart objective : \" reduce the regional average travel time index on freeways and arterials in the region by 0. 10 points within 10 years. \" incorporating smart operations objectives into the mtp provides the opportunity for decisionmakers to invest in near - term, relatively low - cost operations strategies that provide immediate improvements to the transportation system. these can complement longer - term improvement strategies that may require time to study and fund. thus, it would be appropriate for an operations objective to have a timeframe that is shorter than the horizon year of the mtp. the cyclical updates required of these plans provide the logical opportunities to determine if adjustments are needed to the timeframe or degree of the objective and help determine whether different or additional actions are appropriate. 2. 3 scope of operations objectives an operations objective is the product of many decisions. as mentioned in the previous section, those who draft the objective must decide on what they want to improve or maintain, the direction of that improvement ( e. g., increase ), the degree of improvement desired ( e. g., by 25 percent ), and the timeframe for reaching the objective ( e. g., within 10 years ). in determining what to improve, several dimensions often come into consideration. these dimensions determine the scope of the operations objective. one or more of the following dimensions may need to be addressed while", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5266459329878104, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.960300"} {"text": "figure 2, which illustrates the parts of an objectives tree. for the sake of brevity, the operations objectives are not written as full smart objectives in the figure. the objectives tree concept can be put to use in developing a logical set of operations objectives and in understanding the necessary connections between goals, operations objectives, and management and operations strategies. an objective tree illustrates the logical hierarchy that exists between outcome - based objectives and activity - based objectives. it can be used to connect regional goals to objectives and objectives to m & o strategies. it is also helpful in thinking through the interactions between operations objectives. an objectives tree begins with a broad goal or high - order objective relating to the performance of the transportation system. this objective answers the question, \" what do we ultimately want to achieve? \" examples may focus on improved system reliability, efficiency, system options, or high service quality. in the example shown in figure 2, the tree begins with the broad goal, \" improve system reliability. \" based on that goal, the higher - order, outcome - based objective, \" reduce nonrecurring delay \" was formed. this is how the region aims to achieve its goal of improving system reliability. from this high - order objective, the developers form more specific and detailed operations objectives that answer the question, \" how can this objective be accomplished? \" these detailed or lower order objectives are then linked to the higher order objective. this process is repeated for each goal or high - order objective until the developers reach the point where the lower order operations objectives can be acted upon. these are typically activity - oriented operations objectives that can be readily addressed through one or more m & o strategies. lower order operations objectives connected to a higher operations objective answer the question of how that higher objective can be accomplished. similarly, the higher operations objective answers the question of why the lower objective should be accomplished. m & o strategies can be placed below each of the lowest objectives in the tree to indicate which strategies are needed to accomplish those objectives. in figure 2, the m & o strategy of \" organize additional regional coordinated incident response teams to cover six more corridors \" stems from one of the activity - based objectives. regions can select which operations objectives in the objectives tree are most important to be included in the mtp or other planning documents. outcome - oriented objectives such as those that may be near the top of an objectives tree are used to guide the operations elements of the entire plan. activity - based objectives are used in specific sections to guide the development of m & o strategies. figure 2.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5294069930272036, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.963392"} {"text": "there are many types of smartcards. phonecards are one type of smart - cards. generally, a smart - card is any type of pocket - sized card ( like credit cards ) with an embedded chip on one side. this chip is actually a microcontroller with a non - volatile memory of specific size. pinout configuration of telecard smart - cards first of all, let ' s see the pinout of those phonecards. if you take a closer look to the parallelogram chip, you will notice that there are lines which separates the surface into 6 or 8 areas : each one of these areas is a pin used either to provide power to the embedded microcontroller, or to interface this microcontroller with the outside world. for the telecards, these pins are : 1 : vcc, the 5 volts supply for the microcontroller 4 : reserved for future use 6 : vpp, programming voltage ( 5 or 21 volts if nmos card ) 7 : i / o pin 8 : reserved for future use short description : number 1 and 5 are for the chip ' s power supply, which is 5 volts. number 3 and 7 are the clock and data pins for the interface : by providing pulses to the clock pin, the corresponding bit of the current memory position of the chip appears at the i / o pin, it is that simple. finally, the reset pin : this pin is used to reset the memory position counter. the communication protocol like any other interface, smart cards have their own interface protocol. for the telecards, this protocol is very simple. one thing that i must mention is that this page talks about only the greek second generation phonecards with 128 bits memory and 5 - bytes octal counter! for more information regarding other types of phonecards, check out the references section of this circuit. let ' s take a look now the available 4 operations that we can do with a phonecard : 1 reading the phonecard memory during the reading operation, the reset pin must be held low. there is an internal memory position counter ( mpc ) which increases each time a pulse is applied to the clock pin. the mpc increases during the positive edge of the clock pulse. during the negative edge, the data of the memory position that the mpc points appears at the i / o pin. here is the timing diagram of this operation : 2 resetting the mpc ( memory position counter ) there is no direct method to define which memory position bit we want", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5291255357912051, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.980781"} {"text": "of the memory position that the mpc points appears at the i / o pin. here is the timing diagram of this operation : 2 resetting the mpc ( memory position counter ) there is no direct method to define which memory position bit we want to perform a read operation. the only way is to reset the counter and start again reading from memory position # 0. it is very important to run a cold reset sequence before start reading the phonecard, because there is no other reliable method to determine in which memory position the mpc points at. the sequence to do a cold - reset is this : after this sequence, the memory position counter will become 0, and the very first bit of the card memory ( position 0 ) will appear at the i / o pin. you can immediately read this bit and go on reading the rest of the card memory as explained before. here is the timing diagram of the reset sequence : 3 write to the memory card with this command you can write to the octal counter in the card ' s memory position which holds the calling units. later on we will discuss about the memory mapping of the phonecards. in short, the octal counter is a 4 or 5 bytes long counter which holds the calling units that a telecard has. i do not know for the other smartcards, but as far as the phonecards are concerned, you can only decrease this value. this makes absolute sense of course. should the embedded microcontroller had allowed someone to increase this octal counter, then we could increase this counter whenever a phonecard ran out of calling units and refill it again. the octal counter can only be decreased... no other operation is allowed. although the write sequence is common for all phone cards, the counter may differ from country to country. go to the references section to get more info. i will only discuss about the 2nd generation greek phonecards. these cards have a 5 - byte long octal counter and a write command can only turn aces into zeros. here is the write sequence : after this sequence is ended, the unwritten memory position bit will be erased and the new value will automatically appear at the i / o pin. here is a timing diagram of this sequence during which the ace ( 1 ) bit of the current memory position is written so that it becomes zero ( 0 ) :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5054633126122442, "token_count": 477, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:38.981729"} {"text": "displays the family and group of the language named in the edit field of the dialogue box. the current language is chosen by default. any new language name which is entered becomes the current language, provided it occurs in the database. lists and counts all the segments of the language named in the edit field of the dialogue box. the current language is chosen by default. any new language name which is entered becomes the current language, provided it occurs in the database. the check - box normal phonemes ( checked by default ) prevents the display of anomalous segments. when the box is unchecked all the segments of the language - including rare ones, loans etc. - are displayed. lists and counts all the segments of the language named in the first edit field of the dialogue box which meet the feature conditions provided in the second. the feature conditions must be expressed as a list, in square brackets, of feature names separated by commas. the order of the features is not significant. features with negative values, such as - bilabial, are permitted in order more easily to exclude certain segment types. ( upsid itself uses only unary features ). extra control on segment selection is provided by the check - box normal phonemes which is checked by default. users unfamiliar with the feature set used in upsid may reset the feature conditions by issuing the command reset features, see below. identifies the number of distinctions found in selected phonetic parameters when the segments of the current language, which meet the given feature conditions, are examined. one or more phonetic parameters may be selected by clicking or shift - clicking in the scrolling list provided. feature conditions to establish the required subsystem are entered in the second edit field ( as in subsystem above ), and the check - box normal phonemes is used as in previous commands. three separate window formats are used to handle the different segment types. in all plot windows, the language name is provided below the corresponding plot. a list ( in square brackets ) identifies any features which have been chosen to restrict the set of phonemes displayed. an empty list [ ] indicates that no such features have been chosen. provides two dimensional plots of the vowel and consonant systems of the current language ( named in the edit field of the dialogue box ). consonants, vowels or diphthongs ( or all three by default ) are chosen by clicking ( or shift - clicking ) the appropriate buttons. the check - box normal phonemes is used as in subsystem. the use of pointers in these graphic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5033174452120426, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.001032"} {"text": "hearing loss affects an estimated 50 million americans. some hearing loss is temporary, and may be caused by short exposures to loud noises, but for many people, it is permanent. hearing health foundation, the largest private funder of hearing research, has organized a consortium of researchers through the hearing research project, with a goal of accelerating the timeline for a genuine cure for most types of acquired hearing loss. the cure focuses on the specialized cells that make hearing possible. hair cells located in the inner ear turn sounds into electrical signals that transmit the sound information to the brain. in humans, exposure to loud noises, age and even some medications can damage or even kill these hair cells, thus causing permanent hearing loss. but birds and fish are able to spontaneously regrow their damaged hair cells, leading scientists to discover how this ability can be replicated in humans. as a college student, katharine simpson began to notice she was missing sounds - but ignored the symptoms until she drove through a toll road pass and didn ' t hear the transponder beep. her younger brother had already experienced hearing loss in his teens, and simpson discovered her hearing patterns matched the loss her brother had experienced years before. while coming to terms with her hearing loss, simpson started seeking out researchers and scientists, reading any information on new developments that she could find, giving her hope for a cure. \" part of the reason i wanted - or, needed, rather - to embrace my hearing loss is my little brother, \" simpson says. \" i watched how hard it was for him to grow up with hearing loss, and he still struggles with it to this day. \" simpson ' s friends helped her manage her hearing loss in social situations, and began choosing to eat at quieter restaurants and turning on the closed captioning for shows on television. but movie theaters, noisy bars and nightclubs and even whispered conversations are difficult for simpson to hear. the hope for a cure for both herself and her brother helps her stay strong. the hearing research project is looking to discover what prevents regeneration of hair cells in human ears, and what can be done to promote regeneration. \" hearing health foundation is ideally positioned to lead this world - class consortium and deliver on the goal of a cure, \" says andrea boidman, executive director of the foundation. \" for too many years, biomedical research has been conducted in relative isolation, one researcher or one institution working alone to tackle a major health issue. so we developed the consortium model to accelerate the path to the cure by eliminating repetitive work and fostering cooperation among", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.541861805699709, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.006300"} {"text": "calls for a poetry of the social space, which resides between the state and the \" safe havens of the personal. \" all of the writers mentioned in this cursory enumeration have been assailed at one time or another for voicing their political convictions in their poetry. granted, there is a grave difference between dissent that is voiced within a democracy and dissent that speaks against a totalitarian regime ; repression within a democracy does not approach the level of brutality perpetrated in a variety of political circumstances around the globe. nonetheless, these american writers are laudable for striving to step out of what edward said terms the nation \u2019 s \" depoliticized or aestheticized submission. \" this submission, along with the fostering of xenophobia and apathy, represents a contemporary mode of repressing the desire for democratic participation. in his last book, humanism and democratic criticism, said writes, \" one of the hallmarks of modernity is now at a very deep level, the aesthetic and the social need to be kept, and are often consciously kept, in a state of irreconcilable tension. \" since the invasion of iraq, a symphony of voices has reasserted the american poet \u2019 s role in the public sphere. \" it \u2019 s impossible for poetry not to be political, \" li - young lee said to a st. petersburg times reporter. galway kinnell told the new york times, \" it \u2019 s poetry \u2019 s duty and part of its role to speak out. \" and sam hamill says in an open letter dated june 29, 2004, \" being a citizen of the world is political. \" conversation elevates society and creates conditions conducive for democracy. poetry can fuel this democratic deliberation by transforming the individual and the community. the poet is an intellectual in italian revolutionary antonio gramsci \u2019 s sense : \" non - intellectuals do not exist, \" he writes, because \" there is no human activity from which every form of intellectual participation can be excluded : homo faber cannot be separated from homo sapiens. \" gramsci suggests that activism, not only eloquence, is a determining principle of the intellectual \u2019 s function \" as constructor, organizer, \u2018 permanent persuader, \u2019 and not just a simple orator. \" there is no escaping the forces that press against the poem, incise themselves into it, just as there is no escaping the urgency of the questions that rain into our homes, leaking through the roofs and sliding under dormers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5026478422777448, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.037008"} {"text": "speaking to the unimagined future. it sings of a spiritualized and a politicized vision, and it leaps into infinity. \" a poet is a poet when he does not renounce his existence in a given country, at a particular time, defined politically, \" quasimodo writes in his \" discourse on poetry. \" \" and poetry is the liberty and truth of that time, and not abstract modulations of sentiment. \" it is also crucial to remind the nation that the american artist has an urgent word, is prepared to step out of the atelier and into the street, and that as much as a pop song or a feature film, a poem can provide a new and vital way of looking at the world \u2014 and one that is less saturated with corporate interests. in our present age of multimedia entertainment, poetry is an art form nearly free of materials. it is the most portable mode of art other than singing, and it is similar to singing : when a group of people gathers and recites poems together, the poems are re - inspired, breathed alive, and reinterpreted, transforming and transformed by the reciter and the listeners. artists are more capable than theorists or pundits in representing the consciousness of the people, because the language of art is a language of immediacy, of spirit, and of the transporting analogy. in his essay \" democratic vistas, \" whitman writes, \" it is acknowledged that we of the states are the most materialistic and money - making people ever known. my own theory, while fully accepting this, is that we are the most emotional, spiritualistic, and poetry - loving people also. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5328476936968062, "token_count": 336, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.042242"} {"text": "from surgical material. the inclusion of tumors has been based on availability and representativity. due to subgroups and heterogeneity of tumors within each cancer type, included cases represent a typical mix of specimens from surgical pathology. however, an effort has been made to include high and low grade malignancies where such is applicable. in certain tumor groups, subtypes have been included, e. g. breast cancer includes both ductal and lobular cancer, lung cancer includes both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma and liver cancer includes both hepatocellular and cholangiocellular carcinoma etc. tumor heterogenity and inter - individual differences is also reflected in diverse expression of proteins resulting in variable immunohistochemical staining patterns. in order to provide an overview of protein expression patterns, all images of immunohistochemically stained tissue were manually annotated by a board certified pathologist or by specially educated personnel ( followed by verification of a pathologist ). the pathologists are experienced in interpretation of tissue morphology under the microscope and have used a specially designed software to view and annotate the histological images. annotation of each different normal and cancer tissue was performed using a simplified scheme for classification of immunohistochemical outcome. each tissue was examined for representativity and immunoreactivity. the different tissue specific cell types included in each normal tissue type were annotated. for each cancer, tumor cells and stroma were annotated. basic annotation parameters included an evaluation of i ) staining intensity ( negative, weak, moderate or strong ), ii ) fraction of stained cells ( rare, < 25 %, 25 - 75 % or > 75 % ) and iii ) subcellular localization ( nuclear and / or cytoplasmic / membranous ). the manual annotation also provides a summarizing text comment for each antibody. the terminology and ontology used is compliant with standards used in pathology and medical science. snomed classification has been used for assignment of topography and morphology. snomed classification also underlies the given original diagnosis from which normal as well as cancer samples were collected from. a histological dictionary used in the annotation is available as a pdf - document, containing images which are immunohistochemically stained with antibodies included in the protein atlas. the dictionary displays subtypes of cells distinguishable from each other and also shows specific expression patterns in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5324383638765712, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.092639"} {"text": "annotation is available as a pdf - document, containing images which are immunohistochemically stained with antibodies included in the protein atlas. the dictionary displays subtypes of cells distinguishable from each other and also shows specific expression patterns in different intracellular structures. annotation dictionary : screen usage ( 15mb ), printing ( 95mb ). annotated protein expression aims to create a comprehensive map over protein expression patterns in normal human tissues and cells. the conflation of data from two or more antibodies directed towards the same protein target ( non - overlapping epitopes ), evaluation of the performance of respective antibodies and a review of available protein / gene characterization data, allows for a knowledge - based interpretation of the distribution pattern and relative abundance of proteins in various tissues. an annotation of protein expression is possible for all genes for which there are two or more antibodies directed towards the corresponding protein target. the immunohistochemical staining pattern in normal tissues provides the fundament for a subsequent annotated protein expression. the annotation of an immunohistochemical staining pattern is subjective and based on the experienced evaluation of positive immunohistochemical signals in defined subpopulations of cells within a tissue context. the microscopical images and previous annotations of the included 66 normal cell types are reviewed simultaneously and compared. the annotation data is merged and results in a single expression profile for each protein. in addition to accounting for performance of antibodies and available protein / gene characterization data, the review also considers sub - optimal experimental procedures. this includes immunostaining errors such as sub - optimal titration of the primary antibody and suspected cross - reactivity as well as the fact that multiple immunostainings have been performed on non - consecutive tissue microarray sections, allowing for differences in immunohistochemical staining patterns caused by inter - individual and inter - specimen variations. the final annotated protein expression is considered as a best estimate and as such reflects the most probable histological distribution and relative expression level for the evaluated proteins. back to top immunohistochemistry - cells as a complement to the representation of normal and cancer tissue, the protein atlas displays images of a selection of widely used and well characterized human cell lines as well as cell samples from healthy individuals and leukemia / lymphoma patients. a cell microarray has been used to enable immunohistochemical staining of a panel of cell lines and cell samples. duplicates", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5388047421437369, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.093768"} {"text": "software always displayed in conjunction with the annotated images are : in addition, two overlay images with additional numerical information are presented to facilitate interpretation. the information displayed includes : - number of objects defined as cells in the image - staining intensity ( negative, weak, moderate and strong ) - fraction ( % ) of positive cells - object based view representing fraction ( % ) of immunostained cells. the color code for each cell represents a range of immunoreactivity, blue ( negative / very weak ), yellow ( weak / moderate ), orange ( moderate / strong ) and red ( strong ) cells. this classification is based on areas of different intensities within each object ( cell ). this differs slightly from the subjective classification provided by manual annotation of cells in normal and cancer tissue. - area based view representing immunostained areas ( % ) within cells. the color code represents a range of immunoreactivity, yellow ( weak / moderate ), green ( moderate / strong ) and red ( strong ). negative / very weak areas are transparent. the intensity score is generated from this area based analysis. back to top immunofluorescence - cells as a complement to the immunohistochemically stained cells and tissues, the protein atlas displays high resolution, multicolor images of immunofluorescently stained cells. this provides spatial information on protein expression patterns on a fine cellular and subcellular level. originally three cell lines, u - 2 os, a - 431 and u - 251 mg, originated from different human tissues were chosen to be included in the immunofluorescent analysis. starting from year 2012, the cell line panel has been expanded to include additional cell lines : a - 549, caco - 2, hek 293, hela, hep - g2, mcf - 7, pc - 3, rt - 4, time, siha, rh - 30 and bj. to enhance the probability for a large number of proteins to be expressed, the cell lines were selected from different lineages, e. g. tumor cell lines from mesenchymal, epithelial and glial tumors. the selection was furthermore based on morphological characteristics, widespread use and multitude of publications using these cell lines. information regarding sex and age of the donor, cellular origin and source is listed here. for each antibody two suitable cell lines from the cell line panel are now selected for the immunofluorescent analysis, based", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.517609488602731, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.095826"} {"text": "of publications using these cell lines. information regarding sex and age of the donor, cellular origin and source is listed here. for each antibody two suitable cell lines from the cell line panel are now selected for the immunofluorescent analysis, based on rna sequencing data. the third cell line chosen for each antibody is always u - 2 os, in order to localize the whole human proteome on a subcellular level in one cell line. besides the hpa antibodies, the cells are also stained with reference markers in order to facilitate the annotation of the subcellular distribution of the protein targeted by the hpa antibody. the following probes / organelles are used as references ; ( i ) dapi for the nucleus, ( ii ) anti - tubulin antibody as internal control and marker of microtubules, and ( iii ) calreticulin for the endoplasmic reticulum ( er ). the resulting confocal images are single slice images representing one optical section of the cells. the microscope settings are optimized for each sample. the different organelle probes are displayed as different channels in the multicolor images ; the hpa antibody staining is shown in green, nuclear stain in blue, micro - tubules in red and er in yellow. in order to provide an interpretation of the staining patterns, all images of immunofluorescently stained cell lines are manually annotated. for each cell line and antibody the intensity and subcellular location of the staining is described. the staining intensity is classified as negative, weak, moderate or strong based on the laser power and detector gain settings used for image acquisition in combination with the visual appearance of the image. the subcellular location is further combined with parameters describing the staining characteristics ( i. e. smooth, granular, speckled, fibrous, dotty or clusters ). knowledge - based annotation of subcellular location aims to provide an interpretation of the subcellular location of a protein in three human cell lines. the conflation of immunofluorescence data from two or more antibodies directed towards the same protein and a review of available protein / gene characterization data, allows for a knowledge - based interpretation of the subcellular location. back to top western blot analysis of antibody specificity has been done using a routine sample setup composed of igg / hsa - depleted human plasma and protein lysates from a limited number of human tissues and cell lines. antibodies with a non - supportive routine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5195336819536076, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.096790"} {"text": "human rights protection. today, services around the world, inadequate to begin with, are diminishing further with the economic recession. at its worst, enforced psychiatric hospitalization is paradoxically used for political dissidents in some countries. surely, understanding the causes of emotional distress and how to categorize the varying expressions need much more study. however, even though the brain is the most difficult organ to study, we have less funding for research. we have the continuing stigma against people who are called \u201c crazy. \u201d as a consequence, when those labeled with mental disorders speak up, what they say is often discounted as being part of their disorder. complete recovery is expected less often than chronicity, which can be a self - fulfilling prophecy. those that have recovered are often reluctant to speak out publicly to be role models. those who try to help people with psychological problems also become stigmatized. no wonder psychiatrists have been nicknamed \u201c shrinks \u201d long before there were any concerns about brain shrinkage from the illness or medications. psychologists, social workers, and others get included too. unfortunately, sometimes in a society, those discriminated against will fight internally or compete against one another. so it is in the us at times, especially with gang conflicts. a psychoanalytic explanation for this phenomenon could be \u201c identification with the aggressor. \u201d now we may be seeing more and more of that in our field as the antipsychiatry movement of scientologists seems to be expanding to former patients and their families who felt they were hurt by psychiatry. while some anger and criticism is surely warranted, the vitriol and call for the end of psychiatrists seems to border on hate speech, as described in the recent psychiatric times blog of ronald pies, md. 1 similarly, glen gabbard, md, 2 recently described how such postings can hurt the reputation of a resident in training and his patient. the mother of this severely disturbed patient seemed to be approving of his treatment in the live sessions but posted very derogatory comments online. this problem was not solved to anyone \u2019 s satisfaction. this can be tragic to all those concerned and involved. no wonder medical students seem less interested in psychiatry. they seem especially turned off by the stigma and our disdain of one another that they notice on their clerkships. this sort of stigma has even contributed to the lack of recognition for when emotional distress, or what might otherwise be considered as a mental disorder, contributes greatly to society. founders of our major religions, viewed out", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5110715982644437, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.109029"} {"text": "network with us join us on facebook to get the latest news and updates. beth dunning ' s story \" s \" is for poetry each year our first - grade students research different ocean animals ; this year we decided to research seals. my students spent three weeks researching, writing, sharing, editing, and then writing again. when it was finally done, we had a class book \u2026 one class book. i mentioned to another teacher about all of the hard work my students had done on their book. i wanted each of them to take their research home, but i couldn \u2019 t afford to make copies for each student. she suggested having my students write an acrostic poem about seals with one of readwritethink. org \u2019 s student interactives. because of the wide range of ability levels in my class, i began the activity in a whole - group setting before we went to the computer lab. students wrote one word that reminded them of seals on a sticky note and then we sorted the words by the letter they began with, paying special attention to words that began with the letters s, e, a, and l. then, we worked together to create a class acrostic poem about seals, and afterward students worked on individual acrostic poems. we went to the computer lab to use the interactive acrostic poems tool. when students got to the \u201c brainstorming \u201d page, i brought out the list of words we had created in the classroom. students were able to look at our original list and choose which words they wanted to use. i gave students the option to use the poem they had created earlier in the day or to create a new one using the words they had recently brainstormed. once the poems were written, students hit the \u201c print \u201d button and couldn \u2019 t wait to see the finished product! since then, my students have also used the interactive diamante poems tool to create poems about sharks, turtles, armadillos, and much, much more. thanks, readwritethink. org, for making my kids want to write and write and write \u2026. i just hope i have enough ink to keep up with them! grades k \u2013 12 | student interactive | writing poetry this online tool enables students to learn about and write acrostic poems. elements of the writing process are also included. grades 3 \u2013 12 | game & tool diamante poems are poems where the longest line comes in the middle, creating a diamond - like shape. the diamante poems tool helps children write", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5034396454609504, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.136693"} {"text": "what we see can affect our perception of pain by manipulating the appearance of a chronically achy hand, researchers have found they could increase or decrease the pain and swelling in patients moving their symptomatic limbs. the findings \u201c \u201d reported in the november 25th issue of current biology, a cell press publication \u201c \u201d reveal a profound top - down effect of body image on body tissues, according to the researchers. \" the brain is capable of many wonderful things based on its perception of how the body is doing and the risks to which the body seems to be exposed, \" said g. lorimer moseley, who is now at the prince of wales medical research institute in australia. ( the work was done at the university of oxford. ) in the study, the researchers asked ten right - handed patients with chronic pain and dysfunction in one arm to watch their own arm while they performed a standardized set of ten hand movements. the participants repeated the movements under four conditions : with no visual manipulation, while looking through binoculars with no magnification, while looking through binoculars that doubled the apparent size of their arm, and while looking through inverted binoculars that reduced the apparent size of their arm. while the patients \u2019 pain was always worse after movement than it was before, the extent to which the pain worsened depended on what people saw. specifically, the pain increased more when participants viewed a magnified image of their arm during the movements, and \u201c \u201d perhaps more surprisingly \u201c \u201d the pain became less when their arm was seen through inverted binoculars that minimized its size. the degree of swelling too was less when people watched a \" minified \" image of their arm during movements than when they watched a magnified or normal image, the researchers reported. they aren \u2019 t yet sure how this phenomenon works at the level of neurons. however, the researchers said, a possible philosophical explanation comes from the notion that protective responses \u201d \u201d including the experience of pain \u201d \u201d are activated according to the brain \u2019 s implicit perception of danger level. \" if it looks bigger, it looks sorer and more swollen, \" moseley said. \" therefore, the brain acts to protect it. \" while he said the findings don \u2019 t mean that pain is any less real, they may lead to a new therapeutic approach for reducing pain. his team is now testing visual manipulations as an analgesic strategy for use in clinical settings. the researchers include g. lorimer moseley, university of oxford, uk, prince of wales medical research institute, sydney, australia ; timothy j", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5085238326554457, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.139366"} {"text": "representative theory of perception, also known as indirect realism, epistemological dualism, and the veil of perception, is a philosophical concept. it states that we do not ( and cannot ) perceive the external world directly ; instead we know only our ideas or interpretations of objects in the world. thus, a barrier or a veil of perception prevents first - hand knowledge of anything beyond it. the \" veil \" exists between the mind and the existing world. the debate then occurs about where our ideas come from, and what this place is like. an indirect realist believes our ideas come from sense data of a real, material, external world ( unlike idealists ). the doctrine states that in any act of perception, the immediate ( direct ) object of perception is only a sense - datum that represents an external object. aristotle was the first to provide an in - depth description of indirect realism. in on the soul he describes how the eye must be affected by changes in an intervening medium rather than by objects themselves. he then speculates on how these sense impressions can form our experience of seeing and reasons that an endless regress would occur unless the sense itself were self aware. he concludes by proposing that the mind is the things it thinks. he calls the images in the mind \" ideas \". the way that indirect realism involves intermediate stages between objects and perceptions immediately raises a question : how well do sense - data represent external objects, properties, and events? indirect realism creates deep epistemological problems, such as solipsism and the problem of the external world. nonetheless, indirect realism has been popular in the history of philosophy and has been developed by many philosophers including bertrand russell, baruch spinoza, rene descartes, and john locke. representationalism is one of the key assumptions of cognitivism in psychology. potential results of representative realism a problem with representationalism is that if simple data flow and information processing is assumed then something in the brain, described as a homunculus, must be viewing the perception. this suggests that some physical effect or phenomenon other than simple data flow and information processing might be involved in perception. this was not an issue for the rationalist philosophers such as descartes, since cartesian dualism held that there is a supernatural \" homunculus \" in the form of the soul. for those who doubt dualism, explaining precisely what it is that sees the representation is problematic. but if the transfer of information into a \" mind \" is thought to be the only explanation of how we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6231141834844101, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.146855"} {"text": ", i am referring to the process of interpreting the sense - data i am receiving from the eiffel tower in an act of mental representation. the term \" eiffel tower \" refers to the eiffel tower, and not to the mental representation of the tower, which is the result of the act of \" seeing \". thus, both of us can refer to the same object while making our own unique representations of that object. representative realism does, unlike naive realism, take into account sense data ( the way in which the object is interpreted, not simply the objective, mathematical object ) - this induces the veil of perception wherein we are unsure the table we look at exists due to there being no direct objective proof of its existence. in other words, the table i ' m looking at appears to have a particular shape to me, due to my angle of vision, and to have a particular colour due to the way in which the light bounces off it relative to my position, and that appearance differs from the appearance of the table as seen by the person next to me. each of us sees not the actual table, but an appearance of it which merely represents an actual table out there. the representative theory of perception states that we do not perceive the external world directly ; instead we perceive our personal interpretation of an object by way of sense data. a naive realist assumes she sees the dog upon perceiving a dog, whereas a representative realist assumes she sees a sensory representation of the dog upon perceiving a dog. the external world is real and continues to exist unobserved. but we are only aware of it indirectly. our perception of the external world is mediated by way of sense data such as photons and sound waves. we perceive a representation of reality ( not the reality itself ) ; this has been given many names : ideas, sense data, percept or appearance. thus representative realism is the idea that our perceptions are directly caused by the intrinsic qualities of objects, and based on these perceptions we can infer things about these objects. the 17th century philosopher john locke most prominently advocated this theory. the term he used was not \" sense - datum \" but \" idea. \" \" idea \" as used in the theory of perception is a technical term, meaning roughly the same thing as sense - datum, and this article does not discuss any differences in meaning that the two terms might have. john locke thought objects had two classes of qualities : - primary qualities are qualities which are ' explanatorily basic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6623938422165649, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.152930"} {"text": "the same thing as sense - datum, and this article does not discuss any differences in meaning that the two terms might have. john locke thought objects had two classes of qualities : - primary qualities are qualities which are ' explanatorily basic ' - which is to say, they can be referred to as the explanation for other qualities or phenomena without requiring explanation themselves - and they are distinct in that our sensory experience of them resembles them in reality. ( for example, one perceives an object as spherical precisely because of the way the atoms of the sphere are arranged. ) primary qualities cannot be removed by either thought or physical action, and include mass, movement, and, controversially, solidity ( although later proponents of the distinction between primary and secondary qualities usually discount solidity ). - secondary qualities are qualities which one ' s experience does not directly resemble ; for example, when one sees an object as red, the sensation of seeing redness is not produced by some quality of redness in the object, but by the arrangement of atoms on the surface of the object which reflects and absorbs light in a particular way. secondary qualities include colour, smell, and taste. in contemporary philosophy, epistemological dualism has come under sustained attack by philosophers like wittgenstein ( the private language argument ) and wilfrid sellars in his seminal essay \" empiricism and the philosophy of mind. \" indirect realism is argued to be problematical because of ryle ' s regress and the apparent need for a homunculus. these problems have led some philosophers to abandon realism and suggest the existence of dualism and others to propose, or suggest through emergentism, that some form of new physics is operating in the brain such as quantum mind, space - time theories of consciousness - online papers on representationalism, by various authors, compiled by david chalmers - harold i. brown, \" direct realism, indirect realism, and epistemology \". philosophy and phenomenological research, vol. 52, no. 2. ( jun., 1992 ), pp. 341 - 363. - what do we perceive and how do we perceive it? ( pdf file ) - neurological explanation for paranormal experiences - the representationalism web site - mccreery, c., \" perception and hallucination : the case for continuity. \u201d oxford : oxford forum ( 2006 ). an analysis of empirical arguments for representationalism. online pdf", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6302643960966718, "token_count": 497, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.156273"} {"text": "sex - and - relationships - relationships - the psychology of relationships : life script life script is another major theoretical concept within transactional analysis. basically, life script is the idea that we tend to have an unconscious life plan - like a story - that we make up as children about ourselves and our lives, which we tend to keep to and follow even when we are adults. in other words, life script is a personal life plan developed under parental, familial, social, cultural and religious pressure. it is mostly complete by the age of seven. to make this process a bit more understandable, here is an example : let ' s call our case illustration jane. jane grows up as the fourth child in a family of five, her mum and dad are busy people, trying to make ends meet. jane doesn ' t get a lot of attention at home, but learns to read very early on and develops a good rapport with her oldest sister reading children ' s books. in response to this scenario, jane will make specific script decisions about herself, other people and the world in general around her. for example, she might decide that she really always needs to be a good girl, quiet, studious and compliant to make the most of the relationships around her. she might also decide that the way to be is to work loads, just like her parents. she might take on board a sense that the world is a place in which people struggle and that you have to work really hard to make ends meet. these script decisions are made in response to family and cultural messages but based on the child ' s very limited information and reality processing skills. such a decision becomes an emotionally laden commitment to live in a certain way ( in jane ' s case possibly laden with all the loyalty and love she feels for her family and parents ). this \" certain way \" becomes an unconscious life plan or a narrative, a story that we tell ourselves about what ' s possible for us. this life plan is built to make sense out of the world and to protect us : for example, jane could have perhaps complained about the lack of support in her family, but as a child might then have been excluded from her family as complaining wasn ' t part of the family culture. but any script can become self - limiting in adult life. it might mean we don ' t take up opportunities even if they are there, because they are outside our script. let ' s imagine what happens to jane as an adult. let ' s say she achieves well at work and develops", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5168103047286918, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.179503"} {"text": "adult life. it might mean we don ' t take up opportunities even if they are there, because they are outside our script. let ' s imagine what happens to jane as an adult. let ' s say she achieves well at work and develops her career in an outstanding way. she marries a man who is also very invested in his work and they get along fine. so far jane has stayed within her script of \" work hard \", \" life is a struggle \", \" men like my dad who do well are attractive \". you could say she is doing well too. however, there are also blind spots which her script has created. she doesn ' t spend a lot of time socializing and she doesn ' t notice when people want to spend time with her. the only friend she has is someone she met at a book club. they still spend a lot of time talking about books ( like she did with her sister ), but actually jane and her friend are neither emotionally open nor do they feel close to each other. jane married a man who was more invested in his career than in spending time with her and she often feels lonely beside him. she may have broken up with an earlier boy friend, who was much more loving, because she thought he was lazy ( or what the parent ego state in her head would have called lazy ), because he wanted to sit around and have a good time with his friends on the weekends. jane may also not have been able to appreciate his warmth and kindness, because it was completely off her radar. jane may suffer from physical pain due to overworking, like back pain or frequent infections. she would be a prime candidate for depression as she neglects her emotional and psychological well - being and gives out a lot more energy than she takes in. to reiterate, life script is an ongoing process of a self - defining and sometimes self - limiting psychological construction of reality. as long as we stick with it, life seems to be more predictable. however, the price we pay for a sense of certainty is that we are excluding new possibilities - even the good ones. the question you might want to ask yourself now is : what might your own script look like? one way to determine this is to look at your favorite fairy tales or mythological stories. which story did you like best as a kid? often children use fairy tales as a model for their own life stories or they experiment with different scenarios. for example, jane might have liked the story of odysseus, who endured a lot of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5081134197697588, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.181194"} {"text": "ideal, therefore, is to become script free, or be able to apply the strengths in your script consciously. for instance, jane could keep her drive to work hard and use it to be successful, but might also learn how to be emotionally close and have fun. we talk about being script - free as being autonomous. autonomy is behaving, thinking or feeling in direct response to here and now reality rather than reacting to things based on a script belief. imagine, if jane didn ' t have all this baggage, she might take time out for herself in response to feeling low, rather than working even harder to be able to ignore the feelings for a little while longer. autonomy is manifested by the release or recovery of three capacities : awareness, spontaneity and intimacy. and of course, once you know what your unconscious life plan is you can change it. you decided on it as a child, but you can now change your mind as an adult. remember that whatever you decided about yourself and your life as a child, it was done from a very limited perspective. what seemed a generalized truth about life then might not be true for you anymore today. the emphasis on the decision of the child in script formation is based on the premise that \" what has been decided can be re - decided \". re - decision is an emotional, cognitive and behavioral process. scripts can be changed and disbanded all together. as an adult you are free to write your own story - and have fun doing it! if you want to find out more about how this applies to your relationship, have a look at applying scripts. other related psychological topics are games, relational needs, life positions, and transference.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.515061746241315, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.185828"} {"text": "definitions of stiff : - noun : an ordinary man example : \" a lucky stiff \" - noun : the dead body of a human being - adjective : not moving or operating freely example : \" a stiff hinge \" - adjective : powerful example : \" a stiff current \" - adjective : lacking ease in bending ; not limber example : \" a stiff neck \" - adjective : hard to overcome or surmount example : \" a stiff hike \" - adjective : incapable of or resistant to bending example : \" a palace guardsman stiff as a poker \" - adjective : of a collar ; standing up rather than folded down example : \" a stiff collar \" - adjective : rigidly formal example : \" the letter was stiff and formal \" - adjective : very drunk - adverb : extremely example : \" bored stiff \" - adverb : in a stiff manner example : \" his hands lay stiffly \" - name : a surname ( rare : 1 in 100000 families ; popularity rank in the u. s. : # 11622 ) search for stiff at other dictionaries : onelook, answers. com, merriam - webster \" works flawlessly! \" : rhymezone apps for iphone / ipad and android! help, feedback, customize, android app, iphone / ipad app copyright \u00a9 2013 datamuse", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5253974428823219, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.198090"} {"text": "issue number : 93 \u2018 enlightenment, \u2019 wrote immanuel kant in his 1784 essay what is enlightenment? \u2018 is man \u2019 s emergence from his self - imposed immaturity. immaturity is the inability to use one \u2019 s understanding without guidance from another. this immaturity is self - imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. sapere aude! [ dare to know! ] have the courage to use your own understanding! that is the motto of enlightenment. \u2019 age of reason an encyclopdedia of the age of enlightenment by adam dant. an encyclopdedia of the age of enlightenment by adam dant. neither kant nor his eighteenth - century contemporaries believed that they lived in an enlightened age. by \u2018 enlightenment \u2019, they meant a process : the lessening of darkness, the dawning of light. the human mind was liberating itself from traditional authority over thought and belief. \u2018 nothing is required for enlightenment except freedom, \u2019 wrote kant, \u2018 and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters. \u2019 kant and his fellow leaders of the enlightenment were opposed to hegemonies, whether intellectual or political. \u2018 on all sides i hear : do not argue! \u2019 kant continues. \u2018 the officer says, \u201c do not argue, drill! \u201d the taxman says, \u201c do not argue, pay! \u201d the pastor says, \u201c do not argue, believe! \u201d \u2019 but, whereas the officer and the taxman serve authorities who dislike anyone questioning the political and social status quo, the pastor is a different matter : he represents the authority that dislikes any kind of questioning, and certainly not the kind that is sceptical about received wisdom. the project that served as a flagship for enlightenment in the eighteenth century was the encyclopedie, edited by denis diderot and jean le rond d \u2019 alembert. a compendium of knowledge, its emphatic and rationalist war on the authority of past pieties was premised on the recognition of how obstinately they stood in the way of intellectual and social progress. in taking this stance, the encyclopedists were following the lead of voltaire who, with his battle - cry of ecrasez l \u2019 infame! ( \u2018 wipe out the infamy \u2019, by which he meant superstition", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5902695116772921, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.220867"} {"text": "this stance, the encyclopedists were following the lead of voltaire who, with his battle - cry of ecrasez l \u2019 infame! ( \u2018 wipe out the infamy \u2019, by which he meant superstition ), challenged tradition with weapons of logic and satire. \u2018 have courage to free yourselves, \u2019 diderot exhorted his fellow men in words echoed by kant, \u2018 examine the history of all peoples in all times and you will see that we humans have always been subject to one of three codes : that of nature, that of society, and that of religion, and that we have been obliged to transgress all three in succession, because they could never be in harmony. \u2019 in essence, the enlightenment was a call to individuals to stand up for themselves in the light of reason. that meant understanding the world through philosophy and science, especially by applying the latter beyond physics and chemistry to the social world of politics, education and morality. the enlightenment had its negative aspects and consequences, no doubt, but it was motivated by a real desire for the improvement of humankind \u2019 s lot and, accordingly, represents a key moment in the progress of civilisation. one of the many results of its new ambition was a shift in portraiture : in enlightenment painting and sculpture, individuals \u2013 be they citizens, members of families or clubs \u2013 share a place once exclusively occupied by saints and princes. in its way, this represents the first dawning of the modern democratic spirit, and it would not have been possible without the enlightenment \u2019 s belief in the universality of the human good and the \u2018 rights of man \u2019.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5274781052610835, "token_count": 333, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.222140"} {"text": "materials enable the ideas of scientists to meet the needs of engineers. research into the relationships between the atomic structure of materials and their physical and mechanical properties, both in the united states and elsewhere, is leading to exciting new alloys and compounds that can be designed to exhibit a wide range of useful properties. for this reason a number of federal agencies, including the department of energy, department of defense, department of commerce, and advisory bodies, such as the office of science and technology policy and the national research council, have identified materials as a critical technology vital to our nation ' s national security and economic competitiveness. the integrated materials research laboratory ( imrl ) enables sandia to develop new and superior materials that meet government and industrial needs. this 140, 000 square foot building houses most of the advanced materials research and development functions at sandia. the facility integrates research from the atomic scale, through the development of electronic devices, to full scale mechanical components. the experimental work is augmented by advanced computer modeling and simulation techniques, another area of sandia ' s expertise. a wide variety of types of materials will be investigated : advanced metallic alloys, semiconductors for electronic and photonic applications, high temperature superconductors, ceramics, metals with properties tailored for improved resistance to friction, wear, corrosion and erosion, etc., and laser, optical and dielectric materials. the imrl has been built outside of sandia ' s secure area to facilitate technical cooperation with researchers from industry and universities. the new four story building has permitted sandia to bring together some 250 materials researchers previously scattered about the campus. it also includes space for postdoctoral researchers and guests from other organizations, facilitating the collaborative generation of new ideas, and the subsequent transfer of novel pre - competitive technologies to practice. the imrl is strategically located with our microelectronics development, compound semiconductor research and robotics manufacturing science and engineering laboratories. this drives the integration of materials research with advanced microelectronic component development creating a set of leading edge facilities in what may be termed an integrated microsystems technology park. we have developed a variety of solution chemistry routes to ceramic powders in order to control such important powder properties as particle size, agglomerate structure, dopant levels, and impurities. the ability to control powder properties is important because the microstructural and electrical properties of ceramics are strongly influenced by the nature of the powder used in their fabrication. this solution processing approach is illustrated above for the sandia - developed process to prepare high field zno varisto", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5676421856841105, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.260090"} {"text": "types : mf, df and sf. fifteen areas were sampled. three of these areas represent some of the larger continuous portions within their respective forest types in the parana state : parque nacional do iguacu ( 185, 000 ha ) in the sf, floresta nacional de irati ( 3, 500 ha ) in the mf and area de preservacao ambiental de guaraquecaba ( 192, 000 ha ) in the df. four areas are smaller ( between 656 and 1, 000 ha ), but also legally protected. another five areas are not protected, but are also as well preserved as the conservation units ( table i ). the three forest types studied differ in biotic and abiotic characteristics. in the df, where our study areas were distributed from sea level up to 800 m ( although this forest type can reach 2, 000 m ), annual rainfall and average temperatures are high. there is no obvious dry season and the rainfall is well distributed throughout the year. the complex canopy is composed of a great variety of plant species ( around 700 species of trees are found ), displaying an abundance of epiphytes and large biomass of bamboo and vine tangles ( morellato and haddad 2000, oliveira - filho and fontes 2000 ). the mf, which occupies elevations ranging from 800 to 1, 200 m, is dominated by a single plant species : araucaria angustifolia, which represents more than 40 % of the individual trees. this type of forest is poor in bamboo and vine tangles, but rich in epiphytes. the annual average temperatures and rainfall are lower than those found in the df, and there is no distinct dry season ( mazza et al. 2005 ). the sf, ranging from 200 to 800 m in elevation, is dominated by a few plant species, of which aspidosperma polyneuron, tabebuia heptaphylla and peltophorum dubium are noteworthy. this type of forest is rich in vine tangles and bamboo, but poor in epiphytes. the average annual rainfall is similar to that observed in the mf ; however, the average temperature is similar to that in the df. a distinct dry season of 160 days can be observed in this type of forest ( morellato and haddad 2000, oliveira - filho and fontes 2000 ). bird sampling methods point counts were performed to obtain the abundance data in all study areas ( blondel et", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.508483496202097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.309897"} {"text": "harsh criticism of the way many jesus scholars investigate the single sayings of jesus is given by richard horsley ( 2008 : 131145 ), who bases his critique on the examination of the memory and the gospels as ' social memory ' rather than ' containers of data '. every text and every moment of oral proclamation and performance makes best sense within its context. overman ( 1996 ) writes : the whole story of matthew is a crucial context and, in fact, an absolute necessity for understanding smaller parts or units of the gospel. the story itself, written by the author as best we can reconstruct it, is the first place a sensible reader will look for clues and for a context that will help supply meaning to words, instruction, and stories in the gospel. and there is little doubt that cross - cultural analogies, and stories and events from our own time, can indeed help to shed more light on the gospel texts, their meanings, and their application. secondly, i learned that it is much easier to know the context of jesus than jesus himself. we know a great deal about the roman empire in 1st century palestine. we have trustworthy information about the cultural context that jesus and his disciples lived in. with the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, we can create the social context of jesus and his disciples. it is much more difficult to place the figure of jesus into that context. thirdly, the gospels, as we have them today, are not in their original form. originally, they were distributed in both oral and written forms, with several different forms of each, depending on the context. the gospels also differ from other contemporary literature because of the fact that, although authored by the elite, they do contain some traditions that have been produced by ordinary people, even poor people. this seems to me to be especially true in the sayings gospel q and the gospel of mark and on some occasions the gospel of matthew and the gospel of thomas. even the theologically constructed gospel of john contains some traditions that might have been born in rural peasant circles and the gospel of luke based his admittedly elite gospel on earlier traditions found in q and mark. thus, as horsley ( 2008 : 31 ) writes, the gospels ' are some of those rare historical cases of literature that represents the view from below '. most of the people in the nascent ' christian ' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5096611795150973, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.356370"} {"text": "the gospels ' are some of those rare historical cases of literature that represents the view from below '. most of the people in the nascent ' christian ' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. their history needs to be written. horsley ( 2008 : 2124 ) makes an interesting distinction between ' standard history ' and ' people ' s history ' and applies this distinction to new testament studies. to use his terms, my study would be a ' people ' s history '. in this article the focus is not on theological concepts or the rise of christian beliefs. the focus is rather on the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century roman empire. in choosing this focus i have approached the gospels from the viewpoint of the poor. what follows is a necessarily brief analysis of one of the poverty texts that i chose for the interviews amongst people living in poverty today. a more detailed study will be forthcoming in my book on the same subject. in these interviews, i listened to the stories of the villagers as well as their interpretations of the gospel texts and documented them on a voice recorder. findings from this field research amongst the poor living in villages in tanzania in the spring of 2010 will be studied further and then compared to current biblical scholarly investigations concerning the poverty texts. one example text, matthew 6 : 2534, will be presented here from a contextual standpoint, that is, from the perspective of the materially poor. the field research in tanzanian villages one contemporary setting to read the poverty texts within the context of poverty is tanzania. in many places in africa, especially in rural areas, people still live in a pre - industrial, agrarian society. in many villages, there is no electricity and virtually no motor vehicles or telephones. some tribes still live in a gatherer society whilst some tribes are nomadic. but most of the rural people are peasants who make their living from agriculture. they have tiny fields and a small number of cattle that affords them, in normal times, a modest living for themselves and their families. most people do not produce anything for sale and almost nobody gets a salary. also, in recent times hiv and aids has struck the african continent, especially sub - saharan africa, more heavily than any other part of the world, making, at worst, one in every four adults hiv - positive ( unaids 2008 ). 2 i chose to focus on the villages in the iringa district in the middle of tanzania because of my earlier contacts in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5019642060834684, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.357576"} {"text": "any other part of the world, making, at worst, one in every four adults hiv - positive ( unaids 2008 ). 2 i chose to focus on the villages in the iringa district in the middle of tanzania because of my earlier contacts in the area and the support of the finnish evangelical lutheran mission society as well as tumaini university. their familiarity with village life in the district was very useful when arranging visits to local villages where people speak mainly swahili and their own tribal languages, like hehe, bena or kinga. 3 the focus during the visits to the villages was twofold. firstly, i wanted to become familiar with the social structure of the village. i asked the village chief or executive secretary the following kinds of questions : how many people live in the village? do all villagers belong to the same tribe or kin? what do villagers do for a living? what professions or occupations do they have? how many villagers work outside of the village? how and why, do villagers keep contact with neighbouring villages and towns? what are the major problems in the village? 4 in light of the issues regarding land ownership in the gospels it was especially interesting to learn that in tanzania, the land was appropriated by the state in the 1960s. the older generation still remembers the time when the land was either owned by a tribe or by kin, or was free to anyone. nowadays people pay rent for the land they want to cultivate. this data works not only as a necessary context for reading the poverty texts with the villagers, but offers a comparison to the hypothesis regarding the origins of q, namely that it was supposed to have originated in the galilean villages where loss of land was prevalent. secondly and most importantly, i discussed the poverty texts with the villagers. i call this discussion a ' reading ' but the texts were not read from a book with leather covers, but rather performed in narrative style. in tanzania the oral culture and narrative tradition is still alive and well. by telling the stories from memory i tended to get their first reactions, which may have been different had i simply read to them from the bible. some of the villagers were non - christians, so they were not too closely acquainted with the stories beforehand. even the christians heard the stories differently compared to the way they heard them from pastors and evangelists or even in liturgical sermons. i had hoped to have a lively discussion of the poverty stories in the gospels and that i most certainly did. often the religious authorities ( a pastor, an evangelist or some other religious leader", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5098153040828979, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.358647"} {"text": "' and therefore not only a spiritual entity. quite the contrary, the palestinians, who suffered from injustice by the israelites, understood the kingdom of god as a movement of oppressed people who have god as their shelter when they do god ' s will. the kingdom of god was equivalent to the intifada. william r. herzog ii ( 2010 ) has written : in the hierarchy of rural life, then, there are two thresholds at which peasants may lose their previous status, and it is at these moments that they will resist their decline most fiercely. ( herzog ii 2010 : 5152 ) quoting james c. scott ( 1976 ), he concludes that : when threatened with the loss of their land and the security of their village, they will form movements and perhaps even rebel. the same is true when peasants reach the second, more desperate threshold, ' when the subsistence guarantees within dependency collapse ', and the relative stability of tenancy gives way to the perilous life of a day laborer. ( james c. scott 1976 : 3940 ) this had obviously not happened in kinywang ' anga, where most people still had the security offered by village life and their small farms. in the palestinian territories, in contrast, the people had suffered from injustice and loss of land. the life of many palestinians had become very difficult. in that context it is much easier to imagine how they would react to the exhortation ' do not worry '. especially young men would eagerly join any movement resisting the unjust oppressor. they could stop worrying about the questions of daily life and strive for the movement that they believed brings justice, peace and welfare. 11 the context of do not worry in the gospels in the gospels we can find three groups where jesus ' words on not worrying about daily life could have been understood and maybe even hailed as good news. the first one is the group of landless peasants, who had quite recently lost all their property to some rich landowners, probably absentee landlords, as a result of debts they were not able to pay. such people would have quickly fallen under the sustenance level and their future was either to become slaves, beggars, criminals, bandits or some other social outcast. these are just the kind of people who might form movements for resistance. if the group believed that their plight triggered an eschatological turn in the immediate future, some kind of a collapse of the normal system of social stratification leading to the possibility of shared goods, they could have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5179264769455247, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.365325"} {"text": "might form movements for resistance. if the group believed that their plight triggered an eschatological turn in the immediate future, some kind of a collapse of the normal system of social stratification leading to the possibility of shared goods, they could have heard the words of jesus as a proclamation of power. however, in the literal context of matthew ' s gospel there are no clear indications that the words should be understood this way. the do not worry passage is a part of the sermon on the mount and although the gospel of matthew also contains an apocalypse later in chapter 24, it would be a stretch to read the chapter 6 passage in light of this. rather, the verbal context of matthew leads one to think about one ' s relation to property rather than to the end times. preceding mattew 6 : 2534 the evangelist talks about almsgiving ( 6 : 14 ), prayer, including central petitions concerning daily living ( 6 : 515 ), fasting ( 6 : 1618 ), 12 storing property or treasures ( 6 : 1921 ), envy, or the evil eye ( 6 : 2223 ) 13 and the impossibility of serving both god and mammon ( 6 : 24 ). in chapter 7, the themes change from property to one ' s relationships with other people. therefore, it seems to me that, at least in its matthean context, jesus ' words would not have made sense as an eschatological proclamation. in the context of q this might have been possible, but the sequence of q ( its different phases and the social context of q ) are still debated so much that it is not possible to enter into that discussion in this article. the second possible group for whom jesus ' do not worry saying would have been understandable was in a group made up of ' itinerant charismatic preachers '. the earliest followers of jesus were supposedly people living in galilean villages where jesus ' proclamation of the kingdom of god was welcomed and understood as a liberating action that would soon free them from subjugation to the roman empire. heavy taxation, wars, punishments and other consequences of the occupation were a tremendous burden on the peasant population. the message of the kingdom of god was spread from village to village by jesus ' disciples, who had left their earlier lives ( whether voluntarily or under pressure ) and lived solely on the support of villagers who accepted the movement ' s message. these are the people that were sent to proclaim the kingdom of god without carrying a purse, a bag or sandals ( lk", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5069809995785657, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.368044"} {"text": "apr. 1, 2003 after years of frustrating searches for genes that contribute to mental illness, researchers at johns hopkins studying families with a severe form of manic depressive illness, called psychotic bipolar disorder, may be one step closer to finding the genetic underpinnings of both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. \" finding a gene for bipolar disorder is like finding a needle in a haystack, but by focusing our search on families with a distinctive form of the illness we were able to pinpoint a region of the genome where disease genes are likely to be found, \" said james potash, m. d., assistant professor of psychiatry at johns hopkins and lead author of a report on the study in the april issue of the american journal of psychiatry. although genes are unlikely to tell the whole story of major psychiatric diseases, the persistent frequency of mental illness in about 1 percent of the global human population, regardless of cultural or ethnic differences, and its tendency to run in families have always pointed to a strong genetic role. \" but pinning down that role is complicated by the many variations in symptoms, even within the same family, \" says potash. \" there are probably many different genes and environmental factors that can cause any given mental illness. \" motivated by previous suggestions that certain broad regions of the dna sequence, especially on human chromosomes 13 and 22, may contain genes that contribute to both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, potash and colleagues focused on those families with the psychotic form of bipolar disorder. like bipolar disorder, psychotic bipolar disorder is characterized by see - sawing episodes of depression and mania, but it is distinctive because these mood changes often are accompanied by such psychotic symptoms as hallucinations and delusions. the concept for the new study is that of two slightly overlapping circles, explains potash. in one circle are all of the genes that contribute to schizophrenia. the other circle has all of the genes that contribute to bipolar disorder, while the intersection of the two circles contains genes that are common to both diseases as well as for psychotic bipolar disorder. the researchers carefully evaluated and took blood samples from 65 patients with bipolar disorder and from their extended families. they extracted blood cell dna and scanned it with dna probes, looking for matching sequences that are more likely to appear in those with mental illness than in those without it. by noting where these markers lay on chromosomes, the researchers were able to narrow in on where the genes were located. out of 65 bipolar disorder families studied, the 10 families in which 3 or more members had psychotic bipolar disorder showed strong genetic \" linkage", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5208413978251177, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.402735"} {"text": "targeted by white cells responsible for killing cancer cells. scientific knowledge around using drugs to stimulate the body ' s natural defences against cancer is becoming more prominent. the researchers believe that these findings provide more evidence that, in the future, this treatment method may provide further options for patients that could be used in combination with existing cancer drug treatment. \" using the body ' s own immune system is a relatively new way of thinking in the development of cancer treatments, and scientists are still building up a knowledge base about it. if successful, this method of treatment could be used in combination with existing cancer drugs. it could potentially see patients taking less medication, having fewer and less severe side effects and recovering quicker, \" says dr liu. \" this research is at an early stage of investigation, and so far has analysed the reaction of human blood outside of the body, so more work is needed before these findings can be used in practice. the next stage will be to develop a compound suitable for clinical trials, \" he concludes. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - w m liu, d w fowler, a m gravett, p smith, a g dalgleish. supernatants from lymphocytes stimulated with bacillus calmette - guerin can modify the antigenicity of tumours and stimulate allogeneic t - cell responses. british journal of cancer, 2011 ; doi : 10. 1038 / bjc. 2011. 306 note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5160201846198802, "token_count": 309, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.426413"} {"text": "aug. 20, 2012 botany is plagued by the same problem as the rest of science and society : our ability to generate data quickly and cheaply is surpassing our ability to access and analyze it. in this age of big data, scientists facing too much information rely on computers to search large data sets for patterns that are beyond the capability of humans to recognize - - but computers can only interpret data based on the strict set of rules in their programming. new tools called ontologies provide the rules computers need to transform information into knowledge, by attaching meaning to data, thereby making those data retrievable by computers and more understandable to human beings. ontology, from the greek word for the study of being or existence, traditionally falls within the purview of philosophy, but the term is now used by computer and information scientists to describe a strategy for representing knowledge in a consistent fashion. an ontology in this contemporary sense is a description of the types of entities within a given domain and the relationships among them. a new article in this month ' s american journal of botany by ramona walls ( new york botanical garden ) and colleagues describes how scientists build ontologies such as the plant ontology ( po ) and how these tools can transform plant science by facilitating new ways of gathering and exploring data. when data from many divergent sources, such as data about some specific plant organ, are associated or \" tagged \" with particular terms from a single ontology or set of interrelated ontologies, the data become easier to find, and computers can use the logical relationships in the ontologies to correctly combine the information from the different databases. moreover, computers can also use ontologies to aggregate data associated with the different subclasses or parts of entities. for example, suppose a researcher is searching online for all examples of gene expression in a leaf. any botanist performing this search would include experiments that described gene expression in petioles and midribs or in a frond. however, a search engine would not know that it needs to include these terms in its search - - unless it was told that a frond is a type of leaf, and that every petiole and every midrib are parts of some leaf. it is this information that ontologies provide. the article in the american journal of botany by walls and colleagues describes what ontologies are, why they are relevant to plant science, and some of the basic principles of ontology development. it includes an overview of the ontologies that are relevant to botany, with a more detailed description", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5956600103725267, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.430061"} {"text": "of botany by walls and colleagues describes what ontologies are, why they are relevant to plant science, and some of the basic principles of ontology development. it includes an overview of the ontologies that are relevant to botany, with a more detailed description of the po and the challenges of building an ontology that covers all green plants. the article also describes four keys areas of plant science that could benefit from the use of ontologies : ( 1 ) comparative genetics, genomics, phenomics, and development ; ( 2 ) taxonomy and systematics ; ( 3 ) semantic applications ; and ( 4 ) education. although most of the examples in this article are drawn from plant science, the principles could apply to any group of organisms, and the article should be of interest to zoologists as well. as genomic and phenomic data become available for more species, many different research groups are embarking on the annotation of their data and images with ontology terms. at the same time, cross - species queries are becoming more common, causing more researchers in plant science to turn to ontologies. ontology developers are working with the scientists who generate data to make sure ontologies accurately reflect current science, and with database developers and publishers to find ways to make it easier for scientist to associate their data with ontologies. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - r. l. walls, b. athreya, l. cooper, j. elser, m. a. gandolfo, p. jaiswal, c. j. mungall, j. preece, s. rensing, b. smith, d. w. stevenson. ontologies as integrative tools for plant science. american journal of botany, 2012 ; 99 ( 8 ) : 1263 doi : 10. 3732 / ajb. 1200222 note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5920380983860485, "token_count": 393, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.430795"} {"text": "item by the amount of time that it will run and write that number down in the last column. after you have calculated the watt hour consumption for each item, simply add each item ' s watt hour rating together and you ' ll have your total consumption.. for example : once we have this information, it ' s a simple matter to match the number of batteries that you will need in order to store enough power for what you choosing an inverter for your backup power system dc to ac inverters are available as inverter units only, or may have additional circuits added that allows them to charge batteries when an external ac source is fed into the inverter. this type of configuration is know as an inverter / charger. in addition to the charger circuit, these units will typically include a device known as an ac transfer switch. the advantage to purchasing an inverter / charger with transfer switch is that it can function as a highly reliable automatic power backup unit or ups. when the utility company is operating normally the inverter / charger passes the utility company power through its internal transfer switch to your appliances and maintains a charge on your battery bank. as soon as the utility power fails, the inverter automatically stops charging the battery bank and begins producing its own ac power which is passed on to your appliances through its internal ac when the utility power returns, the inverter goes back to charging the batteries and again passes the utility power though the transfer switch to your appliances. most inverter / chargers switch from utility power to inverter power and back again so fast that most of your appliances will hardly miss a beat. sizing the wattage rating of an inverter for your backup system is a simple matter of determining the total number of appliances that you would typically be operating on a concurrent basis, and adding a buffer of at least 500 watts. in other words if there was a possibility that you would have your 600 watt microwave, a 200 watts coffee maker and a 200 watt stereo running at the same time, you would be drawing 1000 watts, then you should choose a 1500 watt inverter. an inverter should never be run at it ' s maximum rating for prolonged periods of time, doing so will shorten the life of the inverter. another issue to consider is the amount of surge current that your appliances draws. any appliance that uses a transformer, motor or other magnetic device draws what is known as surge current at startup. these devices are otherwise known", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5020642436735587, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.496482"} {"text": "the inverter. another issue to consider is the amount of surge current that your appliances draws. any appliance that uses a transformer, motor or other magnetic device draws what is known as surge current at startup. these devices are otherwise known as inductors. inductors appose the flow of electrical current. when an inductor is first energized there is a great degree of inertia that must be overcome for the magnetic field which surrounds the inductor to reach it ' s maximum field. just as it ' s difficult to initially push a car by hand that is at rest and gets easier to push as it gets going. initially starting an inductor takes a great deal of current to get it started but backs off on the current after it gets going. devices such as microwave ovens, refrigerator compressors, fan motors and large transformer based appliances can draw from 3 to 6 times it ' s normal wattage in an initial surge of current. this initial surge of current typically only lasts milliseconds but it ' s enough to shut down an inverter if it ' s not sized properly. thus it ' s important to choose an inverter that has enough surge capacity to start such appliances. for example a meager 600 watt microwave oven will typically require a 2000 watt inverter just to get it started. if all of this information seems a little overwhelming, don ' t worry our friendly knowledgeable staff are here to help you every step of and finally, be cautious when purchasing a backup power system for your home or place of the internet. get to know who you ' re dealing with. many of the backup power kits that are available on the internet are actually home made configurations. many websites on the internet that would appear to be large reputable companies are actually home based affairs that operate from an impossible to trace pob ( po box ). remember, you ' re about to give this individual your personal information and more importantly your credit card number. is his company solvent? does he have liability insurance? does he really have the items that you ' re about to purchase in stock? does he have any stock? with the advent of the energy crisis, dozens of home based dealers with little or no formal training or experience have cropped up on the internet. even if you don ' t live nearby, ask the dealer if you can get directions to his place of business so you can stop by and take a look at some products. if you can ' t get directions or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5142947537117177, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.497780"} {"text": "problems of philosophy chapter 5 - knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description after distinguishing two types of knowledge, knowledge of things and knowledge of truths, russell devotes this fifth chapter to an elucidation of knowledge of things. he further distinguishes two types of knowledge of things, knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. we have knowledge by acquaintance when we are directly aware of a thing, without any inference. we are immediately conscious and acquainted with a color or hardness of a table before us, our sense - data. since acquaintance with things is logically independent from any knowledge of truths, we can be acquainted with something immediately without knowing any truth about it. i can know the color of a table \" perfectly and completely when i see it \" and not know any truth about the color in itself. the other type of knowledge of things is called knowledge by description. when we say we have knowledge of the table itself, a physical object, we refer to a kind of knowledge other than immediate, direct knowledge. \" the physical object which causes such - and - such sense - data \" is a phrase that describes the table by way of sense - data. we only have a description of the table. knowledge by description is predicated on something with which we are acquainted, sense - data, and some knowledge of truths, like knowing that \" such - and - such sense - data are caused by the physical object. \" thus, knowledge by description allows us to infer knowledge about the actual world via the things that can be known to us, things with which we have direct acquaintance ( our subjective sense - data ). according to this outline, knowledge by acquaintance forms the bedrock for all of our other knowledge. sense - data is not the only instance of things with which we can be immediately acquainted. for how would we recall the past, russell argues, if we could only know what was immediately present to our senses. beyond sense - data, we also have \" acquaintance by memory. \" remembering what we were immediately aware of makes it so that we are still immediately aware of that past, perceived thing. we may therefore access many past things with the same requisite immediacy. beyond sense - data and memories, we possess \" acquaintance by introspection. \" when we are aware of an awareness, like in the case of hunger, \" my desiring food \" becomes an object of acquaintance. introspective acquaintance is a kind of acquaintance with our own minds that may be understood as self - consciousness. however, this self - consciousness is really more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6199948993374317, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.514779"} {"text": "in the case of hunger, \" my desiring food \" becomes an object of acquaintance. introspective acquaintance is a kind of acquaintance with our own minds that may be understood as self - consciousness. however, this self - consciousness is really more like a consciousness of a feeling or a particular thought ; the awareness rarely includes the explicit use of \" i, \" which would identify the self as a subject. russell abandons this strand of knowledge, knowledge of the self, as a probable but unclear dimension of acquaintance. russell summarizes our acquaintance with things as follows : \" we have acquaintance in sensation with the data of the outer senses, and in introspection with the data of what may be called the inner sense \u2014 thoughts, feelings, desires, etc. ; we have acquaintance in memory with things which have been data either of the outer senses or of the inner sense. further, it is probable, though not certain, that we have acquaintance with self, as that which is aware of things or has desires towards things. \" all these objects of acquaintance are particulars, concrete, existing things. russell cautions that we can also have acquaintance with abstract, general ideas called universals. he addresses universals more fully later in chapter 9. russell allocates the rest of the chapter to explaining how the complicated theory of knowledge by description actually works. the most conspicuous things that are known to us by description are physical objects and other people ' s minds. we approach a case of having knowledge by description when we know \" that there is an object answering to a definite description, though we are not acquainted with any such object. \" russell offers several illustrations in the service of understanding knowledge by description. he claims that it is important to understand this kind of knowledge because our language uses depends so heavily on it. when we say common words or proper names, we are really relying on the meanings implicit in descriptive knowledge. the thought connoted by the use of a proper name can only really be explicitly expressed through a description or proposition. bismarck, or \" the first chancellor of the german empire, \" is russell ' s most cogent example. imagine that there is a proposition, or statement, made about bismarck. if bismarck is the speaker, admitting that he has a kind of direct acquaintance with his own self, bismarck might have voiced his name in order to make a self - referential judgment, of which his name is a constituent. in this simplest case, the \" proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6221097879777157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.517867"} {"text": "own self, bismarck might have voiced his name in order to make a self - referential judgment, of which his name is a constituent. in this simplest case, the \" proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply standing for a certain object, and not for a description of the object. \" if one of bismarck ' s friends who knew him directly was the speaker of the statement, then we would say that the speaker had knowledge by description. the speaker is acquainted with sense - data which he infers corresponds with bismarck ' s body. the body or physical object representing the mind is \" only known as the body and the mind connected with these sense - data, \" which is the vital description. since the sense - data corresponding to bismarck change from moment to moment and with perspective, the speaker knows which various descriptions are valid. still more removed from direct acquaintance, imagine that someone like you or i comes along and makes a statement about bismarck that is a description based on a \" more or less vague mass of historical knowledge. \" we say that bismarck was the \" first chancellor of the german empire. \" in order to make a valid description applicable to the physical object, bismarck ' s body, we must find a relation between some particular with which we have acquaintance and the physical object, the particular with which we wish to have an indirect acquaintance. we must make such a reference in order to secure a meaningful description. to usefully distinguish particulars from universals, russell posits the example of \" the most long - lived of men, \" a description which wholly consists of universals. we assume that the description must apply to some man, but we have no way of inferring any judgment about him. russell remarks, \" all knowledge of truths, as we shall show, demands acquaintance with things which are of an essentially different character from sense - data, the things which are sometimes called ' abstract ideas ', but which we shall call ' universals '. \" the description composed only of universals gives no knowledge by acquaintance with which we might anchor an inference about the longest - lived man. a further statement about bismarck, like \" the first chancellor of the german empire was an astute diplomatist, \" is a statement that contains particulars and asserts a judgment that we can only make in virtue of some acquaintance ( like something heard or read ). statements about things known by description function in our language as statements about the \" actual thing described ; \" that is, we intend to refer to that thing.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6207744937350703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.519301"} {"text": "judgment that we can only make in virtue of some acquaintance ( like something heard or read ). statements about things known by description function in our language as statements about the \" actual thing described ; \" that is, we intend to refer to that thing. we intend to say something with the direct authority that only bismarck himself could have when he makes a statement about himself, something with which he has direct acquaintance. yet, there is a spectrum of removal from acquaintance with the relevant particulars : from bismarck himself, \" there is bismarck to people who knew him ; bismarck to those who only know of him through history \" and at a far end of the spectrum \" the longest lived of men. \" at the latter end, we can only make propositions that are logically deducible from universals, and at the former end, we come as close as possible to direct acquaintance and can make many propositions identifying the actual object. it is now clear how knowledge gained by description is reducible to knowledge by acquaintance. russell calls this observation his fundamental principle in the study of \" propositions containing descriptions \" : \" every proposition which we can understand must be composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted. \" indirect knowledge of some particulars seems necessary if we are to expressively attach meanings to the words we commonly use. when we say something referring to julius caesar, we clearly have no direct acquaintance with the man. rather, we are thinking of such descriptions as \" the man who was assassinated on the ides of march \" or \" the founder of the roman empire. \" since we have no way of being directly acquainted with julius caesar, our knowledge by description allows us to gain knowledge of \" things which we have never experienced. \" it allows us to overstep the boundaries of our private, immediate experiences and engage a public knowledge and public language. this knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description theory was a famous epistemological problem - solver for russell. its innovative character allowed him to shift to his moderate realism, a realism ruled by a more definite categorization of objects. it is a theory of knowledge that considers our practice of language to be meaningful and worthy of detailed analysis. russell contemplates how we construct a sense of meaning about objects remote from our experience. the realm of acquaintance offers the most secure references for our understanding of the world. knowledge by description allows us to draw inferences from our realm of acquaintance but leaves us in a more vulnerable position. since knowledge by description also depends on truths, we are prone to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6322126380897151, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.520338"} {"text": "of acquaintance offers the most secure references for our understanding of the world. knowledge by description allows us to draw inferences from our realm of acquaintance but leaves us in a more vulnerable position. since knowledge by description also depends on truths, we are prone to error about our descriptive knowledge if we are somehow mistaken about a proposition that we have taken to be true. critics of this theory have held that russell ' s hypothesis of knowledge by description is confusing. his comments when defining sense - data, that the physical world is unknowable to us, contradict his theory of knowledge by descriptions. he implies that \" knowledge by description \" is not really a form of knowledge since we can only know those things with which we are acquainted and we cannot be acquainted with physical objects. russell ' s theory amounts to the proposition that our acquaintance with mental objects appears related in a distant way to physical objects and renders us obliquely acquainted with the physical world. sense - data are our subjective representations of the external world, and they negotiate this indirect contact. while innovative, russell ' s theory of knowledge by description is not an attractive theory of knowledge. it is clearly unappealing because our impressions of the real world, on his view, are commensurate with muddy representations of reality. though we have direct access to these representations, it seems impossible to have any kind of direct experience of reality. reality, rather, consists in unconscious, inferential pieces of reasoning. readers ' notes allow users to add their own analysis and insights to our sparknotes \u2014 and to discuss those ideas with one another. have a novel take or think we left something out? add a readers ' note!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6508848987566699, "token_count": 336, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.521515"} {"text": "the idea that many athletes need to learn to breathe properly might sound ridiculous at first. but many young athletes are breathing improperly during their workouts, thus failing to maximize their strength training. think of how many bright red faces you \u2019 ve seen at the gym. that doesn \u2019 t necessarily mean their owners are having a great workout. it could mean they \u2019 re breathing backwards, or not at all. \u201c breathing backwards \u201d refers to those who take in a big gulp of air as they struggle to lift the weight, exhaling after they finally get to the top of the exercise. \u201c not at all \u201d refers to the valsalva maneuver, which is the practice of forcefully exhaling against a closed airway. weightlifters commonly use this technique, believing the trapped air in the body helps stabilize the spine during a lift, preventing injury. this is actually dangerously inaccurate. in fact, \u201c a study published in the june 1986 issue of the journal spine found that the valsalva maneuver actually increases the pressure of the spine, \u201d says personal trainer and livestrong. com contributor kimberly wonderly. \u201c dr. michael hall, a family physician for dubois regional medical center in dubois, pennsylvania, states that the valsalva maneuver increases your risk of stroke, raises the amount of pressure within your eyes and greatly elevates your blood pressure. \u201d breathing in this manner also risks dizziness and fatigue, either of which would probably end your workout early. wonderly continues, \u201c proper breathing brings focus to both your breath and your body, which allows your body to signal you if a lift poses a risk of injury through improper form or too much resistance. \u201d let \u2019 s break down proper breathing techniques for the bench press as an example of when you should inhale and exhale : in short, the rule is to exhale when you exert force [ push the bar ] and inhale as you relax [ lower the bar ]. this pattern of breathing will allow you to focus on your form and engage the muscles needed to complete the exercise. like a sport - specific skill, proper breathing can take time and practice to master. but in the end, it \u2019 s worth it, and you \u2019 ll notice benefits in your workouts. for more help in mastering your breathing technique during strength training, tweet us at @ stackmedia.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.50509451897477, "token_count": 472, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.523905"} {"text": "a concussion is a minor traumatic brain injury that may occur when the head hits an object, or a moving object strikes the head. it can affect how the brain works for a while. a concussion can lead to a bad headache, changes in alertness, or loss of consciousness. causes, incidence, and risk factors : a concussion can result from a fall, sports activities, or car accidents. a big movement of the brain ( called jarring ) in any direction can cause a person to lose alertness ( become unconscious ). how long the person stays unconscious may be a sign of the severity of the concussion. concussions do not always result in loss of consciousness. most people who have a concussion never pass out. but they may describe seeing all white, black, or stars. a person can also have a concussion and not realize it. symptoms of a concussion range from mild to severe. they can include : - acting confused, feeling spacey, or not thinking straight - being drowsy, hard to wake up, or similar changes loss of consciousness - memory loss ( amnesia ) of events before the injury or right after - nausea and vomiting - seeing flashing lights - feeling like you have \" lost time \" the following are emergency symptoms of a concussion. seek medical care right away if there are : - changes in alertness and consciousness - confusion that does not go away - muscle weakness on one or both sides - persistent confusion - pupils of the eyes that are not equal in size - remaining unconsciousness ( coma ) - repeated vomiting - unequal pupils - unusual eye movements - walking or balance problems - unconsciousness ( coma ) that continues head injuries that cause a concussion often occur with injury to the neck and spine. take special care when moving people who have had a head injury. while recovering from a concussion, the person may : - be withdrawn, easily upset, or confused - have a hard time with tasks that require remembering or concentrating - have mild headaches - be less tolerant of noise - be very tired signs and tests : the doctor will perform a physical exam. the person ' s nervous system will be checked. there may be changes in the person ' s pupil size, thinking ability, coordination, and reflexes. tests that may be ordered include : a more serious head injury that involves bleeding or brain damage must be treated in a hospital. for a mild head injury no treatment may be needed. but be aware that the symptoms of a head injury can show up later. - friends or family may need to keep an eye on adults for symptoms after", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5555429806609724, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.529182"} {"text": "- introduction to hubble - the current science instruments - mission operations and observations - previous instruments - technical overview introduction to hubble the hubble space telescope ( hst ) is a cooperative program of the european space agency ( esa ) and the national aeronautics and space administration ( nasa ) to operate a space - based observatory for the benefit of the international astronomical community. hst is an observatory first envisioned in the 1940s, designed and built in the 1970s and 80s, and operational since the 1990. since its preliminary inception, hst was designed to be a different type of mission for nasa - - a long - term, space - based observatory. to accomplish this goal and protect the spacecraft against instrument and equipment failures, nasa planned on regular servicing missions. hubble has special grapple fixtures, 76 handholds, and is stabilized in all three axes. hst is a 2. 4 - meter reflecting telescope, which was deployed in low - earth orbit ( 600 kilometers ) by the crew of the space shuttle discovery ( sts - 31 ) on 25 april 1990. responsibility for conducting and coordinating the science operations of the hubble space telescope rests with the space telescope science institute ( stsci ) on the johns hopkins university homewood campus in baltimore, maryland. stsci is operated for nasa by the association of universities for research in astronomy, inc. ( aura ). hst ' s current complement of science instruments includes three cameras, two spectrographs, and fine guidance sensors ( primarily used for accurate pointing, but also for astrometric observations ). because of hst ' s location above the earth ' s atmosphere, these science instruments can produce high - resolution images of astronomical objects. ground - based telescopes are limited in their resolution by the earth \u2019 s atmosphere, which causes a variable distortion in the images. hubble can observe ultraviolet radiation, which is blocked by the atmosphere and therefore unavailable to ground - based telescopes. in the infrared portion of the spectrum, the earth \u2019 s atmosphere adds a great deal of background, which is absent in hubble observations. when originally planned in the early 1970s, the large space telescope program called for return to earth, refurbishment, and re - launch every 5 years, with on - orbit servicing every 2. 5 years. hardware lifetime and reliability requirements were based on that 2. 5 - year interval between servicing missions. in the late 70s, contamination and structural loading concerns associated with return to earth aboard the shuttle eliminated the concept of ground return from the program. nasa decided that on - orbit servicing might be adequate to maintain hst", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5550723482219097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.556308"} {"text": "5 - year interval between servicing missions. in the late 70s, contamination and structural loading concerns associated with return to earth aboard the shuttle eliminated the concept of ground return from the program. nasa decided that on - orbit servicing might be adequate to maintain hst for its 15 - year design life. a three - year cycle of on - orbit servicing was adopted. hst servicing missions in december 1993, february 1997, december 1999, march 2002 and may 2009 were enormous successes and validated the concept of on - orbit servicing of hubble. the years since the launch of hst in 1990 have been momentous, with the discovery of spherical aberration in its main mirror and the search for a practical solution. the sts - 61 ( endeavour ) mission of december 1993 corrected the effects of spherical aberration and fully restored the functionality of hst. since then, servicing missions have regularly provided opportunities to repair aging and failed equipment as well as incorporate new technologies in the telescope, especially in the science instruments that are the heart of its operations. see opo ' s hubble primer for more information about hst. the current science instruments space telescope imaging spectrograph a spectrograph spreads out the light gathered by a telescope so that it can be analyzed to determine such properties of celestial objects as chemical composition and abundances, temperature, radial velocity, rotational velocity, and magnetic fields. the space telescope imaging spectrograph ( stis ) can study these objects across a spectral range from the uv ( 115 nanometers ) through the visible red and the near - ir ( 1000 nanometers ). stis uses three detectors : a cesium iodide photocathode multi - anode microchannel array ( mama ) for 115 to 170 nm, a cesium telluride mama for 165 to 310 nm, and a charge coupled device ( ccd ) for 165 to 1000 nm. all three detectors have a 1024 x 1024 pixel format. the field of view for each mama is 25 x 25 arc - seconds, and the field of view of the ccd is 52 x 52 arc - seconds. the main advance in stis is its capability for two - dimensional rather than one - dimensional spectroscopy. for example, it is possible to record the spectrum of many locations in a galaxy simultaneously, rather than observing one location at a time. stis can also record a broader span of wavelengths in the spectrum of a star at one time. as a result, stis is much more efficient at obtaining scientific data than the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5323401247721365, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.557298"} {"text": "in a galaxy simultaneously, rather than observing one location at a time. stis can also record a broader span of wavelengths in the spectrum of a star at one time. as a result, stis is much more efficient at obtaining scientific data than the earlier hst spectrographs. a power supply in stis failed in august 2004, rendering it inoperable. during the servicing mission in 2009, astronauts successfully repaired the stis by removing the circuit card containing the failed power supply and replacing it with a new card. since stis was not designed for in - orbit repair of internal electronics, this task was a substantial challenge for the astronaut crew. near infrared camera and multi - object spectrometer the near infrared camera and multi - object spectrometer ( nicmos ) is an hst instrument providing the capability for infrared imaging and spectroscopic observations of astronomical targets. nicmos detects light with wavelengths between 0. 8 and 2. 5 microns - longer than the human - eye limit. the sensitive hgcdte arrays that comprise the infrared detectors in nicmos must operate at very cold temperatures. after its deployment, nicmos kept its detectors cold inside a cryogenic dewar ( a thermally insulated container much like a thermos bottle ) containing frozen nitrogen ice. nicmos is hst ' s first cryogenic instrument. the frozen nitrogen ice cryogen in nicmos was exhausted in early 1999, rendering the instrument inoperable at that time. an alternate means of cooling the nicmos was developed and installed in the march 2002 servicing mission. this device uses a mechanical cooler to cool the detectors to the low temperatures necessary for operations. the technology for this cooler was not available when the instrument was originally designed, but fortunately became available in time to support the reactivation of the instrument. since late 2008, the nicmos cooling system ( ncs ) has experienced difficulties maintaining the instrument \u2019 s nominal scientific operating state, in which the detectors are maintained at ~ 77k. repeated restart attempts have demonstrated that it is not possible to restart the ncs in a cold state immediately following safing events. the main culprit for the problems is believed to be water ice in the primary ( circulator ) loop of the ncs. an inefficient approach to this problem would be to put the ncs through a several - month warm - up / cooldown cycle and hope that there is an opportunity for science prior to the next payload safing event. the only feasible path towards satisfactory operation of nic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5791097258668132, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.558264"} {"text": "to this problem would be to put the ncs through a several - month warm - up / cooldown cycle and hope that there is an opportunity for science prior to the next payload safing event. the only feasible path towards satisfactory operation of nicmos is to remove the putative water by venting the existing contaminated ne coolant and replacing it with a fresh charge, which is available onboard but has never actually been used on - orbit. based on the cycle 18 proposal review results, stsci and goddard hst project, with the concurrence of nasa headquarters, have decided that nicmos will not be available for science in cycle 18. a decision on the availability of nicmos beyond cycle 18 has not yet been made and awaits further discussion. advanced camera for surveys the acs is a camera designed to provide hst with a deep, wide - field survey capability from the visible to near - ir, imaging from the near - uv to the near - ir with the point - spread function critically sampled at 6300 a, and solar blind far - uv imaging. the primary design goal of the acs wide - field channel is to achieve a factor of 10 improvement in discovery efficiency, compared to wfpc2, where discovery efficiency is defined as the product of imaging area and instrument throughput. these gains are a direct result of improved technology since the hst was launched in 1990. the charge coupled devices ( ccds ) used as detectors in the acs, are more sensitive than those of the late 80s and early 90s, and also have many more pixels, capturing more of the sky in each exposure. the wide field camera in the acs is a 16 megapixel camera. the acs was installed during the march 2002 servicing mission. as a result of the improved sensitivity it instantly became the most heavily used hubble instrument. it has been used for surveys of varying breadths and depths, as well as for detailed studies of specific objects. the acs worked well until january 2007, at which time a failure in the electronics for the ccds occurred and has prevented use of those detectors. engineers and astronauts then developed an approach to remove and replace the failed electronics, which was carried out during the 2009 servicing mission. as with the stis repair, the acs repair was challenging, since the instrument was not designed originally with this type of repair in mind. fine guidance sensors the fine guidance sensors ( fgs ), in addition to being an integral part of the hst pointing control system ( pcs ), provide", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5327768961155215, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.559317"} {"text": "repair was challenging, since the instrument was not designed originally with this type of repair in mind. fine guidance sensors the fine guidance sensors ( fgs ), in addition to being an integral part of the hst pointing control system ( pcs ), provide hst observers with the capability of precision astrometry and milliarcsecond resolution over a wide range of magnitudes ( 3 < v < 16. 8 ). its two observing modes - position mode and transfer mode - have been used to determine the parallax and proper motion of astrometric targets to a precision of 0. 2 mas, and to detect duplicity or structure around targets as close as 8 mas ( visual orbits can be determined for binaries as close as 12 mas ). cosmic origins spectrograph the cosmic origins spectrograph ( cos ) is a fourth - generation instrument that was installed on the hubble space telescope ( hst ) during the 2009 servicing mission. cos is designed to perform high sensitivity, moderate - and low - resolution spectroscopy of astronomical objects in the 115 - 320 nm wavelength range. it significantly enhances the spectroscopic capabilities of hst at ultraviolet wavelengths, and provides observers with unparalleled opportunities for observing faint sources of ultraviolet light. the primary science objectives of the cos are the study of the origins of large scale structure in the universe, the formation and evolution of galaxies, the origin of stellar and planetary systems, and the cold interstellar medium. the cos achieves its improved sensitivity through advanced detectors and optical fabrication techniques. at uv wavelengths even the best mirrors do not reflect all light incident upon them. previous spectrographs have required multiple ( 5 or more ) reflections in order to display the spectrum on the detector. a substantial portion of the cos improvement in sensitivity is due to an optical design that requires only a single reflection inside the instrument, reducing the losses due to imperfect reflectivity. this design is possible only with advanced techniques for fabrication, which were not available when earlier generations of hst spectrographs were designed. cos has a far - uv and near - uv channel that use different detectors : two side - by - side 16384 x 1024 pixel cross - delay line microchannel plates ( mcps ) for the far - uv, 115 to 205 nm, and a 1024x1024 pixel cesium telluride mama for the near - uv, 170 to 320 nm. the far - uv detector is similar to detectors flown on the fuse spacecraft, and takes advantage of improved technology over", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5504778400266174, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.560290"} {"text": "nm, and a 1024x1024 pixel cesium telluride mama for the near - uv, 170 to 320 nm. the far - uv detector is similar to detectors flown on the fuse spacecraft, and takes advantage of improved technology over the past decade. the near - uv detector is a spare stis detector. wide field camera 3 the wide field camera 3 ( wfc3 ) is also a fourth generation instrument that was installed during the 2009 servicing mission. equipped with state - of - the - art detectors and optics, wfc3 provides wide - field imaging with continuous spectral coverage from the ultraviolet into the infrared, dramatically increasing both the survey power and the panchromatic science capabilities of hst. the wfc3 has two camera channels : the uvis channel that operates in the ultraviolet and visible bands ( from about 200 to 1000 nm ), and the ir channel that operates in the infrared ( from 900 to 1700 nm ). the performance of the two channels was designed to complement the performance of the acs. the uvis channel provides the largest field of view and best sensitivity of any ultraviolet camera hst has had. this is feasible as a result of continued improvement in the performance of charge coupled devices designed for astronomical use. the ir channel on wfc3 represents a major improvement on the capabilities of the nicmos, primarily as a result of the availability of much larger detectors, 1 megapixel in the wfc3 / ir vs. 0. 06 megapixels for the nicmos. in addition, modern ir detectors like that in the wfc3 have benefited from improvements over the last decade in design and fabrication. mission operations and observations : although hst operates around the clock, not all of its time is spent observing. each orbit lasts about 95 minutes, with time allocated for housekeeping functions and for observations. \" housekeeping \" functions includes turning the telescope to acquire a new target, switching communications antennas and data transmission modes, receiving command loads and downlinking data, calibrating the instruments and similar activities. on average, the telescope spends about 50 % of the time observing astronomical targets. about 50 % of the time the view to celestial targets is blocked by the earth, and that time is used to carry out these support functions. each year the stsci solicits ideas for scientific programs from the worldwide astronomical community. all astronomers are free to submit proposals for observations. typically, 700 - 1200 proposals are submitted each year. a series of panels, involving roughly 100 astronomers from around the world", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5154101617715323, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.561236"} {"text": "the stsci solicits ideas for scientific programs from the worldwide astronomical community. all astronomers are free to submit proposals for observations. typically, 700 - 1200 proposals are submitted each year. a series of panels, involving roughly 100 astronomers from around the world, are convened to recommend which of the proposals to carry out over the next year. there is only sufficient time in a year to schedule about 1 / 5 of the proposals that are submitted, so the competition for hubble observing time is tight. after proposals are chosen, the observers submit detailed observation plans. the stsci uses these to develop a yearlong observing plan, spreading the observations evenly throughout the period and taking into account scientific reasons that may require some observations to be at a specific time. this long - range plan incorporates calibrations and engineering activities, as well as the scientific observations. this plan is then used as the basis for detailed scheduling of the telescope, which is done one week at a time. each event is translated into a series of commands to be sent to the onboard computers. computer loads are uplinked several times a day to keep the telescope operating efficiently. when possible, two scientific instruments are used simultaneously to observe adjacent target regions of the sky. for example, while a spectrograph is focused on a chosen star or nebula, a camera can image a sky region offset slightly from the main viewing target. during observations the fine guidance sensors ( fgs ) track their respective guide stars to keep the telescope pointed steadily at the right target. engineering and scientific data from hst, as well as uplinked operational commands, are transmitted through the tracking data relay satellite ( tdrs ) system and its companion ground station at white sands, new mexico. up to 24 hours of commands can be stored in the onboard computers. data can be broadcast from hst to the ground stations immediately or stored on a solid - state recorder and downlinked later. the observer on the ground can examine the \" raw \" images and other data within a few minutes for a quick - look analysis. within 24 hours, gsfc formats the data for delivery to the stsci. stsci is responsible for calibrating the data and providing them to the astronomer who requested the observations. the astronomer has a year to analyze the data from the proposed program, draw conclusions, and publish the results. after one year the data become accessible to all astronomers. the stsci maintains an archive of all data taken by hst. this archive has become an important research tool in itself. astronomers regularly check the archive to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5301374161490102, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.562211"} {"text": "draw conclusions, and publish the results. after one year the data become accessible to all astronomers. the stsci maintains an archive of all data taken by hst. this archive has become an important research tool in itself. astronomers regularly check the archive to determine whether data in it can be used for a new problem they are working on. frequently they find that there are hst data relevant for their research, and they can then download these data free of charge. hubble has proven to be an enormously successful program, providing new insight into the mysteries of the universe. previously flown instruments : - wide field planetary camera - wide field planetary camera 2 - faint object spectrograph - goddard high resolution spectrograph - corrective optics space telescope axial replacement - faint object camera - high speed photometer wide field / planetary camera the wide field / planetary camera ( wf / pc1 ) was used from april 1990 to november 1993, to obtain high resolution images of astronomical objects over a relatively wide field of view and a broad range of wavelengths ( 1150 to 11, 000 angstroms ). wide field planetary camera 2 the original wide field / planetary camera ( wf / pc1 ) was replaced by wfpc2 on the sts - 61 shuttle mission in december 1993. wfpc2 was a spare instrument developed by the jet propulsion laboratory in pasadena, california, at the time of hst launch. it consisted of four cameras. the relay mirrors in wfpc2 were spherically aberrated in just the right way to correct for the spherically aberrated primary mirror of the observatory. ( hst ' s primary mirror is 2 microns too flat at the edge, so the corrective optics within wfpc2 were too high by that same amount. ). the \" heart ' ' of wfpc2 consisted of an l - shaped trio of wide - field sensors and a smaller, high resolution ( \" planetary \" ) camera tucked in the square ' s remaining corner. wfpc2 was removed in the may 2009 servicing mission and replaced by the wide - field camera 3 ( wfc3 ). faint object spectrograph a spectrograph spreads out the light gathered by a telescope so that it can be analyzed to determine such properties of celestial objects as chemical composition and abundances, temperature, radial velocity, rotational velocity, and magnetic fields. the faint object spectrograph ( fos ) was one of the original instruments on hubble ; it was replaced by nicmos during the second servicing mission in 1997", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5395647731379898, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.563167"} {"text": "composition and abundances, temperature, radial velocity, rotational velocity, and magnetic fields. the faint object spectrograph ( fos ) was one of the original instruments on hubble ; it was replaced by nicmos during the second servicing mission in 1997. the fos examined fainter objects than the high resolution spectrograph ( hrs ), and could study these objects across a much wider spectral range - - from the uv ( 1150 angstroms ) through the visible red and the near - ir ( 8000 angstroms ). the fos used two 512 - element digicon sensors ( light intensifiers ). the \" blue \" tube was sensitive from 1150 to 5500 angstroms ( uv to yellow ). the \" red \" tube was sensitive from 1800 to 8000 angstroms ( longer uv through red ). light entered the fos through any of 11 different apertures from 0. 1 to about 1. 0 arc - seconds in diameter. there were also two occulting devices to block out light from the center of an object while allowing the light from just outside the center to pass on through. this could allow analysis of the shells of gas around red giant stars of the faint galaxies around a quasar. the fos had two modes of operation : low resolution and high resolution. at low resolution, it could reach 26th magnitude in one hour with a resolving power of 250. at high resolution, the fos could reach only 22nd magnitude in an hour ( before noise becomes a problem ), but the resolving power was increased to 1300. goddard high resolution spectrograph the goddard high resolution spectrograph ( ghrs ) was one of the original instruments on hubble ; it failed in 1997, shortly before being replaced by stis during the second servicing mission. as a spectrograph, hrs also separated incoming light into its spectral components so that the composition, temperature, motion, and other chemical and physical properties of the objects could be analyzed. the hrs contrasted with the fos in that it concentrated entirely on uv spectroscopy and traded the extremely faint objects for the ability to analyze very fine spectral detail. like the fos, the hrs used two 521 - channel digicon electronic light detectors, but the detectors of the hrs were deliberately blind to visible light. one tube was sensitive from 1050 to 1700 angstroms ; while the other was sensitive from 1150 to 3200 angstroms. the hrs also had three resolution modes : low, medium, and high.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5647770343849823, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.564273"} {"text": "deliberately blind to visible light. one tube was sensitive from 1050 to 1700 angstroms ; while the other was sensitive from 1150 to 3200 angstroms. the hrs also had three resolution modes : low, medium, and high. \" low resolution \" for the hrs was 2000 - - higher than the best resolution available on the fos. examining a feature at 1200 angstroms, the hrs could resolve detail of 0. 6 angstroms and could examine objects down to 19th magnitude. at medium resolution of 20, 000 ; that same spectral feature at 1200 angstroms could be seen in detail down to 0. 06 angstroms, but the object would have to be brighter than 16th magnitude to be studied. high resolution for the hrs was 100, 000, allowing a spectral line at 1200 angstroms to be resolved down to 0. 012 angstroms. however, \" high resolution \" could be applied only to objects of 14th magnitude or brighter. the hrs could also discriminate between variations in light from objects as rapid as 100 milliseconds apart. corrective optics space telescope axial replacement costar was not a science instrument ; it was a corrective optics package that displaced the high speed photometer during the first servicing mission to hst. costar was designed to optically correct the effects of the primary mirror ' s aberration for the faint object camera ( foc ), the high resolution spectrograph ( hrs ), and the faint object spectrograph ( fos ). all the other instruments that have been installed since hst ' s initial deployment, have been designed with their own corrective optics. when all of the first - generation instruments were replaced by other instruments, costar was no longer be needed and was removed from hubble during the 2009 servicing mission. faint object camera the faint object camera ( foc ) was built by the european space agency as one of the original science instruments on hubble. it was replaced by acs during the servicing mission in 2002. there were two complete detector systems for the foc. each used an image intensifier tube to produced an image on a phosphor screen that is 100, 000 times brighter than the light received. this phosphor image was then scanned by a sensitive electron - bombarded silicon ( ebs ) television camera. this system was so sensitive that objects brighter than 21st magnitude had to be dimmed by the camera ' s filter systems to avoid saturating the detectors", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5335088091451543, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.565240"} {"text": "##or image was then scanned by a sensitive electron - bombarded silicon ( ebs ) television camera. this system was so sensitive that objects brighter than 21st magnitude had to be dimmed by the camera ' s filter systems to avoid saturating the detectors. even with a broad - band filter, the brightest object that could be accurately measured was 20th magnitude. the foc offered three different focal ratios : f / 48, f / 96, and f / 288 on a standard television picture format. the f / 48 image measured 22 x 22 arc - seconds and yielded a resolution ( pixel size ) of 0. 043 arc - seconds. the f / 96 mode provided an image of 11 x 11 arc - seconds on each side and a resolution of 0. 022 arc - seconds. the f / 288 field of view was 3. 6 x 3. 6 arc - seconds square, with resolution down to 0. 0072 arc - seconds. high speed photometer the high speed photometer ( hsp ) was one of the four original axial instruments on the hubble space telescope ( hst ). the hsp was designed to make very rapid photometric observations of astrophysical sources in a variety of filters and passbands from the near ultraviolet to the visible. the hsp was removed from hst during the first servicing mission in december, 1993. for more complete technical information about hst and its instruments, see the hst primer.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.568021632845629, "token_count": 295, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.566535"} {"text": "some of the founders and leading lights in the fields of artificial intelligence and cognitive science gave a harsh assessment last night of the lack of progress in ai over the last few decades. during a panel discussion \u2014 moderated by linguist and cognitive scientist steven pinker \u2014 that kicked off mit \u2019 s brains, minds, and machines symposium, panelists called for a return to the style of research that marked the early years of the field, one driven more by curiosity rather than narrow applications. \u201c you might wonder why aren \u2019 t there any robots that you can send in to fix the japanese reactors, \u201d said marvin minsky, who pioneered neural networks in the 1950s and went on to make significant early advances in ai and robotics. \u201c the answer is that there was a lot of progress in the 1960s and 1970s. then something went wrong. [ today ] you \u2019 ll find students excited over robots that play basketball or soccer or dance or make funny faces at you. [ but ] they \u2019 re not making them smarter. \u201d patrick winston, director of mit \u2019 s artificial intelligence laboratory from 1972 to 1997, echoed minsky. \u201c many people would protest the view that there \u2019 s been no progress, but i don \u2019 t think anyone would protest that there could have been more progress in the past 20 years. what went wrong went wrong in the \u2019 80s. \u201d winston blamed the stagnation in part on the decline in funding after the end of the cold war and on early attempts to commercialize ai. but the biggest culprit, he said, was the \u201c mechanistic balkanization \u201d of the field, with research focusing on ever - narrower specialties such as neural networks or genetic algorithms. \u201c when you dedicate your conferences to mechanisms, there \u2019 s a tendency to not work on fundamental problems, but rather [ just ] those problems that the mechanisms can deal with, \u201d said winston. winston said he believes researchers should instead focus on those things that make humans distinct from other primates, or even what made them distinct from neanderthals. once researchers think they have identified the things that make humans unique, he said, they should develop computational models of these properties, implementing them in real systems so they can discover the gaps in their models, and refine them as needed. winston speculated that the magic ingredient that makes humans unique is our ability to create and understand stories using the faculties that support language : \u201c once you have stories, you have the kind of creativity that makes the species different to any other. \u201d smaller design teams can now prototype and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5254676381903995, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.588933"} {"text": "the a - z of programming languages : lua - 11 september, 2008 20 : 29 this time we chat to prof. roberto ierusalimschy about the design and development of lua. prof. ierusalimschy is currently an associate professor in the pontifical catholic university of rio de janeiro ' s informatics department where he undertakes research on programming languages, with particular focus on scripting and domain specific languages. prof. ierusalimschy is currently supported by the brazilian council for the development of research and technology as an independent researcher, and has a grant from microsoft research for the development of lua. net. he also has a grant from finep for the development of libraries for lua. please note that due to popular demand we are no longer following alphabetical order for this series. if you wish to submit any suggestions for programming languages or language authors you would like to see covered, please email firstname. lastname @ example. org. what prompted the development of lua? was there a particular problem you were trying to solve? in our paper for the third acm history of programming languages conference we outline the whole story about the origins of lua. to make a long story short, yes, we did develop lua to solve a particular problem. although we developed lua in an academic institution, lua was never an \" academic language \", that is, a language to write papers about. we needed an easy - to - use configuration language, and the only configuration language available at that time ( 1993 ) was tcl. our users did not consider tcl an easy - to - use language. so we created our own configuration language. how did the name lua come about? before lua i had created a language that i called sol, which stood for \" simple object language \" but also means \" sun \" in portuguese. that language was replaced by lua ( still nameless at that time ). as we perceived lua to be \" smaller \" than sol, a friend suggested this name, which means \" moon \" in portuguese. were there any particularly difficult problems you had to overcome in the development of the language? no. the first implementation was really simple, and it solved the problems at hand. since then, we have had the luxury of avoiding hard / annoying problems. that is, there have been many problems along the way, but we never had to overcome them ; we have always had the option to postpone a solution. some of them have waited several years before being", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5231911928818147, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.599125"} {"text": "the luxury of avoiding hard / annoying problems. that is, there have been many problems along the way, but we never had to overcome them ; we have always had the option to postpone a solution. some of them have waited several years before being solved. for instance, since lua 2. 2, released in 1995, we have wanted lexical scoping in lua, but we didn \u2019 t know how to implement it efficiently within lua ' s constraints. nobody did. only with lua 5. 0, released in 2003 did we solve the problem, with a novel algorithm. what is the most interesting program that you ' ve seen written with lua and why? i have seen many interesting programs written in lua, in many different ways. i think it would be unfair to single one out. as a category, i particularly like table - driven programs, that is, programs that are more generic than the particular problem at hand and that are configured for that particular problem via tables. - the a - z of programming languages : awk - the a - z of programming languages : ada - the a - z of programming languages : asp - the a - z of programming languages : bash / bourne - again shell - the a - z of programming languages : c + + - the a - z of programming languages : forth - the a - z of programming languages : intercal - the a - z of programming languages : yacc - the a - z of programming languages : modula - 3 - the a - z of programming languages : d - the a - z of programming languages : python - pontifical catholic university - our paper review : sony xperia sp coming to a shopping centre near you : 3d body scanners asic debacle : conroy open to transparency over website blocks verizon, jennifer lopez partner on latino - focused wireless stores wikileaks party closer to registering", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.521413855689401, "token_count": 386, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.601337"} {"text": "development of a centre for excellence in corporate social responsibility to develop and disseminate high - quality csr tools and training to stakeholders. well - designed regulations provide predictability for business thus supporting innovation and economic growth while meeting environmental performance objectives. an example of canadian environmental policies and regulations that support these goals include canada ' s approach to managing chemical substances through the chemicals management plan ( cmp ), designed to protect the environment and human health by setting stringent standards, while also spurring innovation and investment in the economy by being flexible, predictable, and cost effective. canada was the first country in the world to categorize the thousands of chemical substances in use before comprehensive environmental protection laws were created. this has facilitated priority setting for those substances suspected to have the most dangerous properties and those requiring further research. canada ' s risk - based approach relies on sound science, assessment, and monitoring, combined with a variety of tools to manage the potential risks posed by chemicals. the goal is to safeguard human health and our environment while supporting economic growth. the air quality health index ( aqhi ) is a public information tool that provides current conditions and daily forecasts about air quality levels. it is the first of its kind to communicate the short - term health risks posed by the air pollutant mixture ( ground level ozone, particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide ) which are known to harm human health including cardiovascular and respiratory effects. aqhi forecasts are currently available across canada through environment canada ' s airhealth. ca website and disseminated by a private broadcaster. the success of the aqhi can be attributed to strong partnerships between environment canada, health canada, provincial governments and key stakeholder groups who share a common interest in ensuring that canadians have access to information that can help them protect their health. it demonstrates environment - health linkages and as such can contribute to the green economy by influencing the behaviour of canadians. sustainable development technology canada ( sdtc ) was created by canada to finance and support the development and demonstration of clean technologies which provide solutions to issues of climate change, clean air, water quality and soil, and which deliver economic, environmental and health benefits to canadians. sdtc, which unep ' s sustainable energy finance initiative ( sefi ) has called \" a carefully crafted hybrid between grant and venture capital \", targets the gap in earlystage venture capital financing, as well as the risk of proving a technology worthy of private investment. sdtc operates two funds aimed at the development and demonstration of innovative technological solutions. the $ 590 million", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5588551906600218, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.688159"} {"text": "and venture capital \", targets the gap in earlystage venture capital financing, as well as the risk of proving a technology worthy of private investment. sdtc operates two funds aimed at the development and demonstration of innovative technological solutions. the $ 590 million sd tech fundtm supports projects that address climate change, air quality, clean water, and clean soil. the $ 500 million nextgen biofuels fundtm supports the establishment of first - of - kind large demonstration - scale facilities for the production of next - generation renewable fuels. since 2002, sdtc has completed seventeen funding rounds and allocated a total of $ 515 million to 210 projects. that amount has been leveraged with an additional $ 1. 2 billion in funding from other project partners for a total project value of $ 1. 8 billion. sdtc has been recognized as a model by the oecd, which has stated that \" sdtc plays a very positive role in enhancing canada ' s competitive position in the environmental field. \" sefi has noted that \" sdtc ' s strategy exemplifies how taking aspects of different financial mechanisms can be very to help support sustainable development initiatives and spur green innovation at the local level, the canada endowed the federation of canadian municipalities ( fcm ) with $ 550 million to establish the green municipal fund ( gmf ), which is co - managed by natural resources canada and environment canada at arm ' s length ( the fcm board of directors, the decision - making body for the gmf, is advised by a 15 member council with five appointees from the federal government ). the fund supports municipal initiatives to improve local air, water and soil quality and promote renewable energy with grants and below - market loans. through gmf, fcm provides funding to three types of initiatives : plans, studies and projects. grants are available for sustainable community plans, feasibility studies and field tests, while a combination of grants and loans are available for capital projects. funding, for which all canadian municipalities and their partners are eligible, is allocated in five sectors of municipal activity : brownfields, energy, transportation, waste and water. the fund promotes partnerships between, and leverages funds from, the public and private sectors. further, support for community investment in clean energy is also available from the gmf as well as the ecoenergy for aboriginal and northern communities program, which funds energy efficiency and renewable energy projects in first nations, inuit, metis and northern communities agriculture is vital to addressing climate change, food security, poverty reduction and sustainable development. the objective of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5013847248956771, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.689442"} {"text": "the ecoenergy for aboriginal and northern communities program, which funds energy efficiency and renewable energy projects in first nations, inuit, metis and northern communities agriculture is vital to addressing climate change, food security, poverty reduction and sustainable development. the objective of the global research alliance on agricultural greenhouse gases is to increase international collaboration and investment in public and private research activities to improve knowledge sharing, access to and application by farmers of sustainable practices and technologies. the exchange of existing and new science - based knowledge and practices can provide an opportunity for farmers to contribute to addressing the global challenges of climate change and food security, while pursuing sustainable livelihoods. canada has initiated a $ 25 million agricultural greenhouse gases program to increase the development and adoption of sustainable practices that mitigate agricultural greenhouse gases, which can be shared domestically and internationally. sustainable resource management the international model forest network ( imfn ) was introduced by canada at unced in 1992, with the aim of sharing best practices with the world. model forests are large, forest - based landscapes where a wide variety of stakeholders work together to address social, environmental and economic issues in a sustainable manner. model forests provide a practical and flexible approach to sustainable forest management, with a focus on enabling local communities to address challenges specific to their landscapes for their benefit. canada demonstrates its global commitment to issues such as biodiversity conservation, climate change and local economic development through support of the imfn, a robust international network unique in bridging policy - making and on - the - ground delivery. with 58 model forests in nearly 30 countries, the imfn provides the framework for exchanging innovative ideas between sites. canada ' s green mining initiative ( gmt ), launched in 2009, brings together stakeholders to develop green technologies, processes and knowledge for sustainable mining. the gmi objectives are to improve the mining sector ' s environmental performance, promote mining innovation and position canadian mining companies and suppliers as global leaders in green mining in an emerging market. natural resources canada invests $ 8m annually on the gmi with an additional $ 3m in direct industry funding. the green mining initiative has spurred green mining innovation across canada, which led to significant progresses on a number of key r & d projects and new projects being launched. examples include developing and testing, in collaboration with a canadian equipment manufacturer, the first worldwide electric - diesel hybrid loader in a canadian mine. additional funding from sustainable development technology canada will result in the bringing to market of a new hybrid loader with over twice the production capacity of the first prototype. a green mining vehicle? green energy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5157809500045066, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.690554"} {"text": "worldwide electric - diesel hybrid loader in a canadian mine. additional funding from sustainable development technology canada will result in the bringing to market of a new hybrid loader with over twice the production capacity of the first prototype. a green mining vehicle? green energy roadmap is being developed to provide a strategy for selecting clean alternatives to diesel. meeting strength requirements for a unique alternative binder process that could be used for mining backfill was also undertaken. patenting is underway for this technology as well as for a technology developed to successfully recover gold without the use of cyanide. results of a third year of monitoring on mine sites as part of the green mines green energy initiative continue to demonstrate that the growth of biomass crops on mine tailings is feasible. gmi is a striking example of good governance in sustainable mining and of what can be achieved throughout collaboration and partnerships. benefits of increasing collaboration at the international level could be significant. canada ' s integrated oceans management program ( iom ) supports regional processes through which decisions are made for the sustainable use, development and protection of canada ' s marine ecosystem and resources. the iom program provides federal, provincial and territorial authorities, industry and canadians with the science and risk - based tools and governance fora needed to collaboratively develop integrated management plans for defined ocean spaces. these plans, which incorporate social, economic and environmental considerations in decision making, are informed by the identification of ecologically and biologically significant areas ; species and community properties ; the mapping of human uses ; and the assessment of potential interactions between uses and key functional and structural aspects of marine ecosystems. outcomes of the iom process also include the identification of conservation measures, including networks of marine protected areas needed to support the sustainable development of ocean resources contributing to canada ' s continuing fulfillment of international ocean - related commitments. sustainable consumption and production significant canadian advancement in green building and sustainable community planning has been accelerated, in part, by federal programs such as the equilibriumtm sustainable housing demonstration initiative. led by the canada mortgage and housing corporation ( cmhc ) and supported by natural resources canada ' s canmet energy expertise, this initiative will result in the design, construction and demonstration of 12 highly sustainable homes across the country which produce as much energy as they consume on an annual basis. this cooperation between the public and private sectors has informed, inspired and accelerated the adoption of net zero energy healthy housing concepts nationally. building on this successful initiative, the $ 4. 2m equilibrium tm communities initiative supports research, monitoring and showcasing of selected high performance neighbourhood projects. equilibrium tm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5462038431678382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.691809"} {"text": "has informed, inspired and accelerated the adoption of net zero energy healthy housing concepts nationally. building on this successful initiative, the $ 4. 2m equilibrium tm communities initiative supports research, monitoring and showcasing of selected high performance neighbourhood projects. equilibrium tm communities aims to provide measurable improvements over current practices in energy and water consumption, environmental protection, financial viability, land use and transportation. canada has put in place a strategy for the environmentally sound and secure disposal of all of its surplus electronic and electrical equipment. the federal e - waste disposal strategy emphasizes reuse prior to recycling, where possible. reuse options include donation to computers for schools ( cfs ), interdepartmental transfer, charitable donation and sale to the public. the strategy provides recycling options for equipment that cannot be reused including disposal through provincial recycling programs and a standing offer for e - waste recycling services. the strategy is contributing to the realization of the green economy in canada by creating green jobs, diverting e - waste from landfill, supporting provincial recycling infrastructure and providing computer - based educational and learning opportunities. technology roadmaps ( trms ) are effective tools to enhance the coordination and development of innovative industries and technologies, with benefits to sustainability and the green economy. since 2002, canada has used trms as forecasting tools that aim to determine future market needs, promote collaboration, and advance promising technologies. trm processes allow government, industry and academia to work together to predict needs. many trms focus on advancing emerging renewable and clean energy industries, or to address sustainability issues of other industrial sectors. industry canada and natural resources canada have completed trms for sustainable fuels and chemicals from biomass, hydrogen fuel cell commercialization, clean coal, and carbon capture and storage. work continues on trms for marine energy and sustainable housing. among canada ' s newer initiatives are green patents, or patent applications related to environmental technologies. accelerating such patent applications can foster investment and expedite commercialization of technologies that could help to resolve or mitigate environmental impacts or to conserve the natural environment and resources. in 2011, the canadian intellectual property office implemented a new regulation to expedite the examination of green patents, and no fee is required. annex ii - proposed green growth / green economy indicators as part of canada ' s commitment to further dialogue and identify a balanced approach to measuring progress towards green growth, canada believes there would be value in an international discussion on a suite of green growth indicators that countries could voluntarily choose to compile. in support of a constructive discussion at rio + 20, canada is in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.534270815372375, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:39.692838"} {"text": "i posted a couple of weeks ago about our progress with determining importance and main idea / details in informational text. if you ' re interested, you can read about that here. while we continue to work on this, we have layered in work on note taking and text structures. i will eventually share some of that work, but today i want to share some of the main idea stuff. what i found when we started, was that the kids struggled with one main idea, let alone two. so, i backtracked a bit to get that solid, before pushing for that 5th grade standard of finding more than one ( it will be coming! ). since i ' m a pretty linear thinker, i approached it from the sequence of modeling, doing as a whole class, trying alone, then getting in small groups to do it together. they did a really nice job. here are the kids as they began working alone in short text, rocking those post - its : they ' re so diligent, and i swear the rest of the class was doing the same! they are the greatest class ever. they had a choice of three short articles that we had already worked with in other ways, so they were somewhat familiar. as they worked, i conferred with them to get a sense of who might be finding it tricky and who was on the road to getting it. this helped me to group them for the small group portion of this work. once i had a sense of how to group them, their task was to get together, share their work with one another, and collaboratively generate a main idea that they felt was most accurate. this was great to observe - - i ' m so proud of their ability to listen to one another and speak kindly to one another when they disagree. once they did this, the worked together to determine the most important / key details to support this main idea. they then put this together on a large chart paper to then present to the group. here, you can see a main idea that one of the groups came up with. this group read an article called \" alaska : state of extremes \". this main idea is pretty accurate : \" one main idea is that alaska is extreme because it stands out from the other 49 states. \" true. however, we talked subsequently about paraphrasing to show understanding. ( foreshadowing our note taking work ) for example, here, using something other than extreme ( extraordinary / exceptional / unusual characteristics, etc. ), would be closer to extreme than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5671032924555364, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.039991"} {"text": "we talked subsequently about paraphrasing to show understanding. ( foreshadowing our note taking work ) for example, here, using something other than extreme ( extraordinary / exceptional / unusual characteristics, etc. ), would be closer to extreme than stands out. in any event, they ' re on the right track. here are the key ideas / supports that fit nicely with their main idea : and here is one that is a bit awkward : in this one, they were looking at a section of the text that was about how the capitol is tricky to even get to, because there are no roads and it ' s very isolated, the point being that in most states, the capitol is accessible and not isolated. this idea was not as explicit in the text as the other three, so they needed to do a bit more work here. they were able to hint that they understood this in conversation, but had trouble articulating it in a way that was clear. they were pulling this together with the idea of alaska not being part of the contiguous us as well. that ' s ok! we will get there, little people. by the way, these adorable people decided to stay in for recess to fancy up the poster with all of the patterns and such, since i was pretty clear that the sketching and doodling done in workshop should be in service of the work itself ( sometimes it is, right? ). in this case, they just wanted to make it look nice, so we had lunch together while they decorated it. i love these kids - - they are kids i am willing to give up my lunch to hang out with, which, if you know me, says something. i have other examples, but you get the idea. we will be working on the 2 main ideas as we keep going with note taking, text structures and summarization. i ' m loving this unit, though i ' m fumbling in the dark a bit since it ' s new to our curriculum ( not info. text, just the particular unit itself ). we have a wonderful staff developer from teachers college coming in mid - december to help us with the final phase, which is to do with research. she has a great blog if you are interested : indent. there ' s a nice post about annotating that i found very helpful. and now i will leave you with a picture of another main idea on this chilly saturday morning. i sure needed this by the end of conference week : need i say more? our jobs are awesome", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5394278635964915, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.041033"} {"text": "in 1991 the galileo spacecraft photographed the asteroid, gaspra. this picture shows the asteroid in false color. gaspra circles the sun between mars and jupiter. click on image for full size japan and u. s. join together for asteroid expedition news story originally written on june 20, 1997 the first asteroid collection mission has been set. japan and the united states will put joint efforts into the muses - c mission to be launched in january 2002 from kagoshima space center, japan. this will allow the spacecraft to arrive at the nereus asteroid in september 2003. nereus is a small asteroid approximately one mile in diameter. it was discovered in 1982. at its closest point to the sun, its orbit takes it just inside the orbit of the earth. the muses - c spacecraft contains a miniature robotic rover that will conduct surface measurements of the rocky asteroid. the rover weighs less than 2. 2 pounds. it is to date the smallest ever flown in space. asteroid samples will also be taken during the mission and will be returned in january 2006 by a parachute - borne recovery capsule. this mission is extremely important. if successful, it will grant earth - bound scientists first - hand information about the materials that helped form the inner, rocky planets more than four billion years ago. isotopic measurements of the asteroid samples may even unlock information about cosmological beginnings. dr. jurgen rahe, director of solar system exploration at nasa headquarters expressed excitement about the mission by saying, \" this ambitious mission is an opportunity for two spacefaring nations to combine their expertise and achieve something truly shop windows to the universe science store! our online store includes issues of nesta ' s quarterly journal, the earth scientist, full of classroom activities on different topics in earth and space science, as well as books on science education! you might also be interested in : it was another exciting and frustrating year for the space science program. it seemed that every step forward led to one backwards. either way, nasa led the way to a great century of discovery. unfortunately,... more the space shuttle discovery lifted off from kennedy space center at 2 : 19 p. m. est, october 29th. the sky was clear and the weather was great as discovery took 8 1 / 2 minutes to reach orbit for the unitied... more a moon was discovered orbiting the asteroid, eugenia. this is only the second time in history that a satellite has been seen circling an asteroid. a special mirror allowed scientists to find the moon... more will russia ever put the service", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5045342461944871, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.046379"} {"text": "many living things undergo a process known as development in which a single cell replicates and divides to form a multicellular organism with various structures and functions that the original cell did not have. you are one such organism, growing from a fertilized egg cell in your mother ' s womb to the full - sized adult you are today. along the way, your cells changed from having features like the original fertilized egg to having those of the developed cells that make up human tissues like nerve and skin. this process is known as differentiation. plants are also multicellular organisms, and they too undergo this differentiation process. there are many similarities between the way plants and animals like yourself differentiate, and therefore, they make excellent creatures to study the cycle of growth and development. you will be studying this cycle in a lab in the next few days, and to be ready for it, there are some ideas with which you need to be familiar. the following questions will help you do so. 1. what function does dna play in all organisms? 2. how does fertilization occur in flowering plants and what does it produce? 3. why is there identical dna in all cells of the same plant ( provided there are no mutations )? 4. what occurs during cellular differentiation? 5. does a developing plant embryo undergo differentiation? explain your answer. 6. what is germination? 7. describe the physical appearance and function of the radicle and hypocotyl in germinating and sprouting seeds? 8. how can cells create tissues that have different morphology and physiology in spite of the fact that the dna in all the cells in any organism are identical? 9. make a labeled diagram of a young radicle and identify the regions where you think the most growth is taking place? 10. if respiration rate ( consumption of o2 / min / mg tissue ) is directly related to rate of growth in a plant, what part of the radicle would have the highest respiration rate? explain your answer. 11. hormones play a critical role in the growth and development of plants as well as other organisms ; what are the specific hormones that influence radicle development and what effect do they have?. 12. pick two embryonic plant structures and decide on an interesting question you could ask about their respective developmental rates ; then write a hypothesis that addresses your question ( explaining why it does ) and write a brief summary of a procedure you could use to test it.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.507469741478849, "token_count": 500, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.059127"} {"text": "sorry, no definitions found. \u201c to say nothing of bill, staggering around those second - tier campaign - stops, still wagging that effete index - finger in our faces. \u201d \u201c the nails should be neither longer nor shorter than the points of the fingers ; and the surgeon should practice with the extremities of the fingers, the index - finger being usually turned to the thumb ; when using the entire hand, it should be prone ; when both hands, they should be opposed to one another. \u201d \u201c that analysis used the measurements of thumb width, index - finger width, and index - finger length for the program. \u201d \u201c among the channels xm is adding : a classic rock venue called big tracks ; u. s. country, which will offer - - you guessed it - - country & western music ; a southern gospel station, enlighten ; and thanks to the magic of diversity and freedom of choice, the former will be joined by a channel devoted to - - prepare those pinky and index - finger mephistopheles horns - - heavy metal rock. \u201d \u201c geraldine turns away from the bench and sends an index - finger signal to clarence wexler. \u201d \u201c then when he spoke he was likely to fling back his great, white mane, his eyes half closed yet showing a gleam of fire between the lids, his clenched fist lifted, or his index - finger pointing, to give force and meaning to his words. \u201d \u201c you might wear out your index - finger running up and down the columns of dictionaries, and never find the word, \u201d \u201c she clenched her hands, looked at her index - finger nail again. \u201d \u201c sweeney used the traditional black \" stroke \" or \" frailing \" or \" claw - hammer \" style of striking down across the strings with thumb and the back of the index - finger nail ( i would demonstrate ). \u201d \u201c \u201c the new act makes inheritance on intestacy very much simpler, \u201d said mr. murbles, setting his knife and fork together, placing both elbows on the table and laying the index - finger of his right hand against his left thumb in a gesture of tabulation. \u201d these user - created lists contain the word \u2018 index - finger \u2019. sentences showing how finger is used to point at with..., she was never wea..., the cardinals hav..., thy heart is fing..., to cheat ( a perso..., frank lee.. had \u2018 f", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5504788144110802, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.064108"} {"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - n. a state of open, armed, often prolonged conflict carried on between nations, states, or parties. - n. the period of such conflict. - n. the techniques and procedures of war ; military science. - n. a condition of active antagonism or contention : a war of words ; a price war. - n. a concerted effort or campaign to combat or put an end to something considered injurious : the war against acid rain. - v. to wage or carry on warfare. - v. to be in a state of hostility or rivalry ; contend. - idiom. at war in an active state of conflict or contention. century dictionary and cyclopedia - n. a contest beween nations or states ( international war ), or between parties in the same state ( civil war ), carried on by force of arms. international or public war is always understood to be authorized by the sovereign powers of the nations engaged in it ; when it is carried into the territories of the antagonist it is called an aggressive or offensive war, and when carried on to resist such aggression it is called defensive. certain usages or rights of war have come to be generally recognized and defined under the name of the laws of war, which in general ( but subject to some humane restrictions which in recent times have been greatly increased ) permit the destruction or capture of armed enemies, the destruction of property likely to be serviceablo to them, the stoppage of all their channels of traffic, and the appropriation of everything in an enemy ' s country necessary for the support and subsistence of the invading army. on the other hand, though an enemy may be starved into surrender, wounding, except in battle, mutilation, and all cruel and wanton devastation are contrary to the usages of war, as are also bombarding an unprotected town, the use of poison in any way, and torture to extort information from an enemy : but it is admitted that an enemy may be put to death for certain acts which are in themselves not criminal, and it may be even highly patriotic and praiseworthy, but are injurious to the invaders, such as firing on the invaders although not regularly enrolled in an organized military force, or seeking to impair the invaders ' lines of communication. - n. a state of active opposition, hostility, or contest : as, to be at war ( that is, engaged in active hostilities ). -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5579419440234249, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.073062"} {"text": "enrolled in an organized military force, or seeking to impair the invaders ' lines of communication. - n. a state of active opposition, hostility, or contest : as, to be at war ( that is, engaged in active hostilities ). - n. any kind of contest or conflict ; contention ; strife : as, a wordy war. - n. the profession of arms ; the art of war. - n. forces ; army. compare battle. - n. warlike outfit. - n. specifically \u2014 in roman history, the war between sulla and marius ( commencing 88 b. c. ) or that between pompey and c\u00e6sar ( commencing 49 b. c. ) - n. in english history, the war of the great rebellion. see rebellion. - n. in united states history, the war of secession. see secession. - n. of 1828 \u2013 9, ending in the defeat of turkey ; - n. of 1853 \u2013 6 ( see crimean ) ; - n. of 1877 \u2013 8, between russia and its allies ( rumania, etc. ) and turkey, resulting in the defeat of turkey and the reconstruction of southeastern europe. - n. 343 \u2013 341 b. c. - n. 326 \u2013 304 b. c. - n. 298 \u2013 290 b. c., ending in the triumph of rome. - to make or carry on war ; carry on hostilities ; fight. - to contend ; strive violently ; be in a state of opposition. - to make war upon ; oppose, as in war ; contend against. - to carry on, as a contest. - same as worse. - to defeat ; worst. - a middle english form of ware. - a middle english form of were. - n. uncountable organized, large - scale, armed conflict between countries or between national, ethnic, or other sizeable groups, usually involving the engagement of military forces. - n. countable a particular conflict of this kind. - n. countable by extension, any conflict, or anything resembling a conflict. - n. uncountable a particular card game for two players, notable for having its outcome predetermined by how the cards are dealt. - v. intransitive to engage in conflict ( may be followed by \" with \" to specify the foe ). - v. to carry on, as a contest ; to wage. gnu webster ' s 1913 - adj. obsolete ware ; aware. - n. a contest between nations or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5859250117975747, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.074088"} {"text": "( may be followed by \" with \" to specify the foe ). - v. to carry on, as a contest ; to wage. gnu webster ' s 1913 - adj. obsolete ware ; aware. - n. a contest between nations or states, carried on by force, whether for defence, for revenging insults and redressing wrongs, for the extension of commerce, for the acquisition of territory, for obtaining and establishing the superiority and dominion of one over the other, or for any other purpose ; armed conflict of sovereign powers ; declared and open hostilities. - n. ( law ) a condition of belligerency to be maintained by physical force. in this sense, levying war against the sovereign authority is treason. - n. poetic instruments of war. - n. poetic forces ; army. - n. the profession of arms ; the art of war. - n. a state of opposition or contest ; an act of opposition ; an inimical contest, act, or action ; enmity ; hostility. - v. to make war ; to invade or attack a state or nation with force of arms ; to carry on hostilities ; to be in a state by violence. - v. to contend ; to strive violently ; to fight. - v. rare to make war upon ; to fight. - v. rare to carry on, as a contest ; to wage. - n. the waging of armed conflict against an enemy - v. make or wage war - n. an active struggle between competing entities - n. a concerted campaign to end something that is injurious - n. a legal state created by a declaration of war and ended by official declaration during which the international rules of war apply - from middle english werre, from late old english werre, wyrre \" armed conflict \" from old northern french werre ( compare old french guerre, guerre, whence modern french guerre ), from frankish * werra ( \u201c riot, disturbance, quarrel \u201d ) from proto - germanic * werro ( \u201c mixture, mix - up, confusion \u201d ), from proto - indo - european * wers - ( \u201c to mix up, confuse, beat, thresh \u201d ). akin to old high german werra ( \" confusion, strife, quarrel \" ) ( german verwirren ( \u201c to confuse \u201d ) ), old saxon werran ( \" to confuse, perplex \" ), dutch war ( \" confusion, disarray \" ), old english wyr", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5826002978529943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.075084"} {"text": "strife, quarrel \" ) ( german verwirren ( \u201c to confuse \u201d ) ), old saxon werran ( \" to confuse, perplex \" ), dutch war ( \" confusion, disarray \" ), old english wyrsa, wiersa ( \" worse \" ), old norse verri ( \" worse \" ) ( originally \" confounded, mixed up \" ). compare latin versus ( \" against, turned \" ), past participle of vertere ( \" turn, change, overthrow, destroy \" ). more at worse, wurst. ( wiktionary ) - middle english warre, from old north french werre, of germanic origin. ( american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition ) \u201c view favorites yahoobuzzarticleheadline = ' american plans to loot iraqi oil and other bush war crimes ' ; yahoobuzzarticlesummary = ' though bush has given every other lie and cover story to justify the us war of aggression against iraq, the real reasons for the \\ ' war \\ ' are now openly admitted. \u201d \u201c view favorites yahoobuzzarticleheadline = ' president bush regrets his legacy as man who wanted war ' ; yahoobuzzarticlesummary = ' president bush has admitted to the times that his gun - slinging rhetoric made the world believe that he was a guy really anxious for war in iraq. \u201d \u201c edwards : \" end ' preventive war ' doctrine \" yahoobuzzarticleheadline = ' edwards : \" end \\ ' preventive war \\ ' doctrine \" ' ; yahoobuzzarticlesummary = ' article : john edwards talks about ending bush \\ ' s \" preventative war doctrine \" and how to diplomatically engage with iran. \u201d \u201c view favorites yahoobuzzarticleheadline = ' chomsky : \\ ' there is no war on terror \\ ' ' ; yahoobuzzarticlesummary = ' the acclaimed critic of u. s. foreign policy analyzes bush \\ ' s current political troubles, the war on iraq, and what \\ ' s really behind the global \\ ' war on terror. \u201d \u201c if iraq is key to bush ' s ' terror war '... we ' re losing yahoobuzzarticleheadline = ' if iraq is key to bush \\ ' s \\ ' terror war \\ '... we \\ ' re losing ' ; yahoobuzzarticlesummary = ' article : if democrats", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5288407776643343, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.076007"} {"text": "re losing yahoobuzzarticleheadline = ' if iraq is key to bush \\ ' s \\ ' terror war \\ '... we \\ ' re losing ' ; yahoobuzzarticlesummary = ' article : if democrats are going to continue to acknowledge bush \\ ' s \\ ' terror war \\ ', they should oblige him and aggressively tie it to the quagmire in iraq and his regime \\ ' s wallowing failures elsewhere in the world. \u201d \u201c bushs insistence that he treated war with iraq as a last resort and that saddam hussein was the one who chose war by refusing to let \u201d \u201c thats funny lynn cheney is a war monger of the aei enterprise $ $ for $ $ war $ $ think tank. \u201d \u201c while the phrase the war to end war is often associated with woodrow wilson, its authorship was claimed by wells in an article in liberty, december 29, 1934, p. 4. \u201d \u201c at the same time, if we have the choice of continued war or a cowardly peace - - _ we vote for war _. \u201d \u201c _ it is the war which kills slavery, and not the man who leads the war _. \u201d these user - created lists contain the word \u2018 war \u2019. english words of anglo - saxon origin. with the exception of abbreviations and mosaic words all types of words ( proper names, past tense of verbs, etc. ) are allowed. movies or tv shows where the titles are also common words, generally one - word titles. unabashedly stolen from a comment made by courier12. words for fighting ( open list, randomness ) absolute majority, absolute monarchy, abstentionism, access to informa..., acquisition of arms, action brought be..., action for annulment, action to establi..., ad hoc committee, adjournment, adjournment motion, administration and 965 more... all words of the poem by gerard nolst trenite dearest creature in creation, study english pronunciation. i will teach you in my verse <...... and all that heavy metal. a list of english words that are three letters long. abm agreement, accession to a co..., accession to a tr..., accession to an a..., achievement of peace, acp - ec convention, advanced technolo..., aerospace industry, african organisation, aggression, agreement, agricultural", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.500301753865237, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.076878"} {"text": "the feasibility of micronutrient ( iron ) food fortification in pacific island countries ( a report of mr robert hughes prepared for who western pacific regional office ) the main aim of the consultancy was to obtain information on food production and distribution, availability and consumption in the pacific to determine the best vehicles for food fortification. specific objects were : 1. determination of the total volume of possible vehicles for fortification available for consumption in pacific island countries ( pic ) by source of origin. 2. description of distribution and marketing structure ( in bulk or labeled ), as well as agreements among countries regarding importations and food control. 3. investigate the availability of information from food consumption studies that can help determine the distribution of the above foods ( potential vehicles for fortification ) in each country in order to estimate nutritional implications for urban vs rural population, different age groups, males / females and socio - economic classes. 4. draw conclusions on the most suitable vehicles for a fortification program for the pacific countries and propose the steps needed to implement this. the prevalence of anaemia is high in the region and the most likely causes are diets insufficient in iron and / or parasite infections. the prevalence of anaemia in women and children in pics is high enough to warrant a public health intervention. fortifying the food supply with iron would be an effective way of increasing population iron intakes. the most effective programs to reduce iron deficiency anaemia would involve the elimination of helminth and parasite infections and increasing dietary iron intakes of pacific populations. food import volumes were determined for 10 pics. the principal sources of origin of flour and rice for most pics were fiji, australia and the usa and imported rice and flour from these countries now provide the main staple foods. literature searches found only three recent pacific food consumption studies. low proportions of rural populations consume flour and rice ( 14. 7 % ) in vanuatu and possibly most of rural / remote melanesia. on the basis of evidence food availability data and limited consumption studies, flour and rice appear to be the most suitable vehicles for fortification. results of 3 food consumption studies may not be sufficient on which to base a food fortification program. imported flour and rice is already enriched in many pics. food production in australia, nz and the usa shows a general trend towards enriching foods for domestic consumption with additional nutrients, including iron. the issue of fortifying multiple food vehicles becomes an alternative to fortification of a single food. food availability data collected and analysed by fao remains the best source of food availability in the pacific. unfortunately,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5071462025965224, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.084507"} {"text": "consumption with additional nutrients, including iron. the issue of fortifying multiple food vehicles becomes an alternative to fortification of a single food. food availability data collected and analysed by fao remains the best source of food availability in the pacific. unfortunately, these data only provide information for 8 pics and at best, are only rough estimates. in many cases country import data were either, unreliable, inappropriate, or not available in a form that could be analysed, raising more issues than solely determining the nutrient quality of the food supply. from the results of this consultancy, it is recommended that : 1. wheat flour and rice are the most suitable vehicles for iron fortification in pics. issues such as levels and safety of iron fortificants, policing of mandatory fortification, quality control, contamination and producer compliance are beyond the scope of this consultancy. 2. fortification and helminth elimination programs be undertaken in unison. there is enough evidence to suggest that a food fortification program should not be undertaken in isolation. iron deficiency anaemia is an outcome of a range of influencing factors that include an iron deficient diet and helminth / parasite infections. since fortified foods seem to be imported into many pics, the question of whether a fortification program is necessary arises. more data should be collected to determine the exact proportions of fortified foods already entering pics. pacific governments should be alerted to this in order to make informed decisions about the development of national and / or regional food fortification programs. this also enables governments and regional bodies to determine whether a single or multiple food vehicle program will be the most effective. 3. regular low - cost food and nutrition surveys be undertaken. the searches undertaken during this consultancy showed that little is known about the dietary habits and food consumption patterns of pacific populations. very little is known about food distribution within countries and what proportion of anaemia prevalence is due to parasitic infection. accurate information on food consumption is necessary for governments to make decisions about a range of food and health issues in order to develop policy and programs. 4. a uniform regional approach to food import and availability data collection and analysis be taken. this consultancy found it difficult to access individual pic food availability data and of data received, many were incomplete, difficult to interpret and / or inconsistent. this raises issues of national food security, disaster preparedness and emergency relief. every country government should have easy access to up - to - date per capita food availability of nutrient rich foods in order to determine quantities of foods available to feed populations in times of emergency.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5097445144437918, "token_count": 505, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.085607"} {"text": "achieving quality the final piece of the puzzle properly calibrated testing equipment ensures quality in order for a business to generate a high - quality product or service, it is essential to obtain a quality measurement system that will be used to study the integrity of its finished product. in the certification industry, testing equipment is essential to measure the different variables that could potentially alter the quality of a raw material, finished product or final status on a certification report. the quality of a product or service is compromised if the test equipment used to measure the final quality is not reading accurate results. this is why a flawless calibration system is the final puzzle piece to achieving a high - quality product or service. what is calibration? in this article, calibration will be defined as the comparison between measurements. during the calibration of a test instrument, a device with a known magnitude or assigned correctness, known as a standard, will be used to check the measuring accuracy of a test instrument. calibration ensures that a measuring instrument is providing results for a sample that fall in an acceptable accurate range. accurate testing results allow manufacturers or certification agencies to eliminate or minimize factors that could cause inaccurate measurements during production or testing. calibration procedures naturally vary depending on the instrument being calibrated. generally, the test instrument is used to test calibrators, which are one or more test samples that have known values. the results are then used to establish a relationship between the measurement instrument and the known values. the calibration processes eliminate or \u201c zero out \u201d the current instrument error at the specified calibration points. this process basically \u201c teaches \u201d the instrument to produce more accurate results. after a test instrument is calibrated, it will provide more accurate results for unknown values tested during its everyday normal usage. to keep a successful calibration system, calibrations must be done consistently and on a systematic schedule. when is calibration needed? during the manufacturing or certification process of any product, there may be many different types of test instruments used to determine the quality of a product or service. the question of which test instruments need to be calibrated and which do not is answered by whether or not the test performed and the test instrument used affect the final quality of the product or service. there are situations in which a test instrument does not need to be calibrated. if the readings of the test instrument are for reference only, and the accuracy of the test results have little or no impact on the quality of the product or service", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5622248219985223, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.089838"} {"text": "the real goal of nutrition is the management of cellular inflammation. increased cellular inflammation makes us fat, sick, and dumb ( how about overweight, ill, and less intelligent ). strictly speaking, diets are defined by their macronutrient balance. this is because that balance determines the resulting hormonal responses. this doesn \u2019 t mean you can ignore the impact of various food ingredients on the generation of cellular inflammation. this is why i categorize food ingredients into three major classes depending on when they were introduced into the human diet. the more ancient the food ingredients, the less damaging inflammatory impact they will have on turning genes off and on ( i. e. gene expression ). this is because the greater the period of time our genes have co - evolved with a given food ingredient, the more our body knows how to handle them. unfortunately, human genes change slowly, but changes in our food supply can happen very rapidly. with that as a background, let me describe the three major categories of food ingredients, especially in terms of their introduction to the human diet. this category includes food ingredients that were available more than 10, 000 years ago. our best evidence is that humans first appeared as a new species in southern africa about 200, 000 years ago ( 1 ). for the next 190, 000 years, food ingredients of the human diet consisted of animal protein ( grass - fed only ), fish, animal and fish fats, fruits, vegetables, and nuts. i call these paleolithic ingredients. this means for the first 95 percent of our existence as a species, these were the only food ingredients that genes were exposed to. as a result of 190, 000 years of co - existence with our genes, these food ingredients have the least inflammatory potential on our genes. our best estimate of the macronutrient composition of the typical paleolithic diet some 10 - 15, 000 years ago was 25 - 28 percent protein, 40 percent carbohydrate, 32 - 35 percent fat with a very high intake of epa and dha ( about 6 grams per day ) and a 1 : 1 ratio of omega - 6 to omega - 3 fats ( 2 ). this is basically the composition of the anti inflammatory diet ( 3 - 5 ). if you use only paleolithic ingredients, then you are almost forced to follow an anti inflammatory diet. the food ingredients are more restrictive, but the increased anti - inflammatory benefits are well worth it. the second group of food ingredients represents those food choices that were available 2,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5048955407271543, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.128236"} {"text": "by jonah lehrer book list creativity a flash in the pan or 99 - percent perspiration? a - list journalist lehrer ( how we decide, 2009 ) tackles the question in broad strokes, covering topics as diverse as office layouts, urban planning, drug use, and brain chemistry. it turns out that the question isn ' t easy to answer, for it seems that a method used by one creative person doesn ' t translate for another. lehrer describes the creative activities of such luminaries as david byrne and the ceo of pixar, then dissects why each approach works for that individual or group. some examples are a bit of a stretch. the section on shakespeare, for instance, is eye - rollingly speculative. but, just as lehrer points out that explicit instruction is anathema to creative play and discovery, he seems to say in each section, isn ' t this neat? and leave the bulk of the work to the reader ' s imagination. in that sense, imagine is a great introduction for anyone curious about the nature and dynamics of creativity. - - hunter, sarah copyright 2010 booklist from booklist, copyright \u00a9 american library association. used with permission. choice for those acquainted with lehrer ' s two previous books, proust was a neuroscientist ( 2007 ) and how we decide ( ch, aug ' 09, 46 - 6789 ), the format of the present volume will be quite familiar. the subject, in this case the creative process, is broken down into two subcategories - - \" alone \" and \" together \" - - each illumined by anecdote, case study, and scientific findings from the field and laboratory. in the course of looking at art, invention, and improvisation, the author has focused on creative works and products ranging from west side story, bob dylan ' s \" like a rolling stone, \" and shakespeare ' s henry vi to the personal computer, post - it notes, and nike ' s \" just do it \" slogan. he explores the creative work of individuals - - including steve jobs, paul erdos, jack kerouac, and yo - yo ma - - and innovative institutions such as 3 - m, google, second city, pixar, and eli lilly. lehrer examines both standard approaches to the study of creativity and recent developments in psychology and neuroscience, for example, right - brain functioning, neuronal learning, recursive loops, semantic priming, conceptual blending, and informational", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5766370890104098, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.140460"} {"text": "eli lilly. lehrer examines both standard approaches to the study of creativity and recent developments in psychology and neuroscience, for example, right - brain functioning, neuronal learning, recursive loops, semantic priming, conceptual blending, and informational entropy. this is a fitting companion to the author ' s earlier work and an informative introduction to one of the most elusive of human capacities, the creative imagination. summing up : highly recommended. lower - and upper - division undergraduates ; graduate students ; professionals ; general readers. r. m. davis emeritus, albion college copyright american library association, used with permission. library journal in his new book on creativity, lehrer ( how we decide ) presents captivating case studies of innovative minds, companies, and cities while tying in the latest in scientific research. he recounts the sometimes surprising origins of hugely successful inventions, brands, and ideas ( e. g., the swiffer mop, barbie doll, pixar animation ) and reveals unexpected commonalities in the creative experiences ( e. g., the color blue, distractedness, living abroad ). the book combines individual case studies with broader psychology to provide new insights into creativity, much like sheena iyengar ' s the art of choosing. many of lehrer ' s insights are based on emerging scientific practices and are thus fresh and especially applicable to modern life. he emphasizes innovative companies and experimental approaches to education and includes historical factoids that reveal the backstories of everyday items. verdict lehrer ' s findings can be used to inform the design of innovative programs or to structure a productive work environment at home or at the office. this book will appeal to educators, business administrators, and readers interested in applied psychology. [ see prepub alert, 10 / 15 / 11. ] - ryan nayler, univ. of toronto lib., ont. ( c ) copyright 2012. library journals llc, a wholly owned subsidiary of media source, inc. no redistribution permitted. ( c ) copyright 2010. library journals llc, a wholly owned subsidiary of media source, inc. no redistribution permitted.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5878941198300895, "token_count": 429, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.141465"} {"text": "be able to reduce the level of state and local expenditures otherwise required by the idea lea maintenance of effort ( moe ) requirements. generally, under section 613 ( a ) ( 2 ) ( c ), in any fiscal year that an lea ' s idea allocation exceeds the amount the lea received in the previous year, under certain circumstances, the lea may reduce the level of state and local expenditures by up to 50 percent of the amount of the increase, as long as the lea uses those freed - up local funds for activities that could be supported under the esea, such as services for children at risk of school failure without additional support. if an lea takes advantage of this provision, the required moe for future years is reduced consistent with the reduction it took, unless the lea increases the amount of its state and local expenditures on its own. seas should encourage leas that can and do take advantage of this flexibility to focus the freed - up local funds on one - time expenditures that will help the state make progress on the goals in the sfsf program, such as improving the equitable distribution of effective teachers and the quality and use of assessments to enhance instruction for students most in need. - alternatively, an lea may ( or in some cases must ) use up to 15 percent of its total idea, part b grants to states and preschool grants for early intervening services for children in grades k through 12 who are not currently identified as children with disabilities, but who need additional academic and behavioral support to succeed in a general education environment. however, an lea may use only up to 15 percent of its allocation minus any amount ( on a dollar - for - dollar basis ) by which the lea reduced its required state and local expenditures under section 613 ( a ) ( 2 ) ( c ). - state - level moe may be waived under part b of the idea by the secretary of education on a state - by - state basis, for a single year at a time, for exceptional or uncontrollable circumstances, such as a natural disaster or a precipitous and unforeseen decline in the financial resources of a state. lea - level moe may not be waived. - with prior approval from the secretary of education, a state or lea may count sfsf ( but not idea arra funds ) under the arra that are used for special education and related services as non - federal funds for purposes of determining whether the state or lea has met the idea, part b moe requirements. ( see separate fact sheet on sfsf for more information. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5050762117765777, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.156249"} {"text": "units of work the units of work are delivered as downloadable word documents so that teachers can customise them for use in their classroom. they include references to electronic resources ( software, websites and items from the learning federation collection of online resources ), print resources ( many include worksheets for students to use ) and other physical resources. there is a brief outline of each unit below including suggested year level ( s ). teachers from around the country were involved in this work, and aamt members would like to thank them for their efforts. melanie bezear, calwell primary school, act jane mcalpine, chapman primary school, act anne pillman, marryatville primary school, sa stephanie watts, trinity catholic primary school, nsw thomas psomas, all saints grammar school, nsw gayle cann, parap primary school, nt mark darrell, hallett cove school, sa nicole heyder, atwell college, wa lyn pierrehumbert, durack school, nt shelley jenkinson, deanmore primary school, wa bernie o \u2019 sullivan, st luke ' s anglican school, qld wendy fletcher, centre for extended learning opportunities roxanne steenbergen, claremont primary school, tas michael macrae, duncraig senior high school education support centre, wa terry jacka, st hilda ' s school, qld ed cuthbertson, lanyon high school, act [ year 1 ] counting on, counting back the beginning of this unit focuses on ensuring that students have basic foundation skills, and an understanding of both what the number line means and the forward and backward number sequence. they then progress to developing conceptual understandings of place value, specifically tens and ones. once these foundation skills have been mastered, students are introduced to the strategies of counting on and then counting back. uw _ 003 _ counting _ on _ counting _ back. doc 582. 50 kb [ years 2 - 4 ] going places in this unit of work students visualise and plan routes, understand and use the language of position and give and interpret directions using a variety of formats and resources. uw _ 005 _ going _ places. doc 665. 00 kb [ year 3 ] area and perimeter this unit allows students to explore the beginning concepts of perimeter and area, including the formal units of cm, m, cm sq, and m sq and to learn the differences between these measurements. uw _ 006 _ area _ perimeter. doc 140. 50 kb [ year 4 ] multiplying and dividing with arrays this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5339085165171708, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.162831"} {"text": "the formal units of cm, m, cm sq, and m sq and to learn the differences between these measurements. uw _ 006 _ area _ perimeter. doc 140. 50 kb [ year 4 ] multiplying and dividing with arrays this unit explores the concepts of multiplication and division and offers students strategies to perform these operations. uw _ 003 _ uniting _ and _ dividing. doc 282. 50 kb [ years 4 - 5 ] cities taking shape students develop their knowledge of 2d and 3d shapes, and the relationships between them. they learn about how a 3d shape can look different when viewed from different positions. students use knowledge and skills gained through the unit to design and construct a \u2018 model \u2019 city or town block. uw _ 003 _ cities _ taking _ shape. doc 948. 00 kb [ years 4 - 10 ] telling the time this unit introduces the formal measurement of time using the terms \u2018 o \u2019 clock \u2019, \u2018 half past \u2019, \u2018 quarter past \u2019 and \u2018 quarter to \u2019 and their representation on an analogue clock. it is specifically for students with autism spectrum disorders ( asd ), so the learning experiences offered are structured, methodical and sequential and require one - to - one instruction. uw _ 006 _ telling _ the _ time. doc 639. 00 kb [ years 5 - 6 ] graphs and data this unit of work explores why we need data, and how to collate, present and analyse it to extract the information it offers. uw _ 004 _ graphs _ and _ data. doc 247. 00 kb [ years 5 - 6 ] chances are this unit explores the mathematics of chance. discover the language of chance and how it affects our decisions. explore the notion of probability, and how we can influence this. uw _ 005 _ chances _ are. doc 699. 50 kb [ year 6 ] you say data, i say data this unit introduces the students to a variety of graphs. they will examine examples of various types of graphs and then conduct their own surveys to collect and present the data in a specified form. uw _ 003 _ you _ say _ data. doc 495. 00 kb [ years 6 - 7 ] places for polygons this unit of work investigates the geometric properties of buildings to develop students \u2019 understanding of polygons. uw _ 003 _ places _ for _ polygons. doc 412. 00 kb [ years 6 - 8 ] take a chance this unit provides students with a real life context to investigate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5764845725785699, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.163859"} {"text": "buildings to develop students \u2019 understanding of polygons. uw _ 003 _ places _ for _ polygons. doc 412. 00 kb [ years 6 - 8 ] take a chance this unit provides students with a real life context to investigate the language of chance and how events may be manipulated to alter the chance of something happening. it also introduces the use of fractions, decimals and percentages when looking at probability. uw _ 004 _ take _ a _ chance. doc 276. 50 kb [ years 7 - 8 ] fraction action in this unit of work students move from working with tenths, hundredths and thousandths to relating common and decimal fractions and percentages. uw _ 007 _ fraction _ action. doc 350. 50 kb [ year 8 ] investigating us this unit is designed to enable students to design and conduct simple surveys, collate the data into appropriate tables, identify the types of graphs that are suited to display the data sets depending on the number and types of variables, select appropriate display formats to represent the data and interpret data from the graphs and tables. it utilises students \u2019 natural interest regarding themselves and where they \u2018 fit in \u2019 in relation to their peers. uw _ 004 _ investigating _ us. doc 582. 00 kb [ years 8 - 10 ] turn up the volume in this unit of work students explore and explain the connections between the surface area and volume of different shapes and how each attribute is measured. uw _ 008 _ turn _ up _ the _ volume. doc 881. 00 kb [ years 11 - 12 ] periodic functions this unit focuses on periodic functions and is part of a university preparation course for those aiming to study mathematics and science courses such as engineering. uw _ 005 _ periodic _ functions. doc 831. 00 kb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5612066970847366, "token_count": 370, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.165452"} {"text": "simple observational proof of the greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide posted by ari jokimaki on april 19, 2010 recently, i showed briefly a simple observational proof that greenhouse effect exists using a paper by ellingson & wiscombe ( 1996 ). now i will present a similar paper that deepens the proof and shows more clearly how different greenhouse gases really are greenhouse gases. i \u2019 ll highlight the carbon dioxide related issues in their paper. walden et al. ( 1998 ) studied the downward longwave radiation spectrum in antarctica. their study covers only a single year so this is not about how the increase in greenhouse gases affects. they measured the downward longwave radiation spectrum coming from atmosphere to the surface during the year ( usually in every 12 hours ) and then selected three measurements from clear - sky days for comparison with the results of a line - by - line radiative transfer model. first they described why antarctica is a good place for this kind of study : since the atmosphere is so cold and dry ( < 1 mm of precipitable water ), the overlap of the emission spectrum of water vapor with that of other gases is greatly reduced. therefore the spectral signatures of other important infrared emitters, namely, co2, o3, ch4, and n2o, are quite distinct. in addition, the low atmospheric temperatures provide an extreme test case for testing models spectral overlapping is a consideration here because they are using a moderate resolution ( about 1 cm - 1 ) in their spectral analysis. they went on further describing their measurements and the equipment used and their calibration. they also discussed the uncertainties in the measurements thoroughly. they then presented the measured spectra in similar style than was shown in ellingson & wiscombe ( 1996 ). they proceeded to produce their model results. the models were controlled with actual measurements of atmospheric consituents ( water vapour, carbon dioxide, etc. ). the model is used here because it represents our theories which are based on numerous experiments in laboratories and in the atmosphere. they then performed the comparison between the model results and the measurements. figure 1 shows their figure 11 where total spectral radiance from their model is compared to measured spectral radiance. the upper panel of figure 1 shows the spectral radiance and the lower panel shows the difference of measured and modelled spectrum. the overall match is excellent and there \u2019 s no way you could get this match by chance so this already shows that different greenhouse gases really are producing a greenhouse effect just as our theories predict. walden et", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5460781292562502, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.176431"} {"text": "panel shows the difference of measured and modelled spectrum. the overall match is excellent and there \u2019 s no way you could get this match by chance so this already shows that different greenhouse gases really are producing a greenhouse effect just as our theories predict. walden et al. didn \u2019 t stop there. next they showed the details of how the measured spectral bands of different greenhouse gases compare with model results. the comparison of carbon dioxide is shown here in figure 2 ( which is the upper panel of their figure 13 ). the match between the modelled and measured carbon dioxide spectral band is also excellent, even the minor details track each other well except for couple of places of slight difference. if there wouldn \u2019 t be greenhouse effect from carbon dioxide or if water vapour would be masking its effect, this match should then be accidental. i see no chance for that, so this seems to be a simple observational proof that carbon dioxide produces a greenhouse effect just as our theories predict. walden, v. p., s. g. warren, and f. j. murcray ( 1998 ), measurements of the downward longwave radiation spectrum over the antarctic plateau and comparisons with a line - by - line radiative transfer model for clear skies, j. geophys. res., 103 ( d4 ), 3825 \u2013 3846, doi : 10. 1029 / 97jd02433. [ abstract ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5476236895872447, "token_count": 286, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.177113"} {"text": "over range of adhd behavior, genes major force on reading achievement, environment on math first study of its kind reveals complex interaction humans are not born as blank slates for nature to write on. neither are they behaving on genes alone. research by lee a. thompson, chair of case western reserve university \u2019 s psychological sciences department, and colleagues found that the link between attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( adhd ) and academic performance involves a complex interaction of genes and environment. genetic influence was found to be greater on reading than for math, while shared environment ( e. g., the home and / or school environment the twins shared ) influenced math more so than reading. the researchers don \u2019 t know why. their study of twins, published in psychological science, vol. 21, was the first to look simultaneously at the genetic and environmental influences on reading ability, mathematics ability, and the continuum of adhd behavior. \u201c the majority of the twins used in the study don \u2019 t have adhd, \u201d thompson said. \u201c we are looking at the continuum of the behavioral symptoms of adhd - looking at individual differences - not a disorder with an arbitrary cutoff. \u201d this type of continuum is a normal distribution or bell curve, with scores symmetrically distributed about the average and getting much less frequent the farther away a score is from the average. disability is usually classified as the lower extreme on the normal distribution. the symptoms of adhd, according to thompson, can be described with such a continuum, as can reading and mathematics ability. only a small percent of individuals fall below the common medical cutoff between ability and disability. for what we refer to as gifted or disabled, thompson points out, \u201c there is no difference in cause, just different expression of achievement. \u201d thompson collaborated with sara hart, a graduate student at the florida center for reading research, and stephen petrill, a professor at the ohio state university, in analyzing 271 pairs of ten - year - old identical and fraternal twins. the twins were selected from the western reserve reading and mathematics project, a study that began in 2002 with kindergarten and first grade - age twins and has collected data yearly about their math and reading ability. the study focused on two adhd symptoms : inattention and hyperactivity, which are viewed as extremes of their respective attention and activity continuums. as part of the study, the mother of the twins rated each child on 18 items such as the child \u2019 s ability to listen when spoken to, play quietly, and sit still", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.523490356496827, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.215412"} {"text": "which are viewed as extremes of their respective attention and activity continuums. as part of the study, the mother of the twins rated each child on 18 items such as the child \u2019 s ability to listen when spoken to, play quietly, and sit still, to assess attention and activity levels. a researcher testing each twins \u2019 mathematics and reading ability also rated the twins each year on their attention to tasks and level of hyperactivity. the researchers assessed reading ability by evaluating the twins \u2019 recognition and pronunciation of words and passage comprehension. they measured the twins \u2019 capacity for mathematics by focusing on the twin \u2019 s ability to solve problems, understanding of concepts, computational skills, and the number of computations completed in 3 minutes. researchers analyzed the data from three perspectives : one looked at the overall adhd behavior, one at the level of attention, and at the activity level. they then determined the similarities in genetic and environmental influence between adhd symptoms and reading and between the symptoms and mathematics. to do so, researchers looked at the variance and covariance of adhd symptoms and academic ability. variance measures the individual differences on a given trait within a population and covariance is a measure of how much two traits are related. these measures were broken down into identified components : additive genetic effects, shared environment and non - shared environment. using quantitative analysis of the components, the researchers found that there are some general genes that influence the symptoms of adhd simultaneously with reading and mathematics ability and some genes that influence each specifically. this study also found that both inattention and hyperactivity were related to academics. \u201c if we have this much overlap between genes that affect behaviors of adhd and academic achievement, \u201d thompson said, \u201c it gives validity to the relation of adhd behaviors and poor academics. \u201d but genes are not everything, thompson adds. there are different approaches for interventions that can be taken based on the extent of environmental influence on adhd behavior, reading ability, and mathematics ability across the entire continuum of expression. future research, the study notes, should focus on the underlying connection between adhd symptoms and poor academic achievement in order to identify the influences that may alter these often co - occurring outcomes. additional authors include erik willcutt from the university of colorado, boulder ; christopher schatschneider from florida center for reading research, florida state university ; kirby deater - deckard from virginia polytechnic institute and state university ; and laurie e. cutting from vanderbilt university. funding for the study was provided by the national institute of child health and human development and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5307792812676175, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.219034"} {"text": "throughout the history of the united states, equality for all people has been fought for and won time and time again. thomas jefferson wrote in the declaration of independence \u201d that all men are created equal, \u201d and over time equal rights have been gradually extended to different groups of people. however, equality has never been achieved without heated debate, despite our country \u2019 s founding principle that all people are created equal in the first place. the language used to seek equality has remained familiar over time. posters demanding equal rights ( pictured ) contain messages we have all seen or heard. one of my theories is that since the human life span is finite, the message of equality has to be relearned by each generation as it comes to realize that more work needs to be done. if humans lived longer, would full equality across racial and gender lines have been acquired by now? ask yourself : would women suffragists from the 1920s, who so vehemently demanded the right to vote, think it was fine for african americans to be denied this same right? it depends. my theory also includes the caveat that empathy for others does not always translate into citizens banding together for the greater good. then again, the social evolution of the united states is progressing. this progression is the reason the language and message of equality remains relevant. equality is a shared goal that not everyone enjoys. racial intolerance for one group is no different than bigotry for another. denying equality for a particular group plays into the kind of discriminatory trap that makes no sense if one applies the very same principles of equality indiscriminately. all people are created equal, period. the declaration of independence was written with the hope of possibility. think about it \u2014 the signers of this document were declaring a new and independent country! jefferson \u2019 s words made a statement about human rights that became the foundation for a country unlike any other in the world. the signers never anticipated that their vision would eventually embrace so many different kinds of people, but that is the beauty of it. the declaration was groundbreaking because it provided a foundation of principles and moral standards that have endured to modern times and that accommodate human evolution and its capacity for acceptance. stepping back and viewing all these posters as a whole, one could come to two conclusions. first : the human race does not learn from history. second : humans repeat the same mistakes over and over. however, i believe that the preservation and repurposing of the messages of protest in all their different forms are evidence that we do", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5189683933522251, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.224788"} {"text": ", at high levels, causes permanent brain damage. nitrogen oxides \u2014 more smog, more health problems ozone smog and soot released by coal - fired power plants are associated with increased risk of asthma, heart and respiratory problems, increased absences from school and work, increased hospitalizations, increased medication, and increased risk of premature death. the dendron plant would release 6. 2 million pounds of nitrogen dioxide * ( nox ) ; this is 8. 5 times more nox pollution than now produced by the entire county of surry. nox is a major component of ground level ozone ( smog ). nox pollution from the power plant would threaten air quality in surry county and worsen existing smog problems in hampton roads and richmond, two regions soon to be designated by epa as unhealthy for smog. according to epa, power plants are the second - largest source of nox in the atmosphere ; in virginia, power plants produce 18 percent of the annual airborne nox pollution. air modeling predicts the dendron plant will cause more than 264 tons of sulfur and 286 tons of soot to settle onto the chesapeake bay watershed, contributing to hazy air, health concerns, and acid rain. greenhouse gases \u2014 worsening climate change, sea level rise climate change caused by excess greenhouse gases will worsen sea - level rise in the chesapeake bay region, the second - most vulnerable area in the united states to sea level rise. this poses significant threats to the region ' s environment, economy, and military. the dendron plant would release 11. 7 million tons of carbon dioxide * into the air each year, adding more greenhouse gases to the earth ' s atmosphere and exacerbating climate change problems. recent scientific studies suggest that increased carbon dioxide levels in the chesapeake bay may increase the acidity of bay waters and seriously threaten restoration of the native oyster. coal - fired power plants are among the worst greenhouse gas polluters. to date, no technology exists to feasibly capture and contain carbon dioxide from coal - fired power plants ( carbon sequestration ). alternatives to a new coal - fired power plant are available energy efficiency and conservation \u2014 a 10 percent reduction in energy through efficiency and conservation will reduce virginia ' s 2016 estimated power shortfall by 97 percent ; a 14 percent reduction in energy through efficiency and conservation will eliminate all shortfalls and produce an excess 1, 055 megawatts of electricity. * * renewable energy \u2014 virginia has enough untapped renewable energy resources, including wind, tidal, solar", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5000208223199099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.258703"} {"text": "adjective, un \u00b7 ru \u00b7 li \u00b7 er, un \u00b7 ru \u00b7 li \u00b7 est. not submissive or conforming to rule ; ungovernable ; turbulent ; intractable ; refractory ; lawless : an unruly class ; an unruly wilderness. origin : 1350 \u2013 1400 ; middle english unruely, related forms equivalent to un - un - 1 + ruly, ruely governable, controllable ; see rule disobedient, unmanageable, uncontrollable, stubborn, disorderly, riotous. unruly, intractable, recalcitrant, refractory describe persons or things that resist management or control. unruly suggests persistently disorderly behavior or character in persons or things : an unruly child, peevish and willful ; wild, unruly hair. intractable suggests in persons a determined resistance to all attempts to guide or direct them, in things a refusal to respond to attempts to shape, improve, or modify them : an intractable social rebel ; a seemingly intractable problem in logistics. recalcitrant and refractory imply not only a lack of submissiveness but also an open, often violent, rebellion against authority or direction. recalcitrant the stronger of the two terms, suggests a stubborn and absolute noncompliance : a recalcitrant person, openly contemptuous of all authority. refractory implies active, mulish disobedience, but leaves open the possibility of eventual compliance : refractory students, resisting efforts to interest them in their studies.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5412643654553236, "token_count": 327, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.292551"} {"text": "date : august 2007 creator : sarasti, israel a. description : reciprocal teaching comprehension - monitoring is a reading comprehension instructional procedure that combines four instructional strategies : predicting, summarizing, questioning, and clarifying to enhance students ' comprehension of text. the procedure is a dialogue between the teacher and the students. during reciprocal teaching instruction, the teacher and students take turns leading the dialogue in order to enhance the students ' comprehension - monitoring skills. the research on reciprocal teaching has included meta - analyses, group designs, qualitative designs, and single - subject research designs. these studies have identified gaps in the literature to include the measurement of treatment fidelity and treatment acceptability, as well as the psychometric properties of the instruments used to measure daily reading comprehension growth. these gaps were investigated in this study. the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of reciprocal teaching comprehension - monitoring with a group of fifteen 3rd grade students reading at grade level. specifically, this study investigated the use of curriculum - based measurement maze probes ( cbm - maze probes ) to formatively assess the reading comprehension growth of the students. additionally, this study implemented treatment integrity procedures and investigated the acceptability of reciprocal teaching and the cbm - maze probes through a treatment acceptability rating scale. a multiple baseline across groups with three phases ( baseline, intervention, follow - up ) was employed.... contributing partner : unt libraries", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5470243872667179, "token_count": 285, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.297842"} {"text": "for malta. the malta independence order itself developed into the subject of an entrenchment, since here it is declared that this evolved into an extension to the 1961 constitution even in the sense of an amendment. even though malta acquired independence, there was an ongoing presence of continuity. one of them is the monarchy pre - 1964 and prior 1964. the malta independence order 1964 was subject to the malta independence act of that same year and it is a document that holds the chief regulations that govern the constitution of a state. this document is supreme over each and every other document and all legislation is subject to it. throughout malta ' s constitutional history, the nation acquired its own constitution, and to a certain extent, the independence constitution is made up of certain principles that arose for the first time in previous constitutions. it can be said that the independence constitution has evolved from the constitution which preceded it. but one must not ignore the fact that changes have taken place in this process of evolution. the statement that the 1964 constitution is in fact a replica of the 1961 constitution with sovereignty added might be criticised by saying that some factors differ between the two constitutions. the 1964 constitution is not merely what can be defined as an improvement. it is more like another stepping - stone in constitutional history being the final step in a long series of constitutions. in fact, even though it may seem that some provisions were altered from the 1961 constitution to the 1964 constitution, some of those provisions remained unchanged until the amendments of the 1964 constitution were made. the malta independence order, 1964, as amended by acts : - xli of 1965, xxxvii of 1966 - ix of 1967 - xxvi of 1970 - xlvii of 1972 - lvii, lviii of 1974 - xxxviii of 1976 - x of 1977 - xxix of 1979 - iv of 1987 - xxiii of 1989 - proclamations nos. ii and vi of 1990 - acts xix of 1991 - ix of 1994 - proclamations iv of 1995 and iii of 1996 - acts : xi of 1996, xvi of 1997 - acts : iii of 2000 and xiii of 2001 past constitutions malta has had numerous past constitutions. - the 1813 constitution - the 1835 constitution - the 1849 constitution - the 1887 constitution - the 1903 constitution - the 1921 constitution - the 1936 constitution - the 1939 constitution - the 1947 constitution - the 1959 constitution - the 1961 constitution further reading - frendo, henry, the origins of maltese statehood - a case study of decolonization in the mediterranean - malta : peg", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5042582271191589, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.381638"} {"text": "extratropical cyclone is a synoptic scale low pressure weather system that has neither tropical nor polar characteristics, being connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dew point otherwise known as \" baroclinic zones \". the descriptor \" extratropical \" refers to the fact that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside of the tropics, in the middle latitudes of the planet, where the westerlies steer the system generally from west to east. these systems may also be described as \" mid - latitude cyclones \" due to their area of formation, or \" post - tropical cyclones \" where extratropical transition has occurred, and are often described as \" depressions \" or \" lows \" by weather forecasters and the general public. these are the everyday phenomena which along with anti - cyclones, drive the weather over much of the earth. although extratropical cyclones are almost always classified as baroclinic since they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient, they can sometimes become barotropic late in their life cycle when the temperature distribution around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform along the radius from the center of low pressure. an extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone, if it dwells over warm waters and develops central convection, which warms its core and causes temperature and dewpoint gradients near their centers to fade. interaction with tropical cyclones when a tropical cyclone crosses the subtropical ridge axis, normally through a break in the high - pressure area caused by a system traversing the westerlies, its general track around the high - pressure area is deflected significantly by winds moving towards the general low - pressure area to its north. when the cyclone track becomes strongly poleward with an easterly component, the cyclone has begun recurvature, entering the westerlies. a typhoon moving through the pacific ocean towards asia, for example, will recurve offshore of japan to the north, and then to the northeast, if the typhoon encounters southwesterly winds ( blowing northeastward ) around a low - pressure system passing over china or siberia. many tropical cyclones are eventually forced toward the northeast by extratropical cyclones in this manner, which move from west to east to the north of the subtropical ridge. an example of a tropical cyclone in recurvature was typhoon ioke in 2006, which took a similar trajectory. - robert fitzroy ( 1863 ). the weather book : a manual of practical meteorology. longman, green, longman, roberts, & green.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5407023071666182, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.420711"} {"text": "04 - 11. - s. businger, t. m. graziano, m. l. kaplan, and r. a. rozumalski ( 2004 ). cold - air cyclogenesis along the gulf - stream front : investigation of diabatic impacts on cyclone development, frontal structure, and track. meteorology and atmospheric physics, pp. 65 - 90. retrieved on 2008 - 09 - 21. - david m. roth ( 2000 ). p 1. 43 a fifty year history of subtropical cyclones. american meteorological society. retrieved on 2008 - 09 - 21. - d. k. savidge and j. m. bane ( 1999 ). cyclogenesis in the deep ocean beneath the gulf stream. 1. description. journal of geophysical research, pp. 18111 - 18126. retrieved on 2008 - 09 - 21. - dr. decaria ( 2007 - 05 - 29 ). \" esci 241 \u2013 meteorology ; lesson 16 \u2013 extratropical cyclones \". department of earth sciences, millersville university, millersville, pennsylvania. archived from the original on 2007 - 05 - 29. retrieved 2009 - 05 - 31. - robert hart and jenni evans ( 2003 ). \" synoptic composites of the extratropical transition lifecycle of north atlantic tcs as defined within cyclone phase space \" ( pdf ). american meteorological society. retrieved 2006 - 10 - 03. - ryan n. maue ( 2009 ). chapter 3 : cyclone paradigms and extratropical transition conceptualizations. florida state university. retrieved on 2008 - 06 - 15. - atlantic oceanographic and meteorological laboratory, hurricane research division ( 2004 ). \" frequently asked questions : what is an extra - tropical cyclone? \". noaa. retrieved 2006 - 07 - 25. - joint typhoon warning center ( 2009 ). section 2 : tropical cyclone motion terminology. united states navy. retrieved on 2007 - 04 - 10. - powell, jeff, et al. ( may 2007 ). \" hurricane ioke : 20 \u2013 27 august 2006 \". 2006 tropical cyclones central north pacific. central pacific hurricane center. retrieved 2007 - 06 - 09.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5226567825414663, "token_count": 436, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.422588"} {"text": "first, we should clarify what \" evolution \" means. like so many other words, it has more than one meaning. its strict biological definition is \" a change in allele frequencies over time. \" by that definition, evolution is an indisputable fact. most people seem to associate the word \" evolution \" mainly with common descent, the theory that all life arose from one common ancestor. many people believe that there is enough evidence to call this a fact, too. however, common descent is still not the theory of evolution, but just a fraction of it ( and a part of several quite different theories as well ). the theory of evolution not only says that life evolved, it also includes mechanisms, like mutations, natural selection, and genetic drift, which go a long way towards explaining how life evolved. calling the theory of evolution \" only a theory \" is, strictly speaking, true, but the idea it tries to convey is completely wrong. the argument rests on a confusion between what \" theory \" means in informal usage and in a scientific context. a theory, in the scientific sense, is \" a coherent group of general propositions used as principles of explanation for a class of phenomena \" random house american college dictionary. the term does not imply tentativeness or lack of certainty. generally speaking, scientific theories differ from scientific laws only in that laws can be expressed more tersely. being a theory implies self - consistency, agreement with observations, and usefulness. ( creationism fails to be a theory mainly because of the last point ; it makes few or no specific claims about what we would expect to find, so it can ' t be used for anything. when it does make falsifiable predictions, they prove to be false. ) lack of proof isn ' t a weakness, either. on the contrary, claiming infallibility for one ' s conclusions is a sign of hubris. nothing in the real world has ever been rigorously proved, or ever will be. proof, in the mathematical sense, is possible only if you have the luxury of defining the universe you ' re operating in. in the real world, we must deal with levels of certainty based on observed evidence. the more and better evidence we have for something, the more certainty we assign to it ; when there is enough evidence, we label the something a fact, even though it still isn ' t 100 % certain. what evolution has is what any good scientific claim has - - evidence, and lots of it. evolution is supported by a wide range of observations", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6042194603660607, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.463240"} {"text": "converting to binary from normal base ten numbers is a difficult and time consuming process. using our excel based binary converter will save you much time and frustration. get your own binary converter for free here! how a binary converter works to understand how a binary converter works, you must first understand what binary, or base two, is. in our normal base ten accounting each number has a ones place, a tens place a hundreds and so on. in base two there is a twos place, a fours place an eights place, a sixteens place and so on. for an example of a binary convert, lets use the number fifty. the highest base number that would go into fifty is 32 so that place would get a 1. subtract 32 from 50 and there is 18 left. the next highest base two number to try is 16, since that \u2019 s less than 18 that place gets a 1 and there are now 2 left. since 8 and 4 won \u2019 t go into 2 those places get a 0 and the twos place gets a 1. the ones place them gets a 0 since there is nothing left and your result for 50 is 110010. wow that \u2019 s a lot of work for one binary convert! now it \u2019 s becoming clear how time saving our binary converter can be. why a binary converter is useful binary convert processes are used by computer programmers to communicate directly to a computer. most professionals use a binary converter like ours rather than do the work manually. because of the way computer memory works a computer can only understand two states, off and on, represented by 1 and 0. eight of these ones and zeros constitutes one bit of information which can represent one character to a computer. writing the word \u201c hello \u201d then requires 5 bits of information and 5 seep rate binary convert calculations, thus the need for our ultra reliable binary converter. our binary converter is an amazing piece of excel programming allowing the time consuming binary convert process to be completed in seconds. and, converting to binary is not all we offer. the same minds that brought you this also offer many other excel templates for business, home and gaming use. be sure to look at them all!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.523767248462936, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.465714"} {"text": "it depends in what context you mean but basically streaming data is analagous to asynchronous data. take the web as an example. the web ( or http specifically ) is ( basically ) a request - response mechanism in that a client makes a request and receives a response ( typically a web page of some kind ). http doesn ' t natively support the ability for servers to push content to clients. there are a number of ways this can be faked, including : - polling : forcing the client to make repeated requests, typically inconspicuously ( as far as the client is concerned ) ; - long - lived connections : this is where the client makes a normal http request but instead of returning immediately the server hangs on to the request until there ' s something to send back. when the request times out or a response is sent th eclient sends another request. in this way you can fake server push ; - plug - ins : java applets, flash, silverlight and others can be used to achieve this. anything where the server effectively sends data to the client ( rather than the client asking for it ) - - regardless of the mechanism and whether or not the client is polling for that data - - can be characterised as streaming data. with non - http transports ( eg vanilla tcp ) server push is typically easier ( but can still run afoul of firewalls and th elike ). an example of this might be a sharetrading application that receives market information from a provider. that ' s streaming data. how do you detect it? bit of a vague question. i ' m not really sure what you ' re getting at.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5507012800086337, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.467537"} {"text": "| see what ' s going on with flipcode! | radiosity in english - the basics by ( 20 may 1999 ) | return to the archives | i ' ve found many people shy away from radiosity simply because of the mystique surrounding it. i \u2019 ll admit that i was a bit intimidated by the topic when i decided to tackle it. but the truth be known, it boils down to some pretty simple techniques, most of which are very common. as a matter of fact, if you \u2019 ve got access to a rendering architecture that supports z - buffering, you \u2019 ve got 90 % of a basic radiosity processor that can produce some excellent results. | i understand that \" aggravated nosebleed \" ( the source of this q & a entry ) has some basic knowledge of radiosity, but i \u2019 d like to take this opportunity to cover the basics from the very beginning. hopefully he / she as well as some other readers will gain enough of a fundamental understanding to help ease the learning curve from some of the more notable references ( which i will list later. ) in the beginning the introduction of radiosity came in 1984 from cornell university in a paper titled \" modelling the interaction of light between diffuse surfaces \" written by goral, torrance & greenberg. the idea was to simulate energy ( light ) transference from diffuse surfaces. diffuse surfaces are surfaces that reflect light equally in all directions - the opposite of a shiny surface. | this result was considered \" view independent. \" this simply meant that the illumination on a surface looked the same no matter what angle you were viewing it from. for the sake of clarity, an example of the opposite ( \" view dependent \" ) would be a reflective surface. reflective surfaces are view dependent because the specular highlights would appear at a different position on the surface based on the angle at which the surface was viewed. this view independence was nice, especially considering the cost ( in processor power & running time ) of radiosity processing. the illumination could be calculated once and the scene could then be rendered very quickly from any angle. this translates directly into many of today \u2019 s modern \" first - person shooter \" games. the first approach consider a simple room with only four walls, a ceiling and a floor. can you see it in your mind \u2019 s eye? you better not be able to ; i haven \u2019 t specified a light source yet. : - ) in radiosity, light sources aren \u2019 t your typical point or spot light sources. in radiosity, light is emitted from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5946156964373469, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.494477"} {"text": "mind \u2019 s eye? you better not be able to ; i haven \u2019 t specified a light source yet. : - ) in radiosity, light sources aren \u2019 t your typical point or spot light sources. in radiosity, light is emitted from surfaces. so, rather than adding a surface for a light source, lets just make the entire ceiling an \" area light source. \" in the real world, this would translate to a cubic room where the ceiling was a huge panel of fluorescent lights behind a huge diffuse reflector ( those smoked - glass looking things that spread light out. ) | this example is a simple one since every surface can see every other surface. in other words, there \u2019 s nothing to block the light from reaching any surface ( i. e. no shadows. ) each surface has two values associated with it. an amount of how brightly it is illuminated ( its illumination ) and how much of a surplus of energy it has ( its radiative energy. ) to start with, only the ceiling will have any radiative energy and all other surfaces will have no radiative energy or illumination. what we need to do now is calculate the interaction of energy from every surface to every other surface. this is an n ^ 2 problem since we need to calculate this interaction from each surface to every other surface in the scene. this can be calculated based on their geometrical relationships ( distance between surfaces, relative orientation, relative area, etc. ) the math that calculates this relationship results in a single value. this value is called a \" form factor. \" the attentive readers ( the one \u2019 s that are still awake ) might have already guessed that there are only ( n ^ 2 ) / 2 individual form factors since the relationship between surfaces 5 & 6 is the same as the relationship between 6 & 5. however, this is not true since relative area is taken into consideration. we can calculate all the form factors in a scene and store them in a grid that is n elements wide by n elements tall. this grid is referred to as the \" radiosity matrix \" and it works just like a 2 - dimensional table. each element in this matrix contains a form factor for the interaction from the surface indexed by the column and the surface indexed by the row. remember how i said that there are n ^ 2 interactions and not ( n ^ 2 ) / 2? this is because each form factor is like a diode in that it only handles energy going in one direction : from a \" source surface \" to a \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5773420336790349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.495601"} {"text": "i said that there are n ^ 2 interactions and not ( n ^ 2 ) / 2? this is because each form factor is like a diode in that it only handles energy going in one direction : from a \" source surface \" to a \" destination surface. \" in this case, we \u2019 ll say that the source surfaces are index by columns and destination surfaces are indexed by rows. source surfaces will emit their energy to the destination surfaces. now lets solve the matrix. to do this, we simply visit each column ( source ) in the matrix and emit energy to each row ( destination ) in that column. when we do this, we \u2019 ll be placing some of that radiated energy ( from the source ) in the illumination value for the destination. but these surfaces are reflectors, which means they \u2019 re going to reflect some energy back into the scene. based on the surface \u2019 s reflectivity, we \u2019 ll add a little bit of energy to the destination \u2019 s radiative energy. this radiative energy will eventually make its way back into the scene ( i. e. to the other surfaces ) as we progress through the matrix. if the destination is a perfect reflector ( i. e. it reflects every single bit of energy it receives - a mirror ) then there will be no energy stored in the destination \u2019 s illumination, it would all go to its radiative energy. the inverse is also true : a perfectly black surface might not reflect any energy back into the scene, absorbing it all, so every bit of energy it receives is stored in its illumination value. if you \u2019 re starting to think that we \u2019 re making a black surface white, we \u2019 re not. remember, we \u2019 re dealing with light, so the color of a surface is ultimately multiplied by its illumination. in the case of the perfectly black surface, the surface remains visually black. once we \u2019 ve gone through the matrix once, we do it all over again. this is necessary because we we \u2019 re storing some energy as illumination, and some as radiative energy. now it \u2019 s time to go through the matrix again and start distributing that reflected radiative energy. we \u2019 ll go through this matrix over and over again until the total amount of radiative energy for all surfaces is relatively small. the next step if you made it this far without getting lost, you \u2019 re in the home stretch. there \u2019 s still a lot we haven \u2019 t covered yet, so let \u2019 s move on. i \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6275786481164398, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.496727"} {"text": "for all surfaces is relatively small. the next step if you made it this far without getting lost, you \u2019 re in the home stretch. there \u2019 s still a lot we haven \u2019 t covered yet, so let \u2019 s move on. i \u2019 ll start with a few shortcomings of the basic radiosity matrix as i \u2019 ve described it thus far and common solutions to these issues. | our surfaces have only one illumination value for the entire surface, so there is no change in illumination across a single surface. to solve this problem, we can simply subdivide each surface into a series smaller polygons called \" patches. \" if you do this, you simply treat each patch as its own surface as a replacement for the original surface. your matrix will grow to the number of patches in the scene squared. this brings us to our next issue : the matrix can be quite large ( especially if you subdivide into a number of patches ) if the scene is very simple ( say, a meager 1, 000 polygons ) then our illustrious matrix will be pretty big ( 1, 000, 000 elements. ) if you ' ve subdivided each of those surfaces to a meager 8x8 grid of patches per surface, then we ' re talking about 4, 096, 000, 000 total elements in our matrix ( 8 * 8 = 64 patches per surface, 64 * 1000 = 64000 patches per scene, 64000 * 64000 is = 4, 096, 000, 000 total matrix elements. ) this is pretty tough for any computer to swallow. before i discuss the solutions to this ever - increasing matrix, let \u2019 s talk about a related issue : a matrix of this magnitude would take a long time to solve. especially considering the fact that we \u2019 ll have to solve it multiple times. if a mistake was made in the modeled scene, wouldn \u2019 t it be nice to know this sooner rather than later? in 1988, cohen, chen, wallace & greenberg published a paper called \" a progressive refinement approach to fast radiosity image generation. \" this paper described a new way of solving radiosity. it was quite clever in that it reordered the way things were done. | in the matrix method, illumination was gathered by each destination element from its source element. ironically, this is called \" gathering. \" the progressive refinement approach reversed this and defined ( the other incredibly ironic term ) \" shooting. \" the basic idea behind progressive refinement starts by finding the surface with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5386294622886336, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.497860"} {"text": "element from its source element. ironically, this is called \" gathering. \" the progressive refinement approach reversed this and defined ( the other incredibly ironic term ) \" shooting. \" the basic idea behind progressive refinement starts by finding the surface with the most energy to contribute to the scene ( i. e. has the highest amount of radiative energy. ) this surface would then iterate through all other surfaces, distributing its energy along the way. after this process was completed, the image was then rendered for the user, and the process began again, finding the surface with the most energy to contribute to the scene. each pass would cause another render of the scene, allowing the user to progressively evaluate the progress. if the progress showed a problem along the way ( an illumination surface was in the wrong place or the wrong color ) they could stop the process and make the needed adjustments. during this process, the user would see a completely dark scene progress to a fully lit scene. to accommodate this sharp contrast in visual difference from beginning to end, the progressive refinement technique added something called the \" ambient term \". before i continue, i want to point something out that is pretty important in radiosity. there is no such thing as ambient light in real life. ambient light is something that was invented to accommodate the need for what appears to be a \" global light \" in real life. but in reality, ambient light doesn \u2019 t exist. rather, light is always being reflected from surface to surface, which is how it finds its way into all the nooks and crannies of real - world detail. before the advent of radiosity, ambient light was the best thing available to the typical rendering architectures. it is safe to think of radiosity is a more accurate solution to ambient ( global ) light. this is why radiosity is considered a technique for \" global illumination. \" the ambient term starts off as a \" differential area sum \" of the radiative energy for the entire scene. what this means is that it \u2019 s a number that represents the average amount of light that each surface will receive throughout the processing of the entire radiosity solution. we can calculate that average without doing all the work simply because it \u2019 s an average amount of energy, not a specific amount of energy for a single surface. as each progressive pass emits the radiative energy for a surface, the ambient term is slowly decreased. as the total radiative energy of the scene approaches zero, so does the ambient term ( though", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6159727478871103, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.498997"} {"text": "amount of energy for a single surface. as each progressive pass emits the radiative energy for a surface, the ambient term is slowly decreased. as the total radiative energy of the scene approaches zero, so does the ambient term ( though, at different rates, of course. ) a nice advantage here is that you can use the ambient term to figure out when you \u2019 ve distributed enough energy as to make only a negligible difference. at this point, you can stop processing. so, the progressive approach has solved the massive memory requirements for the radiosity matrix by simply not storing it, and it partially solves the processing time issue by speeding things up, and further improving this by allowing users to preview their works in progress. a note on patches before i continue, i want to cover the topic of patch subdivision just a little. i only touched on it lightly so as not to confuse the reader. it \u2019 s time we dive just a little bit deeper in to these ever useful things. | first, let \u2019 s be perfectly clear on something. if you use subdivision in your radiosity code, then you will not be using \" surfaces \" since the patches are a higher resolution representation of the original surface geometry. it will be the patches that shoot and gather energy amongst themselves, not the surfaces. if you use patch subdivision, you can probably discard your original surfaces since they have been replaced by a higher resolution representation, their patches. patches are how we simulate area light sources. rather than actually treating the surface like an area light source, we simply split it up into lots of smaller light sources across the entire area of the original surface. if the surface is subdivided enough, then the results can be quite pleasing. patch subdivision can be done blindly or intelligently. an example of blind subdivision might be to subdivide every surface into a set of patches that are one square foot each. this can be quite a waste, since we only really need the subdivision in high - contrast areas ( i. e. an area of a surface that has a dramatic change in energy across a relatively small area - like a shadow boundary. ) there is a multitude of intelligent subdivision techniques. one of the most common is to subdivide progressively by adding another step to the process. once a surface has fully emitted its energy, each patch in the existing data - set is visited and a decision is made if two adjoining patches have too much of a difference in their illumination values. if they do, there will be a sharp contrast between", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5459191839313311, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.500237"} {"text": "once a surface has fully emitted its energy, each patch in the existing data - set is visited and a decision is made if two adjoining patches have too much of a difference in their illumination values. if they do, there will be a sharp contrast between these two patches so you should subdivide each of them. you can pick any threshold you wish to contain your subdivisions to a minimum. you can also set a maximum subdivision level to prevent from subdividing too much. patches, however, are just the first step to subdivision. patches themselves can be subdivided into \" elements \". the usefulness of elemental subdivision is for performance reasons as well as aesthetic reasons. patch subdivision can be pre - set to a specific resolution. in this case, the entire scene is subdivided evenly into patches of a specific size. this sounds like a waste, but let \u2019 s not get hasty. the subdivision resolution can be quite low in this case. as the radiosity solution progresses, the patches are intelligently subdivided into elements based on high contrast areas ( or whatever intelligent subdivision technique you decide to use. ) you can think of elements as a higher resolution representation of their \" parent \" patches. but unlike patch subdivision where the surfaces are discarded and replaced by patches, patch subdivision does not discard the patches. the advantage here, is that the patches are maintained for shooting, while the elements are used for gathering. let \u2019 s look at that a little more closely. a patch is subdivided into a grid of 8x8 elements. during the distribution process, the patch with the highest amount of radiative energy is chosen for energy distribution. energy is distributed from that patch to all of the elements in the scene. the elements retain their illumination value ( for beauty \u2019 s sake ) and the radiative energy that would be reflected from all the elements is then sent up to their parent patch. later, the patch will do the shooting, rather than each individual element. this allows us to have a high resolution of surface geometry with a lower resolution distribution. this can save quite a lot of processing time, especially if the average patch is subdivided into 8x8 elements. for the sake of this example, i \u2019 ll just assume we \u2019 re not at the elemental subdivision stage yet, and work from patches. did somebody say shadows? i didn \u2019 t. not yet, at least. : - ) | to obtain shadows, we need to have some visibility information, so we \u2019 ll know how much of a patch is visible from another patch. one of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5176848221206184, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.502086"} {"text": "did somebody say shadows? i didn \u2019 t. not yet, at least. : - ) | to obtain shadows, we need to have some visibility information, so we \u2019 ll know how much of a patch is visible from another patch. one of the most common ways of doing this in today \u2019 s world is to use a z - buffer. and radiosity is no different. to do this, however, we \u2019 ll need a way to generate a z - buffer from a patch. this is where the hemicube comes in handy. a hemicube is exactly what it sounds like. it \u2019 s exactly one half of a cube, split orthogonally along one axis. this gives us one whole face, and four half - faces. what \u2019 s it for? try to picture this : place a pin - hole camera at the base of the hemicube ( i. e. the center of the cube prior to cutting it in half ) and point the camera at the center of the top face. now set your camera to a 90 - degree frustum. you can consider the top face of the hemicube now, to be the rendering surface of the camera. this surface has a pixel resolution ( which i \u2019 ll discuss shortly. ) if you render the scene from this perspective, you \u2019 ll \" see \" what the patch \" sees \". remember when i said that we need to take the relative distance and relative orientation of two patches into account to calculate their form factors? well, in this case, we no longer need to do that. the hemicube takes care of that for us. as patches are rendered onto the surface of the hemicube, they \u2019 ll occupy \" hemicube pixels \". the farther away the surface is, the fewer pixels it will occupy. this is also true for patches at greater angles of relative orientation. the greater the angle, the fewer pixels it will occupy. using a z - buffer we can let some patches partially ( or fully ) occlude other patches, causing them to occupy even fewer pixels ( or none at all ) which gives us shadows. for this to work, we need to translate these renders into energy transmission. let \u2019 s talk about that for a bit. a standard z - buffer renderer will render color values to a frame buffer and store depth information into a z - buffer. a hemicube implementation is very similar. it keeps the z - buffer just like normal. but rather than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5494725892820177, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.503026"} {"text": "bit. a standard z - buffer renderer will render color values to a frame buffer and store depth information into a z - buffer. a hemicube implementation is very similar. it keeps the z - buffer just like normal. but rather than storing color values into a frame buffer, it stores patch ids into a frame buffer. when the render is complete, you have partial form factor information for how much energy gets transmitted from one patch to another. i say \" partial form factor information \" because we \u2019 re missing one piece. this information is lacking some of the relative angle information between two patches. the relative angles are used to decrease the amount of energy shot from one patch to another. the greater the angle, the less energy is transmitted. our hemicube gives us part of this information by only telling us ( in an indirect way ) how much of an angle the destination patch is relative to us. but we also need to take the shooter \u2019 s relative angle into account as well. it \u2019 s much like lambert shading. as the surface turns away from the light, the surface receives less light. we \u2019 ve got this information ( indirectly ) in the hemicube frame buffer. but our light source is also an area, which means it can turn, too. so we \u2019 ll need to take its angle into consideration before we shoot any energy to anybody. the hemicube has a wonderful mechanism for this. it \u2019 s called the \" delta form factor. \" this is simply a table of values. it is the same resolution as the surface of the hemicube and it contains values that are used to scale the amount of energy that each hemicube pixel can transmit. the values in this table associated with the center pixels of the top face have the highest value, and the values fall off as they get near the edges of the hemicube face. the reason for this is simple. the values associated with the center of the hemicube face have the highest value since anything rendered to this area of the \" screen \" will be directly in front of the hemicube ( i. e. the least incident angle. ) the values in the table associated with the edges of the hemicube face are at a 45 - degree angle, so they are considerably less than those found near the center. there is a very specific calculation for the \" delta form factor \" table which can be found in most radiosity references. to finish up our hemicube explanation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5429012166011377, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.504101"} {"text": "45 - degree angle, so they are considerably less than those found near the center. there is a very specific calculation for the \" delta form factor \" table which can be found in most radiosity references. to finish up our hemicube explanation, we need to pull it all together. rather than shooting light from the source patch to the destination patches, we do this through each pixel in the hemicube \u2019 s frame buffer ( remember, we \u2019 ve stored patch ids in there so we can reference them later, and this is later : - ). visiting each hemicube pixel, we simply scale the amount of the shooter \u2019 s total radiative energy by the delta form factor associated with that pixel. this means that each patch will receive a little bit of energy for each pixel it resides in, in the hemicube \u2019 s frame buffer. each of these partial energy transmissions to an individual destination patch will all add up to the proper amount of total transmitted energy, just like magic. how do we know that we \u2019 ve transmitted all the energy from the shooter? well, if you add up all the delta form factors for the hemicube, you \u2019 ll find they add up to 1. 0. this is a good test, by the way, to make sure your hemicube delta form factor table is correct. remember to account for error, so the value might not equal exactly 1. 0, rather something very close. a typical hemicube resolution might be 128x128. however, you may decide to go with a higher resolution. either way, remember this : each pixel in the hemicube \u2019 s delta form factor table contains a very small fractional value. you should consider using doubles to store these values as they can get very small. to save confusion, i purposely neglected to mention a few things. each hemicube has five sides. i only described the process for rendering the top face. the remaining half - faces also require rendering, but the process is identical to that of the top face. don \u2019 t worry, your radiosity references will cover how to calculate the delta form factors for all faces of the hemicube. and don \u2019 t forget that when you run your little test that adds up all the delta form factors to a result of 1. 0, you \u2019 ll need to include all of the delta form factors, not just those for the top face. in closing, i should mention that there are issues with hem", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5506965227902536, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.505183"} {"text": "test that adds up all the delta form factors to a result of 1. 0, you \u2019 ll need to include all of the delta form factors, not just those for the top face. in closing, i should mention that there are issues with hemicubes ( like aliasing artifacts under certain circumstances. ) there are some solutions to these issues as well as totally different techniques. but hemicubes are a great place to start your radiosity adventures. \" advanced animation & rendering techniques \" by watt & watt | \" computer graphics principles & practice \" by foley, vandam, feiner & hughes \" radiosity : a programmer ' s perspective \" by ashdown \" radiosity and realistic image synthesis \" by cohen & wallace \" radiosity and global illumination \" by sillion & puech personally, i originally learned the concepts & fundamentals of radiosity from \" advanced animation & rendering techniques. \" i learned enough to get my first radiosity processor up and running. since this book has such a wealth of other information, i highly recommend it for first - timers on the subject. from there, you can graduate to any of the other references listed. if you make it to the more advanced stuff, you \u2019 re welcome to visit my site and grab some research papers on the subject. - paul nettle", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5007660111752977, "token_count": 266, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.505823"} {"text": "the building blocks of sandbox and open world games : eve, gta, minecraft, and beyond the term \u201c sandbox \u201d has become a bit of an overused buzzword over the past few years, with many games using it to attract attention. it \u2019 s a difficult concept to define due to its abstraction, so i \u2019 m going to take you on a journey through gaming history to help you understand the evolution of sandbox games, and the advantages and disadvantages they offer to a game designer. minecraft : a good modern example a picture of a castle made by a player, luis prado, in minecraft minecraft is a great example of a popular modern sandbox game. it \u2019 s sold 8 million copies, yet its community is still growing. the game allows you to construct buildings in a randomly generated world made of cubes. you can gather resources, craft, explore and combat strange creatures to survive in the world \u2013 but mostly, you are free to do anything you want. the goals come from your imagination ; there is no ultimate objective. ( at least, none that you must aim for. ) and yet, although it \u2019 s a great example of a sandbox game, minecraft does not offer a perfect definition of the term. i \u2019 m not even sure whether there can be a true definition of \u201c sandbox \u201d because the concept is huge. there are many games in the market that use sandbox mechanisms, and they are quite different from each other. a town in the desert created by a group of players in a multiplayer minecraft server. let \u2019 s start by imagining a real - world sandbox. magically, a child appears inside that sandbox. now he or she is free to do whatever they want \u2013 but there is only sand in the box and without any tools the child will get bored of playing with the sand rather quickly. at this point there is nothing else to do other than to leave and play something else. without proper tools, the sandbox is no fun. imagination is a problem it \u2019 s essential to have the right tools to create a joyful box of sand. the same rule applies to virtual sandbox games as to real sandboxes : if the developer doesn \u2019 t give the right tools to the player, the player will get bored pretty easily. game designers have to think about a way to make people like and spend time playing their games. if you add some tools \u2013 a bucket and a shovel \u2013 to the sandbox and guide the child in his first", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5413346246687329, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.514602"} {"text": ": the capacity to build a place of your own and manipulate everything you can to fit you perfectly. open world vs. sandbox a final note about the concepts of \u201c open world \u201d and \u201c sandbox \u201d games : they are very similar, and i \u2019 ve used the words almost interchangeably in this article. however, i do think it \u2019 s useful to try to separate them ; here \u2019 s my take on that : while open world games let you visit every single place and explore every little piece of artwork, a sandbox game lets you actually help to build and manage the world around you. many see the gta series or assassin \u2019 s creed games as belonging to the sandbox genre. i can \u2019 t totally disagree with that, but i feel they \u2019 re better described as open world games. you can change and interact with stuff in the world of gta, but you \u2019 re not helping to build it. and that \u2019 s a huge difference from games like salem, the repopulation, minecraft and xsyon. for me, those are the real sandbox games, where you have a set of tools and you can modify the world you live in. but that \u2019 s just part of the evolution i guess. it \u2019 s hard to understand what a true sandbox game is, and what it will be in the future, but it looks like the industry has taken a leap in another direction and that will happen again some day soon. the concept may change, but for now i accept it as it is and i \u2019 m betting it will take a while until someone figures out a way to recreate it. but the past will always be connected to the future, that \u2019 s for sure.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.55332221045634, "token_count": 348, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.520490"} {"text": "are we thinking too little, or too much? in the course of making a decision, managers often err in one of two directions \u2014 either overanalyzing a situation or forgoing all the relevant information and simply going with their gut. hbs marketing professor michael i. norton discusses the potential pitfalls of thinking too much or thinking too little. key concepts include : - when deciding among potential products or employees, managers often take too much time considering all the attributes of their choices \u2014 even attributes that have no bearing on the situation at hand. - however, in trying to avoid overthinking a decision for fear of decision paralysis, managers often \" over - correct \" and end up not thinking enough. - we know that sometimes people think too much, and sometimes they think too little. but we still don ' t know the right amount to think. the most captivating item in michael norton ' s office is a star wars the force trainer, a toy that allows would - be jedi warriors to levitate a ping - pong ball within a tube using only the power of focused thinking. norton, a marketing professor at harvard business school, plans to study whether inducing people into believing they can expertly control the ball will affect the way they perceive themselves as business influencers. in fact, norton spends most of his time thinking about thinking. so it ' s somewhat ironic that his latest line of research explores the idea of thinking too much. \" if you ' ve done something the same way for 10 years, it might be time to reconsider. \" \" academics traditionally have taken two different approaches to decision - making, \" says norton, who teaches in the marketing unit. \" one view is that people often make decisions too hastily ; they use shortcuts and heuristics, and therefore they ' re susceptible to biases and mistakes. the implication is that if maybe they thought more, they ' d do better. \" and then there ' s this whole stream of research about ways in which you should think more carefully in more logical ways \u2014 creating decision trees that map out ' if you want to do this, then you should do this and not that, ' making lists of the pros and cons and making a decision based on which list is longer, and so on. \" however, there has been little research that considers the notion that overthinking a decision might actually lead to the wrong outcome. nor have researchers come up with a model that explores how to determine when we ' re overthinking a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5008549194042012, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.563908"} {"text": ". \" however, there has been little research that considers the notion that overthinking a decision might actually lead to the wrong outcome. nor have researchers come up with a model that explores how to determine when we ' re overthinking a decision \u2014 even though logic tells us that there certainly is such a thing. \" we all know that when we make lists, we often end up crumpling them and throwing them away because they ' re not really helping us make decisions, \" norton says. \" bill clinton was famous for becoming so involved with the intricacies of each policy that no decisions were made. having a leader who considers every detail sounds great in theory, but it can be suboptimal for moving forward with a decision. there ' s a paralysis that can come with thinking too much. \" norton explores this idea in from thinking too little to thinking too much : a continuum of decision making, an article he co - wrote with duke university ' s dan ariely for wiley interdisciplinary reviews : cognitive science. \" we set out not to tell people whether they ' re thinking the right way, but just to get them thinking, ' i ' m supposed to be making a decision right now \u2014 am i thinking too little about this, or am i thinking too much? ' \" norton says. \" both of those could lead to mistakes. \" \" we set out not to tell people whether they ' re thinking the right way, but just to get them thinking, ' i ' m supposed to be making a decision right now - am i thinking too little about this, or am i thinking too much? ' both of those could lead to mistakes. \" for example, in choosing laptop computers for a sales team, an it executive might get caught up in comparing the graphics capabilities and audio quality of various options, when in fact the only factors of importance to users are the size, weight, and security features. worse yet, even if they narrow down the list of attributes under consideration, executives can still be stymied if they try to consider every single laptop on the market. ( in the article, norton and ariely cite a study by social psychologists sheena iyengar and mark lepper, who showed that grocery store shoppers who were offered free samples of 24 jam flavors were less likely to buy any jam at all than those shoppers who sampled only 6 flavors ; considering too many options made it too hard to choose one. ) the problem is that time - crunched managers often swing too far to the other end", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5060659223766343, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.564961"} {"text": "flavors were less likely to buy any jam at all than those shoppers who sampled only 6 flavors ; considering too many options made it too hard to choose one. ) the problem is that time - crunched managers often swing too far to the other end of the decision - making thinking spectrum \u2014 that is, they don ' t think at all. \" very often managers find that there ' s not enough time to think through every single scenario or customer segment, which can take months, \" norton says. \" but too often the correction to ' we don ' t have time to do that ' is an over - correction to one hundred percent ' we should go with our gut. ' \" while all good managers should be able to make snap decisions in high - pressure situations, they may miss out on good opportunities \u2014 and fall into ruts \u2014 when they make quick decisions strictly out of habit. too often, \" we always do it that way \" is the main reason for a decision. for instance, a manager might hire or disqualify job candidates based on whether they make good eye contact during an interview, just because past candidates who made good eye contact ended up performing well at the company. \" so they just decide to use that criterion forever because it ' s worked out in the past, \" norton explains. \" but they don ' t think about what if they had hired people who don ' t make eye contact. maybe they would have been better than the people who do. and so that ' s the idea we want people to consider. sometimes when you make habitual decisions, things work out fine. but that doesn ' t mean they ' re the best decisions. and if you ' ve done something the same way for 10 years, it might be time to reconsider \u2014 to think a little more. \" more detrimentally, people may make downright bad decisions based on force of habit. in the article, norton and ariely describe a study in which several participants watched a movie while eating popcorn. some received fresh popcorn, while others were given week - old, stale popcorn. the researchers found that those participants who always ate popcorn at the movies were just as likely to gobble down the stale popcorn as they were the fresh popcorn, strictly out of habit. lately, norton has been studying the brain chemistry of decision makers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fmri ) in order to determine the neural signatures of decisions based on habits and those based on thoughtful analysis. he gives the example of choosing a favorite hangout because of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5120692502142006, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.566229"} {"text": "years after the civil war ended. in this book, the author reveals the ugliness of war, and examines its relationship to the pain of growing up. before you get started on the body of the report, take a few minutes to jot down some helpful information by considering the following points. - did you enjoy the book? - was it well written? - what was the genre? - ( fiction ) which characters play important roles that relate to the overall theme? - did you notice reoccurring symbols? - is this book a part of a series? - ( nonfiction ) can you identify the writer ' s thesis? - what is the writing style? - did you notice a tone? - was there an obvious slant or bias? conclusionas you lead to your final paragraph, consider some additional impressions and opinions : - was the ending satisfactory ( for fiction )? - was the thesis supported by strong evidence ( for non - ficton )? - what interesting or notable facts do you know about the author? - would you recommend this book? conclude your report with a paragraph or two that covers these additional points. some teachers prefer that you re - state the name and author of the book in the concluding paragraph. as always, consult your specific assignment guide.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5053643101235721, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.719320"} {"text": "thu september 20, 2012 why pictures can sway your moral judgment originally published on thu september 20, 2012 8 : 41 am when we think about morality, many of us think about religion or what our parents taught us when we were young. those influences are powerful, but many scientists now think of the brain as a more basic source for our moral instincts. the tools scientists use to study how the brain makes moral decisions are often stories, said joshua greene, a harvard psychologist, citing one well - known example : \" a trolley is headed toward five people, and the only way you can save them is to hit a switch that will turn the trolley away from the five and onto a side track, but if you turn it onto the side track, it will run over one person. \" it ' s a moral dilemma. greene and other researchers have presented this dilemma to research volunteers. most people say they would flip the switch and divert the trolley. they say they don ' t want to kill someone, but one innocent person dead is better than five innocent people dead. what this shows is that people resolve the moral dilemma by doing a cost - benefit analysis. greene says they look at the consequences of each choice, and pick the choice that does the least harm. in other words, people are what philosophers would call utilitarians. except, greene tells me, sometimes they aren ' t. he asked me to visualize another well - known dilemma : \" this time, you ' re on a footbridge, in between the oncoming trolley and the five people. and next to you is a big person wearing a big backpack. and the only way you can save those five people is to push this big guy off of the footbridge so that he lands on the tracks. and he ' ll get squashed by the train ; you sort of use him as a trolley stopper. but you can save the five people. \" would you push the big guy to his death? more important, do you feel this moral dilemma is identical to the earlier one? \" in a certain sense, they ' re identical, \" greene said. \" trade one life to save five. but psychologically, they ' re very different. \" pushing someone to their death feels very different from pushing a switch. when greene gives people this dilemma, most people don ' t choose to push the big guy to his death. in other words, people use utilitarian, cost - benefit calculations \u2014 sometimes. but other times, they make an emotional decision. \" there", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5368269580498212, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.742717"} {"text": "moral dilemmas that evoked strong visual images. as expected, the volunteers made emotional moral judgments. then the psychologists made it difficult for volunteers to visualize the dilemma. they distracted them by making them visualize something else instead. when that happened, the volunteers stopped making emotional decisions. not having pictures of the moral dilemma in their head prompted them into rational, cost - benefit mode. in another experiment, greene and amit also found that people who think visually make more emotional moral judgments. verbal people make more rational calculations. amit says people don ' t realize how images tip the brain one way or another. and that can create biases we aren ' t even aware of. she laid out a scenario to think about : \" imagine a horrible scenario in which a terrorist takes an ax and starts slaughtering people in a bus, \" she said. \" i ' m coming from israel, so these are the examples that i have in my mind. \" the story produces a movie in our heads. we can see blood everywhere. we can hear people screaming. we don ' t have to think at all. it feels terribly wrong. then amit presented another kind of news event : a drone strike that sends a missile hurtling toward a target. at the center of the cross - hairs, an explosion. there ' s dust billowing everywhere. \" so if you learn about these events from television or from pictures in a newspaper, which one [ would you ] judge as more horrible? \" amit asked. \" the person with the ax that killed maybe two people but the scene looks horrible and extremely violent, or the picture of the drone that killed 100 people but looks relatively clean and nice? \" to be sure, the events amit describes are completely different. one ' s a terrorist attack, the other is a military action. but it ' s true the ax murderer instantly sends the brain into emotional mode. the drone strike has less vivid imagery. you can ' t see, up close, what the missile does. so most people go into utilitarian mode \u2014 they start to think about the costs and benefits. amit ' s point is not that one mode is better than the other. it ' s something much more disturbing. as you listen to the news everyday, hidden circuits in your brain are literally changing the ground rules by which you judge events. you think you ' re making consistent moral choices when, really, the movies playing in your head might be making your choices for you.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5100307667262671, "token_count": 503, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.744948"} {"text": "shortly after the deepwater horizon disaster, mysterious honeycomb material was found floating in the gulf of mexico and along coastal beaches. using state - of - the - art chemical forensics and a bit of old - fashioned detective work, a research team led by scientists at woods hole oceanographic institution ( whoi ) confirmed that the flotsam were pieces of material used to maintain buoyancy of the pipe bringing up oil from the seafloor. the researchers also affirmed that tracking debris from damaged offshore oil rigs could help forecast coastal pollution impacts in future oil spills and guide emergency response efforts \u2014 much the way the coast guard has studied the speed and direction of various floating debris to guide search and rescue missions. the findings were published jan. 19 in environmental research letters. on may 5, 2010, 15 days after the deepwater horizon explosion, oceanographer william graham and marine technicians from the dauphin island sea lab were working from a boat about 32 miles south of dauphin island, ala., when they saw a 6 - mile - long, east - west line containing more than 50 pieces of white material interspersed with sargassum weed. the porous material was uniformly embedded with black spheres about a centimeter in diameter. no oil slick was in sight, but there was a halo of oil sheen around the honeycomb clumps. two days later, the researchers also collected similar samples about 25 miles south of dauphin island. nobody knew what the material was, with some hypothesizing at first that it could be coral or other substance made by marine plants or animals. graham sent samples to whoi chemist chris reddy, whose lab confirmed that the material was not biological. but the material \u2019 s source remained unconfirmed. in january 2011, reddy and whoi researcher catherine carmichael, lead author of the new study, collected a piece of the same unknown material of elmer \u2019 s beach, grand isle, la. in april, 2011, they found several large pieces, ranging from 3 to 10 feet, of the honeycomb debris on the chandeleur islands off louisiana. oil on all these samples was analyzed at whoi using comprehensive two - dimensional gas chromatography. the technique identifies the thousands of individual chemical compounds that comprise different oils from different reservoirs. the chemistry of the oil on the debris matched that of oil sampled directly from the broken pipe from the macondo well above the deepwater horizon rig. in addition, one piece of debris from the chandeleur islands retained a weathered red sticker that read \u201c cuming \u201d with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5177027913245978, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.756199"} {"text": "science teachers in this approach, with me arranging for phillips petroleum to donate a bunch of old ibm at machines and dot matrix printers for the science rooms in grades 6 - 12. eventually each station in my lab had an old ibm ps / 2 model 25 floppy - disk - based computer for graphing, with a primitive print - only network of telephone cables linking them to a few slow and noisy old dot matrix printers with fanfold paper. my classroom evolved to having old hard - drive computers at the stations, linked in a daisy chain 10base2 network of thin coax cable which i wired up from one station to the next, all linked to a single laser printer. what a breakthrough that was, since i could finally transfer files and everyone could print to a single fast printer with high - quality output. a few years later i led netday at our school, with volunteers helping me install the first ethernet wiring and wall ports in the science labs. by then the use of classroom computers was not all that different from what we do today \u2013 we \u2019 re still using a version of graphical analysis after all these years \u2013 although fat crt monitors have been replaced with flat lcd panels and the desktop machines are smaller and more capable with each generation. we also now have enough laptop computers that i can provide each student, not merely each group, with a computer if needed for in - class data collection and lab report creation via wireless networking, but it is still such a big hassle to get enough computers wired up and running properly that i only do it once per year to give them the experience. i presume eventually we \u2019 ll have convenient tablet computers for this sort of thing, but we \u2019 re a long ways from getting there with our pitiful state funding for public schools. well, i still have an overhead projector and i actually use it in class, although only for a few demonstrations, such as fleming \u2019 s law and electromagnetic induction, where an apparatus on the overhead can project a huge visual. until we built the science wing in 2003, i either used a large crt monitor to show visuals or a portable lcd projector on a cart. here \u2019 s what my classroom technology looked like in 2001, minus the portable lcd projector and a smart board i never used much : my classroom technology in 2001 thankfully the lab stations in the new wing are much larger you can see why we needed the new wing, with its large student lab stations with built - in network ports, ceiling - mounted lcd projector, etc. with the permanent lcd projector", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5228922201749708, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.782034"} {"text": "the active galactic nucleus ( agn ) of seyfert galaxy m77 ( ngc 1068 ), about 60 million light years from earth, in the x - ray light, as photographed by chandra x - ray observatory. a composite chandra x - ray ( blue / green ) and hubble optical ( red ) image of m77 ( ngc 1068 ) shows hot gas blowing away from a central supermassive object at speeds averaging about 1 million miles per hour. the elongated shape of the gas cloud is thought to be due to the funneling effect of a torus, or doughnut - shaped cloud, of cool gas and dust that surrounds the central object, which many astronomers think is a black hole. the x - rays are scattered and reflected x - rays that are probably coming from a hidden disk of hot gas formed as matter swirls very near the black hole. regions of intense star formation in the inner spiral arms of the galaxy are highlighted by the optical emission. this image extends over a field 36 arcsec on a side. this three - color high energy x - ray image ( red = 1. 3 - 3 kev, green = 3 - 6 kev, blue = 6 - 8 kev ) of ngc 1068 shows gas rushing away from the nucleus. the brightest point - like source may be the inner wall of the torus that is reflecting x - rays from the hidden nucleus. scale : image is 30 arcsec per side. this three - color low energy x - ray image of m77 ( ngc 1068 ) ( red = 0. 4 - 0. 6 kev, green = 0. 6 - 0. 8 kev, blue = 0. 8 - 1. 3 kev ) shows gas rushing away from the the nucleus ( bright white spot ). the range of colors from blue to red corresponds to a high through low ionization of the atoms in the wind. scale : image is 30 arcsec per side. this optical image of the active galaxy ngc 1068, taken by hubble ' s wfpc2, gives a detailed view of the spiral arms in the inner parts of the galaxy. scale : image is 30 arcsec per side. credit : x - ray : nasa / cxc / mit / p. ogle et. al. ; optical : nasa / stsci / a. capetti et. al. last modification : july 12, 2003", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5233715587104278, "token_count": 493, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.794174"} {"text": "information and public awareness programme the objective of \u201c information & public awareness programme \u201d is to disseminate information on new and renewable sources of energy ( nrse ) systems / devices through variety of media like electronic, print & exhibition as well as outdoor media, thereby popularizing and creating awareness about such systems and devices. it also brings to the fore benefits, technological developments and promotional activities taking place in the renewable energy arena from time to time. the role of information and public awareness programme for inculcating the importance of renewable energy amongst masses has been assuming increasing significance in recent times. the programme is implemented mainly through state nodal agencies, directorate of advertising & visual publicity ( davp ), doordarshan, all india radio ( air ), and department of posts, etc. special area demonstration project programme the special area demonstration project scheme of the ministry has been introduced with the objective of demonstrating application of various renewable energy systems in a project mode at places of national and international importance including world heritage sites, heritage monuments, religious locations and places of public interest to create greater awareness of renewable and to supplement the energy requirement at such locations human resources development programme ministry has been implementing a comprehensive human resource development programme with the objective of institutionalizing the renewable energy education and training in the country with the following overall goals : - to update the professionals working in the field of renewable energy on technological, economical and social issues and management of the science and technology and public administration through infusion of scientific temper and accountability ; - to infuse commitment towards building of partnership and participatory decision - making ; - ito be responsive to the challenge of changing framework needs in policy, institutional, legal, trade, ipr, knowledge management, organizational and technological development ; - to strive for improving performance and efficiency of renewable energy systems and devices to make them cost competitive ; - to provide adequate knowledge of the technical issues that are essential to help executives in government, banking and financial sector with non - technical background about renewable energy ; - to bring about attitudinal changes among the renewable energy professionals and those working in the mainstream power sector to enhance the use of renewable energy for energy security of the country ; and - to act as a facilitator for improving the skill sets of professionals and executives in the renewable energy industry and also in research and development institutions. planning & coordination the planning and co - ordination division is responsible for overall planning and budgeting plans schemes / programmes of the ministry and matters related to reforms, policy measures, fiscal concessions, etc. its work involves maintaining", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5229438825338595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.805136"} {"text": "projects and programmes in the area of renewable energy in the country. - taking up activities on patents and technology information, forecasting and assessment in the area of renewable energy. 100 % computerization has been achieved. 250 nos. of computer based workstations have been created for providing computerization facility at the ministry \u2019 s headquarters, its 9 regional offices and solar energy centre. local area network ( lan ) has been established in the two building of the ministry \u2019 s headquarters for providing connectivity to various computers installed in the ministry. in order to provide connectivity between the computers installed in the two buildings and fast data communication, lans set up in these buildings of the ministry have been integrated through laying of fiber optics cable. e - mail and internet facility have been extended to all the officers at the ministry \u2019 s headquarters. e - mail facility has also been provided to the 9 regional offices and the solar energy centre. all the officers and officials of the ministry \u2019 s headquarters, its regional offices and the solar energy centre have been provided training in the use of computers through nic and other professional organizations. specialized training programmes on basic concepts of data management and networking services & applications is being organized at nic for all the officers of mnre, its regional offices and solar energy centre. the mnre has already prepared its web - site in english as well as in hindi through its in - house efforts. the mnre web - site gives a comprehensive picture of the development and utilization of renewable energy sources in india. the ministry has started information and facilitation centre with computer facility at its headquarters for an easy access to various types of information by the visitors coming to this ministry.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5115491956943775, "token_count": 333, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.807340"} {"text": "elected. if it wins two top - up seats, then the first two will be elected, and so on. some think that their two votes must be for same party others think their two votes must be for different parties in fact, voters can cast their two votes however they wish it is important, therefore, for candidates to be near the top of their party ' s list for them to stand a realistic chance of being elected. there are two complications to the lists. first, a \" party list \" can be an individual person who is standing at the regional level rather than in a constituency. secondly, a candidate can stand both in a constituency and on a regional top - up list. if they succeed in a constituency this takes priority and their name will be removed from the regional list so they cannot be elected twice. the all - important divisor the formula for deciding which parties win regional top - up seats is known as the d ' hondt system and is used widely across europe. first, party list votes are totalled from each of the constituencies making up the region. these totals are then divided by the number of seats each party has won - plus one. the party with the highest resulting total elects one additional member. the regions for additional member seats highlands and islands mid - scotland and fife north east scotland south of scotland west of scotland that party ' s divisor is then increased by one ( because of its victory ) and new figures calculated. again, the party with the highest total wins a seat. the process is then repeated until all seven additional members are elected. the aim of the system is to compensate parties which pile up votes in constituencies but fail to win many msps. under the d ' hondt system, they are much more likely to gain additional members. conversely, parties which do well in constituency elections will do less well in the top - up seats.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5182948954678737, "token_count": 379, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.842372"} {"text": "much as a hybrid bicycle is a cross between two bikes - - a road bike frame with mountain bike handlebars, for instance - - this hybrid compound is a cross between two molecules. one is a traditional anticancer drug, a small molecule that targets cancer tumors. the other is a type of antibody, which is a protein produced in great abundance by the bodys immune system and found naturally in the bloodstream. the hybrid of the two, described in an upcoming issue of the journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences, was found to have a profound effect on the size of tumors in mouse models - - shrinking tumors of both kaposi ' s sarcoma and colon cancers in these preclinical studies. moreover, this approach is general enough that it could be used to design hybrids against any number of cancers. \" a single antibody can become a whole multiplicity of therapeutics simply by mixing it with the desired small molecule, \" says tsri professor carlos f. barbas iii, ph. d., who is janet and w. keith kellogg ii chair in molecular biology. barbas conducted the research with tsri president richard a. lerner, m. d., and several colleagues at tsri ' s skaggs institute for chemical biology. steering and support, joined at the hip the tsri team built the hybrid molecule with a \" catalytic \" antibody, a small drug molecule, and a linker molecule that joins the two. the hybrid thus formed borrows the wheels and the frame of the antibody for supports and the handlebars of the small drug molecule for steering ability. also called immunoglobulins, antibodies are proteins produced by immune cells that are designed to recognize a wide range of foreign pathogens. after a bacterium, virus, or other pathogen enters the bloodstream, contact : jason bardi scripps research institute", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5527828903507296, "token_count": 378, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.844481"} {"text": "dr. harry demos and dr. del schutte, both associate professor of orthopedics at musc, and specialists in joint reconstruction recently joined dr. marcy bolster to record a podcast to address concerns regarding metal - on - metal joint replacement devices. below, please read a summary of their thoughts on device implants and you can listen to their podcast as well. total hip arthroplasty is one of the most commonly performed and effective surgical procedures currently in use. nearly 200, 000 hip replacements are performed annually in the united states. recent data reveals hip replacement to be one of the most cost - effective of all surgical procedures in terms of quality of life per health care dollar spent. unfortunately, newer technology has not always led to an improvement in patient outcomes. a recent hip replacement design has been associated with an unacceptably high early failure rate. by now almost everyone with a newspaper or television set has seen the advertisements by attorneys soliciting patients with \u201c metal on metal \u201d hip replacements. while the majority of metal on metal hip replacements may function well for many years, two specific designs have shown significant failures as soon as the first few years. the eventual outcome of other designs remains concerning, recently prompting the fda to mandate postmarket surveillance to 21 metal on metal hip replacements manufacturers. unfortunately these failures if not caught early enough, are associated with significant destruction of the muscles and bone in and around the hip joint. increased concentrations of metal ions in the blood as well as in the surrounding soft tissues can be readily identified in most of these patients. some patients, however, have normal metal ion levels and still have problems, while others may have high levels with well - functioning hips. the cause and effect relationship of metal ions and failure remains to be determined, but it is clear at this point that certain designs of metal on metal hip replacements are having a higher than expected rate of failure. one of the most widely used metal on metal implants that has recently been recalled is the depuy asr hip replacement. approximately 37, 000 of these implants have been inserted in patients in the us and 93, 000 world - wide. to date, revision rates are around 10 %. the revisions associated with failure of the asr implant can be much more difficult than others and should be performed by surgeons and joint replacement centers who routinely perform revisions. the loss of bone and soft tissues around the hip joint can make reconstruction much more difficult. the implant manufacturer has an aggressive patient care program in place to facilitate and fund revision of any", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.501966700450974, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.858081"} {"text": "field and modelling studies to assess the risk to uk groundwater from earth - based stores for livestock manure gooddy, d. c. ; hughes, a. g. ; williams, a. t. ; armstrong, a. c. ; nicholson, r. j. ; williams, j. r.. 2001 field and modelling studies to assess the risk to uk groundwater from earth - based stores for livestock manure. soil use and managment, 17 ( 2 ). 128 - 137. 10. 1111 / j. 1475 - 2743. 2001. tb00018. xbefore downloading, please read nora policies. boreholes have been constructed at eight sites on the permo - triassic sandstone and chalk aquifers to assess the extent of chemical and microbiological contamination emanating from unlined farm manure stores. slurry along fracture faces in the chalk was found on cores taken from beneath two stores. porewaters from the chalk sites and one of the sandstone sites were discoloured and showed high concentrations of nitrate, ammonium and organic carbon to depths in excess of 10 m. although cryptosporidia and escherichia coli o157 were found in many of the cattle slurry lagoons, neither were found in the aquifer material beneath. the self - sealing of unlined slurry stores is seen as a crucial step in minimizing leakage. a simple mass balance shows farm boreholes near to contaminant sources are at greater risk than public supply wells. contaminant modelling shows discontinuing use of an unlined farm manure store will lend to little difference in solute concentrations over the short to medium term. groundwater is most at risk where the water table is shallow since direct hydraulic connection between the lagoon base and the water table considerably increases the rate of vertical migration. this is of greatest significance for pathogens that are thought to be relatively short lived in the subsurface. under the majority of situations minimal threat is posed to potable groundwater drinking supplies. | programmes : | | bgs programmes > groundwater management | | additional keywords : | | groundwaterbgs, groundwater, point source pollution, groundwater modelling | | nora subject terms : | | agriculture and soil science | date made live : | | 24 jul 2009 10 : 15 | actions ( login required )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5005444763863848, "token_count": 485, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.870511"} {"text": "- sawtooth software ( http : / / www. sawtoothsoftware. com ) - r ( programming language ) ( http : / / www. r - project. org ) prescription - based conjoint modeledit these models are adequate when respondents \u2019 evaluations apply to products or services to be used by themselves ( fmcg, durable goods, financial products, etc ). however, for some projects, respondents have to provide evaluations for products or services to be used by a group of people, that is the case of physicians with respect to their patients, when they are asked to assess the preference for a new or existing drug or medical treatment. the healthcare researcher wants to assess what physicians will do for a number of patients. more precisely, he / she intends to elicit the preference for a new treatment and to estimate in the most precise way the related preference share that eventually will lead to the estimation of the market share for such a treatment. consequently, a prescription - based model seems to be an appropriate tool for this research situation. basically, it consists in exposing physicians to several treatments profiles at - a - time, where all current treatments appear next to the new treatment ( conjoint task ). physicians are then asked to assign some points to each treatment in the task. more precisely, in this exercise they are asked to think of the next 100 patients with the disease of concern and to record the number of prescriptions that they would prescribe for each of the treatments outlined in the task presented. consequently, all treatment assignments in the task add up to 100 points or more. more than 100 points are allowed for projects involving treatments that could be co - prescribed. this framework is especially appropriate for a deep understanding of the relationships between the current medical treatments for a particular disease and different definitions for the product to be launched. software available for allocation - based conjoint analysis : - demia r - sw conjoint : an ms excel add - on interface ( http : / / www. demia. it ) - conjoint analysis ( in marketing ) - new product development - marketing research - quantitative marketing research - chakraborty, g., r., ettenson, & g., gaeth. 1994. how consumers choose health insurance. \u201c journal of health care marketing \u201d, 14, 21 \u2013 23. - furlan r., corradetti r. ( 2006 ), \u201c aspects of experimental design in the allocation - based conjoint analysis model \u201d, proceedings of enbis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5222012718572691, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.956271"} {"text": "submitted by mrs. alexander ' s class to keep droppings from piling up on the ground we thought of a little vacuum that sucks the droppings into a net. once each day when the astronauts check on the cage they will empty out the net and throw it into the garbage. it will only take a minute or two to do this simple job. to keep the smell from going around the cage we came up with a clever idea. we would use an unscented spray which is talked about in our smell paragraph. for the smell problem we thought that you could send an unscented deodorizer down. when the substance goes down to the stench it will absorb it. you could attach a container to the top to hold it. then you could put a switch on the container. this switch would allow it so that a ray of deodorizer hits the stench. then there would be no stench problems. the astronauts could push the switch during their ten - minute period oftime with the animal. this would allow the deodorizer to take effect whenever you want. the water problem was hard but we have thought of a way to recycle and the rat has enough to drink! you take the leftover water from the cabin during your 10 minutes and add it to the water tank below the cage like on the picture. the water tank will pump the water it has to the 3 water bottles around the cage. when the rat drinks and it drips it will go through the screen on the bottom of the cage to the water tank centered below it. then the water tank will pump that water back through the pipe leading into the water bottle and you have a cycle also you are recycling the water because rats will eat or drink anything. our thought on how to handle the food is to have a bowl with flaps the rat can lift up. this bowl will be basically a regular bowl. the only thing different about this bowl is it will have a lid with flaps all over the place, with a little bit of them sticking out so the rat can lift them up and get food. this way the rat ' s head will be in the hole grabbing food so the food will not float out. this is a good way to feed the rat because it is easy for the rat to get food and it won ' t let the food float around and disturb the astronauts. the bowl will be velcroed down to the cage so that the rat can get to it easily and won ' t have to float around until it bumps into the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5029500795618483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.962747"} {"text": "agricultural co - operation has long been recognised as an important institution in the development of western australia \u2019 s agricultural sector. charles harper ( 1842 \u2013 1912 ) has long been considered the founding father of agricultural co - operation in western australia. harper was instrumental in founding the western australian co - operative producers \u2019 union in 1902 which, among other things, eventually became wesfarmers ltd. harper was also a long standing member of parliament, a newspaperman, an explorer, a founder of schools, a philanthropist, and an agricultural experimentalist. he was also able to pass his legacy on to his son walter who led the co - operative movement after harper senior \u2019 s death in 1912 and saw to its integration into the mainstream of western australian political and economic systems. in considering harper \u2019 s contribution to the economic and social development of western australia, it is difficult to determine the extent to which his economic thinking in relation to co - operation or other economic questions conformed to such socialistic ideas represented by owenite co - operation or colonial socialism. harper was neither a protectionist nor a free trader. indeed, in this paper, i will discuss harper \u2019 s position in relation to a number of economic questions \u2013 tariffs, dumping, fair trade, land alienation - with a view to showing that harper was a pragmatist focused on economic development and determined to place all resources and apply all leavers, regardless of source and political niceties, toward that end. gilchrist, d. ( 2010 ). antipodean owenite or colonial socialist : charles harper \u2019 s economic thought. paper presented at the history of economic thought society of australia conference. university of sydney, nsw, 7 - 9 july.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5148549290511748, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:40.965476"} {"text": "what \u2019 s abnormal in this image? here \u2019 s a hint. here is an example of normal. when evaluating for possible elevation in intracranial pressure, it has been shown that optic nerve sheath diameter ( onsd ) measurements correlate with elevated intracranial pressures. ( 1, 2 ) the optic nerve attaches to the globe posteriorly and is wrapped in a sheath that contains cerebral spinal fluid. the optic nerve sheath is contiguous with the dura mater and has a trabeculated arachnoid space through which cerebrospinal fluid slowly percolates. onsd normal ranges | normal adults | | < 5 mm | | children > 1 yr | | < 4. 5 mm | | infants < 1 yr | | < 4 mm | the onsd is measured 3 mm posterior to the globe for both eyes. a position of 3 mm behind the globe is recommended because the ultrasound contrast is greatest. it is best to average two measurements of each eye. an average onsd greater than 5 mm is considered abnormal and elevated intracranial pressure should be suspected. in severe cases of elevated icp, one can see an echolucent circle within the optic nerve sheath separating the sheath from the nerve due to increased subarachnoid fluid surrounding the optic nerve. ophthalmologists refer to this as the crescent sign. 40 yo female patient presents with several months of frontal headache associated with photophobia and blurry vision. symptoms have gotten much worse over the last few days and she has had difficulty reading and watching tv because of her visual symptoms. she denies fevers, chills, nausea, vomiting, or focal weakness. pt is hypertensive 170 / 100. her vital signs are otherwise normal. - visual acuity - 20 / 30 od, 20 / 70 os - ct head is normal - bedside point of care ultrasound this patient had enlarged onsd ( measurements were 6 mm bilaterally ) as well as papilledema ( arrow ). lumbar puncture was performed. opening pressure was 44. 30 cc \u2019 s of csf was drained and the closing pressure was 11. the patient \u2019 s headache and visual symptoms improved. she was started on acetazolamide and admitted to the neurology service. mri brain prior to lumbar puncture showed posterior scleral flattening bilaterally with protrusion of the optic nerve in the the globes bilaterally consistent with increased icp. this patient \u2019 s papilledema and increased on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5322904037277774, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.003679"} {"text": "brain prior to lumbar puncture showed posterior scleral flattening bilaterally with protrusion of the optic nerve in the the globes bilaterally consistent with increased icp. this patient \u2019 s papilledema and increased onsd correlated with a markedly increased opening pressure during lumbar puncture and suggests that ocular ultrasound may play a role in the ed management of patients with suspected pseudotumor cerebri. elevated intracranial pressure in the abscence of intracranial mass lesion. most common in young, over weight women. if the diagnosis is missed, persistently elevated intracranial pressure can lead to optic atrophy and blindness. - lumbar puncture to drain csf to a normal opening pressure. - medical : diomox ( acetazolamide ), high dose steroids - surgical : optic nerve sheath fenestration, vp shunt the ability to diagnose papilledema using bedside sonography is useful to emergency physicians, as many non - ophthalmologist clinicians do not feel confident in their ability to perform an accurate nondilated fundoscopic examination. ( 3 ) ultrasound provides a useful alternative means of determining the presence or absence of papilledema in a patient in whom fundoscopy cannot be adequately performed. geeraerts t, launey y, martin l, et al. ultrasonography of the optic nerve sheath may be useful for detecting raised intracranial pressure after severe brain injury. intensive care med 2007 ; 33 ( 10 ) : 1704 - 11 [ electronic publication 2007 aug 1 ]. pmid : 17668184 kimberly hh, shah s, marill k, noble v. correlation of optic nerve sheath diameter with direct measurement of intracranial pressure. acad emerg med 2008 ; 15 ( 2 ) : 201 - 4. pmid : 18275454 wu eh, fagan mj, reinert se, diaz ja. self - confidence in and perceived utility of the physical examination : a comparison of medical students, residents, and faculty internists. j gen intern med 2007 ; 22 ( 12 ) : 1725 - 30 [ electronic publication 2007 oct 6 ]. pmid : 17922165", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5108810464631379, "token_count": 452, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.004767"} {"text": "to be more active than previously believed, with winds of 1100 km per hour. hydrogen was found to be the most common atmospheric element, although the abundant methane gives the planet its blue appearance. voyager data on triton, neptune ' s largest moon, revealed the coldest known planetary body in the solar system and a nitrogen ice volcano on its surface. the spacecraft ' s flyby of neptune set it on a course below the ecliptic plane that will ultimately take it out of the solar system. after neptune, nasa formally renamed the entire project ( including both voyager spacecraft ) the voyager interstellar mission ( vim ). approximately 56 million km past the neptune encounter, voyager 2 ' s instruments were put into low - power mode to conserve energy. in november 1998, twenty - one years after launch, nonessential instruments were permanently turned off. six instruments are still operating. data from at least some of the instruments should be received until at least 2025. sometime after that date, power levels onboard the spacecraft will be too low to operate even one of its instruments. as of march 2010, voyager 2 was about 92 au ( 13. 7 billion km ) from the sun, increasing its distance at a speed of about 3. 3 au ( about 494 million km ) per year.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5337992923342902, "token_count": 259, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.022471"} {"text": "\" he was of an active, restless, indefatigable genius even almost to the last, and always slept little to his death, seldom going to sleep till two three, or four a clock in the morning, and seldomer to bed, often continuing his studies all night, and taking a nap in the day. his temper was melancholy.... \" these words were intended to describe robert hooke, but have been said to equally describe isaac newton. both men played vital roles in the development of science in the seventeenth century, though at first glance newton appears to outshine and outclass robert hooke. when hooke is mentioned to this day, we usually speak of newton as well, but not the other way around. they influenced one another far more than either would ever admit and, though each deserves his own separate identity, hooke has rarely been granted his. this is largely because, though newton and hooke had much in common, they were bitter enemies, and newton was able to exert far more influence over the royal society and, thereby, over the entire scientific community of his day. robert hooke ' s genius is hidden in shadows created partly by hooke himself, but largely by isaac newton, a man who could not speak without contempt for hooke, even long after hooke ' s death, and who may well have taken steps to obliterate much of hooke ' s contributions to science. hooke ' s reputation is riddled by exaggerated accusations and misconceptions. robert hooke was a significant influence in the advancement of science as well as newton. an established physicist and astronomer, hooke was with the royal society from its inception, and served it tirelessly and loyally for over forty years ; it was he who had worded the society ' s credo \" to improve the knowledge of natural things, and all useful arts, manufactures, mechanic practices, engines and inventions by experiments ( not meddling with divinity, metaphysics, morals, politics, grammar, rhetoric or logic ). \" but the rancor between newton and hooke did much to tarnish hooke ' s reputation. hooke was born on the isle of wight, july 18, 1635. as a child he survived smallpox, but was scarred physically and emotionally for life. when hooke was thirteen years old, his father, john hooke, a clergyman hanged himself. young robert had much emotional pain in his youth. receiving a 100 pound inheritance from his father, robert hooke became an orphan of sorts", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5091441564543693, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.044944"} {"text": "to have been an extreme case. descriptions of him such as \" scarred to the point of ugliness \" and his condition of \" twistedness, which grew worse with age \" and references to a great deal of pain, seem to imply a tortured person. certainly there were those who avoided him because of his condition, some even mocked him, newton once made a reference to a \" dwarf \" that was most certainly a barb directed at hooke. hooke devoted a great deal of time to the universe and its mysteries. the search for parallax was on in the seventeenth century, and hooke made an attempt to find it using a zenith telescope. the idea of using zenith telescopes was based on atmospheric distortion being at a minimum directly overhead, and therefore making for the most accurate measurements. hooke used the star gamma draconis, but the telescope was too crude to reach any definite conclusions. hooke anticipated some of the most important discoveries and inventions of his time. among hooke ' s contributions are the correct formulation of the theory of elasticity, the kinetic hypothesis of gases and the nature of combustion. he was the first to use the balance spring for the regulation of watches and devised improvements in pendulum clocks and invented a machine for cutting the teeth of watch wheels. an expert micro - scopist, his microstudies of the composition of cork led him to suggest the use of the word cell ( meaning a tiny bare room, like a monk ' s cell ), and the word survived as the name for living cells. the publication of his micrographia in 1665, published in english, with its engraved magnifications of minute bodies, was a major milestone of english science. hooke was the first to report the great red spot of jupiter and the first to establish the rotation of the giant planet. he formulated the theory of planetary motion as a problem in mechanics, and pioneered the scientific trail that led newton to his goal in the formulation of the law of gravitation. as a scientist, hooke made useful contributions to the wave theory of light. his interests ranged from these matters to pre - daltonian atomic studies, astronomy, earthquakes and the physics of spring mechanisms. he set the thermo - metrical zero at the freezing point of water and studied the relationship of barometrical readings to changes in the weather ; he invented a land carriage, a diving bell, a method of telegraphy and he and ascertained the number of vibrations corresponding to musical notes. the first confrontation between hooke and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5591488242089445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.048036"} {"text": "the relationship of barometrical readings to changes in the weather ; he invented a land carriage, a diving bell, a method of telegraphy and he and ascertained the number of vibrations corresponding to musical notes. the first confrontation between hooke and newton came in 1672. newton had written a paper on his demonstration of white light being a composite of other colours. it was presented to the royal society just prior to newton ' s reception as a fellow of the society. newton thought a great deal of his demonstration, referring to it as \" the oddest if not the most considerable detection wch hath hitherto beene made in the operations of nature. \" 1 but newton was met with a strong rebuff by hooke. hooke had his own wave theory of light, he had gone into some detail about it in the micrographia, and he still believed in it strongly. he claimed newton had not proven his idea clearly, and needed more detail. newton had the equivalent of a temper tantrum. the situation was made worse for newton because hooke was not the only one attacking newton ' s theory, he had been joined by christian huygens, ignace pardies and the jesuits of liege. newton had since childhood, reacted strongly to criticism. he constantly challenged authority, and to rebuff him, was to become an enemy. newton demonstrated this over and over during his lifetime ; his response was often either complete withdrawal, or open battle. on this occasion, newton chose withdrawal ( though usually for newton withdrawal was some form of manipulation in battle plans. ) in march 1673, newton wrote to henry oldenburg, the current secretary of the royal society. newton requested to withdraw from the society. it took much gushing of admiration, respect, etc. on oldenburg ' s part, as well as an offer to wave dues to the society to get newton to change his mind. oldenburg also offered an apology for the behavior of an \" unnamed member. \" the stage was set. newton had successfully established his place in the society, and had scored a victory, of sorts, over hooke. in many ways, the problems between hooke and newton could be attributed to the traits they had in common, rather than to their differences of opinion on scientific matters. both were short tempered. both were quick to make someone an enemy. newton once threw a colleague out of his office and refused to speak with him for years because the man had made a joke about a nun. and newton refused to speak with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5903309978119282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.049651"} {"text": "him if he was to do a proper job as curator of experiments, flitted from one topic to another. he was, similar to halley, curious to a fault about everything. it was quite probably the demands of his job as curator of experiments that kept hooke from concentrating adequate time on any one subject. the very job at which he had worked so diligently and so faithfully would be the cause of later accusations of hooke ' s work being \" broken \" and \" disjointed. \" the next major confrontation between hooke and newton surfaced openly in 1684. it concerned newton ' s principia, and the involvement hooke had in it. newton claimed hooke had none, and quite a few historians have agreed ; but a closer look at the events prior to the principia ' s publication, leave little doubt that hooke was indeed involved. the idea of gravity and its force of attraction was a common topic of interest in those days. newton, halley, wren and hooke all played with the concept. in 1679, there were several letters exchanged between hooke and newton. both had made a slight attempt to work out their differences. hooke had suggested it was other people ( namely oldenburg ) who had made problems, and they should correspond with each other in order to avoid misunder - standings. newton seemed agreeable. the topic of the first letters between them was the old trajectory problem. what path would an object follow falling to the earth. newton had suggested an experiment to prove it. but newton made a mistake, suggesting that the trajectory would be a spiral. hooke grabbed this and ran with it. he announced to the society that newton was wrong. newton was incensed, he felt hooke had no right to take their correspondence to the society, and that the major issue was one of a conduct problem on the part of hooke. hooke had no right to announce newton wrong to the society. it is entirely possible that hooke was making the most of it, but one can hardly blame him when one considers the godlike esteem in which many people held newton. newton may have been the \" giver of laws \" but he often upstaged the others of his time, and was not inclined to give credit to anyone else. newton refused to correspond with hooke any further, hooke had written a third letter to newton, that newton refused to answer. and it is this third letter that is of particular interest. this letter was written january", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5546847118498623, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.052463"} {"text": "to give credit to anyone else. newton refused to correspond with hooke any further, hooke had written a third letter to newton, that newton refused to answer. and it is this third letter that is of particular interest. this letter was written january 6, 1680, and in it, hooke spoke of his theory of gravity. hooke wrote ; \" but my supposition is that the attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the distance from the center reciprocal, and consequently that the velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the attraction and consequently as kepler supposes reciprocal to the distance. \" this was the main letter hooke used as evidence when he claimed newton had robbed him of his theory, but hooke had no answer from newton acknowledging hooke ' s theory. hooke first appealed to halley saying that newton had taken all credit for the theory of gravity, when in fact, he, hooke, had given the idea to newton. this put halley in a difficult situation. halley was himself paying for the principia to be published, and the last thing he needed was for newton to get temperamental. however, halley had to know first hand, because of previous communication with hooke, that hooke was not unreasonable in his claims. halley and hooke had long before discussed the idea that the force of gravitation must diminish by the square of the distance across which it is propagated and agreed that the inverse square law could explain kepler ' s discovery that the planets move in elliptical orbits, each sweeping out an equal area within its orbit in equal time. halley wrote newton and told him, \" he sais you had the notion from him, though he owns the demonstration of the curves generated thereby to be wholly your own : how much of this is so you know best, as likewise what you have to do in this matter, only mr. hooke seems to expect you should make some mention of him in the preface, which, it is possible, you may see reason to prefix. \" 3 newton vehemently denied any such accusation to halley. a second letter to newton from halley pointed out that hooke had not made a formal complaint of the matter, and that he felt that others had made hooke ' s conduct seem worse than it was. halley further pointed out again that hooke was not trying to lay claim to the entire theory. it must have been a terribly uncomfortable situation for the easy going halley. newton had", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5432683535978009, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.053377"} {"text": "had made hooke ' s conduct seem worse than it was. halley further pointed out again that hooke was not trying to lay claim to the entire theory. it must have been a terribly uncomfortable situation for the easy going halley. newton had another temper tantrum and told halley he would not write the third book of the principia. halley thought this an incredible loss to mankind, and he had already invested much of his own resources in the publication of the first two books ; he stopped at nothing to appease newton. this incident only served to further harm hooke ' s reputation. newton still maintained hooke was wrong ; newton would share his credit with no one, most certainly not with hooke, and refused to do anything for him. the principia was formally presented to the royal society in 1687 with no mention of hooke in the preface ; clearly, newton had scored another victory over hooke. the year 1687 was indeed a dark year for robert hooke. the principia was published, without recognition to hooke. as if that was not enough, hooke ' s niece also died that year. she was the niece who had captured the heart of the aging scientist. after the principia publication and the death of hooke ' s niece, his health declined at a greater rate. it is possible, judging by some descriptions, that hooke was inflicted with scoliosis, a crippling degenerative disease that causes an unnatural curvature of the spine and would account for his \" incurvature \" and stooping posture. but he stayed active until the last year of his life when he possibly had a stroke and was confined to bed. but waller reported that his mind stayed clear until his death, though he became increasingly melancholy and disagreeable. hooke died on march 3, 1703, having been blind and bedridden the last year of his life. there had been little justice for hooke during his life, and there would be little to follow after his death. his grave location is not even known. moreover, richard waller published some of hooke ' s works in 1705, dedicated to none other than isaac newton. this posthumous insult did little for hooke and it is quite doubtful newton appreciated it anyway. what remained of hooke ' s works then passed to the reverend william derham, who was an old friend of newton ' s and took until 1725 to publish any more of hooke ' s works. what part newton played in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5030029344868288, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.054298"} {"text": "walls, after which he sent out a band of daring men, who stealthily made their way through the lines and started the fire with loud shouts and yells. simultaneously, a glare of light shot up from the city walls, and huang - fu sung, sounding his drums, led a rapid charge, which threw the rebels into confusion and put them to headlong flight. \" [ hou han shu, ch. 71. ] ( 5 ) when you start a fire, be to windward of it. do not attack from the leeward. # chang yu, following tu yu, says : \" when you make a fire, the enemy will retreat away from it ; if you oppose his retreat and attack him then, he will fight desperately, which will not conduce to your success. \" a rather more obvious explanation is given by tu mu : \" if the wind is in the east, begin burning to the east of the enemy, and follow up the attack yourself from that side. if you start the fire on the east side, and then attack from the west, you will suffer in the same way as your enemy. \" a wind that rises in the daytime lasts long, but a night breeze soon falls. # cf. lao tzu ' s saying : \" a violent wind does not last the space of a morning. \" ( tao te ching, chap. 23. ) mei yao - ch ` en and wang hsi say : \" a day breeze dies down at nightfall, and a night breeze at daybreak. this is what happens as a general rule. \" the phenomenon observed may be correct enough, but how this sense is to be obtained is not apparent. in every army, the five developments connected with fire must be known, the movements of the stars calculated, and a watch kept for the proper days. # tu mu says : \" we must make calculations as to the paths of the stars, and watch for the days on which wind will rise, before making our attack with fire. \" chang yu seems to interpret the text differently : \" we must not only know how to assail our opponents with fire, but also be on our guard against similar attacks from them. \" hence those who use fire as an aid to the attack show intelligence ; those who use water as an aid to the attack gain an accession of strength. # by means of water, an enemy may be intercepted, but not robbed of all his belongings. # ts ` ao kung ' s note is : \" we can merely obstruct", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5199847871502328, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.074005"} {"text": "a query, our machines search the index for matching pages and return the results we believe are the most relevant to the user. relevancy is determined by over 200 factors, one of which is the pagerank for a given page. pagerank is the measure of the importance of a page based on the incoming links from other pages. in simple terms, each link to a page on your site from another site adds to your site ' s pagerank. not all links are equal : google works hard to improve the user experience by identifying spam links and other practices that negatively impact search results. the best types of links are those that are given based on the quality of your content. in order for your site to rank well in search results pages, it ' s important to make sure that google can crawl and index your site correctly. our webmaster guidelines outline some best practices that can help you avoid common pitfalls and improve your site ' s ranking. google ' s did you mean and google autocomplete features are designed to help users save time by displaying related terms, common misspellings, and popular queries. like our google. com search results, the keywords used by these features are automatically generated by our web crawlers and search algorithms. we display these predictions only when we think they might save the user time. if a site ranks well for a keyword, it ' s because we ' ve algorithmically determined that its content is more relevant to the user ' s query.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5304967488734995, "token_count": 301, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.079654"} {"text": "the current state of arctic sea ice ( see graph below ) sends a chill down my spine. so what it says is that the ice is melting furiously, and looks like it \u2019 s not yet slowing down even though the days have started to draw in. however, any scientist will tell you that no single data point can be used as evidence of global warming, there are simply too many fluctuations for anything to be concluded over anything but the longest timescales. we cannot simply look at the mean temperature for a hot year and say, there you go, global warming! now, the issue is, there are well - known cycles over pretty much all timescales \u2013 this pretty much undermines all serious attempts at prediction. so, what to do? well all is not lost ; there are still some clever little leading indicators we can look at to give us that sobering wake up call. firstly, we know co2 concentration is up, no doubt or argument, this can be seen in the famous hawaii data above, complete with the seasonal \u2018 breathing \u2019 by global plant - life. the argument is about whether the greenhouse models that say this will result in warming will turn out right. i honestly don \u2019 t know, but i wouldn \u2019 t even have to wonder if the co2 levels weren \u2019 t going up, would i? # 2 : a record breaking rate of record breaking secondly, rather looking at averages or \u2018 new records \u2019, we can look at the frequency of records. so rather than saying, \u201c we just had the hottest summer ever in some parts of the us, there \u2019 s the proof \u201d we can look at how often records are set all over the world \u2013 hottest, coldest, wettest, dryest and so on. this approach creates a filter ; if it shows there are more records being broken on the hot side than the cold side, could this be an indicator? i hope not, because there are. again, it could be part of a long - term cycle that could bottom out any time now. but on the other hand, if it was going the other way, i wouldn \u2019 t have to hope, would i? # 3 : sea ice now the sea ice. the sea ice is another proxy for temperature. the reason it \u2019 s interesting to climatologists is because it is a natural way to \u2018 sum - up \u2019 the total warmth for the year and longer ; if ice is reducing over several years, it means that there has been a net surplus of warmth. today we are seeing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5075463776215863, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.102167"} {"text": "a lucid account of the suffolk bank system which operated in massachusetts between 1825 and 1858. dr trivioli shows that during this period a free enterprise central bank and clearing system operated with great success, bringing stability to a stuation where competing banks issued their own notes. synopsis : in tracing the history of the leading ideas of the social market economy in germany to their various intellectual roots, konrad zweig offers some pertinent insights into the fundamentals of german economic thinking and policies, little known in the english \u2013 speaking world. in his foreword to this work, professor christian watrin of the university of cologne comments : \" i see great merit in dr. konrad zweig ' s essay in clarifying and describing the leading ideas of the german position to an english \u2013 speaking public. his paper shows a profound knowledge of the historical roots, but at the same time, his aim is to show the compatibility of a competitive market and social protection. a report looking at the transport problems in the uk, and at one potential solution to it. michael forsyth provides the solutions for the abject failure of public services in the late 1970s and early 1980s : \" local authorities seeking to make cuts in expenditure and increase benefits to ratepayers must now undertake extensive privatization of their services. the best method is just to do it, to put out services for private contract. the arguments of theory against the success of such action melt away in the practical results gained wherever it is done. the british people have come to expect that public services will become lower in quality and ' more expensive to provide. this need not be so. privatization has its part to play, therefore, not only in re \u2013 servicing britain, but in helping to restore the country ' s faith in itself. \" a critical analysis of britain ' s planning system. not much has changed positively in the years since 1982 making this report still relevant today. it also outlines solutions that would free up the planning system.... to the economic and political thought of our time. this book, written by dr eamonn butler, gives an introduction to the great austrian economist and political philosopher friedrich a. hayek. the book covers the themes of hayek ' s work, which consists more than 25 books and numerous articles. the topics include hayek ' s understanding of the market process ; his critique of socialism and the meaningless term of social justice, and hayek ' s suggestions for the constitution of the liberal state. an indepth look at the options available for the process of privatizing britain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.546825549091713, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.175660"} {"text": "to th ' iga. \" - use of \" over yonder \" in place of \" over there \" or \" in or at that indicated place, \" especially when being used to refer to a particularly different spot, such as in \" the house over yonder \" - use of \" the grocery \" in place of \" the supermarket \" or \" the grocery store. \" for example \" i went to the grocery earlier today \" or \" we ' re fixin ' to go to the grocery \" - use of a quasi - reflexive pronoun \" me \" or \" him \". for example, \" i ' m fixin ' to paint me a picture. \" - use of \" to love on someone or something \" in place of \" to show affection to \" or \" be affectionate with someone or something. \" for example : \" he was lovin ' on his new kitten. \" - word use tendencies from the harvard dialect survey : - a carbonated beverage in general as \" coke \" ( likely influenced by the coca - cola company being headquartered in atlanta, georgia and the resultant dominance of coca - cola in the region ). - the small land crustaceans that roll when you touch them as \" roley - poleys \" rather than \" pill bugs \" or \" woodlouse \" - the push - cart at the grocery store as a \" buggy \" - the small freshwater crustacean in lakes and streams as a \" crawdad, \" \" crawfish, \" or \" crayfish \" depending on the location the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5152130838335992, "token_count": 344, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.210740"} {"text": "1997 - 1999 : children ' s book completed ae projects when someone is suffering from dementia, the whole family is affected. it can be difficult for everyone, but particularly for children who do not always understand what is going on. in 1999, alzheimer europe ( in collaboration with the association luxembourg alzheimer ) produced a book aimed at helping children understand more about alzheimer \u2019 s disease and possibly come to terms with it. the book is aimed at children between the age of 8 and 11 and is suitable for those who have a relative with dementia, as well as those who do not. participants from eight of our member associations were involved in the project : - france : association france alzheimer - greece : greek alzheimer association - iceland : f. a. a. s. - luxembourg : association luxembourg alzheimer - portugal : apfada - switzerland : association alzheimer suisse - the netherlands : alzheimerstichting - united kingdom : alzheimer scotland - action on dementia funding and duration the european commission granted the necessary funds for the \u201c alzheimer children \u2019 s book project \u201d to the association luxembourg alzheimer. alzheimer europe worked in close cooperation with the association luxembourg alzheimer on this project which started in december 1997 and finished in june 1999. the main aims of this project were to produce a book about alzheimer ' s disease which would provide children with basic information about alzheimer ' s disease ( though the story ), answer some of the questions they may have, remove some of the stigma associated with having a relative with alzheimer ' s disease and provide a tool for the topic to be discussed in schools, at home and amongst friends. moreover, it was our aim to write a book which would be directly accessible to a young audience rather than the parents of children with a relative with dementia. the first stage of this project involved collecting copies of existing information in order to analyse its content, produce a summary and compile an inventory. before starting to write the story, alzheimer luxembourg association, in close collaboration with alzheimer europe, organised interviews with young children in order to assess their real needs with regard to information about alzheimer ' s disease and their preferences concerning the style of the book. these interviews enabled us to analyse the language used by young children in order to write a story in a style which was understandable and adapted to the needs of the target group. finally, two meetings were held with the project participants in luxembourg. these meetings enabled the participants to define guidelines for the book, the overall structure of the story, the audience, the specific aspects of the disease to be dealt with, the characters, the setting,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.506748756456211, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.221162"} {"text": "using scientific techniques and cutting - edge equipment, researchers at the indianapolis museum of art conservation science laboratory have recently solved mysteries about paintings by vincent van gogh and giorgio de chirico. since opening in early 2011, the conservation science laboratory has undertaken multiple projects that have provided the museum world with new research, techniques and advances in the field of conservation. a partnership between the ima conservation science laboratory and the cincinnati art museum ( cam ) has shed new light on the colors that vincent van gogh used in his 1890 painting undergrowth with two figures. van gogh was known to use vibrant colors in his paintings but many of his works today have lost this original vibrancy. undergrowth with two figures is one such work and during a cleaning of the work, former cam paintings conservator per knutas unearthed miniscule traces of bright pink colorant in areas where the frame covered the edge of the painting. this discovery prompted knutas to contact dr. gregory d. smith, the ima otto n. frenzel iii senior conservation scientist. smith agreed to help identify the paint colorant used by van gogh and worked with visiting researcher dr. jeffrey fieberg, associate professor of chemistry at centre college in danville, ky, to examine the painting and solve the mystery. i gladly accepted the challenge to identify the colorant, knowing this project would allow the conservation science laboratory to build ongoing partnerships within the museum community, contribute useful research on paint fading and fully utilize the state - of - the - art instruments available in the lab, smith said. this project is a shining example of the type of research the lab is equipped to conduct. van gogh painted undergrowth within the last five weeks of his lifea period when he was known to have used a bright geranium lake organic dye and the brilliance of geranium lake is short lived when exposed to light. a helpful clue in the process came from a letter written by van gogh to his brother, theo, while he was painting the work stating it contained... undergrowth, lilac trunks of poplars, and underneath them some flower - dotted grass, pink, yellow, white and various greens. since the pink flowers rapidly faded to white, the question addressed by the ima lab was which flowers were white because of the fading, and which ones were always white. the painting was brought to the ima for an in - depth, nondestructive analysis. smith utilized a small broken paint chip found lodged in the varnish to analyze the dye by raman", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5226032321151792, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.288176"} {"text": "the fading, and which ones were always white. the painting was brought to the ima for an in - depth, nondestructive analysis. smith utilized a small broken paint chip found lodged in the varnish to analyze the dye by raman microspectroscopya process that collects a characteristic spectral fingerprint from the dye by measuring changes in laser light scattered by the molecules. comparison of the spectrum to a digital library of thousands of materials identified the dye as eosin, which gives geranium lake its vibrant color. after identifying the ink, smith and fieberg painstakingly mapped out its location by elemental spectroscopy in the 387 dobs of white paint used by van gogh to represent the flowers. the team used adobe photoshop to record all the spots in which the dyestuff was detected, creating a virtual restoration of the aged painting. the research collaboration between smith, fieberg and cam is ongoing. an upcoming scholarly publication by the projects core collaborators will make the information more widely known to art history scholars. smith is now working with forensic scientists at indiana university purdue university indianapolis to refine the coloration used in the virtual restoration based on actual microcolorimetry measurements of small paint flakes from the van gogh painting. van gogh said,... in the colours there is adulteration as in wines. how can one judge correctly when, like myself, one knows nothing of chemistry. although the damage has already been done, through chemistry the ima is now working to understand the changes in this work and others by van gogh in the museums collection and to give todays admirers of his work a more accurate picture of his artworks brilliance. the conservation science lab did similar work on a giorgio de chirico painting from the imas permanent collection. ima associate curator for research, annette schlagenhauff, gained assistance from the science lab and conservation imaging specialists while studying the provenance and authenticity of de chiricos the mysterious departure. the piece was taken off view for more than 30 years because of the belief that it might be a forgery. closer examination revealed a figure study underneath that was characteristic of de chiricos later works. it is now believed that de chirico painted this work in the 1930s as a copy of one of his earlier pieces to take advantage of the popularity of this metaphysical style later in his career. other ongoing projects in the conservation science lab include : developing internship opportunities for high school, undergraduate and graduate students offering sabbatical programs for university professors who", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5156996475047639, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.330151"} {"text": "logging in or signing up ecological pyramids bothrops download post to : url : related presentations : share add to flag embed email send to blogs and networks add to channel uploaded from authorpoint lite insert youtube videos in powerpont slides with as desktop copy embed code : embed : flash ipad dynamic copy does not support media & animations automatically changes to flash or non - flash embed wordpress embed customize embed url : copy thumbnail : copy the presentation is successfully added in your favorites. views : 11910 category : education license : all rights reserved like it ( 4 ) dislike it ( 2 ) added : november 30, 2008 this presentation is public favorites : 3 presentation description a level ecology - looks at trophic levels and diiferences between pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy comments posting comment... premium member presentation transcript ecological pyramids : ecological pyramids revision : revision we have looked at the use of food chains and food webs to the direction of energy flow in ecological systems. what is a trophic level? a secondary consumer? an autotroph? a heterotroph? ecological pyramids : ecological pyramids there are three types of pyramid that can be used to display ecological systems pyramids of number pyramids of biomass pyramids of energy pyramids of number : pyramids of number the simplest example of an ecological pyramid produced by a simple count of the organisms in each trophic level of the ecosystem. the number of each type of organism is represented by a rectangle that \u2019 s length is proportional to the number of individual organisms in a given area ( or volume ) pyramids of number : a typical pyramid of numbers pyramids of number log numbers producers herbivores 1st level carnivore 2nd level carnivore 3rd level carnivore pyramids of number : an inverted pyramid of numbers pyramids of number numbers producers herbivores 1st level carnivore 2nd level carnivore pyramids of number : advantage data relatively easy to collect using simple sampling disadvantages producers vary in size large range of numbers trophic level difficult to work out pyramids of number pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass these are based on an estimation of the total mass of the organisms at each trophic level how might this data be collected? individual organisms weighed and counted. dry mass should be compared to eliminate errors due to water content pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass advantages the data is more accurate. eliminates misleading problems", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.525976051045613, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.395989"} {"text": "each trophic level how might this data be collected? individual organisms weighed and counted. dry mass should be compared to eliminate errors due to water content pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass advantages the data is more accurate. eliminates misleading problems of producer size differences disadvantages laborious and expensive destructive can also be misleading in some circumstances pyramids of biomass : pyramids of biomass for example, in certain aquatic ecosystems a pyramid of biomass may look like this phytoplankton zooplankton 1st level carnivore why? pyramids of biomass : sample only takes into standing biomass not productivity misleading when ; producers are small with a high turnover rate the rate of consumption is about equal to rate of production pyramids of biomass pyramids of energy : pyramids of energy each bar represents the total amount of energy used by the trophic level per unit area over a set period of time ( remember kjm - 2yr - 1? ) pyramids of energy : pyramids of energy gross production herbivores to carnivores producers to herbivores carnivores to top carnivores 87110 88 1603 14098 energy ( in kjm - 2yr - 1 ) pyramids of energy : advantages takes into account the productivity addresses the fact that weight for weight, two species do not necessarily have the same energy content disadvantages very difficult to obtain data destructive problems identifying trophic level pyramids of energy please get out your information booklets! : please get out your information booklets! you do not have the permission to view this presentation. in order to view it, please contact the author of the presentation.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5260573223902283, "token_count": 336, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.396740"} {"text": "the best and most reliable form of research is the double - blind, placebo - controlled study. a treatment cannot really be said to be proven effective unless it has been examined in properly designed and sufficiently large studies of this type. in these experiments, one group of subjects receives the \" real thing \" \u2014 the active substance being tested. the other half receives a placebo designed to appear, as much as possible, like the real thing. individuals in both groups don ' t know whether they are getting the real treatment or placebo ( they are \" blind \" ). furthermore, the researchers administering placebo and real treatment are also kept in the dark about which group is receiving which treatment ( making it a \" double - blind \" experiment ). this last part is important, because it prevents the researchers from unintentionally tipping off the study participants, or unconsciously biasing their evaluation of the results. the purpose of this kind of study is to eliminate the power of suggestion. it is true, although hard to believe, that people given ( fake ) treatment frequently report dramatic and long - lasting improvements in their symptoms. however, if the people in the real treatment group fare significantly better than those in the placebo group, it is a strong indication that the treatment really works. what you ' ve just read is a highly simplified introduction to a crucial and non - intuitive topic. if you ' d like a more in - depth analysis, see the article why does this database rely on double - blind studies?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5315163179758764, "token_count": 304, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.404314"} {"text": "\u2019 s perceptive pixel touch screen. \u201d other election news broadcasts employ a barrage of even showier electronic toys like giant montage processors, professional video processors used for multi - image displays to create led walls and multiplex screens texted by screenwriter\u00ae software \u2014 equipment so cool it would make a techie drool. i am reminded of the newspaper report about orson welles \u2019 debut day at rko, the first day on the set of his first movie, a little item entitled \u201c citizen kane. \u201d a reporter asked orson what it was like to come from new york radio and theater to a movie set. said welles, \u201c it \u2019 s the biggest toy a boy ever had to play with. \u201d from that same day there is a photo of welles, slim, handsome, 25 years old, beaming with delight. etymology of the word telestrator doctor reiffel invented the word telestrator. he made up the compound from tele ( greek \u2018 far away \u2019 ) and illustrator. telephone, telex, telegraph, television : all contain as their initial element the greek adverb tele used adjectivally in words naming inventions of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. in the sixteenth century, the verb to illustrate entered english from medieval latin illustrare \u2018 to light up, to clear up, to make famous. \u2019 the ultimate root is lux lucis latin \u2018 light. \u2019 the best known phrase containing the word is from the vulgate, saint jerome ' s latin version of the bible, where in genesis, god says \u201c fiat lux, \u201d \u2018 let there be light. \u2019 so is fiat, the italian automobile brand, the same word? no. founded in 1899 the company name fiat is an acronym for fabbrica italiana automobili torino \u2018 italian automobile factory of turin. \u2019 naturalmente in a roman catholic country, it didn ' t hurt that the car name pleasingly echoed the very words of god. the evolution of illustrate \u2019 s meanings in english 1526 \u2013 to make clear in the mind ( first english usage ) 1538 \u2013 \u201c thou shalt see that one translation declareth, openeth, and illustrateth another. \u201d prologue to the coverdale bible 1603 \u2013 to show in a good light, to make illustrious 1625 \u2013 to light up an object 1638 \u2013 to make something clear by drawing a picture of it ( the most frequent modern meaning of the verb to illustrate ) it is interesting how almost all of the current meanings of the verb to illustrate arose so early in the word \u2019 s english", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5305423117019374, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.411122"} {"text": "an object 1638 \u2013 to make something clear by drawing a picture of it ( the most frequent modern meaning of the verb to illustrate ) it is interesting how almost all of the current meanings of the verb to illustrate arose so early in the word \u2019 s english life. often verbs with a long history in english take centuries to evolve new meanings. \u00a9 2008 william gordon casselman i invite you to tour my site and select from the hundreds of word stories here. to begin, click on the word list banner below. then perhaps browse the site map with its links to every page of my if you want to share some wonderful canadian sayings, you will find more than 3, 000 canadian expressions in my books. each of my three volumes of canadian sayings contains about 1, 200 zesty phrases used by canadians both today and throughout our history. remember that profits from the sale of my books keep this website online. this new book is available from november 2007 and can be ordered at any bookstore in the world. among the essay contributors in readings for technical communication are george grant, marshall mcluhan, c. p. snow, george orwell, stephen strauss, william zinsser and, yours ever in abject humility \u2014 bill casselman. if you can ' t find my books online or in stores, order them directly from the author. just send me an email. any comments, corrections, emendations, additional word lore, orders for my books? please email me at firstname. lastname @ example. org 2007 - bill casselman ' s latest publication is an essay in a new book entitled barry callaghan : essays on his works in the writers series published by guernica editions sales of my book support the continuance of this website. $ 10. 95 in all canadian bookstores says one reader on the chapters website : \u201c if you ' re canadian you gotta read this book. this book made me laugh till i cried. things i thought only i heard during my youth were there in print before my eyes! i love this book. everyone i show it to has the same reaction. different sayings tickled my funny bone on different days - so they never get boring. keep up this wonderful treasure - trove of canadiana, bill. \u201d \u2014 angie plamondon published by mcarthur & company, toronto, canada order my books anywhere in the world", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5394664622110572, "token_count": 481, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.412036"} {"text": "\u201c though faith is above reason, there can never be any real discrepancy between faith and reason. since the same god who reveals mysteries and infuses faith has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind, god cannot deny himself, nor can truth ever contradict truth. consequently, methodical research in all branches of knowledge, provided it is carried out in a truly scientific manner and does not override moral laws, can never conflict with the faith, because the things of the world and the things of faith derive from the same god. the humble and persevering investigator of the secrets of nature is being led, as it were, by the hand of god in spite of himself, for it is god, the conserver of all things, who made them what they are. \u201d catechism of the catholic church, par 159. ri can faith exist in a world where science is demonstrating ever more details of creation and the evolution of human life? is there a place for science among those who believe that the book of genesis is god \u2019 s inspired revelation? anchored \u201c modern science / ancient faith, \u201d a conference sponsored by the benedictine - run portsmouth institute, housed in rhode island \u2019 s portsmouth abbey school, on june 22 - 24. the event brought together some ninety scientists, theologians, philosophers, clergy, lay faithful, and skepticsor some mix of the aboveto explore the dialogue between the natural sciences and christianity. while few participants expressed difficulties with the coexistence of faith and reason, the how of this coexistence wasn \u2019 t always in agreement. some demanded a decidedly scientific approach to questions of beginnings. others championed a more literal understanding of genesis. this made for polite but fiery discussions that began in the early summer \u2019 s heat of the abbey \u2019 s grounds and now continue online. with adoration and the rosary, the first talk was a review of the galileo affair by rev. dom paschal scotti, o. s. b. his presentation set an amicable tone for the conference by demonstrating christianity \u2019 s affinity for the natural sciences. the priest made clear that the driving issue at play in galileo \u2019 s run - in with the church was not an inherent fear of science. rather, most catholic theologians and scientists working with galileo fought with the astronomer to keep scientific observations in their proper arena. and as in the modern debates about issues such as evolution or climate change, what further inflamed the galileo saga were the nuances of human sin, politics, and egos.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.521163780901672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.444057"} {"text": "fundamentalists. he also applauded the catholic predisposition that holds faith and science in relation. a self - described \u201c religious skeptic, \u201d ruse sought to foster a \u201c middle way \u201d to bring order to faith - reason debates. conference speakersbrown university \u2019 s dr. kenneth miller and southwestern baptist theological seminary \u2019 s dr. william a. dembskidemonstrated that such debates are very much alive. miller is a well - known defender of evolutionary science while dembski defends intelligent design, which has been described by some as an exploration of a less \u201c materialist \u201d explanation for how humans came to exist than most evolutionists allow. others see intelligent design as just another form of biblically literal creationism. both miller and dembski have been on opposing sides of legal disputes between citizens and public school districts over how to teach the origins and development of life. conference, miller, a catholic molecular biologist, gave an overview of findings from fossil records and genome studies that show adaptations and intermediary steps in the evolution of life. miller also championed his faith \u2019 s allowance to let science be sciencein particular quoting pope benedict xvi. but to emphasize the role that reason in general, and scientific reason in particular, should play in the lives of the faithful. when asked about the many questions that evolutionary sciences have not answered, miller responded that \u201c to say \u2018 nobody really knows \u2019 is not the same as \u2018 we know nothing. \u2019 \u201d miller urged his fellow catholicsand all religious believersto not look for god in areas of science that have not yet been explained, because someday scientists may answer those questions, too. dembski, a mathematician and professor of philosophy, spoke in agreement with much of what evolutionary sciences have demonstrated. but he noted that in areas such as the development of life, its increasing complexity, and its self - awareness, science has much more to explain than it hasor can. dembski made a critical distinction between matter and information and he asked if there is something \u201c outside \u201d of matter that is informing it, guiding the cosmos and life to develop as it has. selection is the method that evolution uses, that \u2019 s fine, \u201d dembski said after his talk. \u201c but where does the information needed for this process come from? \u201d miller later said that dembski was being \u201c disingenuous \u201d in stating acceptance of specific elements of evolution, such as natural selection, \u201c and the record proves this. \u201d he added that science has in fact demonstrated that life", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5221767099212327, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.446975"} {"text": "document id : 12905 cisco ios\u00ae network address translation ( nat ) is designed for ip address simplification and conservation. it enables private ip internetworks that use nonregistered ip addresses to connect to the internet. nat operates on a cisco router that connects two networks together, and translates the private ( inside local ) addresses in the internal network to public addresses ( outside local ) before packets are forwarded to another network. as a part of this functionality, you can configure nat to advertise only one address for the entire network to the outside world. this effectively hides the internal network from the world. therefore, it provides additional security. there are no specific requirements for this document. this document is not restricted to specific software and hardware versions. for more information on document conventions, refer to the cisco technical tips conventions. one of the main features of nat is static port address translation ( pat ), which is also referred to as \" overload \" in a cisco ios configuration. static pat is designed to allow one - to - one mapping between local and global addresses. a common use for static pat is to allow internet users from the public network to access a web server located in the private network. in order to get more information about nat, refer to the nat technical support pages. this table shows the three blocks of ip address space available for private networks. consult rfc 1918 for more details about these special networks. | ip address space | | class | | 10. 0. 0. 0 - 10. 255. 255. 255 ( 10 / 8 prefix ) | | class a | | 172. 16. 0. 0 - 172. 31. 255. 255 ( 172. 16 / 12 prefix ) | | class b | | 192. 168. 0. 0 - 192. 168. 255. 255 ( 192. 168 / 16 prefix ) | | class c | note : the first block is nothing but a single class a network number, while the second block is a set of 16 contiguous class b network numbers, and third block is a set of 256 contiguous class c network numbers. in this example, the internet service provider ( isp ) assigns the dsl subscriber only a single ip address, 188. 8. 131. 52 / 24. the assigned ip address is a registered unique ip address and is called an inside global address. this registered ip address is used by the entire private network to browse the internet and also by internet users that come from the public network to reach the web server", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5144414321573876, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.474661"} {"text": "science fiction ( abbreviated sf or sci - fi with varying punctuation and capitalization ) is a broad genre of fiction that often involves speculations based on current or future science or technology. fiction is the telling of stories which are not real more specifically fiction is an imaginative form of narrative, one of the four basic rhetorical modes. science ( from the latin scientia, meaning \" knowledge \" or \" knowing \" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding technology is a broad concept that deals with a species ' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts and how it affects a species ' ability to control and adapt science fiction is found in books, art, television, films, games, theater, and other media. in organizational or marketing contexts, science fiction can be synonymous with the broader definition of speculative fiction, encompassing creative works incorporating imaginative elements not found in contemporary reality ; this includes fantasy, horror, and related genres. speculative fiction is a term used as an inclusive descriptor covering a group of fiction genres that speculate about worlds that are unlike the real world in fantasy is a genre that uses magic and other supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, and / or setting horror fiction is broadly fiction in any medium intended to scare unsettle or horrify the audience science fiction differs from fantasy in that, within the context of the story, its imaginary elements are largely possible within scientifically established or scientifically postulated laws of nature ( though some elements in a story might still be pure imaginative speculation ). science fiction is largely based on writing entertainingly and rationally about alternate possibilities in settings that are contrary to known reality. these include : exploring the consequences of such differences is the traditional purpose of science fiction, making it a \" literature of ideas \". outer space, often simply called space, comprises the relatively empty regions of the universe outside the escape velocities of celestial bodies. extraterrestrial life is life originating outside of the earth. this article details time travel itself for other uses see time traveler. psionics is the study and / or practice of using the mind to induce paranormal phenomena nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an atomic and molecular a robot is a mechanical or virtual artificial agent in practice it is usually an electro - mechanical system which by its appearance or movements science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a wide range of subgenres and themes. a genre ( \u02c8\u0292\u0251\u02d0nr\u0259", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6550047879232914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.524563"} {"text": "mechanical or virtual artificial agent in practice it is usually an electro - mechanical system which by its appearance or movements science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a wide range of subgenres and themes. a genre ( \u02c8\u0292\u0251\u02d0nr\u0259 also / \u02c8d\u0292\u0251\u02d0nr\u0259 / from french \" kind \" or \" sort \" from latin : genus ( stem gener - ) is a loose set author and editor damon knight summed up the difficulty by stating that \" science fiction is what we point to when we say it \". damon francis knight ( september 19, 1922 & ndash april 15, 2002 ) was an american science fiction author, vladimir nabokov argued that were we rigorous with our definitions, shakespeare ' s play the tempest would have to be termed science fiction. this page is about the novelist for his father the politician see vladimir dmitrievich nabokov. william shakespeare ( baptised the tempest is a comedy written by william shakespeare. it is generally dated to 1610 - 11 and accepted as the last play written solely by him although according to science fiction writer robert a. heinlein, \" a handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read : realistic speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method. robert anson heinlein ( july 7 1907 \u2013 may 8 1988 was an american novelist and science fiction writer. scientific method refers to bodies of techniques for investigating phenomena \" rod serling ' s stated definition is \" fantasy is the impossible made probable. rodman edward \" rod \" serling ( december 25, 1924 & ndash june 28, 1975 ) was an american screenwriter, best known science fiction is the improbable made possible. \" lester del rey wrote, \" even the devoted aficionado \u2013 or fan - has a hard time trying to explain what science fiction is, \" and that the reason for there not being a \" full satisfactory definition \" is that \" there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction. lester del rey ( june 2 1915 & ndash may 10 1993 ) was an american science fiction author and editor. \" author mark c. glassy stated that the definition of science fiction was very much like the definition of porn ; you don ' t know what it is, but you know it when you see it. pornography or porn is the explicit depiction of sexual subject matter with the sole intention of sexually exciting the viewer forrest j. ac", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6045152892125815, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.526176"} {"text": "very much like the definition of porn ; you don ' t know what it is, but you know it when you see it. pornography or porn is the explicit depiction of sexual subject matter with the sole intention of sexually exciting the viewer forrest j. ackerman publicly used the term \" sci - fi \" at ucla in 1954, though robert a. heinlein had used it in private correspondence six years earlier. forrest j ackerman ( born november 24, 1916 ) is an american collector of science fiction books and movie memorabilia and a science fiction robert anson heinlein ( july 7 1907 \u2013 may 8 1988 was an american novelist and science fiction writer. as science fiction entered popular culture, writers and fans active in the field came to associate the term with low - budget, low - tech \" b - movies \" and with low - quality pulp science fiction. popular culture ( or pop culture ) is the culture \u2014 patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance \u2014 a b movie is a motion picture made on a low or modest budget originally the term was used for films intended for distribution as the less - publicized second half of a double pulp magazines ( or pulp fiction ; often referred to as \" the pulps \" were inexpensive fiction magazines by the 1970s, critics within the field such as terry carr and damon knight were using \" sci - fi \" to distinguish hack - work from serious science fiction, and around 1978, susan wood and others introduced the pronunciation \" skiffy. terry gene carr ( february 19, 1937 \u2013 april 7, 1987 ) was a u damon francis knight ( september 19, 1922 & ndash april 15, 2002 ) was an american science fiction author, susan joan wood ( august 22, 1948 - november 12, 1980 was a canadian author, critic, and science fiction skiffy is a deliberate humorous misspelling or mispronunciation of the controversial term \" sci - fi \" a neologism referring to science fiction. \" peter nicholls writes that \" sf \" ( or \" sf \" ) is \" the preferred abbreviation within the community of sf writers and readers. \" david langford ' s monthly fanzine ansible includes a regular section \" as others see us \" which offers numerous examples of \" sci - fi \" being used in a pejorative sense by people outside the genre. david rowland langford ( born 10 april 1953 is a british author editor and critic, largely active within the science fiction field an ansible is a hypothetical machine capable of superluminal communication and used as a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6057625046937243, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.527603"} {"text": ". mary shelley ( nee mary wollstonecraft godwin ; 30 august frankenstein or the modern prometheus, generally known as frankenstein, is a novel written by the british author mary shelley the last man is an apocalyptic science fiction novel by mary shelley, which was first published in 1826 edgar allan poe ( january 19 1809 \u2013 october 7 1849 was an american poet, short - story writer, editor and literary critic, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. then with the dawn of new technologies such as electricity, the telegraph, and new forms of powered transportation, writers like jules verne and h. g. wells created a body of work that became popular across broad cross - sections of society. jules gabriel verne ( february 8 1828 & ndash march 24 1905 ) was a french author who pioneered the science - fiction herbert george wells ( 21 september 1866 & ndash 13 august 1946 he was an outspoken socialist and a pacifist, his later works becoming increasingly political in the late 19th century the term \" scientific romance \" was used in britain to describe much of this fiction. see also history of science fiction scientific romance is a bygone name for what is now commonly known as science fiction. this produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella flatland : a romance of many dimensions by edwin abbott abbott. for other uses see flatland ( disambiguation flatland a romance of many dimensions is an 1884 science fiction edwin abbott abbott ( december 20, 1838 & ndash october 12, 1926 ) english schoolmaster and theologian, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as olaf stapledon. william olaf stapledon ( may 10, 1886 & ndash september 6, 1950 ) was a british philosopher and author of several influential works in the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly american sf writers, influenced by hugo gernsback, the founder of amazing stories magazine. pulp magazines ( or pulp fiction ; often referred to as \" the pulps \" were inexpensive fiction magazines hugo gernsback ( august 16 1884 \u2013 august 19 1967 ) born hugo gernsbacher, was a luxembourg american inventor amazing stories was an american science fiction magazine launched in april 1926 by hugo gernsback ' s experimenter publishing. in the late 1930s, john w. campbell became editor of astounding science fiction, and a critical mass of new writers emerged in new york city in a group called the futurians, including isaac asimov, damon", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5309440659235929, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.529894"} {"text": "s experimenter publishing. in the late 1930s, john w. campbell became editor of astounding science fiction, and a critical mass of new writers emerged in new york city in a group called the futurians, including isaac asimov, damon knight, donald a. wollheim, frederik pohl, james blish, judith merril, and others. john wood campbell jr ( june 8 1910 \u2013 july 11 1971 was an important science fiction editor and writer analog science fiction and fact is an american science fiction magazine. the city of new york the futurians were an influential group of science fiction fans, many of whom became editors and writers as well isaac asimov ( c january 2 1920 & ndash april 6 1992 \u02c8a\u026az\u0259k \u02c8\u00e6z\u026am\u028cv originally \u0438\u0441\u0430\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 but now transcribed into russian as, was a russian damon francis knight ( september 19, 1922 & ndash april 15, 2002 ) was an american science fiction author, donald allen wollheim ( october 1 1914 & ndash november 2, 1990 ) was a science fiction writer, editor, publisher and frederik george pohl jr ( born november 26, 1919 ) is a american science fiction writer, editor and fan, with a career james benjamin blish ( east orange, new jersey, may 23, 1921 \u2013 henley - on - thames, july 30, 1975 ) was an judith josephine grossman ( january 21, 1923 - september 12, 1997 ) who took the pen - name judith merril about 1945 was an other important writers during this period included robert a. heinlein, arthur c. clarke, and a. e. van vogt. robert anson heinlein ( july 7 1907 \u2013 may 8 1988 was an american novelist and science fiction writer. sir arthur charles clarke, cbe ( 16 december 1917 \u2013 19 march 2008 was a british science fiction author, inventor, and alfred elton van vogt ( april 26 1912 \u2013 january 26 2000 was a canadian - born science fiction author who was one of the most prolific campbell ' s tenure at astounding is considered to be the beginning of the golden age of science fiction, characterized by hard sf stories celebrating scientific achievement and progress. the first golden age of science fiction, often recognized as a period from the late 1930s or early 1940s through to the 1950s was an era during which the science fiction genre gained wide this lasted until postwar technological advances, new magazines like galaxy under pohl as editor, and a new generation of writers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5027574968785575, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.531012"} {"text": "often recognized as a period from the late 1930s or early 1940s through to the 1950s was an era during which the science fiction genre gained wide this lasted until postwar technological advances, new magazines like galaxy under pohl as editor, and a new generation of writers began writing stories outside the campbell mode. galaxy science fiction was a digest - size science fiction magazine, the creation of noted editor h in the 1950s, the beat generation included speculative writers like william s. burroughs. william seward burroughs ii ( \u2013 \u02c8b\u028cro\u028az was an american novelist, essayist, social critic, painter and spoken word in the 1960s and early 1970s, writers like frank herbert, samuel r. delany, roger zelazny, and harlan ellison explored new trends, ideas, and writing styles, while a group of writers, mainly in britain, became known as the new wave. franklin patrick herbert jr ( october 8 1920 & ndash february 11 1986 ) was a critically acclaimed and commercially successful american samuel ray delany jr ( born april 1, 1942, new york city ) is an award - winning american science fiction roger joseph zelazny ( may 13, 1937 \u2013 june 14, 1995 ) was an american writer of fantasy and science fiction harlan jay ellison ( born may 27, 1934 ) is a prolific american writer of short stories, novellas, teleplays the united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, commonly known as the united kingdom, the uk or britain, is a sovereign state located new wave is a term applied to science fiction writing characterized by a high degree of experimentation both in form and in content and a highbrow and self - consciously in the 1970s, writers like larry niven and poul anderson began to redefine hard sf. laurence van cott niven ( born april 30, 1938 los angeles california ) is a us science fiction author. poul william anderson ( november 25, 1926 \u2013 july 31, 2001 ) was an american science fiction author who wrote during a golden ursula k. le guin and others pioneered soft science fiction. ursula kroeber le guin ( l\u0259\u02c8gw\u026an ( born october 21, 1929 ) is an american author in the 1980s, cyberpunk authors like william gibson turned away from the traditional optimism and support for progress of traditional science fiction. cyberpunk is a science fiction genre noted for its focus on \" high tech and low life. william ford gibson ( born march 17 1948 is an american - canadian writer who has been called the \" noir prophet", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.533035048324367, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.532288"} {"text": "support for progress of traditional science fiction. cyberpunk is a science fiction genre noted for its focus on \" high tech and low life. william ford gibson ( born march 17 1948 is an american - canadian writer who has been called the \" noir prophet \" of the cyberpunk subgenre star wars helped spark a new interest in space opera, focusing more on story and character than on scientific accuracy. star wars episode iv a new hope ( originally released as star wars ) is a 1977 space opera space opera is a subgenre of speculative fiction or science fiction that emphasizes romantic, often melodramatic adventure set mainly or entirely c. j. cherryh ' s detailed explorations of alien life and complex scientific challenges influenced a generation of writers. carolyn janice cherry ( born september 1, 1942 ) better known by the pseudonym c extraterrestrial life is life originating outside of the earth. emerging themes in the 1990s included environmental issues, the implications of the global internet and the expanding information universe, questions about biotechnology and nanotechnology, as well as a post - cold war interest in post - scarcity societies ; neal stephenson ' s the diamond age comprehensively explores these themes. this is a list of environmental issues that are due to human activity biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an atomic and molecular cold war is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the united states and the soviet union ( ussr and their respective allies from the post scarcity or post - scarcity describes a hypothetical form of economy or society, often explored in science fiction, in which things such as neal town stephenson ( born october 31, 1959 ) is an american writer known primarily for his science fiction works in the postcyberpunk genre the diamond age or a young lady ' s illustrated primer is a postcyberpunk novel by neal stephenson. lois mcmaster bujold ' s vorkosigan novels brought the character - driven story back into prominence. lois mcmaster bujold ( born november 2, 1949, columbus, ohio ) is an american author of science fiction and fantasy the vorkosigan saga is a series of science fiction novels and short stories by lois mcmaster bujold, most of which concern miles vorkosigan, a physically the television series star trek : the next generation began a torrent of new sf shows, of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5665074110868178, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.539879"} {"text": "saga is a series of science fiction novels and short stories by lois mcmaster bujold, most of which concern miles vorkosigan, a physically the television series star trek : the next generation began a torrent of new sf shows, of which babylon 5 was among the most highly acclaimed in the decade. star trek the next generation ( sttng or tng ) is an emmy and peabody award - winning science fiction television program created by gene roddenberry babylon 5 is an american science fiction television series created produced and largely written by j a general concern about the rapid pace of technological change crystallized around the concept of the technological singularity, popularized by vernor vinge ' s novel marooned in realtime and then taken up by other authors. the technological singularity is a theoretical future point of unprecedented technological progress caused in part by the ability of machines to improve themselves using artificial vernor steffen vinge ( \u02c8v\u026and\u0292i ( born october 2, 1944 in waukesha wisconsin, u marooned in realtime is a 1986 murder mystery and time - travel science fiction novel by vernor vinge, about a small time - displaced television shows like buffy the vampire slayer and films like the lord of the rings created new interest in all the speculative genres in films, television, computer games, and books. fictional narratives ( and works of art exist beyond their completion e the lord of the rings film trilogy consists of three live action fantasy epic films the fellowship of the ring ( 2001 while sf has provided criticism of developing and future technologies, it also produces innovation and new technology. the discussion of this topic has occurred more in literary and sociological than in scientific forums. cinema and media theorist vivian sobchack examines the dialogue between science fiction film and the technological imagination. vivian sobchack is an american cinema and media theorist and cultural critic technology does impact how artists portray their fictionalized subjects, but the fictional world gives back to science by broadening imagination. while more prevalent in the beginning years of science fiction with writers like isaac asimov, robert a. heinlein, frank walker and arthur c. clarke, new authors like michael crichton still find ways to make the currently impossible technologies seem so close to being realized. isaac asimov ( c january 2 1920 & ndash april 6 1992 \u02c8a\u026az\u0259k \u02c8\u00e6z\u026am\u028cv originally \u0438\u0441\u0430\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 but now transcribed into russian as, was a russian robert anson heinlein ( july 7 1907", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6051351038630737, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.541057"} {"text": "& ndash april 6 1992 \u02c8a\u026az\u0259k \u02c8\u00e6z\u026am\u028cv originally \u0438\u0441\u0430\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 but now transcribed into russian as, was a russian robert anson heinlein ( july 7 1907 \u2013 may 8 1988 was an american novelist and science fiction writer. frank walker may refer to frank comerford walker, former chairman of the democratic national committee frank ray walker architect partner in sir arthur charles clarke, cbe ( 16 december 1917 \u2013 19 march 2008 was a british science fiction author, inventor, and john michael crichton, \u02c8kra\u026at\u0259n, ( born october 23 1942 is an american author film producer, film director, medical doctor, and television producer this has also been notably documented in the field of nanotechnology with university of ottawa professor jose lopez ' s article \" bridging the gaps : science fiction in nanotechnology. nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an atomic and molecular for the university in ottawa kansas see ottawa university. the university of ottawa or universite d ' ottawa in french \" lopez links both theoretical premises of science fiction worlds and the operation of nanotechnologies. authors and filmmakers draw on a wide spectrum of ideas, but marketing departments and literary critics tend to separate such literary and cinematic works into different categories, or \" genres \", and subgenres. literary criticism is the study discussion evaluation and interpretation of literature. a genre ( \u02c8\u0292\u0251\u02d0nr\u0259 also / \u02c8d\u0292\u0251\u02d0nr\u0259 / from french \" kind \" or \" sort \" from latin : genus ( stem gener - ) is a loose set these are not simple pigeonholes ; works can be overlapped into two or more commonly - defined genres, while others are beyond the generic boundaries, either outside or between categories, and the categories and genres used by mass markets and literary criticism differ considerably. hard science fiction, or \" hard sf \", is characterized by rigorous attention to accurate detail in quantitative sciences, especially physics, astrophysics, and chemistry, or on accurately depicting worlds that more advanced technology may make possible. hard science fiction is a category of science fiction characterized by an emphasis on scientific or technical detail or on scientific accuracy or on both physics ( greek physis - \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 in everyday terms is the science of matter and its motion. astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties ( luminosity, chemistry (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5494837598660197, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.542582"} {"text": "physics ( greek physis - \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 in everyday terms is the science of matter and its motion. astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties ( luminosity, chemistry ( from egyptian keme ( chem meaning \" earth \" ) is the science concerned with the composition structure and properties many accurate predictions of the future come from the hard science fiction subgenre, but numerous inaccurate predictions have emerged as well. hard science fiction is a category of science fiction characterized by an emphasis on scientific or technical detail or on scientific accuracy or on both for example, arthur c. clarke accurately predicted ( and invented the concept of ) geostationary communications satellites, but erred in his prediction of deep layers of moondust in lunar craters. sir arthur charles clarke, cbe ( 16 december 1917 \u2013 19 march 2008 was a british science fiction author, inventor, and a geostationary orbit ( geo is a geosynchronous orbit directly above the earth ' s equator ( 0\u00b0 latitude ) with a period equal to the earth ' s some hard sf authors have distinguished themselves as working scientists, including robert forward, gregory benford, charles sheffield, and geoffrey a. landis, while mathematician authors include rudy rucker and vernor vinge. this is about the physicist and science fiction writer you may be looking for his son robert d gregory benford ( born january 30, 1941 in mobile alabama ) is an american science fiction author and astrophysicist who is on the charles sheffield ( june 25, 1935 & ndash november 2, 2002 ) was an english - born mathematician physicist and science fiction geoffrey a landis works as a scientist and writer of science fiction. rudolf von bitter rucker ( born march 22, 1946 in louisville kentucky ) is an american computer scientist and science fiction vernor steffen vinge ( \u02c8v\u026and\u0292i ( born october 2, 1944 in waukesha wisconsin, u other noteworthy hard sf authors include hal clement, joe haldeman, larry niven, jerry pournelle, kim stanley robinson, robert j. sawyer, and stephen baxter. harry clement stubbs ( may 30, 1922 in somerville massachusetts \u2013 october 29, 2003 in milton massachusetts ) better joe william haldeman is an american science fiction author. life and work haldeman was born in 1943 in oklahoma city oklahoma laurence van cott niven ( born april 30, 1938 los angeles california ) is a us science fiction author. jerry eugene pournelle (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6821318321831379, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.543675"} {"text": "is an american science fiction author. life and work haldeman was born in 1943 in oklahoma city oklahoma laurence van cott niven ( born april 30, 1938 los angeles california ) is a us science fiction author. jerry eugene pournelle ( born august 7, 1933 ) is an american science fiction writer, essayist and journalist kim stanley robinson ( born march 23 1952 ) is an american science fiction writer, probably best known for his award - winning robert j sawyer is a canadian science fiction writer born in ottawa in 1960 and now resident in mississauga. stephen baxter ( born 13 november 1957 is a british hard science fiction author. the description \" soft \" science fiction may describe works based on social sciences such as psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology. the left hand of darkness is a science fiction novel by ursula k ursula kroeber le guin ( l\u0259\u02c8gw\u026an ( born october 21, 1929 ) is an american author soft science fiction, or soft sf, like its complementary opposite hard science fiction, is a descriptive term that points to the role and nature of the social science fiction is a term used to describe a subgenre of science fiction concerned less with technology and space opera and more with sociological the social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including anthropology, communication studies psychology ( from greek grc \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b7 psykhe, \" breath life soul \" and grc - \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1 - logia ) is an academic and economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. political science is a branch of social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems sociology ( from latin : socius \" companion \" and the suffix - ology \" the study of \" from greek \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 logos \" knowledge \" anthropology ( / / from greek grc \u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 anthropos, \" human \" - \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1 - logia ) is the study of noteworthy writers in this category include ursula k. le guin and philip k. dick. ursula kroeber le guin ( l\u0259\u02c8gw\u026an ( born october 21, 1929 ) is an american author philip kindred dick ( december 16 \u2013 march 2 ) was an american science fiction novelist and short story writer. the term can describe stories focused primarily on character and emotion ; sfwa grand master ray bradbury is an", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5000146568168704, "token_count": 507, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.544701"} {"text": ", 1929 ) is an american author philip kindred dick ( december 16 \u2013 march 2 ) was an american science fiction novelist and short story writer. the term can describe stories focused primarily on character and emotion ; sfwa grand master ray bradbury is an acknowledged master of this art. ray douglas bradbury ( born august 22 1920 is an american mainstream, fantasy, horror, science fiction and mystery some writers blur the boundary between hard and soft science fiction - for example mack reynolds ' s work focuses on politics but anticipated many developments in computers, including cyber - terrorism. dallas mccord \" mack \" reynolds ( november 11, 1917 - january 30, 1983 ) was an american science fiction writer related to social sf and soft sf are the speculative fiction branches of utopian or dystopian stories ; the handmaid ' s tale, nineteen eighty - four, and brave new world are examples. utopia is a name for an ideal community taken from the title of a book written in 1516 by sir thomas more describing a fictional island in the a dystopia ( from the greek \u03b4\u03c5\u03c3 - and \u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 alternatively cacotopia, kakotopia, cackotopia, or anti - utopia ) is the vision of a society the handmaid ' s tale is a dystopian novel by canadian author margaret atwood, first published by mcclelland and stewart in nineteen eighty - four ( also titled 1984 ) by george orwell ( the pen name of eric arthur blair ) is a 1949 english novel brave new world is a 1932 novel by aldous huxley. set in the london of ad 2540 ( 632 a satirical novels with fantastic settings such as gulliver ' s travels may be considered speculative fiction. gulliver ' s travels ( 1726 amended 1735 officially travels into several remote nations of the world in four parts the cyberpunk genre emerged in the early 1980s ; the name is a portmanteau of \" cybernetics \" and \" punk \", and was first coined by author bruce bethke in his 1980 short story \" cyberpunk \". neuromancer is a 1984 novel by william gibson, notable for being the most famous early cyberpunk novel and winner of the science - fiction \" triple william ford gibson ( born march 17 1948 is an american - canadian writer who has been called the \" noir prophet \" of the cyberpunk subgenre cyberpunk is a science fiction genre noted for its focus on \" high tech and low life. steampunk is a subgen", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5039844429281842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.545767"} {"text": "is an american - canadian writer who has been called the \" noir prophet \" of the cyberpunk subgenre cyberpunk is a science fiction genre noted for its focus on \" high tech and low life. steampunk is a subgenre of fantasy and speculative fiction that came into prominence in the 1980s and early 1990s bruce bethke is an american author best known for his 1980 short story \" cyberpunk \" which led to the widespread use of the term and his novel the short story is a literary genre of fictional prose narrative that tends to be more concise and to the point than longer works of fiction such the time frame is usually near - future and the settings are often dystopian. common themes in cyberpunk include advances in information technology and especially the internet ( visually abstracted as cyberspace ), ( possibly malevolent ) artificial intelligence, enhancements of mind and body using bionic prosthetics and direct brain - computer interfaces called cyberware, and post - democratic societal control where corporations have more influence than governments. information technology ( it ) as defined by the information technology association of america ( itaa is \" the study design development implementation support the internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks cyberspace & mdash from the greek el \u03ba\u03c5\u03b2\u03b5\u03c1\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 ( el kybernetes steersman governor pilot or rudder & mdash is the global domain of electro - magnetics accessed bionics ( also known as biomimetics, biognosis, biomimicry, or bionical creativity engineering ) is the application of biological in medicine, a prosthesis ( plural prostheses ) is an artificial extension that replaces a missing body part. a brain - computer interface ( bci sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain - machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal cyberware is a relatively new and unknown field ( a proto - science, or more adequately a \u201c proto - technology \u201d nihilism, post - modernism, and film noir techniques are common elements, and the protagonists may be disaffected or reluctant anti - heroes. nihilism ( from the latin nihil, nothing is a philosophical position that argues that existence is without objective meaning purpose postmodernism literally means ' after the modernist movement ' while \" modern \" itself refers to something \" related to the present \" the movement of modernism film noir is a cinematic term used primarily to describe stylish hollywood crime dramas, particularly those that emphasize moral ambiguity", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.517064615344005, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.546746"} {"text": "banks of the lethe \" in andromeda ) and as one - off productions such as the flipside of dominick hide. doctor who is a british science fiction television programme produced by the bbc. \" the city on the edge of forever \" is the penultimate episode of the first season of star trek. star trek is a science fiction television series created by gene roddenberry that aired from september 8, 1966 through \" babylon squared \" is an episode from the first season of the science - fiction television series babylon 5. babylon 5 is an american science fiction television series created produced and largely written by j see andromeda ( disambiguation for other uses of \" andromeda \" the flipside of dominick hide is a british television play which has attained cult status alternate history stories are based on the premise that historical events might have turned out differently. alternate history or alternative history is a subgenre of speculative fiction ( or science fiction ) and historical fiction these stories may use time travel to change the past, or may simply set a story in a universe with a different history from our own. classics in the genre include bring the jubilee by ward moore, in which the south wins the american civil war and the man in the high castle, by philip k. bring the jubilee, by ward ward moore ( b august 10 1903, madison new jersey - d january 28 1978 ) was the working name of american author joseph ward causes of the war see also origins of the american civil war, timeline of events leading to the american civil war the coexistence of a slave - owning south the man in the high castle is a 1962 alternate history novel by science fiction writer philip k dick, in which germany and japan win world war ii. world war ii, or the second world war, ( often abbreviated wwii ) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world ' s nations, including the sidewise award acknowledges the best works in this subgenre ; the name is taken from murray leinster ' s early story \" sidewise in time \". the sidewise award for alternate history were established in 1995 to recognize the best alternate history stories and novels of the year murray leinster ( june 16, 1896 in norfolk virginia - june 8, 1975 ) was a nom de plume of william fitzgerald jenkins military science fiction is set in the context of conflict between national, interplanetary, or interstellar armed forces ; the primary viewpoint characters are usually soldiers. military science fiction is a subgenre of science fiction in which the principal characters are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5349885724077899, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.548723"} {"text": "fitzgerald jenkins military science fiction is set in the context of conflict between national, interplanetary, or interstellar armed forces ; the primary viewpoint characters are usually soldiers. military science fiction is a subgenre of science fiction in which the principal characters are members of a military service and an armed conflict is taking for the military meaning see armed forces. for the soviet sports society see armed forces ( sports society armed forces stories include detail about military technology, procedure, ritual, and history ; military stories may use parallels with historical conflicts. heinlein ' s starship troopers is an early example, along with the dorsai novels of gordon dickson. starship troopers is a science fiction novel by robert a heinlein, first published ( in abridged form as a serial in the magazine the childe cycle is an unfinished series of science fiction novels by gordon r gordon rupert dickson ( november 1, 1923 \u2013 january 31, 2001 ) was an american science fiction author joe haldeman ' s the forever war is a critique of the genre, a vietnam - era response to the world war ii - style stories of earlier authors. joe william haldeman is an american science fiction author. life and work haldeman was born in 1943 in oklahoma city oklahoma the forever war is a 1974 science fiction novel by joe haldeman. the vietnam war, also known as the second indochina war, or the vietnam conflict, occurred in vietnam, laos and cambodia world war ii, or the second world war, ( often abbreviated wwii ) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world ' s nations, including prominent military sf authors include david drake, david weber, jerry pournelle, s. m. stirling, and lois mcmaster bujold. david drake ( born september 24, 1945 ) is an author of science fiction and fantasy literature david mark weber is an american science fiction and fantasy author. jerry eugene pournelle ( born august 7, 1933 ) is an american science fiction writer, essayist and journalist stephen michael stirling is a french - born canadian - american science fiction and fantasy author lois mcmaster bujold ( born november 2, 1949, columbus, ohio ) is an american author of science fiction and fantasy baen books is known for cultivating military science fiction authors. baen books is an american publishing company established in 1983 by long time science fiction publisher and editor jim baen. television series within this subgenre include battlestar galactica and stargate sg - 1. battlestar galactica is a franchise of science", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5309253278435568, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.551868"} {"text": "by larry niven in 1976 and later expanded to a novella of the same name which however, most authors and readers make a distinction between fantasy and sf. in general, science fiction is the literature of things that might someday be possible, and fantasy is the literature of things that are inherently impossible. magic and mythology are popular themes in fantasy. magic in fiction is the endowing of fictional characters or objects with magical powers. the word mythology ( from the greek grc \u03bc\u03c5\u03b8\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1 mythologia, meaning \" a story - telling a legendary lore \" there are many elements that show up throughout the fantasy genre in different guises it is common to see narratives described as being essentially science fiction but \" with fantasy elements. frankenstein is a horror film from universal pictures directed by james whale and very loosely based on the novel of the same name \" the term \" science fantasy \" is sometimes used to describe such material. science fantasy is a mixed genre of story which contains some science fiction and some fantasy elements horror fiction is the literature of the unnatural and supernatural, with the aim of unsettling or frightening the reader, sometimes with graphic violence. horror fiction is broadly fiction in any medium intended to scare unsettle or horrify the audience the term supernatural or supranatural ( latin : super, supra \" above \" + natura \" nature \" pertains to entities events graphic violence is the depiction of especially vivid brutal and realistic acts of violence in visual media such as literature, film, television historically it has also been known as \" weird fiction. \" although horror is not per se a branch of science fiction, many works of horror literature incorporates science fictional elements. one of the defining classical works of horror, mary shelley ' s novel frankenstein, is a fully - realized work of science fiction, where the manufacture of the monster is given a rigorous science - fictional grounding. mary shelley ( nee mary wollstonecraft godwin ; 30 august frankenstein or the modern prometheus, generally known as frankenstein, is a novel written by the british author mary shelley the works of edgar allan poe also helped define both the science fiction and the horror genres. edgar allan poe ( january 19 1809 \u2013 october 7 1849 was an american poet, short - story writer, editor and literary critic, today horror is one of the most popular categories of films. horror films are movies that strive to elicit fear, horror and terror responses from viewers works in which science and technology are a dominant theme, but based on current reality, may be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5488917001371139, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.556545"} {"text": "critic, today horror is one of the most popular categories of films. horror films are movies that strive to elicit fear, horror and terror responses from viewers works in which science and technology are a dominant theme, but based on current reality, may be considered mainstream fiction. much of the thriller genre would be included, such as the novels of tom clancy or michael crichton, or the james bond films. the thriller is a broad genre of literature, film, gaming and television. thomas leo clancy jr ( born april 12 1947 ) is an american author best known for his technically detailed espionage and military science storylines john michael crichton, \u02c8kra\u026at\u0259n, ( born october 23 1942 is an american author film producer, film director, medical doctor, and television producer james bond 007 is a fictional character created in 1953 by writer ian fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short story modernist works from writers like kurt vonnegut, philip k. dick, and stanis\u0142aw lem have focused on speculative or existential perspectives on contemporary reality and are on the borderline between sf and the mainstream. modernism describes an array of cultural movements rooted in the changes in western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century kurt vonnegut jr ( november 11 1922 \u2013 april 11 2007 ( \u02c8v\u0252n\u0259g\u0259t was a prolific and genre - bending american novelist known for works blending satire, black philip kindred dick ( december 16 \u2013 march 2 ) was an american science fiction novelist and short story writer. stanis\u0142aw lem ( sta ' \u0272iswaf l\u025bm 12 september 1921 \u2013 27 march 2006 was a polish science fiction, philosophical and satirical writer existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence according to robert j. sawyer, \" science fiction and mystery have a great deal in common. robert j sawyer is a canadian science fiction writer born in ottawa in 1960 and now resident in mississauga. both prize the intellectual process of puzzle solving, and both require stories to be plausible and hinge on the way things really do work. \" isaac asimov, anthony boucher, walter mosley, and other writers incorporate mystery elements in their science fiction, and vice versa. isaac asimov ( c january 2 1920 & ndash april 6 1992 \u02c8a\u026az\u0259k \u02c8\u00e6z\u026am\u028cv originally \u0438\u0441\u0430\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 but now transcribed into russian as, was a russian anthony", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5607530807783248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.557690"} {"text": "isaac asimov ( c january 2 1920 & ndash april 6 1992 \u02c8a\u026az\u0259k \u02c8\u00e6z\u026am\u028cv originally \u0438\u0441\u0430\u0430\u043a \u043e\u0437\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432 but now transcribed into russian as, was a russian anthony boucher ( born william anthony parker white ) ( august 21, 1911 \u2013 april 29, 1968 ) was an american science fiction walter ellis mosley ( born january 12, 1952 ) is a prominent american novelist most widely recognized for his crime fiction. superhero fiction is a genre characterized by beings with much higher than usual physical or mental prowess, generally with a desire or need to help the citizens of their chosen country or world by using his or her powers to defeat natural or superpowered threats. superhero fiction is a subgenre of fiction that deals with superheroes supervillians super - powered humans aliens, or mutants many superhero fiction characters involve themselves ( either intentionally or accidentally ) with science fiction and fact, including advanced technologies, alien worlds, time travel, and interdimensional travel ; but the standards of scientific plausibility are lower than with actual science fiction. some of the best - known authors of this genre include stan lee, keith r. a. decandido, diane duane, peter david, len wein, marv wolfman, george r. r. martin, pierce askegren, christopher golden, dean wesley smith, greg cox, nancy collins, c. j. cherryh, roger stern, and elliot s! maggin. stan lee ( born stanley martin lieber ; december 28, 1922 ) is an american writer, editor, creator of comic book characters keith robert andreassi decandido ( born april 18, 1969 in new york, united states ) is an american sci - fi and fantasy writer diane duane ( born may 18, 1952 ) is an american science fiction and fantasy author for the grenadian politician see peter david ( politician. peter allen david ( often abbreviated pad ) ( born september 23 len wein ( born june 12, 1948 ) is an american comic book writer and editor best known for co - creating dc comics marvin a \" marv \" wolfman ( born may 13, 1946 ) is an award - winning american comic book writer. george raymond richard martin ( september 20, 1948 ) sometimes referred to as grrm, is an american author and screenwriter john pierce askegren ( 1955 - november 2006 of the louisiana askegrens was an american author best known for his work in adaptations of licensed properties and is a lifelong christopher golden is an", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5272786664266349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.558749"} {"text": "soon fans began writing letters to each other, and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines. once they were in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other, and they organized local clubs. in the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area. science fiction conventions are gatherings of the community of fans ( called science fiction fandom ) of various forms of speculative fiction including science conventions, clubs, and fanzines were the dominant form of fan activity, or \" fanac \", for decades, until the internet facilitated communication among a much larger population of interested people. among the most respected awards for science fiction are the hugo award, presented by the world science fiction society at worldcon, and the nebula award, presented by sfwa and voted on by the community of authors. the hugo awards are given every year for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year the nebula award is an award given each year by the science fiction and fantasy writers of america ( sfwa for the best science fiction / fantasy fiction one notable award for science fiction films is the saturn award. the saturn award is an award presented annually by the academy of science fiction fantasy & horror films to honor the top works in science fiction, fantasy it is presented annually by the academy of science fiction, fantasy, and horror films. there are national awards, like canada ' s aurora award, regional awards, like the endeavour award presented at orycon for works from the pacific northwest, special interest or subgenre awards like the chesley award for art or the world fantasy award for fantasy. the prix aurora awards are given out annually for the best canadian science fiction and fantasy literary works art works and awards for fan activities the endeavour award, announced annually at orycon in portland oregon is awarded to a distinguished science fiction or fantasy book written by a pacific northwest the pacific northwest is a region in the northwest of north america ( the term refers to the land not the ocean the chesley awards were established in 1985 by the association of science fiction and fantasy artists to recognize individual works and achievements during a given year the world fantasy awards are annual international awards given to authors and artists who have demonstrated outstanding achievement in the field of fantasy. magazines may organize reader polls, notably the locus award. the locus awards were established in 1971 and are presented to winners of locus magazine ' s annual readers ' poll conventions ( in fandom, shortened as \" cons \" ), are held in cities around the world, catering to a local", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5261964352076826, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.560994"} {"text": "locus award. the locus awards were established in 1971 and are presented to winners of locus magazine ' s annual readers ' poll conventions ( in fandom, shortened as \" cons \" ), are held in cities around the world, catering to a local, regional, national, or international membership. minicon is a science fiction and fantasy convention in minneapolis usually held on easter weekend general - interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest like media fandom, filking, etc. media fandom is a fan term invented in the late 1970s to describe the collective fandoms for contemporary television shows and movies filk is a musical culture genre and community tied to science fiction / fantasy fandom. most are organized by volunteers in non - profit groups, though most media - oriented events are organized by commercial promoters. a non - profit organization ( abbreviated \" npo \" also \" not - for - profit \" is a legally constituted organization whose objective is to support or engage the convention ' s activities are called the \" program \", which may include panel discussions, readings, autograph sessions, costume masquerades, and other events. activities that occur throughout the convention are not part of the program ; these commonly include a dealer ' s room, art show, and hospitality lounge ( or \" con suites \" ). conventions may host award ceremonies ; worldcons present the hugo awards each year. the hugo awards are given every year for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year sf societies, referred to as \" clubs \" except in formal contexts, form a year - round base of activities for science fiction fans. they may be associated with an ongoing science fiction convention, or have regular club meetings, or both. most groups meet in libraries, schools and universities, community centers, pubs or restaurants, or the homes of individual members. long - established groups like the new england science fiction association and the los angeles science fiction society have clubhouses for meetings and storage of convention supplies and research materials. the new england science fiction association, or nesfa, is a science fiction club centered in the new england area the los angeles science fantasy society or lasfs ( pron \" lahss - fuss \" \" loss - fuss \" \" lass - fass \" or \" lahss - fahss \" is a membership fan the science fiction and fantasy writers of america ( sfwa ) was founded by damon knight in 1965 as a non - profit organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5073654718936252, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.562029"} {"text": "\" or \" lahss - fahss \" is a membership fan the science fiction and fantasy writers of america ( sfwa ) was founded by damon knight in 1965 as a non - profit organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors. science fiction writers of america, or sfwa ( \u02c8s\u026afw\u0259 or / \u02c8s\u025bfw\u0259 / was founded in 1965 by damon knight. damon francis knight ( september 19, 1922 & ndash april 15, 2002 ) was an american science fiction author, fandom has helped incubate related groups, including media fandom, the society for creative anachronism, gaming, filking, and furry fandom. media fandom is a fan term invented in the late 1970s to describe the collective fandoms for contemporary television shows and movies society for creative anachronism ( usually shortened to sca ) is a historical re - creation and living history group founded in 1966 which historically the term \" gamer \" usually referred to someone who played role - playing games or wargames. filk is a musical culture genre and community tied to science fiction / fantasy fandom. furry fandom is a fandom devoted to anthropomorphic animal the first science fiction fanzine, \" the comet \", was published in 1930. fanzine printing methods have changed over the decades, from the hectograph, the mimeograph, and the ditto machine, to modern photocopying. the hectograph or gelatin duplicator or jellygraph is a printing process which involves transfer of an original prepared with special inks to a pan of a spirit duplicator ( also referred to as a ditto machine or banda machine ) was a low - volume printing method used mainly by schools and churches a photocopier ( or copier is a machine that makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply subscription volumes rarely justify the cost of commercial printing. modern fanzines are printed on computer printers or at local copy shops, or they may only be sent as email. electronic mail, often abbreviated to e - mail, email, or originally email, is a store - and - forward method of writing sending receiving the best known fanzine ( or \" ' zine \" ) today is ansible, edited by david langford, winner of numerous hugo awards. a zine ( an abbreviation of the word fanzine, or magazine zi\u02d0n \" zeen \" is most commonly a small circulation non", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5008658601243167, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.562946"} {"text": "zine \" ) today is ansible, edited by david langford, winner of numerous hugo awards. a zine ( an abbreviation of the word fanzine, or magazine zi\u02d0n \" zeen \" is most commonly a small circulation non - commercial publication an ansible is a hypothetical machine capable of superluminal communication and used as a plot device in science fiction literature david rowland langford ( born 10 april 1953 is a british author editor and critic, largely active within the science fiction field other fanzines to win awards in recent years include file 770, mimosa, and plokta. file 770 is a science fiction fanzine published by mike glyer and named for the party in room 770 at the 1951 worldcon science fiction mimosa is a genus of about 400 species of herbs and shrubs in the subfamily mimosoideae of the legume family fabaceae. plokta is a science fiction fanzine, first published in 1996 subtitled \" the journal of superfluous technology \" the magazine includes artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including brad w. foster, teddy harvia and joe mayhew ; the hugos include a category for best fan artists. hugo award for best fan artist. about this award the hugo awards the most prestigious awards in science fiction and fantasy the earliest organized fandom online was the sf lovers community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text archive file that was updated regularly. a file archiver is a computer program that combines a number of files together into one archive file, or a series of archive files for easier transportation in the 1980s, usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. usenet, a portmanteau of \" user \" and \" network \" is a world - wide distributed internet discussion system in the 1990s, the development of the world - wide web exploded the community of online fandom by orders of magnitude, with thousands and then literally millions of web sites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media. the world wide web ( commonly shortened to the web ) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the internet. most such sites are small, ephemeral, and / or very narrowly focused, though sites like sf site offer a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction. sf site is a webzine edited by rodger turner. established in 1996 by john o ' neill, it is based in canada, but includes contributors from around fan fiction", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5302891668264931, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 26, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.563931"} {"text": "sites like sf site offer a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction. sf site is a webzine edited by rodger turner. established in 1996 by john o ' neill, it is based in canada, but includes contributors from around fan fiction, known to aficionados as \" fanfic \", is non - commercial fiction created by fans in the setting of an established book, film, or television series. the community surrounding modern fan fiction has generated a considerable number of unique subgenres and literary terminology over the past several decades a non - commercial enterprise is work that values other considerations above and beyond that of making a profit this modern meaning of the term should not be confused with the traditional ( pre - 1970s ) meaning of \" fan fiction \" within the community of fandom, where the term meant original or parody fiction written by fans and published in fanzines, often with members of fandom as characters therein ( \" faan fiction \" ). science fiction fandom or sf fandom is a community of people actively interested in science fiction and fantasy literature, and in contact with one another a science fiction fanzine is an amateur or semi - professional magazine published by members of science fiction fandom, from the 1930s to the present day examples of this would include the goon stories by walt willis. walter alexander willis ( 1919 - 1999 was a well - known irish science fiction fan, resident in belfast in the last few years, sites have appeared such as orion ' s arm and galaxiki, which encourage collaborative development of science fiction universes. orion ' s arm, ( also called the orion ' s arm universe project oaup or simply oa is an online science fiction world - building project founded by m galaxiki is a web - based free content virtual community web 2", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.541007962360379, "token_count": 363, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 27, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.564688"} {"text": "\u2018 we spent a good deal of time thinking about how accident, disruption, distraction, and difference increase the motivation to learn and to solve problems, both individually and collectively. \u2019 the article : collaborative learning for the digital age by cathy n. davidson makes me think that collaborative work itself could challenge the limited feature of the human brain, whose performance level is usually or relatively low when it has to deal with multitasking assignments. the conceptual breakthrough, which does not limit our ability due to the result from the experimentation described in the first part of this article is a lesson for me not to get depressed easily because of the negative consequence, which refers to \u2018 attention blindness \u2019. collaborative learning could be a savior of the insufficient inherent capability. we are living in this world to enable an individual knowledge to be replaced with his / her community. an individual brain would be no longer more valid or highly valued than what it is now or it used to be, rather its collaborative mode would be appreciated or recognized to be an authentic qualification for human intelligence. \u2018 i think therefore i am \u2019 by descartes is manipulated by \u2018 ipod therefore i am \u2019, which could also be replaced by \u2018 we think therefore i am \u2019. however this does not mean to say each person could learn less than before ; on the contrary s / he would learn more being motivated to enjoy further studies. online collaborative projects, which i went through could therefore persuade me to think that the underline concept of competency lies in her / his connectivity and collaboration with outsides. the value of what is meant to be intelligent enough to cope with all issues of this coming era differs from that of definition without social network system. how the world wide web has changed the world from digiteen projects based on flat classroom projects and workshopa from the 1001 flat world tales project certainly not only show us the new process of learning in the 21st century but also give us the solution to challenge side effects of social network communication system. they could refer to how we can possibly manage or control the massive flow of information ; how we can be confident that what we are doing is on the right path ; how we could easily or efficiently live in the digital information era. things should be getting more convenient for us to learn, yet at the same time we have additional or extra burdens to be overseen and monitored constantly. whether it is controllable or not also seems to rely on the potential of collaborate learning. these projects running in the world premise not only save time and space but also give another credit to his / her", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.572172191773984, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.605848"} {"text": "and children without any recompense. the strong, or man of parts, had no more in division of victuals and clothes than he that was weak and not able to do a quarter the other could ; this was thought injustice. the aged and graver men to be ranked and equalized in labours and victuals, clothes, etc., with the meaner and younger sort, thought it some indignity and disrespect unto them. and for men \u2019 s wives to be commanded to do service for other men, as dressing their meat, washing their clothes, etc., they deemed it a kind of slavery, neither could many husbands well brook it. upon the point all being to have alike, and all to do alike, they thought themselves in the like condition, and one as good as another ; and so, if it did not cut off those relations that god hath set amongst men, yet it did at least much diminish and take off the mutual respects that should be preserved amongst them. and would have been worse if they had been men of another condition. let none object this is men \u2019 s corruption, and nothing to the course itself. i answer, seeing all men have this corruption in them, god in his wisdom saw another course fitter for them. freed from the theoretical, americans set about creating a distinctive and largely spontaneous commercial culture. self - interest would drive it, and self - control would restrain it. the judeo - christian legacy would inform that self - control and inspire it, but always imperfectly, given the fallen nature of man. the relative absence of external control would allow this dynamic to work itself out and, in the process, forge the most productive industrial enterprise in world history, but the balance between forces would always be a delicate one. on nov. 6, we saw how the mis - education of our children has helped upset that balance. let the re - education begin, and there is no better way to start than by sharing bradford \u2019 s words of wisdom over the thanksgiving dinner table. read more at http : / / www. wnd. com / 2012 / 11 / how - the - p... vzi7owt0q2r. 99", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5002314788588546, "token_count": 456, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.631407"} {"text": "the greenhouse effect. it is remote and sort of intangible. one example of someone who is doing something about it is my friend, architect kristian von bengtson. he is a boutique example of a citizen starting a private and autonomous space project. why would a private citizen invest time and money into space exploration? as he explains : before the age of robots and machines, humans were key participants in any exploration. from marco polo to present cave divers, the human presence is seen as the approval of a discovery. human involvement in exploration enables sharing the story of the exploration with the whole world, not only objectively, but perhaps more importantly, subjectively. \" being there \" as humans is important. but since the development of robots we have created augmented senses and presence which is considered just as good these days. the question is, can one argue that humans have been on mars through the use of rovers and landers? there is a big difference between exploration using robots and humans. when nasa landed rovers spirit and opportunity on mars they lasted 100 times longer than anticipated. it was a major achievement. compared with humans, rovers are relatively easy to ship to mars \u2014 machines do not require food and safety. but the two rovers lasting for many years on mars were estimated to have performed exploration work comparable to one human presence on mars for only two weeks. robots do not sense what is important nor do they think rationally or independently. humans are required in any serious exploration if we want to go somewhere seriously with in this matter. in the development phases of human spaceflight, corporations have always turned towards engineers. however, engineers may have a hard time dealing with factors which cannot be added into equations because of irrational behavior in human nature, human needs and \" functionality. \" architects, designers, psychologists and anthropologists are widely used and much required to make it all happen. the integration of machine, mission and humans is a task for these professions to solve. it has been done for many decades with much success and future human exploration calls for more participation from these professions. besides autonomous space projects, a few other things that could be done : - outsourcing some non - core projects to private companies. - revamp national and international projects with a clear goal to bring the human species into space. - change international space law to be in favor of \" messing \" with space. right now space law is in favor of conservationism. - reinforce and communicate the link between environmentalism and spacefaring \u2014 between terraforming and geo - engineering, preserving our", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5444350791350951, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.641798"} {"text": "international space law to be in favor of \" messing \" with space. right now space law is in favor of conservationism. - reinforce and communicate the link between environmentalism and spacefaring \u2014 between terraforming and geo - engineering, preserving our habitat, earth and finding new ones. in the past, the united states has thrown down the gauntlet of greening the globe and the rest of the world has picked it up. who will be there to seize the mandate of space migration now? jens martin skibsted is a designer, entrepreneur and philosopher, who rose to celebrity status with the instantly iconic biomega bike, which stands for an entirely new sort of urban mobility. for more than a decade, he has helped ambitious companies build products that redefine marketplaces. he ' s the founding partner of biomega, a luxury bicycle manufacturer, and kibisi, a product design consultancy. his bicycle designs live in the permanent collections at the moma, le cnap and sfmoma. a young global leader who spoke about icons at davos 2011, he is a member of index award, world economic forum ' s global agenda council on design innovation, and the danish design council. he is also a guest blogger for fast company. jens martin graduated from esec in paris, uc berkeley and copenhagen university. @ jmskibsted", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5658041338268269, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.642419"} {"text": "a schoolmate nitin would introduce himself with the line : \" i ' m nitin, the same backwards and forwards \". however cheesy that may be, at least it gave a mnemonic - people didn ' t forget his palindromic name in a hurry. palindromes are words or phrases that read the same in either direction. words like mum, deed, refer, the famous long one malayalam. phrases like nurses run and madam i ' m adam and so many dynamos. when a palindrome appears in a cryptic puzzle, the clue will often make use of its same - both - ways attribute in the wordplay. times sunday 4312 : it swivels up and down ( 7 ) ft 13124 ( mudd ) : flat food turned over just the same ( 4 ) times 24250 : standard that may be raised to no effect ( 5 ) guardian 24502 ( orlando ) : witnesses going up and down ( 4 ) - the word \" palindrome \" is derived from the greek palindromos, meaning \" running back \" ( palin = back + dromos = running ). - other than the traditional palindrome which has character - by - character symmetry, variants such as these are also classed as palindromes : - word - unit palindrome : a phrase / sentence with symmetry of words rather than letters. e. g. fall leaves after leaves fall. - mirrored palindrome : a graphically reversible sequence. e. g. wow, bid. a traditional palindrome is not necessarily mirrored ( e. g. did is not a mirrored palindrome ). - the shishupala vadha, an epic sanskrit poem composed by magha in the 8th century, has a stanza which is palindromic not just forwards and backwards but also up and down. read more here. - the guardian carried a palindrome - themed puzzle by araucaria a few months ago. check it out here : guardian 24587. - if you are afraid of palindromes, you ' re suffering from aibohphobia according to wikipedia ' s list of jocular phobias ( and if you ' re really possessed by this fear then don ' t learn this word as it is itself a palindrome ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5815202174002738, "token_count": 485, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.657468"} {"text": "definitions for great lakes water withdrawal registration for purposes of implementing the great lakes water conservation and management act, the following definitions are applicable for registering water withdrawals and losses. - facility is one or more pieces of water withdrawal equipment at the same site, including but not limited to any place of business, farm, factory, industrial or commercial site, institution, structure, open land, vessel, or rolling stock, where water is withdrawn for any purpose. - agriculture is the practice of farming on a farm for crops, plants, vines and trees ; and the keeping, grazing or feeding of livestock for sale as livestock or livestock products. - farm is an agricultural business that may be composed of up to 25 non - contiguous parcels of land within a radius of 40 miles that are under the ownership or control of the same person. - water withdrawal is a withdrawal of surface or ground water from the great lakes basin of 100, 000 gallons per day averaged over 30 consecutive days. - water loss means the consumptive use of great lakes water, or the diversion of water out of the great lakes basin, or both. - consumptive use is a use of water that results in a failure to return any portion of the amount withdrawn to the great lakes basin. - interbasin diversion is a transfer of water out of the great lakes basin through any mechanism such as a pipe or canal and including a change in ground water flow caused by pumping. - great lakes basin is shown in a map along with a list of basin communities in appendix a of the great lakes water withdrawal registration program handbook.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5139619314134831, "token_count": 316, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.691081"} {"text": "a digital preservation program exists within an organizational context and as such must fit the needs, priorities, and resources of that organization. the core of a digital preservation program is a digital preservation system. this tutorial focuses on the organizational context for a digital preservation program and has as its foundation two key documents that have emerged from the digital preservation community. the first document is trusted digital repositories : attributes and responsibilities ( tdr ), produced by the research libraries group ( rlg ) and oclc. tdr defines the organizational context for a digital preservation program. tdr embraces oais and demonstrates what adhering to oais will mean for an institution. the second document is the reference model for an open archival information system ( oais ), produced by an international group of digital preservation researchers and practitioners convened by the nasa consultative committee for space data systems ( ccsds ). oais is an iso standard ( iso 14721 : 2003 ) that provides the functional framework for sustaining digital objects in managed repositories. oais has been adopted as the foundation for many important digital preservation initiatives, and incorporates definitions and relationships between participants and the component parts of an archival information system. oais defines what is needed but not how to build it. currently, ccsds has updated oais using input from the user community. this update is ccsds 650. 0 m 2. you could say that the tdr is primarily organizational and the oais primarily technological, but the two must work in concert for a digital preservation program to be successfully planned and implemented. organizations have tended to focus on the technology \u2014 and more often on their fear of the technology \u2014 though there are many organizational pieces that need to be in place, including policies, procedures, and sustainable resources. here we present the two foundation documents in some detail with a special emphasis on preservation metadata and then discuss how they fit together to provide a starting point for cultural organizations wishing to establish a digital preservation repository.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5536750516158315, "token_count": 397, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.723359"} {"text": "concrete examples of orderings last week, i noted that if you have an object with two components, each of which you know how to order independently, it requires at least a little thought to figure out how to do so. moreover, there is a commonly used strategy, often called lexicographical order or dictionary order, for taking the ordering strategies for individual components and combining them. the c + + library is considerate enough to implement dictionary ordering for its users in ( at least ) three places. the first is the std : : pair template, which defines the six comparison operators in terms of the corresponding operators of the pair ' s components. specifically, pair ( x1, y1 ) < pair ( x2, y2 ) is defined as x1 < x2 | | (! ( x2 < x1 ) & & y2 < y1 ) note that this definition is careful to use only < on components, not > or = =. part of its technique for doing so rests on the fact that the comparison x2 < x1 can take place only when it has already been established that x1 < x2 is false, so that! ( x2 < x1 ) is really a clever way of saying x2 = = x1 without using = = or! =. pair ( x1, y1 ) = = pair ( x2, y2 ) is defined as x1 = = x2 & & y1 = = y2 this definition is careful to use only = = to define = = on pairs. you might think that the other four comparison operators would be defined in terms of the corresponding operators on the component, but you would be wrong. instead, pair ( x1, y1 ) > pair ( x2, y2 ) is defined as pair ( x2, y2 ) < pair ( x1, y1 ) pair ( x1, y1 )! = pair ( x2, y2 ) is defined as! ( pair ( x1, y1 ) = = pair ( x2, y2 ) ) pair ( x1, y1 ) < = pair ( x2, y2 ) is defined as! ( pair ( x1, y1 ) > pair ( x2, y2 ) ) pair ( x1, y1 ) > = pair ( x2, y2 ) is defined as! ( pair ( x1, y1 ) < pair ( x2, y2 ) ) the underlying principles are easy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6018810360315462, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.729138"} {"text": "y2 ) ) pair ( x1, y1 ) > = pair ( x2, y2 ) is defined as! ( pair ( x1, y1 ) < pair ( x2, y2 ) ) the underlying principles are easy to understand once explained : - the pair template never depends on more than the = = and < operations on the components. - order relations are defined entirely in terms of other order relations. - equality relations are defined entirely in terms of other equality relations. - if the element types have relations defined that meet the library requirements, then the resulting relations on pairs will also meet the library requirements. as a generalization of pair, the library tuple template also implements the six comparison operators in terms of < and = = on the tuple ' s elements. like tuple does not reply on the other four comparison operators on elements. the third place where the library implements dictionary order is in the lexicographical _ compare algorithm. this algorithm accepts two pairs of iterators, each of which defines a range of elements, and uses an extended version of this comparison procedure to compare the sequences : - if both sequences have the same length and every element is equal to the corresponding element of the other sequence, the two sequences are considered equal. this case holds even if both sequences are empty. - if one sequence is a prefix of the other, the shorter sequence is considered less than the other. - otherwise, the result of the comparison is the result of comparing the elements that make up the first discrepancy between the sequences. this function offers an easy way to define sequence comparison in terms of element comparison when all the elements have the same type. unless there is a good reason to do otherwise, one ' s first thought about how to define comparison between two data structures should probably be to compare the data structure ' s elements along the lines that we ' ve been discussing. the main mistake that beginners make is to believe that it is possible to define pair ( x1, y1 ) < pair ( x2, y2 ) as something such as x1 < x2 & & y1 < y2, which doesn ' t work. there is another pitfall in defining comparison relations : sometimes the obvious way of comparing individual elements doesn ' t always work. we ' ll look at some examples of that pitfall next week.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5650307329025555, "token_count": 479, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.730185"} {"text": "three use cases ( with one score for each ) \u2014 portrait, landscape, and sports \u2014 report on different aspects of sensor performance. each use case score is associated with one defined image quality metric as defined below : flash studio photography involves a controlled and usually maximal amount of light. even when shooting with hand - held cameras, studio photographers rarely move from the lowest iso setting. what matters most when shooting products or portraits is to aim for the richest color rendition. the best image quality metric that correlates with color depth is color sensitivity. color sensitivity indicates to what degree of subtlety color nuances can be distinguished from one another, often meaning a hit or a miss on a pantone palette. maximum color sensitivity reports, in bits, the number of colors that the sensor is able to distinguish. the higher the color sensitivity, the more color nuances that can be distinguished. as with dynamic range, color sensitivity is greatest when iso speed is minimal, and falls rapidly with rising iso settings. dxo labs has focused on measuring only maximum color sensitivity. a color sensitivity of 22bits is excellent, and differences below 1 bit are barely noticeable. landscape photographers often carefully compose their images and choose the optimal time to shoot. this type of photography commonly involves mounting the camera on a tripod and using the lowest possible iso setting to minimize noise, thus maximizing image quality. unless there is motion, relatively long shutter speeds are not an issue with a tripod. what is paramount is dynamic range, especially because photographers will often aim for detail in high - contrast settings, juxtaposing bright sky with shadowy foliage, mountains, etc. ideally, the dynamic range of the camera should be greater than the dynamic range of the scene, otherwise details in shadows are lost or highlights are burned. dynamic range falls rapidly with higher iso settings, as any analog or digital amplification performed will increase the noise in the darker areas, making it harder to distinguish between fine levels of contrast. maximum dynamic range is the greatest possible amplitude between light and dark details a given sensor can record, and is expressed in evs ( exposure values ) or f - stops, with each increase of 1 ev ( or one stop ) corresponding to twice the amount of light. dynamic range corresponds to the ratio between the highest brightness a camera can capture ( saturation ) and the lowest brightness it can capture ( typically when noise becomes more important than the signal, i. e., a signal - to - noise ratio below 0 db ). a value of 12 ev is excellent, with differences", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5528221586691704, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.739292"} {"text": "capture ( saturation ) and the lowest brightness it can capture ( typically when noise becomes more important than the signal, i. e., a signal - to - noise ratio below 0 db ). a value of 12 ev is excellent, with differences below 0. 5 ev usually not noticeable. this scale is open, as incoming light is not a bounded quantity. unlike the two previous scenarios in which light is either generous ( studio ) or stability is assured ( landscape ), photojournalists and action photographers often struggle with low available light and high motion. achieving usable image quality is often difficult when pushing iso. when shooting a moving scene such as a sports event, action photographers \u2019 primary objective is to freeze the motion, giving priority to short exposure time. to compensate for the lack of exposure, they have to increase the iso setting, which means the snr will decrease. how far can they go while keeping decent quality? our low - light iso metric will tell them. the snr indicates how much noise is present in an image compared to the actual information ( signal ). the higher the snr value, the better the image looks, because details aren ' t drowned by noise. snr strength is given in db, which is a logarithmic scale : an increase of 6 db corresponds to doubling the snr, which equates to half the noise for the same signal. an snr value of 30db means excellent image quality. thus low - light iso is the highest iso setting for a camera that allows it to achieve an snr of 30db while keeping a good dynamic range of 9 evs and a color depth of 18bits. a difference in low - light iso of 25 % represents 1 / 3 ev and is only slightly noticeable. as cameras improve, low - light iso will continuously increase, making this scale open.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5408582475177754, "token_count": 374, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.740047"} {"text": "| accelerating infrastructure innovations | | federal highway administration > publications > focus > october 2001 > the abcs of heat - straightening repair for steel bridges | | october 2001 | | publication number : fhwa - rd - 01 - 068 | the abcs of heat - straightening repair for steel bridges a number of calamities can cause damage to steel bridges, including vehicle impact, earthquake, and fire. while the procedure of heat - straightening has been used sporadically over the past 50 years as a way of correcting this damage, the technique had never been well - documented. to provide guidance to state highway agencies and contractors, the federal highway administration ( fhwa ) released a two cd - rom set, heat - straightening repair for damaged steel bridges : an interactive guide, in 2000 and will be offering specialized training through a series of 2 - day seminars. fhwa has also published a manual, heat - straightening repairs of damaged steel bridges : a technical guide and manual of practice. heat - straightening is a repair process in which a limited amount of heat is applied in specific patterns to the deformed regions of damaged steel in repetitive heating and cooling cycles to produce a gradual straightening of the material. a benefit of using the process is that the repairs generally don ' t require the temporary shoring of the bridge. another benefit is that the process can eliminate or greatly curtail the need for traffic detours. when done properly, the heat - straightening technique is an effective and economical approach that can be used in many damage cases. the same principle can also be applied to the fabrication of new bridges for curving or cambering a girder. the manual of practice and cd - rom provide information on the management and design of heat - straightening repair projects, as well as techniques for using the procedure. the cd also presents a detailed case study of a heat - straightening project on a bridge near lake charles, louisiana. the two - lane bridge crossing on i - 10 had been damaged when equipment on a flatbed tractor - trailer impacted a bridge beam. the repair was designed by a team from louisiana state university and implemented in conjunction with the louisiana department of transportation and development. seminars will be held in little rock, arkansas, on november 27 - 28, 2001, and in crawfordsville, indiana, on december 10 - 11. additional workshops will also be scheduled over the next 2 years. the training programs will cover : workshops were previously held this year in topeka, kansas, and atlanta, georgia. the topeka workshop drew more than 50 attendees, while the atlanta", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5057845000613824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.765692"} {"text": "high speed research car t - 16 in november, 2000, the federal railroad administration ( fra ) began operating high speed research car t - 16 to investigate methods for providing a safer and smoother ride for passenger and freight trains traveling at higher speeds. fra ' s office of research and development uses t - 16 to study the dynamics of wheel - rail behavior, to investigate methods for improving track inspection, and to assess potential high speed rail corridors. t - 16 also assists amtrak, local and regional commuter authorities, and individual railroads in assessing their routes. t - 16 is a former amtrak metroliner passenger car which was refurbished and instrumented with advanced technology, with capabilities for measurement and data collection at speeds up to 160 mph. measurement capabilities include track geometry, rail head profile, ride quality, and wheel - rail forces. t - 16 can also be used as an instrumentation platform to collect data from sensors mounted on other cars in the train. t - 16 has the capability to process and display collected data in several formats. monitors throughout the train can be configured to show the various displays. exceptions are displayed in a list with specific details about each instance and on a gis map to show their location in reference to other features. raw data is streamed across a video strip chart that provides a graphical representation of measured parameters. the on - board system calculates and displays track quality indices ( tqi ) based on track geometry data collected by the car. when requested by track inspectors onboard, data can be printed to an exception report or paper strip chart. data can also be downloaded to removable media for offline viewing.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5082218311687694, "token_count": 322, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.777886"} {"text": "the intellectual property rights reform initiative of the information program uses grant making to support work which will strengthen a vibrant knowledge ecology based on a balance between private property rights and the commons. such knowledge ecology is significant to a thriving public sphere, an effective education system, the advancement of the sciences as well as the development of open societies. intellectual property rights ( iprs ) govern the ownership and control of knowledge. iprs are a powerful means to restrict the access, exchange and creation of knowledge and knowledge - based good or conversely to enable equitable access and ensure creativity and innovation. iprs, most importantly copyright and patents, affect everything right from patterns of economic growth, to affordable and free communications on the internet to the availability and price of textbooks, scientific journals, software and drugs. motivated by a concern about the emergence of a new, unbalanced global ip regime in recent years, the information program \u2019 s intellectual property reform initiative has emphasized on the reform of wipo, and will continue to fund work in this area. owing to this work, a coalition of groups supported by the information program scored several victories as the adoption of the wipo development agenda \u2013 which have begun to shift the course at wipo. fair use rights ( also known as copyright limitations and exceptions ) are essential to enabling access to knowledge, including for disadvantaged groups as the visually impaired. however, many countries in the global south have weak fair use rights hampering access to education and research. moreover, these rights are being increasingly curtailed as digital formats and platforms begin to dominate knowledge dissemination. in 2012 - 13, the information program will continue to support efforts that will advance international reforms to strengthen fair use rights including the wipo treaty for the visually impaired. ipr also support advocacy for fair use rights in national, regional and multilateral foray. another major concern is the current ipr enforcement agenda being advanced at different levels of policy making. the proposed policies are often negotiated in secret and would, if adopted, violate fundamental human rights as well as due process protections. the information program will support efforts that will advocate for transparency in the ipr policy making process ; educate policy makers and the interested public about the threat of widespread \u201c collateral damage \u201d posed by some of the more radical ip enforcement proposals ; and promote alternative models for the remuneration of creativity. for further information, visit the link.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5203003971662279, "token_count": 475, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.786643"} {"text": "urban agriculture as a tool for economic recovery. customizable ideas for direct action use the grow section to explore innovative methods for planting, growing, farming, harvesting, reforesting, and building productive landscapes. this category covers subject areas like urban agriculture, community gardening, and urban forestry. issues addressed include food security, soil science, nutrition, and the socioeconomic importance of safe food production. in this category, creative solutions for managing stormwater and street runoff appear side by side with irrigation systems, canals, and fountains. water solutions for cities range from networks of streetside swales to small - footprint greenhouses occupying single vacant lots. emphasis is placed on reducing impermeable surfaces in cities \u2014 these include rooftops, sidewalks, and traditionally paved surfaces like playgrounds and basketball courts. alternative energy sources available in urban contexts include solar power, wind power, and biofuels. efficient green - building solutions and varied methods of bioremediation \u2014 preparing polluted urban soil for other uses \u2014 also appear in this diverse category. public space, education, recreation, and safety are serious considerations for anyone rehabilitating urban vacant lots. explore the play category to find inspiring designs combining all of these elements in parks, community centers, playgrounds, and alternative transportation systems. small solutions can often be the most accessible for individuals and communities, while producing the greatest positive impact. explore our solutions for lots to find compact architectural structures, mobile education units, pocket gardens, greenhouses, hydroponic beds, and many other projects for pocket - sized spaces. more space means bigger opportunities : long - term, large - scale operations working to fit the needs of entire neighborhoods. lots of lots collects examples of \u2014 and ideas for \u2014 rehabilitating former industrial sites, entire blocks, and other big vacant sites requiring complex planning. projects like these offer city governments and corporations the chance to support communities through funding, operational support, and policy change. building corridors brings together populations, businesses, and neighborhoods never before in close contact. explore this category to learn how urban networks of all kinds \u2014 from bicycle lanes to trail systems to small - scale barter economies \u2014 can capitalize on vacant properties to effect citywide change.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5212115772217363, "token_count": 444, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.801423"} {"text": "become a fan of h2g2 early in the development of christianity and islam, gnosticism and sufism1 became marginalised and persecuted as heretical beliefs. gnosticism and sufism themselves inspired two of the more interesting ' heresies ' of the middle ages. mani was born in persian - controlled iraq in 3ad and saw himself as one in the line of buddha, zoroaster and jesus. his philosophy was that evil was not a perversion of good, but rather an alternative form of matter to good. the two matters battled for supremacy over earth2. knowledge was the path to salvation, and missionary work was encouraged. by the time manicheism had travelled from iran to turkey and through the balkan trade routes into western europe it had developed the view that evil had already won on earth. in southern france, the cathar sect formed around the town albi3. they posited that all material things - the world, us, our actions, and so on, were inherently evil. the only good matter was heavenly matter - our souls, god, heaven, the non - material. catharism led to a society where eating meat or eggs was considered a mortal sin but where sexual promiscuity was encouraged. the cathars believed only the heart and mind contributed to one ' s soul ( the only bit of good in a person ) and thus it was impossible to sin below the waist. the enemies of the cathars in northern france termed them the bulgars or buggers4. faced with such an alternative lifestyle, the french roman catholic church felt they had little option but to send in armies on a crusade to slaughter them all. they started at beziers on 22 july, 1209 - a town with a sizeable cathar population. ' how will we know who to kill?, ' a knight is supposed to have asked abbot arnold aimery. ' slay them all, ' was the abbot ' s response, ' god will recognise his own. ' and so it went for nearly 20 years. thousands of innocents were slaughtered, towns were razed to the ground - their land passing to local nobles who supported the catholic church. in fact it became pretty clear to a lot of people that it wasn ' t so much a difference of faith at the root of this holocaust - the church was making a grab for land. one landowner in toulouse ran through the streets before the crusaders arrived declaring : i am no heretic - i have a wife ; and sleep with her.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.509214106070193, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.812582"} {"text": "apparently based on the limitations of terrain, number of troops involved, and missions of the attack as originally decided by first army and 12th army group. ( all combat interviews on the schmidt operation are by the 2d information and historical service and were conducted in november 1944 or early december 1944. ) 6. engr story is from the following : v corps factual study, opns of the 28th inf div, engr sec, 2 - 9 nov 44 ( hereafter cited as v corps study ) ; engr plan, 30 oct 44, 28th div g - 3 jnl file, oct 44. for a further discussion of the security problem, see below, ch. iii, n. 10. 7. interv with cota, washington, d. c., 15 sep 48. 8. all clock time given is that officially designated by the allies ; during this period it was british summer time. 9. unless otherwise noted, this introduction is based on the following sources : fusa rpt ; v corps opns in the eto, 6 jan 42 to 9 may 45 ; v corps study ; v corps fo 30, 21 oct 44, and v corps ltrs of instn, 23 oct 44 and 30 oct 44, v corps g - 3 jnl and file, oct 44 ; 28th div g - 3 jnl and file, 26 oct - 2 nov 44 ; combat interv 77 with cota ; combat interv 74, general notes on 28th ' s opns ; 28th div aar, nov 44 ; v corps g - 2 jnl and file, oct 44 ; fo 25, 28th div g - 3 file, 29 oct 44 ; intervs with peterson and with cota. 10. ms # a - 891 ( gersdorff ) ; ms # a - 905 ( waldenburg ) ; ethint 53 ( gersdorff ) ; ethint 56 ( gersdorff and waldenburg ) ; ethint 57 ( gersdorff ) ; i c ( g - 2 ) sit map, 1 nov 44, found in ob west kriegstagebuch, anlagen ( war diary annexes ), befehle and meldungen, 1. - 10. xi. 44 ( hereafter cited as ob west ktb anlagen 1. - 10. xi. 44 ). ob west was the abbreviation of the headquarters of oberbefehlshaber west, commander in chief in the west. see", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5130181014029266, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 28, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.968506"} {"text": "bit of your doctor ' s language. the bottom line some words are the same in more than one language. for example, \" carton \" is the same in english as in spanish. unfortunately, that seems to occur rarely in \" medicalese. \" so learn what you can about your medical conditions and the terms that describe it ; if you do not understand something your doctor has said, ask for a clarification. many people assume the worst when they hear a term they don ' t understand, and there are already plenty of things to worry about without that caused by an ill - chosen phrase. there is almost always a perfectly acceptable \" translation \" that can inform you without losing any of the term ' s meaning. insist on that translation if you don ' t understand ; but just in case, learn what you can of the medical lingo that applies to your health or to the health of those who are close to you. robert h. shmerling, m. d., is associate physician at beth israel deaconess medical center and associate professor at harvard medical school. he has been a practicing rheumatologist for over 20 years at beth israel deaconess medical center. he is an active teacher in the internal medicine residency program, serving as the robinson firm chief. he is also a teacher in the rheumatology fellowship program.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5173930250904752, "token_count": 272, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:41.980087"} {"text": "- formation of h2 and ch4 by weathering of olivine at temperatures between 30 and 70\u00b0canna neubeck department of geological sciences, stockholm university, sweden geochem trans 12 : 6. 2011.. this may expand the range of environments plausible for abiotic ch4 formation both on earth and on other terrestrial bodies... - methane emissions from pantanal, south america, during the low water season : toward more comprehensive samplingdavid bastviken department of thematic studies water and environmental studies, linkoping university, linkoping, sweden environ sci technol 44 : 5450 - 5. 2010.. future measurements with static floating chambers should be based on many individual chambers distributed in the various subenvironments of a lake that may differ in emissions in order to account for the within lake variability... - freshwater methane emissions offset the continental carbon sinkdavid bastviken department of thematic studies water and environmental studies, linkoping university, se 58183 linkoping, sweden science 331 : 50. 2011.. thus, the continental ghg sink may be considerably overestimated, and freshwaters need to be recognized as important in the global carbon cycle... - measurement of methane oxidation in lakes : a comparison of methodsdavid bastviken department of water and environmental studies, linkoping university, sweden environ sci technol 36 : 3354 - 61. 2002.. we conclude that methods using the stable isotope or mass balance modeling approach represent promising alternatives, particularly for studies focusing on ecosystem - scale carbon metabolism... - organic matter chlorination rates in different boreal soils : the role of soil organic matter contentmalin gustavsson department of thematic studies, water and environmental studies, linkoping university, 58183 linkoping, sweden environ sci technol 46 : 1504 - 10. 2012....", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5049935418230966, "token_count": 389, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.038904"} {"text": "according to the environmental working group : \" we found that consumers using sunscreens without zinc and titanium would be exposed to an average of 20 % more uva radiation \u2014 with increased risks for uva - induced skin damage, premature aging, wrinkling, and uv - induced immune system damage \u2014 than consumers using zinc - and titanium - based products \" the common complaint by users of sunscreen products containing zinc has been regarding the white coating it leaves on the skin. this is where nanoparticles come in - particles that are smaller than 100 nanometers ( or \" nm \" \u2014 a nanometer is roughly half the size of a strand of dna ). zinc is shrunk into tiny particles measuring under 100nm, providing better protection and eliminating the white cast. nanoparticles have come under close scrutiny by some watchdog groups concerned over the possible health effects of nanoparticles entering the deep tissues, blood or lungs. research on the subject to date has had varied outcomes. the level of nano - scale zinc found in the body has ranged from zero to little, or greater amounts, dependant on how it is introduced to the system and its size. in their most recent sunscreen guide, the environmental working group ( ewg ) writes : in 15 peer - reviewed studies, nanosize zinc and titanium were shown not to penetrate through unbroken skin at concentrations exceeding 1. 5 %. a recent review for the eu decision - making body found that, \" there is currently little evidence from skin penetration studies that dermal applications of metal oxide nanoparticles used in sunscreens lead to systemic exposure \" ( borm 2006 ). the majority of sunscreens available for purchase in the us include nanoscale zinc, typically 30 to 200 nm in size. and because labeling laws are unclear where nanoparticles are concerned, it can be difficult to know if you are purchasing a product that contains nanoparticle ingredients or not. the fda has not yet set standards for nanoparticle claims or defined the minimum size of a nanoparticle. this has caused some individuals and groups to recommend consumers avoid zinc and titanium - based sunscreens altogether. but this recommendation is not necessarily the safest option. a study by the ewg shows that those using chemical sunscreens are exposed to both greater uv radiation and more hazardous ingredients. micronized zinc is shown to provide safer protection than either chemical sunscreens or unprotected sun exposure.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5170987560518793, "token_count": 504, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.078750"} {"text": "new smell discovered a newly discovered smell is the olfactory equivalent of white noise, scientists report in the journal proceedings of the national academies of science credit : mrgarry, shutterstock scientists have discovered a new smell, but you may have to go to a laboratory to experience it yourself. the smell is dubbed \" olfactory white, \" because it is the nasal equivalent of white noise, researchers report today ( nov. 19 ) in the journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences. just as white noise is a mixture of many different sound frequencies and white light is a mixture of many different wavelengths, olfactory white is a mixture of many different smelly compounds. in fact, the key to olfactory white is not the compounds themselves, researchers found, but the fact that there are a lot of them. \" [ t ] he more components there were in each of two mixtures, the more similar the smell of those two mixtures became, even though the mixtures had no components in common, \" they wrote. almost any given smell in the real world comes from a mixture of compounds. humans are good at telling these mixtures apart ( it ' s hard to mix up the smell of coffee with the smell of roses, for example ), but we ' re bad at picking individual components out of those mixtures. ( quick, sniff your coffee mug and report back all the individual compounds that make that roasted smell. not so easy, huh? ) mixing multiple wavelegths that span the human visual range equally makes white light ; mixing multiple frequencies that span the range of human hearing equally makes the whooshing hum of white noise. neurobiologist noam sobel from the weizmann institute of science in israel and his colleagues wanted to find out whether a similar phenomenon happens with smelling. [ 7 new flavors your tongue may taste ] in a series of experiments, they exposed participants to hundreds of equally mixed smells, some containing as few as one compound and others containing up to 43 components. they first had 56 participants compare mixtures of the same number of compounds with one another. for example, a person might compare a 40 - compound mixture with a 40 - compound mixture, neither of which had any components in common. this experiment revealed that the more components in a mixture, the worse participants were at telling them apart. a four - component mixture smells less similar to other four - component mixtures than a 43 - component mixture smells to other 43 - component mixtures. the researchers seemed on track to finding the olfactory version of white noise", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.581655806985999, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.282527"} {"text": "were at telling them apart. a four - component mixture smells less similar to other four - component mixtures than a 43 - component mixture smells to other 43 - component mixtures. the researchers seemed on track to finding the olfactory version of white noise. they set up a new experiment to confirm the find. in this experiment, they first created four 40 - component mixtures. twelve participants were then given one of the mixtures to sniff and told that it was called \" laurax, \" a made - up word. three of the participants were told compound 1 was laurax, three were told it was compound 2, three were told it was compound 3, and the rest were told it was compound 4. after three days of sniffing their version of laurax in the lab, the participants were given four new scents and four scent labels, one of which was laurax. they were asked to label each scent with the most appropriate label. the researchers found that the label \" laurax \" was most popular for scents with more compounds. in fact, the more compounds in a mixture, the more likely participants were to call it laurax. the label went to mixtures with more than 40 compounds 57. 1 percent of the time. another experiment replicated the first, except that it allowed for participants to label one of the scents \" other, \" a way to ensure \" laurax \" wasn ' t just a catch - all. again, scents with more compounds were more likely to get the laurax label. the meaning of these results, the researchers wrote, is that olfactory white is a distinct smell, caused not by specific compounds but by certain mixes of compounds. the key is that the compounds are all of equal intensity and that they span the full range of human smells. that ' s why roses and coffee, both of which have many smell compounds, don ' t smell anything alike : their compounds are unequally mixed and don ' t span a large range of smells. in other words, our brains treat smells as a single unit, not as a mixture of compounds to break down, analyze and put back together again. if they didn ' t, they ' d never see mixtures of completely different compounds as smelling the same. perhaps the next burning question is : what does olfactory white smell like? unfortunately, the scent is so bland as to defy description. participants rated it right in the middle of the scale for both pleasantness and edibility. \" the best way to appreciate the qualities of olfactory white is to smell", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5347905313294954, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.284442"} {"text": "text that is based on, yet transvalues, another text, termed the hypotext. a modern example is kurt vonnegut ' s slaughterhouse - 5, which parallels the gospels, but transvalues them. instead of the dynamic jesus rushing around palestine healing the sick and raising the dead and bringing a message of the kingdom of god, we have the helpless billy pilgrim, who takes no action on his own, has no control over his own miraculous abilities, and brings a message that there is nothing that we can do about life. in the gospels jesus dies and saves the world, but in slaughterhouse - 5 billy pilgrim lives and the world ( dresden ) dies. similarly, the gospel of mark is built off the old testament, but reconstructs and recontextualizes its citations to focus them on jesus and on the events of the writer ' s time. one strong aspect of markan hypertextuality is its relentless focus on the temple in jerusalem. it also contains citations that refer to plundered, destroyed, and occupied temples and altars. given this, the writer of mark is most probably writing at a time after the temple was destroyed. thomas l. thompson ( 2005 ) highlights the importance of the \" plundered temple \" theme for understanding messianism : this temple - focus of markan citations is found in many places in the gospel of mark. in mark 4 : 1 - 20 the writer gives us one of the most famous and enigmatic passages in the gospel, 4 : 11 - 12. this passage parallels isaiah 6 : 10 in the septuagint : if we go back to the context, however, we once again see the temple. the words that jesus speaks are uttered by a voice in the temple. once again, when we return to the old testament, we find the temple. sometimes the writer ' s temple focus is not as obvious as in the citations above. let ' s take a look at mk 3 : 1 - 6. this passage parallels 1 kings 13 : 4 - 6 : if you start with the text from mark, and return to the text from 1 kings 13, you notice that while the action in mark takes place in a synagogue, in 1 kings it occurs in an altar. if you go back to the proceeding action in 1 kings 13, you will see two interesting passages : the man of god prophesies that the priests of the high places will die, as would come true in the writer of mark ' s time when the temple was", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5053079368205016, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.380039"} {"text": "we astronomers like to toy with the ideas of life and of death. we name distant objects after gods of the dead and underworld, like orcus or pluto, we eagerly discuss cannibalistic galaxies and gamma ray bursts that would wipe out civilizations for light years in radius. we talk about catastrophic impacts and the possible slow death of the entire universe. but, usually, it is just a vicarious show. nothing that we study out there in the universe will is likely to actually affect anything down here on earth. nothing that we do is really a matter of life and death. except for this week. this week, for the sake of astronomy, seven people will strap themselves on to the top of a controlled explosion and launch themselves almost 200, 000 stories into the air. if all goes well, they \u2019 ll spend nearly two weeks confined to a tiny container holding the only patch of livable space for 400 miles in any direction, before they drop back to earth in a flaming descent that transforms into a supersonic glissade to the ground. the seven are the astronauts on the final space shuttle servicing mission to the hubble space telescope. if they are able to carry out everything on their extensive list, they will leave behind an enormously capable telescope capable of years more of distinguished and fascinating scientific inquiry. astronomers the world over will rejoice, but i will rejoice a bit more than average. a year ago, i proposed to the committee in charge of the hubble space telescope that they allow me to spend a significant amount of time on the telescope to use one of the brand - new instruments being put in by the astronomers to study the origin of the kuiper belt. it was a bit of a long shot, i thought. these committees tend to favor things such as figuring out the origins of distant things, like galaxies, or the universe itself. our local neighborhood is often overlooked. but the committee liked the idea and now all that stands between me and getting to use this fantastic new instrument in space is the fact that the instrument itself is currently sitting in florida. at least as of this moment. but come blast - off it and the seven astronauts will be on their way to space. this moment almost never happened. if i were in charge, it never would. after the 2003 space shuttle columbia break up over texas, nasa declared that the only safe way to fly the space shuttle was to go to the space station where it could be inspected and, if problems were found, astronauts could temporarily stay while repairs or rescues were", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5388935583502712, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.387798"} {"text": "october, over the last several years has been observed as national breast cancer awareness month throughout not only the united states but worldwide. the purpose of this observance is to increase awareness of the disease and to raise funds for research into its cause, prevention, diagnosis, treatment and a cure. information and support are also offered to those affected by breast cancer. increased awareness and education of symptoms are the best preventive measures anyone, female or male, can have in the fight against breast cancer. breast cancer month supporters hope that an increased knowledge will lead to earlier detection of the disease which in turn will increase the long - term survival rate and that money raised for breast cancer will produce a reliable, permanent cure for the disease. fundraisers are sponsored and held throughout the month in the moberly area to help raise funds for mammograms and other options of detection as well as for treatment of the disease. fundraising events include foot races, walk - a - thons, bicycle rides, and many more. the pink ribbon is a symbol of breast cancer awareness. it may be worn to honor those who have been diagnosed with breast cancer, or to identify products that the manufacturer would like to sell to consumers that are interested in breast cancer. pink ribbons, which can be made inexpensively, are sometimes sold as fundraisers, much like poppies on remembrance day. the pink ribbon is associated with individual generosity, faith in scientific progress and a \" can - do \" attitude. it encourages consumers to focus on the emotionally appealing ultimate vision o a cure for breast cancer, rather than on the fraught path between current knowledge and any future cures. throughout the years breast cancer awareness campaigns have been highly effective in getting attention for the disease. breast cancer receives significantly more media coverage than other prevalent cancers, such as prostate cancer. people are now talking about the ' fight ' against breast cancer. the awareness campaign is about raising people ' s awareness to increase the chance of early detection and thus decrease the fatality rate of breast cancer. the moberly monitor - index is sponsoring special \" pink pages \" on each thursday in october to help raise awareness and to share survivor stories with readers. check out today ' s page 9 for information on breast cancer awareness month.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5038339515355743, "token_count": 450, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.393422"} {"text": "the following html text is provided to enhance online readability. many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to html. please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. defending planet earth : near - earth - object surveys and hazard mitigation strategies or regional effects near the time and place of the impact, but could include, for large impacts, global climate change or tsunamis. but how large an impact and what kind of impact could cause these effects is still uncertain. a research program is needed to address all of these issues in order to assess and quantify the risks associated with the neo impact hazard. the ability to mitigate the impact hazard, or even to define appropriate strategies for mitigating the hazard, likewise depends on the acquisition of the new knowledge and understanding that could be gained through a research program. even if the only viable mitigation approach to an impending impact is to warn the population and to evacuate, better information is needed for making sound decisions. under what conditions should warning be provided and when, and who should evacuate? if, however, there are available active mitigation options, like changing the orbit of an impactor, again better information is needed : one must be able to predict with confidence the response of an impactor to specific forms of applied forces, impacts of various types and speeds, or various types of radiant energy, such as x rays. the required information goes beyond the basic physical characterization that determines the size and mass of the impactor and includes surface and subsurface compositions, internal structures, and the nature of their reactions to various inputs. just as the scope of earthquake research is not limited only to searching for and monitoring earthquakes, the scope of neo hazard mitigation research should not be limited to searching for and detecting neos. a research program is a necessary part of an neo hazard mitigation program. this research should be carried out in parallel with the searches for neos, and it should be broadly inclusive of research aimed at filling the gaps in present knowledge and understanding so as to improve scientists \u2019 ability to assess and quantify impact risks as well as to support the development of mitigation strategies. this research needs to cover several areas discussed in the previous chapters of this report : risk analysis ( chapter 2 ), surveys and detection of neos ( chapter 3 ), characterization ( chapter 4 ), and mitigation ( chapter 5 ). the committee stresses that this research must be broad in order to encompass all of these relevant and interrelated subjects. recommendation : the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5335776759230193, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.421420"} {"text": "detection of neos ( chapter 3 ), characterization ( chapter 4 ), and mitigation ( chapter 5 ). the committee stresses that this research must be broad in order to encompass all of these relevant and interrelated subjects. recommendation : the united states should initiate a peer - reviewed, targeted research program in the areaof impact hazard and mitigation of neos. because this is a policy - driven, applied program, it should not bein competition with basic scientific research programs or funded from them. this research program shouldencompass three principal task areas : surveys, characterization, and mitigation. the scope should includeanalysis, simulation, and laboratory experiments. this research program does not include mitigation spaceexperiments or tests that are treated elsewhere in this report. some specific topics of interest for this research program are listed below. this list is not intended to be exhaustive : analyses and simulations of ways to optimize search and detection strategies using ground - based or space - based approaches or combinations thereof ( see chapter 3 ) ; studies of distributions of warning times versus sizes of impactors for different survey and detection approaches ( see chapter 2 ) ; studies of the remote - sensing data on neos that are needed to develop useful probabilistic bases for choosing active - defense strategies when warning times of impacts are insufficient to allow a characterization mission ( see chapter 4 ) ; concept studies of space missions designed to meet characterization objectives, including a rendezvous and / or landed mission and / or impactors ; concept studies of active - defense missions designed to meet mitigation objectives, including a test of mitigation by impact with the measurement of momentum transfer efficiency to the target ( see chapter 5 ) ; research to demonstrate the viability, or not, of using the disruption of an neo to mitigate against an impact ; the technological development of components and systems necessary for mitigation ; analyses of data from airbursts and their ground effects as obtained by dedicated networks, including military systems and fireball ( brighter than average meteor ) observations ; also analyses and simulations to assess", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5545062202079163, "token_count": 422, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.422376"} {"text": "thing the movie got right is the notion that a nuke will be far more effective if it explodes inside an asteroid rather than at its surface. ( at a depth of 10 feet, or 3 meters, the bomb ' s destructive power would be about 20 times greater, wie said. ) so wie and his team came up with a way to get the bomb down into a hole, without relying on a crew of spacewalking roughnecks to bore into the space rock. the haiv spacecraft incorporates two separate impactors, a \" leader \" and a \" follower. \" as haiv nears the asteroid, the leader separates and slams into the space rock, blasting out a crater about 330 feet ( 100 m ) wide. the nuke - bearing follower hits the hole a split - second later, blowing the asteroid to smithereens. simulations suggest the explosion would fling bits of space rock far and wide, leaving only a tiny percentage of the asteroid ' s mass to hit earth, wie said. this is no pie - in - the sky dream : the researchers have received two rounds of funding from the niac program, and they say their plan is eminently achievable. \" basically, our proposed concept is an extension of the flight - proven $ 300 million deep impact mission, \" wie said, referring to the nasa effort that slammed an impactor into comet tempel 1 in 2005. demonstration mission coming? the haiv project is still in its early stages, and much more modeling and developmental work is needed. but wie and his colleagues are ambitious, with plans for a bomb - free flight test in the next decade or so. space news from nbcnews. com teen ' s space mission fueled by social media science editor alan boyle ' s blog : \" astronaut abby \" is at the controls of a social - media machine that is launching the 15 - year - old from minnesota to kazakhstan this month for the liftoff of the international space station ' s next crew. - buzz aldrin ' s vision for journey to mars - giant black hole may be cooking up meals - watch a ' ring of fire ' solar eclipse online - teen ' s space mission fueled by social media \" our ultimate goal is to be able to develop about a $ 500 million flight demo mission within a 10 - year timeframe, \" wie said. the team ' s current work involves analyzing the feasibility of nuking a small but still dangerous asteroid \u2014 one about 330 feet ( 100 m ) wide \u2014 with little warning", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5003812405420559, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.430351"} {"text": "but, first, a little background. remember when people talked about the \" 3 - rs, \" reading, writing, and ' rithmetic, as the basic ingredients of a sound education? well, there ' s every reason to add a fourth \" r \" to this list an 8 - letter word that is frequently the focus of controversy, confusion, and even anxiety, for educators, as well as for parents. that word is research! by itself, and without mention of how it is being used, this \" r \" word commands a sense of authority, and causes us to stop and think and listen. after all, what could be better than making decisions based on the systematic investigation of a particular question and getting at the truth about a particular problem? indeed, we live in a society that is driven by all kinds of data, from the nutritional data on food packages to financial data to data derived from medical tests that report on such things as levels of cholesterol. and we have all come to expect that experts around us are making recommendations and decisions based on factual information that has been organized for analysis so that meaningful conclusions may be drawn. even though most of us are not intimately familiar with the types of research done by the biomedical community ( tissue samples, test tubes, microscopes, and such ), we trust ( or at least hope ) that it is \" cutting edge \" and that it translates directly into results that are used by our doctors. research - based practices in medicine are the best offense and defense when it comes to staying healthy. the same argument can be made for research in the educational community. after all, don ' t we want colleges of education to prepare teachers who are versed in the most effective, research - based practices? shouldn ' t we depend upon classroom educators to be experts in the delivery of instruction that is based upon carefully researched, tested and proven strategies? there is much that we still do not know about how best to teach and support children, adolescents, and adults with ( and without ) learning disabilities. and unfortunately, less than 0. 01 % of our nation ' s overall annual education budget is spent on research, compared with 5 - 15 % typically spent by corporations. the good news, however, is that there is much that we do know that has not yet found its way into the hands of parents and educators. we are confident that this column will help teachers to expand their repertoire of research - based practices. and we are sure that parents will use this column to arm themselves with information about proven practices", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5026501701547896, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.434165"} {"text": "soon after the fukushima accident last month, i stated publicly that a nuclear event of this size and catastrophic potential could present a medical problem of very large dimensions. events have proven this observation to be true despite the nuclear industry ' s campaign about the \" minimal \" health effects of so - called low - level radiation. that billions of its dollars are at stake if the fukushima event causes the \" nuclear renaissance \" to slow down appears to be evident from the industry ' s attacks on its critics, even in the face of an unresolved and escalating disaster at the reactor complex at fukushima. proponents of nuclear power \u2013 including george monbiot, who has had a mysterious road - to - damascus conversion to its supposedly benign effects \u2013 accuse me and others who call attention to the potential serious medical consequences of the accident of \" cherry - picking \" data and overstating the health effects of radiation from the radioactive fuel in the destroyed reactors and their cooling pools. yet by reassuring the public that things aren ' t too bad, monbiot and others at best misinform, and at worst misrepresent or distort, the scientific evidence of the harmful effects of radiation exposure \u2013 and they play a predictable shoot - the - messenger game in the process. 1 ) mr monbiot, who is a journalist not a scientist, appears unaware of the difference between external and internal radiation let me educate him. the former is what populations were exposed to when the atomic bombs were detonated over hiroshima and nagasaki in 1945 ; their profound and on - going medical effects are well documented. internal radiation, on the other hand, emanates from radioactive elements which enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. hazardous radionuclides such as iodine - 131, caesium 137, and other isotopes currently being released in the sea and air around fukushima bio - concentrate at each step of various food chains ( for example into algae, crustaceans, small fish, bigger fish, then humans ; or soil, grass, cow ' s meat and milk, then humans ). after they enter the body, these elements \u2013 called internal emitters \u2013 migrate to specific organs such as the thyroid, liver, bone, and brain, where they continuously irradiate small volumes of cells with high doses of alpha, beta and / or gamma radiation, and over many years, can induce uncontrolled cell replication \u2013 that is, cancer. further, many of the nuclides remain radioactive in the environment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5178604543132801, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.441814"} {"text": "provide evidence of large and significant impacts on human health and the environment \u2013 is arrogant and irresponsible. scientists can and should argue over such things, for example, as confidence intervals around individual estimates ( which signal the reliability of estimates ), but to consign out of hand the entire report into a metaphorical dustbin is shameful. further, as prof dimitro godzinsky, of the ukranian national academy of sciences, states in his introduction to the report : \" against this background of such persuasive data some defenders of atomic energy look specious as they deny the obvious negative effects of radiation upon populations. in fact, their reactions include almost complete refusal to fund medical and biological studies, even liquidating government bodies that were in charge of the ' affairs of chernobyl '. under pressure from the nuclear lobby, officials have also diverted scientific personnel away from studying the problems caused by chernobyl. \" 4 ) monbiot expresses surprise that a un - affiliated body such as whomight be under the influence of the nuclear power industry, causing its reporting on nuclear power matters to be biased. and yet that is precisely the case. in the early days of nuclear power, who issued forthright statements on radiation risks such as its 1956 warning : \" genetic heritage is the most precious property for human beings. it determines the lives of our progeny, health and harmonious development of future generations. as experts, we affirm that the health of future generations is threatened by increasing development of the atomic industry and sources of radiation \u2026 we also believe that new mutations that occur in humans are harmful to them and their offspring. \" after 1959, who made no more statements on health and radioactivity. what happened? on 28 may 1959, at the 12th world health assembly, who drew up an agreement with the international atomic energy agency ( iaea ) ; clause 12. 40 of this agreement says : \" whenever either organisation [ the who or the iaea ] proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which the other organisation has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement. \" in other words, the who grants the right of prior approval over any research it might undertake or report on to the iaea \u2013 a group that many people, including journalists, think is a neutral watchdog, but which is, in fact, an advocate for the nuclear power industry. the iaea ' s founding papers state : \" the agency shall", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5181097128300693, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.444110"} {"text": "on to the iaea \u2013 a group that many people, including journalists, think is a neutral watchdog, but which is, in fact, an advocate for the nuclear power industry. the iaea ' s founding papers state : \" the agency shall seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity through the world. \" monbiot appears ignorant about the who ' s subjugation to the iaea, yet this is widely known within the scientific radiation community. but it is clearly not the only matter on which he is ignorant after his apparent three - day perusal of the vast body of scientific information on radiation and radioactivity. as we have seen, he and other nuclear industry apologists sow confusion about radiation risks, and, in my view, in much the same way that the tobacco industry did in previous decades about the risks of smoking. despite their claims, it is they, not the \" anti - nuclear movement \" who are \" misleading the world about the impacts of radiation on human health. \" \u2022 helen caldicott is president of the helen caldicott foundation for a nuclear - free planet and the author of nuclear power is not the answer see, for example, wj schull, effects of atomic radiation : a half - century of studies from hiroshima and nagasaki ( new york : wiley - lis, 1995 ) and de thompson, k mabuchi, e ron, m soda, m tokunaga, s ochikubo, s sugimoto, t ikeda, m terasaki, s izumi et al. \" cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors, part i : solid tumors, 1958 - 1987 \" in radiat res 137 : s17 - s67 ( 1994 ). this process is called bioaccumulation and comes in two subtypes as well, bioconcentration and biomagnification. for more information see : j. u. clark and v. a. mcfarland, assessing bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms exposed to contaminated sediments, miscellaneous paper d - 91 - 2 ( 1991 ), environmental laboratory, waterways experiment station, vicksburg, ms and h. a. vanderplog, d. c. parzyck, w. h. wilcox, j. r. kercher, and s. v. kaye, bioaccumulation factors for radionuclides in freshwater biota, ornl - 5002 ( 1975 ), environmental sciences division publication,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5236512434668352, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.445237"} {"text": "61. 1. statement of the principle of typification. each nominal taxon in the family, genus or species groups has actually or potentially a name - bearing type. the fixation of the name - bearing type of a nominal taxon provides the objective standard of reference for the application of the name it bears. 61. 1. 1. no matter how the boundaries of a taxonomic taxon may vary in the opinion of zoologists the valid name of such a taxon is determined [ art. 23. 3 ] from the name - bearing type ( s ) considered to belong within those boundaries. 61. 1. 2. objectivity provided by typification is continuous through the hierarchy of names. it extends in ascending order from the species group to the family group. thus the name - bearing type of a nominal species - group taxon is a specimen or a set of specimens ( a holotype, lectotype, neotype or syntypes [ art. 72. 1. 2 ] ), that of a nominal genus - group taxon is a nominal species defined objectively by its type ; that of a nominal family - group taxon is the nominal genus on which its name is based. 61. 1. 3. once fixed, name - bearing types are stable and provide objective continuity in the application of names. thus the name - bearing type of any nominal taxon, once fixed in conformity with the provisions of the code, is not subject to change except in the case of nominal genus - group taxa as provided in article 70. 3. 2, of nominal species - group taxa as provided in articles 74 and 75, and by use of the plenary power of the commission [ art. 81 ]. 61. 2. name - bearing types of nominotypical taxa. the name - bearing type of a nominal taxon is also the name - bearing type of its nominotypical taxon [ arts. 37. 1, 44. 1, 47. 1 ], and the fixation of a name - bearing type for one constitutes fixation for the other also. 61. 2. 1. if different name - bearing types are fixed simultaneously for a nominal taxon and for its nominotypical taxon, the fixation for the taxon at higher rank takes precedence. 61. 3. name - bearing types and synonymy. 61. 3. 1. if nominal taxa with different name - bearing types are referred to a single taxonomic taxon, their names are subjective synonyms at the rank of that taxon ( but need not be synonym", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5539938998090428, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.481108"} {"text": "nama : ( lit. ' name ' ) : ' mind ', mentality. this term is generally used as a collective name for the 4 mental groups ( arupino khandha ), viz. feeling ( vedana ), perception ( sanna ), mental formations ( sankhara ) and consciousness ( vinnana ). within the 4th link ( nama - rupa ) in the formula of the paticcasamuppada ( q. v. ), however, it applies only to karma - resultant ( vipaka ) feeling and perception and a few karma - resultant mental functions inseparable from any consciousness. as it is said ( m. 9 ; d. 15 ; s. xii, 2 ) : \" feeling ( vedana ), perception ( sanna ), volition ( cetana ), impression ( phassa ), mental advertence ( manasikara ) : this, o brother, is called mind ( nama ). \" with the addition of 2 more mental factors, namely, mental vitality ( jivita ) and concentration ( samadhi ), here ' stationary phase of mind ' ( cittatthiti ), these 7 factors are said in the abhidhammattha sangaha to be the inseparable mental factors in any state of consciousness. for the complete list of all the 50 mental formations of the sankhara - kkhandha ( not including feeling and perception ), s. nama - kaya : the ' mind - group ' ( as distinguished from rupa - kaya, the corporeality - group ) comprises the 4 immaterial groups of existence ( arupino khandha ; s. khandha ). this twofold grouping, frequent in com., occurs first in d. 15, also in pts. m. ( i, 183 ) ; nama - kaya alone is mentioned in sn. 1074. nama - rupa ( lit. ' name and form ' ) : ' mind - and - body ', mentality and corporeality. it is the 4th link in the dependent origination ( s. paticcasamuppada 3, 4 ) where it is conditioned by consciousness, and on its part is the condition of the sixfold sense - base. in two texts ( d. 14, 15 ), which contain variations of the dependent origination, the mutual conditioning of consciousness and mind - and - body is described ( see also s. xii, 67 ), and the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5731904573247334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.567680"} {"text": ", as such, something empty, lifeless and inactive ; but by means of their mutual working together, this mental and bodily combination may move about, stand up, and appear full of life and nana : ' knowledge, comprehension, intelligence, insight ', is a synonym for panna ( q. v. ) ; see also vipassana. of knowledge and vision ', is the last of the 7 purifications and a name for path - knowledge ( magganana ), i. e. the penetrating realization of the path of stream - winning, once - returning, non - returning or arahatship. vis. m. xxii furnishes a detailed explanation of it ( s. visuddhi, vii ). in a. iv, 41 nanadassana apparently means the divine eye ( dibbacakkhu, s. abhinna ), being produced through concentrating the mind on light. nanatta - sanna : the ' variety ( or multiformity ) - perceptions are explained under jhana ( q. v. ). nana - vipphara iddhi : the ' power of penetrating knowledge ', is one of the magical powers ( iddhi, q. v. ). understanding ( or comprehension ) of the known ', is one of the 3 kinds of full understanding ( parinna q. v. ). natthika - ditthi : ' nihilistic view ' ( a doctrine that all values are baseless, that nothing is knowable or can be communicated, and that life itself is meaningless ), s. ditthi. is one of the 24 conditions ( paccaya, q. v. ). natural morality : pakati - sila navanga - buddha ( or satthu ) - sasana : nava - sattavasa : s. sattavasa. naya - vipassana : s. kalapa naya : ' right method ', is often used as a name for the noble eightfold path ( s. magga ), e. g. in the satipatthana sutta ( m. 10, d. 22 ). nekkhamma : ' freedom from sensual lust ', renunciation. though apparently from nir + o kram, ' to go forth ( into the homeless state of a monk ) ', this term is in the pali texts nevertheless used as if it were derived from kama, lust, and always as an antonym to kama. it is one of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5751552773763472, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.569867"} {"text": ", ' to go forth ( into the homeless state of a monk ) ', this term is in the pali texts nevertheless used as if it were derived from kama, lust, and always as an antonym to kama. it is one of the perfections ( s. parami ). n. sankappa, thought free from lust, or thought of renunciation, is one of the 3 kinds of right thought ( samma - sankappa ), the 2nd link of the noble eightfold path ( s. magga, 2 ), its antonym being kamasankappa, nesajjikanga : one of the 13 dhutanga neutral, karmically : avyakata ( q. v. ) ; n. feelings, s. vedana. ' sphere of neither - perception - nor - non - perception ', is the name for the fourth absorption of the immaterial sphere ( arupavacara ), a semi - conscious state, which is surpassed only by the state of complete suspense of consciousness, called ' attainment of extinction ' ( nirodha - samapatti, q. v. ). see jhana ( 8 ). n ' eva - sekha - n ' asekha : ' neither in training nor beyond training ', i. e. neither learner nor master. thus is called the worldling ( puthujjana, q. v. ), for he is neither pursuing the 3 - fold training ( sikkha q. v. ) in morality, mental culture and wisdom, on the level of the first 3 paths of sanctity, nor has he completed his training as an arahat. see sekha. - ( app. ). neyya : ' requiring guidance ', is said of a person \" who through advice and questioning, through wise consideration, and through frequenting noble - minded friends, having intercourse with them, associating with them, gradually comes to penetrate the truth \" ( pug. 162 ). cf. ugghatitannu. neyyattha - dhamma : a ' teaching the meaning of which is implicit, or has to be inferred ' as contrasted with a ' teaching with an explicit or evident meaning ' ( nitattha - dhamma ). in a. i, 60 ( pts ) it is said : \" whoso declares a sutta with an implicit meaning as a sutta with explicit meaning ( and conversely ), such a one makes a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5613744628486983, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.570795"} {"text": "nitattha - dhamma ). in a. i, 60 ( pts ) it is said : \" whoso declares a sutta with an implicit meaning as a sutta with explicit meaning ( and conversely ), such a one makes a false statement with regard to the blessed one. \" - see paramattha. nibbana, ( sanskrit nirvana ) : lit. ' extinction ' ( nir + o va, to cease blowing, to become extinguished ) ; according to the commentaries, ' freedom from desire ' ( nir + vana ). nibbana constitutes the highest and ultimate goal of all buddhist aspirations, i. e. absolute extinction of that life - affirming will manifested as greed, hate and delusion, and convulsively clinging to existence ; and therewith also the ultimate and absolute deliverance from all future rebirth, old age, disease and death, from all suffering and misery. cf. parinibbana. \" extinction of greed, extinction of hate, extinction of delusion : this is called nibbana \" ( s. xxxviii. 1 ). the 2 aspects of nibbana are : ( 1 ) the full extinction of defilements ( kilesa - parinibbana ), also called sa - upadi - sesa - nibbana ( s. it. 41 ), i. e. ' nibbana with the groups of existence still remaining ' ( s. upadi ). this takes place at the attainment of arahatship, or perfect holiness ( s. ariya - puggala ). ( 2 ) the full extinction of the groups of existence ( khandha - parinibbana ), also called an - upadi - sesa - nibbana ( s. it. 41, a. iv, 118 ), i. e. ' nibbana without the groups remaining ', in other words, the coming to rest, or rather the ' no - more - continuing ' of this physico - mental process of existence. this takes place at the death of the arahat. - ( app. : nibbana ). sometimes both aspects take place at one and the same moment, i. e. at the death of the arahat ; s. sama - sisi. \" this, o monks, truly is the peace, this is the highest, namely the end of all formations, the forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the fading away of craving", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5517082282622034, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.571823"} {"text": "of an ego, or as an eternal state of existence into which an ego or self enters or with which it merges. hence it is said : \" mere suffering exists, no sufferer the deed is, but no doer of the deed is nibbana is, but not the man that enters the path is, but no traveler on it is literature : for texts on nibbana, see path, 36ff. - see vis. m. xvi. 64ff. - anatta and nibbana, by nyanaponika thera ( wheel 11 ) ; the buddhist doctrine of nibbana, by ven. p. vajiranana & f. story ' rebirth ', is a synonym for patisandhi ( q. v. ). - panna ) : ' morality ( concentration, wisdom ) connected with penetration ' ; s. hana - bhagiya - sila. of aversion ', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight ; s. vipassana ( 4 ), samatha - vipassana ( 2 ), visuddhi ( vi, 5 ). perception ( or consciousness, or view ) of permanency, is one of the 4 perversions nihilistic view : natthika - ditthi ; exercise ' s. kasina. nimitta : mark, sign ; image ; target, object ; cause, condition. these meanings are used in, and adapted to, many contexts of which only the doctrinal ones are mentioned here. 1. ' mental ( reflex - ) image ', obtained in meditation. in full clarity, it will appear in the mind by successful practice of certain concentration - exercises and will then appear as vividly as if seen by the eye. the object perceived at the very beginning of concentration is called the preparatory image ( parikamma - nimitta ). the still unsteady and unclear image, which arises when the mind has reached a weak degree of concentration, is called the acquired image ( uggaha - nimitta ). an entirely clear and immovable image arising at a higher degree of concentration is the counter - image ( patibhaga - nimitta ). as soon as this image arises, the stage of neighbourhood ( or access ) concentration ( upacara - samadhi ) is reached. for further details, s. kasina, samadhi. 2. ' sign of ( previous ) kamma ' ( kamma - nimit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6158127086863119, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.574242"} {"text": "of neighbourhood ( or access ) concentration ( upacara - samadhi ) is reached. for further details, s. kasina, samadhi. 2. ' sign of ( previous ) kamma ' ( kamma - nimitta ) and ' sign of ( the future ) destiny ' ( gati - nimitta ) ; these arise as mental objects of the last karmic consciousness before death ( maranasanna - kamma ; s. karma, iii, 3 ). usages ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) are commentarial ( s. app. ). in sutta usage, the term occurs, e. g. as : 3. ' outward appearance ' : of one who has sense - control it is said - that \" he does not seize upon the general appearance ' of an object ( na nimittaggahi ; m. 38, d. 2 ; expl. vis i, 54f ; see sila ). 4. ' object ' : the six objects, i. e. visual, etc. ( rupa - nimitta ; s. xxii, 3 ). also, when in explanation of animitta - cetovimutti, signless deliverance of mind ( s. cetovimutti, vimokkha ), it is said, ' sabba - nimittanam amanasikara ', it refers to the 6 sense - objects ( com. to m. 43 ), and has therefore to be rendered \" by paying no attention to any object ( or object - ideas ). \" - a pleasant or beautiful object ( subha - nimitta, q. v. ) is a condition to the arising of the hindrance of sense - desire ; a ' repellent object ' ( patigha - nimitta ) for the hindrance of ill - will ; contemplation on the impurity of an object ( asubha - nimitta ; s. asubha ) is an antidote to sense - desire. 5. in pts. m. ii, in a repetitive series of terms, nimitta appears together with uppado ( origin of existence ), pavattam ( continuity of existence ), and may then be rendered by ' condition of existence ' ( s. path, nimmana - rati : the name of a class of heavenly beings of the sensuous sphere ; s. deva. nine abodes of beings : s.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5640358459508854, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.576286"} {"text": "may then be rendered by ' condition of existence ' ( s. path, nimmana - rati : the name of a class of heavenly beings of the sensuous sphere ; s. deva. nine abodes of beings : s. sattavasa. ninefold dispensation : s : sasana. nippapanca : s. papanca. corporeality ', is identical with rupa - rupa, ' corporeality proper ', i. e. material or actual corporeality, as contrasted with ' unproduced corporeality ' ( anipphanna - rupa ), consisting of mere qualities or modes of corporeality, e. g. impermanence, etc., which are also enumerated among the 28 phenomena of the corporeality group. see khandha, summary i ; vis. m. xiv, 73. niraya : lit. ' the downward - path ', the nether or infernal world, usually translated by ' hell ', is one of the 4 lower courses of existence ( apaya, q. v. ). the buddhists are well aware that on account of the universal sway of impermanence a life in hell, just as in heaven, cannot last eternally, but will after exhaustion of the karma which has caused the respective form of rebirth, necessarily be followed again by a new death and a new rebirth, according to the stored - up nirodha : ' extinction ' ; s. nirodha - samapatti, of extinction ', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight ( vipassana q. v. ). see anapanasati nirodha - samapatti : ' attainment of extinction ' ( s. xiv, 11 ), also called sanna - vedayita - nirodha, ' extinction of feeling and perception ', is the temporary suspension of all consciousness and mental activity, following immediately upon the semi - conscious state called ' sphere of neither - perception - nor - non - perception ' ( s. jhana, 8 ). the absolutely necessary pre - conditions to its attainment are said to be perfect mastery of all the 8 absorptions ( jhana ), as well as the previous attainment of anagami or arahatship ( s. ariya - puggala ). according to vis. m. xxiii, the entering into this state takes place in the following way : by means of mental tranquillity ( samath", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5669631971559692, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.577235"} {"text": "obstacles to the mind and blind our mental vision. in the presence of them we cannot reach neighbourhood - concentration ( upacara - samadhi ) and full concentration ( appana - samadhi ), and are unable to discern clearly the truth. they 1. sensuous desire ( kamacchanda ), 2. ill - will ( vyapada ), 3. sloth and torpor ( thina - middha ), 4. restlessness and scruples ( uddhacca - kukkucca ), 5. skeptical doubt ( vicikiccha ; in the beautiful similes in a. v, 193, sensuous desire is compared with water mixed with manifold colours, ill - will with boiling water, sloth and torpor with water covered by moss, restlessness and scruples with agitated water whipped by the wind, skeptical doubt with turbid and muddy water. just as in such water one cannot perceive one ' s own reflection, so in the presence of these 5 mental hindrances, one cannot clearly discern one ' s own benefit, nor that of others, nor that of both. regarding the temporary suspension of the 5 hindrances on entering the first absorption, the stereotype sutta text ( e g. a. ix, 40 ) runs as follows : \" he has cast away sensuous desire ; he dwells with a heart free from sensuous desire ; from desire he cleanses his heart. \" he has cast away ill - will ; he dwells with a heart free from ill - will, cherishing love and compassion toward all living beings, he cleanses his heart from ill - will. \" he has cast away sloth and torpor ; he dwells free from sloth and torpor ; loving the light, with watchful mind, with clear consciousness, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor. \" he has cast away restlessness and scruples ; dwelling with mind undisturbed, with heart full of peace, he cleanses his mind from restlessness and scruples. \" he has cast away skeptical doubt ; dwelling free from doubt, full of confidence in the good, he cleanses his heart from \" he has put aside these 5 hindrances, and come to know these paralysing defilements of the mind. and far from sensual impressions, far from unwholesome things, he enters into the first absorption, etc. \" the overcoming of these 5 hindrance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5224463786974535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.580110"} {"text": "hindrances, and come to know these paralysing defilements of the mind. and far from sensual impressions, far from unwholesome things, he enters into the first absorption, etc. \" the overcoming of these 5 hindrances by the absorptions is, as already pointed out, a merely temporary suspension, called ' overcoming through repression ' ( vikkhambhana - pahana ). they disappear forever on entering the 4 supermundane paths ( s. ariyapuggala ), i. e. skeptical doubt on reaching sotapanship ; sensuous desire, ill - will and mental worry on reaching anagamiship ; sloth, torpor and restlessness on reaching arahatship. for their origination and their overcoming, s. a. i, 2 ; vi, 21 ; s. xlvi, 51. see the five mental hindrances, by nyanaponika thera ( wheel 26 ). niyama : the ' fixedness of law ' regarding all things ; cf. tathata. - panca - niyama is a commentarial term, signifying the ' fivefold lawfulness ' or ' natural order ' that governs : ( 1 ) temperature, seasons and other physical events ( utu - niyama ) ; ( 2 ) the plant life ( bija - n. ) ; ( 3 ) karma ( kamma - n. ) ; ( 4 ) the mind ( citta - n. ), e. g. the lawful sequence of the functions of consciousness ( s. vinnana - kicca ) in the process of cognition ; ( 5 ) certain events connected with the dhamma ( dhamma - n. ), e. g. the typical events occurring in the lives of the buddhas. ( app. ). niyata - micchaditthi : ' wrong views with fixed destiny ', are the views of uncausedness of existence ( ahetuka - ditthi ), of the inefficacy of action ( akiriya - ditthi ), and nihilism ( natthika - ditthi ). for details, s. ditthi ; and m. 60, com. ( wheel 98 / 99 ). - ( app. ) niyata - puggala : a ' person with a fixed destiny ', may be either one who has committed one of the 5 ' heinous deeds with immediate result ' ( anantarika", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5654999354831198, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.581050"} {"text": "| feb8 - 13, 06 : 53 am | | # 1 | friction conditions on contact point of disc i have some doubts regarding the friction force on a certain situation. imagine a disc over a fixed flat surface. like this : the disc has two motions, rotational and translational but these are independent of each other. i mean the translational motion does not come from the rotation of the disc, imagine an external force that moves the disc. now, with this in mind lets say that the disc is moving from left to right always keeping contact with the surface. at the same time the disc is rotating with an angular velocity clockwise. because of the different movements, at the contact point, there is slip. now to the question itself. what kind of friction do i have at the contact point? do i have rolling or sliding friction at the contact point? and what direction does the friction force have since the disc is moving to the right but at the contact point the direction of rotation is to the left? | similar threads for : friction conditions on contact point of disc | | help with point charges and charge by contact | | introductory physics homework | | 12 | | accumulation point unit disc | | calculus & beyond homework | | 4 | | movement of a point on the perimeter of a disc | | advanced physics homework | | 0 | | point contact diode | | atomic, solid state, comp. physics | | 0 | | contact friction | | introductory physics homework | | 3 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5492961273526598, "token_count": 301, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.589862"} {"text": "design thinking is a creative process of thinking backwards from people, that leads to design a service, a product or else, based on the conclusions of the knowledge gathered in the process. design thinking starts and ends with people, their needs and problems. thinking backwards from people leads to major rethinking of processes along the way. design thinking is a kind of problem detector and problem solving process. thinking backwards from people requires a through an exhaustive application of logic to all available threats and creativity in the finding of new possibilities. it also requires a systems thinking and vision that ultimately provides ways to anticipate possible futures. thinking backwards from people it ' s a mindset that naturally evolves to innovation : it is in fact choosing to move forward. thinking like a designer is a point of no return : everything a design thinker sees around comes up with this question : how could i improve it?, what if..?. i wouldn ' t call it an obsession, i believe is a extreme passion for ideas that it ' s got something to do with challenging your own capacities. capacities such as : thinking - in - action systems thinking decision making rational analysis empathy - able to connect emotional intelligence creativity applied to any context conceptualize emotions awareness of the world passion for details caring for people fond of chaos market & business & management teamwork long - term vision ultimate question designers must ask to themselves : what is the difference between designing a brochure and designing a dna? and between designing an app and designing a communication plan? designing a website and designing a business strategy? what is the difference between designing a brand and designing a life? not much... it all starts and ends with people. a beautiful, overwhelming, never - ending scenario full of... dots. and you share one of those dots with millions of others like you. are you feeling a little overwhelmed?. who are you? who is with you? what do you want to accomplish? billions of people feel just the same. the big picture above holds together because of known and unknown connections among dots... what if the so called \" flow \" is about stepping from one dot to another? a never ending effort to connect and let the world connect back to you? a design thinking attitude : so this year, why don ' t you think about re - designing your life by building empathy from within and finding ways of connecting with others? \" as a style of thinking, design thinking is generally considered the ability to combine empathy for the context of a problem, creativity in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5600263907214073, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.593240"} {"text": "march 11, 2013 a ubiquitous chemical found in plastics, soup can linings, and receipts, bisphenol - a is just one health - compromising substance that has been under fire for many years. while the scientific community has gathered ample evidence regarding bpas toxic effects, the chemical is still widely used today. adding to this evidence, recent research has found that bpa could negatively impact brain development by disrupting a gene responsible for proper nerve cell function. for the study, which was published in the journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences and conducted by duke university researchers, it was discovered that bpa could negative effect central nervous system development by disrupting a gene called kcc2. with the disruption of this gene, it can no longer properly produce proteins partly responsible for removing chloride from neurons. if chloride can \u2019 t be removed, then the functioning of brain cells is hampered. \u201c our study found that bpa may impair the development of the central nervous system, and raises the question as to whether exposure could predispose animals and humans to neurodevelopmental disorders, \u201d study researcher dr. wolfgang liedtke, m. d., ph. d., an associate professor of medicine / neurology and neurobiology at duke university, said. \u201c our findings improve our understanding of how environmental exposure to bpa can affect the regulation of the kcc2 gene. however, we expect future studies to focus on what targets aside from kcc2 are affected by bpa. this is a chapter in an ongoing story. \u201d the study abstract concludes with : \u201c overall, our results indicate that bpa can disrupt kcc2 gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms. beyond increase in basic understanding, our findings have relevance for identifying unique neurodevelopmental toxicity mechanisms of bpa, which could possibly play a role in pathogenesis of human neurodevelopmental disorders. \u201d unfortunately, avoiding bpa is quite as easy as it should be. despite the endocrine - disrupting chemical being linked to reproductive problems, obesity, diabetes, and now negatively altered brain development, the fda rejected bpa \u2019 s ban back in march 2012 \u2013 so now consumers need to look out for the chemical for years to come. but there are still many tips for avoiding bpa and even reversing the negative effects sparked by the chemical. here are a few tips : this post originally appeared at natural society no related posts. this article was posted : monday, march 11, 2013 at 6 : 31", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5066352486918893, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.604797"} {"text": "article from : 3 / 9 / 2007 modern machine shop, derek korn, senior editor click image to enlarge a picosecond laser was used to machine this micro - mold that measures 2 mm long by 500 microns wide by 600 microns deep. here are four common laser drilling techniques. single - pulse and percussion offer fast material removal rates, but trepanning and helical drilling provide better hole roundness and accuracy. the ability to produce holes and other features measuring mere microns in size is only one piece of the micromachining puzzle. tiny machined elements on components such as fuel injector nozzles, micro - molds, spinnerettes and masks for electronics production must also have clean edges and burr - free finishes to function properly. it is often important that the machining process does not introduce heat into a workpiece, which could alter the material \u2019 s properties. laser technology has long been capable of machining metals on such a small scale. however, the words \u201c laser micromachining \u201d paint with a broad brush. these systems vary in cost, complexity, robustness and capability to keep pace with industrial production requirements. the picosecond laser is one machining tool that has proven effective for accurately micromachining metals with sufficiently high material removal rates. this laser combines the ease of use and throughput of less - accurate systems with the control and precision of laboratory instruments. chuck ratermann, president of rmpc lasers inc., sheds light on some of the differences between a few of the main laser systems that are used to micromachine metals. to be sure, these devices are appropriate only for select machining applications. but shops serving the medical, electronics and even automotive industries that are looking to set themselves apart from the rest are well - served to know what laser micromachining can bring to the table. three laser types are commonly used for micromachining metals \u2014 nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond lasers. these lasers are named based on the duration of their beam pulses. for example, each pulse emitted by a femtosecond laser lasts femtoseconds ( a femtosecond is one millionth of a nanosecond, or 10 - 15 of a second ). the beam pulse duration, in addition to the repetition rate ( the number of emitted pulses per second ), are two factors that influence laser usefulness for industrial micromachining applications. nanose", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5185916217542021, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.615310"} {"text": "and copper. this also enables the laser to machine non - metals such as teflon, diamond, ceramics and glass without microcracking or chipping their surface. the minimal thermal and mechanical effects associated with cold ablation allows for a high repetition rate, which translates to high ablation ( material removal ) rates. the repetition rate of the rapid laser is 500 khz, which means ablation rates for steel can be as much as 1 mm\u00b3 / min for an 8 kw laser. for most micromachining applications, the spot size made with the rapid picosecond laser is between 4 microns and 50 microns, depending upon the feature to be machined. in production situations, the laser can drill through metals as thick as 0. 5 mm or create blind holes or cavities for micromolds as deep as 0. 5 mm. it can be used for surface structuring in the micron range and removal of thin coatings on components without piercing or damaging the underlying substrate. in addition, the laser can be used to \u201c hone \u201d a workpiece to a better surface finish. laser drilling methods there are four common techniques for laser micromachining of metals. these are single - shot, percussion, trepanning and helical drilling. single - shot and percussion are the two fastest drilling methods. because these methods use the raw laser beam for machining, the hole they create is roughly the same as laser beam \u2019 s spot size. these two methods can deliver aspect ratios ( the ratio of a hole \u2019 s length to its diameter ) as large as 10 : 1. however, in trepanning and helical drilling, the beam spot size is smaller than the hole to be machined and the workpiece or beam is maneuvered to create the hole. special beam delivery systems are required for these latter two techniques. during simple trepanning, the laser beam pierces through the material and cuts the hole in one circular movement. helical drilling, a variant of trepanning, does not pierce through the material. in this case, the beam follows a helical path, ablating layers of material gradually with many spiraling passes. although this is the slowest of the laser machining methods, it creates the most accurate holes and crisp edges on beam entry and exit sides. it is also the best option for drilling holes with high aspect ratios, which can be as large as 20 : 1. in addition, trepanning optics allow the beam to create", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5239787518764312, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.620047"} {"text": "the most accurate holes and crisp edges on beam entry and exit sides. it is also the best option for drilling holes with high aspect ratios, which can be as large as 20 : 1. in addition, trepanning optics allow the beam to create either positive or negative wall tapers. workpiece fixturing and positioning for laser micromachining systems can be simple or elaborate, depending on the application. new fuel injector nozzle designs that have tapered and angled holes, for example, require multi - axis positioning ( both linear and rotary ) to produce the holes. other sophisticated systems may use a vacuum chuck for flat workpieces. in some instances, though, a basic x - y can be used to position workpieces for laser machining. in addition, double - sided tape or frames might suffice for fixturing thin workpieces. for shops currently using nanosecond lasers with success, mr. ratermann doesn \u2019 t recommend switching to a picosecond laser. although a picosecond laser is more accurate than a nanosecond laser, it is also more costly. for shops considering the addition of a picosecond laser, mr. ratermann suggests sending part samples to a laser supplier to determine the speed and quality the laser can deliver. shops might also consider visiting the laser supplier to determine whether basic workpiece and beam manipulation methods, or a more complex setup, would best suit their particular metal micromachining applications.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.517229184559957, "token_count": 304, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.621332"} {"text": "a regular expression ( regexp ) is a text string that describes some set of strings. functions that handle regular expressions, based on gnu regexp - 0. 12, have been implemented ( for more details, see the gnu documentation about regexp rules ). the functions available from search menu provide search forward or backward and replace. each of them prompts a dialog box to get the target regexp. regular expressions are composed of characters and operators that match one or more characters. here is an abstract of commons operators : | matches one of a choice of regular expressions. [... ] matches one item of a list. [ ^... ] matches a single character not represented by one of the list items. (... ) treats any number of other operators ( i. e. subexpressions ) as a unit. \\ digit matches a specified preceding group. ^ matches the beginning of line. $ matches the end of line. smac provides the following functions : returns the position of the next regular expression regexp, or - 1 if regexp has not been found, or - 2 if regexp is not valid. returns the position of the previous regular expression regexp, or - 1 if regexp has not been found, or - 2 if regexp is not valid. returns the beginning position of the substring n of the regexp found by the previous search call to a regexp. returns the end position of the substring n of the regexp found by the previous search call to a regexp. replaces the regular expression regexp with the string newstring. if the argument regexp is ommited, the previous search call to a regexp is used. it returns 1 on success else 0.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5606259983358071, "token_count": 373, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.623689"} {"text": "impalpably fine dust, which was found to have slightly injured the astronomical instruments. the morning before we anchored at porto praya, i collected a little packet of this brown - coloured fine dust, which appeared to have been filtered from the wind by the gauze of the vane at the masthead. mr. lyell has also given me four packets of dust which fell on a vessel a few hundred miles northward of these islands. professor ehrenberg3 finds that this dust consists in great part of infusoria with siliceous shields, and of the siliceous tissue of plants. in five little packets which i sent him, he has ascertained no less than sixty - seven different organic forms! the infusoria, with the exception of two marine species, are all inhabitants of fresh - water. i have found no less than fifteen different accounts of dust having fallen on vessels when far out in the atlantic. from the direction of the wind whenever it has fallen, and from its having always fallen during those months when the harmattan is known to raise clouds of dust high into the atmosphere, we may feel sure that it all comes from africa. it is, however, a very singular fact, that, although professor ehrenberg knows many species of infusoria peculiar to africa, he finds none of these in the dust which i sent him. on the other hand, he finds in it two species which hitherto he knows as living only in south america. the dust falls in such quantities as to dirty everything on board, and to hurt people ' s eyes ; vessels even have run on shore owing to the obscurity of the atmosphere. it has often fallen on ships when several hundred, and even more than a thousand miles from the coast of africa, and at points sixteen hundred miles distant in a north and south direction. in some dust which was collected on a vessel three hundred miles from the land, i was much surprised to find particles of stone above the thousandth of an inch square, mixed with finer matter. after this fact one need not be surprised at the diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules of cryptogamic plants. the geology of this island is the most interesting part of its natural history. on entering the harbour, a perfectly horizontal white band, in the face of the sea cliff, may be seen running for some miles along the coast, and at the height of about forty - five feet above the water. upon examination, this white stratum is found to consist", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5108474659620388, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.645191"} {"text": "red fluid, which stains the water for the space of a foot around. besides this means of defence, an acrid secretion, which is spread over its body, causes a sharp, stinging sensation, similar to that produced by the physalia, or portuguese man - of - war. i was much interested, on several occasions, by watching the habits of an octopus, or cuttle - fish. although common in the pools of water left by the retiring tide, these animals were not easily caught. by means of their long arms and suckers, they could drag their bodies into very narrow crevices ; and when thus fixed, it required great force to remove them. at other times they darted tail first, with the rapidity of an arrow, from one side of the pool to the other, at the same instant discolouring the water with a dark chestnut - brown ink. these animals also escape detection by a very extraordinary, chameleon - like power of changing their colour. they appear to vary their tints according to the nature of the ground over which they pass : when in deep water, their general shade was brownish purple, but when placed on the land, or in shallow water, this dark tint changed into one of a yellowish green. the colour, examined more carefully, was a french grey, with numerous minute spots of bright yellow : the former of these varied in intensity ; the latter entirely disappeared and appeared again by turns. these changes were effected in such a manner, that clouds, varying in tint between a hyacinth red and a chestnut - brown, 4 were continually passing over the body. any part, being subjected to a slight shock of galvanism, became almost black : a similar effect, but in a less degree, was produced by scratching the skin with a needle. these clouds, or blushes as they may be called, are said to be produced by the alternate expansion and contraction of minute vesicles containing variously coloured fluids. 5", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5182270486188613, "token_count": 404, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.648036"} {"text": "june 2004 sky from the keeble observatory we will be unable to view the june 8th \" transit of venus \" from the keeble observatory - the event will be over before the rising sun clears our obscured eastern horizon. you will, however, be able to view it from several global web sites : the exploratorium, in san francisco will carry links to the penteli observatory, near athens, greece. nasa will offer links to several observatories around the world. the european southern observatory will have live coverage, as well. may weather was not kind to comet watchers in the center of the universe. haze on those evenings when it wasn ' t actually cloudy, and clouds and rain on other days, meant that it was unlikely that anyone actually saw comets neat and linear. june weather, typically, will not be any improvement, and the comets are fading rapidly as their orbits carry them away from the sun. there will be others in the future, hopefully more fortuitously positioned. bright comets, like hale - bopp of several years ago, are roughly once per decade. comets have long fascinated humankind. regular meteor showers and the stately motion of the planets through the zodiac could be anticipated. but, what to make of these \" hairy stars \" which persist for months, seemingly at random? ( our word \" comet \" comes from the latin \" coma \" - which means hair! ) aristotle assumed they were atmospheric phenomena, describing them in his treatise on weather. tycho brahe used geometry to show that they were in the realm of the planets ( but not the stars ). it was once church doctrine that these represented harbingers of evil - firebrands hurled by an angry god to warn sinful humankind. indeed, halley ' s comet was high above the battle of hastings, which was certainly bad luck for the english. it might have been considered good luck for the norman victors! tycho got it right, of course. comets are part of our solar system, just as much as are the planets, asteroids, and meteoroids. indeed, meteor showers are residue from comets, which provides us a clue to their origin and makeup. some 5 billion years ago, comets were among the first large aggregate objects to condense out of the cloud of gas and dust which formed our solar system. far from the growing heat source at the center, which was to become our sun, they contain dust and frozen ices of water, methane, and ammonia. we believe these represent the oldest und", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5022234035017965, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.685684"} {"text": "cloud of gas and dust which formed our solar system. far from the growing heat source at the center, which was to become our sun, they contain dust and frozen ices of water, methane, and ammonia. we believe these represent the oldest undisturbed remnants of the original pre - solar cloud. pristine material from the time the earth and other planets first formed. fred whipple dubbed them \" dirty snowballs \" and the description is apt. there are two major reservoirs of comets left from these early times. the so - called kuiper belt lies beyond the orbit of distant neptune and lies in the plane of the ecliptic, roughly from 30 to 500 au. ( 1 au - \" astronomical unit \" is the average distance between earth and sun, about 150 million kilometers, or 93 million miles. ) pluto, and recently - discovered sedna are among the largest denizens of this region... yes, pluto is probably just a large comet! far beyond the kuiper belt lies the huge spherical shell called the oort cloud - stretching from 10, 000 to perhaps 100, 000 au. a comet ' s orbit may be disturbed by a collision, or by gravitational perturbations from passing stars or clouds. the comet then falls toward the inner solar system. as sunlight warms the comet, the volatile ices vaporize and carry with them dust and rocks from the nucleus of the comet. these gasses and dust particles are pushed away from the sun by the pressure of sunlight and the streaming solar wind to form the tails of the comet. ultraviolet light ionizes the gas and makes it glow. as the comet sweeps through its orbit the dust from its tail is strewn along its orbit, leaving the debris which makes up periodic meteor showers. lunar phases for june : full moon on the 3rd, at 12 : 20 am ; last quarter on the 9th, at 4 : 03 pm ; new moon on the 17th, at 4 : 27 pm ; first quarter on the 25th, at 3 : 08 pm. summer solstice, when the sun is highest above the equator, will occur at 8 : 58 pm on the 20th. this is sometimes called the \" longest day of the year, \" but it ' s 24 hours just like any other day! in fact, the solstice event will take place after sunset on the 20th! we will experience over 14 hours of sunlight on the 20th and 21st, however. evening planet watching in june is largely jupiter watching. after sunset, jupiter emerges from twilight high to the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5329549762290224, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.686959"} {"text": "benzene is a clear, liquid, petroleum - based chemical that has a sweet smell. benzene poisoning occurs when someone swallows, breathes in, or touches benzene. this is for information only and not for use in the treatment or management of an actual poison exposure. if you have an exposure, you should call your local emergency number ( such as 911 ) or the national poison control center at 1 - 800 - 222 - 1222. people may be exposed to benzene in factories, refineries, and other industrial settings. benzene may be found in : seek immediate medical help. do not make a person throw up unless told to do so by poison control or a health care professional. if the chemical is on the skin or in the eyes, flush with lots of water for at least 15 minutes. if the chemical was swallowed, immediately give the person water or milk, unless instructed otherwise by a health care provider. do not give water or milk if the patient is having symptoms ( such as vomiting, convulsions, or a decreased level of alertness ) that make it hard to swallow. if the person breathed in the poison, immediately move him or her to fresh air. before calling emergency determine the following information : patient ' s age, weight, and condition name of the product ( ingredients and strengths, if known ) time it was swallowed poison control, or a local emergency number the national poison control center ( 1 - 800 - 222 - 1222 ) can be called from anywhere in the united states. this national hotline number will let you talk to experts in poisoning. they will give you further instructions. this is a free and confidential service. all local poison control centers in the united states use this national number. you should call if you have any questions about poisoning or poison prevention. it does not need to be an emergency. you can call for any reason, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. people who work with benzene products should only do so in areas with good air flow. they should also use protective gloves and eye glasses. mirkin db. benzene and related aromatic hydrocarbons. in : shannon mw, borron sw, burns mj, eds. haddad and winchester ' s clinical management of poisoning and drug overdose. 4th ed. philadelphia, pa : saunders elsevier ; 2007 : chap 94. atsdr ( agency for toxic substances and disease registry ). toxicological profile for benzene. update. public health service, u. s. department of health and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5098869110275254, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.710209"} {"text": "the science fair concept has been established to : - focus attention on students \u2019 academic achievements - strengthen student motivation and interest in science - promote teacher and public recognition of outstanding science talent - recognize outstanding individual achievements, efforts, potential, and creativity - this event provides a medium for students to apply learned knowledge and skills to solve real problems and answer real - life questions. entering the fair - the competition is open to 4th \u2013 12th grade students. - each elementary school may bring 10 projects to the district fair. - each middle school may bring 15 projects to the district fair - each high school may bring 25 projects to the district fair. - schools will decide how the projects will be selected. most often this will be through a school science fair. - students may work individually or in groups ( no groups of more than 3 ). - students may not participate in more than one project. - all participating schools must be represented by at least one teacher or administrator at the competition. - registration must be submitted for each project entered. - project displays should not show the students names. - only participants, judges, teachers, and fair officials are allowed in the judging area during judging. - exhibits must be brought to, cared for, and removed from the fair by the exhibitor. - the science fair committee and cooperating groups will assume no responsibility for loss or damage to any exhibit. - valuables, such as computers, meters, cameras, microscopes, etc., should not be left unattended. the only time they are required to be part of the exhibit is during the hours of judging. how are the projects judged? the role of judging is not to distinguish winners and losers, but to recognize students who achieve standards of excellence. by encouraging students to strive for their best effort, all participants are winners and grow from the experience. - a team of judges is assigned to each category. during the initial judging, the projects are grouped so that each project is screened by at least two judges. - all students must remain with their projects during the judging to make presentations and explain their study. - all others ( sponsors, teachers, parents, and other students ) are not permitted in the project area while judging is in progress. - all decisions of the judges are final. - final judging information will not be available to participants, parents, or teachers. how are awards given? - every student entering the fair will receive an a certificate of participation. - trophies will be given for the top 3 scores in each category. first and second place winners that are students in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5285117300700065, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.715868"} {"text": "job s. ebenezer, ph. d. president, technology for the poor, 877 pelham court, westerville, ohio - 43081 the original savonius design called for a 7 to 8 inch overlap of the buckets. research at sandia laboratories, however, suggested an overlap of 10 to 15 % of the bucket diameter or in this case 3 inches ( the bucket diameter = 23 inches ). the second modification was the use of an automobile differential at the bottom of the machine to convert the vertical shaft power of the rotor to horizontal shaft power. a water pump or grain grinder could then be connected to the horizontal shaft either directly or via chain or v belt arrangements. the vertical main shaft of the wind machine was connected to the driveshaft of the differential., and one axle shaft of the differential became the horizontal power take off shaft for the wind machine. the other axle shaft was removed and the slip gears were locked. the gear ratio offered by this arrangement was 3 : 1, i. e. for every three turns of the wind machine ' s main shaft, the horizontal shaft turned once. this arrangement provided a high torque, low speed power to run a chain pump and a grain mill. a simple brake mechanism was provided to stop the machine in high winds. a chain pump was constructed using a design proposed by volunteers in technical assistance ( vita ). a drawing of the chain pump constructed is shown below. in order to prevent corrosion of the metal chain, short lengths of nylon ropes were substituted for the lengths of chain between each leather washer. this substitution ;. however, proved to be unsatisfactory as there was much binding and misalignment of the washers as they ascended the pipe. it is suggested that the metal links should not be replaced by light weight ropes as the weight of the links keep the washers taught and aligned well. aside from these alignment problems, the savonius machine performed well. the brace research institute in canada has successfully operated a diaphragm pump made of a tire with a savonius windmill. it is suggested that a diaphragm pump may be better suited for savonius windmill than a chain pump. although the village technology program did not construct and test a chain bucket pump ( shown below ), it is believed that it might perform very well with a savonius windmill. conventional piston pumps can also be used with a savonius windmill. the savonius windmill was also used to grind grain. a small grain mill", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5017866738492124, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.787298"} {"text": "when i was in school at mit and harvard in the 1980s and 1990s, i was taught that there were 100, 000 or so human genes, every one encoding a protein. the properties of those genes were unknown. today, i teach that our genome contains only 21, 000 protein - coding genes. to our surprise, there are thousands of additional genes that don \u2019 t encode proteins. all of these genes have been described in great detail. i was taught that the parts of the genome not encoding proteins were \u201c junk. \u201d today, we know that this junk makes up three - quarters of our functional dna. parts of it help exquisitely control where and when genes are active in the body. i was taught that \u201c genetic diseases, \u201d such as cystic fibrosis, are caused by mutation of a single gene, with only a small handful of these mutations known. today, precise causes are known for 2, 800 of these rare single - gene disorders. i was taught nothing about the more complex genetics of common diseases. today, we are learning at dizzying speed about the interplay of genes and environment in diabetes, heart disease, and other common conditions. in the past three years alone more than 1, 000 genetic risk factors have been found ( an increase of perhaps 50 - fold ), contributing to more than 100 common diseases. such advances would have come far later, if at all, without the human genome project ( see \u201c the human genome, a decade later \u201d ). but a body of knowledge is not its only legacy. it also changed the way biological research is performed. i was trained to view scientific data as the private property of each investigator. human genetics research groups were locked in a \u201c race \u201d to discover each disease gene, and there were winners and losers. this often led to fragmentation of effort and yielded results irreproducible by others. data was collected by hand and stored in paper notebooks. the human genome project held the revolutionary view that data collected should be freely available to all. today this view prevails in genomics and many other fields of biology and medicine. data is shared online by scientists the world over. today, thanks in no small part to the genome project \u2019 s example, investigators working on the same disease often publish together. combining clinical and genetic data this way increases the statistical robustness of the claimed findings and makes for highly reproducible results. of course, knowledge of the human genome alone is not sufficient to cure disease. it will always be the case that creativity,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5596359397744852, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.792926"} {"text": "by staff writers ann arbor mi ( spx ) mar 14, 2013 in evolutionary biology, there is a deeply rooted supposition that you can ' t go home again : once an organism has evolved specialized traits, it can ' t return to the lifestyle of its ancestors. there ' s even a name for this pervasive idea. dollo ' s law states that evolution is unidirectional and irreversible. but this \" law \" is not universally accepted and is the topic of heated debate among biologists. now a research team led by two university of michigan biologists has used a large - scale genetic study of the lowly house dust mite to uncover an example of reversible evolution that appears to violate dollo ' s law. the study shows that tiny free - living house dust mites, which thrive in the mattresses, sofas and carpets of even the cleanest homes, evolved from parasites, which in turn evolved from free - living organisms millions of years ago. \" all our analyses conclusively demonstrated that house dust mites have abandoned a parasitic lifestyle, secondarily becoming free - living, and then speciated in several habitats, including human habitations, \" according to pavel klimov and barry oconnor of the u - m department of ecology and evolutionary biology. their paper, \" is permanent parasitism reversible? - critical evidence from early evolution of house dust mites, \" is scheduled to be published online march 8 in the journal systematic biology. mites are arachnids related to spiders ( both have eight legs ) and are among the most diverse animals on earth. house dust mites, members of the family pyroglyphidae, are the most common cause of allergic symptoms in humans, affecting up to 1. 2 billion people worldwide. despite their huge impact on human health, the evolutionary relationships between these speck - sized creatures are poorly understood. according to klimov and oconnor, there are 62 different published hypotheses arguing about whether today ' s free - living dust mites originated from a free - living ancestor or from a parasite - an organism that lives on or in a host species and damages its host. in their study, klimov and oconnor evaluated all 62 hypotheses. their project used large - scale dna sequencing, the construction of detailed evolutionary trees called phylogenies, and sophisticated statistical analyses to test the hypotheses about the ancestral ecology of house dust mites.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5396852535798499, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.812051"} {"text": "early history of logic, science and math. imagine holding history in your hands. now you can. digitally preserved and previously accessible only through libraries as early english books online, this rare material is now available in single print editions. thousands of books written between 1475 and 1700 can be delivered to your doorstep in individual volumes of high quality historical reproductions. the \" hard sciences \" developed exponentially during the 16th and 17th centuries, both relying upon centuries of tradition and adding to the foundation of modern application, as is evidenced by this extensive collection. this is a rich collection of practical mathematics as applied to business, carpentry and geography as well as explorations of mathematical instruments and arithmetic ; logic and logicians such as aristotle and socrates ; and a number of scientific disciplines from natural history to physics. + + + + the below data was compiled from various identification fields in the bibliographic record of this title. this data is provided as an additional tool in helping to insure edition identification : + + + + logicae artis compendium in quo vniversiae artis synopsis, methodo ac forma ad scholarum vsum, qu m fieri potuit, accommodatissim breviter proponitur. sanderson, robert, 1587 - 1663. by robert sanderson. with a final errata leaf., 230, 124, p. oxonii : excudebat iosephus barnesius, 1615. madan, i, p. 104. / stc ( 2nd ed. ) / 21701 latin reproduction of the original in the queen ' s college ( university of oxford ) library + + + + this book represents an authentic reproduction of the text as printed by the original publisher. while we have attempted to accurately maintain the integrity of the original work, there are sometimes problems with the original work or the micro - film from which the books were digitized. this can result in errors in reproduction. possible imperfections include missing and blurred pages, poor pictures, markings and other reproduction issues beyond our control. because this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment to protecting, preserving and promoting the world ' s literature. show more show less", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5730379181242763, "token_count": 453, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.829536"} {"text": "reinforce your understanding of the concepts in patton and thibodeau \u2019 s the human body in health & disease, 6th edition! corresponding to the chapters in the text, this study guide reviews essential medical terminology, concepts and processes related to the anatomy and physiology of the human body, and body function in health and disease. a variety of exercises make it easy to review and apply key concepts, and labeling of anatomy drawings helps you learn anatomical structures and terminology. new! know your medical termsexercises help you learn and understand the various word parts used in medical terminology, as presented in the new language of science and language of medicine word lists in the textbook. matching and fill - in - the - blankexercises enhance your comprehension of chapter content. application questions develop your critical thinking skills and help you apply information to real - world scenarios. updated! did you know? provides fun, interesting facts on a & p topics. a briefsynopsis at the beginning of each chapter previews core concepts that will be covered. crossword puzzle, unscramble and word find activities help you learn new vocabulary terms and their proper spelling. diagrams and labeling exercises reinforce your understanding of where the structures of the body are located. answers to exercises are located in the back of the study guide, along with page - number references to the textbook. by linda swisher, rn, edd ; kevin t. patton, phd, professor of life science, st. charles community college, cottleville, mo, professor of anatomy & physiology instruction ( adjunct ), new york chiropractic college, seneca falls, ny, emeritus assistant professor of physiology, saint louis university medical school, st. louis, mo and gary a. thibodeau, phd, chancellor emeritus and professor emeritus of biology, university of wisconsin, river falls, river falls, wi elsevier is a leading publisher of health science books and journals, helping to advance medicine by delivering superior education, reference information and decision support tools to doctors, nurses, health practitioners and students. with titles available across a variety of media \u2014 print, online and handheld, we are able to supply the information you need in the most convenient format.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5594690683106254, "token_count": 443, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:42.981085"} {"text": "visual alternatives to sound. speech - to - text options are also available. - sound volume \u2014 turn computer sound up or down. - sound schemes \u2014 associate computer sounds with particular system events. - showsounds \u2014 display captions for speech and sounds. - soundsentry \u2014 display visual warnings for system sounds. - notification \u2014 get sound or visual cues when accessibility features are turned on or off. - text - to - speech \u2014 hear window command options and text read aloud. keyboard and mouse : these features are designed to make the keyboard and mouse faster and easier to use. - double - click speed \u2014 choose how fast to click the mouse button to make a selection. - clicklock \u2014 highlight or drag without holding down the mouse button. - pointer speed \u2014 set how fast the mouse pointer moves on screen. - snapto \u2014 move the pointer to the default button in a dialog box. - cursor blink rate \u2014 choose how fast the cursor blinks \u2014 or, if it blinks at all. - pointer trails \u2014 follow the pointer motion on screen. - hide pointer while typing \u2014 keep pointer from hiding text while typing. - show location of pointer \u2014 quickly reveal the pointer on screen. - reverse the function of the right and left mouse buttons \u2014 reverse actions controlled by the right and left mouse buttons. - pointer schemes \u2014 choose size and color options for better visibility. - character repeat rate \u2014 set how quickly a character repeats when a key is struck. - dvorak keyboard layout \u2014 choose alternative keyboard layouts for people who type with one hand or finger. - stickykeys \u2014 allow pressing one key at a time ( rather than simultaneously ) for key combinations. - filterkeys \u2014 ignore brief or repeated keystrokes and slow down the repeat rate. - togglekeys \u2014 hear tones when pressing certain keys. - mousekeys \u2014 move the mouse pointer using the numerical keypad. - extra keyboard help \u2014 get tooltips or other keyboard help in programs that provide it. the accessibility wizard is designed to help new users quickly and easily set up groups of accessibility options that address visual, hearing and dexterity needs all in one place. the accessibility wizard asks questions about accessibility needs. then, based on the answers, it configures utilities and settings for individual users. the accessibility wizard can be run again at any time to make changes, or changes can be made to individual settings through control panel. windows accessibility utilities : - magnifier \u2014 a display utility that makes the computer screen more read", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.514597893918052, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.002653"} {"text": "project laser beam ( plb ) is a five - year, multi - million dollar public - private partnership that seeks to eradicate child malnutrition. it brings together the expertise of un agencies with that of fortune 500 companies, and others in the private sector, to work with local governments and companies to find new solutions to old problems. plb was unveiled in september 2009 by plb founding partners wfp, unilever, mondelez international foundation ( formerly kraft foods foundation ), dsm and the global alliance for improved nutrition ( gain ) by us president bill clinton at the clinton global initiative meeting in new york. the pilot projects will focus initially on bangladesh and indonesia. these are countries where there are unacceptably high rates of child malnutrition, but also a demonstrated commitment by the government to tackle the problem. plb partners will be able to assist as these are also countries where they have a presence and the ability to leverage existing resources and knowledge. the projects will centre around three main pillars : food, hygiene and behavioural change. specifically, work will include : fortification of food with micronutrients, products to nutritionally supplement a child \u2019 s diet, ready - to - use foods requiring no water or cooking, sanitation and hand - washing, access to clean water, deworming, immunization, therapeutic feeding for the severely malnourished, education on the benefits of breastfeeding, nutrition education and others as needed. replicate the model plb will employ the many nutritional solutions already available in the marketplace, ensuring they are accessible to those in need. when gaps in products and services are found, plb will call on an ever - growing number of partners to step into the breach and develop new ones for the fight against child hunger in other countries. ultimately, a model will evolve that can be replicated. at the end of the five - year pilot phase, plb \u2019 s model will be replicated in other countries where malnutrition is prevalent, paving the way for generations of children to enjoy the benefits of this concerted, co - ordinated action. the situation compels us to act now. in the wake of the global economic crisis, and increasing climate - related emergencies, families with malnourished children are slipping deeper into the poverty and hunger trap every day \u2014 many for the first time.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5441047365217287, "token_count": 480, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.023392"} {"text": "line is called the main sequence. it tells us interesting things about how... more follow along the horizontal curves ( highlighted in red ). these are the locations of the giant stars. giants don ' t behave like main sequence stars. the brightness is constant or even increasing as you... more it depends on which type of motion you are asking about. if you take a birds - eye view from the top of the solar system all the planets orbit around the sun in a counter - clockwise ( or direct ) direction.... more almost everyone has a question or two about living in space. what do astronauts do in space? how do they do everyday things like eat, sleep and go to the bathroom? it ' s important to note that astronauts... more there is a really neat internet program called solar system live that shows the position of all of the planets and the sun for any given day. if you go to that page, you ' ll see an image similar to the... more the picture of the american flag ( the one put there by the apollo astronauts ) is waving ( or straight out ) in the wind. how could that be possible if there is no atmosphere on the moon? was it some sort... more i was wondering if there is a new planet? are there planets ( a tenth planet? ) after pluto belonging to our solar system? what are the names of the new planets discovered in the solar system? are there... more if that is so, the energy released during the big bang must have created many such black holes. therefore most of the energy of the big bang must have disappeared in that form. then how did the universe... more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5245025160328267, "token_count": 346, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.037616"} {"text": "october 3, 2011 | a team that includes ncar scientists anne boynard and alex guenther has found that the rate at which plant canopies emit isoprene, a volatile organic compound, is influenced by circadian rhythms. the discovery has the potential to lead to more accurate predictions of ground - level ozone, which is harmful to human health. for the study, the researchers made measurements of isoprene in malaysia above both tropical rain forest and oil palm plantations. they observed for the first time ever a circadian ( 24 - hour ) rhythm operating in concert across the entire tree canopy, especially in the palm plantation. the finding changes how scientists estimate isoprene emissions from plants, as both the palm plantations and rain forest emit less isoprene than shown by computer models of emissions. this has implications for ground - level ozone, which forms when volatile organic compounds such as isoprene react with nitrogen oxides from automobiles and industry. the researchers incorporated the circadian pattern into the ncar model of emissions of gases and aerosols from nature ( megan ) model to estimate isoprene emissions for input to ozone models. they then compared simulated ground - level ozone to observed ozone measurements from 290 monitoring sites in the united states. they found that model accuracy was significantly improved. accounting for circadian impacts on isoprene emissions could especially improve ozone predictions in isoprene - sensitive regions of the world, which include the united states, mediterranean, middle east, japan, and parts of southeast asia. the research was published in nature geoscience in september. c. n. hewitt, k. ashworth, a. boynard, a. guenther, b. langford, a. r. mackenzie, p. k. misztal, e. nemitz, s. m. owen, m. possell, t. a. m. pugh, a. c. ryan, o. wild, \u201c ground - level ozone influenced by circadian control of isoprene emissions, \u201d nature geoscience, 2011 ; doi : 10. 1038 / ngeo1271", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5091394662761746, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.044095"} {"text": "power supplies and wires for some time i \u2019 ve been wondering how the wire size for power supplies limits the power. so i \u2019 ve done some quick calculations to determine if it \u2019 s a problem. the first type that is of interest are the \u201c inverters \u201d that are used to convert 12vdc to 240vac ( mains power ) to allow electric devices to be operated in a car. i \u2019 ve seen some reports from dissatisfied user about inverters not supplying as much power as expected and i \u2019 ve had problems with my 150w inverter not always supplying my thinkpad ( which definitely doesn \u2019 t draw 150w ). the second type is phone chargers as charging a phone in a reasonable amount of time is always a problem. inverter rating fine print vs laptop psu my thinkpad power supply claims \u201c efficiency level iv \u201d which according to the us epa document describing the efficiency marking protocol for external power supplies means that it is at least 85 % efficient when supplying 50w +. the peak output of the psu is 4. 5a at 20v which is 90w peak output, 90 / 0. 85 = = 106w power drawn. one would hope that wouldn \u2019 t be a problem from a 150w psu. but the fine print on the psu says that it can provide 110w continuously and 150w for 10 minutes. so according to my calculations i \u2019 m within 4w of overloading the psu if my thinkpad uses full power. it also says that it is designed for 13. 8v input. i have no idea how the performance of the inverter changes as the supply voltage changes between the 12. 6v that a 6 cell lead - acid battery is designed to provide and the 13. 8v charge from the car alternator. but i have had occasions when my inverter stopped working correctly presumably due to being unable to supply as much current as my thinkpad draws. as an aside i measured the voltage in my car ( with the engine off ) at 12. 85v from the cigarette lighter socket and 13. 02v directly from the battery. i wonder if there is some sort of overload protection on the cigarette lighter which has a side effect of reducing the voltage. resistance in wires reduces the voltage, but all voltage meters are designed to have a high resistance to prevent that from being an issue. if anyone has an explanation for the 0. 17volt drop then please write a comment! can a car provide 130w from the cigarette lighter socket", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5047394749446561, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.057299"} {"text": "from the time of alzheimer \u2019 s first description of psychotic symptoms in a patient with alzheimer \u2019 s disease in 1907, psychosis has been recognized as a major clinical syndrome in this illness. the consequences of psychotic symptoms in alzheimer \u2019 s disease may be painful and costly for the affected individuals, those who care for them, and society at large. psychotic symptoms have been linked to greater caregiver distress ( 1 \u2013 3 ) and have been found to be a significant predictor of functional decline and institutionalization ( 4 \u2013 7 ). compared to patients with alzheimer \u2019 s disease without psychosis, those with alzheimer \u2019 s disease and psychotic symptoms are also more likely to have worse general health ( 8 ) as well as a greater incidence of other psychiatric and behavioral disturbances ( 9 \u2013 11 ). psychotic patients tend to have more frequent and problematic behaviors, including agitation ( 12 \u2013 14 ), episodes of verbal and physical aggression ( 10, 15 \u2013 18 ), and anxiety ( 11 ). reviews completed before the early 1990s found that psychotic symptoms were common in dementia, including alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( 19 \u2013 23 ). in their review of 21 studies, for example, wragg and jeste ( 23 ) found that approximately one - third of all patients with alzheimer \u2019 s disease had delusions at some point during their illness, 28 % had hallucinations, and nearly 35 % had other psychotic symptoms that were difficult to categorize. overall, however, the reviewed studies were compromised by sampling deficiencies and methodological problems. wragg and jeste \u2019 s review included studies with as few as nine subjects. moreover, only five of the 21 studies had a sample size larger than 100 subjects. other methodological problems included the use of unreliable or nonvalidated diagnostic criteria for alzheimer \u2019 s disease. consequently, samples included individuals with various types of dementias, and thus generalizability was limited, and findings as they related to alzheimer \u2019 s disease specifically were obscured. imprecise operational definitions of psychosis ( 24 ) and utilization of assessment methods with questionable reliability and validity also undermined these investigations. moreover, all of the studies published before 1990 were cross - sectional or descriptive and thus did not provide data on the incidence or course ( e. g., persistence ) of symptoms. since the early 1990s, research on psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease has advanced considerably. there have been improvements in the development of diagnostic criteria for alzheimer \u2019 s disease and for psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( 25 ) and the development of more reliable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5169605199924547, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.090754"} {"text": "the early 1990s, research on psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease has advanced considerably. there have been improvements in the development of diagnostic criteria for alzheimer \u2019 s disease and for psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( 25 ) and the development of more reliable measures of psychotic symptoms, including the behaviorial pathology in alzheimer \u2019 s disease rating scale ( 26 ) and the neuropsychiatric inventory ( 27 ). larger sample sizes have become available because of increased awareness of the disease and the establishment of alzheimer \u2019 s disease centers. longitudinal data from these centers have become available, and more investigators have undertaken prospective studies on this topic. we reviewed studies published from 1990 through 2003 that investigated psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease with the aim of providing a systematic overview of the current state of knowledge in this area. in so doing, we employed more stringent inclusion criteria than were applied in reviews conducted before the early 1990s. in this article, we summarize findings on the epidemiology of psychotic symptoms in alzheimer \u2019 s disease. delusions and hallucinations are also reviewed separately, and we include findings on other uncategorized psychotic symptoms. in addition, we examine the literature on potential risk factors for psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease. implications of the findings for clinical practice and for future research are discussed. computerized searches using pubmed and psycinfo databases were performed for english - language articles published between 1990 and the end of 2003 with the keywords \" psychosis and alzheimer disease \" and \" psychosis and dementia. \" additional articles were identified by using the \" related articles \" function in pubmed and by cross - referencing identified articles. only empirical investigations reporting data on psychotic symptoms in patients with alzheimer \u2019 s disease were selected. if a given study included subjects with dementias other than alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( e. g., vascular dementia or mixed dementia ), sufficient data on the alzheimer \u2019 s disease group itself ( e. g., number of subjects and a prevalence rate of psychotic symptoms ) must have been provided. in addition, the study design, study setting, some description of the method of diagnosing alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( e. g., national institute of neurological and communicative disorders and stroke and the alzheimer \u2019 s disease and related disorders association criteria ), and description of how psychotic symptoms were measured or defined must have been clearly stated. target symptoms that could not be well categorized as delusions or hallucinations were considered \" other psychotic symptoms. \" using these methods, we identified 55 articles for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5362774559970669, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.091929"} {"text": "), and description of how psychotic symptoms were measured or defined must have been clearly stated. target symptoms that could not be well categorized as delusions or hallucinations were considered \" other psychotic symptoms. \" using these methods, we identified 55 articles for review. sample size and subject characteristics the mean sample size in the 55 studies reviewed ( t1 ) was 177 subjects ( median = 135 ; range 27 to 1, 155 ). these findings represent an increase in sample sizes from those in the studies of psychosis in alzheimer \u2019 s disease prior to 1990 that were included in a previous review ( 23 ). in that review, the largest sample size among 21 studies was merely 175 subjects, and the median sample size was 33. in the current review, the mean age of subjects with alzheimer \u2019 s disease was 75. 5 years ( median = 74. 0, range = 69 \u2013 85 ), and the mean level of education was 10. 7 years ( median = 12. 0, range = 6 \u2013 13 ). inclusion of education data was not possible for some studies because of the use of alternative scales of measurement ( e. g., less than high school versus high school ). nearly two - thirds of the total subject sample were women ( mean = 64. 2 % ), although considerable variability in gender distribution was noted across studies, with the proportion of women ranging from 28. 8 % to 83. 4 %. in general, subjects included in the studies tended to have mild or moderate cognitive impairment, as reflected by a mean mini - mental state examination ( mmse ) ( 28 ) score of 15. 5 ( median = 16. 3 ; range 5 \u2013 21 ), although there was considerable variability in this regard across studies as well. relatively few studies provided data on age at onset or the mean duration of illness. these variables may be considered unreliable estimates because they are based on a patient \u2019 s or informant \u2019 s retrospective memory and / or perceptions. although a majority of the reports ( 63. 6 % ) were cross - sectional ( 8, 10, 12, 17, 29 \u2013 60 ), 34. 5 % of the studies provided longitudinal data ( 9, 13, 16, 63 \u2013 78 ). the primary settings for 72. 7 % of the studies were outpatient clinics, alzheimer \u2019 s disease clinical centers, or alzheimer \u2019 s disease research centers ( 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 29 \u2013 32, 34 \u2013 39, 43, 44, 48 \u2013 50, 52, 53, 55, 57", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5437385330091227, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.093000"} {"text": "alzheimer \u2019 s disease clinical centers, or alzheimer \u2019 s disease research centers ( 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 29 \u2013 32, 34 \u2013 39, 43, 44, 48 \u2013 50, 52, 53, 55, 57 \u2013 74 ) ; relatively few studies included samples of inpatients ( 33, 41, 45 \u2013 47, 56, 75 ) or a combination of inpatients and outpatients ( 9, 42 ). even fewer reports ( 51, 54 ) included community - based samples, which are often more difficult to obtain. the setting was not clear in one investigation ( 76 ). diagnosis and measurement the national institute of neurological and communicative disorders and stroke and the alzheimer \u2019 s disease and related disorders association criteria ( 77 ) were used most commonly for diagnosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( 8, 10, 12, 16, 31 \u2013 34, 36, 40 \u2013 44, 48, 50 \u2013 55, 57, 61 \u2013 63, 65, 66, 71 \u2013 75 ). both those criteria and the dsm criteria were used together in several studies ( 9, 13, 17, 29, 30, 35, 37, 45 \u2013 47, 50, 59, 63, 64, 67, 69 ). autopsy results, specifically those that utilized criteria of the consortium to establish a registry for alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( 78 ), were used infrequently. numerous measures or tools were used alone or in combination to assess psychotic symptoms. informal or semistructured interviews of patients and / or their caregivers ( such as the national institute of mental health diagnostic interview schedule, the structured clinical interview for dsm - iv axis i disorders, and the initial evaluation form ) were utilized most frequently ( 15 studies ), with an additional six studies incorporating other measures in addition to interviews. the behavioral pathology in alzheimer \u2019 s disease rating scale and the neuropsychiatric inventory, or both, were also used frequently. the median prevalence of psychotic symptoms ( delusions or hallucinations ) in patients with alzheimer \u2019 s disease was 41. 1 % ( range = 12. 2 % \u2013 74. 1 % ). the median prevalence of delusions was 36 % ( range = 9. 3 % \u2013 63 % ). delusions of theft were the most common type of delusions reported ( 50. 9 % of studies ). hallucinations occurred less frequently, with a median prevalence of 18 % ( range = 4 % \u2013 41 % ). visual hallucinations were more prevalent than auditory", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.510843856372486, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.094039"} {"text": "the most common type of delusions reported ( 50. 9 % of studies ). hallucinations occurred less frequently, with a median prevalence of 18 % ( range = 4 % \u2013 41 % ). visual hallucinations were more prevalent than auditory hallucinations ( median = 18. 7 % and 9. 2 %, respectively ). between 7. 8 % and 20. 8 % of subjects ( median = 13 % ) experienced both hallucinations and delusions. psychotic symptoms not categorized as delusions or hallucinations were reported by 3. 6 % to 38. 9 % of patients with alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( median = 25. 6 % ). most often, this category comprised misidentifications ( frequently considered to be a type of delusion, although it may be a separate phenomenon ). prevalence data are summarized in t1. prevalence is affected by several factors, including the study setting and study design. a higher prevalence of psychotic symptoms tended to occur in inpatient settings ( e. g., acute care hospitals, nursing homes, neurobehavioral units ) ( 31. 2 % to 74. 1 % ) ( 33, 40, 41, 45 \u2013 47, 56, 75 ), whereas lower rates ( 12. 2 % to 65. 2 % ) were noted in patients referred to outpatient memory or research clinics ( 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 29 \u2013 32, 34 \u2013 38, 43, 44, 48 \u2013 50, 52, 53, 55, 57 \u2013 61, 63 \u2013 70, 72 \u2013 74 ). two studies included a community sample ( 51, 54 ), and one reported that 26. 9 % of the subjects experienced psychosis ( 51 ). delusions among inpatients were present in 44. 4 % to 62. 9 % and hallucinations were present in 5. 7 % to 34 %. in outpatient samples, 9. 3 % to 63 % of subjects experienced delusions, and 3. 8 % to 41 % had hallucinations. in the two studies of community - dwelling subjects, 21. 8 % and 22. 7 % had delusions, and 12. 8 % and 13. 1 % had hallucinations. the incidence of psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease refers to the percentage of individuals with alzheimer \u2019 s disease who are initially not psychotic and who develop one or more psychotic symptoms by a specified end - point. no studies before 1990 reported data on incidence. in studies conducted since 1990,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.507865679080117, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.095059"} {"text": "alzheimer \u2019 s disease refers to the percentage of individuals with alzheimer \u2019 s disease who are initially not psychotic and who develop one or more psychotic symptoms by a specified end - point. no studies before 1990 reported data on incidence. in studies conducted since 1990, however, seven studies ( 13, 61, 63, 64, 66, 69, 73 ) reported data on incidence over observation periods ranging from 1 to 5 years. paulsen et al. ( 69 ) reported a 1 - year incidence of 20 %. levy and colleagues ( 13 ) reported a comparable incidence of 25 % after 1 year. over a 2 - year period, paulsen and colleagues ( 69 ) reported an incidence of 36. 1 %, and in the study by caligiuri et al. ( 63 ) of neuromotor abnormalities and risk for psychosis, 32. 5 % of subjects developed psychotic symptoms over the course of 2 years. the latter rates are likely comparable because the samples from the two studies overlapped to some extent, given that subjects in both studies were drawn from the same group of individuals enrolled in longitudinal studies at the alzheimer \u2019 s disease research center in san diego. delusions and hallucinations both seem to develop more readily within a 1 - year to 2 - year span, although these data are limited by the small number of studies addressing delusions and hallucinations specifically over more than two assessment points ( 60, 65 ). incidence seemed to plateau after 3 years, as there was little difference between 3 - year ( 49. 5 % ) and 4 - year ( 51. 3 % ) cumulative rates for psychosis in the study by paulsen et al. ( 69 ). in the study by chen and colleagues ( 64 ), 29. 7 % of the subjects developed psychosis over an average of 5 years of follow - up. however, the authors pointed out that subjects were not evaluated the same number of times or at the same time points. the 14. 9 % incidence reported by sweet and associates ( 73 ) was difficult to compare to the findings of other studies because the length of follow - up was not specified. persistence of psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease refers to whether an individual experiences a symptom at two or more consecutive evaluations. again, comparison of rates across studies is limited because variable follow - up periods were used by different researchers. in one study, subjects were evaluated every 3 months over 1 year, and 57 % had psychotic symptoms on at least two occasions ( 13 ). in another study, a similarly high", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5380339590532421, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.096137"} {"text": "is limited because variable follow - up periods were used by different researchers. in one study, subjects were evaluated every 3 months over 1 year, and 57 % had psychotic symptoms on at least two occasions ( 13 ). in another study, a similarly high persistence of psychosis was found for individuals evaluated at baseline and 1 year later : 44 % for delusions, 26 % for visual hallucinations, and 45 % for auditory hallucinations ( 61 ). psychotic symptoms rarely seemed to persist after several months, however. haupt et al. ( 66 ) reported that after 2 years, psychotic symptoms did not persist in any of 21 subjects who had delusions or in any of 11 subjects who had hallucinations at baseline. the results may have been affected by the small number of patients manifesting psychotic symptoms. furthermore, the authors assessed symptoms at 1 and 2 years but reported persistence on the basis of the presence of a symptom at both time points. a low persistence rate over a 2 - year period was also found by devanand and colleagues ( 9 ), who reported that delusions persisted in only 12. 8 % of 180 subjects and hallucinations in only 5. 6 %. rosen et al. ( 70 ) and zubenko et al. ( 76 ) considered a symptom to be persistent if it was present on any two consecutive annual evaluations conducted over the course of the study ( on average, 2 and 5 years, respectively ). using this definition, these authors reported that 86. 7 % and 84. 6 %, respectively, of the same subject sample had persistent psychotic symptoms. seven studies examined the relationship between african american or black ethnicity and psychosis. five found a positive association ( 8, 16, 31, 36, 52 ), and two found no relationship ( 9, 32 ). bassiony and colleagues ( 31 ) reported that african americans were significantly more likely to have hallucinations than caucasians ; the investigators did not report on other psychotic symptoms. lopez et al. ( 52 ) reported that african americans in the moderate to severe stages of alzheimer \u2019 s disease had significantly more psychotic symptoms than caucasians in the same stages ; the relationship between ethnicity and psychotic symptoms was not significant in mild stages, however. no studies reported associations with any other ethnic groups. associations between risk factors and psychosis are summarized in t2. severity of cognitive impairment ( assessed with the mmse or a similar global cognitive measure ) showed a significant positive association with the presence of psychosis in individuals with alzheimer \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5318453755909318, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.097199"} {"text": "would be invoked. furthermore, there were no means of determining whether the patients who were taking these drugs were being treated optimally, and the extent to which psychotic symptoms persist despite antipsychotic treatment is not known. therefore, persistence values may reflect the experience of psychosis given current treatments rather than the true persistent nature of psychotic symptoms. few equivocal associations with psychosis emerged from the reviewed studies. the association between african american or black ethnicity and psychosis is intriguing, although it is also limited by the fact that only caucasian samples are available for comparison. issues of acculturation and genetic influences are yet to be adequately examined, highlighting an area in need of exploration. cognitive impairment and the rate of cognitive decline were also found to be strongly associated with psychotic symptoms. the findings of the present review suggest that psychosis represents a developmental feature marking the progression of alzheimer \u2019 s disease or that it represents a distinct disease subtype marked by psychotic symptoms and a particularly rapid disease course. the fact that delusions, specifically, seemed most prevalent in patients with moderate cognitive impairment supports the hypothesis that a certain amount of neuronal integrity must be present for delusions to occur ( see references 48, 84 ). conclusions are limited, however, by a general failure to include severely cognitively impaired subjects in these studies. in addition, the association between psychosis and cognitive impairment and between psychosis and rate of cognitive decline may be influenced by medications, including antipsychotics and cholinesterase inhibitors, the former of which is recommended as a first - line treatment for dementia patients with delusions ( 85 ). yet, a majority of the studies reviewed did not account for the potential effects of medication on cognition and simply reported that these effects were a possible limitation to their findings. a number of studies altogether failed to report what, if any, medications the subjects were taking. the importance of considering medication effects is illustrated in studies of antipsychotic use and cognition. the use of two atypical antipsychotics ( clozapine and risperidone ) in cognitively impaired patients was reviewed by jeste et al. ( 86 ) and gladsjo et al. ( 87 ). jeste and colleagues found that the effects of clozapine on cognition were somewhat conflicting, which they posited was due, at least in part, to the strong anticholinergic activity of clozapine, which is likely to confound or diminish any enhancement of cognitive functioning. berman and colleagues ( 88, 89 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5024778404086911, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.103496"} {"text": "they posited was due, at least in part, to the strong anticholinergic activity of clozapine, which is likely to confound or diminish any enhancement of cognitive functioning. berman and colleagues ( 88, 89 ) reported significant increases in mmse scores in patients with schizophrenia or mild dementia treated with risperidone. moreover, cholinesterase inhibitors have been shown to improve cognitive symptoms or temporarily reduce the rate of cognitive decline ( 90 ). certainly, future studies should examine the potential influence of medication use, not only to examine any potential effects, positive or negative, on cognitive functioning but also to elucidate underlying biological mechanisms of psychosis in dementia. furthermore, difficulties in diagnosing patients with lewy body dementia may have led to their inadvertent inclusion in studies of patients with alzheimer \u2019 s disease, thereby affecting the association between some psychotic symptoms and rate of cognitive decline, given that psychotic symptoms, and hallucinations in particular, may occur in nearly one - half of those with lewy body dementia ( 30, 91 ). for many variables that were found not to be associated with psychosis, including age, age at onset, and duration of illness, small standard deviations likely affected the detection of associations. in the case of age and age at onset, few individuals who were younger than age 55 years or who had an early age at onset ( age 55 years or younger ) were included in these studies. similarly, the range and standard deviation for illness duration were restricted ( range = 2. 8 \u2013 7. 7 years, sd = 1. 33 years ), thus limiting the potential to detect a positive association. in addition, many authors noted that age at onset of alzheimer \u2019 s disease was inherently difficult to determine, because it was often an estimate that relied on the failing memory of those with alzheimer \u2019 s disease or the recall and dating by others of behaviors that occurred several years earlier. the results of this review are also limited by problems in assessing psychosis. despite more regular use of accepted diagnostic criteria, some researchers continue to use diagnostic criteria that are nonspecific to alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( e. g., dsm - iii or dsm - iv criteria ). even when accepted criteria are utilized, inconsistencies in interpreting those criteria are evident. presumably, the rates reported herein may underestimate the prevalence of delusions and hallucinations specifically, as evidenced by the fact that from 3. 6 % to 38. 9 % of psychotic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5084307945057618, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.104636"} {"text": "sizable proportion of individuals with alzheimer \u2019 s disease. the incidence of psychosis in any sample of patients typically continues to climb during the first 3 years of observation and may persist for several months, pointing to the necessity for early detection and treatment. with recognition of how prominent and devastating psychotic symptoms may be, it becomes increasingly clear that research should continue to focus on the epidemiology of and risk factors for psychosis of alzheimer \u2019 s disease. as alzheimer \u2019 s disease affects a growing number of individuals over time, so too will psychosis as a syndrome. systematic delineation of the epidemiology of and risk factors for psychosis in alzheimer \u2019 s disease may clarify the biological underpinnings of these symptoms and direct indications for early interventions, facilitate patient management, reduce caregiver burden, improve patients \u2019 quality of life, and open the door to discovering the nature of psychosis in other diseases. received nov. 29, 2004 ; revision received feb. 1, 2005 ; accepted feb. 22, 2005. from the department of psychiatry, university of california, san diego ; and the veterans affairs san diego healthcare system, san diego. address correspondence to dr. jeste, department of psychiatry, university of california, san diego, va san diego healthcare system, 9500 gilman dr., mail code 0603v, la jolla, ca 92093 - 0603 ; email @ example. com ( e - mail ). supported in part by nimh grants mh - 66248 and mh - 59101 and by the department of veterans affairs.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.529508382020355, "token_count": 324, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.106520"} {"text": "you can ' t teach that two parents are suing the university of california - berkeley over a web site aimed at educating teachers. understanding evolution, a collaborative project of the university of california museum of paleontology and the national center for science education, is \" is a non - commercial, education website, teaching the science and history of evolutionary biology. \" jeanne and larry caldwell, the couple bringing the suit against the site, claim that the site delves improperly into religion. while most debates center around whether or not intelligent design is \" religion in the classroom, \" the caldwells are looking to spin it the other way. the plaintiffs in the case claim that they are not proponents of intelligent design, but they do argue that it is inappropriate for a project that is partially funded by the us government to essentially engage in swaying students towards evolution. in the language of the suit, the site seeks to \" to modify the beliefs of public school science students so they will be more willing to accept evolutionary theory as true. \" how exactly does the website do this? for one, it provides information to teachers, who then teach. one of the aftereffects of teaching is that, ideally, students learn. in the context of a science classroom, this could mean that students are taught evolution, and then they may understand it better. this is the fundament of pedagogy. but that ' s not all. the real gist of the suit, from my own reading, stems from the fact that the site in question makes observations about the religious world around us. for example, the site notes that most forms of christianity and judaism have no fundamental conflict with evolution, and it even links to collected statements from a variety of movements that do not challenge evolution. many scholars have argued that it is important to note that this debate is not \" science versus christianity \" or anything of the sort. rather, they note, creationists and religiously - oriented intelligent design proponents are but a subset of religious people in general. to the caldwell ' s however, pointing out this reality is akin to the government endorsing certain forms of religion over others, namely those that do not have a problem with evolution. to date, courts across the country have rejected the idea that teaching evolution, which is a peer - reviewed scientific theory that as of yet has had little challenge in the way of peer - reviewed academic research, is tantamount to teaching religion. \" the courts in many cases have said evolution is a scientific idea and there is no prohibition on the government", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5233024067520122, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.138132"} {"text": "reviewed scientific theory that as of yet has had little challenge in the way of peer - reviewed academic research, is tantamount to teaching religion. \" the courts in many cases have said evolution is a scientific idea and there is no prohibition on the government teaching a scientific idea even if it conflicts ' ' with some people ' s religious beliefs, said university counsel christopher patti. larry caldwell, however, disagrees. his view is that by not teaching students about supposed problems with the fossil record, problems that are dismissed by most specialists in the field, teachers are misleading them. still, caldwell doesn ' t want to see evolution removed from the classroom, but he does believe that alternative views, including those that attribute serious problems to the theory, should also be presented to students. this returns us to the crux of the debate, however, which is whether or not any worthwhile challenges to evolution have been made. yeah, well you can ' t teach that! the university of california finds itself in another controversy over religion, as well. a suit filed federal court in los angeles accuses the university system of discriminating against christians. the association of christian schools international, the calvary chapel christian school in murrieta, calif., and six calvary chapel students have joined forces to seek a legal remedy to what they term \" viewpoint discrimination, \" which is a terse way of saying that they object to the fact that the uc system considered parts of their christian education to be below admittance standards. at issue in the lawsuit are academic standards for admission to the university, specifically uc ' s process for assessing high - school courses to verify that they meet the system ' s college - preparatory course requirements ( known as the a - g requirements ). for a new or substantially revised course to be approved for the a - g list, a high school must submit a request, listing the course curriculum, textbook information, and supplemental materials, to uc for approval. staff at ucop review such applications to make sure that courses meet uc academic standards established by boars. the uc system has approved 43 courses from the school in question, but a select number of courses have not received approval, including science courses that use overtly christian theology books as textbooks. for example, as the ny times has noted, the books spouts peculiar takes on historical figures. thomas jefferson, for instance, is outed as a non - believer, and by scriptural proof, an antichrist. american believers can appreciate jefferson ' s rich contribution to the development of their nation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5485125303990908, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.139356"} {"text": "distinctive phonetic value, like a taller or shorter t or a more or less stretched s, were either kept for merely aesthetic purposes or eventually dropped as functionally improductive. some ligatures like \u00e6 or were likewise preserved to help distinguish the corresponding diphthongs from the hiatuses ae and oe, whereas many others were abandoned. the separation of words by means of spaces was found to be such a useful device that few contemporaries would be able to read without it ; and the rich variety of signs of punctuation introduced also in later stages of the history of latin helped reading with the necessary pauses, and allowed us to distinguish the component parts of sentences, or to determine beyond doubt whether we are confronted with a statement, an exclamation or a question. finally, the distinction between capitals and lower case brought in not only a certain elegance, but also some further clarity to grammar ( highlighting proper names ) and to discourse structure ( marking the beginnings of sentences ). there has most unfortunately arisen, nevertheless, and for all the wrong reasons, a fashion of spelling fundamentalism that, abandoning a more than reasonable tradition of centuries of latin writing, purports to go back to the writing usages of the ancient romans. this is as absurd as wanting to give up the use of paper or the modern book, and claiming that something is not classical latin unless its written on papyrus rolls. it should be obvious to anyone that we can be completely respectful of ancient culture and cultivate the purest form of classical latinity while using more developed methods of writing than our ancestors had at their disposal and which are moreover the result of centuries of latin tradition. of course, since fundamentalists rarely guide themselves by reason, the return to the old usages doesnt follow any further criteria than their own arbitrary whim, and they sometimes are purists and sometimes not, as they please. thus, some have set about eliminating the distinction between i and j as non - roman, but they are only too happy against all logic to keep that between v and u. others consider that the use of capitals should be eliminated, and they do use lower case letters at the beginning of sentences, but they then arbitrarily keep capitals for proper names or even adjectives. of course, none of those purists has dared to admit the fact that a return to ancient usage would imply writing everything rather in capitals than in lower case, and that they would in fact have to stop using any punctuation at all. the saddest", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5200525626596622, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.179408"} {"text": "allow to distinguish which is which in words like \" iam \" ( where the i represents a semivowel, pronounced as english y in yes ) and \" iambus \" ( where the i represents a vowel, pronounced as english i in it ), etc. non - transparent spelling makes that more and more people nowadays fail to learn the language properly as they are preposterously kept in the dark about the sounds the words they read and write actually contain ( we ' ve heard many a professor, let alone students, pronounce \" iam \" rhyming with ian and \" iambus \" starting as yummy ). using i for the vowel and j for the semivowel is conversely a much more transparent spelling, which is justified by centuries of latin spelling tradition and which allows us to see immediately which is which by writing \" jam \" but \" iambus \", etc. equally using the same ae combination both for the diphthong in \" aereus \" ( where the ae represent a diphthong, pronounced in one syllable, rather like english eye ) and the hiatus in \" aerius \" ( where the ae represent an hiatus, pronounced in two syllables, rather like english a in father followed by the e in error ), etc. is sadly non - transparent ( and leads to error just as many ). using \u00e6 for the diphthong and ae of the hiatus, or at least ae for the diphthong but ae for the hiatus, is a much more transparent spelling and it allows us to see immediately which is which by writing \" \u00e6reus \" but \" aerius \" ( or \" aereus \" but \" aerius \" ), etc. as inconsistent spelling we must avoid spelling practices that choose to be transparent in some cases but not in others with no legitimate phonetic or historical reason to do so in one case and not in the other whatsoever, as when some people choose to distinguish the vowel [ u ] from the semivowel [ w ] by writing the former as u and the latter as v, which is a nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as u, which would be non - transparent, and they don ' t care in this case not to be true to ancient practices ; but then, with no phonetic or historical reason to do so, they choose not to to distinguish the vowel [ i ] from the semivowel [ j ] by writing the former as i and the latter as j, which would be nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5319793464867932, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.184390"} {"text": "alternative processes : silver gelatin print with martha casanave for the next few days, we will feature a mini - series of posts on alternative processes in photography. today, martha casanave joins us to talk about her silver gelatin print posted above. if this interests you and you ' d like to expand your creative pallette, the f295 annual symposium might be the spot for you to do so. martha casanave series \u201c coastal pinholes \u201d - silver gelatin print - 4 x 5 pinhole camera the silver gelatin process was invented by richard leach maddox in 1871 and was considerably improved upon by charles harper bennett in 1878. the gelatin silver print was the most popular print process throughout the twentieth century and is still used widely by artists today. gelatin silver paper ( black and white paper ) has an emulsion of silver chlorides suspended in gelatin. to create a print, the paper is exposed to light ( commonly with an enlarger through a negative ), immersed in developer which reduces the silver to form the image, and fixed with sodium thiosulfate. the concept of a pinhole camera was used prior to the invention of photography for scientific purposes, however came to the photographic world with the advent of gelatin plates. a pinhole camera is a lensless camera with a single aperture ; any light - proof box can easily be converted to a pinhole camera by poking a small hole in one side of the box. light passes through the pinhole and projects the inverted image on the back wall of the box, where film or paper is exposed. casanave creates her work by placing her pinhole camera directly in the sand. referring to coastal pinholes she states, \u201c the wide - angle, distorting view of most pinhole cameras is utilized best from low angles. working this way also takes me back to my childhood, when i played with toys and lived closer to the ground, and further from reality. the near indefinite depth of field of pinhole cameras allows me to play with visual elements of near and far. the time dilations \u2014 long, long exposures \u2014 allow water to become cloud, person to become ghost \u201d. martha casanave and many other 21st century photographers will be discussing their work at the 2012 f295 symposium : continued explorations of 21st century photography", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5212453236941661, "token_count": 471, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.189860"} {"text": "filed under : creativity \u2014 piotr @ 2 : 42 pm april 15, 2012 i have greatly enjoyed watching the very entertaining talk by john cleese on creativity. even if you \u2019 re in it only for the jokes, it \u2019 s worth 36 minutes of your life. a few main takeaways from john \u2019 s talk : 1. creativity is linked to the ability to play. 2. people can be described in terms of two modes : open and closed. creativity is _ not _ possible in the closed mode. 3. we mostly operate in the \u201c closed \u201d mode : filled with tention, purposeful, manic and not creative. 4. \u201c open \u201d mood is marked by : being playful, less serious, relaxed, curious, etc. 5. alexander flemming discovered penicillin in the \u201c open \u201d mode \u2013 he became curious why the bacterial culture did not grow in one of the petri dishes. 6. hitchcock often used to tell random stories to relax people around him, claiming they tried too hard. 7. we need to be in the \u201c open \u201d mode when pondering a problem. 8. once we find a solution, we must switch to the \u201c close \u201d mode \u2013 because it \u2019 s the best for \u201c exectution \u201d [ potr : this reminds me of key ideas on innovation and creativity from \" innovators dilemma \" by clayton c. - great read btw ] 9. we too often get stuck in the \u201c closed \u201d mode, attaining a tunnel vision. this is particularly prevalent among politicians. how many psychiatrist does it take to change the light bulb? only one \u2026 but the light bulb really needs to change. 10. the are conditions under which creativity can be released. to attain the \u201c open \u201d mode you require : - you need to create space for your creativity to flourish. - pick a specific start and end time to your \u201c creative \u201d time. this will help you to seal yourself off from distractions. - play is secluded and marked by limitedness. - create an oasis for yourself by setting the boundaries of space and time. become separate from everyday life just for a few moments. - it \u2019 s easier to do trivial things which are not important, that to do important things. therefore, clear off unimportant distractions. - it takes some time for your mind to quiet down. 30 minutes is not enough for your creative time. - cleese suggest about 1 1 / 2 hour sessions. - take a break ( e. g. for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5378356079950499, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.195512"} {"text": "wrong \u201d or \u201c i don \u2019 t like that \u201d. always be positive. and build on what \u2019 s been said. \u201c would it be even better if \u2026? \u201d \u201c i don \u2019 t quite understand that \u2026 can you just explain it again? \u201d try to establish as free an atmosphere as possible. 13. japanese creativity \u2013 unstructured, lack of pressure, first people to give their views are the most junior - they can speak freely without contradicting what \u2019 s already been said by those more important. 14. creativity is like humour \u2026 in a joke, the laugh comes at a moment when you connect two frames of reference. 15. having a new idea is connecting to separate ideas that creates a new meaning. 16. new connections are significant if they generate a new meaning. 17. when you play, you can try randomly invent new juxtapositions. then use your intuition to sense which are significant or meaningful. 18. deliberately crazy connections can be called \u201c intermediate impossibles \u201d. however stupid or wrong or absurd they seem, they are the stepping stones to an idea that is right. if you really don \u2019 t know how to start or you get stuck, start generating random connections that may lead to some new ideas. 19. finally : how to stop your subordinates from being creative. filed under : technology \u2014 piotr @ 8 : 19 pm april 11, 2012 jesper richter - reichhelm of wooga ( facebook games maker ) shares the lessons he learned in scaling their game platforms to handle millions of users. wooga \u2019 s game, called monster world, is currently heading for 2 million daily users. veeery impressive! i aplaude their choice of ruby language for running the backend logic and interfacing with flash front - end and mysql database ( s ). i was also happy to learn how they \u2019 d overcome mysql scaling issues. hint : they used a ( now hugely ) popular in - memory key - value store called redis. redis is an awesome piece of technology, and in hindsight, seems like a perfect fit for a high - throughput / mega - popular facebook game like monster world. sounds interesting to you??? the full video is here for your pleasure. where did we come from? i find the explanation that we were made in stars to be deep, elegant, and beautiful. this explanation says that every atom in each of our bodies was built up out of smaller particles produced in the furnaces of long", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5870112969407342, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.197814"} {"text": "ray kurzweil : well if we talk about what is it that we should train children and adults ' cause i think we need lifelong education to do. it ' s not rote learning, which unfortunately it ' s still the model of education throughout much of the world. i think actually the united states is better than a lot of other areas interms of having more flexible approaches to what it is we ' re trying toget children to do. many areas of the world are really still have a model of education of rote learning, which is obsolete because we carry all that information on our belts. we don ' t need to remember it all. but we do need to be able to solve actual problems with knowledge. we need to find the right knowledge ; yes, we have search engines to help us and the search engines will get better, but really need the right strategies to find the right information. we need to be able to create new knowledge. knowledge is doubling every 13 months by some measures. and knowledge isn ' t just a database. knowledge is a symphony or a jazz band or a poem or a novel or a new scientific insight or an invention. these are also examples of knowledge. my philosophy ofeducation is learn by doing. singularity university, which i co - founded with peter diamandis and i ' m chancellor of \u2013 has that philosophy with the core curriculum is the students self - organizing into small teams and they take on a grand challenge like to solve the water problem of the world and maybe they will actually succeed indoing that \u2013 the goal is to actually do \u2013 solve major challenges inten years. or maybe they ' ll solve a piece of it, or maybe they won ' tsolve it at all, but they ' ll still learn something. if i think about what i ' ve learned in my career, it ' s from my own projects and whether they succeed or fail, that ' s really the best way to learn. and there ' s versions of that we can bring into every level. we certainly see many college kids started major revolutions, including political revolutions but also technological revolutions, with no equipment other than their notebook computer or their phone. directed and produced by : jonathan fowler & elizabeth rodd", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5319267329563915, "token_count": 453, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.201320"} {"text": "this is another image i found on google + all lines are absolutely straight, parallel and perpendicular but why does it appear to have a curvature? related : how does this illusion work? like these questions : ) many of these illusions come from prof. akiyoshi kitaoka, a japanese psychologist and expert for gestalt psychology. on his website you ' ll find some more fascinating illusions and questions to ask here ; ) the illusion above is named cafe wall illusion and the newest model to explain those illusions is the contrast - polarity model. short explanation from his webpage : the paper explained it better to me : this explains why you perceive a tilt. if you position the smaller squares now in distinct edges of the big squares, you can achieve 2 - and 3 - dimenional illusions. here you see a increasing of the tilt due to more smaller squares : here you can see that the positioning of the smaller squares is critical to achieve the 3d effect of the orignial bulge effect in your question : notice that gestalt psychology is a non - reductionistic theory approach and investigates mainly the phenomenology and underlying gestalt laws of visual perception. how these gestalt laws developed on a deeper level is a question of neurobiological evolution similar to, \" why have some species of apes color - vision and some not \". the ellipses in the explaining picture above show you, that our cognitive visual machine somehow tries to group divided objects ( square and line of same contrast / brightness ) in one line and we see a tilt. i ' m guessing here, but this is probably due to cognitive brain algorithm that saves things and objects we see and perceive mainly by countor and shapes, rather than pixel by pixel like a computer and digital camera do it, which of course don ' t perceive any tilt or 3d illusion in any of those trick images : ) read the papers for more explanations and examples, not behind a paywall :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5522529881338892, "token_count": 395, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.206410"} {"text": "highways of the future ( may, 1938 ) highways of the future by e. w. murtfeldt picture a 15, 000 - mile network of twelve - lane motor speedways spanning the nationa\u20ac \u201d three of them linking the atlantic and pacific coasts, six more crisscrossing the country north and south a\u20ac \u201d and you will have an idea of the vastness of a spectacular highway plan proposed by senator robert j. bulkley of ohio. requiring twenty - five years for completion, the mammoth gridiron of superhighways would change long - distance driving from a motorist \u2019 s nightmare of snarled traffic into a reality of fast, safe transportation. it would represent an impressive start toward an era of scientifically constructed speedways, and crashproof cars of radical new design to run upon them, foreseen by leading experts for the not - too - distant future. what will transcontinental touring be like, say, fifty years from now? recently dr. miller mcclintock, director of the harvard university bureau for street traffic researcha\u20ac \u201d the man who is recognized as the nation \u2019 s foremost authority on traffic problemsa\u20ac \u201d gave a startling preview of the momentous changes he sees ahead. rear - end collisions, he foresees, will be made impossible by a new expedient. pushing down the brake pedal on a car of the future will operate a stop light that emits infra - red rays. these invisible light rays, picked up and distinguished from ordinary light by a photo - electric cell on the front of a following car, will energize an electric circuit and apply its brakes automatically. electric cables, buried beneath the pavements of superhighways, will govern the movement of cars. one set of electromagnetic impulses will control the car \u2019 s speed. another set will lock its steering gear against any attempt to make a dangerous turn from one lane to another. eventually, the cable system may even be adapted to take over steering altogethera\u20ac \u201d allowing the driver to release the wheel, sit back, and make himself comfortable until he chooses to switch back again to manual control. at night, the superhighways will light up of their own accord, section by section, as a car travels over them. \u201c electric eyes \u201d spaced along the road will turn on the glareless illumination whenever a car passes, shutting it off at other times to conserve electricity. imagine a typical section of this superhighway of the future. straight as a shaft of light,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5237385403100983, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.225944"} {"text": "electric eyes \u201d spaced along the road will turn on the glareless illumination whenever a car passes, shutting it off at other times to conserve electricity. imagine a typical section of this superhighway of the future. straight as a shaft of light, ten or more broad lanes of concrete stretch across the countryside, passing around cities and towns, bridging railroads, canals, and crossroads. streamline busses roar along a center strip that splits the speedway, separating streams of private cars traveling in both directions. for cars moving at different speeds, each one - way pavement is divided into separate safety, accelerating, cruising, and express lanes. hop into a 1988 - model car and take an imaginary spin down one of these amazing foolproof roads. perhaps you arrived at the transcontinental artery by plane, swooping down on one of the concrete flight strips lining the boulevard, or settling to an automatic, radio - controlled landing on a spacious airport built close to a major highway intersection. driving up the clover - leaf approach onto the elevated highway, you glide first into the slow - speed safety lane, edge over into the accelerating strip, and turn the steering wheel to swing into the cruising lane. but nothing happens. your car refuses to respond to the wheel, and suddenly you learn why as another automobile whips by on your left at sixty miles an hour. suspended in service tunnels below the pavement, cables operating on an electromagnetic principle control a mechanism attached to the steering gear to prevent the car from turning left until the adjacent cruising lane is free from traffic for a safe distance. you try the wheel again. this time the car swings over into the cruising lane and immediately picks up speed. you haven \u2019 t stepped on the gas, but the speedometer needle creeps steadily upward and freezes on the sixty mark. a second set of buried electromagnetic cables is taking over control of your speed, since cars in the cruising lane must go no more and no less than sixty miles an hour. but other automobiles are still flying past you on the express lane to your left. now you swing the wheel over, confident that the car will respond only if turning is safe. in the express lane, your speed automatically steps up to the 100 - mile - an - hour limit. fifty yards of special nonskid pavement flies by underneath your car every second. unless you switch back to a slower lane, you can maintain that pace hour after hour, for you \u2019 ll never see a traffic light, a railroad crossing, a street intersection, or even a curve sharp enough", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5500009534639476, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.226952"} {"text": "ant trails, airborne chemicals, wood vibrations \u2014 scientists have a long history of borrowing clever communication techniques from the animal kingdom. inspired by the odd social habits of a cave - dwelling cricket, scientists have now taught robots to communicate by firing rings of pressurized air at each other. the cricket in question is the african cave cricket ( phaeophilacris spectrum ), which rapidly flicks its wings to launch donut - shaped air rings, a type of vortex, to both potential mates and enemies. reduced to two kinds of messages, its \u201c language \u201d is pretty simple : it sends isolated vortices to threaten its rival, and a rapid sequence of vortices to woo would - be lovers. when andy russell, an engineer at monash university in australia, learned about the cricket, he thought this technique would improve robots \u2019 ability to communicate in noisy environments \u2014 but that wasn \u2019 t the only benefit. \u201c like the cave crickets, there may be times when a robot does not want its communications intercepted, \u201d russell told new scientist. researchers speculate that the cricket uses vortices to communicate undetected by predators \u2014 so why not robots? chris melhuish, a researcher at the bristol robotics laboratory in the uk said, \u201c this could be a useful addition to the communication armoury of future robotic systems. \u201d the science of vortices reaches back to 1858, when william rogers first described vortex rings, and scientists have been dazzled ever since by how far these rings can travel. they form when a slug of air or liquid is shot out of a small nozzle into a region of still air or liquid : as the slug travels out of the nozzle, the low - pressure build - up on the outside of the slug causes the edge to curl, eventually forming a donut shape that can then propagate quite a distance. ( dolphins are natural masters of the art ; humans aren \u2019 t bad ourselves, and we can use toys to make big rings. ) russell co - opted cricket communications with the science of vortices by equipping a squat, roughly 6 - inch tall, cylinder - shaped robot with eight air disturbance sensors, sending binary messages via a separate vortex generator, which isn \u2019 t quite as high - tech as it sounds : it \u2019 s pretty much like a loudspeaker cone, sending pulses of air outward through a less than one - inch aperture. because it \u2019 s difficult to track an pulse of air \u2014 it is invisible, after all \u2014 the engineers burned incense to see", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.55554820407126, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.236371"} {"text": "s pretty much like a loudspeaker cone, sending pulses of air outward through a less than one - inch aperture. because it \u2019 s difficult to track an pulse of air \u2014 it is invisible, after all \u2014 the engineers burned incense to see the air disturbances in progress. by themselves, these air pulses don \u2019 t say much \u2014 but when sent in a series of binary coded pulses, they can be used to communicate with other robots. in this study, for example, the scientists sent a sequence of 1, 000 vortices to relay the binary coded word for \u201c vortex \u201d over a distance of nearly 12 inches. in addition to sending messages through varied pulses, the sensors could detect both the direction and range of the sender : the message direction was gathered by sensing which of the eight sensors were triggered, while the robot calculated distance by analyzing the lag between the fast - and slow - moving vortices. sensing air disturbances is all fine and dandy, but what happens when you \u2019 re in a breezy environment? the scientists equipped the robot with a plastic film attached at only one end to take care of that : when hooked up to an optical sensor, the robot can detect the difference between laminar ( typical of breezes ) and turbulent flow ( typical of the vortices ). but despite their valiant efforts, the common error was still missed vortices : as the rings of air traveled, breezes from the room \u2019 s ventilation system would sometimes trigger a phantom vortex, sending unintentional messages. while not perfect, the scientists nevertheless demonstrated that such robot - to - robot communication is possible. in addition to fixing the errors, the researchers want to construct a smaller vortex generator \u2014 one closer to the size of its inspiration, the wing - flick of the cave cricket. discover : when robots live among us discoblog : how to speak a language that your robot will understand discoblog : japan wants to send a tweeting companion - bot to the space station discover : evolving a conscious machine image : wikimedia commons / traitor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5888917255929055, "token_count": 420, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.237491"} {"text": "libraries, supermarkets, classrooms \u2026 the world is full of places that look very similar, and yet our brains always seem to keep track of where we are. in a new study published in the journal of neuroscience, researchers at princeton university and ohio state university have uncovered one way in which the brain does this. similar - looking places can be distinguished from each other because of differences in what we experience when navigating to them. as we head toward a destination, our brains catalogue details such as other nearby buildings, the look of the doorway, even the people nearby. the researchers discovered that the parahippocampal cortex, a part of the visual system that analyzes the current scene in front of us, also incorporates the details leading up to the scene, or its \u201c temporal context. \u201d as a result, even when two scenes look identical, we create different memory traces for them when their temporal contexts are different. ultimately, this can help our brains to keep track of where we are in the world. learn more about nicholas turk - browne \u2019 s research at princeton university. journal citation : turk - browne nb, simon mg, sederberg pb. scene representations in parahippocampal cortex depend on temporal context. j neurosci. 2012 may 23 ; 32 ( 21 ) : 7202 \u2013 7.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5796968478769509, "token_count": 268, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.239195"} {"text": "giant marble harvests energy from sun and moon it looks like a giant, glass marble. but this globe is no game. it \u2019 s a sun - tracking, solar energy concentrator created by barcelona - based architects rawlemon and, according to the designers, is able to collect not just sunlight but moonlight as well. the weatherproof sphere is designed to rotate and follow the sun across the sky. it \u2019 s so sensitive to light that at night, it can even harvest moonlight and convert it into electricity. andre rawlemon, the architect and designer, says his spherical, sun - tracking glass globe is able to concentrate sunlight and moonlight up to 10, 000 times and that the system is 35 percent more efficient than photovoltaic designs that track the sun. one of rawlemon \u2019 s idea is to build these globes into the exterior walls of buildings and use them to generate electricity. other products to invest in when this technology reaches full commercialization potential : bounty and windex. seriously though, the ability alone to convert moonlight to electricity could be a game changer for the manufacturers of photovoltaic cells where typical solar panels offer a range of 8 to 12 hours of usable daylight for the generation of electricity. coupled with products that offer greater efficiency and other simple behavioral aspects like turning off computers and monitors ( or at least put in stand - by ) when they \u2019 re not being used could add up to significant savings and longer - term environmental benefits.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5161450990768025, "token_count": 297, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.242364"} {"text": "we said on the getting started page that html is nothing more than a box of highlighters that we use to carefully describe our text. this is mostly the entire story. normally our content is just text we want to define in some way. but what if our content is not just text? what if, let \u2019 s say, we have a bunch of images that we want to include on the page? we certainly can \u2019 t type in 4 - thousand pixels on the keyboard to make up a 200x200 - pixel image \u2026 motivation and syntax when the content we want is not text, then we have to have of including that content on the page. the most common example is an image. the problem, however, is that html tags are like highlighters \u2014 they have an opening tag and a closing tag. between the opening and closing tags fits the data that is \u201c highlighted \u201d by the tag. if we were to have an < image > tag in html ( we don \u2019 t have that tag \u2014 one close to it though ), what would go \u201c inside \u201d of it? what might you replace the stuff with inside of it simply doesn \u2019 t make sense for an < image > tag to exist like all the other html tags because the other html tags define something else while image is, itself, something that can be defined. the image tag and all such manner of tags are called \u201c element \u201d tags because, just like the name implies, the tags are themselves the elements all their own. for all intents and purposes you can treat element tags just like text. if your content is like the words in a textbook and regular html is like a pack of highlighters, then these special element tags are indeed like the text and not like the highlighters at all. the xml standard says that every tag must be closed. but we have this new breed of tags that really don \u2019 t make sense to be closed. what we have is a compromise between the two extremes. we have a self - closing tag. the tag is just like the tags we learned about on the general syntax page with two exceptions. - there is no closing tag - there is a > to indicate that the tag is self - closing. so this looks like : ( there is commonly a space before the /, but again spacing after the name of the tag is arbitrary. ) you might imagine that there could be a tag that produces the copyright symbol ( \u00a9 ). there isn \u2019 t ( we \u2019 ll get to special characters later ). but if there were,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5119304162925832, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.290417"} {"text": "it is possible to use a hash function to construct a block cipher with a structure similar to des? because a hash function is one way and a block cipher must be reversible ( to decrypt ), how is it possible? migrated from security. stackexchange. com nov 8 ' 12 at 12 : 26 it is possible to build a block cipher out of a great many things. if you want to use a hash function, the classic trick is to follow a feistel structure, which is, incidentally, the same kind of structure than what des uses. the schematics on the wikipedia page are quite clear ; you would use the hash function for the \" f \" part, which combines one ( sub ) key and one half of the current block, to produce a value which is to be xored with the other half of the current block. the beauty of the scheme is that the \" f \" function is always invoked in the same direction, both for encryption and for decryption. therefore, it can be a one - way function, like a hash function. luby and rackoff have demonstrated in 1988 that the feistel scheme offers remarkable security with as little as four rounds, provided that the \" f \" function is \" perfect \" and that the cipher block size is big enough ( to get the standard \" 128 - bit security \" out of the luby - rackoff proof, you need 256 - bit blocks ). of course, any concrete hash function cannot be really \" perfect \" ( see for instance this answer ) and there are a lot of subtle details which can destroy the security of the best thought cipher structure. as usual, you are strongly advised not to build your own crypto ( unless you are quite clear with yourself that you do it for learning and not to actually protect any data of value ). also, if you build such a cipher, you will probably notice that the resulting performance is disappointing. with a secure hash function like sha - 256, you could expect an encryption bandwidth roughly 20 times lower than what aes would get you. it is possible to use a hash function like ( sha family, for instance ) in ofb or cfb ( and possibly ctr ), by using the hash function ( with the key as part of the input! ) in the place of the block cipher encryption. that said, thomas is right - - do not build your own crypto. just use a normal block cipher. you ' ll get better performance ( especially if it ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6148597117435848, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.325962"} {"text": "up of the verification regime so that it is operational when the treaty enters into force. the annual budget is around us $ 120, 000, 000 or \u20ac82, 000, 000. verification regime to make sure that no nuclear explosion goes undetected the treaty has a unique and comprehensive verification regime to make sure that no nuclear explosion goes undetected. this regime consists of three pillars : the international monitoring system ( ims ) will, when complete, consist of 337 facilities worldwide to monitor the planet for signs of nuclear explosions. over 85 percent of the facilities are already up and running. the ims uses the following four state - of - the - art technologies ( numbers reflect final configuration ) : \u2022 seismic : 50 primary and 120 auxiliary seismic stations monitor shockwaves in the earth. the vast majority of these shockwaves \u2013 many thousands every year \u2013 are caused by earthquakes. but man - made explosions such as mine explosions or the north korean nuclear tests in 2006 and 2009, are also detected. \u2022 hydroacoustic : 11 hydroacoustic stations \u201c listen \u201d for sound waves in the oceans. sound waves from explosions can travel extremely far underwater. \u2022 infrasound : 60 stations on the surface can detect ultra - low frequency sound waves ( inaudible to the human ear ) that are emitted by large explosions. \u2022 radionuclide : 80 stations measure the atmosphere for radioactive particles ; 40 of them also pick up noble gas. only these measurements can give a clear indication as to whether an explosion detected by the other methods was actually nuclear or not. they are supported by 16 radionuclide laboratories. on - site inspections can be dispatched to the area of a suspicious nuclear explosion if the data from the ims indicate that a nuclear test has taken place there. inspectors will collect evidence on the ground at the suspected site. such an inspection can only be requested and approved by member states once the ctbt has entered into force. a large on - site inspection exercise was carried out in september 2008 in kazakhstan and the next one is planned for 2014 in jordan. helping tsunami warning and the environment the huge amount of data collected by the stations can also be used for other purposes than detecting nuclear explosions. they can provide tsunami warning centres with almost real - time information about an underwater earthquake, thus helping to warn people earlier and possibly saving lives. during the march 2011 fukushima power plant accident, the network ' s radionuclide stations tracked the dispersion of radioactivity on a global scale. the data could also help", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5475398018319896, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.331632"} {"text": "bees and butterflies constituting as the string of his bow whose shaft is made of sugarcane, and as having the symbol of makara on his flag. hamsa or geese ( often confused with swans ) is said to have the ability to separate milk from water. this makes hamsa the symbol of intellectual discrimination and so is associated with saraswati, goddess of knoweldge. rats are an annoying pest and so serve as the symbol of problems. they are also highly fertile. so they are symbols of cascading problems. ganesha, the god who removes obstacles, has the rat as his vehicle ; by mounting the rat and domesticating it as his vehicle, he blocks the problems that plague our life. shiva \u2019 s bull communicates shiva \u2019 s independence, vishnu \u2019 s hawk indicates his mobility and wider vision of things. animals are not just vehicles or symbols of the gods ; they are the forms that the god takes. hanuman, who serves ram, is a monkey. vishnu, for example, turns into fish and turtle and wild boar in order to save the world. the earth - goddess, prithvi, often is seen in the form of a cow. ganesha has the head of an elephant while the ashwini twins have horse heads and ketu, the planetary body associated with anxiety and restlessness, is a headless serpent. in metaphysics, animals are jiva - atmas, souls wrapped in flesh. their flesh is superior to plants because they are mobile. their flesh is inferior to human beings because they do not possess the highly developed brain that enables humans to imagine, love, create and care. it says that only after 84 lakh rebirths is a jiva - atma blessed with human flesh. what distinguishes humans from all other living creatures is our infinite ability to empathize, an ability that is highly limited in animals. by riding on animals, the gods are perhaps reminding us of our ability to overpower our animal instincts of self - preservation and self - propagation and focus on the unique human capability of self - realization which can only happen when we are able to feel for the rest of the world. unfortunately, most of the time we prefer regression to evolution, behave as animals thinking only about survival. in fact, we are worse than animals, for animals think only about survival of their bodies, and do not have the wherewithal to do otherwise. we, on the other hand, spend all our lives working towards survival of our imagined self - image. so long as we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5295521531732871, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.340378"} {"text": "cyanobacterial emergence at 2. 8 gya and greenhouse feedbacks d. schwartzman, k. caldeira & a. pavlov approximately 2. 8 billion years ago, cyanobacteria and a methane - influenced greenhouse emerged nearly simultaneously. here we hypothesize that the evolution of cyanobacteria could have caused a methane greenhouse. apparent cyanobacterial emergence at about 2. 8 gya coincides with the negative excursion in the organic carbon isotope record, which is the first strong evidence for the presence of atmospheric methane. the existence of weathering feedbacks in the carbonate - silicate cycle suggests that atmospheric and oceanic co2 concentrations would have been high prior to the presence of a methane greenhouse ( and thus the ocean would have had high bicarbonate concentrations ). with the onset of a methane greenhouse, carbon dioxide concentrations would decrease. bicarbonate has been proposed as the preferred reductant that preceded water for oxygenic photosynthesis in a bacterial photosynthetic precursor to cyanobacteria ; with the drop of carbon dioxide level, archean cyanobacteria emerged using water as a reductant instead of bicarbonate ( dismukes et al., 2001 ). our thermodynamic calculations, with regard to this scenario, give at least a tenfold drop in aqueous co2 levels with the onset of a methane - dominated greenhouse, assuming surface temperatures of about 60\u00b0c and a drop in the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide from about 1 to 0. 1 bars. the buildup of atmospheric methane could have been triggered by the boost in oceanic organic productivity that arose from the emergence of pre - cyanobacterial oxygenic phototrophy at about 2. 8 \u2013 3. 0 gya ; high temperatures may have precluded an earlier emergence. a greenhouse transition timescale on the order of 50 \u2013 100 million years is consistent with results from modeling the carbonate - silicate cycle. this is an alternative hypothesis to proposals of a tectonic driver for this apparent greenhouse transition.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5335775223658664, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.342656"} {"text": "from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | part of the politics series on | | communism portal | communism is a social structure in which classes are abolished and property is commonly controlled, as well as a political philosophy and social movement that advocates and aims to create such a society. karl marx, the father of communist thought, posited that communism would be the final stage in society, which would be achieved through a proletarian revolution and only possible after a socialist stage develops the productive forces, leading to a superabundance of goods and services. \" pure communism \" in the marxian sense refers to a classless, stateless and oppression - free society where decisions on what to produce and what policies to pursue are made democratically, allowing every member of society to participate in the decision - making process in both the political and economic spheres of life. in modern usage, communism is often used to refer to bolshevism or marxism - leninism and the policies of the various communist states which had government ownership of all the means of production and centrally planned economies. communist regimes, all inspired only by the leninist current, have historically been authoritarian, repressive, and coercive governments concerned primarily with preserving their own power. as a political ideology, communism is usually considered to be a branch of socialism ; a broad group of economic and political philosophies that draw on the various political and intellectual movements with origins in the work oftheorists of the industrial revolution and the french revolution. communism attempts to offer an alternative to the problems with the capitalist market economy and the legacy of imperialism and nationalism. marx states that the only way to solve these problems is for the working class ( proletariat ), who according to marx are the main producers of wealth in society and are exploited by the capitalist - class ( bourgeoisie ), to replace the bourgeoisie as the ruling class in order to establish a free society, without class or racial divisions. the dominant forms of communism, such as leninism, stalinism, maoism and trotskyism are based on marxism, as well as others forms of communism ( such as luxemburgism and council communism ), but non - marxist versions of communism ( such as christian communism and anarchist communism ) also exist. karl marx never provided a detailed description as to how communism would function as an economic system, but it is understood that a communist economy would consist of common ownership of the means of production, culminating in the negation of the concept of private ownership of capital, which referred to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5982288122900741, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.384861"} {"text": "a detailed description as to how communism would function as an economic system, but it is understood that a communist economy would consist of common ownership of the means of production, culminating in the negation of the concept of private ownership of capital, which referred to the means of production in marxian terminology. | it has been suggested that this section be split into a new article titled list of communist ideologies. ( discuss ) | in the schema of historical materialism, communism is the idea of a free society with no division or alienation, where mankind is free from oppression and scarcity. a communist society would have no governments, countries, or class divisions. in marxist theory, the dictatorship of the proletariat is the intermediate system between capitalism and communism, when the government is in the process of changing the means of ownership from privatism, to collective ownership. in political science, the term \" communism \" is sometimes used to refer to communist states, a form of government in which the state operates under a one - party system and declares allegiance to marxism - leninism or a derivative thereof. marxist schools of communism self - identified communists hold a variety of views, including marxism - leninism, trotskyism, council communism, luxemburgism, anarchist communism, christian communism, and various currents of left communism. however, the offshoots of the marxist - leninist interpretations of marxism are the most well - known of these and have been a driving force in international relations during most of the 20th century. like other socialists, marx and engels sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they perceived to be responsible for the exploitation of workers. but whereas earlier socialists often favored longer - term social reform, marx and engels believed that popular revolution was all but inevitable, and the only path to the socialist state. according to the marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is alienation ; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom. marx here follows georg wilhelm friedrich hegel in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of restraints but as action with content. according to marx, communism ' s outlook on freedom was based on an agent, obstacle, and goal. the agent is the common / working people ; the obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life - chances, and false consciousness ; and the goal is the fulfillment of human needs including satisfying work, and fair share of the product. they believed that communism allowed people to do what", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5837779868185536, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.385996"} {"text": "obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life - chances, and false consciousness ; and the goal is the fulfillment of human needs including satisfying work, and fair share of the product. they believed that communism allowed people to do what they want, but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to exploit, or have any need to. whereas for hegel the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for marx, communism emerged from material forces, particularly the development of the means of production. marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the proletariat and the establishment of a communist society in which private ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. marx himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society. it is clear that it entails abundance in which there is little limit to the projects that humans may undertake. in the popular slogan that was adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which each gave according to their abilities, and received according to their needs. the german ideology ( 1845 ) was one of marx ' s few writings to elaborate on the communist future : \" in communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as i have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic. \" marx ' s lasting vision was to add this vision to a theory of how society was moving in a law - governed way toward communism, and, with some tension, a political theory that explained why revolutionary activity was required to bring it about. in the late 19th century, the terms \" socialism \" and \" communism \" were often used interchangeably. however, marx and engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through a \" first phase \" in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences remaining. the \" first phase \" would eventually evolve into a \" higher phase \" in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. lenin frequently used the term \" socialism \" to refer to marx and engels", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5551041944222643, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.387239"} {"text": "with some class differences remaining. the \" first phase \" would eventually evolve into a \" higher phase \" in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. lenin frequently used the term \" socialism \" to refer to marx and engels ' supposed \" first phase \" of communism and used the term \" communism \" interchangeably with marx and engels ' \" higher phase \" of communism. these later aspects, particularly as developed by vladimir ilyich lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing features of 20th century communist parties. marxism - leninism is a version of socialism adopted by the soviet union and most communist parties across the world today. it shaped the soviet union and influenced communist parties worldwide. it was heralded as a possibility of building communism via a massive program of industrialization and collectivization. historically, under the ideology of marxism - leninism the rapid development of industry, and above all the victory of the soviet union in the second world war occurred alongside a third of the world being lead by marxist - leninist inspired parties. despite the fall of the soviet union and eastern bloc countries, many communist parties of the world today still lay claim to uphold the marxist - leninist banner. marxism - leninism expands on marxists thoughts by bringing the theories to what lenin and other communists considered, the age of capitalist imperialism, and a renewed focus on party building, the development of a socialist state, and democratic centralism as an organizational principle. lenin adapted marx \u2019 s urban revolution to russia \u2019 s agricultural conditions, sparking the \u201c revolutionary nationalism of the poor \u201d. the pamphlet what is to be done? ( 1902 ), proposed that the ( urban ) proletariat can successfully achieve revolutionary consciousness only under the leadership of a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries \u2014 who can achieve aims only with internal democratic centralism in the party ; tactical and ideological policy decisions are agreed via democracy, and every member must support and promote the agreed party policy. to wit, capitalism can be overthrown only with revolution \u2014 because attempts to reform capitalism from within ( fabianism ) and from without ( democratic socialism ) will fail because of its inherent contradictions. the purpose of a leninist revolutionary vanguard party is the forceful deposition of the incumbent government ; assume power ( as agent of the proletariat ) and establish a dictatorship of the proletariat government. moreover, as the government, the vanguard party must educate the proletariat \u2014 to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that are culturally instilled", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5717677909805703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.388346"} {"text": "' s 1913 work marxism and the national question, praised by lenin. - socialism in one country, - the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, a theoretical base supporting the repression of political opponents as necessary. trotsky and his supporters organized into the left opposition and their platform became known as trotskyism. stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the soviet regime and trotskyist attempts to remove stalin from power resulted in trotsky ' s exile from the soviet union in 1929. during trotsky ' s exile, world communism fractured into two distinct branches : marxism - leninism and trotskyism. trotsky later founded the fourth international, a trotskyist rival to the comintern, in 1938. trotskyist ideas have continually found a modest echo among political movements in some countries in latin america and asia, especially in argentina, brazil, bolivia and sri lanka. many trotskyist organizations are also active in more stable, developed countries in north america and western europe. trotsky ' s politics differed sharply from those of stalin and mao, most importantly in declaring the need for an international proletarian revolution ( rather than socialism in one country ) and unwavering support for a true dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles. however, as a whole, trotsky ' s theories and attitudes were never accepted in worldwide mainstream communist circles after trotsky ' s expulsion, either within or outside of the soviet bloc. this remained the case even after the secret speech and subsequent events critics claim exposed the fallibility of stalin. maoism is the marxist - leninist trend of communism associated with mao zedong and was mostly practiced within the people ' s republic of china. khrushchev ' s reforms heightened ideological differences between the people ' s republic of china and the soviet union, which became increasingly apparent in the 1960s. as the sino - soviet split in the international communist movement turned toward open hostility, china portrayed itself as a leader of the underdeveloped world against the two superpowers, the united states and the soviet union. parties and groups that supported the communist party of china ( cpc ) in their criticism against the new soviet leadership proclaimed themselves as ' anti - revisionist ' and denounced the cpsu and the parties aligned with it as revisionist \" capitalist - roaders. \" the sino - soviet split resulted in divisions amongst communist parties around the world. notably, the party of labour of albania sided with the people", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5394123598209049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.390878"} {"text": "policies of the soviet union. the term was originally meant as a pejorative, and was labeled by moscow as a heresy during the period of tensions between the soviet union and yugoslavia known as the informbiro period from 1948 to 1955. unlike the rest of east europe, which fell under stalin ' s influence post - world war ii, yugoslavia, due to the strong leadership of marshal tito and the fact that the yugoslav partisans liberated yugoslavia with only limited help from the red army, remained independent from moscow. it became the only country in the balkans to resist pressure from moscow to join the warsaw pact and remained \" socialist, but independent \" right up until the collapse of soviet socialism in the late 1980s and early 1990s. throughout his time in office, tito prided himself on yugoslavia ' s independence from russia, with yugoslavia never accepting full membership of the comecon and tito ' s open rejection of many aspects of stalinism as the most obvious manifestations of this. since the early 1970s, the term eurocommunism was used to refer to moderate, reformist communist parties in western europe. these parties did not support the soviet union and denounced its policies. such parties were politically active and electorally significant in italy ( pci ), france ( pcf ), and spain ( pce ). council communism is a far - left movement originating in germany and the netherlands in the 1920s. its primary organization was the communist workers party of germany ( kapd ). council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both left - wing marxism and libertarian socialism. the central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of social democracy and leninist communism, is that democratic workers ' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working class organisation and governmental power. this view is opposed to both the reformist and the leninist ideologies, with their stress on, respectively, parliaments and institutional government ( i. e., by applying social reforms ), on the one hand, and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other ). the core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by workers ' councils composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. as such, council communists oppose state - run authoritarian \" state socialism \" / \" state capitalism \". they also oppose the idea of a \" revolutionary party \", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. council communists support a worker ' s democracy, which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5092168162951468, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.393522"} {"text": "\" state socialism \" / \" state capitalism \". they also oppose the idea of a \" revolutionary party \", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. council communists support a worker ' s democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of workers ' councils. council communism ( and other types of \" anti - authoritarian and anti - leninist marxism \" such as autonomism ) are often viewed as being similar to anarchism because they criticize leninist ideologies for being authoritarian and reject the idea of a vanguard party. luxemburgism, based on the writing of rosa luxemburg, is an interpretation of marxism which, while supporting the russian revolution, as luxemburg did, agrees with her criticisms of the politics of lenin and trotsky ; she did not see their concept of \" democratic centralism \" as democracy. the chief tenets of luxemburgism are commitment to democracy and the necessity of the revolution taking place as soon as possible. in this regard, it is similar to council communism, but differs in that, for example, luxemburgists don ' t reject elections by principle. it resembles anarchism in its insistence that only relying on the people themselves as opposed to their leaders can avoid an authoritarian society, but differs in that it sees the importance of a revolutionary party, and mainly the centrality of the working class in the revolutionary struggle. it resembles trotskyism in its opposition to the totalitarianism of stalinist government while simultaneously avoiding the reformist politics of modern social democracy, but differs from trotskyism in arguing that lenin and trotsky also made undemocratic errors. luxemburg ' s idea of democracy, which stanley aronowitz calls \" generalized democracy in an unarticulated form \", represents luxemburgism ' s greatest break with \" mainstream communism \", since it effectively diminishes the role of the communist party, but is in fact very similar to the views of karl marx ( \" the emancipation of the working classes must be conquered by the working classes themselves \" ). according to aronowitz, the vagueness of luxembourgian democracy is one reason for its initial difficulty in gaining widespread support. however, since the fall of the soviet union, luxemburgism has been seen by some socialist thinkers as a way to avoid the totalitarianism of stalinism. early on, luxemburg attacked undemocratic tendencies present in the russian revolution. | this section does not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5507083864953588, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.394728"} {"text": "soviet union, luxemburgism has been seen by some socialist thinkers as a way to avoid the totalitarianism of stalinism. early on, luxemburg attacked undemocratic tendencies present in the russian revolution. | this section does not cite any references or sources. | please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( november 2008 ) in 1992, juche replaced marxism - leninism in the revised north korean constitution as the official state ideology, this being a response to the sino - soviet split. juche was originally defined as a creative application of marxism - leninism, but after the 1991 collapse of the soviet union ( north korea \u2019 s greatest economic benefactor ), all reference to marxism - leninism was dropped in the revised 1998 constitution. the establishment of the songun doctrine in the mid - 1990s has formally designated the military, not the proletariat or working class, as the main revolutionary force in north korea. all reference to communism had been dropped in the 2009 revised constitution. according to kim jong - il ' s on the juche idea, the application of juche in state policy entails the following : - the people must have independence ( chajusong ) in thought and politics, economic self - sufficiency, and self - reliance in defense. - policy must reflect the will and aspirations of the masses and employ them fully in revolution and construction. - methods of revolution and construction must be suitable to the situation of the country. - the most important work of revolution and construction is molding people ideologically as communists and mobilizing them to constructive action. prachanda path refers to the ideological line of the communist party of nepal ( maoist ). this thought doesn ' t make an ideological break with marxism, leninism and maoism but it is an extension of these ideologies totally based on home - ground politics of nepal. the doctrine came into existence after it was realized that the ideology of marxism, leninism and maoism couldn ' t be practiced completely as it were done in the past. and an ideology suitable, based on the ground reality of nepalese politics was adopted by the party. after five years of armed struggle, the party realized that none of the proletarian revolutions of the past could be carried out on nepal \u2019 s context. so moving further ahead than marxism, leninism and maoism, the party determined its own ideology, prachanda path. having analyzed the serious challenges and growing changes in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5505549442768776, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.398306"} {"text": "became one of the dominant forms of anarchist organization, arguing that labor unions, as opposed to communist parties, are the organizations that can change society. consequently, many anarchists have been in opposition to marxist communism to this day. anarchist communists propose that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of self - governing communes with collective use of the means of production, organized by direct democracy, and related to other communes through federation. however, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy. christian communism is a form of religious communism centered on christianity. it is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of jesus christ urge christians to support communism as the ideal social system. christian communists trace the origins of their practice to teachings in the new testament, such as this one from acts of the apostles at chapter 2 and verses 42, 44, and 45 : 42 and they continued steadfastly in the apostles ' doctrine and in fellowship [... ] 44 and all that believed were together, and had all things in common ; 45 and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. ( king james version ) christian communism can be seen as a radical form of christian socialism. also, due to the fact that many christian communists have formed independent stateless communes in the past, there is also a link between christian communism and christian anarchism. christian communists may or may not agree with various parts of marxism. christian communists also share some of the political goals of marxists, for example replacing capitalism with socialism, which should in turn be followed by communism at a later point in the future. however, christian communists sometimes disagree with marxists ( and particularly with leninists ) on the way a socialist or communist society should be organized. karl heinrich marx saw primitive communism as the original, hunter - gatherer state of humankind from which it arose. for marx, only after humanity was capable of producing surplus, did private property develop. in the history of western thought, certain elements of the idea of a society based on common ownership of property can be traced back to ancient times. examples include the spartacus slave revolt in rome. the fifth century mazdak movement in what is now iran has been described as \" communistic \" for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society. at one time or another,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5339039059712509, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.402430"} {"text": "in what is now iran has been described as \" communistic \" for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society. at one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of scripture. in the medieval christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and other property ( see religious communism and christian communism ). these groups often believed that concern with private property was a distraction from religious service to god and neighbor. communist thought has also been traced back to the work of 16th century english writer thomas more. in his treatise utopia ( 1516 ), more portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason. in the 17th century, communist thought arguably surfaced again in england. in 17th century england, a puritan religious group known as the diggers advocated the abolition of private ownership of land. eduard bernstein, in his 1895 cromwell and communism argued that several groupings in the english civil war, especially the diggers espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that oliver cromwell ' s attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile. criticism of the idea of private property continued into the age of enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as jean jacques rousseau in france. later, following the upheaval of the french revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine. francois noel babeuf, in particular, espoused the goals of common ownership of land and total economic and political equality among citizens. various social reformers in the early 19th century founded communities based on common ownership. but unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis. notable among them were robert owen, who founded new harmony in indiana ( 1825 ), and charles fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the united states such as brook farm ( 1841 \u2013 47 ). later in the 19th century, karl marx described these social reformers as \" utopian socialists \" to contrast them with his program of \" scientific socialism \" ( a term coined by friedrich engels ). other writers described by marx as \" utopian socialists \" included saint - simon. in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century europe. as the industrial revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat \u2014 a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often - hazardous conditions. foremost among", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5256816424051677, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.403805"} {"text": "communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century europe. as the industrial revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat \u2014 a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often - hazardous conditions. foremost among these critics were the german philosopher karl marx and his associate friedrich engels. in 1848, marx and engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet the communist manifesto. engels, who lived in manchester, observed the organization of the chartist movement ( see history of british socialism ), while marx departed from his university comrades to meet the proletariat in france and germany. growth of modern communism in the late 19th century, russian marxism developed a distinct character. the first major figure of russian marxism was georgi plekhanov. underlying the work of plekhanov was the assumption that russia, less urbanized and industrialized than western europe, had many years to go before society would be ready for proletarian revolution to occur, and a transitional period of a bourgeois democratic regime would be required to replace tsarism with a socialist and later communist society. ( eb ) in russia, the 1917 october revolution was the first time any party with an avowedly marxist orientation, in this case the bolshevik party, seized state power. the assumption of state power by the bolsheviks generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the marxist movement. marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. marx had explicitly stated that russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeoisie capitalism. other socialists also believed that a russian revolution could be the precursor of workers ' revolutions in the west. the moderate mensheviks opposed lenin ' s bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. the bolsheviks ' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans \" peace, bread, and land \" and \" all power to the soviets \", slogans which tapped the massive public desire for an end to russian involvement in the first world war, the peasants ' demand for land reform, and popular support for the soviets. the usage of the terms \" communism \" and \" socialism \" shifted after 1917, when the bolsheviks changed their name to the communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5265641306002846, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.404979"} {"text": "soviets. the usage of the terms \" communism \" and \" socialism \" shifted after 1917, when the bolsheviks changed their name to the communist party and installed a single party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under leninism. the second international had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the separate national parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front against the war, instead generally supporting their respective nation ' s role. lenin thus created the third international ( comintern ) in 1919 and sent the twenty - one conditions, which included democratic centralism, to all european socialist parties willing to adhere. in france, for example, the majority of the french section of the workers ' international ( sfio ) party split in 1921 to form the french section of the communist international ( sfic ). henceforth, the term \" communism \" was applied to the objective of the parties founded under the umbrella of the comintern. their program called for the uniting of workers of the world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat as well as the development of a socialist economy. ultimately, if their program held, there would develop a harmonious classless society, with the withering away of the state. during the russian civil war ( 1918 \u2013 1922 ), the bolsheviks nationalized all productive property and imposed a policy of war communism, which put factories and railroads under strict government control, collected and rationed food, and introduced some bourgeois management of industry. after three years of war and the 1921 kronstadt rebellion, lenin declared the new economic policy ( nep ) in 1921, which was to give a \" limited place for a limited time to capitalism. \" the nep lasted until 1928, when joseph stalin achieved party leadership, and the introduction of the first five year plan spelled the end of it. following the russian civil war, the bolsheviks formed in 1922 the union of soviet socialist republics ( ussr ), or soviet union, from the former russian empire. following lenin ' s democratic centralism, the communist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base ; they were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline. after world war ii, communists consolidated power in eastern europe, and in 1949, the communist party of china ( cpc ) led by mao zedong established the people ' s republic of china, which would later follow its own ideological path of communist development. cuba, north korea,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5127220786770286, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.406265"} {"text": "in south africa, the communist party is a partner in the anc - led government. in india, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. in nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament. the people ' s republic of china has reassessed many aspects of the maoist legacy ; and the people ' s republic of china, laos, vietnam, and, to a far lesser degree, cuba have reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. the people ' s republic of china runs special economic zones dedicated to market - oriented enterprise, free from central government control. several other communist states have also attempted to implement market - based reforms, including vietnam. theories within marxism as to why communism in eastern europe was not achieved after socialist revolutions pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the transition press in its own interests. ( scott and marshall, 2005 ) marxist critics of the soviet union, most notably trotsky, referred to the soviet system, along with other communist states, as \" degenerated \" or \" deformed workers ' states \", arguing that the soviet system fell far short of marx ' s communist ideal and he claimed the working class was politically dispossessed. the ruling stratum of the soviet union was held to be a bureaucratic caste, but not a new ruling class, despite their political control. anarchists who adhere to participatory economics claim that the soviet union became dominated by powerful intellectual elites who in a capitalist system crown the proletariat \u2019 s labor on behalf of the bourgeoisie. non - marxists, in contrast, have often applied the term to any society ruled by a communist party and to any party aspiring to create a society similar to such existing nation - states. in the social sciences, societies ruled by communist parties are distinct for their single party control and their socialist economic bases. while some social and political scientists applied the concept of \" totalitarianism \" to these societies, others identified possibilities for independent political activity within them, and stressed their continued evolution up to the point of the dissolution of the soviet union and its allies in eastern europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s. a diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as : - soviet bloc dissidents lech wa\u0142esa, aleksandr solzhenitsyn", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5160064498979007, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.412212"} {"text": "union and its allies in eastern europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s. a diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as : - soviet bloc dissidents lech wa\u0142esa, aleksandr solzhenitsyn and vaclav havel ; - social theorists hannah arendt, raymond aron, ralf dahrendorf, seymour martin lipset, and karl wittfogel ; - economists ludwig von mises, friedrich hayek, and milton friedman ; - historians and social scientists robert conquest, stephane courtois, richard pipes, and r. j. rummel ; - anti - stalinist leftists ignazio silone, george orwell, saul alinsky, richard wright, arthur koestler, and bernard - henri levy ; - russian - born novelist and philosopher ayn rand - philosophers leszek ko\u0142akowski and karl popper. part of this criticism is on the policies adopted by one - party states ruled by communist parties ( known as \" communist states \" ). critics are specially focused on their economic performance compared to market based economies. their human rights records are thought to be responsible for the flight of refugees from communist states, and are alleged by some scholars to be responsible for famines, purges and warfare resulting in deaths far in excess of previous empires, capitalist or axis regimes. some writers, such as courtois, argue that the actions of communist states were the inevitable ( though sometimes unintentional ) result of marxist principles ; thus, these authors present the events occurring in those countries, particularly under stalin and mao, as an argument against marxism itself. some critics were former marxists, such as wittfogel, who applied marx ' s concept of \" oriental despotism \" to communist states such as the soviet union, silone, wright and koestler ( among other writers ) who contributed essays to the book the god that failed ( the title refers not to the christian god but to marxism ). czes\u0142aw mi\u0142osz, author of the influential essay the captive mind, was an example of a sceptic holding a party post, that of cultural attache. there have also been more direct criticisms of marxism, such as criticisms of the labor theory of value or marx ' s predictions. nevertheless, communist parties outside of the warsaw pact, such as the communist parties in western europe, asia, latin america, and africa, differed greatly. economic criticisms of communal and / or government property are described under criticisms of socialism. - ^ a b", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5326815948869442, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.413270"} {"text": "nevertheless, communist parties outside of the warsaw pact, such as the communist parties in western europe, asia, latin america, and africa, differed greatly. economic criticisms of communal and / or government property are described under criticisms of socialism. - ^ a b c d \" communism \". columbia encyclopedia. 2008. - ^ schaff, kory ( 2001 ). philosophy and the problems of work : a reader. lanham, md : rowman & littlefield. pp. 224. isbn 0 - 7425 - 0795 - 5. - ^ walicki, andrzej ( 1995 ). marxism and the leap to the kingdom of freedom : the rise and fall of the communist utopia. stanford, calif : stanford university press. p. 95. isbn 0 - 8047 - 2384 - 2. - ^ \" socialism. \" columbia electronic encyclopedia. columbia university press. 03 feb. 2008. < reference. com http : / / www. reference. com / browse / columbia / socialis >. - 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10 - 18. - ^ \" swedish", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5136010619465377, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.414232"} {"text": "- ^ \" on trotskyism \". marx2mao. com. http : / / www. marx2mao. com / other / ot73nb. html. retrieved 2009 - 10 - 18. - ^ \" swedish frp on anti - marxist - leninist dogmas of trotskyism \". home. flash. net. http : / / home. flash. net / ~ comvoice / 32ctrotskyism. html. retrieved 2009 - 10 - 18. - ^ \" what ' s your line? \". web. archive. org. http : / / web. archive. org / web / 20080201115440 / http : / / www. etext. org / politics / mim / wim / wyl /. retrieved 2009 - 10 - 18. - ^ this poster has been jokingly referred to as \" the history of shaving \" stefan landsberger ' s chinese propaganda poster pages - ideological foundations - ^ http : / / www. reuters. com / article / latestcrisis / idusseo253213 - ^ marshall, peter. \" demanding the impossible \u2014 a history of anarchism \" p. 9. fontana press, london, 1993 isbn 978 - 0 - 00 - 686245 - 1 - ^ puente, isaac. \" libertarian communism \". the cienfuegos press anarchist review. issue 6 orkney 1982. - ^ graeber, david and grubacic, andrej. anarchism, or the revolutionary movement of the twenty - first century. - ^ \" historical background for spartacus \". vroma. org. http : / / www. vroma. org / ~ bmcmanus / spartacus. html. retrieved 2009 - 10 - 18. - ^ the cambridge history of iran volume 3, the seleucid, parthian and sasanian period, edited by ehsan yarshater, parts 1 and 2, p1019, cambridge university press ( 1983 ) - ^ a b c d \" communism. \" encyclop\u00e6dia britannica. 2006. encyclop\u00e6dia britannica online. - ^ eduard bernstein : cromwell and communism ( 1895 ) - ^ eduard bernstein, ( 1895 ). kommunistische und demokratisch - sozialistische stromungen wahrend der englischen revolution, j. h. w. dietz, stuttgart. oclc 36367", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5295831390552679, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.415677"} {"text": "^ eduard bernstein, ( 1895 ). kommunistische und demokratisch - sozialistische stromungen wahrend der englischen revolution, j. h. w. dietz, stuttgart. oclc 36367345 sources available at eduard bernstein : cromwell and communism ( 1895 ) at www. marxists. org. - ^ \" communism \" a dictionary of sociology. john scott and gordon marshall. oxford university press 2005. oxford reference online. oxford university press. - ^ marc edelman, \" late marx and the russian road : marx and the ' peripheries of capitalism ' \" - book reviews. monthly review, dec., 1984. late marx and the russian road : marx and the \" peripheries of capitalism. \" - book reviews monthly review find articles at bnet at www. findarticles. com. - ^ norman davies. \" communism \" the oxford companion to world war ii. ed. i. c. b. dear and m. r. d. foot. oxford university press, 2001. - ^ hildreth, jeremy ( 2005 - 06 - 14 ). \" the british empire ' s lessons for our own \". the wall street journal. http : / / online. wsj. com / article / sb111870387824258558. html. retrieved 2009 - 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( 1983 ). without precedent. new york, n. y. : w. w. norton & company. p. 285. isbn 0 - 393 - 01616 - 1. - ^ georgakas, dan ( 1992 ). \" the hollywood blacklist \". encyclopedia of the american left. university of illinois press. - ^ \" nepal ' s election the maoists triumph economist. com \". economist. com. 2008 - 04 - 17. http : / / www. economist. com / displaystory. cfm? story _ id = 11057207 & fsrc = nwl. retrieved 2009 - 10 - 18. - ^ h. gordon skilling ( april 1966 ). [ expression error : missing operand for > \" interest groups and communist politics \" ]. world politics 18 ( 3 ) : 435 \u2013 451. doi : 10. 2307 / 2009764.? uniq3ab34e171166e61b - htmlcommentstrip7c7dfbc41ccbeb7000000002 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5175070473649402, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.418649"} {"text": "435 \u2013 451. doi : 10. 2307 / 2009764.? uniq3ab34e171166e61b - htmlcommentstrip7c7dfbc41ccbeb7000000002 - ^ j. arch getty ( 1985 ). origins of the great purges : the soviet communist party reconsidered : 1933 \u2013 1938. cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 33570 - 6. - ^ rosefielde, steven ( 2009 ). red holocaust. routledge. isbn 978 - 0 - 415 - 77757 - 5. - ^ daniel jonah goldhagen. worse than war : genocide, eliminationism, and the ongoing assault on humanity. publicaffairs, 2009. isbn 1586487698 p. 54 : \"... in the past century communist regimes, led and inspired by the soviet union and china, have killed more people than any other regime type. \" - ^ benjamin a. valentino. final solutions : mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century. cornell university press, 2004. p. 91 isbn 0801439655 - ^ nicolas werth, karel bartosek, jean - louis panne, jean - louis margolin, andrzej paczkowski, stephane courtois, the black book of communism : crimes, terror, repression, harvard university press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, isbn 978 - 0 - 674 - 07608 - 2 - ^ wittfogel, karl oriental despotism, vintage, 1981 - ^ crossman, richard, ed., the god that failed. harper & bros, 1949 - ^ czeslaw milosz, poet and nobelist who wrote of modern cruelties, dies at 93, the new york times, accessed 3 january 2010. - reason in revolt : marxism and modern science by alan woods and ted grant - forman, james d., \" communism from marx ' s manifesto to 20th century reality \", new york, watts. 1972. isbn 978 - 0 - 531 - 02571 - 0 - books on communism, socialism and trotskyism - furet, francois, furet, deborah kan ( translator ), \" the passing of an illusion : the idea of communism in the twentieth century \", university of chicago press, 2000, isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 27341 - 9 - daniels, robert vincent, \" a documentary history of communism and the world : from revolution", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5337943354769061, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.419751"} {"text": "of an illusion : the idea of communism in the twentieth century \", university of chicago press, 2000, isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 27341 - 9 - daniels, robert vincent, \" a documentary history of communism and the world : from revolution to collapse \", university press of new england, 1994, isbn 978 - 0 - 87451 - 678 - 4 - marx, karl and friedrich engels, \" communist manifesto \", ( mass market paperback - reprint ), signet classics, 1998, isbn 978 - 0 - 451 - 52710 - 3 - dirlik, arif, \" origins of chinese communism \", oxford university press, 1989, isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 505454 - 5 - beer, max, \" the general history of socialism and social struggles volumes 1 & 2 \", new york, russel and russel, inc. 1957 - adami, stefano, ' communism ', in encyclopedia of italian literary studies, ed. gaetana marrone - p. puppa, routledge, new york - london, 2006 | wikimedia commons has media related to : communism | | wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to : communism | | look up communism in wiktionary, the free dictionary. | - european parliament resolution on european conscience and totalitarianism - in defense of marxism - anarchy archives includes the works of anarchist communists. - libertarian communist library - marxists internet archive - the mu particle in \" communism \", a short etymological essay by wu ming. - open society archives, one of the biggest history of communism and cold war archives in the world. - islam and communism", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.52968171201673, "token_count": 339, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.420524"} {"text": "date of award master of public health ( mph ) dr. frances mccarty - chair dr. carol hoban postpartum depression is recognized as an important maternal and child health issue. postpartum depression is the most common perinatal psychiatric disorder and one of the most common complications of childbirth. studies show prevalence rates in women ranging from 10 % to 25 %. postpartum depression affects the emotional wellbeing of mothers, infant behavior, mother - infant bonding, and marital relationships. however, the majority of women who experience postpartum depression do not seek care. the purpose of this analysis is to examine the demographic differences between women in georgia who report symptoms of postpartum depression but do not seek care, versus women who report postpartum depression symptoms and seek care. approximately 15 % of respondents in this study reported postpartum depression. of these women, approximately 80 % did not seek care for their symptoms. this analysis found that women with the following characteristics were more likely to not seek care for depression : non - white and hispanic women ; women that were uninsured before their pregnancy ; women that had their prenatal care paid for by medicaid or the military ; and women who did not seek care for depression during their pregnancy. the results of this study may help to guide the implementation of public health interventions among postpartum women in georgia. tennyson, sarah elizabeth, \" an analysis of postpartum depression and care seeking behaviors in georgia \" ( 2009 ). public health theses. paper 120.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5001636949764328, "token_count": 311, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:20:43.426714"}