often found to characterize the fauna and flora of islands '. more recently, there has been a growing interest in the total ecological balance of islands ( already hinted at in wallace ' s work )... - - percy selwyn, december 1980. world development 8 ( 12 ) : 945.... it is interesting to note that in this disagreement there are faint echoes of the other matter which separated darwin and wallace at this time : sexual selection through female choice. darwin wanted to argue that the beauty of, say, the peacock as opposed to the peahen, is a function of the females choosing beautiful males. wallace argued that the difference is essentially a function of the females being more drab than the males, this drabness coming through the female ' s need for camouflage from predators as they incubate their eggs and care for their young. in arguing this way, wallace was certainly not invoking group selection. however, unlike darwin, who was emphasizing the individual nature of selection by seeing the main competition ( at this point ) as coming from within the species, wallace was deemphasizing competition within the group by seeing the threat coming from without... - - michael ruse, november 1980. annals of science 37 ( 6 ) : 625.... let us offer solace to the opponents of human sociobiology. if one uncomfortable with a rather extreme individual selectionism, particularly as applied to man, and if one yet wants historical precedent to legitimize one ' s yearnings, then no less than the sociobiologists can one find the most respectable of intellectual ancestors. one may not be able to claim one of the fathers of evolutionism, but one can claim the other : alfred russel wallace. he was a group selectionist, and moreover he was not prepared to see man treated on a par with other organisms. i certainly do not want to pretend that today ' s biologists would find convincing the details of wallace ' s doubts about the all - sufficiency of individual selection, or that those who criticize human sociobiology grind the same metaphysical axe as did wallace ( although interestingly, politically wallace was fairly left - wing, as are many of today ' s critics ). but, given wallace ' s conclusions, it does seem true to say that the critics of human sociobiology are no less part of the evolutionary tradition than those they criticize!... - - michael ruse, november 1980. annals of science 37 ( 6 ) : 630.... this letter.


to say that the critics of human sociobiology are no less part of the evolutionary tradition than those they criticize!... - - michael ruse, november 1980. annals of science 37 ( 6 ) : 630.... this letter... reveals in clearer outline the professional relationship between spruce and wallace and their mutual but competitive interests in the palmae : their meeting in the amazon, the discovery that they had made similar collections in this important family, spruce ' s offer to collaborate on the book and wallace ' s subsequent refusal. it appears that spruce was discouraged on learning that wallace had discovered and intended to name and describe the same palms, primarily those along the rio negro, that he had studied. he writes of " relaxing " his study of the palms, in view of the fact that wallace would return to england and publish his results before spruce left south america. clearly, in this instance, spruce felt botanically somewhat overshadowed by wallace, whom he considered a distinguished zoologist and friend... - - michael j. balick, september 1980. botanical museum leaflets 28 ( 3 ) : 265. a major misconception about this debate has become fairly widespread. according to this misconception, darwin was for sexual selection, while wallace was against it and for natural selection instead. it is true that from 1876 on, wallace gave up sexual selection - - he rejected female choice completely and interpreted male combat as just a form of natural selection. but the debate between darwin and wallace took place in 1867 and 1868, with a brief resumption in 1871 after publication of the descent of man. during this earlier period, wallace fully accepted female choice and male choice, at least in birds. wherever darwin invoked female choice or male choice in birds, wallace invoked it too. in other words, darwin and wallace agreed that, in birds, sexual selection was the cause of the coloration of the more brilliantly colored sex. thus the debate did not come down to all sexual selection on one side and all natural selection on the other. the disagreement with respect to birds centered on the cause of the coloration of the less conspicuous sex... - - malcolm jay kottler, june 1980. proceedings of the american philosophical society 124 ( 3 ) : 203 - 204.... the basic reason for their divergence was darwin ' s belief that, although the most common form of inheritance was equal inheritance by both sexes, variations first appearing in one sex were fairly often sex - limited in inheritance from the first. thus female choice alone, in conjunction


for their divergence was darwin ' s belief that, although the most common form of inheritance was equal inheritance by both sexes, variations first appearing in one sex were fairly often sex - limited in inheritance from the first. thus female choice alone, in conjunction with sex - limited inheritance from the first of the variations sexually selected in the male, would produce a conspicuous male and an inconspicuous female ; in such cases, natural selection for the sake of protection of the sex in greater danger was unnecessary... - - malcolm jay kottler, june 1980. proceedings of the american philosophical society 124 ( 3 ) : 204. i cannot analyze wallace ' s psyche and will not comment on his deeper motives for hewing to the unbridgeable gap between human intellect and the behavior of mere animals. but i can assess the logic of his argument and recognize that the traditional account is not only incorrect, but precisely backward. wallace did not abandon natural selection at the human threshold. rather, it was his peculiarly rigid view of natural selection that led him, quite consistently, to reject it for the human mind. his position never varied - - natural selection is the only cause of major evolutionary change. his two major debates with darwin - - sexual selection and the origin of human intellect - - represent the same argument, not an inconsistent wallace championing selection in one case and running from it in the other... - - stephen jay gould, january 1980. natural history 89 ( 1 ) : 35 - 36.... wallace ' s anthropology closely paralleled his interest in natural ecology. he asked very similar questions about the peoples he encountered to those he asked about other organic forms. these were questions on how well a region could support a population ; what were the natural checks on its expansion ; the relationship between subsistence and size of population. his other preoccupation was with the geographical distribution of peoples. he put much greater emphasis than darwin upon the role of geographical isolation in the evolution of species and varieties. similarly he attributed many of the human racial differences in the malay area to geographical isolation. wallace was also interested in the effect on human evolution of that other major plank of natural ecology - - migration. he spent some time in the classification of the languages of the malay region partly for the clues they might reveal about the migration patterns of the peoples in the area... - - greta jones, 1980. in her social darwinism and english thought ; the interaction between biological and social theory ( humanities press ) : 26 - 27. [ william ] james


reveal about the migration patterns of the peoples in the area... - - greta jones, 1980. in her social darwinism and english thought ; the interaction between biological and social theory ( humanities press ) : 26 - 27. [ william ] james first anticipated some of his mature opinions on race and nationality in an 1865 review of a. r. wallace ' s article, " the origins of the human race. " agreeing with wallace, james held that the races of humanity developed from a common ancestor through natural selection. race differentiation antedated all but the most rudimentary forms of social organization. but soon every race evolved more elaborate social systems. natural selection then became more complicated. the environment supported whichever groups acted together ; each group protected whichever individuals it valued. such social selection allowed physically weak people to survive and reproduce so long as they served community ideals. survival of the weak checked physical evolution. further progress then had to be mental and moral... - - larry c. miller, fall 1979. american quarterly 31 ( 4 ) : 539. a widely held generalization about tropical tree species is that most occur at very low adult densities and are of relatively uniform dispersion, such that adult individuals of the tree species are thinly and evenly distributed in space. if true, this generalization has potentially profound consequences for the reproductive biology, population structure, and evolution of tropical tree species. in this article the adequacy of this generalization is judged with respect to a particular tropical forest, a large tract of which has been mapped in detail. the origins of this generalization can be traced back at least to wallace... - - stephen p. hubbell, 30 march 1979. science 203 ( 4387 ) : 1299. this distinction reflected a general tendency of spencer and his contemporaries to distinguish higher and lower stages in all development : barbarism and civilization, status and contract, militarism and industrialism. in this instance, he also joined the controversy that developed in the late sixties between darwin and a. russel wallace as to whether natural selection altered bodily structure at all stages of evolution. darwin believed it did. wallace maintained that, with the attainment of a certain level of intelligence, mental changes superceded physical ones. spencer preferred the thrust of wallace ' s view. he himself had earlier identified the importance of cerebral development among the races of man. but he rejected wallace ' s view that such cerebral development within societies resulted from the natural selection of spontaneous variations in the brain..


the thrust of wallace ' s view. he himself had earlier identified the importance of cerebral development among the races of man. but he rejected wallace ' s view that such cerebral development within societies resulted from the natural selection of spontaneous variations in the brain... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 47.... fiske ' s philosophy was inherently conservative in that he stressed the slowness of change, which he neither wanted nor urged. however, the context was also usually religious. his system would bring no religious revolution, no attacks on existing churches, he assured readers in the conclusion of the cosmic philosophy. in the one section in which he discussed social evolution - - published earlier in the north american review under the title " from brute to man " - - fiske differed little from the speculations of a. r. wallace, whose work he described as " one of the most brilliant contributions ever yet made to the doctrine of evolution. " like wallace, he believed that natural selection ceased operating on bodily factors with the appearance of the human brain. " and hence in the future as in the recent past, " he told readers of the north american review, " the dominant fact in the career of humanity is not physical modification but civilization. "... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 65.... darwinism upset such happy assumptions. throughout his career [ henry ] george harbored suspicion of the theory, a suspicion that colored his thought no less than carey ' s and bowen ' s. in progress and poverty he attempted to evade the issue. how men had originated was not his concern : " all we know of him is as man. " but his hostility was plain. during the 1880s he mellowed somewhat, comforted by the views of the british biologist a. r. wallace ( who early preached the " limits of evolution as applied to man, " and who also befriended george during his english crusade ), and of st. george mivart, a leading christian evolutionist who, more firmly than wallace, denied that natural selection has shaped human faculties. by the 1890s george could manage grudging acceptance... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press )


selection has shaped human faculties. by the 1890s george could manage grudging acceptance... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 120.... his view of " mental and moral progress " ( which sociologists would later call cultural evolution ) also led to the conclusion " that the higher - - the more intellectual and moral - - must displace the lower and degraded races. " but his process was again not analogous to struggle and selection in nature. certain that improvement would come, wallace would not attribute it to survival of the fittest. following a popular usage of the day, he equated such survival with the success of " the mediocre, if not the low, both as regards morality and intelligence. " rather, as with mind itself, mysterious forces were at work. the " glorious qualities " of men were the " surest proof " of " higher existences than ourselves. " the goal was not racial imperialism but the brotherhood of man : " a single nearly homogeneous race, no individual of which will be inferior to the noblest specimens of existing humanity. "... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 185 - 186. but, of course, it does matter who starts the trend. if it had been wallace instead of darwin, we would have had a very different theory of evolution today. the whole cybernetics movement might have occurred 100 years earlier as a result of wallace ' s comparison between the steam engine with a governor and the process of natural selection... - - gregory bateson, 1979. in his mind and nature : a necessary unity ( e. p. dutton ) : 43.... it was alfred russel wallace who remarked in 1866 that the principle of natural selection is like that of the steam engine with a governor. i shall assume that this is indeed so and that both the process of individual learning and the process of population shift under natural selection can exhibit the pathologies of all cybernetic circuits : excessive oscillation and runaway. in sum, i shall assume that evolutionary change and somatic change ( including learning and thought ) are fundamentally similar, that both are stochastic in nature, although surely the ideas ( injunctions, descriptive propositions, and so on ) on which each process works are of totally different


evolutionary change and somatic change ( including learning and thought ) are fundamentally similar, that both are stochastic in nature, although surely the ideas ( injunctions, descriptive propositions, and so on ) on which each process works are of totally different logical typing from the typing of ideas in the other process... - - gregory bateson, 1979. in his mind and nature : a necessary unity ( e. p. dutton ) : 148.... [ w. r. ] greg represented those who saw competitive individualism as the logical outcome of the operation in society of the law of natural selection ; for him, naturalism in sociology was equivalent to the hobbesian vision of a continual ' war of all against all '. but equally, wallace was representative of a considerable number of people who claimed that man was unique in nature precisely because of his ability to transcend this state of affairs ; by stressing the biological advantages of intelligent cooperation, he attempted to reconcile darwinian principles with a very different moral and political vision. thus, the dispute involved a fundamental conflict of ideologies, even though it was fought out almost wholly within a naturalistic framework. this conflict was to be a recurrent feature of wallace ' s thought ; and indeed it is still with us today in ' sociobiological ' discussions of the legitimacy of the theory of ' group selection. '... - - john r. durant, 1979. british journal for the history of science 12 ( 40 ) : 45. wallace, who unfortunately never wrote a book on the subject, probed deeper into the nature of man than any of the circle immediately around darwin. because in the end science has so thoroughly accepted them, we have not only forgotten their source but also forgotten how heretical some of his views were at the time they were uttered. first wallace postulated an erect, small - brained bipedal stage of human development, followed by a second phase in which the human brain and cranium assumed their present size and form. only with the present - day discovery of the australopithecine man - apes is the early stage beginning to be documented. second, he quickly saw that the complete fossil history of man might well be prolonged far beyond pleistocene times, and that the big - brained men of the upper pleistocene, who were at that time troubling the evolutionists, need not be regarded as an effective argument against the reality of the human transformation. rather, the scientists must cease confusing living races with grades or levels


- brained men of the upper pleistocene, who were at that time troubling the evolutionists, need not be regarded as an effective argument against the reality of the human transformation. rather, the scientists must cease confusing living races with grades or levels on the evolutionary scale of the past - - something which was at that time exceedingly common... - - loren eiseley, 1979. in his darwin and the mysterious mr. x ; new light on the evolutionists ( e. p. dutton ) : 197. wallace and many later biogeographers have proposed that tropical areas support more species than temperate zones simply because they have not been glaciated and are thus ecologically older. although evidence is very scant, under this interpretation the observed high tropical diversity is a result of long - term undisturbed speciation. if so, the latitudinal trend in species numbers is partially attributable to a strictly geographic factor ( latitude )... - - joseph j. schall & eric r. pianka, 25 august 1978. science 201 ( 4357 ) : 681. it is likely, for instance, that wilde would have sympathized with grant allen ' s and a. r. wallace ' s eugenic plans. allen argued in his essays for free love as part of a eugenic proposal which encouraged women to choose for child - bearing purposes temporary mates from among the finest, healthiest, and most intelligent men. wallace, in an essay which appeared in the fortnightly review, four months before " the soul of man under socialism, " also outlined a nonauthoritarian socialist scheme for human improvement through sexual selection. stating that education could not lead to permanent cultural improvement, wallace suggested that once removed from economic competition, and totally free to choose a mate, women would be attracted to men who embodied what victorians called " the higher qualities, " and the cumulative hereditary impact of that sexual selection would therefore improve the culture of the race. in february 1891, when wilde published " the soul of man under socialism, " in the fortnightly review, he argued that marriage and family should be abolished in favor of a freer and more beautiful love relationship between man and woman. his suggestion can be understood as one of his proposals for a socialist utopia and, indeed, as his contribution to the debate among socialists and cultural critics over the eugenic role of sexual selection in cultural improvement... - - michael s. helfand & philip e. smith ii,


his proposals for a socialist utopia and, indeed, as his contribution to the debate among socialists and cultural critics over the eugenic role of sexual selection in cultural improvement... - - michael s. helfand & philip e. smith ii, summer 1978. texas studies in literature and language 20 ( 2 ) : 211. must fantasy inevitably accompany speculation on the plurality of worlds? fortunately not, for even the history of the question contains a few indications of sober deliberation. in this respect, two nineteenth - century dissenters on plurality, william whewell and alfred russel wallace, stand out as the first post - copernican thinkers to rein in imagination by proposing sensible rules for thinking about such a provocative but thorny issue. when whewell ' s of the plurality of worlds was published in 1853, it challenged what had become, since the sixteenth century, a traditional belief in the existence of life elsewhere. fifty years later, alfred russel wallace, co - discoverer of the theory of natural selection and later percival lowell ' s most tenacious opponent, extended the dissenting tradition by writing the first study that successfully synthesized biological and astronomical perspectives on life in a plurality of worlds... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 82 - 83.... however unkind it became, most criticism of man ' s place in the universe was kept within the confines of the dissenters ' strictures on reasoning. there was a gratifying irony in this, for while most of wallace ' s peers found fault with the book, they unwittingly based their comments on the rules which whewell and wallace considered necessary for careful speculation on plurality. for instance, h. h. turner, the savilian professor of astronomy at oxford, captured the thrust of the many unfavorable reviews of man ' s place when he insisted that the universe is probably not bounded in the sense of having an edge ; that even if it were, there would be no center ; and that even if the sun were at the center, such a position would not be uniquely stable. like other critics, turner was able to seize on the flaws in the argument of life beyond the solar system and thus ignore the strengths of wallace ' s overall position - - the banishment of theology when considerations of probability were at stake, the introduction of an explicitly evolutionary perspective, and the low likelihood of life within the solar system. wallace had created a


system and thus ignore the strengths of wallace ' s overall position - - the banishment of theology when considerations of probability were at stake, the introduction of an explicitly evolutionary perspective, and the low likelihood of life within the solar system. wallace had created a grand and only somewhat flawed synthesis, although few people remarked on this... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 92 - 93.... and what about the climate itself? lowell had claimed that although mars receives only half the earth ' s heat, the absence of an atmosphere would actually mean that the sun ' s radiation would have a more direct effect on it than on the earth. wallace was appalled that a respected scientist could be responsible for such an hypothesis. the opposite would have to be the case, as wallace showed : because of its lack of sufficient atmosphere, mars must retain heat more poorly than the earth. there would also have to be greater variations in temperature between the ground and the air a few feet above it, and wallace pointed out that these would impede the development of advanced organisms... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 95.... since both the dissenters and their " majoritarian " opponents were moved by extra - scientific convictions, could it be said that the two traditions were methodologically indistinguishable? certainly not. precisely because they were dissenters, whewell and wallace had been forced to articulate their position with a degree of care that no pluralist had ever shown. because they were inspired by different and unusual convictions about man ' s status, the dissenters had to take the scientific road to plurality ; for their case would not otherwise have been heard. in this way, discussion of the possibility of life in other worlds was transformed ; for in later years, the metaphysical context of the debate would fall away, leaving a core of scientifically grounded speculation for which whewell and wallace had prepared the way... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 100. the idea of surplusage seems most directly traceable to alfred russel wallace ( 1870 ). his belief that savages possessed brains far in excess of their requirements was the germinal idea of surplusage ; consider, he would argue, that civilized humans use the same brain as that of


traceable to alfred russel wallace ( 1870 ). his belief that savages possessed brains far in excess of their requirements was the germinal idea of surplusage ; consider, he would argue, that civilized humans use the same brain as that of savages to accomplish higher mental feats such as mathematical reasoning, a kind of reasoning never required of our primitive ancestors. if the potential for higher mental processes appeared before it was evolutionarily adaptive, what caused its presence? this is the dilemma posed by the notion of surplusage. as naive as the arguments about savages might seem today, surplusage remains an interesting consideration for psychologists studying animal intelligence in the laboratory... - - robert boice, june 1977. bulletin of the psychonomic society 9 ( 6 ) : 452. crolls ' work played a critical role in the biologists ' attempts to obviate the threats posed to evolutionary theory by kelvin ' s argument for a shortened history of the earth. but croll ' s ideas had an even broader significance for wallace : they functioned as a catalyst for his magisterial formulation of zoogeography. the explanatory potential of glacial theory with respect to the question of the migration and distribution of animals and plants was considerably enhanced by croll ' s speculations, and wallace was alert to their implications for his work on geographical distribution... - - martin fichman, spring 1977. journal of the history of biology 10 ( 1 ) : 60 - 61.... wallace and huxley disagreed about how humans evolved because they had different perceptions of non - western people and the working class. those perceptions were informed by different social experiences. wallace ' s was an unusual experience in the nineteenth century, and it led him to an interpretation of human development with which modern anthropologists generally agree, that the artifice of culture informs our perceptions. how our opinions and experiences can remain unaffected or uninvolved in a holistic theory like human evolution remains a mystery. yet that is the working assumption of most scientists and bureaucrats of science... - - michael s. helfand, winter 1977. victorian studies, 20 ( 2 ) : 176 - 177. a. r. wallace ' s hypothesis that visual stimuli provided by the insect become a conditioned signal for predatory animals through association with its noxious taste was formulated 24 years before i. p. pavlov was elected professor of pharmacology at the military medical academy of st. petersburg. several years later, pavlov was to


signal for predatory animals through association with its noxious taste was formulated 24 years before i. p. pavlov was elected professor of pharmacology at the military medical academy of st. petersburg. several years later, pavlov was to begin his studies there on " psychic " reflexes, employing visual and auditory stimuli to signal the taste of acid or meat powder in the mouth of dogs. poulton ' s summary of two decades of comparative animal research upon the positive effects of satisfying foods and the negative effects of annoying tastes was presented eleven years before e. l. thorndike ' s ( 1897 ) doctoral thesis on animal intelligence and the law of effect. pavlov and thorndike went on to investigate conditioned responses more rigorously, and ultimately their students operationally defined a series of methodological " laws "... - - john garcia & walter g. hankins, 1977. in lewis m. barker et al., eds., learning mechanisms in food selection ( baylor university press ) : 6.... i want to suggest that the first step in any study of his contribution must be a careful analysis of how he actually presented his idea in the 1858 paper, concentrating especially on the kind of variation that was the basis of natural selection. strangely enough, such a detailed analysis is provided neither by beddall nor mckinney, both of whom simply assume that what wallace eventually discovered was a straightforward equivalent of the darwinian theory. this assumption is common to most general accounts of the history of evolutionism, and was shared by darwin himself. but there are good reasons for suggesting that wallace ' s initial concept of selection differed considerably from darwin ' s, or at least was expressed in very different terms... - - peter j. bowler, january 1976. journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 31 ( 1 ) : 18.... it was only at a later stage in his thought - - after he had discovered the principle of divergence - - that darwin actually came to realize that varieties would at some stage have to compete with one another. the essence of wallace ' s mechanism was for darwin a secondary insight gained some time after he had worked out the primary mechanism of selection acting on individual differences. furthermore, when darwin discussed varieties coming into conflict, he pictured this as a geographical effect caused by one form ' s invading and conquering the territory of the other. wallace on the other hand, simply wrote of species splitting into varieties as though this occurred across the whole geographical range, with members


conflict, he pictured this as a geographical effect caused by one form ' s invading and conquering the territory of the other. wallace on the other hand, simply wrote of species splitting into varieties as though this occurred across the whole geographical range, with members of each variety in face - to - face conflict at all points. wallace ' s failure to appreciate the role of geographical factors in the formation of varieties again suggests that he may not at first have recognized natural selection as the agency that created the varieties out of individual differences. or, if he did recognize the action of natural selection on individual differences, he had certainly failed to work out its full implications for his own theory of selection acting among the varieties... - - peter j. bowler, january 1976. journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 31 ( 1 ) : 22 - 23.... it is clear that in the later stages of his career wallace was fully aware of the importance of individual variation to selection. he was able to exploit both modes of representation employed by darwin, using especially the range concept to make a notable contribution to the measurement of variation among wild populations. but all of this occurred after he had read the origin of species, with its clear descriptions of darwin ' s primary conception of selection ' s acting on the individual differences first to form varieties and then species. his own first paper on natural selection had side - stepped this level of the mechanism and developed a theory of competition among the varieties after they had been formed. this was a valid darwinian mechanism, but one which to darwin himself represented a second level of selection which utilized the varieties formed from the selection of individual variations. it may be that from the beginning wallace also recognized the primary action of selection upon individual differences, and simply preferred to describe the mechanism acting at the second level because he was more familiar with what he called permanent varieties. but even if this were so, there are certain points in the 1858 paper which suggest that he had at least failed to work out the consequences of the first level of selection for his own theory... - - peter j. bowler, january 1976. journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 31 ( 1 ) : 28. at one point wallace reasoned logically and with telling effect that even if martians existed they could not have the high intelligence with which lowell credited them. for the " canals " they were supposed to have built in many instances ran for thousands of miles across arid deserts and beneath clear cloudless skies, thus " losing enormously from evaporation,


not have the high intelligence with which lowell credited them. for the " canals " they were supposed to have built in many instances ran for thousands of miles across arid deserts and beneath clear cloudless skies, thus " losing enormously from evaporation, if we assume them to contain water. the mere attempt to use open canals for irrigation purposes would argue ignorance and stupidity. long before half of them were completed, their failure to be of any use would have led any rational being to cease constructing them. "... - - william graves hoyt, 1976. in his lowell and mars ( university of arizona press ) : 215. many suggestions have been formulated over the years to explain the evolution of vertebrate color vision. most have dealt with possible modifications of photoreceptors and neuronal layers of the retina ( see especially edridge - green, 1920 ; ladd - franklin, 1929 ; willmer, 1949 ; pickford, 1951 ) and have hardly considered function. only wallace ( 1891, p. 411 ) and walls ( 1942, p. 463 ) appear to have seriously asked the question, " why color vision? " each suggested that color detection originated to provide for the strongest contrast and, therefore, to enhance the visibility of objects against the background. we believe that this simple and prescient suggestion is correct... - - w. n. mcfarland & f. w. munz, october 1975. vision research 15 : 1071.... a major aim of vestiges is to show that as good newtonians we much accept a biological evolutionary theory. wallace, i think, whilst rejecting as inadequate chambers ' own evolutionary theory, entirely accepted chambers ' research programme, to find the biological analogue of newtonian astronomy. thus i would suggest that wallace like darwin, may have reacted favourably to malthus ' ideas because he could then start to see his way towards a biological equivalent of newtonian astronomy. hence, i think that darwin and wallace quite possibly started from similar philosophical positions, although i have no reason to believe that they drew on exactly the same immediate sources for the philosophies... - - michael ruse, june 1975. studies in history and philosophy of science 6 ( 2 ) : 172 - 173.... by combining what he considered to be the reliable features of both the calculations, the more recent date for the ice age and a consequently accelerated rate of species change, wallace arrived at a figure of 24 million years for the time since the beginning of


.. by combining what he considered to be the reliable features of both the calculations, the more recent date for the ice age and a consequently accelerated rate of species change, wallace arrived at a figure of 24 million years for the time since the beginning of the cambrian. this estimate, he concluded happily, would fit easily within kelvin ' s limits and still leave a period three times as long for the slow operation of natural selection during the precambrian. wallace was not finished, however, for it was in the application of croll ' s hypothesis to biology that he showed the true measure of his ingenuity. neither he nor darwin had ever completely escaped from the lamarckian dependence upon environment as a causal factor in species change. and now he saw in the radical changes of climate a mechanism whereby the continuously " altered physical conditions would induce variation. " furthermore, in alternating from one hemisphere to the other, the successive cycles of glaciation would stimulate a constant migration of plant and animal types, thus continually bringing allied species into competition and accelerating the process of extinction... - - joe d. burchfield, september 1974. isis 65 ( 228 ) : 317.... as early as 1876, the naturalist and zoogeographer alfred wallace noted that " we live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all of the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared. " he remarked especially on the " sudden dying out of so many large mammalia, not in only one place but over half the land surface of the globe " ( wallace 1876 ). at the end of the pleistocene in north america, there was a loss of 33 genera of large mammals ( > 50 kg ), while only 13 genera had become extinct in the preceding 1 or 2 million years. smaller mammals ( < 50 kg ) were not similarly affected, nor were marine mammals, which we might also expect to show high extinction rates if the cause were environmental catastrophes. wallace ( 1911 ) observed that these sudden extinctions were not correlated with major environmental changes, such as those responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs, but seemed to coincide with the arrival, on different continents at different times, of stone age man... - - richard s. miller & daniel b. botkin, march - april 1974. american scientist 62 ( 2 ) : 172. this concept of the separation of the human personality from the human body meant that wallace considered man and the relation of science to man in a context wholly different from that of the advocates


, march - april 1974. american scientist 62 ( 2 ) : 172. this concept of the separation of the human personality from the human body meant that wallace considered man and the relation of science to man in a context wholly different from that of the advocates of scientific naturalism. as william irvine once described the evolution of huxley ' s mind, " he became interested in man as a physical mechanism, as an anthropoid ape, as a social unit and a citizen, as a delicate machine for the discovery of scientific truth, but never to any appreciable extent in man as a personality and a human being. " wallace ' s development was exactly the reverse. he was originally interested in the physical mechanism of man for the sake of the moral personality encased therein. he studied the anthropoid ape because it resembled man. he wrote on social questions in the hope that society might be so organized as to allow the moral faculties to flourish. throughout his long and varied scientific career, wallace was primarily concerned with what koestler has dubbed " the ghost in the machine " rather than with the machine itself... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 82.... in the london anthropological society address of march 1864, wallace continued to discuss, though in a very different kind of forum, matters that had weighted upon his mind for over twenty years. he brought into the professional scientific sphere the scientific concepts and goals that he had learned in the provincial mechanics institutes. the address was his single most important comment on man and contained the latent seeds for all his later departures from scientific naturalism. the american evolutionist john fiske recalled that the address " seemed to open up an entirely new world of speculation. " such speculation was indeed new to men who had known little or nothing of " physical puritanism " or the " belated rationalism " of the working - class culture in which wallace had come to maturity. for wallace the paper was simply a continuation of his earlier thought... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 83 - 84.... spiritualism furnished wallace with a scientific explanation for the development of man ' s moral nature and brought man ' s total being under the rule of rational cosmic law. in a curious manner, the theory of spiritual


) : 83 - 84.... spiritualism furnished wallace with a scientific explanation for the development of man ' s moral nature and brought man ' s total being under the rule of rational cosmic law. in a curious manner, the theory of spiritualism provided a law for the moral world analogous to that provided by natural selection for the organic world. natural selection removed the necessity for an arbitrary and interfering god of special creation. spiritualism banished the arbitrary god of predestination and replaced him with a uniform law of individual moral progress and of personal moral responsibility... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 88.... " consistency, " the tract by robert dale owen, robert owen ' s son, particularly interested wallace. the younger owen, who himself also later converted to spiritualism, argued that the doctrine of predestination led to immoral living because it rendered one ' s eternal reward a matter of chance rather than a function of the virtue of one ' s life. concurring in these arguments, wallace moved very quietly and painlessly from faith to skepticism. his loss of faith grew directly out of a situation succinctly described by a writer later in the century : " god, and immortality, and the bible have been so taught as to make scepticism the only refuge for morality to flee to. " wallace later identified this rational skepticism with agnosticism. his skepticism, however, more nearly resembled deism. he did not deny the possibility of religious knowledge or of pure religion but rather the validity and morality of the christian religion. most important, wallace and the owenites did not dismiss the moral significance of the questions that christianity had addressed. the questions of religion remained valid even if the christian answers were false. the owenite criticism of christianity made wallace, as well as genuine owenites, highly susceptible to a rational religion, such as spiritualism, that was based on empirical evidence and that emphasized social cooperation and benevolent individualism... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 89 - 90. the notion that man ' s first language was primarily gestural, carried on with hand and arm signals rather than vocal sounds, has been supported by a distinguished line of scholars : condillac ( 1746 ), tylor ( 1868, 1871 )


notion that man ' s first language was primarily gestural, carried on with hand and arm signals rather than vocal sounds, has been supported by a distinguished line of scholars : condillac ( 1746 ), tylor ( 1868, 1871 ), morgan ( 1877 ), wallace ( 1881, 1895 ), romanes ( 1888 ), wundt ( 1912 ), paget ( 1944, 1963 ), and johannesson ( 1949, 1950 ). the gestural theory seems to be the most attractive of the many glottogonic hypotheses advanced so far, and receives support from recent studies of chimpanzees and other primates, such as gardner and gardner ( 1969, 1971 ), premack ( 1970a, b, 1971 ), and menzel ( 1971 ), as well as from other sources. the fact that this evidence was unavailable to earlier proponents of the gestural theory explains some of the weaknesses in its former formulations... - - gordon w. hewes, february - april 1973. current anthropology 14 ( 1 - 2 ) : 5. alfred russel wallace was the co - founder of the theory of natural selection and one of its most tenacious defenders. it is therefore of great interest that wallace emphatically opposed a demarcation between ethical and scientific ideas and that he also resisted the breakdown of the common intellectual milieu with his own unified world - view. he endeavoured to combine notions of value with his scientific theory of evolution, particularly in relation to man. british biologists in the first half of the nineteenth century characteristically analysed their data in terms of the teleological framework of natural theology. evolutionary theory supposedly demolished this framework. nevertheless, wallace incorporated a fundamental teleology into all his theories. he considered that he had thereby reconciled the tensions of scientific and ethical demands in his contribution to the evolutionary debate on man ' s place in nature... - - roger smith, december 1972. british journal for the history of science 6 ( 22 ) : 177 - 178.... wallace traced the ' action of some unknown higher law ' in the evolution of man and also in the origin of consciousness. as he commented, ' no physiologist or philosopher has yet ventured to propound an intelligible theory of how sensation may possibly be a product of organization ; while many have declared the passage from matter to mind to be inconceivable '. while other biologists tended to avoid this question, wallace believed in a


carries the proclamation of a prophet ' s faith... - - john l. brooks, december 1972. transactions of the connecticut academy of arts and sciences 44 : 45. " what think you of wallace ' s paper in the ann. n. hist.? good! upon the whole! but how about such forms as the giraffe, which has typical representatives in the siwalik tertiary deposits? or the true elk ( = moose )? can we suppose a lost series of gradations connecting these general with the deer type, & ramifying off to them paulatim [ gradually ]? wallace has, i think, put the matter well ; and according to his theory, the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species " [ quotation from edward blyth letter to darwin ]... - - barbara g. beddall, spring 1972. journal of the history of biology 5 ( 1 ) : 155. wallace, in fact, proposed the first cybernetic model. nowadays cybernetics deals with much more complex systems of the general kind ; and we know that when we talk about the processes of civilization, or evaluate human behavior, human organization, or any biological system, we are concerned with self - corrective systems. basically these systems are always conservative of something. as in the engine with a governor, the fuel supply is changed to conserve - - to keep constant - - the speed of the flywheel, so always in such systems changes occur to conserve the truth of some descriptive statement, some component of the status quo. wallace saw the matter correctly, and natural selection acts primarily to keep the species unvarying ; but it may act at higher levels to keep constant that complex variable which we call " survival. "... - - gregory bateson, 1972. in his steps to an ecology of mind ( chandler publishing company ) : 435. the importance of larval dispersal was already recognized by alfred russel wallace in his work on the geographical distribution of animals ( 1876 ). wallace knew that the univalve and bivalve mollusca have free - swimming larval stages and recognized that " they thus have a powerful means of dispersal, and are carried by tides and currents so as ultimately to spread over every shore and shoal that offers conditions favorable for development. "... - - rudolf s. scheltema, april 1971. biological bulletin 140 : 285.... darwin ( 1859 ) and later evolutionists ( especially muller 1940, 1942 )


shoal that offers conditions favorable for development. "... - - rudolf s. scheltema, april 1971. biological bulletin 140 : 285.... darwin ( 1859 ) and later evolutionists ( especially muller 1940, 1942 ) proposed that reproductive isolating mechanisms develop as by - products of divergent evolution and are purely incidental features of adaptive differentiation which confer no advantage to populations at the time they develop. conversely, wallace ( 1889 ), fisher ( 1930 ), and dobzhansky ( 1941, 1951 ) contended that isolating mechanisms could arise from selection against hybrids and hybridizers. selection for reproductive isolation in areas of sympatry would reinforce previously existing barriers and thereby reduce gametic wastage, hybridization, and disruptive gene flow. grant ( 1966 ) has suggested the term " wallace effect " for this process... - - donald a. levin, november - december 1970. the american naturalist 104 ( 940 ) : 571. the basic answer to the question - - " why does man occupy this worldwide and universally dominant niche? " - - also given by wallace, is that by the use of his greatly superior mind, man has continually modified the environment to meet his needs, so that " he would cease to be influenced by natural selection in his physical form and structure. " as dobzhansky ( 1962, 1967 ) has pointed out, this statement is an exaggeration. nevertheless, the general conclusion of wallace, that in early man the action of natural selection was largely transferred from the bodily structure to the mind, is still valid... - - george ledyard stebbins, march - april 1970. the american naturalist 104 ( 936 ) : 112. the next questioner said the lecturer had termed mr. [ henry ] george a poet. he then called attention to the fact that mr. george advocated nationalisation of the land as a remedy for poverty, and asked how it was that mr. a. wallace, an able man, came to the same conclusion. professor marshall said that mr. wallace ' s proposal was much more reasonable than that of mr. george. he did not call mr. george a poet because he said erroneous things. he was a poet because he was poetic, and he was not a man of science because he said erroneous things [ report on a lecture by alfred marshall ]... - - ronald h. coase, april 1969. journal of law and economics 12 ( 1 ) :


poetic, and he was not a man of science because he said erroneous things [ report on a lecture by alfred marshall ]... - - ronald h. coase, april 1969. journal of law and economics 12 ( 1 ) : 199.... we next come to mr. wallace ' s plan. it proposed that the inherent value of the soil should become the property of the state, but that the buildings and other improvements on it should remain private property. he would give to the landowner an annuity equal to that part of the rent which corresponds to its present inherent value, for his life and the life of any descendants born in his lifetime, or in failure of such, for the life of anyone nominated by the landlord. he calls this full compensation, but of course it is only partial compensation ; the state would confiscate, independently of any rise in its inherent value, the reversion of this inherent value some years hence. if we put the probable duration of the lives at forty years, this is equal to an immediate confiscation of 30 per cent of the inherent value, if we take interest at 3 per cent, or a confiscation of 20 percent if we take interest at 4 per cent. the question whether this is just or not must be looked at straight in the face [ from the words of alfred marshall ]... - - ronald h. coase, april 1969. journal of law and economics 12 ( 1 ) : 206.... the principle may be extended to the generalization that a proportionately small percentage of any fauna will be fit as invaders, since any intervening barrier, however slight, will act as a kind of " filter " to at least some of them. simpson has developed and supplemented this argument, demonstrating that wallace ' s interpretation was essentially correct. the precise differences in approach between darwin and wallace need some additional study, but it would seem that darwin tended to concentrate on the effects of different dispersal mechanisms on patterns of distribution, wallace more on the influence of barriers in restricting faunas conceived of as units. thus, wallace was more orientated toward historical explanation for classes of phenomena, darwin toward reasoning from the effects of the properties of individuals upon the overall pattern of distribution... - - michael t. ghiselin, 1969. in his the triumph of the darwinian method ( university of california press ) : 41.... darwin and wallace merit particular respect for having developed the theory of natural selection through a process of " retroduction


t. ghiselin, 1969. in his the triumph of the darwinian method ( university of california press ) : 41.... darwin and wallace merit particular respect for having developed the theory of natural selection through a process of " retroduction " : that is, they were aware of a phenomenon, and successfully sought out an explanation in superficially unconnected processes. the method through which this insight was obtained would seem to have been orderly and rational... - - michael t. ghiselin, 1969. in his the triumph of the darwinian method ( university of california press ) : 77. in a modification of the quinarian system of william sharpe macleay, swainson divided the earth into five regions according to what he believed to be the five major races of mankind ; animal groups were likewise divided into fives. the divisions were mathematical, the reasons not only unknown but unknowable. but wallace questioned swainson from the first, noting that " there appears not to be the slightest reason for believing a priori that all groups of animals are divided into the same number of types of forms or divisions "... - - barbara g. beddall, september 1968. journal of the history of biology 1 ( 2 ) : 270.... lamarck had interpreted them in his own light, believing them to be the result of " the permanent disuse of an organ, arising from a change of habits, [ which caused ] a gradual shrinkage of ultimately the disappearance and even extinction of that organ. " wallace, like chambers, thought that rudimentary organs showed relationships, but he misinterpreted them, confusing vestigial with nascent organs. he did, however, ask the right question : " if each species has been created independently, and without any necessary relations with pre - existing species, what do these rudiments, these apparent imperfections mean? "... - - barbara g. beddall, september 1968. journal of the history of biology 1 ( 2 ) : 280.... the argument from design was teleological, presuming that a contrivance existed in accordance with a preconceived plan. adaptation between structure and function was recognized, but it was thought that a structure was provided simply because a function required it. wallace wondered, however, how an animal could have necessities before it came into existence? and how could it " continue to exist unless its structure enabled it to obtain food?


was thought that a structure was provided simply because a function required it. wallace wondered, however, how an animal could have necessities before it came into existence? and how could it " continue to exist unless its structure enabled it to obtain food? he thought that the arguments brought forward as proofs of design were absurd ; not only were they insulting to the intelligence of a supreme being, but they also placed narrow limits on his power... barbara g. beddall, september 1968. journal of the history of biology 1 ( 2 ) : 282.... looking back, it is interesting that wallace, in 1880, thought that enough information was already at hand to make further expeditions and collecting redundant. what was needed, he said, was intensive study of selected islands, and since britain owned most of the world ' s islands, the government should post naturalists on some of them to make such studies. wallace ' s suggestion was good, though naturally nothing came of it, but his major premise was wrong. we still need to know a great deal more than we do about the species that make up island biotas, not merely for the sake of naming and cataloguing them, but because knowledge of the identities, relationships, distribution, behavior, and ecological roles and requirements of the species is essential for understanding both the evolution of the island biotas and the evolution and functioning of the island ecosystems... - - theodore h. hubbell, may 1968. proceedings of the national academy of sciences. 60 ( 1 ) : 22. the hypothesis of a secondary and supplementary process of selection for reproductive isolation, considered as an advantageous situation in its own right for the species concerned, was advanced in the early period of evolutionary biology by wallace ( 1889 ), who tried unsuccessfully to convince darwin. it seems fitting and desirable to designate the process of selection for reproductive isolation as the wallace effect. the wallace hypothesis was proposed again in the modern period by fisher ( 1930 ), dobzhansky ( 1941 ; 1951 ), and huxley ( 1943 ). the subject has been reviewed recently by mayr ( 1963 ) and grant ( 1963 ). it is argued that the individuals of two sympatric species populations which produce inviable or sterile hybrids will contribute fewer offspring to future generations than will sister individuals in the same parental populations which do not hybridize. consequently the genetic factors determining some block or aversion to hybridization will tend to increase in frequency within each species over the course of generations. this process of selection is expected


than will sister individuals in the same parental populations which do not hybridize. consequently the genetic factors determining some block or aversion to hybridization will tend to increase in frequency within each species over the course of generations. this process of selection is expected to lead to a reinforcement of the reproductive isolation which had developed as a by - product of divergence... - - verne grant, march - april 1966. american naturalist 100 ( 911 ) : 99. species of animals living on islands may have morphological characteristics not possessed by their mainland counterparts, a fact which was recognized by wallace ( 1881 ). he remarked that in the celebes : " nearly thirty species of butterflies, belonging to three different families, have a common modification in the shape of their wings by which they can be distinguished at a glance from their allies in any other island or country whatever, and all these are larger than the representative forms inhabiting most of the adjacent islands. "... - - p. r. grant, september 1965. evolution 19 : 355. wallace was one of the first to suggest that birds might build their nests on the basis of their previous experience. although it now seems that nest building in birds is not solely a function of memory, the extent to which experience plays a role has not been determined... - - theodore d. sargent, january 1965. the auk 82 ( 1 ) : 48. wallace ( 1889 ), after summarizing the findings of bates and muller, proposed an extension of mullerian mimicry whereby several members of the same unpalatable genus look alike in the same locality ( e. g., 4 or 5 heliconius having a yellow - banded forewing and radiating red stripes on the hindwing. ) this really is somewhat different from muller ' s case of convergence of widely unrelated species. modern speciation theory predicts that closely related species when sympatric will diverge in appearance, habits, and season due to rigorous selection for the two main speciation sequelae : anti - hybridization mechanisms and niche diversification ( anti - competition ). wallace ' s mullerian extension explains an important deviant. he also suggested the possibility of a still different sort of mimicry, in which a scarce edible species can mingle with and closely resemble an abundant edible species and thus gain some freedom from predation... - - charles l. remington, 1963. in proceedings of the xvi international congress of zoology ( the congress ), volume 4 : 148. the general patterns of the distribution


resemble an abundant edible species and thus gain some freedom from predation... - - charles l. remington, 1963. in proceedings of the xvi international congress of zoology ( the congress ), volume 4 : 148. the general patterns of the distribution of mollusks in the pacific, particularly those of the terrestrial forms, aroused attention because of the difficulties involved in transporting such forms to small and widely scattered islands. suggested dispersal agents have included land connections, drifting vegetation, typhoons and migratory birds. the use of islands as stepping stones, including those now buried beneath the sea, was suggested by wallace in 1881. in wallace ' s time there was little geological evidence to support the idea of submerged islands. as late as 1950 it was pointed out that complete proof for island distribution was " hopelessly buried in the geological past. "... - - harry s. ladd, 1960. american journal of science 258 - a : 140. the occurrence of a number of river - like channels running across the group and dividing it into islands is beyond doubt the most remarkable geomorphic phenomenon of the aru islands. numerous branch channels are also encountered. there are several theories concerning the genesis of these channels. wallace ( 1857, 1869 ) tried to explain them as the remainders of the pleistocene lower courses of new guinea rivers preserved here by subsequent uparching of the aru region, whereas elsewhere the river courses gradually disappeared during the transgression of the shelf associated with the postglacial rise in sea level... - - herman verstappen, summer 1959. american journal of science 257 ( 7 ) : 493. the difficulty inherent in attempting to rid biology of normative concepts incapable of definition in purely biological terms became even more evident when darwin and others tried to find a substitute for the term natural selection. asa gray and alfred russel wallace objected to the expression because it seemed to imply an intelligent agent selecting according to pre - established standards... - - john c. greene, 1959. in his the death of adam ( iowa state university press ) : 300. alfred russel wallace had lived for many years in tropical regions, first in the amazon basin and later in the east indies, where he had been especially impressed by the phenomena of animal distribution. he thus had a broader and more direct and intimate acquaintance with the subject than any other naturalist traveller of his century. he was continually at work on this subject from 1860 until 1876, the date of publication of his two volumes on the geographical distribution of animals. he somewhat modestly


and more direct and intimate acquaintance with the subject than any other naturalist traveller of his century. he was continually at work on this subject from 1860 until 1876, the date of publication of his two volumes on the geographical distribution of animals. he somewhat modestly refers to this work as an extension and amplification of the two chapters on the subject in the origin of species, comparing it with darwin ' s own two - volume expansion of the chapters on animals and plants under domestication. the two principal sections of wallace ' s work on contrasted as " zoological geography, " a descriptive discussion of the land animals of the different zoogeographic regions, and " geographical zoology, " a review of the distribution of vertebrates and certain invertebrates, group by group. whatever their fate in a reclassification of regions and subregions, wallace ' s scheme and nomenclature are the ones that appear most widely in zoological literature... - - karl patterson schmidt, december 1954. the quarterly review of biology 29 ( 4 ) : 323. after dr j. rae, the most notable contribution to the gesture theory came from charles darwin ' s rival, dr alfred russel wallace, who in 1895 pointed out, in fortnightly review, that, in english speech, it is common to produce words by an appropriate gesture of the tongue, lips or jaw, so as ' to bring sense and sound into unison '. thus, in up, the jaw makes an upward movement, while in down, the jaw moves down. continuing consonants, such as f, l, m, n, etc., symbolize continuing motions, such as fly, run, swim, move. on the other hand, words for abrupt motions end with a stopped consonant - - e. g., b, d, g, k, p, t, in stop, hop, pat, stab, kick, etc. dr wallace considered it in the highest degree probable that the pantomimic use of the various parts of the mouth constitute ' a fundamental principle which has always been at work, both in the origin and in the successive modifications of human speech '. dr wallace did not recognize dickens ' observation of hand and mouth as exemplified by sam weller ; but he was, i believe, the first to point out that the pantomimic principle may be still active in man ' s unconscious development of his spoken language, and that modern languages may be just as gestural as the older ones... - - r. a. s. paget, 1951


pantomimic principle may be still active in man ' s unconscious development of his spoken language, and that modern languages may be just as gestural as the older ones... - - r. a. s. paget, 1951. science news ( england ) 20 : 87. " he [ conrad ] loved old memoirs and travels - - and i think wallace ' s malay archipelago was his favorite bedside book. " again mr. curle wrote that conrad read the malay archipelago " over and over again... it was his favorite bedside companion. he had an intense admiration for those pioneer explorers - - ' profoundly inspired men ' as he called them - - who have left us a record of their work ; and of wallace, above all, he never ceased to speak in terms of enthusiasm. even in conversation he would amplify some remark by observing, ' wallace says so - and - so, ' and the malay archipelago had been his intimate friend for many years. " [ comments by richard curle ]... - - florence clemens, july 1939. south atlantic quarterly 38 : 305. though born and bred in england, no snobbishness had ever touched him, he felt that the peasant ' s life, being richer in experience, was more interesting than the lord ' s. yet he was of the finest courtesy, kindness and generosity ; he loved to relieve any want or alleviate any misery ; he said once : " the sole value of riches is the joy of giving. " i knew him for more than a quarter of a century and can recall no fault in him - - no flaw even. his temper was as patient and quiet and fair as his mind, and his health was almost perfect even in extreme age. in writing thus of him, i feel as if i were ladling out treacle to my readers ; but i can ' t help it ; i can ' t go outside the truth. looking back, i ' m inclined to think he was the wisest and best man i ' ve ever known. fortunately this word may be added, i ' ve met dozens of bad men who were incomparably more interesting... - - frank harris, 1920. in his contemporary portraits ( third series ) ( published by the author ) : 105.... the illustrious names of myers, sidgwick, gurney, wallace, crookes, zoellner and many other prominent men, are associated with the rebirth and the rehabilitation of the ancient belief in spirits. even if the


from identifying osama bin laden to proving someone guilty of rape or murder, dna analysis has become an essential scientific tool for police and criminal justice. unique genetic markers could play a crucial role in the trial of ex - imf chief dominique strauss - kahn, accused of sexually assaulting a hotel maid in new york. various media reports, citing sources close to the investigation, have said that dna from strauss - kahn - - believed to be traces of semen - - was found on the shirt of the 32 - year - old woman, who has alleged that the french political heavyweight tried to rape her in his hotel suite on may 14. " the dna technique, the nuclear dna, is the one and only technique, if properly conducted, that has an extraordinarily high odds against a misidentification, " said university of arizona professor of chemistry and geoscience bonner denton. " it ' s very close to 100 percent... it ' s a much better technique than many other forensic identification techniques, even finger prints. " thanks to dna analysis and other tests, us officials were able to say they were certain bin laden was dead, with just a one in 11. 8 quadrillion chance of mistaken identity. cia specialists first compared photographs of the al - qaeda leader ' s corpse to photographs of bin laden and then reviewed a dna sample against a " comprehensive profile " derived from some of his many family members. as a result, an intelligence official said there was no doubt that a team of us navy seals that raided a compound in pakistan on may 1 had killed the al - qaeda founder. denton was part of a national research council team that wrote a key report about dna analysis in 2009 for the us congress. " nuclear dna analysis has been subjected to more scrutiny than any other forensic discipline, with extensive experimentation and validation performed prior to its use in investigations, " the report said. it concluded that the us medical - legal system needed to be revamped because forensics labs were backlogged and understaffed. more than half of the first 250 people released from prison thanks to a dna test exonerating them had been initially found guilty based on erroneous medical analysis. dna analysis entered the us criminal system in 1987 when a serial rapist in florida became the first person whose guilt was proven using the technique. federal authorities, including the us military and all 50 states, now archive dna samples. the fbi has developed the powerful combined dna index system ( codis ), which catalogs millions of samples. every monday


traditionally if scientists wanted to look at something small they would put a sample under a microscope but now researchers have managed to shrink the microscope itself to the size of a single human cell. an interdisciplinary research team, funded by the biotechnology and biological science research council ( bbsrc ) and the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc ) have developed optical biochips no larger than a single cell that could lead to faster development of new drugs and quicker medical tests. the research team moved away from the idea that a microscope is something you have to look through to create optical biochips onto which scientists can place biological samples. special fluorescent chemicals are then used together with tiny light emitting lasers to allow the scientists to analyse the cells or targets within the cells. researchers can use this capability to examine cellular conditions for certain diseases or to develop new treatments by studying the way cells react to a drug. the biochips also raise the possibility of a micro - laboratory, the size of a credit card, which would be able to perform medical diagnostics, improving patient treatment by reducing the number of hospital visits needed for tests. the initial research has led to the creation of a spin - out company, biostatus ltd, supported by a bbsrc small business research initiative grant. biostatus has developed the research to refine the fluorescent probe technology and also to make the analysis of biological samples more sophisticated. professor paul smith, the research group leader, said, " our research and the outcomes from the spin - out company could help to revolutionise how we examine biological samples. our next step will be to develop simple, small diagnostic devices. future generations may be able to use these as the basis for hand - held systems that will be able to perform diagnostic functions in the field that currently require a laboratory test. " professor julia goodfellow, chief executive of bbsrc, said, " the success of the research into biochips and the development of the science through the spin - out company shows how cutting edge research in the biosciences can meet real world challenges. bochips have the potential to make a real difference in medical diagnostics and drug development. " the research is being carried out at the wales college of medicine and involves researchers at cardiff university, university of bangor, the gray cancer institute in london and collaboration with the university of warwick and laboratories in the united states. source : biotechnology and biological sciences research council explore further : allosaurus fed more like a falcon than a crocodile, new study finds


june is cataract awareness month. did you know that cataracts are the leading cause of vision loss among adults 55 and older? in fact, more than half the people over age 65 have some degree of cataract development. a cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye, the part of the eye that focuses light and produces clear images. inside of the eye, the lens is contained in a sealed bag or capsule. as old cells die they become trapped within the capsule. over time, more cells die and accumulate causing the lens to cloud, making images look blurred or fuzzy. ( eye america. org ) cataracts are caused by the breakdown of proteins within the clear lens of the eye that cause it to become cloudy and difficult to see through, effecting vision. some of this protein breakdown is associated with oxidative stress. it is believed that the majority of oxidative stress is generated in the eye via photochemical reactions caused by exposure to sunlight although oxidative stress can be caused by neuronal dysfunction in certain conditions. antioxidants fight free radicals and reactive oxygen species by neutralizing them and thus causing them to lose the ability to cause oxidative stress. antioxidants can be found in many different foods. some examples are blueberries, raspberries and olive oil. the regular intake of these foods can be beneficial to your health and can combat oxidative stress. however, science is finding that more concentrated doses of antioxidants can be even more beneficial in combating eye disease than diet alone. the use of antioxidant supplementation may protect the eye from oxidative - stress induced damage and disease. hydroxytyrosol, a powerful antioxidant derived from olive byproducts, has a chemoprotective effect on retinal cells, the type of cell that is damaged by the progression of macular degeneration and possibly other eye diseases. pinnaclife ’ s supplement olivamine essential, is a blend of antioxidants, and if used in association with a healthy lifestyle can help to reduce the effects eye disease. our supplements are available at most hy - vee locations. start your journey towards good health today!


sequences of numbers can have limits. for example, the sequence 1, 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,... has the limit 0 and the sequence 0, 1 / 2, 2 / 3, 3 / 4, 4 / 5,... has the limit 1. but not all number sequences behave so nicely. for example, the sequence 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 2 / 3, 1 / 4, 3 / 4, 1 / 5, 4 / 5,... keeps jumping up and down, rather than getting closer and closer to one particular number. we can, however, discern some sort of limiting behaviour as we move along the sequence : the numbers never become larger than 1 or smaller than 0. and what ' s more, moving far enough along the sequence, you can find numbers that get as close as you like to both 1 and 0. so both 0 and 1 have some right to be considered limits of the sequence — and indeed they are : 1 is the limit superior and 0 is the limit inferior, so - called for obvious reasons. but can you define these limits superior and inferior for a general sequence, for example the one shown in the picture? here ’ s how to do it for the limit superior. first look at the whole sequence and find its least upper bound : that ’ s the smallest number that ’ s bigger than all the numbers in the sequence. then chop off the first number in the sequence, and again find the least upper bound for the new sequence. this might be smaller than the previous least upper bound ( if that was equal to ), but not bigger. then chop off the first two numbers and again find the least upper bound. keep going, chopping off the first three, four, five, etc numbers, to get a sequence of least upper bounds ( indicated by the red curve in the picture ). in this sequence every number is either equal to or smaller than the number before. the limit superior is defined to be the limit of these least upper bounds. it always exists : since the sequence of least upper bounds is either constant or decreasing, it will either approach minus infinity or some other finite limit. the limit superior could also be equal to plus infinity, if there are numbers in the sequence that get arbitrarily large. the limit inferior is defined in a similar way, only that you look at the sequence of greatest lower bounds and then take the limit of that. you can read more about the limits inferior and superior in


welcome stephen tremp with an awesome summary of what ' s at stake as we explore further into space... enjoy : | dr carl sagan ( 1934 - 1996 ) | " the surface of the earth is the shore of the cosmic ocean. from it we have learned most of what we know. recently, we have waded a little out to sea, enough to dampen our toes or, at most, wet our ankles. the water seems inviting. the ocean calls. ” — dr. carl sagan space. the final frontier. we remember this line from star trek, set in the 23rd century under the “ united federation of planets. ” the key word here is united. we have to ask, will space offer the possibility of mankind living together peaceably? or is bloodshed inevitable as we explore and colonize our solar system as we did here on earth? currently, there are at least fourteen agencies with a stake in space exploration and possible exploitation. nasa : the national aeronautics and space administration ( nasa ) is the agency of the united states responsible for the nation ' s civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. mission statement : pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research. | international space station | esa : the european space agency is europe ’ s gateway to space. its mission : shape the development of europe ’ s space capability and deliver benefits to the citizens of europe and the world. russia and china ( the only other two countries besides the u. s. to independently send men into space ), japan, iran, israel, india, mexico. korea, indoneisia, pakistan, and vietnam all have space agencies with a range of capabilities from astronaut training, to satellite operations, to sounding rockets ( designed to take measurements and perform scientific research during sub - orbital flight ), and recoverable biological sounding rockets. then there is the military, private sector, and educational institutions that have a growing stake in space exploration. with the space shuttle program mothballed, many are calling for a government and private sector partnership in space exploration. the gop candidates have also jumped on this topic. it ’ s already begun : the international space station ( iss ) is an artificial low - earth orbiting satellite and the ninth space station to be inhabited. the iss has hosted a rotating international crew since november 2000. crew members from around the world use the iss as a research laboratory and conduct experiments in biology, physics, astronomy and other fields. it ’ s also used to test spacecraft systems and equipment for future use


has hosted a rotating international crew since november 2000. crew members from around the world use the iss as a research laboratory and conduct experiments in biology, physics, astronomy and other fields. it ’ s also used to test spacecraft systems and equipment for future use to missions to the moon and mars. ready or not, here we go! what ’ s next : human and robotic explorations of the moon, mars, and near earth asteroids. mining asteroids, planetoids, and spent comets could provide raw minerals such as iron, nickel, and titanium to help construct space stations right there in space. pretty cool, huhn? resources like water and oxygen could help sustain life. and water and hydrogen could be extracted for rocket fuel. perhaps, platinum and cobalt could be returned for earth for profit. both governments and private industry will be involved in this potentially lucrative business. question : should we set up residence in space or on planets and moons? will space exploration provide social, intellectual, and economic benefits to everyone, or is this another black hole for our hard - earned tax dollars. thanks hilary for hosting me on my grand opening blog tour. and thanks everyone for stopping by and saying hello! please visit me at my blog for more information on my novels breakthrough and the recently released opening! breakthrough and opening can be downloaded at : kindle for $ 1. 99 smashwords for $ 1. 99 image credits : nasa congratulations stephen on completing the second book of your trilogy - a wonderful achievement ; i highly recommend your first book breakthrough and cannot wait to find out how the good, bad and the ugly develop in this sequel... space is an interesting ' arena ' - and as each year passes we seem to learn more - it is fascinating and i ' m delighted to have some subject matter on my blog - space does inspire people. stephen writes about science, space exploration - his interests, while interspersing with articles about publishing, self - publishing and useful tips and tricks he has found - there ' s a great deal of interaction and knowledge exchange over at his blog : stephen tremp - author... so please visit and join him along his trilogy journey. stephen ' s grand opening tour continues : upcoming dates - february 14 rachna chhabria rachna ’ s scriptorium february 15 melissa bradley melissa ’ s imaginarium february 17 lydia kang the word is my oyster positive letters inspirational stories


1. iron deficiency anemia : prevention, assessment and control — report of a joint who / unicef / unu consultation. geneva, switzerland : world health organization ; 1998. world health organization / united nations children ’ s fund / united nations university. 2. brotanek jm, halterman j, auinger p, flores g, weitzman m. iron deficiency, prolonged bottle - feeding, and racial / ethnic disparities in young children. arch pediatr adolesc med. 2005 ; 159 ( 11 ) : 1038 – 1042. [ pubmed ] 3. grantham - mcgregor s, ani c. a review of studies on the effect of iron deficiency on cognitive development in children. j nutr. 2001 ; 131 ( 2s – 2 ) : 649s – 668s. [ pubmed ] 4. lozoff b, georgieff mk. iron deficiency and brain development. semin pediatr neurol. 2006 ; 13 ( 3 ) : 158 – 165. [ pubmed ] 5. lozoff b, beard j, connor j, barbara f, georgieff m, schallert t. long - lasting neural and behavioral effects of iron deficiency in infancy. nutr rev. 2006 ; 64 ( 5 pt 2 ) : s34 – s43. [ pmc free article ] [ pubmed ] 6. stoltzfus rj, mullany l, black re. iron deficiency anaemia. in : ezzati m, lopez ad, rodgers a, editors. comparative quantification of health risks : global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. geneva, switzerland : world health organization ; 2004. pp. 2141 – 2165. 7. lozoff b, wolf aw, urrutia jj, viteri fe. abnormal behavior and low developmental test scores in iron - deficient anemic infants. j dev behav pediatr. 1985 ; 6 ( 2 ) : 69 – 75. [ pubmed ] 8. lozoff b, de andraca i, castillo m, smith j, walter t, pino p. behavioral and developmental effects of preventing iron - deficiency anemia in healthy full - term infants [ published correction appears in pediatrics. 2004 ; 113 ( 6 ) : 1853 ] pediatrics. 2003 ; 112 ( 4 ) : 846, 854. [ pubmed ] 10. lozoff b, clark km, jing


. norwood. 18. colombo j, mitchell dw. individual differences in early visual attention : fixation time and information processing. in : colombo j, fagen j, editors. individual differences in infancy : reliability, stability, prediction. hillsdale, nj : lawrence erlbaum ; 1990. pp. 193 – 227. 19. colombo j, mitchell dw, coldren jt, freeseman lj. individual differences in infant visual attention : are short lookers faster processors or feature processors? child dev. 1991 ; 62 ( 6 ) : 1247 – 1257. [ pubmed ] 20. jacobson sw, jacobson jl, o ’ neill jm, padgett rj, frankowski jj, bihun jt. visual expectation and dimensions of infant information processing. child dev. 1992 ; 63 ( 3 ) : 711 – 724. [ pubmed ] 21. diamond a. development of the ability to use recall to guide action, as indicated by infants ’ performance on ab. child dev. 1985 ; 56 ( 4 ) : 868 – 883. [ pubmed ] 22. wachs td. relation of infants ’ performance on piaget scales between twelve and twenty - four months and their stanford - binet performance at thirty - one months. child dev. 1975 ; 46 : 929 – 935. 23. uzgiris c, hunt jm. assessment in infancy : ordinal scales of psychological development. urbana, il : university of illinois press ; 1975. 24. diedrich fj, thelen e, smith lb, corbetta d. motor memory is a factor in infant perseverative errors. dev sci. 2000 ; 3 ( 4 ) : 479 – 494. 25. mccune - nicholic l. toward symbolic functioning : structure of early pretend games and potential parallels with language. child dev. 1981 ; 52 ( 3 ) : 785 – 797. 26. belsky j, garduque l, hrncir e. assessing performance, competence, and executive capacity in infant play : relations to home environment and security of attachment. dev psychol. 1984 ; 20 ( 3 ) : 406 – 417. 27. jacobson jl, jacobson sw, sokol rj, martier ss, ager jw, kaplan - estrin mg. teratogenic effects of alcohol on infant development. alcohol clin exp res. 1993 ; 17 ( 1 ) : 174 –


– 946. [ pubmed ] 39. clogg cc, petkova e, shihadeh es. statistical methods for analyzing collapsibility in regression models. j educ stat. 1992 ; 17 ( 1 ) : 51 – 74. 40. mackinnon dp, lockwood cm, hoffman jm, west sg, sheets v. a comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. psychol methods. 2002 ; 7 ( 1 ) : 83 – 104. [ pmc free article ] [ pubmed ] 41. mcclelland gh, judd cm. statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. psychol bull. 1993 ; 114 ( 2 ) : 376 – 390. [ pubmed ] 42. lozoff b, klein nk, nelson ec, mcclish dk, manuel m, chacon me. behavior of infants with iron - deficiency anemia. child dev. 1998 ; 69 ( 1 ) : 24 – 36. [ pubmed ] 43. coe cl, lubach gr, schneider ml. neuromotor and socio - emotional behavior in the young monkey are presaged by prenatal conditions. in : lewis m, ramsey d, editors. stress and soothing. hillsdale, nj : lawrence erlbaum ; 1999. pp. 19 – 38. 44. golub ms, hogrefe ce, widaman kf, capitanio jp. iron deficiency anemia and affective response in rhesus monkey infants. dev psychobiol. 2009 ; 51 ( 1 ) : 47 – 59. [ pmc free article ] [ pubmed ]


in contrast to animals and lower plants such as mosses and ferns, sperm cells of flowering plants ( angiosperms ) are immobile and require transportation to the female gametes via the vegetative pollen tube cell to achieve double fertilization. the path of the pollen tube towards the female gametophyte ( embryo sac ) has been intensively studied in many intra - and interspecific crossing experiments with the aim of increasing the gene pool of crop plants for greater yield, improved biotic and abiotic stress resistance, and for introducing new agronomic traits. many attempts to hybridize different species or genotypes failed due to the difficulty for the pollen tubes in reaching the female gametophyte. detailed studies showed that these processes are controlled by various self - incompatible ( intraspecific ) and cross - incompatible ( interspecific ) hybridization mechanisms. understanding the molecular mechanisms of crossing barriers is therefore of great interest in plant reproduction, evolution and breeding research. in particular, pre - zygotic hybridization barriers related to pollen tube germination, growth, guidance and sperm delivery, which are considered the major hybridization controls in nature and thus also contribute to species isolation and speciation, have been intensively investigated. despite this general interest, surprisingly little is known about these processes in the most important agronomic plant family, the gramineae, poaceae or grasses. small polymorphic proteins and their receptors, degradation of sterility locus proteins and general compounds such as calcium, γ - aminobutyric acid or nitric oxide have been shown to be involved in progamic pollen germination, adhesion, tube growth and guidance, as well as sperm release. most advances have been made in the brassicaceae, papaveraceae, linderniaceae and solanaceae families including their well - understood self - incompatibility ( si ) systems. grass species evolved similar mechanisms to control the penetration and growth of self - pollen to promote intraspecific outcrossing and to prevent fertilization by alien sperm cells. however, in the poaceae, the underlying molecular mechanisms are still largely unknown. we propose to develop maize ( zea mays ) as a model to investigate the above - described processes to understand the associated intra - and interspecific crossing barriers in grasses. many genetic, cellular and biotechnological tools including the completion of a reference genome ( inbred line b73 ) have been established in the last decade and many more


by : yusuf kaba imhotep, the moundbuilder the concept of what a man is continues to be greatly debated. these days the dominant idea of men are, bread winners, head of household, dogs, enemies, or mates, to name a few. the question oft - times remains, “ what are the qualities that truly define a man? ” our ancient cultures have dealt with this question in rites of passage programs and ceremonies. rites of passage is a system or ceremony that recognizes transition from one stage of life to the next. comprised within this process is the knowledge needed to successfully function at that next level of life. a man was not recognized as such until successful completion of that community ’ s rites of passage. today, the entire world suffers because of the absence of this process. men today remain inadequate or unable to fulfill their proper places because they have not yet accessed the proper tools. the proof is in the results. statistics show that men suffering from a variety of health issues including heart disease, cancer, depression, aids, diabetes, and suicide. these conditions are worst in urban communities and among people of color. it is also clear that the concepts of father and husband are not seen in the best light. there is little respect for fathers and the divorce rate is constantly increasing. men have lost the idea of self - respect. this falls very short of men being, “ the crown of creation. ” there is no question in the mind of rationally thinking people that a rites of passage program is essential right now. we have poorly developed children because of underdeveloped men. we have fractured homes because of broken men. our entire society and world suffers because of the state of our men. a properly constructed rites of passages program develops men into their very best selves. it is a place of repair for the extensive damage done. it both builds and instills the qualities that produce the best examples of fatherhood, husband, and community elder. a rites of passage program provides a place for men to benefit from the wisdom of those who have dealt with challenges men face. men need to learn what to eat, how to eat, and what to store in their homes. men also learn the value of a good woman and how to treat her well. men must learn how to care for and nurture himself. men can benefit from wisdom on how to express themselves in the best way. it is also where men must learn how to mine the buried treasures out of themselves and most importantly, have fun doing it. i


| course | | course title | | credit hours | | cis 235 | | managing and troubleshooting pcs | | ( 3 - 0 ) 3 cr. hrs. | personal computer servicing and support will be covered within the following topics : physical and electrical concepts of motherboards, power supplies, bios and expansion buses ; definitions and uses of microprocessors ( cpus ), memory system resources and input / output devices ; data storage devices and interfaces ; cables, connectors and ports ; basic networking fundamentals ; operating system fundamentals ; and dos. ( a requirement that must be completed before taking this course. ) - windows experience highly recommended. upon successful completion of the course, the student should be able to : - explain the physical concepts of a motherboard in a personal computer. - explain the electrical properties found in the motherboard of a personal computer. - examine the electrical properties of the power supply. - explore the computer bios. - explain the types of microprocessors. - explain input / output devices. - explain data storage devices. - explain basic networking fundamentals. - examine operating system fundamentals. note : this course may not be offered every semester. please check the cis section of the current course schedule for availability.


in the case of residential lighting, new types of light bulbs, compact fluorescent lights or cfls, are becoming popular. wikipedia says the following about cfls. a compact fluorescent lamp ( cfl ), also called compact fluorescent light, energy - saving light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent lamp ; some types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps. the lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp. compared to general - service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, cfls use one - fifth to one - third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. a cfl has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp ' s lifetime. like all fluorescent lamps, cfls contain mercury, which complicates their disposal. in many countries, governments have established recycling schemes for cfls and glass generally. cfls radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps. improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived colour of the light emitted by cfls, such that some sources rate the best " soft white " cfls as subjectively similar in colour to standard incandescent lamps. because cfls consume significantly less power than traditional tungsten bulbs, they are one of the primary devices suggested by government and industry for reducing our dependance on fossil fuels. we have been assured that the amount of mercury in cfl bulbs and the amount of radiation given off by those bulbs is low enough that we can ignore those factors. however, scientists are learning that cfls may be more harmful to us that we suspected. i am listing light bulbs as a disaster, because the use of the bulbs is so widespread over the earth. here are links to scientific research about light bulbs and mercury pollution. in a new analysis of thousands of u. s. women of childbearing age, brown university researchers found that most exceeded the median blood level for two or more of three environmental pollutants that could harm brain development of fetuses and babies : lead, mercury, and polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ). attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( adhd ) affects approximately ten percent of children worldwide, yet its causes are not well understood. now, a study led by


, and polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ). attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( adhd ) affects approximately ten percent of children worldwide, yet its causes are not well understood. now, a study led by susan korrick, md, mph, of brigham and women ' s hospital ( bwh ), and sharon sagiv, phd, mph, of boston university school of public health, and published in the online version of the archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine on october 8, 2012, links low - level prenatal mercury exposure with a greater risk of adhd - related behaviors. but leds do have a dark side. a study published in late 2010 in the journal environmental science and technology found that leds contain lead, arsenic and a dozen other potentially dangerous substances. leds are touted as the next generation of lighting, ” says oladele ogunseitan, one of the researchers behind the study and chair of the university of california ( uc ) - irvine ’ s department of population health & disease prevention. “ but as we try to find better products that do not deplete energy resources or contribute to global warming, we have to be vigilant [ about ] toxicity hazards …. ” the researchers, led by miriam rafailovich, phd, professor of materials science and engineering and the director of the garcia center for polymers at engineered interfaces at stony brook, conducted similar research to a european study on light sensitivity. stony brook researchers collected cfl bulbs purchased from different locations across suffolk and nassau counties, and then measured the amount of uv emissions and the integrity of each bulb ' s phosphor coatings. results revealed significant levels of uvc and uva, which appeared to originate from cracks in the phosphor coatings, present in all cfl bulbs studied.


nisbet, r. m. and gurney, william ( 1982 ) modelling fluctuating populations. john wiley and sons limited, chichester. isbn 9781930665903full text not available in this repository. modelling fluctuating populations, originally published in 1982, is a classic textbook because primarily, this book takes a distinctive approach to population dynamics, by emphasizing from the earliest chapters that all populations fluctuate continuously. traditional themes in theoretical ecology such as equilibrium and population stability are linked to analyses of the response of a population to environmental fluctuations and to extinction probabilities. thus, the book ' s approach confronts head - on one common criticism of simple ecological models - the mismatch between the mathematical mechanisms studied and the questions of top ecological concern. secondly, the book demonstrates the power of techniques based on linear mathematics. | keywords : | | population dynamics, linear mathematics, fluctuating populations, probabilities. mathematical statistics | | subjects : | | science > mathematics > probabilities. mathematical statistics | | department : | | faculty of science > mathematics and statistics | | depositing user : | | pure administrator | | date deposited : | | 18 oct 2012 11 : 59 | | last modified : | | 18 oct 2012 16 : 59 | actions ( login required )