an essential part of its individuality. it is perhaps of interest to note that ernst zermelo, in his fundamental paper ( 1908 ) on axiomatizing set theory, seemed to be open - minded about whether all objects are sets : " set theory is concerned with a domain b of individuals, which we shall call simply objects and among which are the sets. " ( emphases in original. ) for zermelo, the membership relation is fundamental ; sets are defined in terms of this relation, as objects which have elements, so that a special case is needed for the empty set. so sets are logically posterior to, not prior to, the fundamental binary relation. but unlike later authors zermelo does not rule out the possibility that some objects are nonsets. of course the nonsets which he had principally in mind were atoms or urelements ; these have continued to play a role in set theory, but only in connection with the membership relation. other possible relations or properties of urelements are not considered. natural objects may be urelements - - the raw material for forming sets - - for example, the set of all hurricanes in 1999 may be used, and abstracted, in a statistical analysis. what interests me here is not the properties of natural objects qua urelements, but what other properties they may have, orthogonal as it were to their set - theoretic ones, because not expressed in terms of the membership relation. as a first approximation, let us suppose that an appropriate language for natural objects has a binary relation, analogous to the fundamental binary relation ( " x is an element of y " ) of set theory, but stating rather " x is a component of y ". this relation will have very different properties from. in fact partakes of some of the properties of natural objects : it changes through time and space. its properties in the subatomic and the macroscopic realms diverge. but we can certainly see whether set - theoretic ideas apply to, exploring the correspondence, more than an analogy, between and. as intimated above, basic set - theoretic axioms including comprehension and the pair set axiom do not hold for natural objects under this - interpretation. there is something of a tradition of alternate set theories in which some of the standard axioms are negated. we may gain clues about reasoning with natural objects from what has been learned about reasoning with weak sets. one important line of work in this direction negates the axiom of foundation


set theories in which some of the standard axioms are negated. we may gain clues about reasoning with natural objects from what has been learned about reasoning with weak sets. one important line of work in this direction negates the axiom of foundation. this has been most successfully done by peter aczel ( 1988 ), building on work of boffa ( 1969 ), forti and honsell ( 1983 ), finsler, scott, and others. aczel ' s work in turn has had important applications in situation theory, theory of communicating systems, and elsewhere ( e. g. barwise 1989, barwise and moss 1998 ). aczel has built a universe of set theory, extending and not supplanting the standard universe of set theory, that provides a useful formalism for certain ways of looking at the world ( e. g. situation theory ). the axiom of foundation was historically one of the last of the standard axioms of set theory to be added to the canon. the axiom of choice was introduced earlier ( choice : zermelo 1904 ; well - foundedness and foundation : mirimanoff 1917, skolem 1922 ), but its separate status was recognized from the start, and has, of course, been a central theme in 20th century set theory. other authors have more recently examined the independence of some of the core axioms of set theory from weak base systems, thus bringing into question even these axioms that were, unlike choice, readily accepted. for example, boffa ( 1972 ) proved an independence result concerning the pair set axiom ; gonzalez ( 1992 ) showed the independence of the union axiom in zermelo set theory, using a permutation method ; zarach ( 1998 ) used forcing to show that collection is not implied 3. species and the indescribability in this and the next section i turn from a comparison with set theory to motivating influences from the sciences. problems of behaviour of natural objects, and of the constitution of an individual, have arisen in concrete situations, and i shall attempt to draw some working principles from these lessons. an important case study in the investigation of natural objects is the work of philosophers of biology on the nature of individuals. this has arisen in large part because a set - theoretic framework has been found by many to be inadequate for the ontological status of taxonomic groups. in particular, the traditional conception, which goes back to aristotle, of each species as a class has been questioned, first by michael


a set - theoretic framework has been found by many to be inadequate for the ontological status of taxonomic groups. in particular, the traditional conception, which goes back to aristotle, of each species as a class has been questioned, first by michael ghiselin ( 1966 ; see also 1974, 1981, 1987 ), and then by many other authors ( e. g. holsinger 1984, hull 1978, sober 1984, sober 1993, griffiths 1974 ). they point out that to consider a species as a class, or as defined by a set of properties, is to impose on it a character that it does not have, and to miss the actual nature of species. since darwin we know : this has the added advantage of unifying the biological hierarchy of entities : at each level - - cell, organism, population, species, etc. - - there occur individuals that are defined, not by comprehension in terms of their elements ( this is impossible ), but as dynamical, changing systems whose behaviour can be characterized internally by interactions among their components, or externally by their interactions with their environment. indeed, one can extend this hierarchy to the physical level ( s ) as well ( molecules, atoms,... stars, galaxies,... ) with the same remarks still holding ( griffiths 1974 ). ghiselin ( 1987, 128 ) goes so far as to say that treating species as individuals opens " the prospect that we can develop a single body of knowledge for the entire universe. " thus the practical pursuit of systematics in biology broadens into a picture of the universe as consisting of individuals, each individual being bounded in space and time but not ( necessarily ) contiguous or connected, characterized by a dynamical interplay of its components and its environment, and definable by ostension or by naming and not by comprehension : when anyone tries to find the " defining properties " of an individual, he is wasting his time. this is equally true for homo sapiens, tellurian life, human language, french, and noam chomsky. ( ghiselin 1981, 283 ) another biological science, ecology, similarly encourages us to view biological systems as wholes, with components that are dynamically interdependent ( e. g. levins and lewontin 1980 ). the notion of supervenience ( kim 1978 ) is a good candidate for formalization in any attempt to describe the articulation of the different levels of the hierarchy of natural objects. an important principle suggested by all the above discussions is


1980 ). the notion of supervenience ( kim 1978 ) is a good candidate for formalization in any attempt to describe the articulation of the different levels of the hierarchy of natural objects. an important principle suggested by all the above discussions is the inadequacy of any ( finite ) language to describe any natural object fully, other than by naming or ostension. everyday life, and the example of " me ", tend to confirm this principle ; and of course it is fundamental to quantum mechanics as expressed in the uncertainty principle and complementarity, construed ( as in the copenhagen interpretation ) as precluding a complete objective description of phenomena : i shall say more on this in the next section. the principle of the indescribability of objects provides a contrast between natural objects and abstract objects : in set theory, the exact specification and construction of objects using comprehension and the other constructive axioms is essential. a second principle is, in contrast, shared by natural and abstract objects. in fact it is suggested both by set theory and by recent work in cosmology. cosmologists are facing more and more consciously the problem of describing everything. set theory, among other branches of mathematical logic, has a similar ambition in that an entire universe is to be constructed - - not in this case the physical universe but the " universe of discourse " of mathematics, the aggregate of all the abstract objects studied by mathematicians. incidentally, the habitual use of the term " universe " for the class of all sets is relatively recent. zermelo ( 1908 ) merely spoke, as we have seen, of a " domain " of individuals ; russell and whitehead in principia mathematica ( 1910 ) referred to the " universal class " v, and even godel in his work on v = l, which set the tone for all subsequent set theory, refers to the " universal class " and not the " universe " ( godel 1940, 40 ). the principle i am proposing here is the impossibility of describing everything. in set theory, it was necessitated by the early paradoxes and is articulated in a fundamental series of theorems, including those of lowenheim - skolem, of godel, and the related result of tarski on the undefinability of truth ( these are not confined to set theory ). even before these results, it was realized that sets have a way of spilling over any circumscription that one may attempt to put on them :...


undefinability of truth ( these are not confined to set theory ). even before these results, it was realized that sets have a way of spilling over any circumscription that one may attempt to put on them :... quel que soit l ' ensemble qu ' on envisage ( pourvu qu ' il existe ), des individus nouveaux surgissent, et un ensemble plus vaste apparait necessairement ; on est bien en presence d ' une extension indefinie qui ne comporte pas d ' arret ni borne. ( mirimanoff 1917, 48 ) since godel ' s work, there has been what akihiro kanamori ( 1996, 46 ) calls a " cornucopia of models of set theory " ( i. e. models of everything ) and in fact these are a basic research tool. in cosmology, the attention of some researchers has been focussed more recently on the problem of everything. it arises acutely when the universe ( defined, perhaps, as what emerged from the big bang ) turns out not to be everything : when in order to account for the observed properties of our universe, it is found that the best explanation is a theory incorporating the existence of many universes, of which ours is just one. several modern cosmological theories call for multiple universes, including lee smolin ' s theory of the creation and natural selection of universes ( smolin 1997 ). andrei linde ' s " chaotic inflation " and " eternally self - reproducing universe " ( e. g. linde 1990 ) also call for many, perhaps infinitely many, universes - - if by universe we mean everything that we can in principle communicate with. smolin ( 1997, 14 ) has addressed the issues that emerge when attempting to describe everything : the problem of how to make a theory of the whole universe is thus the problem of how to construct a theory without making any reference to anything that exists, or anything that we might have imagined happened, outside of the system we are describing. a related lesson is taught by quantum theory ; thus heinz r. pagels ( 1982, 103 ) : bohr ' s principle of complementarity implies that knowing everything at one time about the world - - a requirement of determinism - - is impossible because the conditions for knowing one thing necessarily exclude knowledge of others. the separation of observer and observed, in the copenhagen interpretation, carries the


expressed in terms of a space and time that were absolute and prior to the physical universe. newton himself realized this and had recourse to a metaphysical notion of space and time. leibniz also realized it and made it a central part of his criticisms of the newtonian cosmos, proposing instead a relational view of space and time. it was part of the achievement of einstein to remove space and time from their privileged position as the " stage " on which the events of the universe are played out, and replace them by a concept of space and time as part of the fabric of the universe, acting and acted upon by matter and energy in a dynamical system. analogously, in " classical " logic one first specifies the language ( syntax and rules of inference ) and then constructs " universes " with this language as the stage - setting. a way to avoid the paradoxes and limitations to which this gives rise is a description in which the language is no longer separate from and prior to the object being described. ( barwise and etchemendy ( 1987 ) use just such a strategy to deal with the liar paradox, although the limitations of logic to abstract objects are not challenged. i comment further on situation semantics below. ) such descriptions would be impredicative - - physicists might call them non - local - - in that the specification of a single object would involve the whole universe or a substantial part of it : that each singular substance expresses the whole universe in its own way, and that in its concept are included all of the experiences belonging to it together with all of their circumstances and the entire sequence of exterior events. ( leibniz 1686, 308 ) mach ' s principle may be regarded as an expression of this in dynamics. in quantum theory, bohr frequently noted the following corollary to, or instance of, complementarity : on the lines of objective description, it is indeed more appropriate to use the word phenomenon to refer only to observations obtained under circumstances whose description includes an account of the whole experimental arrangement. ( bohr 1961, 73 ) this means, in fact, since it is not clear where to draw the line that separates the " whole experimental arrangement " ( and the laws governing it ) from the rest of the world, that the description of a phenomenon implicitly includes the whole universe. such impredicativity has the consequence that one cannot construct from scratch models of a universe consisting of " singular substances ". this would be considered by logicians a drawback of impredicativity ;


implicitly includes the whole universe. such impredicativity has the consequence that one cannot construct from scratch models of a universe consisting of " singular substances ". this would be considered by logicians a drawback of impredicativity ; but in the context of the problem of smolin, it may be an advantage that not only are there no obvious models of the system which are describable from outside, but perhaps such models are in principle not possible. situation semantics ( barwise and perry 1983 ; barwise 1989 ) is a different kind of attempt to address the problem of the impossibility of describing everything in the context of the analysis of natural language. the approach of viewing utterances and inferences as situated activities differs from the present one in that it is epistemological rather than ontological. it " shifts attention from truth preservation to information extraction and information processing " ( barwise 1989, xiv ; emphases in original ). furthermore, its syntax presupposes the existence and discreteness - - the abstractness - - of objects. ian hacking ( 1972, 148 ), discussing leibniz ' s notion of individual substance, makes an important point : which bundles [ of qualities ] are substances? only those bundles that are active, in the sense of having laws of their own. laws provide the active principle of unity. there is a tendency in much analytic philosophy to conceive things as given, and then to speculate on what laws they enter into. on the contrary, things are in the first instance recognized by regularities. ( emphasis in original ) thus a logic of natural objects will put priority on addressing the question : what makes an individual an individual? as hacking points out, leibniz shares with berkeley the view that substances are bundles of qualities ; the important question, as in the quote above, is the converse. with the principle that each object ( or singular substance, or thing, or individual, or phenomenon ) irreducibly reflects its entire surroundings, we have come to a fusion of the first two principles mooted : the indescribability of the individual and of the universe. in combination with either of these, it implies the other. in leibniz ' s case, this third principle is a consequence of the principle of reason ( or of " predicate - in - notion " ) - - as is another principle, that no two individuals are exactly alike. the identity of indiscernibles has not received attention here but is indeed logically


of the principle of reason ( or of " predicate - in - notion " ) - - as is another principle, that no two individuals are exactly alike. the identity of indiscernibles has not received attention here but is indeed logically linked to the principles adduced above. the principle of reason does not stand up to scrutiny in the light of contemporary logic, but some of its consequences may be recast for our use. in the novum organum bacon ( 1620, 41 ) criticizes aristotelian logic thus : the syllogism is not applied to the first principles of sciences, and is applied in vain to intermediate axioms, being no match for the subtlety of nature. it commands assent therefore to the proposition, but does not take hold of the thing. a modern logic of natural objects would aim to take hold of the thing, aiming to secure sound principles for reasoning with individuals without need of leibniz ' s metaphysical starting point. 1. i am grateful to john wahlert for elucidating this example for me. aczel, peter ( 1988 ). non - well - founded sets, csli lecture notes 14, stanford. azzouni, jody ( 1994 ). metaphysical myths, mathematical practice : the ontology and epistemology of the exact sciences, cambridge university press. bacon, francis ( 1620 ). the new organon, ed. fulton h. anderson, the library of liberal arts, bobbs - merrill, 1960. barwise, jon ( 1989 ). the situation in logic, csli lecture notes 17, stanford. barwise, jon and john etchemendy ( 1987 ). the liar, oxford university press. barwise, jon and lawrence moss ( 1998 ). vicious circles. csli lecture notes 60. barwise, jon and j. perry ( 1983 ). situations and attitudes, mit press, cambridge, mass. and london. bertalanffy, ludwig von ( 1968 ). general systems theory, george braziller, new york. boffa, m ( 1969 ). sur la theorie des ensembles sans axiome de fondement, bull soc. math. belg. 31, 16 - 56. boffa, m ( 1972 ). l ' axiome de paire dans le systeme de zermelo, arch. math. logik grundlagenforsch. 15, 97 - 98. bohr, niels ( 1961 ). atomic physics and human knowledge, science editions,


, ian ( 1972 ). individual substance, in : leibniz : a collection of critical essays, ed. harry g. frankfurt, anchor books. hartmann, nicolai ( 1949 ). new ways of ontology, greenwood press, henry regnery co., 1975. translation of neue wege der ontologie, w. kohlhammer, stuttgart. holsinger, kent e. ( 1984 ). the nature of biological species, philosophy of science 51, 293 - 307. hull, david l. ( 1978 ). a matter of individuality, philosophy of science 45, 335 - 360. kanamori, akihiro ( 1996 ). the mathematical development of set theory from cantor to cohen, bull. symbolic logic 2 ( 1 ), 1 - 71. kim, jaegwon ( 1978 ). supervenience and nomological incommensurables, american philosophical quarterly, 15 ( 2 ), 149 - 156. leibniz, gottfried wilhelm ( 1686 ). discourse on metaphysivs, in philosophical papers and letters, trans. leroy e. loemker, 2nd ed., d. reidel, 1969. levins, richard and richard lewontin ( 1980 ). dialectics and reduction in ecology, synthese 43, 47 - 78. linde, andrei ( 1990 ). inflation and quantum cosmology, academic press. mayr, ernst ( 1976 ). evolution and the diversity of life, belknap press, harvard university press. mesarovic, m. d. and yasuhiko takahara ( 1975 ). general systems theory : mathematical foundations, academic press. mirimanoff, d. ( 1917 ). remarques sur la theorie des ensembles et les antinomies cantoriennes, i, l ' enseignement math. 19, 209 - 217. pagels, heinz r. ( 1982 ). the cosmic code : quantum physics as the language of nature, simon & schuster, new york. russell, bertrand, and alfred north whitehead ( 1910 ). principia mathematica, cambridge university press, 1962. skolem, thoralf ( 1922 ). some remarks on axiomatized set theory, translated in van heijenoort ( 1967, 290 - 301 ). smolin, lee ( 1997 ). the life of the cosmos, oxford university press. sober, elliott ( 1984 ). sets, species, and evolution : comments on philip kitcher '


| foundation of quantum theory | the following well - known experiments serve as a motivation for studying quantum theory. the experimental results cannot be explained using ideas from classical physics. | 1. blackbody radiation | | 2. photoelectric effect | | 3. compton effect | it is well - known that when a body is heated it emits electromagnetic radiation. for example, if a piece of iron is heated to a few hundred degrees, it gives off e. m. radiation which is predominantly in the infra - red region. when the temperature is raised to 1000c it will begin to glow with reddish color which means that the radiation emitted by it is in the visible red region having wavelengths shorter than in the previous case. if heated further it will become white - hot and the radiation emitted is shifted towards the still shorter wave - length blue color in the visible spectrum. thus the nature of the radiation depends on the temperature of the emitter. a heated body not only emits radiation but it also absorbs a part of radiation falling on it. if a body absorbs all the radiant energy falling on it, then its absorptive power is unity. such a body is called a black body. an ideal blackbody is realized in practice by heating to any desired temperature a hollow enclosure ( cavity ) and with a very small orifice. the inner surface is coated with lamp - black. thus radiation entering the cavity through the orifice is incident on its blackened inner surface and is partly absorbed and partly reflected. the reflected component is again incident at another point on the inner surface and gets partly absorbed and partly reflected. this process of absorption and reflection continues until the incident beam is totally absorbed by the body. the inner walls of the heated cavity also emit radiation, a part of which can come out through the orifice. this radiation has the characteristics of blackbody radiation - the spectrum of which can be analyzed by an infra - red spectrometer. experimental results show that the blackbody radiation has a continuous spectrum ( shown in the graph ). the intensity of the emitted radiation el is plotted as a function of the wavelength l for different temperatures. the wavelength of the emitted radiation ranges continuously from zero to infinity. el increases with increasing temperature for all wavelengths. it has very low values for both very short and very long wavelengths and has a maximum in between at some wavelength lmax. lmax depends on the temperature of the blackbody and decreases with increasing temperature. the shift in the peak of the intensity distribution curve obeys an empirical relationship known as


short and very long wavelengths and has a maximum in between at some wavelength lmax. lmax depends on the temperature of the blackbody and decreases with increasing temperature. the shift in the peak of the intensity distribution curve obeys an empirical relationship known as wien ' s displacement law : lmax t = constant. the total power radiated per unit area of a blackbody can be derived from thermodynamics. this is known as stefan - boltzmann law which can be expressed mathematically as : e = s t4, where s = 5. 67 x 10 - 8 w m - 2 k - 4 is known as stefan ' s constant. note that the total power e radiated is obtained by integrating el over all wavelengths. w. wien proposed an empirical relationship between el with l for a given temperature t : el ( t ) = a exp ( - b / lt ) / l5, where the constants a and b are chosen arbitrarily so as to fit the experimental energy distribution curves. but it was later found that the experimental data don ' t follow wien ' s empirical relation at larger wavelengths [ see fig. below ]. wien ' s theory of intensity of radiation was based only on arguments from thermodynamics not on any plausible model. considering the radiation system as composed of a bunch of harmonic oscillators rayleigh and jeans derived ( using thermodynamics ) an expression for the emitted radiation el : el = ( c / 4 ) ( 8pkbt / l4 ). ' kb ' is the boltzman constant ( kb = 1. 345 x 10 - 23 j / k ). the above expression agrees well with the experimental results at long wavelengths but drastically fails at shorter wavelengths. in the limit l - > 0, el - > infinity from the expression above, but in the experiments el - > 0, as l - > 0. this serious disagreement between theory and experiment indicates the limitations of classical mechanics. max planck later derived an expression for the emitted radiation using quantum mechanics. he made a bold new postulate that an oscillator can have only energies which are discrete, i. e., an integral multiple of a finite quantum of energy hf where h is planck ' s constant ( h = 6. 55 x 10 - 34 j. s ) and f is the frequency of the oscillator. thus the energy of the oscillator is, e = nhf, where n is an integer or zero. planck further assumed that


. 55 x 10 - 34 j. s ) and f is the frequency of the oscillator. thus the energy of the oscillator is, e = nhf, where n is an integer or zero. planck further assumed that the change in energy of the oscillator due to emission or absorption of radiant energy can also take place by a discrete amount hf. since radiation is emitted from the oscillators, and since according to planck, the change in energy of the oscillators can only take discrete values, the energy carried by the emitted radiation, which is called a photon, will be hf, and that is also equal to the loss of energy of the oscillator. again, this is also the energy gain of the oscillator when it absorbs a photon. based on these ideas planck derived the expression for the energy distribution of blackbody radiation : el = ( c / 4 ) ( 8phc / l5 ) ( 1 / [ exp ( hc / lkbt ) - 1 ] ). rayleigh - jean ' s expression and wien ' s displacement law are special cases of planck ' s law of radiation. planck ' s formula for the energy distribution of blackbody radiation agrees well with the experimental results, both for the long wavelengths and the short wavelengths of the energy spectrum. please on the simulation below to see nice interactive demonstration of the physics of blackbody radiation. simulation on blackbody radiation back to top planck ' s postulate regarding the discrete nature of the possible energy states of an oscillator marked a radical departure from the ideas of classical physics. according to the laws of classical mechanics, the energy of an oscillator can vary continuously, depending only on the amplitude of the vibrations - this is in total contrast to planck ' s hypothesis of discrete energy states of an oscillator. photoelectric effect is another classic example which can not be explained with classical physics. einstein was awarded nobel prize for his explanation of the physics of photoelectric effect. the basic experiment of photoelectric effect is simple. it was observed that a metal plate when exposed to ultraviolet radiation became positively charged which showed that it has lost negative charges from its surface. these negatively charged particles were later identified to be electrons ( later named photoelectrons ). this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. please out the physics applet below which shows the effect of light on various metals. simulation on photoelectric effect the main results of the


to be electrons ( later named photoelectrons ). this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. please out the physics applet below which shows the effect of light on various metals. simulation on photoelectric effect the main results of the experiment can be summarized as follows : on exposure to the incident light, photoelectrons with all possible velocities ranging from 0 upto a maximum vm are emitted from the metal plate. when a positive potential is applied to the collector ( which collects the emitted photoelectrons ), a fraction of the total number emitted is collected by the collector. this fraction increases as the voltage is increased. for potentials above about + 10 volts, all the electrons emitted by the light are collected by the collector which accounts for the saturation of the photoelectric current [ figs. ( a ) and ( b ) below ]. on the other hand, when a negative retarding potential is applied on the collector, the lower energy electrons are unable to reach the collector so that the current gradually decreases with increasing negative potential. finally for a potential - v0 ( known as the stopping potential ), the photoelectrons of all velocities upto the maximum vm are prevented from reaching the collector. at this point, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons equals the energy required to overcome the effect of the retarding potential - so we can write mvm2 / 2 = ev0. conclusion from the experimental results : ( 1 ) the photoelectric current depends upon the intensity of the light used. it is independent of the wavelength of the light [ see fig. ( a ) above ]. ( 2 ) the photoelectrons are emitted with all possible velocities from 0 upto a maximum vm which is independent of the intensity of the incident light, but depends only on its wavelength ( or frequency ). it is found that if f is the frequency of the light used, then the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases linearly with f [ see figs. ( b ) and ( c ) above ]. ( 3 ) photoelectron emission is an instantaneous effect. there is no time gap between the incidence of the light and the emission of the photoelectrons. ( 4 ) the straight line graph showing the variation of the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons with the frequency f of the light intersects the abscissa at some point f0. no photoelectron emission takes


the photoelectrons. ( 4 ) the straight line graph showing the variation of the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons with the frequency f of the light intersects the abscissa at some point f0. no photoelectron emission takes place in the frequency range f < f0. this minimum frequency f0 is known as the threshold frequency. its value depends on the nature of the emitting material [ see fig. ( c ) above ]. breakdown of classical physics : according to classical physics - ( a ) light is an electromagnetic wave - the intensity of light is determined by the amplitudes of these electromagnetic oscillations. when light falls on an electron bound in an atom, it gains energy from the oscillating electric field. larger the amplitude of oscillations, larger is the energy gained by the emitted electron - thus energy of the emitted electrons should depend on the intensity of the incident light. this is in contrast to what has been observed in experiment ( point 2 above ). ( b ) according to the electromagnetic theory, the velocity of the emitted electrons should not depend on the frequency of the incident light. whatever may be the frequency of the incident light, the electron would be emitted if it gets sufficient time to collect the necessary energy for emission. so the photoelectric emission is not an instantaneous effect. these are in contrary to points 3 and 4 above. ( c ) finally, the incident electromagnetic wave acts equally on all the electrons of the metal surface. there is no reason why only some electrons will be able to collect the necessary energy for emission from the incident waves. given sufficient time, all electrons should be able to collect the energy necessary for emission. so there is no reason why the photoelectric current should depend upon the intensity of the incident light. however, this is again in contrary to the observed facts ( point 1 above ). einstein ' s light quantum hypothesis and photoelectric equation : we have seen from above that the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident light. in terms of equation we have mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = af - w where a and w are constants. w is known as the work function of the emitting material. the constant a was determined experimentally and is found to be equal to the planck ' s constant h. we can then rewrite the above equation as - mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = hf - w. for the special value of f =


a was determined experimentally and is found to be equal to the planck ' s constant h. we can then rewrite the above equation as - mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = hf - w. for the special value of f = f0 = w / h, the k. e. of the emitted photoelectrons becomes zero. so there will be no photoelectron emission if f < f0. f0 is the threshold frequency. the equation, mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = hf - hf0 is known as the famous einstein ' s photoelectric equation. einstein used the quantum hypothesis of planck to explain the photoelectric effect. he postulated that light is emitted from a source in the form of energy packets of the amount hf known as the light quantum or photon. this is known as einstein ' s light quantum hypothesis. when a photon of energy hf falls on an electron bound inside an atom, the electron absorbs the energy hf and is emitted from the atom provided that hf is greater than the energy of binding of the electron in the atom which is equal to the work function w of the metal. the surplus of energy ( hf - w ) is taken away by the electron as its kinetic energy. obviously if hf < w, i. e. f < f0, no photoelectric emission can take place. this explains the existence of the threshold frequency. furthermore, according to einstein ' s theory, larger the number of photons falling on the metal, greater is the probability of their encounter with the atomic electrons and hence greater is the photoelectric current. so the increase of photoelectric current with the increasing light intensity can be easily explained. finally, as soon as the photon of energy hf > w falls on an electron, the latter absorbs it and is emitted instantaneously. note that einstein ' s light quantum hypothesis postulates the corpuscular nature of light in contrast to the wave nature. we will talk about this wave - particle duality later on in this course. back to top the discovery of compton scattering of x - rays provides direct support that light consists of pointlike quanta of energy called photons. a schematic diagram of the apparatus used by compton is shown in the figure below. a graphite target was bombarded with monochromatic x - rays and the wavelength of the scattered radiation was measured with a rotating crystal spectrometer. the intensity was determined by a movable ionization chamber


compton is shown in the figure below. a graphite target was bombarded with monochromatic x - rays and the wavelength of the scattered radiation was measured with a rotating crystal spectrometer. the intensity was determined by a movable ionization chamber that generated a current proportional to the x - ray intensity. compton measured the dependence of scattered x - ray intensity on wavelength at three different scattering angles of 45o, 90o, and 135o. the experimental intensity vs. wavelength plots observed by compton for the above three scattering angles ( see fig. below ) show two peaks, one at the wavelength l of the incident x - rays and the other at a longer wavelength l '. the functional dependence of l ' on the scattering angle and l was predicted by compton to be : l ' - l = ( h / mec ) [ 1 - cosq ] = l0 [ 1 - cosq ]. the factor l0 = h / mec, also known as compton wavelength can be calculated to be equal to 0. 00243 nm. the physics of compton effect : to explain his observations compton assumed that light consists of photons each of which carries an energy hf and a momentum hf / c ( as p = e / c = hf / c ). when such a photon strikes a free electron the electron gets some momentum ( pe ) and kinetic energy ( te ) due to the collision, as a result of which the momentum and energy of the photon are reduced. considering energy and momentum conservation ( for the detail derivation please here ) one can derive the change in wavelength due to compton scattering : l ' - l = ( h / mec ) [ 1 - cosq ]. note that the result is independent of the scattering material and depends only on the angle of scattering. the appearance of the peak at the longer wavelength in the intensity vs. wavelength curve is due to compton scattering from the electron which may be considered free, since its energy of binding in the atom is small compared to the energy hf of the photon. the appearance of the other peak at the wavelength of the incident radiation is due to scattering from a bound electron. in this case the recoil momentum is taken up by the entire atom, which being much heavier compared to the electron, produces negligible wavelength shift. compton effect gives conclusive evidence in support of the corpuscular character of electromagnetic radiation. please out the simulation below which shows compton scattering. simulation on compton scattering back to top © kingshuk majumdar ( 2000 )


bivalves in time and space ( bits ) : clams as tools to understand macroevolution 2011 reu project : this study is part of a collaborative effort ( see also www. bivatol. org / bits / ) to develop bivalves as a model clade for macroevolutionary studies. by integrating molecular, morphological and paleontological datasets, bits aims to test methods of molecular clock dating, ancestral state reconstruction and historical biogeography, as well as to detect spatial and temporal trends in evolution. bits researchers at the field museum concentrate on the morphological and paleontological components of the project, investigating the evolution of numerous shell and anatomical features in two of the commonest bivalve lineages - venus clams and cockles. research methods and techniques : reu participants in the project will receive an introduction to bivalve morphology and systematics, with particular focus on shell characters - i. e., those that preserve well in fossils. they will prepare specimens, document diagnostic characters with optical and scanning electron microscopy, build and analyze phylogenetic trees, and gain experience with relevant literature research and collection management techniques. curator / advisors : dr. rudiger bieler, zoology / invertebrates, in collaboration with postdoctoral fellow dr. andre sartori. reu intern : katherine anderson ecology and evolutionary biology major university of michigan, ann arbor symposium presentation title : diversity of venus clams : building an online resource for species identification symposium presentation abstract : venerids, commonly known as venus clams, are the most diverse family of marine bivalves, with over 500 extant species. they are found on every continent except antarctica, and many are edible, commercially collected and cultured, comprising an important food source worldwide. despite their prevalence and economic importance, there is still no freely accessible, online catalogue available to aid in recognition of venerid species. species identification is crucial not only for economic reasons, but also for conserving biodiversity and ensuring accuracy in scientific studies. an online catalogue consisting of individual species pages with detailed morphological descriptions and high quality photographs is being built in order to provide a resource that is both complete and available for anyone to use. specimens from the collections of the field museum of natural history were identified to species level using primary and secondary literature. following identification, the morphology of the shell of each species was thoroughly described based on characteristics of all specimens available. descriptions include details of overall shape and coloration, as well as features important for bivalve taxonomy, such as the morphology of the hinge


robert a. pritzker assistant curator of meteoritics and polar studies philipp heck and co - authors from the max - planck - institute for chemistry in germany had their paper on the first isotopic analysis of sulfur - rich comet dust published in the april issue of the journal meteoritics & planetary science. the dust was captured during a flyby of comet wild 2 by nasa ’ s stardust mission and returned to earth. the robert a. pritzker center for meteoritics and polar studies is proud to announce the newest addition to the meteorite collection. the newly named meteorite thika, recently classified as a l6 ordinary chondrite, was donated to the center by collections and research committee member terry boudreaux in mid - september. field museum researchers at the robert a. pritzker center for meteoritics and polar studies have received a second target foil from the interstellar dust collector onboard nasa ' s stardust mission - that returned the first solid extraterrestrial material to earth from beyond the moon. we announce a call for abstracts for the session p15 “ laboratory analysis of extraterrestrial dust returned to earth ” at the fall meeting 2011 of the american geophysical union ( agu ), december 5 - 9, 2011 san francisco, california, usa. collections & research committee member terry boudreaux donated a very unusual meteorite specimen to the field museum ’ s robert a. pritzker center for meteoritics and polar studies. the meteorite is named nwa 5492 after northwest africa where it was found. its petrology and chemical composition are very different compared to other meteorites and it cannot be classified with the existing scheme. about 470 million years ago – in a time period called ordovician – the parent asteroid of one of the l chondrites, one of the most common meteorite types, was disrupted in a collision with another body. this event led to a subsequent bombardment of earth with collisional debris for at least 10 million years. this finding is reported in a recent study in earth and planetary science letters by field museum scientists dr. birger schmitz ( research associate ), robert a. pritzker assistant curator of meteoritics and polar studies dr. philipp heck, and an international team of coauthors. right after the mifflin meteorite fell in sw wisconsin in april 2010 the robert a. pritzker assistant curator of meteoritics and polar studies dr. philipp r. heck coordinated an international study to determine the


air force project could ' transform ' supercomputing recent advances in supercomputing haven ’ t just been about speed, but in developing more energy - efficient architectures, as the energy department has shown with sequoia at lawrence livermore national laboratory and work on titan at oak ridge national laboratory. the air force is heading down this path too, recently awarding a contract to wu feng, associate professor of computer science in the college of engineering at virginia tech, to speed up simulations of its unmanned micro air vehicles ( mavs ). the tiny aircraft, as small as five inches, with insect - sized models expected in the future, can be used in a variety of military and hazardous conditions. feng, a proponent of green supercomputing, plans to carry out the project with an approach to multi - and many - core parallel computing that he said will “ transform supercomputing, ” according to a virginia tech announcement. the air force project will make use of accelerator - based supercomputers such as hokiespeed, which feng designed and built in 2011 for a mere ( in supercomputing terms ) $ 1. 4 million national science foundation grant. virginia tech ' s wu feng on hokiespeed via vimeo the approach to mav simulations — conducted under a contract with a maximum of $ 6 million over five years — is a multidisciplinary effort, involving aerospace and mechanical engineers, mathematicians and computer scientists from virginia tech and north carolina state university, who by combining advances in math, algorithms and engineering will develop computational fluid dynamic codes and supporting hardware and software, virginia tech said. researchers expect to “ achieve substantial speed - up over current simulations and provide significantly better utilization of the underlying and co - designed hardware - software of a supercomputer, ” feng said. improving performance through parallel hardware and co - designed software is an emerging field, he said. “ furthermore, coupling hardware - software co - design with advances in algorithmic innovation offers the promise of multiplicative speed - ups, ” he said. as supercomputing has gotten steadily more powerful, the amount of energy the machines draw has become a concern. that ’ s one reason feng and kirk cameron of the virginia tech college of engineering started the green500, which ranks supercomputers, in essence, according to how much mileage they get out of the power they use. feng ’ s work on efficient computing dates to when he worked at los alamos national laboratory, where he built a 240 - node cluster


the neem tree has been called " the village pharmacy " because its bark, leaves, sap, fruit, seeds, and twigs have so many diverse uses in the traditional medicine of india. this member of the mahogany family has been used medicinally for at least 4, 000 years and is held in such esteem that indian poets called it sarva roga nivarini, meaning " the one that can cure all ailments. " mohandas gandhi encouraged scientific investigation of the neem tree as part of his program to revitalize indian traditions, which eventually let to more than 2, 000 research papers and intense commercial interest. at least 50 patents have been filed on neem and neem - based products in the united states for control of insects in food and ornamental crops. however, the indian government and many nongovernmental organizations have united to overthrow some patents of this type, which they regard as " folk - wisdom piracy. " one fear is that if neem is patented, indigenous people who already use it will lose the right to continue to do so. another point is the fundamental question : who owns the genetic diversity of plants? the nations where the plants come from or the transnational corporations that pay for the research into those plants? although this area of international law is rapidly evolving, a patent on the spice turmeric has already been overturned, and neem may follow soon. at least 100 bioactive substances have been found in neem, including nimbidin, azadiracthins, and other triterpenoids and limonoids. although the scientific evidence for all of neem ' s uses in healthcare remains preliminary, the intense interest in the plant will eventually lead to proper double - blind, placebo - controlled trials. ( for information on why such studies are so important, see why does this database rely on double - blind studies? ) because of the numerous parts of the neem tree used, and the many different ways these can be prepared, the only advice we can give at this time is to follow the directions on the label of the neem product you purchase. for all these reasons, as well as the lack of comprehensive safety investigation of neem products other than neem oil, we recommend that young children, pregnant or nursing women, or individuals with severe liver or kidney disease avoid use of neem. - reviewer : ebsco cam review board - review date : 07 / 2012 - - update date : 07 / 25 / 2012 -


charles peirce and allan marquand charles sanders peirce ( 1839 – 1914 ) was a famous american philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist. peirce was an innovator in many fields, including philosophy of science, epistemology, metaphysics, mathematics, statistics, research methodology, and the design of experiments in astronomy, geophysics, and psychology, but he considered himself a logician first and foremost ( he was perhaps the leading logician in the world at that time ). he made major contributions to logic, but logic for him encompassed much of that which is now called epistemology and philosophy of science. he saw logic as the formal branch of semiotics, of which he is a founder. one of his striking discoveries in foundational mathematics was ( in 1880 ) how boolean algebra could be expressed via a single binary operation, either nand or its dual, nor. from 1879 till 1884 peirce was a lecturer on the logic at the new johns hopkins university. although his appointment at hopkins was in logic, he was also busy there with research in psychology and philosophy. peirce had a number of talented students in logic, whose work may be sampled in studies in logic, printed in 1883. among this bright pupils was allan marquand ( 1853 - 1924 ), at that time fellow in philosophy and ethics at hopkins, until he graduated in 1880 as ph. d. in philosophy. his thesis, supervised by peirce, was on the logic of philodemus. marquand returned to princeton in 1881 to teach latin and logic. during the 1881 - 82 academic year, he built a mechanical logical machine, that is interesting for us. the machine was presented in 1885 and described in the 1886 article a new logical machine. allan worked within the history of logic and upon trying to improve the design and function of what were then called logical machines, at least they were so called within peirce ' s circle. marquand however decided to went further and began with improvements upon the logical piano of jevon. ( it is unknown, if marquand was acquainted with the logical machine of british logician and philosopher john venn ( 1834 - 1920 ). venn speculates on the design of a logical machine, based on the machine of jevons. he even gives schematic diagrams for the construction of such a machine for four propositions, but it is not clear whether the machine was ever built. ) the logical machine of marquand ( see the nearby photo ) was designed to


in the applet below you see 1d realisation of white and correlated noise with equidistant step in x. independent random points uniform distribution on interval ( - 1, 1 ) make the white noise ( the blue curve ). correlated random points vi ( the red curve ) are obtained by averaging of white noise in radius rc sphere, i. e. kernel ko is used vi = = - rc, rc fi + j to get a 2d fractal noise ( mountain ) you take an elastic string ( see fig. 1 ), then a random vertical displacement is applied to its middle point. the process is repeated recursively to the middle point of every new segment. the random displacement decreases m times each iteration ( usually m = 2 are used ). using fourier transformation for v ( r ), k ( r ), f ( r ) g ( k ) = g ( r ) eikr dr, we get for v ( k ) v ( k ) = k ( k ) f ( k ). i. e. averaging ( * ) means the white noise filtration by means of a filter with bandwidth k ( k ). the bandwidths for the two used filters are shown in fig. 3 ( for rc = 1 ) kg ( k ) ~ exp [ - ( rck ) 2 ], ko ~ sin ( rck ) / k. at last 2d correlated random landscape. to get a smooth potential 2d gauss kernel is used percolation in random potential landscape drag mouse to rotate 3d image ( with " shift " to zoom it ). the white line ( in the blue bar to the right ) corresponds to the average < v > value. the yellow line corresponds to the fermi energy εf. drag the line by mouse to change εf. see also 3d mountains and hidden surface removal algorithms.


after maintaining a steady pace for a century, lighting technology has begun to leap forward, fueled by tightening energy efficiency standards and hefty incentives for manufacturers. and despite a bit of price shock on some lighting products, co - op members - especially large commercial and industrial accounts - are working with their local, not - for - profit, consumer - owned power providers to see if emerging lighting options can curb rising costs. congress first enacted improved energy efficiency standards for incandescent bulbs under the federal energy independence and security act of 2007. but when new lightbulb rules began to take effect in 2012, they were met with confusion. under the law, by 2014, lightbulbs using between 40 - w to 100 - w must consume at least 28 percent less energy than traditional incandescents, which will save americans an estimated $ 6 billion to $ 10 billion in lighting costs annually. the measure also mandates that lightbulbs become 70 percent more efficient by 2020. in june of this year, the u. s. house passed an amendment to stop enforcement of these standards, mirroring a funding freeze for enforcement efforts adopted in late 2011. yet even if the provision becomes law, very little will change. congress has not repealed or adjusted existing lightbulb efficiency standards or changed the timeline for implementation. major lighting manufacturers like general electric, philips, and osram sylvania continue working to comply with the 2007 law. as the next wave of standards kicks in, traditional 75 - w incandescent lightbulbs will no longer be available as of january 1, 2013, and 40 - w and 60 - w versions will no longer be available as of january 1, 2014. in the race to fill the nation ’ s growing need for efficient lighting comes a new breed of illuminators, led by light - emitting diodes ( leds ). incandescent bulbs create light using a thin wire ( filament ) inside a glass bulb - a delicate connection that can easily be broken, as frustrated homeowners can attest. in contrast, leds are at the forefront of solid - state lighting - small, packed electronic chip devices. two conductive materials are placed together on a chip ( a diode ). electricity passes through the diode, releasing energy in the form of light. invented in 1960 by general electric, the first leds were red - the color depends on materials placed on the diode. yellow, green, and orange leds were created in the 1970s and the recipe for the color


in the form of light. invented in 1960 by general electric, the first leds were red - the color depends on materials placed on the diode. yellow, green, and orange leds were created in the 1970s and the recipe for the color blue - the foundation for white leds - was unlocked in the mid - 1990s. originally used in remote controls, exit signs, digital watches, alarm clocks, and car signal lights, leds quickly gained momentum for large - scale lighting. by 2030, the u. s. department of energy estimates solid - state lighting technologies could reduce the amount of electricity used for lighting ( currently 13. 6 percent of the nation ’ s total ) by half, saving up to $ 30 billion a year in energy costs. electric cooperatives are supporting led study through the cooperative research network ( crn ), an arm of the arlington, va. - based national rural electric cooperative association. recently, crn worked with western farmers electric cooperative, a generation and transmission cooperative based in anadarko, okla., and the oklahoma state university animal science department to evaluate leds at a farrowing operation and a dairy farm in the sooner state. the project measured the effectiveness of leds in harsh environments and looked for any influence on animal behavior. t - bar m dairy ranch, outside of durant, okla., normally uses 250 - w metal halide lights in its barns. crn exchanged those bulbs in 10 fixtures with 120 - w leds. after six months, the dairy had cut energy use by 55 percent and boosted brightness by 30 percent. “ utility costs go up every year - that ’ s reality, ” explains tami tollenaar, who manages the dairy. “ to move forward in your business, you have to look for ways to be more efficient. leds are one of the things we can do to help us move forward. ” crn also worked with robinson family farms, a 380, 000 - head hog operation in holdenville, okla. the farm already used compact fluorescent lamps ( cfls ) but had problems because those bulbs didn ’ t work well in harsh conditions. “ lighting for a swine facility is pretty important, ” explains owner rich robinson. “ we try to convince the sows it ’ s spring year - round to improve their eating habits. ” crn switched 25 fixtures from 26 - w cfls to 15 - w leds. after six months, robinson slashed his energy use by 54 percent. “ i was worried because normally when


intellectual knowledge appears to be innate and privy to the few, but in fact, access to information, development of intellectual work skills, time investment, and the maintenance of intellectual appearances are key to being perceived as an intellectual. to make education more equitable, professors must go beyond knowledge transmission and instruct students in the concrete skills of knowledge acquisition and knowledge presentation. instruction in intellectual skills - acquisition implies the breakdown of the traditional professor - student relationship and of the academic intellectual hierarchy and professors must learn to cope with the consequences of adopting new pedagogies. if we wish to share the secrets of our professions, how do we prepare our students for such a democratic approach and at the same time maintain our professional status? the author, a professor of spanish language and literature, presents strategies for democratizing education and demystifying intellectual work through the application of skills - based pedagogical methodologies to the teaching of literature. the implications that these strategies have for a new type of learning and the impact that they have on social stratification will also be discussed. | keywords : | | democratizing education, demystifying intellectual work, knowledge acquisition skills, interpretative skills, teaching literature, skills based teaching | assistant professor of spanish, department of literature and languages, roosevelt university, chicago, illinois, usa there are currently no reviews of this product. write a review


needs to know the features of the sound methodology so as to distinguish sound lecturers from others and look for their tapes, which they can listen to with confidence. among these features are : the lecturer should be a believer in the ‘ aqeedah of the saved group, ahl al - sunnah wa ’ l - jamaa ’ ah, adhering to the sunnah and firmly rejecting bid ’ ah. the speaker should be moderate, neither extremist nor he should base his talks on sound ahaadeeth, and beware of weak and fabricated ahaadeeth. he should have insight into people ’ s situations and the realities of the ummah, and should offer the appropriate remedy for any problem, giving the people what they need. he should speak the truth as much as he can, and not utter falsehood or please the people by angering allaah. we often find that tapes for children have a great influence on them, whether by helping them to memorize qur ’ aan by listening to a young reader, or du ’ aa ’ s to be recited at various times of day and night, or islamic manners, or nasheeds ( religious “ songs ” with no instrumental accompaniment ) with a useful message, and so on. putting tapes in drawers in an organized fashion will make it easier to find them, and will also protect them from getting damaged or from being played with by young children. we should distribute good tapes by giving or lending them to others after listening to them. having a recorder in the kitchen will be very useful for the lady of the house, and having a recorder in the bedroom will help a person make good use of time until the last moments of the day. ( 11 ) inviting good and righteous people and seekers of knowledge to visit the home. “ my lord! forgive me, and my parents, and him who enters my home as a believer, and all the believing men and women … ” [ nooh 71 : 28 – interpretation of the meaning ]. if people of faith enter your home, it will increase in light ( noor ), and will bring many benefits because of your conversations and discussion with them. the bearer of musk will either give you some, or you will buy from him, or you will find that he has a pleasant scent. when children, brothers and parents sit with such visitors, and women listen from behind a curtain or screen to what is said, this offers an educational experience to all. if you bring good people into your home, by doing so you keep


bedtime. some houses are like hotels where the people who live there hardly know one another and hardly ever meet. some children eat whenever they want and sleep whenever they want, which leads to them staying up late and wasting their time, or eating on a full stomach. this chaos leads to a weakening of family ties and a waste of time and energy, and exacerbates the lack of discipline among family members. you could excuse those who have legitimate reasons, because students, male and female, may have different times of leaving schools and universities, and those who are employed or who run stores do not have the same work schedules, but still there is nothing nicer than a family gathering together at the table and making the most of this opportunity to ask how everyone is and to discuss useful topics. the head of the household has to be strict in setting a time for everyone to be back home, and in insisting that everyone asks permission before going out, especially those who are young, whether in terms of chronological age or mental age, as it were, for whom one might have fears. ( 19 ) re - evaluating women ’ s work outside the the laws of islam complement one another. when allaah commanded women to “ … stay in your houses … ” [ al - ahzaab 33 : 33 – interpretation of the meaning ], he also decreed that men, their fathers and husbands, etc., should be obliged to spend on them. the basic principle is that women should not work outside the home unless they have to. when moosa ( peace be upon him ) saw the two daughters of the righteous man keeping back their flocks and waiting to water them, he asked them : “ … ‘ what is the matter with you? ’ they said, ‘ we cannot water ( our flocks ) until the shepherds take ( their flocks ), and our father is a very old man. ’ ” [ al - qasas 28 : 23 – interpretation of the meaning ]. they were apologetic about the fact that they had come out to water their flocks, because the guardian [ their father ] was unable to do so due to old age. so they were keen to do away with the need to work outside the home as soon as the opportunity arose : “ and said one of them ( the two women ) : ‘ o my father! hire him! verily the best of men for you to hire is the strong, the trustworthy. ’ ” [ al - qasas 28 : 26 – interpretation of the meaning ].


( the two women ) : ‘ o my father! hire him! verily the best of men for you to hire is the strong, the trustworthy. ’ ” [ al - qasas 28 : 26 – interpretation of the meaning ]. this woman made clear her desire to go back to staying at home to protect herself from the vulgarity to which she could be exposed if she worked outside the home. in modern times, when the kuffaar needed women ’ s labour after the two world wars, to make up for the resulting lack of men in the workforce, and there was a critical need to rebuild their economies, this coincided with the jewish plots to “ liberate ” women and advocate their rights with the aim of corrupting them and consequently corrupting society as a whole. thus the idea of women going out to work was established. in spite of the fact that the same motives were not present in our lands, and that muslim men protect their womenfolk and spend on them, the women ’ s liberation movement developed in the muslim world too, and even reached such an extent that women are sent abroad to study, then are expected to work so that these degrees will not go to waste. the muslim societies are not in need of such a thing on such a grand scale as is the case, and one of the signs of this is the fact that there are men who are without work whilst fields are still being opened up to women. when we say “ not on such a grand scale ”, we mean that there is a need for women to work in some fields, such as teaching, nursing and medicine, within the conditions set out by sharee ’ ah, and when there is a need for them to do so. but we started by saying that there is no great need, because of the fact that we notice some women going out to work when there is no need, and sometimes they work for very low wages, because they feel that they have to go out to work even when there is no need to do so, or they work in places that are not suitable, which leads to much fitnah and trouble. one of the main differences between the islamic view on women ’ s work and the secular view is that the basic principle in islam is to “ … stay in your houses … ” [ al - ahzaab 33 : 33 – interpretation of the meaning ], although women may go out when they need to – “ and permission has been given to you to go out for your needs ” ( hadeeth ).


houses … ” [ al - ahzaab 33 : 33 – interpretation of the meaning ], although women may go out when they need to – “ and permission has been given to you to go out for your needs ” ( hadeeth ). the secular principle, on the other hand, is to go out no matter what the circumstances. to be fair, we should say that there may indeed be a need for women to work, such as a woman who is the breadwinner for her family after her husband has died or her father has become too old to work, and so on. indeed, in some societies which are not based on islamic principles, a woman may find herself forced to work to help her husband cover the living expenses of the family. a man may not propose to a woman unless she is working, and some men may even make it a condition of the marriage contract that the wife in conclusion : a woman may work if she needs to or for some islamic purpose, such as calling others to allaah in the field of teaching, or to make use of her time, as some women do who do not have with regard to the negative aspects of women working outside the home, these include : § what often happens of things that are forbidden in islam, such as mixing with men, getting to know them and being alone with them, wearing perfume for them and starting to show one ' s adornment to strangers ( non - mahrem men ), which can ultimately lead to § not giving the husband his rights, neglecting the house, not giving the children their proper rights. ( this is our basic point here ). § undermining the feeling in some women ’ s minds that the husband is the qawwaam ( protector and maintainer ). let us take the case of a woman whose qualifications are equal to those of her husband, or even higher ( although there is nothing wrong with that in and of itself ), and who works and earns more than he does. will she feel the proper need towards her husband and obey him properly, or will she feel that she is independent of him, which could rock the household on its foundations, unless allaah wills good for her? these arguments about spending on the working wife and how much she should spend on the family may never end. § physical exhaustion and psychological and nervous pressure which do not befit the nature of women. having briefly discussed the pros and cons of women ’ s work, we conclude that we have to fear allaah


by spreading their secrets – this is not permissible, because it is covered by the words of the prophet ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) : “ there should be neither harming nor reciprocating harm. ” ( reported by imaam ahmad, 1 / 313 ; al - silsilat al - saheehah, no. 250 ). an example of this was narrated in the tafseer of the aayah ( interpretation of the meaning ) : “ allaah sets forth an example for those who disbelieve, the wife of nooh and the wife of loot. they were under two of our righteous slaves, but they both betrayed their [ husbands ] … ” [ al - tahreem 66 : 10 ]. ibn katheer ( may allaah have mercy on him ) reported the following in his tafseer of this aayah : “ the wife of nooh used to know about his secrets, and whenever anyone believed in him, she would tell the oppressors among the people of nooh about it. as for the wife of loot, whenever loot welcomed anyone as a guest, she would tell the people of the city who used to do evil things ” ( tafseer ibn katheer, 8 / 198 ), i. e., to come and do immoral things to them. manners at home ( 21 ) spreading kindness in the home. ‘ aa ’ ishah ( may allaah be pleased with her ) said : “ the messenger of allaah ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) said : ‘ when allaah – may he be glorified – wills some good towards the people of a household, he introduces kindness among them. ’ ” ( reported by imaam ahmad in al - musnad, 6 / 71 ; saheeh al - jaami ’, 303 ). according to another report : “ when allaah loves the people of a household, he introduces kindness among them. ” ( reported by ibn abi al - dunya and others ; saheeh al - jaami ’, no. 1704 ). in other words, they start to be kind to one another. this is one of the means of attaining happiness in the home, for kindness is very beneficial between the spouses, and with the children, and brings results that cannot be achieved through harshness, as the prophet ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) said : “ allaah loves kindness and


practical solution is that implemented by some good people who rent neighbouring homes for their families, so as to solve the neighbour problem. this may be an expensive solution, but a good neighbour ( 39 ) paying attention to necessary repairs in the home, and making sure that the amenities are in good working order. among the blessings of allaah in this modern age are the “ mod cons ” that he has bestowed upon us, which make many things easier and save time, such as air - conditioners, fridges, washing - machines and so on. it is wise to have the best quality of appliances that one can afford, without being extravagant or putting oneself under financial strain. we should also be careful to distinguish between useful extras and extravagant additions that have no real value. part of caring for the home includes fixing appliances and amenities that break down. some people neglect these things, and their wives complain about homes crawling with vermin, with overflowing drains and piles of stinking garbage, filled with broken and worn out furniture. no doubt this is one of the obstacles to happiness in the home, and causes problems in the marriage and health problems. the smart person is the one who hastens to fix these things. ( 40 ) paying attention to the family ’ s health and safety procedures. when any member of his family got sick, the messenger of allaah ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) would blow on them and recite al - mi ’ wadhatayn ( last two soorahs of the qur ’ aan ). ( reported by muslim, no. 2192 ). when one of his family members got sick, he would call for soup, and it would be made for him, then he would tell them to drink it, and he would say, “ it will strengthen the heart of the one who is grieving and cleanse ( heal ) the heart of the one who is sick just as any one of you wipes the dirt from her face. ” ( reported by al - tirmidhi, no. 2039 ; saheeh al - jaami ’, no. 4646 ). one of the ways of taking safety precautions is : the messenger of allaah ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) said : “ when evening comes, keep your children inside, for the shayaateen ( devils ) spread out at that time. then when an hour of the night has passed, let your children go, lock the doors and mention the name of allaah, cover


quant blogger half sigma and gnxp ' s jason malloy are quoted in a new york times article by amy harmon entitled " in dna era, new worries about prejudice " about what ' s happening now that " genetic information is slipping out of the laboratory and into everyday life, carrying with it the inescapable message that people of different races have different dna. " in case you are wondering, this article isn ' t written by nicholas wade, who i imagine has been put on heavy sedation by the nyt editors ever since the watson show trial. when scientists first decoded the human genome in 2000, they were quick to portray it as proof of humankind ’ s remarkable similarity. the dna of any two people, they emphasized, is at least 99 percent identical. but new research is exploring the remaining fraction to explain differences between people of different continental origins. scientists, for instance, have recently identified small changes in dna that account for the pale skin of europeans, the tendency of asians to sweat less and west africans ’ resistance to certain diseases. at the same time, genetic information is slipping out of the laboratory and into everyday life, carrying with it the inescapable message that people of different races have different dna. ancestry tests tell customers what percentage of their genes are from asia, europe, africa and the americas. the heart - disease drug bidil is marketed exclusively to african - americans, who seem genetically predisposed to respond to it. jews are offered prenatal tests for genetic disorders rarely found in other ethnic groups. such developments are providing some of the first tangible benefits of the genetic revolution. yet some social critics fear they may also be giving long - discredited racial prejudices a new potency. the notion that race is more than skin deep, they fear, could undermine principles of equal treatment and opportunity that have relied on the presumption that we are all fundamentally equal. “ we are living through an era of the ascendance of biology, and we have to be very careful, ” said henry louis gates jr., director of the w. e. b. du bois institute for african and african american research at harvard university. “ we will all be walking a fine line between using biology and allowing it to be abused. ” certain superficial traits like skin pigmentation have long been presumed to be genetic. but the ability to pinpoint their dna source makes the link between genes and race more palpable. and on mainstream blogs, in college classrooms and among the growing community of ancestry test


i wanted to describe that 「 えっと 」 was similar to " ummm " in english when someone is trying to think about what they are going to say, but i wasn ' t even sure if that was correct. is that just a generalization? what does 「 えっと 」 actually come from? can it be considered to be a word or phrase? えっと is just a sound. yes, it is like " umm " in english and it is used when you ' re thinking of what to say, hesitating, or otherwise trying to fill the silence with something before you speak. as dono mentioned, you can find えっと ' s general form in the dictionary, so it can be considered a word. there is some discussion of this on the internet here, but this discussion also boils down to it just being a sound. えっと as just a sound is a satisfactory answer to me in terms of etymology. i ' m not sure if the と in it is related at all to the quotation particle と, but i have to wonder if anyone is sure. basically your description of えっと as " umm " is fine, and the dictionaries define it as something that you say to think before saying something else. えっと is related to えないと, which is no longer said. over time, it ' s just become something we say to fill the silence when thinking, like " anno ". in the edo times you would hear people say えないと, which would have sounded like, " yunaito " back then. think of how 行 かないと means " i have to go. "


introduction / history china is a land of great diversity in geography, climate, languages, and ethnic groups. it is home to approximately 180 distinct groups, including the 12, 000 mahei who live in yunnan province of southern china. they are generally included with the hani, one of china ' s 55 national minorities, although some scholars think they may be related to the akha, who live in the same area. their origin is not known, but legends say that their nomadic ancestors gradually migrated south from a far away northern plain. since their language is of the tibeto - burmese group, some believe that they originated in tibet. where are they located? the mahei live near the myanmar border in an area that is characterized by forested mountains, abundant rainfall, and rich soil. their farmers are noted for building tiered terraces along steep mountain slopes. their small farming villages usually consist of 30 to 40 homes. centuries of isolation in the high mountain terrain have left the mahei socially and economically backward. what are their lives like? the family unit is considered to be very important among the mahei. some aspects of family life, however, differ from region to region. for instance, monogamy ( one husband, one wife ) is the rule in some areas, while having multiple spouses is common in others. " family order " is both patriarchal ( male dominated ) and patrilineal, meaning that a male child becomes part of the father ' s lineage, while a female will become part of her husband ' s lineage. male children are given names that are connected with their father ' s name, but females are not. the mahei are well known for their sincere hospitality. when a guest enters a mahei home, he is offered wine and strong tea. if he declines the drinks, the family will be highly offended ; if he drinks them, the host will generously serve him with the finest he has to offer. the mahei celebrate several major festivals each year, the most notable being the new year festival. this seven day event is celebrated at harvest time, during the tenth month. at noon on new year ' s day, an announcer throws three balls of blackened rice behind him to bid farewell to the old year. he then greets the new year by tossing three balls of white rice in front of him. next, he pushes the ropes of a special swing and all of the people, regardless of sex or age, begin swinging. ( they believe that this will ward off disaster and ensure a prosperous year. )


balls of white rice in front of him. next, he pushes the ropes of a special swing and all of the people, regardless of sex or age, begin swinging. ( they believe that this will ward off disaster and ensure a prosperous year. ) that evening, the villagers stand around a bonfire eating, drinking, singing, and dancing. at midnight, the announcer cuts down the frame of the swing to signify the end of the festival and the beginning of a new work year. during times of celebration, the mahei wear attractive tribal costumes of hand - woven cotton dyed blue or black. the men wear distinctive jackets and turbans, while the women wear collarless blouses and special caps. what are their beliefs? traditionally, mahei beliefs were a combination of animism ( belief that non - human objects have spirits ), polytheism ( belief in many gods ), and ancestor worship ( praying to the dead for blessings and guidance ). trees in the " holy hills " were believed to be their guardian spirits. today, most still adhere to similar beliefs, however, approximately 28 % are buddhist. they are very superstitious and view certain events, such as the birth of twins or handicapped children, as unlucky. these children are killed, their parents banished, and their homes and possessions burned. they believe in the existence of many ruling spirits, such as spirits that rule over heaven and earth, spirits that protect their villages, and evil spirits that bring diseases. the mahei have three major religious leaders : the zuima ( a male elder who directs all religious activities ), the beima ( males who perform magic and exorcisms ), and nima ( fortune tellers and medicine men ). what are their needs? since china ' s government strictly forbids christianity, there are currently no missions agencies working among the mahei. the bible has not yet been translated into their language and there are no christian broadcasts in their area. intercession and missions activity are necessary for these people to hear the gospel. prayer points pray that god will reveal himself to the mahei through dreams and visions. pray that god will give the mahei believers boldness to share christ with their own people. ask god to speed the completion of evangelistic materials into the mahei language. pray that the doors of china will soon open to missionaries. ask god to strengthen, encourage, and protect the small number of mahei christians. pray that god will raise up qualified linguists to translate the bible into the mahei language


his terms, although his well known work, jews in the mediterranean diaspora does not address 1 peter. barclay distinguishes three terms. first, barclay uses the word assimilation in reference to the category of social interaction and the adoption of social practices from one ' s environment. acculturation then is used in relation to broader cultural features like the use of the same language. finally, accommodation has to do with the degree to which acculturation takes place, the level of separateness that either is or is not maintained. in the end, seland does not find this typology very helpful. he does not find barclay ' s distinction between assimilation and acculturation very clear. further, barclay ' s nomenclature does not mesh well with the social scientific use of these terms. and so seland embarks next on an exploration of recent research in the social sciences on acculturation and assimilation ( 156 - 66 ). his first stop is b. s. heisler, whose work analyzes the history of research on this topic in three stages. she dubs research up until the late 60 ' s the " classical period. " in this period, the process of assimilation was viewed as a one way process ending in complete assimilation. heisler dubs the second period the " modern " period, beginning in the seventies. in this period research focused more on conflict, particularly long term conflict, and less on equilibrium. the third period is the " post - modern period, " of recent origin ( which given the date of this article would be the 1990 ' s ). here we find the expectation of multicultural societies and ethnic pluralisms ( 158 ). seland mentions several other sources from which one might construct a model of acculturation / assimilation appropriate for 1 peter. these include the fields of social psychology and communication research. finally, he draws definitions of acculturation and assimilation from the international encyclopedia of the social sciences ( 160 ). acculturation : " those changes set in motion by the coming together of societies with different cultural traditions. " seland finds this statement in the article even more helpful : " acculturation comprehends those phenomena which results [ sic ] when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first - hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. " assimilation : " a process in which persons of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds come to interact, free of these constraints, in the life of the larger society. " after all this background, seland ultimately turns to milton gordon '


or both groups. " assimilation : " a process in which persons of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds come to interact, free of these constraints, in the life of the larger society. " after all this background, seland ultimately turns to milton gordon ' s 1964 model ( from the so called classical period of such research ) with a few caveats. the main caveat is a warning that gordon was wrongly " deterministic " in his sense of inevitability to the process of assimilation. adjustment of two groups to each other is not the only option. gordon ' s model breaks down several different categories of assimilation : 1. cultural or behavioral assimilation ( = acculturation ) - - fitting in with the host culture in a most basic way ( presumably things like learning the language, getting the appropriate documents, etc... ) 2. structural assimilation - - participating in the clubs, institutions, etc. in large numbers. gordon believed that once structural assimilation had taken place, all the forms of assimilation below would inevitably follow. 3. marital assimilation ( intermarriage ) 4. identificational assimilation ( identity by way of host society ) 5. attitude receptional assimilation ( no prejudice toward immigrants ) 6. behavior receptional assimilation ( no discrimination toward immigrants ) 7. civic assimilation ( absence of power conflict ) john berry, in 1980, built on gordon ' s categories by posing two questions : 1 ) does the immigrant group wish to maintain its distinct cultural identity and 2 ) does the immigrant group wish good relationships with the host culture ( 163 - 164 )? the result are four basic relationships to the broader culture : 1. if the immigrant group does not want to maintain a distinct identity and does want good relationships with the host culture, the result is assimilation. 2. if the immigrant group does want to maintain a distinct identity yet also wants good relationships with the host culture, the result is integration. 3. if the immigrant group does want to maintain a distinct identity yet does not want good relationships with the host culture, the result is separation. 4. finally, if the immigrant group does not want to maintain a distinct identity and at the same time does not care about good relationships with the host culture, the result is marginalization. the final part of the chapter then takes all of the preceding processing of social scientific theory and attempts to use it in relation to 1 peter. here we arrive at one of seland ' s contributions to the balch / elliott debate. the question is not really one of assimilation to greco - roman culture, as this


of social scientific theory and attempts to use it in relation to 1 peter. here we arrive at one of seland ' s contributions to the balch / elliott debate. the question is not really one of assimilation to greco - roman culture, as this is the cultural background of the likely gentile audience ( 169 - 170 ). the question is that of the assimilation of the audience " to the ( still developing ) christian system of cult, beliefs, ethos and symbols " ( 168 ). so in relation to the host culture, the question is best put as, " how much did he, by his letter, intend his readers to retain of that culture? " ( 173 ). first, seland argues that they are first generation christians, " still in need of further acculturation / assimilation into the christian system " ( 169 ). he is surely more correct than not in the light of statements such as we find in 1 peter 1 : 14 and 4 : 3. however, we remember how large an area 1 peter addresses and are careful not to presume an audience of any monolithic kind. they are primarily gentile, and it is early enough in the christian movement for the author to presume that the majority converted from paganism. they are in a precarious social location. here torrey mentions briefly what he discusses more thoroughly in chapter 2. john elliott is once again his requisite dialog partner. on the one hand, he agrees with elliott that the phrase " aliens and exiles " in 1 peter 2 : 11 does not refer to exile from heaven, as if the audience is on a heavenly pilgrimage ( 171 ). yet he also finds unconvincing elliott ' s sense that they were strangers to these regions even before they converted. we will discuss this thesis in the next post as we review chapter 2. i am also unconvinced of elliott ' s thesis and remain puzzled that commentators like paul achtemeier and scot mcknight have followed elliott on this issue. at the same time, i ' m still struggling with seland ' s signature idea that this language in 1 peter evokes connotations of proselyte language ( more when we come to chapter 2 ). seland is spot on when it comes to the audience being " proselytes " to christian judaism. but i ' m having trouble seeing that the specific terms " aliens and exiles " carried those overtones. indeed, i don ' t think it is safe at all to assume that the audience, especially


being " proselytes " to christian judaism. but i ' m having trouble seeing that the specific terms " aliens and exiles " carried those overtones. indeed, i don ' t think it is safe at all to assume that the audience, especially in such a vast area, are relatively new converts. * * * coming articles the rest of the section then explores where 1 peter might fit in relation to john berry ' s four categories. seland immediately dismisses out of hand the options of marginalization and separation. the author wishes the audience to maintain good relationships with the host society. to address the question of integration versus assimilation, he switches back to gordon ' s more detailed delineation of the process of assimilation ( 173 - 87 ). the first stage is acculturation or cultural assimilation in matters such as language. they are to live honorably among the gentiles ( 2 : 12 ) while following a " new code of honor and shame " ( 176 ). seland thus considers their level of acculturation to be high with some significant modifications. he does not, however, consider their assimilation to be high in any of gordon ' s other categories. the strong sense of harassment and conflict evoked in 1 peter 2 - 3 do not reflect that of high assimilation between christians and their environment structurally, and certainly not in terms of attitude or behavioral reception, let alone civic assimilation. it is assumed that some women will be married to non - believers, but it is unlikely the author would encourage such if it were possible to avoid. and while the audience is not encouraged to withdraw from its societal relations, it is clear that its self - indentification departs quite dramatically from its host environment. the conclusion, which ironically seland himself never mentions explicitly, is that the audience would best be typified by " integration " in berry ' s typology. more to come...


" simultaneously mitigating near - term climate change and improving human health and food security. " well, yes. what ' s new for science doesn ' t have to be new for klimazwiebel authors and readers. but finally, good to hear that other people, too, seem to give up their 2 - degree goals and become more pragmatic and realistic! here the abstract : tropospheric ozone and black carbon ( bc ) contribute to both degraded air quality and global warming. we considered ~ 400 emission control measures to reduce these pollutants by using current technology and experience. we identified 14 measures targeting methane and bc emissions that reduce projected global mean warming ~ 0. 5°c by 2050. this strategy avoids 0. 7 to 4. 7 million annual premature deaths from outdoor air pollution and increases annual crop yields by 30 to 135 million metric tons due to ozone reductions in 2030 and beyond. benefits of methane emissions reductions are valued at $ 700 to $ 5000 per metric ton, which is well above typical marginal abatement costs ( less than $ 250 ). the selected controls target different sources and influence climate on shorter time scales than those of carbon dioxide – reduction measures. implementing both substantially reduces the risks of crossing the 2°c threshold.


, " whitney says. " he broke with the aristocratic formalities of his predecessors, george washington and john adams, and introduced the revolutionary republican greeting from france — the hand shake — to welcome guests to monticello and the white house. quite hip in his day, he was a renowned musician and elegant dancer with whom women fell in love. " cool, of course, can have more than one definition, according to julia azari, an assistant political science professor at marquette university. on one hand, presidential cool can refer to a president ' s ability to charm others, defy convention and appear hip — exemplified by clinton ' s saxophone playing and kennedy ' s movie - grade glamour. but it also can refer to a president ' s unflappable and seemingly detached manner. in presidential politics, azari says, the two definitions are often at odds. the first definition " sets the president up as a celebrity, but also speaks to the intimacy of his connection with not only the people but also popular, ' low ' culture. " the second definition, she says, " positions the president as above the fray, impervious to petty political criticism. this is a key quality to cultivate during times when presidents have to make difficult political decisions. " 6 ) franklin d. roosevelt. using the second definition, azari says, " i would add fdr to the list. he told critics he ' welcomed their hatred. ' " he was " unflappable and in control, calm in a crisis. " 7 ) george w. bush. using the first definition, " i ' d add george w. bush, " azari says. " everyone wanted to have a beer with him. too bad he doesn ' t drink. " that likability quality seemed to serve bush well politically, she adds, " at least in the short term. " on a closing note, azari says, " i think a few presidents have suffered from a seeming lack of cool — in the sense of both hipness and unflappability : herbert hoover, richard nixon and jimmy carter. "


it is surely the horse, the ostrich, or the tailor! and how very contemptible it is to rest our hope of esteem in a horse, a feather, or a garment! philothea : true. it ’ s the same as having a car, a hairstyle, or name - brand clothes. surely, it was not me who made any of those, or, even if i did, i cannot make those things be accepted as “ cool. ” things should not define me. mmmmm … st. francis : another thinks of his well - trimmed beard and mustache, or his well - curled hair, his delicate hands, or of his accomplishments in dancing, music, and so on, but is it not very contemptible to try to enhance his worth or his reputation through such frivolous and foolish things? philothea : i get it. i know the type of people you are talking about. they used to be called fops or dandies, but they are called something else today. st. francis : others who have acquired a little science demand the respect and honor of the world on that account, as if all must needs come to learn of them and bow before them. such men we call pendants [ those who present their knowledge in an ostentatious, dogmatic, or dull manner, often placing excessive emphasis on trivial details and formal rules ]. philothea : they tell others that all people need only learn from their studies and ask them to bow before them as if they knew everything? oh, my gosh. i never thought of people making science into its own dogmatic formulation of rules with its own high priests, but i guess it can happen to people in any discipline, and you know what? that actually makes a lot of sense! everybody only has a piece of knowledge, so if a person of science, literature, politics, prayer, psychology, religion, art, or anything claims they know everything, then persuades others to follow them with certain exacting behaviors, bowing to worldly mannerisms … anyone who is this extreme is a pendant! it doesn ’ t matter if they believe in god or not. if they claim to know more than every other person in the world with their one piece of knowledge, if they claim that they own all the rights to human progress because they think their one piece of a whole will lead the way, then they have succumbed to pedantry. sadly, i think anybody who falls into this pedantry works to persuade themselves and


. it really just got me thinking. usually, people accuse religious folk of being this way, but it can happen to even those who claim no religion. i can see why people could lose their way with this. they see a piece and run with it as if it were whole. a person who really searches for the length, the breadth, the width, the depth of all things, knows that he cannot know all or prove all on his own. anyone who makes that claim must be false, superficial, artificial. sorry. i didn ’ t mean to take up your time. go ahead. st. francis : others pride themselves on their personal beauty, and think that everyone is admiring them : all of them in their turn are utterly silly, foolish, and impertinent, and their glory in such empty things we call vain, absurd, and frivolous. philothea : yep. i know the type. so how can you tell if a person is really humble? st. francis : you may judge of real worth as of real balm, which is tried in water, and if it sinks, and remains at the bottom, it is known to be precious and costly ; and so in order to know whether a man is really wise, learned, generous, and noble, observe whether his gifts make him humble, modest and submissive. if so, they are genuine, but if they float to the surface and would fain display themselves, be sure that in proportion as they make a show, so are they less worthy. philothea : they get puffed up, arrogant, detracting all others, proud of themselves, thinking they “ know - it - all, ” can do anything they want to do, make up their own rules because they have a title, beauty, or some certificate of knowledge. st. francis : those pearls which are formed or fed in the wind and thunder leave only a pearly shell with no substance ; and so those virtues and attractive qualities which have their root and support in pride, self - sufficiency, and vanity, have but the outward show of excellence, and are without sap, marrow, and solidity. philothea : i think you just described a person who has no integrity, no sense of fellowship, and no sense of compassion. st. francis : honor, rank, and dignity are like the saffron, which flourishes and increases most when it is trodden underfoot. all the value of beauty is gone when its possessor is


love to each other. i then read a few of my favorite picture books and had the students reflect on the " top ten things i love about myself! " we then learned about the different adjectives that could be used to describe our personality ( postive ones of course! ) and create a cute, little art project that we turned into a bulletin board. check out some of the pictures that i took from our lessons : i used to teach this lesson earlier in the school year, but i wanted to wait for the " love " theme of february to inspire the lessons this year. ( * * * tpt customers - this was a file that we revised from our tpt store. if you already purchased the file titled, awesome adjectives that describe me!, then please redown the revised file!!! ) if you are interested in this file, click on the image below to buy the file from tpt ( it is $ 3. 50 ) : this file is also sold in our show your students the love february unit, also on tpt, for $ 8. 00. speaking of all this love.... the first two readers who leave a nice comment will get our valentine ' s unit for free! : ) please don ' t forget your email address! enjoy your weekend!