sin has a lot of moving parts. it features seven ancient figures, some of whom have instant name recognition ( jesus, paul, augustine ) and some of whom do not ( valentinus, marcion, justin, origen ). jesus and paul were both jews whose ideas about sin related in positive and creative ways to the sacrificial cult of jerusalem ’ s temple. marcion, valentinus and justin, all gentiles, shaped subsequent centuries of christian doctrine by arguing about how to read jewish scriptures ( which by 300 ce will become the ‘ old testament ’ for some churches ), how to identify the god of the jewish bible ( is he the father of christ, or someone else? ), how to understand evil, and, thus, how to understand sin. origen and augustine, finally, were two towering geniuses of the early church. dealing with the same scriptural and doctrinal points of principle, they each framed huge, complex, and contrasting theologies. not only do their ideas of sin contrast dramatically : so too do their ideas about the universe, about humanity, and about god. learn more about sin : the early history of an idea at the princeton university press website. page 99 introduces these last two men, and sets up these contrasts. according to origen, all would be saved ; according to augustine, most were damned. according to origen, since god is just, he gave humanity free will so that a person could choose whether or not to sin. according to augustine, since god is just, he condemned all humanity to a broken will as part of the price of original sin. according to origen, even satan will at last be redeemed ; according to augustine, even babies, if unbaptized, go to hell. augustine is one of history ’ s winners. his views prevailed. in their secular refraction, they continue to affect even american public policy : according to augustine, since sex is a sinful act, its only morally admissible function is procreation. any other use of sex other than for procreation – as the expression of affection, say – is to be condemned. the current struggles over whether u. s. government funds can or should be used to provide americans with access to contraception is an early 21st - century spin - off of augustine ’ s early fifth - century arguments on the nature of sin.


if you take a prescription or an over - the - counter drug, and you can answer yes to any of these other questions, then you may be experiencing a drug interaction or conflict that is having an negative affect on your health : - do you take more than one drug - prescription or over - the - counter? - do you take vitamins or other supplements? - do you ever drink grapefruit juice, eat licorice or chocolate? - do you enjoy a glass of wine, a bottle of beer or another alcoholic beverage? drug - to - drug, drug - to - supplement, drug - to - food and drug - to - alcohol conflicts and interactions may simply give you a bit of intestinal discomfort - or they may kill you. we hear too frequently in the news about a celebrity who has died because of conflicts from drugs, in particular. sometimes we hear them labeled as overdoses. but overdoses can result from a drug that was taken in its prescribed quantity, then its effect was altered by the presence of another substance like another drug or alcohol. michael jackson, heath ledger, anna nicole smith, and others are all considered to have died from drug interactions. here are some examples of drug conflicts and interactions that may surprise you. drug with other drug conflicts : if you take more than one drug, then your drugs may be getting in each other ' s way. the more different medications you take, the more chances there are of conflicts. according to the institute for safe medication practices, almost 40 % of americans take four or more different drugs. here are some examples of problems that can occur when two conflicting drugs are taken by the same patient : antihistimines, those usually over - the - counter drugs we take for runny noses, sneezing, congestion or watery eyes, can increase the depressive effects of many sedatives, tranquilizers, high blood - pressure medications or medicines for depression. in turn, that makes patients sleepier and more fatigued, which can be deadly to the patient or others if the patient tries to drive a car, operate heavy machinery or any other activity that requires concentration. antihistimines can also cause an increase in blood pressure or speed up the heart rate of patients who take blood pressure - reducing medications. acid reducers like prilosec ( omeprazole ), nexium or others known as drugs to treat gerd ( gastrointestinal esophageal reflux disease ) will interact with any drug that contains cimt


, meaning the drug will be absorbed and used by the body in a different way than it was intended to. this can increase, decrease or neutralize the effect of the drug. here are some examples : grapefruit juice can cause problems for people who take certain blood - pressure lowering medications or for those who take cyclosporin after an organ transplant. there may be dozens of other drugs that grapefruit juice affects, causing problems for those who drink it along with those drugs. ( learn more about avoiding these drug conflicts and interactions. ) chocolate - who can live without chocolate? some of us need to - because the drugs we take will become problematic if we eat chocolate, too. for example, anyone ( including children ) who takes a stimulant drug such as ritalin or a sedative - type drug like ambien must avoid any food that includes caffeine, including chocolate and coffee. chocolate can also cause problems for anyone who takes mao inhibitors for depression or parkinson ' s disease. mao inhibitors include drugs like nardil ( phenelzine ) or parnate ( tranylcypromine ). in fact, chocolate isn ' t the only food that needs to be avoided by those who take mao inhibitors. here is a list of foods to avoid, which include smoked, aged or pickled meat or fish, sauerkraut, aged cheeses, beef or chicken liver and red wines. licorice, another favorite, needs to be avoided by people who take certain blood - pressure lowering drugs like digitalis ( also called digoxin, digitoxin, cardoxin, digitek, lanoxicaps or lanoxin. ) with so many ways to negatively affect the drugs we take to improve our health, it makes sense to avoid those drug conflicts and interactions. whenever your provider gives you a new prescription for a drug, or if you decide to use an over - the - counter drug to address difficult symptoms, be sure you make yourself aware of the potential conflicts, then avoid them. from medline plus ( national library of medicine ) from the fda


may 04 2010 today we talked about hydrogen and how it can be used to power vehicles. of the forty - four free response questions on previous a. p. exams, none have addressed hydrogen power, so mr. willard said this would be “ good knowledge to have in our pockets. ” first we reviewed what we already knew about hydrogen. hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. despite this fact, there is almost none in the troposphere, and this is because hydrogen has a very low density and so it rises. additionally, hydrogen is very unstable, so it likes to bond with things ( i. e. with oxygen, thus water ). in a hydrogen - powered car, the traditional internal combustion engine is replaced with a fuel cell. here is a link to a video we watched in class about how a fuel cell works : how a fuel cell works : inside a hydrogen - powered car ( http : / / auto. howstuffworks. com / fuel - efficiency / alternative - fuels / dangerous - hydrogen - fuel1. htm ) as with every energy source, there are pros and cons. the pros to a hydrogen - powered car is that water is its only emission, it is a strategy for reducing fossil fuel use, and hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. on the flip side, the cons to a hydrogen - powered car are that we have to harvest the hydrogen or “ make it ” ( which requires energy input ), since this source of energy is new, the infrastructure for hydrogen power is not there, and that we can ’ t simply convert petro - gas stations to hydrogen gas stations. perhaps we can add on to our petro - gas stations, and if we harvest the hydrogen or “ make ” the hydrogen by generating energy from renewable resources such as wind or solar power, technically the energy is still clean. but if we generate the energy for hydrogen from a coal - based power plant, then we ’ re just moving the source, but the impact is still the same. hydrogen can be “ harvested ” or “ made ” from electrolysis ( splitting water ), from biomass, and from fuel. the u. s. government is currently funding research on hydrogen power in the state of california. hydrogen power is still very much in the research and development stage. hope this helped! below is a picture of a typical hydrogen fuel cell :


the list has been arranged, as possible, in reverse chronological order. i should note that the contents have been lightly edited to reduce entry length ; almost all of these edits have removed references to recent sources in the outside literature which are not further identified. my apologies for this to the authors, but readers should of course consult the original sources to get the full picture, often extending well beyond wallace studies per se.... how is it that the memes of poetry remained a strong presence in the life of wallace but disappeared from the life of darwin even though both men were very much involved in scientific research that led both to the same revolutionary paradigm of natural selection? perhaps the answer to this question may be found in a famous clash between the two scientific titans. for as himmelfarb ( 1986 ) has remarked, ' wallace not only had the distinction of being the first darwinist ; he was also the first renegade darwinist '. and the issue on which wallace became a ' renegade ' was hardly trivial. whereas darwin believed that the science of evolution could completely account for the human species, wallace had his doubts. his ' little heresy ' as he called it was actually not so little, for he questioned whether the science of natural selection could account for ' the moral and higher intellectual nature of man '... - - bryce christensen, october 2012. changing english : studies in culture and education 18 ( 4 ) : 400.... the first author who expected mimicry by light was wallace ( 1878 ) himself, who erroneously supposed click beetles for firefly mimics. nevertheless, their light is different and they also appeared inedible too ( harvey 1956 ). cockroaches are fat and tasty, so the mimic is at the place. one mimicry by light ( aggressive, batesian - wallacian or peckhammian ) is actually known ( lloyd 1965, 1984 ) : predaceous fireflies photuris ( and also bicellychonia ) mimic the flash responses of females of other, up to five different ( lloyd 1983 ) species, attract males, and catch them, often during flight... - - peter vrsansky et al., september 2012. naturwissenschaften 99 ( 9 ) : 748.... background matching prey coloration and its adaptive features have been recognized by biologists for a long time. the related idea that prey animals can decrease their probability of being detected through behavioural features was already discussed by alfred russel wallace...


... background matching prey coloration and its adaptive features have been recognized by biologists for a long time. the related idea that prey animals can decrease their probability of being detected through behavioural features was already discussed by alfred russel wallace.... it has been shown experimentally that background matching effectively reduces predation risk imposed by predators, for example, in fishes and birds. preference for backgrounds that reduce the risk of detection has thus been suggested to be an important and wide spread strategy among prey animals to decrease their predation risk. it is also a common assumption that prey animals have been selected to actively prefer visually matching backgrounds. however, considering the popularity of this idea, surprisingly few experimental studies testing it exist... - - karin kjernsmo & sami merilaita, august 2012. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 279 ( 1745 ) : 4192.... after planting doubts about sexual selection as the unique explanation, wallace ( 1868 ) associated sexual dichromatism with the nesting habits of birds in relation to the risk of nest predation. he considered that, assuming that ( i ) incubation attendance by either sex promotes cryptic plumage in open nesters, but ( ii ) not in cavity or domed nesters, ( iii ) conspicuous sexual monochromatism should be associated with cavity or domed nesting, and ( iv ) sexual dichromatism with conspicuous males and cryptic females should be related to open nesting ( table 1 ). wallace ( 1868 ) offered support for the two last predictions by listing 23 phylogenetically related groups of birds ( i. e. families or genera ) with conspicuous monochromatism nesting in cavities or domed nests and seven families with bright males and dull females with open nesting habits. wallace ( 1868, 1889 ) also predicted that because of the higher phylogenetic lability of plumage colour, changes in nesting habits would come first and be followed by changes in coloration. darwin ( 1871 ) disagreed with this view and forcefully argued that plumage coloration could select for changes in nesting habits while the opposite was less plausible. in nearly a century and a half elapsed since wallace first presented his theory on avian sexual dichromatism in relation to nesting habits, few attempts have been made to empirically check its validity despite the attention that sexual dichromatism as variable reflecting the strength of sexual selection in different bird species has received during the last decades ( see for instance, amundsen & parn, 2006 )


been made to empirically check its validity despite the attention that sexual dichromatism as variable reflecting the strength of sexual selection in different bird species has received during the last decades ( see for instance, amundsen & parn, 2006 ) and the huge increase in information on avian natural history and phylogeny... - - j. j. soler & j. moreno, may 2012. journal of evolutionary biology 25 ( 8 ) : 1615.... in this article, we tested some assumptions and predictions of wallace ’ s theory by analysing plumage conspicuousness and dichromatism, nesting habits and incubation attendance of european passerines as described in handbook of birds of the western palearctic ( hbwp ; cramp & perrins, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994a, b ). we have also corrected for phylogenetic relationships in all analyses as nesting habits, and to a lesser degree sexual dichromatism, may show a marked phylogenetic component as already argued by wallace ( 1889 ). according to the fundamental assumption of wallace that incubation attendance by either sex promotes cryptic plumage in open nesters, but not in cavity nesters, conspicuousness in either sex should be related to incubation attendance, nest type and their interaction ( prediction 1 ). moreover, the predictions by wallace that conspicuous sexual monochromatism should be associated with cavity or domed nesting, and sexual dichromatism with conspicuous males and cryptic females should be related to open nesting, were tested by relating degree of male and female conspicuousness to nest type and sexual dichromatism.... - - j. j. soler & j. moreno, may 2012. journal of evolutionary biology 25 ( 8 ) : 1615 - 1616.... the world ' s terrestrial zoogeographical regions were originally outlined by sclater ( 1858 ) and wallace ( 1876 ), primarily on the basis of vertebrates, because their distribution records were the most complete at the time. since then, the completeness of records has improved dramatically for both vertebrates and invertebrates, and although invertebrates represent a far greater proportion of total animal diversity, tetrapod vertebrates remain the best group for comparatively testing biogeographical hypotheses, with a comprehensive data set having become openly available online ( wwf 2010 ). specifically, where the world ' s biogeographical regions are concerned, it makes sense to test their accuracy


. biological conservation 144 ( 11 ) : 2651.... wallace ' s line demarcates the most abrupt faunal transition in the world. to a seasoned naturalist like wallace, this unique juxtaposition of dramatically different faunas, first noted by muller ( 1846 ), was obvious, was anomalous, and begged explanation ; so it is perhaps no accident that biogeographic study effectively began in the iaa. the range limits of many terrestrial taxa are coincident with the eastern edge of the sunda shelf, and the taxonomic compositions of communities on either side are distinctly different. wallace advocated geological explanations for these biological differences. he suggested, for example, that bali and lombok were formerly widely separated and had only recently moved to their present positions < 40 km apart ; he also noted that faunal discontinuities were associated with deep straits ( wallace 1860 ). wallace first described the line in an 1858 letter to h. w. bates ( marchant 1916, p. 66 ) before he mapped the line ( wallace 1863 ) that was later given his name by huxley ( 1868 ) and expounded upon these observations in books on the iaa and biogeography in general ( e. g., wallace 1869 ). the veracity of wallace ' s observations was debated because the existence of such a stark faunal divide seemed improbable, and this spurred intense study of distribution patterns in the region ( e. g., weber 1902 )... – david j. lohman et al., august 2011. ecology, evolution, and systematics 42 : 208.... the processes governing the evolution of sexual dimorphism provided a foundation for sexual selection theory. two alternative processes, originally proposed by darwin and wallace, differ primarily in the timing of events creating the dimorphism. in the process advocated by darwin, a novel ornament arises in a single sex, with no temporal separation in the origin and sex - limitation of the novel trait. by contrast, wallace proposed a process where novel ornaments appear simultaneously in both sexes, but are then converted into sex - limited expression by natural selection acting against showy coloration in one sex. here, we investigate these alternative modes of sexual dimorphism evolution in a phylogenetic framework and demonstrate that both processes contribute to dimorphic wing patterns in the butterfly genera bicyclus and funonia... our analyses support both hypotheses advocated by darwin and wallace for the origin of sexual dimorphism


phylogenetic framework and demonstrate that both processes contribute to dimorphic wing patterns in the butterfly genera bicyclus and funonia... our analyses support both hypotheses advocated by darwin and wallace for the origin of sexual dimorphism : some sexually dimorphic ornaments arise concomitantly with sex - limited expression, while others arise in both sexes but are subsequently lost in one sex. thus both modes of evolution are applicable to the evolution of sexual dimorphism in butterflies... - - jeffrey c. oliver & antonia monteiro, 7 july 2011. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 278 ( 1714 ) : 1981, 1985.... wallace ( 1889 ) was the first to propose that cuckoo - hawk resemblance was a form of mimicry, which wyllie ( 1981 ) suggested might aid parasitic laying by frightening aggressive hosts away from the nest. in support of this idea, hawk - like plumage, with cryptic upperparts and pale, barred underparts, is more prevalent in parasitic than in nonparasitic cuckoos ( payne 1967 ) and most likely evolved after the evolution of brood parasitism ( kruger et al. 2007 )... – justin a. welbergen & nicholas b. davies, may - june 2011. behavioral ecology 22 ( 3 ) : 574.... while there were numerous previous philosophical treatises on the topic, stretching back to speculations about the origin of the universe in ancient times, scientific proposals are more recent. a well known one was biologist alfred russell wallace, who wrote in 1904 : " such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required... in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man ". but that was before modern cosmology was established ; the idea of the expanding and evolving universe was yet to come... - - george ellis, 13 may 2011. general relativity and gravitation 43 ( 11 ) : 3213. this brings us back to the popp. et al. analysis of empetrum. their dating analysis shows quite convincingly that the relevant phylogenetic splits do not date to the jurassic - - not even close. instead, they probably happened in the pleistocene less than 1 mya. we can, therefore, immediately rule out ancient vicariance, but it is not quite as easy to choose between a darwin or a wallace migration scenario and the long -


regions to its south. with almost no african fossil record to consult, scientists of the 19th and early 20th centuries could only speculate on the age or historical development of this continent ' s biogeography. in contrast, the last 100 years of paleontological exploration have provided a wealth of information that allows for an investigation into the developmental history of african endemism as a whole, and the ethiopian biogeography realm in particular. wallace ' s proposal of " long epochs " of isolating barriers can now be more precisely formulated and addressed... - - faysal bibi, february 2011. plos one 6 ( 2 ) : 1 - 10.... wallace noted the problem of incipient evolutionary stages. he argued that incipient and intermediate stages might have little selective survival advantage, as with a partially developed wing ; yet evolution progressed to new forms and greater complexity as if teleologically guided. wallace thus predicted the problem of " irreducible complexity " ( behe, 2004 ). a group composed of paleo - anthropologists and linguists similarly argued that the physical and cognitive articulations required for human speech are so sophisticated that it is difficult to imagine intermediary systems ( picq et al., 2008 ). they described as a neo - darwinian tautology the argument that if a human feature existed, then it must be adaptive, otherwise it would not have survived. this is a form of panglossian, overly - optimistic ), post - hoc reasoning... - - michael m. delmonte, january 2011. the international journal of healing and caring 11 ( 1 ).... the evolution of longer floral tubes forced the evolution of longer insect proboscides, which in turn forced the selection for even longer floral tubes. wallace ( 1867 ) noted that this positive feedback system would continue generating longer and longer traits until it is balanced by an opposing selective pressure. although he did not elaborate much on opposing selective pressures, wallace ( 1867 ) implied that proboscis and tube lengthening would only be advantageous to a point, after which increased length may become a liability ( e. g. harder 1983 ; kunte 2007 ). insects with excessively long proboscides may have difficulty maneuvering them and inserting them accurately into the narrow gullets of flowers ( e. g. harder 1983 )... - - allan g. ellis & bruce anderson, 2011. in sebastien patiny, ed., evolution of plant - pollinator


and inserting them accurately into the narrow gullets of flowers ( e. g. harder 1983 )... - - allan g. ellis & bruce anderson, 2011. in sebastien patiny, ed., evolution of plant - pollinator relationships ( cambridge university press ) : 237 - 262.... inspired by evolutionary computation, artificial life, multi - agent systems and social cognition, we develop a more realistic distribution of environments. the basic idea is straightforward : intelligence is the result of evolution through millions of generations interacting with other live beings. thus we define intelligence in this context, interacting with other agents of similar intelligence. we formalise the so - called darwin - wallace distribution for agents and environments. despite the many options and the many sources of uncomputability, we claim that, conceptually, the notion of darwin - wallace distribution is useful to re - visit previous definitions of intelligence. the next step is how this notion can be used for agi development and evaluation. we present a procedure which approximates a darwin - wallace distribution by using intelligence tests over environments such that ' certified ' systems are incorporated into the environments, so making them socially more complex... - - jose hernandez - orallo et al., 2011. ' on more realistic environment distributions for defining, evaluating and developing intelligence ' ( http : / / users. dsic. upv. es ) : 3. wallace ' s approach to cosmology shows how the consideration of the conditions necessary for the evolution of life is not wedded to any particular theory of star formation and development but must be used appropriately in any cosmology we pursue... - - john d. barrow, 2011. the book of universes : exploring the limits of the cosmos ( w. w. norton ).... the term used to describe this type of speciation is allopatry, as opposed to sympatry, where ancestral and descendant species coexist in the same environment ( or parapatry if they exist side by side, with a hybridisation zone in between ). if two populations having evolved separately come back in contact later on, the intermediate phenotype of their offspring could make them unfit for either environment, and this would then provide the selective pressure for the selection of additional reproductive barriers, in a process called reinforcement, and often referred to as ' the wallace effect '. indeed, the earliest promoter of the view that reinforcement could occur under the pressure of natural selection was undoubtedly alfred wallace, who disagreed with darwin ' s views


reproductive barriers, in a process called reinforcement, and often referred to as ' the wallace effect '. indeed, the earliest promoter of the view that reinforcement could occur under the pressure of natural selection was undoubtedly alfred wallace, who disagreed with darwin ' s views that reproductive isolation could not possibly result from natural selection : " the sterility of first crosses and of their hybrid progeny has not been acquired through natural selection " ( the origin, summary of hybridism chapter ). this point was a subject of written exchanges and arguments in private correspondence between the two around 1858 [ [ sic ] ], 10 years after their joint communication to the linnean society in july 1858, but wallace formally published his views only in 1889, some twenty year later, in chapter vii of his book called darwinism. on the subject of allopatry versus sympatry, i do take a very divergent view to that adopted by a majority of evolutionary biologists to this day. rather, i choose to follow wallace ' s path against darwin ' s in thinking that natural selection plays a major role in the reproductive isolation that defines species, and i shall actually venture some steps further than wallace, and will advocate in the following pages that natural selection can act on the very first stages of reproductive isolation, and not just on reinforcement after divergence has taken place... - - etienne joly, 25 november 2010. nature precedings : 3.... by the time he wrote island life, wallace ( 1881 ) knew of 21 species of philippine mammals, most of which are either widespread species or palawan endemics. thus, he had virtually no knowledge of the highly endemic mammal communities in the oceanic philippines. at the time, even less was known of amphibian and reptile diversity ( boulenger, 1894 ). thus, wallace ' s impression of the philippine fauna, and his biogeographic delineations of it, were taken from a very small, biased sample of the diversity... - - jacob a. esselstyn et al., november 2010. journal of biogeography 37 ( 11 ) : 2055.... with growing knowledge about species distributions, updated summary information on species richness, endemism and faunistic resemblance has been assembled and analysed within the classic wallace scheme ( chapin, 1923 ; smith, 1983 ; cole et al., 1994 ; newton & dale, 2001 ). furthermore, various refinements have been proposed, many of them addressing delineations of sub


albedo ) is now generally recognized as the dominant feedback factor. the net contributions of clouds and fog, although clearly important, are less obvious and are difficult to quantify... - - wolfgang h. berger, michael schulz & gerold wefer, october 2010. international journal of earth sciences 99, supplement 1 : 171 - 189. for wallace, the two processes of isolation in space and biological differentiation through time were inseparable, because one ( isolation ) led to the other ( speciation ). wallace ' s view of what constituted natural - - the dual criteria of biological and geological uniqueness - - has some important implications for how natural biogeographical units are identified. because wallace was the first to suggest a geological / historical component to the identification of natural biogeographical areas. i propose to name such entities wallacean biogeographical units... - - bernard michaux, september 2010. biological journal of the linnean society 101 : 193 - 212.... in my view there is a further step to take, and that is to confirm that areas of endemism are also wallacean biogeographical units. these are the fundamental units for further biogeographical analysis because they are natural entities, not human constructs. for example, ' sulawesi ' is an area of endemism, but not a wallacean biogeographical unit : it is a human geopolitical construct that has no biogeographical reality. any attempt to use the area ' sulawesi ' in biogeographical analysis is doomed to failure... - - bernard michaux, september 2010. biological journal of the linnean society 101 : 193 - 212.... roy davies has assembled a convincing case that darwin was much more cavalier with attribution, particularly with regard to wallace, than commonly thought and in several instances failed to cite or give adequate credit to his antecedents. he concludes that wallace has a stronger claim to the theory of evolution than commonly realized... - - david lloyd, julian wimpenny & alfred venables, september 2010. journal of biosciences 35 : 339 - 349. that wallace almost certainly solved the problem of divergence before darwin did is, perhaps, not surprising. wallace had much the greater experience in the field of biogeography, which was so fundamental to unravelling the relationships between species. but, even more importantly, he had the advantage that, unlike darwin, he


evolution of reproductive isolation barriers ( wallace, 1889 ; fisher, 1930 ; dobzhansky, 1937 ). this process is usually termed reinforcement, and as the name implies, it requires the pre - existence of some degree of reproductive isolation, which is then ' reinforced ' by the evolution of additional barriers. studies of reinforcement have focused overwhelmingly on premating barriers.... nevertheless, selection on postmating barriers is at least theoretically possible ( wallace, 1889 ; coyne, 1974 ). wallace argued that selection among demes could drive hybrid inviability by reducing the negative impact of low - quality hybrids ( wallace, 1889 )... - - e. turner, d. j. jacobson & j. w. taylor, august 2010. journal of evolutionary biology 23 ( 8 ) : 1642.... he spent years living on his own in amazonia and then in the malay archipelago, making detailed and sympathetic observations about local peoples, practices and cultures. in the latter context his travelling companion and research assistant for many years was a young malay man, ali. at their parting, in 1862, wallace commissioned a photograph of ali to carry home to england and included it in his 1905 autobiography. compare this to the erasure of non - white participation and assistance in other european explorers ' accounts of the time... - - kathleen bolling lowrey, august 2010. anthropology today 26 ( 4 ) : 18 - 21.... one must simply concede that during the 20th - century history of the discipline anthropologists have accumulated a huge wealth of data relating to question 3 for which no plausible explanation, general theory, or provisional hypothesis exists... and this is why, under present circumstances, i want to advocate for wallace - - a brilliant and unashamed crank - - as an ancestor - figure for contemporary anthropology. in wallace ' s articulation of the theory of evolution, he arrived at the same answers to questions 2 and 3, responding as follows : ( 1 ) common origin, endless divergence ; ( 2 ) co - operation ; ( 3 ) no... - - kathleen bolling lowrey, august 2010. anthropology today 26 ( 4 ) : 18 - 21. wallace quite rightly considered the lush complexity of human thought a serious mystery, one inexplicable within the necessity - driven framework of natural selection. as he put it, the human brain ' furnishes a surplusage of power - - of an instrument beyond the needs of its possessor '. this sounds


, one inexplicable within the necessity - driven framework of natural selection. as he put it, the human brain ' furnishes a surplusage of power - - of an instrument beyond the needs of its possessor '. this sounds very much like levi - strauss ' s enchanting assertion that ' the universe is never charged with sufficient meaning [... ] the mind always has more meanings available than there are objects to which to relate them '... - - kathleen bolling lowrey, august 2010. anthropology today 26 ( 4 ) : 18 - 21. wallace ( 1890 ) suggested that the primary function of egg coloration was to provide crypsis to avoid predation, although the experimental evidence supporting this hypothesis has been equivocal. one possible reason for this is that the experimental protocols typically involve painting eggs and comparing predation rates on painted versus natural eggs. with but one exception, all the egg - predation experiments cited in their review use painted eggs... - - michael i. cherry & andrew g. gosler, august 2010. biological journal of the linnean society 100 : 753 - 762.... beatty et al. ( 2004 ) conducted another study, this time assessing the selection for mimicry using human predators and computer - generated prey. they found that when there are only 2 unprofitable prey types, selection for mimicry was weak. one reason for the results, they suggested, was that predators may not be sufficiently confused to generate selection for mimicry when just 2 different forms are involved. in an explanation for the evolution of conspicuous signals, wallace ( 1889, p. 255 ) suggested that " not only do fewer individuals of each species need to be sacrificed in order that their enemies learn the lesson of their inedibility ( in cases of mimicry ), but they are more easily recognized at a distance and thus escape even pursuit. there is thus a kind of mimicry between closely allied species as well as between species of distinct genera, all tending to the same beneficial end. " one explanation for beatty et al ' s findings is that mimicry reduces confusion in visually complex environments. it has also been argued, in a theoretical treatment, that the mere coexistence of visually distinctive aposematic species can be mutually beneficial ( turner and speed 1999 ). if predators that ingest members of one chemically defended species become risk averse with respect to further toxin ingestion, while their physiology copes with the toxins, it has been suggested


can be mutually beneficial ( turner and speed 1999 ). if predators that ingest members of one chemically defended species become risk averse with respect to further toxin ingestion, while their physiology copes with the toxins, it has been suggested that predators may heighten avoidance of species that could contain toxins, even in the absence of signal mimicry... – hannah m. rowland et al., july - august 2010. behavioral ecology 21 ( 4 ) : 851 - 852.... selection fundamentally acts on genes or individuals of distinct species. at the individual level, the success of a collection of interesting genes is mediated through the fitness of an individual phenotype. but what is the phenotype? what is a species? it may be worth remembering what alfred russel wallace, natural selection ' s co - discoverer, published as species definition : ' a species... is a group of living organisms, separated from all other such groups by a set of distinctive character ( istic ) s, having relations to the environment not identical with those of any other group of organisms, and having the power of continuously reproducing its like '. thus, it is the relation to the environment which is one of the features defining a species. the crucial role of many microbes in development demonstrates that environmental and genetic information interact... - - sebastian fraune & thoms c. g. bosch, july 2010. bioessays 32 ( 7 ) : 578.... darwin ( at least, in the first edition of the origin of species ) relied on selection as the main cause of evolutionary change, but saw that hybrid sterility could not be directly selected ; instead, he argued that it arises as a side - effect of divergence. in contrast, wallace ' s ( 1889 ) enthusiasm for selection led him to argue that not only could it strengthen prezygotic isolation, by what we now call reinforcement, but that group selection could even cause hybrid sterility. then, as now, ecological divergence that allows distinct species to live together in sympatry received less attention than reproductive isolation... - - n. h. barton, 12 june 2010. philosophical transactions of the royal society, series b, biological sciences 365 : 1825 - 1840.... in the present study, we use all known non - african charaxes species to explore the history of diversification in the oriental and australian region, especially the ' transitional ' wallacea. several


... - - murray p. cox et al., 22 may 2010. proceedings of the royal society, series b, biological sciences 277 : 1589 - 1596.... wallace was scandalized by darwin ' s sexual selection theory, considering it darwin ' s greatest error, because it appeared to admit a subjective factor into evolutionary theory, because it appeared to admit a subjective factor into elocutionary theory. indeed, it appeared to elevate aesthetic appreciation to the status of a significant factor in evolution. wallace ' s alternative theory to account for exaggerated display traits relied instead on explanations that invoked incidental physiological mechanisms in males and the need to suppress their effects in females, to avoid predation... wallace was of course wrong in his denial of the plausibility of sexual selection, although not completely wrong to doubt that aesthetic appreciation of combative prowess were the primary factors. it took a century to recognize that the theory needed to be based instead on asymmetries of parental investment in offspring care between the sexes. today, sexual selection theory is again considered an important adjunct to the theory of natural selection ; however, its reinstatement has not resuscitated the power of darwin ' s account of language origins... - - terrence w. deacon, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 9000 - 9006.... few scientists today accept wallace ' s creationism, teleology, or spiritualism. nonetheless it is appropriate to engage the profound puzzle he raised ; namely, why do humans have the ability to pursue abstract intellectual feats such as science, mathematics, philosophy, and law, given that opportunities to exercise these talents did not exist in the foraging lifestyle in which humans evolved and would not have parlayed themselves into advantages in survival and reproduction even if they did? i suggest that the puzzle can be resolved with two hypotheses. the first is that humans evolved to fill the " cognitive niche, " a mode of survival characterized by manipulating the environment through casual reasoning and social cooperation. the second is that the psychological faculties that evolved to prosper in the cognitive niche can be coopted to abstract domains by processes of metaphorical abstraction and productive combination, both vividly manifested in human language... - - steven pinker, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 8993.... toward the end of their


both vividly manifested in human language... - - steven pinker, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 8993.... toward the end of their lives, darwin and wallace became estranged. darwin argued that natural selection was sufficient to explain the origin of the existing biological world. wallace believed that natural selection alone was insufficient to explain the existence of complex structures such as the human brain. from the bioenergetic perspective, wallace ' s reservations were justified, as complexity can be generated only through the information - generating power of energy flow and the cumulative information storage capacity of nucleic acids. it took more than 3. 5 billion years for these systems to amass sufficient information to generate the human brain. thus the missing concept that wallace sought to explain the ascent of man is the interaction between energetics and information... - - douglas c. wallace, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 8952. wallace proposed to redefine darwinism in a way that excluded darwin ' s principle of sexual selection. the main result of the darwin - wallace controversy was that most darwinian biologists avoided the subject of sexual selection until at least the 1950 ' s, ronald fisher being a major exception. this controversy still deserves attention from modern evolutionary biologists, because the modern approach inherits from both darwin and wallace. the modern approach tends to present sexual selection as a special aspect of the theory of natural selection, although it also recognizes the big difficulties resulting from the inevitable interaction between these two natural processes of selection... - - jean gayon, february 2010. comptes rendus biologies 333 : 134 - 144.... early evolutionary theories of senescence ( wallace, ca. 1865 ; weismann, 1889 ) were group - selectionist in nature, proposing that individuals senesce and eventually die in order to make space and resources available for future generations composed of younger, more vigorous individuals. however, such arguments are circular because, if ageing is one of the reasons why individuals must be replaced, they presuppose that individuals must deteriorate over time. moreover, they fail to explain how a population of altruistically senescing individuals would not be subject to invasion by more slowly senescing or even non - senescing invaders. recent studies have placed group - selectionist arguments on a stronger theoretical foundation by emphasizing instances where sen


population of altruistically senescing individuals would not be subject to invasion by more slowly senescing or even non - senescing invaders. recent studies have placed group - selectionist arguments on a stronger theoretical foundation by emphasizing instances where senescence appears to be " selected for its own sake " as a result of kin - or group - level benefits including payoffs to close relatives, and reduced local extinction risk due to communicable diseases or chaotic population dynamics... - - robert a. laird & thomas n. sherratt, february 2010. biosystems 99 ( 2 ) : 130.... other questions, such as whether maternal emotions influence the fetus, have made a remarkable tour. alfred russel wallace was co - originator of the theory of evolution by natural selection written in 1859 by darwin. when wallace ( 1893c ) wrote the above quoted sentence in a letter entitled ' prenatal influences on character ' into nature, the belief that a mother ' s emotions could affect the child she carries was seen as resting on old wives ' tales. wallace ( 1893a, b ) was also publishing articles about the possibility of being able to study whether ' individually acquired characters are inherited '. lamarck had incorporated this idea in his theory of directed evolution ; it was seriously challenged in 1880 by weismann ' s theory, on which the modern understanding of genetic inheritance became based, and since the turn of the 20th century it became widely rejected by the scientific community. however, this old question that had originated in ancient time, with greek philosophers, recently got renewed interest with the discovery of epi - genetic variation between individuals and the finding that in some cases epigenetic variants can be inherited by the offspring, a biological inheritance that cannot be explained by changes in the dna - sequence itself... - - bea r. h. van den bergh, january / february 2010. infant and child development 19 ( 1 ) : 42. the wallace ( 1881 ) and briggs ( 1966 ) lineage age hypothesis suggests that there are low levels of endemism in the azores biota because the biota is of recent ( post - pleistocene ) origin. avila et al. ( 2008 ) challenged this hypothesis to explain at least mollusc diversity patterns by demonstrating that the endemic mollusc fauna of the azores was largely unaffected by pleistocene climatic oscillations and that the current endemic fauna is therefore not of post - pleistocene origin. evidence from phylogenetic relationships of azorean plant lineages suggests that the lineage age hypothesis


endemic mollusc fauna of the azores was largely unaffected by pleistocene climatic oscillations and that the current endemic fauna is therefore not of post - pleistocene origin. evidence from phylogenetic relationships of azorean plant lineages suggests that the lineage age hypothesis similarly fails to explain the distinctive patterns of azorean endemic plant diversity... - - mark a. carine & hanno schaefer, january 2010. journal of biogeography 37 : 77 - 89.... although it is sometimes argued that aposematic signalling is fundamentally about raised distinctiveness rather than heightened conspicuousness, the two often amount to the same thing ( wallace 1889 ). if this is generally true, the association between conspicuousness and aposematism in the primary evolution of warning signals, in our view, is not problematic... - - thomas j. lee, nicola m. marples & michael p. speed, january 2010. animal behaviour 79 ( 1 ) : 70.... wallace ' s essay was remarkable for two reasons : first, it conveys a sophisticated understanding of the nature of selection among individuals belonging to a normal distribution of trait values. " the flowers most completely fertilized by these moths being those which had the longest nectaries, there would in each generation be on the average an increase in the length of the nectaries, and also an average increase in the length of the proboscis of the moths, and this would be a necessary result from the fact that nature ever fluctuates about a mean, or that in every generation there would be flowers with longer and shorter nectaries, and moths with longer and shorter probosces than the average " ( p. 476 ). second, wallace actually mentions xanthopan ( macrosila ) morganii, the species of moth that is now considered the most likely pollinator of a. sesquipedale. wallace was not aware of the long - tongued malagasy race of this hawkmoth, but he had measured a specimen of the african mainland form in the british museum and found that its tongue measured 7. 5 inches [ 18 centimeters ]. wallace ( 1867 ) wrote " that such a moth exists in madagascar may be safely predicted ; and naturalists who visit that island should search for it with as much confidence as astronomers searched for the planet neptune, - - and they will be equally successful! "... - - steven d. johnson & bruce anderson, 2010. evolution, education and outreach 3 ( 1 ) : 34


for it with as much confidence as astronomers searched for the planet neptune, - - and they will be equally successful! "... - - steven d. johnson & bruce anderson, 2010. evolution, education and outreach 3 ( 1 ) : 34.... in the 1890s an english linguist, s. h. ray, pointed out that some of the languages of british new guinea and the solomon islands were not austronesian. a parallel discovery had already been made in the moluccas by in the 1850s by the naturalist a. r. wallace, when he collected vocabularies in these easternmost islands of the indo - malaysian archipelago. in a well - known book on his travels in this region wallace proposed a distinction between ' malay ' and ' papuan ' languages in the moluccas. following wallace ' s lead, ray applied the name ' papuan ' to the non - austronesian languages of melanesia, as a convenient catch - all. soon after, wilhelm schmidt observed that non - austronesian languages were present on the north coast of the new guinea mainland and in new britain. what was striking about the various small groups of papuan languages, was that, unlike the austronesian languages, there was no evidence of common origin. only in the last 50 years has the full extent of the diversity of the languages of near oceania become clear... - - jan lucassen, 2010. in migration history in world history : multidisciplinary approaches ( brill ) : 87 - 88.... any system seeking to utilize all the energy or resources for its own purposes is bound to be challenged by other systems. the consequence of these interactions between self - organizing systems is a continuous stream of new things, or in the case of humans, new thinking. this is diversity. bateson interpreted self - organizing systems as working together to sustain the existence of an evolving ecosystem. this approach has its roots in alfred russell wallace ' s work. wallace saw that the job of evolution was to maintain the constancy of something in his case, the entire ecosystem made up of all species and their environment - - a process rather like the cruise control system or constant velocity transmission ( cvt ) on a motor car. we can also think of it in terms our bodies ' ability to adapt to changes in the outside temperature, at least within a limited range. by shivering or perspiring, our body temperature remains more or less constant because we vary internal conditions in response to those changes in outside temperature..


our bodies ' ability to adapt to changes in the outside temperature, at least within a limited range. by shivering or perspiring, our body temperature remains more or less constant because we vary internal conditions in response to those changes in outside temperature... - - edward moulding, 2010. in 5s : a visual control system for the workplace ( authorhouse ) : 129.... indonesia, the world ' s largest archipelago, is a chain of more than 17, 000 islands that stretches between the continents of asia and australia... early explorers noticed morphological differences from east to west that were dramatic enough to lead alfred russell wallace to designate a human phenotypic boundary demarcating the transition between asian and melanesian features. relative to his more well - known biogeographic boundary, this line lies slightly east, running between the islands of sumbawa and flores ( wallace 1869... ). the languages of the region follow a similar pattern, with the majority belonging to the extensive austronesian language family but with more distantly related papuan languages occurring in the far eastern provinces, especially in areas where melanesian features predominate ( wallace 1869 ). to explain these patterns, the prehistory of this region has often been framed as the story of two major range expansions : the initial paleolithic colonization of sahul ~ 45 ka ago and the much later neolithic expansion of austronesian - speaking farmers ( 4 - 6 ka ago ) out of mainland asia or taiwan into indonesia and the pacific... - - tatiana m. karafet et al., 2010. molecular biology and evolution 27 ( 8 ) : 1833.... even within the technologist ' s definition of technology as dealing with mechanical artifacts alone, wallace ' s insight has major relevance. the subject matter of technology, according to the preface to history of technology, is " how things are done or made " ; and most students of technology, to my knowledge, agree with this. but the wallace insight leads to a different definition : the subject matter of technology would be " how man does or makes. " as to the meaning and end of technology, the same source, again presenting the general view, defines them as " mastery of his ( man ' s ) natural environment. " oh no, the wallace insight would say ( and in rather shocked tones ) : the purpose is to overcome man ' s own natural, i. e. animal, limitations. technology enables man, a land - bound biped, without gills


. " oh no, the wallace insight would say ( and in rather shocked tones ) : the purpose is to overcome man ' s own natural, i. e. animal, limitations. technology enables man, a land - bound biped, without gills, fins, or wings, to be at home in the water or in the air. it enables an animal with very poor body insulation, that is, a subtropical animal, to live in all climate zones. it enables one of the weakest and slowest of the primates to add to his own strength that of elephant or ox, and to his own speed that of the horse. it enables him to push his life span from his " natural " twenty years or so to threescore years and ten ; it even enables him to forget that natural death is death from predators, disease, starvation, or accident, and to call death from natural causes that which has never been observed in wild animals : death from organic decay in old age... - - peter ferdinand drucker, 2010. technology, management, and society ( harvard business press ) : 41 - 42.... what i have called here the " wallace insight, " that is, the approach from human biology, thus leads to the conclusion that technology is not about things : tools, processes, and products. it is about work : the specifically human activity by means of which man pushes back the limitations of the iron biological law which condemns all other animals to devote all their time and energy to keeping themselves alive for the next day, if not for the next hour. the same conclusion would be reached, by the way, from any approach, for instance, from that of the anthropologist ' s " culture, " that does not mistake technology for a phenomenon of the physical universe. we might define technology as human action on physical objects or as a set of physical objects characterized by serving human purposes. either way the realm and subject matter of the study of technology would be human work... - - peter ferdinand drucker, 2010. technology, management, and society ( harvard business press ) : 42 - 43.... by contrast, alfred russell wallace, co - discoverer with darwin of the principle of natural selection, believed that count words were essential for numerical cognition, in particular arithmetic : " if, now, we descend to those savage tribes who only count to three or five, and who find it impossible to comprehend the addition of two and three without having the objects actually before them, we feel that the


cognition, in particular arithmetic : " if, now, we descend to those savage tribes who only count to three or five, and who find it impossible to comprehend the addition of two and three without having the objects actually before them, we feel that the chasm between them and the good mathematician is so vast, that a thousand to one will probably not fully express it " ( wallace, 1871, p. 339 ). the question of the role of language in arithmetic became the focus of recent experimental psychological studies in cultures with few number words, in particular the piraha and the munduruku, two cultures from the amazon forest with an extremely limited number vocabulary... - - helen de cruz, hansjorg neth & dirk schlimm, 2010. in benedikt lowe & thomas muller, eds., phimsamp : philosophy of mathematics : sociological aspects and mathematical practice ( college publications ) : 74.... moreover, alfred wallace, co - inventor of the theory of the evolution by natural selection, doubted that evolution could produce anything like states of consciousness. this problem was later labelled the " explanatory gap ". individuals use different names for what it is that they are opposing to physical phenomena. huxley and romanes used " consciousness ". some use " sentience "... many now refer to " phenomenal consciousness " ( pc ) in contrast with " access consciousness " ( ac ), or, in the terminology of chalmers, distinguish the so - called " hard problem " of consciousness from a ( relatively ) " easy problem ". such formulations presuppose a dichotomy : a binary divide between things that do and things that do not have the problematic extra feature over and above their physical features... – stephane doncieux, 2010, in from animals to animats 11 : 11th international conference on simulation and adaptive behavior ( springer ). one possibility is that wallace was deliberately romanticizing his actual observations and experiences there. nancy stepan has noted that the popular success of the malay archipelago came from its fulfilment of contemporaneous readers ' expectations of what an account of the tropics should be, in contrast to his 1853 account of his travels in south america, travels on the amazon and rio negro, which was not only " unromantic, " but " unheroic, " and did not sell well... however, i would like to put forth another possibility : what if wallace ' s portrayal of the archipelago


and rio negro, which was not only " unromantic, " but " unheroic, " and did not sell well... however, i would like to put forth another possibility : what if wallace ' s portrayal of the archipelago as paradise, and more specifically, his portrayal of interracial relations and " uncivilized " society as positively pre - lapsarian, resulted not from the impulse to romanticize, but rather, a stubborn fidelity to scientific accuracy?... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 : 28 - 41.... i will show how wallace arrived at his surprisingly favourable and anti - scientific " assessments of the inhabitant races and communities of the malay archipelago by applying the principles of taxonomic classification to the human realm. given that wallace ' s primary employment in the malay archipelago was to collect specimens of flora and fauna and classify them according to the principles of the linnaean taxonomic classification system, his adoption of what i will term a " taxonomic perspective " in viewing the humans whom he encountered should hardly be surprising. using these same principles of taxonomic classification, wallace was able to achieve a perspective on the malay archipelago hitherto unachieved by authoritative accounts of the region, challenging the predominant scientific views of race held at the time and unsettling even his own views of the " uncivilized " races... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 : 28 - 41.... for wallace, feeling " that savages were in some respects superior, would not have necessarily made it true. i would argue instead that his positive portrayals of human life in the archipelago had just as much scientific basis as his opening portrayals of the archipelago ' s natural environment as an otherworldly eden. if wallace ' s construction of a paradisiacal natural environment relied on his utilization of scientific precedent and natural selection theory, it was his application of taxonomic classification that enabled him to see the human individuals and communities of the archipelago as uniquely paradisiacal as well. wallace ' s taxonomic perspective enabled him to break away not only from dominant perceptions of the races as different stages on a single, linear scale of sociocultural evolution, but also from the social darwinist tendency of his day to view interracial relations as an inexorable struggle in which the white races would prevail... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 :


the social darwinist tendency of his day to view interracial relations as an inexorable struggle in which the white races would prevail... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 : 28 - 41.... cloete ' s poetry does not shy away from inter alia " controversial scientific subjects " in a number of poems, and he contemplates the origin of creation and the development of life on earth. the reader is led to consider cloete ' s views on creation and evolution. in this article the emphasis will be on the role of evolution in cloete ' s poetry and how he uses a well - known observation by one of the main exponents of evolution theory in one of his poems, " toegedig aan alfred r. wallace ", to present a text that expresses wonderment at a natural phenomenon... - - johann lodewyk marais, desember 2009. tydskrif vir geeteswetenskappe 49 ( 4 ) : 548.... this paper is divided into three parts. in the first part i will outline the development of the reciprocal nature of biology and geology. surprisingly reciprocality had been proposed more than 50 years before wegener by the biogeographer alfred russel wallace, co - author of the theory of evolution by means of natural selection ( wallace, 1858 ). i will briefly outline wallace ' s biogeographic ideas as they pertain to reciprocality, before examining wegener ' s reconstruction hypothesis of the cretaceous polar region in more detail... - - b. michaux, december 2009. gondwana research 16 ( 3 - 4 ) : 656.... the female limitation of mimicry is usually explained by a combination of sex - dependent predation pressure and sexual selection : ( 1 ) female butterflies carry heavy egg - loads and are therefore aerodynamically constrained in their escape flights. thus, females are thought to be more vulnerable to predation and presumably gain a greater fitness advantage from batesian mimicry compared to males ( wallace 1865... ), and ( 2 ) wing colour patterns are assumed to be constrained by sexual selection to a much greater extent in males than in females. thus, male mimicry is selectively disfavoured when its natural selective advantage is overwhelmed by the sexual selective advantage of nonmimetic coloration that may be more successful during inter - or intrasexual encounters


russel wallace, the co - originator of the theory of evolution by natural selection, in his 1881 book island life. first, many islands are either volcanic in origin or have been completely under water at some point in their history. these islands emerge above the ocean surface as blank slates for colonization and subsequent evolutionary diversification, on which the development of ecological and evolutionary systems can be observed from their beginnings. each island represents a new opportunity for living forms to appear and proliferate. the first colonists, finding untapped resources and lacking the constraints of a resident biota, often diversify in novel directions. this evolutionary idiosyncrasy is enhanced by unbalanced colonization - - strong dispersal abilities are not evenly distributed across the ecological spectrum of continental biotas - - with the result that some ecological niches on islands are filled by diversification rather than colonization... - - jonathan b. losos & robert e. ricklefs, 12 february 2009. nature 457 ( 7231 ) : 830 - 831. wallace, who promoted strickland ' s methods, wrote that every systematic work should include diagrams, " without which it is often impossible to tell whether two families follow each other because the author thinks them allied, or merely because the exigencies of a consecutive series compels him so to place them ". in essence, wallace claims that without diagrams the reader cannot know whether information is meaningful or is simply a product of the representational medium ' s limitations ; darwin capitalizes on this basic ambiguity within his diagram itself... - - heather brink - roby, winter 2009. victorian studies 51 : 247 - 273.... many questions are involved in wallace ' s line, but it represents a line of major faunal break between the oriental and the australian regions. according to sweet & pianka ( 2003 ), varanid species are diversified to the east of wallace ' s line while this side lacks carnivorous placental mammals. the diversity of varanid species and that of carnivorous mammals are virtually inverted to the west of wallace ' s line, a region that harbours nearly 20 mammalian carnivores and that lacks small varanid lizards. these observations suggest that the coexistence of mammalian carnivores and varanid lizards is limited because they are too similar as predators... - - marc auge & richard smith, january 2009. zoological journal of the linnean society 155 : 148 - 170. the little that we have


: 372.... despite of their seemingly large number, aerosol particles are true trace constituents of the atmosphere, their mass fraction typically being below one part per billion and thereby much below that of any important gaseous climate agent. nevertheless they may have a profound influence on our climate. this perception is not at all new, only 20 years after aitken discovered the importance of aerosols as condensation nuclei, alfred r. wallace noted in 1898 : " but in all densely - populated countries there is an enormous artificial production of dust.. this superabundance of dust... must almost certainly produce some effect on our climate ; and the particular effect it seems calculated to produce is the increase of cloud and fog, but not necessarily any increase of rain. "... - - j. feichter & t. leisner, 2009. the european physical journal, special topics 176 ( 1 ) : 84.... non - exclusive hypotheses have traditionally been proposed to account for spectacular woodiness examples in the neo - flora of oceanic islands ( wallace, 1878... ). selection for successful pollination with large, long - lasting inflorescences, niche competition among initial colonizers, and promotion of the outbreeding ratio to overcome inbreeding depression may be related to echium longevity and woodiness. irrespective of the causes generating woodiness, the trait utility of this character is manifested by the large number of woody plant groups that rapidly evolved from herbaceous ancestors not only in macaronesia ( sonchus, isoplexis, aeonium group, pericallis ), but also in the hawaiian ( silversword alliance, schieda ), galapagos ( scallesia ), and juan fernandez ( dendroseris ) archipelagos... - - federico garcia - maroto, 2009. molecular phylogenetics and evoution 52 ( 3 ) : 572.... the current extinction crisis and the extent of anthropogenic alteration of natural habitats have reached alarming proportions... potential hindrances to global assessment of priority list candidates have been divided into eight categories : ( 1 ) the extreme heterogeneity of existing data ; ( 2 ) the restricted availability of relevant data and lack of information exchange between scientists and conservationists ; ( 3 ) the uncertainty in species number and taxonomic division of the given taxon ( linnean shortfall ) ; ( 4 ) the fragmentary knowledge of distributions


) the restricted availability of relevant data and lack of information exchange between scientists and conservationists ; ( 3 ) the uncertainty in species number and taxonomic division of the given taxon ( linnean shortfall ) ; ( 4 ) the fragmentary knowledge of distributions ( wallacean shortfall ) ; ( 5 ) incomplete or erroneous red - listing across the entire distribution of a given taxon ; ( 6 ) the lack of homogenous and reliable population trend data ; ( 7 ) the lack of exhaustive information on observed and potential threats ; and finally ( 8 ) the incomplete general biological knowledge of a given taxon ( e. g., its reproduction biology, genetic diversity, dispersal parameters, etc. ). it has been demonstrated that linnean and wallacean shortfalls are among the most serious problems in modern conservation biology and biogeography, and that the majority of deficits in knowledge during any global conservation status assessment results from these two shortfalls... - - gregor kozlowski et al., 2009. biodiversity and conservation 18 ( 9 ) : 2308. it has long been recognized that thailand is subdivided into two zoogeographic subregions with the indochinese subregion to the north and sundaic subregion to the south with a transition zone in the isthmus of kra. distribution patterns corresponding to this division have been observed in a range of biota including rodents, insects, reptiles and plants. initially, wallace ( 1876 ) had placed the transition zone at 13 - 14ºn, whereas wells fixed the avifaunal transition zone at about 10º30 ' n, in the isthmus of kra. subsequently, hughes et al., based on forest birds, found a highly significant transition zone at 11 - 12ºn, in the north of the peninsula. the distribution patterns of the three species [ considered here ] were of considerable interest since they strongly support the existing concepts of a subregional division... - - pipat soisook et al., december 2008. acta chiropterologica 10 ( 2 ) : 238. the powerful effect of clinging on the emotional behavior of infant nonhuman primates had been known for many years. it was mentioned by van wagenen in her recommendations and in many other naturalistic accounts of primate infants. one of my favorite quotations is from alfred russel wallace, who describes an " artificial mother " of buffalo skin he devised for an orphan orangutan ( 1869 ). all of us associated with the


other naturalistic accounts of primate infants. one of my favorite quotations is from alfred russel wallace, who describes an " artificial mother " of buffalo skin he devised for an orphan orangutan ( 1869 ). all of us associated with the nursery project were impressed by the strength of the infants ' emotional attachment to their cloths. when i suggested to harlow that we devise an experiment pitting our monkeys ' responses to the feeding station against their attachment to a claspable object, he urged me to proceed. accordingly, i designed an experiment around two mother surrogates that were the functional counterparts of the diaper and the feeding rack. these prototypes had the bodies of the final versions, although they lacked the famous distinctive faces, which were added later... - - william a. mason, december 2008. integrative psychological and behavioral science 42 ( 4 ) : 390 - 391.... wallace wrote that " [ i ] n the equable equatorial zone there is no... struggle against climate. every form of vegetation has become alike adapted to its genial heat and ample moisture, which has probably changed little even throughout geological periods ". we now know that lowland tropical climates have changed substantially and relentlessly ever since species - rich forests resembling modern ones first occupied the lowland wet tropics in the mid - tertiary. although the notion of long - term constancy of tropical climates is now universally dismissed, wallace ' s view of tropical climates as benign lingers on, underlying the apparently widespread conviction that " [ m ] any tropical species may well be able to withstand higher temperature [ s ] than those in which they currently exist. "... - - robert k. colwell et al., 10 october 2008. science 322 ( 5899 ) : 259.... we must consider the possibility that hominids in general and humans in particular have partially escaped from classic darwinian selective control of some aspects of the genome, and that humans have even escaped the final stage of baldwinian genetic hard - wiring of long - standing species - specific learned behaviors. this might in turn help to explain the unusual degree of exaptation displayed by the human brain, presented as ' wallace ' s conundrum ' in box 6. the advantages of such novel changes are flexibility, plasticity, more rapidly developing population diversity and greater opportunities - - but the disadvantages are that genomes cannot recover what has been irrevocably lost, and cultural advantages can be sensitive to the whims


such novel changes are flexibility, plasticity, more rapidly developing population diversity and greater opportunities - - but the disadvantages are that genomes cannot recover what has been irrevocably lost, and cultural advantages can be sensitive to the whims of history and fate... - - ajit varki, daniel h. geschwind & evan e. eichler, october 2008. nature reviews genetics 9 ( 10 ) : 758. the importance of avian egg coloration for crypsis, once accepted as a general principle ( wallace 1890, cott 1940, von haartman 1957, harrison 1968 ), has recently been questioned because tests of this hypothesis have often failed to support a role for egg coloration in deterring predation. as a result, more recent work has emphasized the importance of nest crypsis as the primary mediator of clutch survival... - - david westmoreland, september 2008. journal of field ornithology 79 ( 3 ) : 263. evolved mimicry of hawks by parasitic cuckoos. wallace ( 1889 ) suggested that the resemblance was an example of protective mimicry, which might reduce attacks from hawks, noting that cuckoos were otherwise ' an exceedingly weak and defenceless group of birds '. prolonged periods of surveillance for host nests, sometimes from exposed perches, might make parasitic cuckoos especially vulnerable to hawk attack. in asia, drongo - cuckoos ( surniculus lugubris ) may likewise gain from protective mimicry of drongos dicrurus spp., which are extremely aggressive to larger birds, including birds of prey and crows ( wallace 1889 ). alternatively, hawk mimicry might influence host behaviour, either by frightening or luring hosts away to facilitate egg laying or by inducing mobbing to help the cuckoo locate host nests, which may be especially advantageous in open country with few secret vantage points... - - n. b. davies & j. a. welbergen, august 2008. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 275 ( 1644 ) : 1818.... it has been argued that ostriches lay white eggs because they are powerful enough to defend their nests ( wallace 1889 ). however, when nests are unattended, such big eggs are quite visible on the ground to both mammalian and avian predators. in our visibility study, a naturally white egg was seen first by the observer, suggesting that the brown eggs are better concealed. ostriches would therefore have derived a selective


observation it follows, wallace argued, that characteristic human abilities must be latent in primitive man, existing somehow as an unopened gift — the entryway to a world that primitive man himself does not possess and would not recognize. but the idea that a biological species might possess latent powers makes no sense in darwinian terms. it suggests the forbidden doctrine that evolutionary advantages were frontloaded, far away and long ago. it is in conflict with the darwinian principle that just as useful genes are selected for cultivation and advancement, useless genes are subject to negative selection pressure and must therefore drain away into the sands of time. wallace identified a frank conflict between his own theory and what seemed to him to be obvious facts about the solidity and unchangeability of human nature. that conflict persists ; it has not been resolved... - - david berlinski, april 2008. commentary 125 ( 4 ) : 35.... alfred russel wallace ( 1853 ) was perhaps the first naturalist to write about the white - water, clear - water, and black - water river types of the amazon basin and to relate the color of tributaries to the nature of their drainage basins. wallace astutely linked the sediment load of white - water tributaries to erosion in their steep andean headwaters, and identified clear - water rivers with the crystalline " mountains of brazil " ( the guyana and brazilian shields ). he knew that black - water rivers emerged from lowland sources, and he correctly attributed their dark coloring to leaching of " decaying leaves, roots, and other vegetable matter " ( wallace 1853 )... - - michael e. mcclain & robert j. nainan, april 2008. bioscience 58 ( 4 ) : 325. while he maintained that ' social heredity ' was consistent with the theory of evolution by natural selection, baldwin followed wallace in claiming that humans had evolved to such a degree of conscious intelligence that they had freed themselves from the pressures of natural selection, and surmounted instinctual constraints on behavior : ' intelligence and the social life which it makes possible so far control the acquisitions of life to limit the action of natural selection as a law of evolution. ' in this fashion baldwin defended human freedom against the hereditarian determinism of darwin ' s theory of evolution, by claiming that thought and will had emancipated humans from the constraints of natural selection... - - john d. greenwood, february 2008. history of the human sciences 21 ( 1 ) : 114. later behaviorists rejected the role


by claiming that thought and will had emancipated humans from the constraints of natural selection... - - john d. greenwood, february 2008. history of the human sciences 21 ( 1 ) : 114. later behaviorists rejected the role of consciousness and purpose in human and animal psychology and behavior - - with the notable exception of edward c. tolman - - but continued to stress the critical role of plasticity and learning in adaptive behavior. they also depreciated the explanatory role of inherited instincts, which became the object of sustained critiques by behaviorist psychologists in the 1920s. like functional psychologists ( and wallace ), behaviorists came to believe that humans had developed ( through evolution by natural selection ) to such a degree that they could surmount the constraints of their biological inheritance, and exploit their intelligence to create a scientific psychology devoted to the further advancement and improvement of the human condition... - - john d. greenwood, february 2008. history of the human sciences 21 ( 1 ) : 118.... in other words, as wallace so clearly realized, human symbolic reasoning is not simply an extrapolation of this extended history, simply a little bit more of the same. it is, instead, something truly new and unpredicted by what went before — even by the increase in the mass of metabolically expensive brain tissue that seems to have independently characterized several lineages within the genus homo, though it was clearly dependent on this development. and while wallace was regrettably unable to profit from our modern perspective, today it is possible to see that the origin of modern human consciousness must have been an emergent event, whereby an entirely unanticipated level of complexity was achieved by a sheer chance coincidence of acquisitions... - - ian tattersall, 2008. comparative cognition & behavior reviews 3 : 111. researchers of animal coloration have noted the perplexing nature of egg pigmentation in open - nesting birds ( i. e., birds whose nests are not in cavities or enclosed by a dome ). one of the founders of the theory of natural selection wrote " the colours of birds ' eggs have long been a difficulty on the theory of adaptive coloration, because, in so many cases it has not been easy to see what can be the use of the particular colours, which are often so bright and conspicuous that they seem intended to attract attention rather than to be concealed " ( wallace 1890 ). wallace went on to argue that bird eggs are well camouflaged when viewed from below


can be the use of the particular colours, which are often so bright and conspicuous that they seem intended to attract attention rather than to be concealed " ( wallace 1890 ). wallace went on to argue that bird eggs are well camouflaged when viewed from below via light penetrating the nest... - - david westmoreland & richard a. kiltie, november 2007. journal of avian biology 38 ( 6 ) : 686 - 687. alfred wallace, darwin ' s contemporary and rival, argued that when species hybridize, natural selection favors individuals who are more fussy about whom they mate with, which therefore increases female discrimination of males from different species. modern evolutionary genetics has questioned the importance of the " wallace effect " ( also known as " reinforcement " ) because genetic recombination between female discrimination and male trait genes would scramble combinations of loci that favor speciation. several solutions to this have been proposed, including close genetic linkage of such loci. a simpler possibility is sexual imprinting, which causes a female to prefer males that resemble her father... - - michael g. ritchie, 5 october 2007. science 318 : 54. while chamupati largely ignored darwin, whose views of hindu scriptures were hardly flattering, chamupati was attracted to the ideas of alfred russel wallace, codiscoverer of evolution. chamupati noted wallace ' s praise of the mind of the vedic hymn makers who, despite the " very limited knowledge [ of nature ] at this early period,... could not have been in any way inferior to those of the best of our religious teachers and poets — to our miltons and our tennysons. " for chamupati and other followers of dayananda, wallace was far more congenial than darwin, for, despite wallace ' s espousal of some of the most theologically challenging aspects of evolutionary theory, namely, random variation and natural selection, wallace made considerable exceptions. he insisted on some sort of " spiritual influx " to account for the origin of life as well as of mind and morality. accordingly, he was a much safer corroborator of vedic insights, at least in chamupati ' s views... - - c. mackenzie brown, september 2007. zygon 42 ( 3 ) : 718. using the theoretical framework of evolution by natural selection, wallace developed crawfurd ' s proposal that the two distinct aboriginal races were the malays and papuans. from his observations, wallace post


zygon 42 ( 3 ) : 718. using the theoretical framework of evolution by natural selection, wallace developed crawfurd ' s proposal that the two distinct aboriginal races were the malays and papuans. from his observations, wallace postulated an ethnological line dividing the malayan and polynesian races. the position of this line east of the famous line dividing the indo - malayan and austro - malayan bioregions demonstrated crawfurd ' s hypothesis that the civilized malays were pushing the savage papuans back from their natural border. wallace ' s ethnological line functioned to support his representation of two races as radically different from each other, not only in terms of physical characteristics but also in what wallace called ' moral characteristics ' ( 1869 : 588 )... - - daniel p. s. goh, september 2007. international journal of cultural studies 10 ( 3 ) : 328. darwin ' s originality and priority are, strictly speaking, separate questions. one can be original and yet fail to achieve priority if, for example, someone else comes forward first in print with the same theory without one ' s knowledge. such, in fact, is more or less the case with a. r. wallace. no one, least of all darwin, doubted that wallace arrived at his theory independently of darwin, but darwin was proven by history to have brought the theory into print — if not exactly publication — first. nevertheless, darwin often conflated the two issues in his private correspondence, referring to his originality and priority almost as if they were interchangeable ideas... - - curtis n. johnson, fall 2007. journal of the history of biology 40 ( 3 ) : 533. at a given latitude, the most striking feature of avian seasonality is the consistency with which the successive stages of reproduction, moult and migration take place each year — not only on a populational scale, but also within individuals. day - length — the most consistent sources of temporal information about the environment — was suggested to play a role in the scheduling of avian annual cycles, in particular of migration, as early as 1876 ( e. g. palmen 1876 ; wallace 1876 )... - - timothy coppack, 23 june 2007. journal of ornithology 148, suppl. 2 : s460. [ concerning the organization of a forest preserve ]... although wallace ' s proposal is controversial and raises environmental concerns, it is important to recognize that he was focused on


ornithology 148, suppl. 2 : s460. [ concerning the organization of a forest preserve ]... although wallace ' s proposal is controversial and raises environmental concerns, it is important to recognize that he was focused on key ecological issues. he fought to preserve in an unsullied state the forests that had not been cleared. he also recognized that severe ecological destruction had been wrought on the state of nature. and in this, he contributed to a philosophy of ecological restoration by raising the issue of how we are to address anthropogenic environmental problems. in " epping forest, " wallace documented that environmental degradation had taken place, as profiteers and lords of manors had destroyed whole areas of the forest. he provided a reasoned discussion of the different temperate forests in the northern hemisphere and an argument that recognized how the species found in a particular location are, in part, influenced by the much longer, geological, and climate history of the earth. in this, wallace provided important insights and helped open a realm of debate... - - brett clark & richard york, june 2007. organization & environment 20 ( 2 ) : 231. wallace found fault with two aspects of domestication as a heuristic for understanding adaptation in nature. he argued first that the analogy was flawed : artificial selection requires an intelligent selector, whereas no such force acts in natural systems. additionally, he insisted that the selection itself was fundamentally different, leading to intrinsically different kinds of variation. domesticated species, he wrote, " are abnormal, irregular, artificial ; they are subject to varieties which never occur and never can occur in a state of nature : their very existence depends altogether on human care ; so far are many of them removed from that just proportion of faculties, that true balance of organization, by means of which alone as an animal left to its own resources can preserve its existence and continue its race. " both wallace ' s lines of argument find modern audiences, from those who see a fundamental difference between the conscious selection of humans and natural processes to those who argue that variation in domesticated species differs from that in nature... - - jeffrey ross - ibarra, peter l. morrell & brandon s. gaut, 15 may 2007. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 104, suppl. 1 : 8641 - 8642. the coloration of this genus of weevils is among the most astonishing visual effects displayed in nature. many animal species that are distasteful


sciences of the united states of america 104, suppl. 1 : 8641 - 8642. the coloration of this genus of weevils is among the most astonishing visual effects displayed in nature. many animal species that are distasteful to predators have evolved aposematism ( they have a distinctive, conspicuous coloration, which functions as a warning signal, advertising their inedibility to potential predators ). wallace notes in a passage on the genus pachyrrhynchus that many weevils have excessive hard integuments, which render them inedible to most birds, and our own dissections of this species confirm their extremely tough exoskeleton. it seems likely, therefore, that the stark coloration of this species is a form of aposematism. further evidence in support of this comes from the finding that a number of edible species, such as the longicorn beetles doliops curculionides and doliops geometrica and the cricket scepastus pachyrhynchoides mimic various pachyrrhynchus species weevils... - - victoria welch et al., 30 april 2007. physical review e 75 ( 4 ) : 7. several features of the results give some reassurance because they support plausible notions and other evidence that most nonsynonymous mutations and many nonsynonymous polymorphisms are deleterious. our analysis implies that some 19 of 20 new amino acid replacements are deleterious with an average fitness reduction on the order of five times the reciprocal of the effective population size. these estimates pertain only to the subset of nonsynonymous mutations whose effect are not so severe as to preclude their becoming polymorphic, but they support other evidence that selection against deleterious mutations plays in key role in shaping patterns of genetic variation in drosophila. likewise, we estimate that [ about ] 7 of 10 amino acid replacements that are polymorphic in samples are deleterious. one feature of our results that might animate some surprise is the high proportion of amino acid fixations between species that show positive selection, [ about ] 95 % in our data. this finding seems to reflect what wallace called the " overwhelming odds against the less fit "... - - stanley a. sawyer et al., 17 april 2007. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 104 ( 16 ) : 6509. given that phenomena strive for reality - - that is, to


... - - stanley a. sawyer et al., 17 april 2007. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 104 ( 16 ) : 6509. given that phenomena strive for reality - - that is, to become distinct - - then there must by default be a process whereby constitutive elements are demarcated as ' included ' and, of course, an opposite process, whereby elements become the ' excluded '. according to [ charles ] fort : " it is our expression that nothing can attempt to be, except by attempting to exclude something else : that that which is commonly called ' being ' is a state that is wrought more or less definitely proportionately to the appearance of positive difference between that which is included and that which is excluded. " this process leaves a trace, however, in the sense that one cannot subsequently provide a full and comprehensive description of the thing in question. even darwin, fort argued, ' was never able to tell what he meant by a " species ". ' echoing wallace ' s ( 1875 ) earlier concerns over the close - mindedness of modern science, fort argued that this body of knowledge was itself but one instance of localization, wherein an attempt is made to separate out those explanations which are deemed acceptable and proper from those that are not. the raw material of the world becomes organized and interpreted to fit into preconceived notions of how things should work. slowly but surely, this drive towards explanation causes a plethora of facts and events to emerge from this chaotic landscape, each of which is seen to form part of an overarching pattern. ' a theory feels its way through surrounding ignorance, ' he suggested, like ' a wagon train feels its way across a prairie. ' and yet, ' science relates to real knowledge no more than does the growth of a plant, or the organization of a department store, or the development of a nation : that all are assimilative, or organizing, or systematizing processes that represent different attempts to attain the positive state - - the state commonly called heaven, i suppose i mean '... - - deborah dixon, april 2007. cultural geographies 14 ( 2 ) : 193. the conspicuous displays that warn predators of defenses carried by potential prey have been of interest to evolutionary biologists from the time of wallace and darwin to the present day. although most studies implicitly assume that these " aposematic " warning signals simply indicate the presence of some repellent defense such as a toxin, it


been of interest to evolutionary biologists from the time of wallace and darwin to the present day. although most studies implicitly assume that these " aposematic " warning signals simply indicate the presence of some repellent defense such as a toxin, it has been speculated that the intensity of the signal might reliably indicate the strength of defense so that, for example, the nastiest prey might " shout loudest " about their unprofitability. recent phylogenetic and empirical studies of dendrobatid frogs provide contradictory views, in one instance showing a positive correlation between toxin levels and conspicuousness, in another showing a breakdown of this relationship. in this paper we present an optimization model, which can potentially account for these divergent results... - - michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, march 2007. evolution 61 ( 3 ) : 623.... kantian philosophers do not have the exclusive right to transcendental arguments, which can be and are used by philosophers and scientists alike. for instance, physicists such as stephen hawking and roger penrose have invoked the anthropic principle, the weak version of which was anticipated by alfred russel wallace ( 1904, pp 256 - 257 ) : " such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required... in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man. " more recently, the biologists john bonner and richard lewontin have offered transcendental arguments for the modular organization of development as a requirement for evolvability... - - werner callebaut, march 2007. acta biotheoretica 55 ( 1 ) : 77 - 78. in his extensive monograph of the genus, talbot, building on the earlier work of wallace ( 1867 ), dixey ( 1894 ) and others, originally divided delias into twenty species - groups, according to differences in form of the androconia, male genitalia and, to a lesser extent, wing pattern. talbot noted, however, that the australian endemic d. aganippe, provisionally placed in the belisama group, ' seems somewhat isolated ' on structural grounds and is ' placed doubtfully in this group '. wallace ( 1867 : 349 ) similarly remarked that, ' it is difficult locate this common australian species ', and placed d. aganippe in the belladonna group... -


and is ' placed doubtfully in this group '. wallace ( 1867 : 349 ) similarly remarked that, ' it is difficult locate this common australian species ', and placed d. aganippe in the belladonna group... - - michael f. braby & naomi e. pierce, january 2007. systematic entomology 32 ( 1 ) : 6.... in his notes, essays and correspondence from the field, wallace consistently emphasized species and genera, and separated these descriptions from his rarer and briefer discussions of individual organisms. the first passage above, from an 1857 article describing collecting in the aru islands, is typical : wallace provides an enthusiastic litany of species, families and genera. it is easy to miss his distinction at the end of the passage, between families, species and individuals, in terms of " abundance. " yet this too is characteristic of wallace ' s writings from the field. at a given locality, families contain more or fewer species, and species contain more or fewer individual organisms. wallace did not collapse or confuse these levels, but carefully distinguished between different sorts of abundance. in general, his natural history writing emphasized species, with clear distinctions between individual organisms and groups... - - melinda b. fagan, 2007. journal of the history of biology [ electronic file ]. the contrast in the two naturalists ' writings from the field thus has two aspects. first, wallace emphasized groups of organisms, while darwin described many details of individual organisms. second, wallace clearly distinguished between groups and individuals, while darwin was more ambiguous. both aspects can be explained by differences in natural history practice. wallace and darwin ' s contrasting habits and working routines in the field were shaped in turn by their different circumstances and motivations. the two naturalists went to the field with different training and social connections, different finances and responsibilities, and different theoretical interests... - - melinda b. fagan, 2007. journal of the history of biology [ electronic file ]. the use of soil animals as protein source in human nutrition is still widely represented in indigenous populations in most regions of the world and was first reported by wallace ( 1853, 1889 ) more than 100 years ago... - - t. decaens et al., november 2006. european journal of soil biology 42 ( suppl. 1 ) : s26.... knowledge about biodiversity remains inadequate and plagued by the so - called linnean and wallacean shortfalls ( lomolino, 2004 ; whittaker