{"text": "note : using access ( ) to check if a user is authorized to e. g. open a file before actually doing so using open ( ) creates a security hole, because the user might exploit the short time interval between checking and opening the file to manipulate it. note : i / o operations may fail even when access ( ) indicates that they would succeed, particularly for operations on network filesystems which may have permissions semantics beyond the usual posix permission - bit model. although windows supports chmod ( ), you can only set the file ' s read - only flag with it ( via the s _ iread constants or a corresponding integer value ). all other bits are ignored. | path, uid, gid ) | | path, uid, gid ) | '.. ' even if they are present in the directory. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. changed in version 2. 3 : on windows nt / 2k / xp and unix, if path is a unicode object, the result will be a list of unicode objects. 0666 ( octal ). the current umask value is first masked out from the mode. availability : macintosh, unix. fifos are pipes that can be accessed like regular files. fifos exist until they are deleted ( for example with os. unlink ( ) ). generally, fifos are used as rendezvous between ` ` client ' ' and ` ` server ' ' type processes : the server opens the fifo for reading, and the client opens it for writing. note that mkfifo ( ) doesn ' t open the fifo - - it just creates the rendezvous point. | filename [, mode = 0600, device ] ) | 0777 ( octal ). on some systems, mode is ignored. where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. 0777 ( octal ). on some systems, mode is ignored. where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out. note : makedirs ( ) will become confused if the path elements to create include os. pardir. new in version 1. 5. 2. changed in version 2. 3 : this function now handles unc paths correctly. pathconf _ namesdictionary. for configuration variables not included in that mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted. availability : macintosh, unix. if name is a string", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5278710112721178, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cc9bee38-ec23-4459-b5cc-5601b63c418b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.436557"}
{"text": ". 3 : this function now handles unc paths correctly. pathconf _ namesdictionary. for configuration variables not included in that mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted. availability : macintosh, unix. if name is a string and is not known, valueerror is raised. if a specific value for name is not supported by the host system, even if it is included in oserror is raised with errno. einval for the os. path. join ( os. path. dirname ( path ), result ). availability : macintosh, unix. > > > import os > > > statinfo = os. stat ( ' somefile. txt ' ) > > > statinfo ( 33188, 422511l, 769l, 1, 1032, 100, 926l, 1105022698, 1105022732, 1105022732 ) > > > statinfo. st _ size 926l > > > changed in version 2. 3 : if stat _ float _ times returns true, the time values are floats, measuring seconds. fractions of a second may be reported if the system supports that. on mac os, the times are always floats. see stat _ float _ times for further discussion. on some unix systems ( such as linux ), the following attributes may also be available : st _ blocks ( number of blocks allocated for file ), st _ blksize ( filesystem blocksize ), st _ rdev ( type of device if an inode device ). st _ flags ( user defined flags for file ). on other unix systems ( such as freebsd ), the following attributes may be available ( but may be only filled out if root tries to use them ) : st _ gen ( file generation number ), st _ birthtime ( time of file creation ). on mac os systems, the following attributes may also be available : st _ rsize, st _ creator, st _ type. on riscos systems, the following attributes are also available : st _ ftype ( file type ), st _ attrs ( attributes ), st _ obtype ( object type ). for backward compatibility, the return value of stat ( ) is also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important ( and portable ) members of the stat structure, in the order st _ mode, st _ ino, st _ dev, st", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5083734521212221, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cc9bee38-ec23-4459-b5cc-5601b63c418b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.437531"}
{"text": "the order given above. the standard module statvfs defines constants that are useful for extracting information from a statvfs structure when accessing it as a sequence ; this remains useful when writing code that needs to work with versions of python that don ' t support accessing the fields as attributes. changed in version 2. 2 : added access to values as attributes of the returned object. none. if given and not none, prefix is used to provide a short prefix to the filename. applications are responsible for properly creating and managing files created using paths returned by tempnam ( ) ; no automatic cleanup is provided. on unix, the environment variable tmpdir overrides dir, while on windows the tmp is used. the specific behavior of this function depends on the c library implementation ; some aspects are underspecified in system documentation. warning : use of tempnam ( ) is vulnerable to symlink attacks ; consider using tmpfile ( ) ( section 14. 1. 2 ) instead. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. none, then the file ' s access and modified times are set to the current time. otherwise, times must be a 2 - tuple of numbers, of the form ( atime, mtime ) which is used to set the access and modified times, respectively. whether a directory can be given for path depends on whether the operating system implements directories as files ( for example, windows does not ). note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a subsequent stat ( ) call, depending on the resolution with which your operating system records access and modification times ; see stat ( ). changed in version 2. 0 : added support for nonefor times. availability : macintosh, unix, windows. ( dirpath, dirnames, filenames ). dirpath is a string, the path to the directory. dirnames is a list of the names of the subdirectories in dirpath '.. ' ). filenames is a list of the names of the non - directory files in dirpath. note that the names in the lists contain no path components. to get a full path ( which begins with top ) to a file or directory in if optional argument topdown is true or not specified, the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories ( directories are generated top down ). if topdown is false, the triple for a directory is generated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5001872733487681, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cc9bee38-ec23-4459-b5cc-5601b63c418b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.439868"}
{"text": "the concept of disability has changed significantly through history. at one point, disability was seen as the result of sin, either by the person with the disability or his or her parents. disability was associated with guilt and shame, and people with disabilities were hidden away. merriam - websteris definition of disability : limitation in the ability to pursue an occupation because of a physical or mental impairment ; lack of legal qualification to do something ; or a disqualification, restriction or disadvantage. most of the time, we apply these definitions to a person who dhase a disability. what if it is society that has the disability, not the individual? with the advent of modern medicine, a medical understanding of disability developed. in a medical model of disability, the person with a disability is seen as having an illness, which presumably should be cured. the person with a disability, as someone who is sick or diseased, is excused from normal life and responsibilities such as working, family obligations and household maintenance. the approach of the social security administration supports the idea of disability as something that excludes one from a normal life. to fit the administrationis definition of disability, a person must be able to prove that he or she is incapable of gainful employment. the inference is that by having a disability, one remains outside mainstream society. yet there is another way to view disability. this view considers disability as a normal part of life. after all, most of us will have a disability, whether temporary or permanent, at some time in our life. as many people with disabilities will attest, their disabilities are integral to what makes them who they are. it isnit the disability that needs to be changed. the physical and attitudinal barriers people with disabilities face are what need to change. for example, people who are unable to walk may still be able to move around as much as anyone with the use of wheelchairs and other assistive technology. the inability to use their limbs may be less of a limitation than heavy doors that donit open automatically or stairs that keep them from a building. similarly, culture and environment can dictate whether something is a disability. in a culture where healers and shamans regularly interact with a spirit world, hearing voices isnit a disability. only in societies where reading is essential to daily functioning is a learning disability recognized. in our society, a vision impairment that necessitates wearing glasses isnit considered a disability, but a mobility impairment that requires a person to use a walker is. disability is defined by context. it follows", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5491423304577856, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:77410cee-4537-4925-bfef-b65e28696047>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.453317"}
{"text": "second, are they capable of zooming in on particular areas to give reliable pictures of the future where you live? nobody much doubts that greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide accumulating in the atmosphere will cause warming. it would be a contradiction of 200 years of physics if they did not. but exactly how much warming will occur \u2014 and how it will be distributed across the globe and impact other climatic features like rainfall \u2014 depends on feedbacks in the climate system, the oceans, and the natural carbon cycle. the influence of some of these feedbacks is much less clear. one big issue is the influence of clouds. the models are pretty hopeless at predicting future cloud cover. and we can \u2019 t even be sure whether, overall, extra clouds would warm or cool the planet. ( clouds may cool us in the day, but will usually keep us warm at night. ) in the language of donald rumsfeld, we would call this problem a \u201c known unknown. \u201d and there may also be \u201c unknown unknowns. \u201d for instance, a paper in earth and planetary science letters in march reported finding fossilized ferns in central siberia that suggest that in the late cretaceous era, temperatures there were like modern - day florida. yet current climate models predict that the area should have had average temperatures around zero celsius. the british climate modeler involved in the study, paul valdes of bristol university, says this snapshot from the era of the dinosaurs could mean that \u201c the internal physics of our climate models are wrong. \u201d that the models may also be drastically underestimating likely warming in the 21st century. this uncertainty at the heart of the models seems surprising when the predictions of most global climate models seem to be in agreement. for more than a decade they have estimated that a doubling of carbon dioxide in the air will warm the world by between 1. 5 and 4. 5 degrees celsius. some experts think the consensus of the models is bogus. \u201c the modelers tend to tweak them to align them. the process is very incestuous, \u201d one leading british analyst on uncertainty in models told me. another, jerry ravetz, fellow at oxford university \u2019 s james martin institute for science and civilisation, says : \u201c the modelers are trained to be very myopic, and not to understand the uncertainty within their models. they become very skilled at solving the little problems and ignoring the big ones. \u201d these are serious charges. but the custodians of the big models say this is really a communications problem between them", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.521378125496349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b16d65e9-f659-4f06-882f-45c8ec102566>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.461778"}
{"text": "and wrote the mass strike, in which she interpreted the 1905 russian revolution and demonstrated how the lessons of the events were applicable to all of europe. unfortunately, her writings did not have its intended effect since it was presented at a time when most socialists were no longer willing to discuss a revolution. rosa returned to germany in 1906 and was disappointed to discover that there was little enthusiasm over the russian revolution. the party congress in 1906 stated that while there may have been possibilities for a revolution, they no longer were present. furthermore, she found herself increasingly alone in her opinions in the party. although the spd agreed with her that the revolution was not likely to be just one big event, it would not go along with her belief that the revolution would be a series of events. as a result of the 1905 revolution, she had refined her beliefs of the revolution. she felt that the economic structure around her was becoming increasingly contradictory and more serious strikes would break out because of the economic situation. these strikes would be countered by governmental opposition and repression, which would educate the workers politically. this would lead to the gradual politicization of the entire strike movement, although the workers \u2019 strategy would still be to economically paralyze the whole country. although the government would subdue each strike, each strike would reemerge stronger and more determined than the previous one. the series of mass strikes would ultimately undermine the capitalist order as well as educate the proletariat of the course that history was taking. however, most socialist parties disagreed with rosa \u2019 s view of the revolution and the role of mass strikes. they believed that the voters would bring them political power and the trade union movement would provide some economic power. rosa \u2019 s appeal and popularity reached a pinnacle at the start of 1914. she went on trial for a statement she made the previous year in which she renounced fighting against the french and was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison. not only did she gain attention through this episode, but rosa also came to represent the spd persecuted by the government. the first world war broke out while she was in prison, and she was surprised by it. the brutality of the war horrified her and she worked with some groups to end the war, even though she did help pass a resolution for those who wanted to use the war to further the revolution. she spent most of wwi in prison and accomplished a great deal of work. among her writings, rosa referred to the russian revolution as the mightiest event of the world war, but felt that its ultimate effects depended on what western", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5171035598970347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99a7d856-54ca-41f1-a684-8c60e9c39628>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.474927"}
{"text": "book \" the age of empathy : nature ' s lessons for a kinder society. \" \" we think that empathy evolved to take care of others that you need to take care of, especially, of course, between mother and offspring, which is universal in all the mammals, \" de waal said. what it means to be fair de waal isn ' t sure that his monkeys have what a philosopher would call a \" concept of justice \" in an intellectual sense. but the emotional reactions researchers have observed indicates that there is, at a more basic level, a sense of justice among them. among the questions he investigates : if an animal gets more than another, is there is a feeling that this is somehow unjust? and if one shares food with another, is there an expectation of returning the favor? in a 2008 study, de waal and colleagues put two capuchin monkeys side by side and gave them a simple task to complete : giving a rock to the experimenter. they were given cucumbers as a reward for executing the task, and the monkeys obliged. but if one of the monkeys was given grapes, something interesting happened : as observed in a popular video that de waal showed in his ted talk, after receiving the first piece of cucumber, the capuchin monkey gives the experimenter a rock as expected. but upon seeing that the other monkey has grapes, the capuchin monkey throws the next piece of cucumber that it is given back at the researcher. like children, the monkeys feel they \" need to get the same thing as somebody else, \" de waal said. based on experiments such as these, de waal came to believe that the sense of fairness observed in monkeys is egocentric. the capuchin monkeys were upset, selfishly, when they didn ' t get the grapes that their neighbors received. de waal believed this model of fairness would apply to chimpanzees also. chimpanzees are so closely related to us that they share 99 % of their dna with humans. but the new study, which compares chimpanzees to young children, makes de waal rethink that view. \" now with this experiment, we are thinking that they have a higher level, where they worry about reward division in general, \" he said, \" and it ' s now unclear how they differ from humans. \" the new study : a human sense of fairness? in the new study, de waal and colleagues had chimpanzees and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5234900934791442, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d1e4a43-648b-4d99-953c-f9c7f6933dae>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.491661"}
{"text": "reward division in general, \" he said, \" and it ' s now unclear how they differ from humans. \" the new study : a human sense of fairness? in the new study, de waal and colleagues had chimpanzees and, separately, young children, play an \" ultimatum game. \" this is \" the gold standard of fairness for humans \" because it has been played all over the world, by people in different cultures, to show that, universally, humans appear to have a sense of fairness. the basic structure of an ultimatum game is that there are rewards that can be divided between two individuals. one proposes how to divide them and the other accepts or rejects this offer. if the receiver rejects, no rewards are given out. human trials have shown that people usually propose a generous division of the goodies, such as half and half or 60 % and 40 %, de waal said. in the version used in the new experiment, six adult chimpanzees and 20 human children, between ages 2 and 7, participated. the setup was such that a token could be traded for equal rewards for both partners, and a token that would give more goodies to the partner who made the choice. in some trials, one partner proposes a reward division to the other via a token, and the receiver must accept the token in order for both parties to get rewards. in others, the partner ' s acceptance is not required. the researchers found that chimpanzees and children both tended to make decisions about splitting rewards similarly to adult humans. in the situation where the responder could accept or reject the division of rewards, both chimpanzees and children tended to split the rewards with their partners. but when the partner was not given the opportunity to reject the proposal, chimps and kids tended to choose the selfish arrangement - - a token that favored the chooser. so, does this mean that chimpanzees show the same sense of fairness as humans? keith jensen of the university of manchester, who has conducted similar experiments in the past, isn ' t so sure. his results did not show that chimpanzees have a sense of fairness. jensen is concerned about the results of this new study because it ' s not clear that the responders knew that they could reject offers. none of the participants, human or chimp, ever rejected the offers of their partners. \" the fact that responders never rejected nonzero offers suggests that they were not sensitive to unfairness but were only", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5125921765888057, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d1e4a43-648b-4d99-953c-f9c7f6933dae>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.492807"}
{"text": "| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( february 2010 ) | opacity is the measure of impenetrability to electromagnetic or other kinds of radiation, especially visible light. in radiative transfer, it describes the absorption and scattering of radiation in a medium, such as a plasma, dielectric, shielding material, glass, etc. an opaque object is neither transparent ( allowing all light to pass through ) nor translucent ( allowing some light to pass through ). when light strikes an interface between two substances, in general some may be reflected, some absorbed, some scattered, and the rest transmitted ( also see refraction ). reflection can be diffuse, for example light reflecting off a white wall, or specular, for example light reflecting off a mirror. an opaque substance transmits no light, and therefore reflects, scatters, or absorbs all of it. both mirrors and carbon black are opaque. opacity depends on the frequency of the light being considered. for instance, some kinds of glass, while transparent in the visual range, are largely opaque to ultraviolet light. more extreme frequency - dependence is visible in the absorption lines of cold gases. opacity can be quantified in many ways ; for example, see the article mathematical descriptions of opacity. quantitative definition the words \" opacity \" and \" opaque \" are often used as colloquial terms for objects or media with the properties described above. however, there is also a specific, quantitative definition of \" opacity \", used in astronomy, plasma physics, and other fields, given here. in this use, \" opacity \" is another term for the mass attenuation coefficient ( or, depending on context, mass absorption coefficient, the difference is described here ) at a particular frequency of electromagnetic radiation. more specifically, if a beam of light with frequency travels through a medium with opacity and mass density, both constant, then the intensity will be reduced with distance x according to the formula - x is the distance the light has traveled through the medium - is the intensity of light remaining at distance x - is the initial intensity of light, at for a given medium at a given frequency, the opacity has a numerical value that may range between 0 and infinity, with units of length2 / mass. planck and rosseland opacity it is customary to define the average opacity, calculated using a certain weighting scheme. planck opacity uses normalized planck black body radiation energy density distribution as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.672958681318005, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d3f3447-b565-4f51-9cdf-55ed1cc136a9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.543840"}
{"text": "of the code follows : \" military necessity, as understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of the war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of the war ; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor ; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy ; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy ' s country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. (... but... ) men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and to god. military necessity does not admit of cruelty \u2014 that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge, nor of maiming or wounding except in fight, nor of torture to extort confessions. it does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. it admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy ; and, in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult. \" this first statement of the previously uncodified rules and articles of war led to the first prosecution for war crimes \u2014 in the case of united states prisoners of war held in cruel and depraved conditions at andersonville, georgia, in which the confederate commandant of that camp was tried and hanged, the only confederate soldier to be punished by death in the aftermath of the entire civil war. in the years that followed, other states subscribed to limitations of their conduct, and numerous other treaties and bodies were created to regulate the conduct of states towards one another in terms of these treaties, including, but not limited to, the permanent court of arbitration in 1899 ; the hague and geneva conventions, the first of which was passed in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5102731741653824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.582562"}
{"text": "and availability of supra - national judicial organs operate routinely to provide assistance to that end. insofar as treaties are concerned, the vienna convention on the law of treaties writes on the topic of interpretation that : - \" a treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. \" ( article 31 ( 1 ) ) this is actually a compromise between three different theories of interpretation : - the textual approach, a restrictive interpretation, which bases itself on the \" ordinary meaning \" of the text ; that approach assigns considerable weight to the actual text. - the subjective approach, which takes into consideration i. the idea behind the treaty, ii. treaties \" in their context \", and iii. what the writers intended when they wrote the text. - a third approach, which bases itself on interpretation \" in the light of its object and purpose \", i. e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty, also called \" effective interpretation \". these are general rules of interpretation ; specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law. statehood and responsibility public international law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying states as the principal actors in the international legal system. as the existence of a state presupposes control and jurisdiction over territory, international law deals with the acquisition of territory, state immunity and the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other. international law is similarly concerned with the treatment of individuals within state boundaries. there is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with group rights, the treatment of aliens, the rights of refugees, international crimes, nationality problems, and human rights generally. it further includes the important functions of the maintenance of international peace and security, arms control, the pacific settlement of disputes and the regulation of the use of force in international relations. even when the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it has developed principles to govern the conduct of hostilities and the treatment of prisoners. international law is also used to govern issues relating to the global environment, the global commons such as international waters and outer space, global communications, and world trade. in theory all states are sovereign and equal. as a result of the notion of sovereignty, the value and authority of international law is dependent upon the voluntary participation of states in its formulation, observance, and enforcement. although there may be exceptions, it is thought by many international academics that most states enter into legal commitments with other states out of enlight", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5576967533170549, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.585129"}
{"text": "of them, including the prohibition of genocide, slavery and the slave trade, wars of aggression, torture, and piracy, and that violation of these universal norms represents a crime, not only against the individual victims, but against humanity as a whole. states and individuals who subscribe to this view opine that, in the case of the individual responsible for violation of international law, he \" is become, like the pirate and the slave trader before him, hostis humani generis, an enemy of all mankind \", and thus subject to prosecution in a fair trial before any fundamentally just tribunal, through the exercise of universal jurisdiction. though the european democracies tend to support broad, universalistic interpretations of international law, many other democracies have differing views on international law. several democracies, including india, israel and the united states, take a flexible, eclectic approach, recognizing aspects of public international law such as territorial rights as universal, regarding other aspects as arising from treaty or custom, and viewing certain aspects as not being subjects of public international law at all. democracies in the developing world, due to their past colonial histories, often insist on non - interference in their internal affairs, particularly regarding human rights standards or their peculiar institutions, but often strongly support international law at the bilateral and multilateral levels, such as in the united nations, and especially regarding the use of force, disarmament obligations, and the terms of the un charter. international human rights - universal declaration of human rights - declaration of fundamental rights at work - international labour organization international economic law | this section requires expansion. ( october 2012 ) | war and conflicts | this section requires expansion. ( october 2012 ) | international criminal law | this section requires expansion. ( october 2012 ) | international courts and enforcement it is probably the case that almost all nations observe almost all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations almost all the time. since international law has no established compulsory judicial system for the settlement of disputes or a coercive penal system, it is not as straightforward as managing breaches within a domestic legal system. however, there are means by which breaches are brought to the attention of the international community and some means for resolution. for example, there are judicial or quasi - judicial tribunals in international law in certain areas such as trade and human rights. the formation of the united nations, for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon members that violate its charter through the security council. since international law exists in a legal environment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5065143461946995, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.587297"}
{"text": "in certain areas such as trade and human rights. the formation of the united nations, for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon members that violate its charter through the security council. since international law exists in a legal environment without an overarching \" sovereign \" ( i. e., an external power able and willing to compel compliance with international norms ), \" enforcement \" of international law is very different than in the domestic context. in many cases, enforcement takes on coasian characteristics, where the norm is self - enforcing. in other cases, defection from the norm can pose a real risk, particularly if the international environment is changing. when this happens, and if enough states ( or enough powerful states ) continually ignore a particular aspect of international law, the norm may actually change according to concepts of customary international law. for example, prior to world war i, unrestricted submarine warfare was considered a violation of international law and ostensibly the casus belli for the united states ' declaration of war against germany. by world war ii, however, the practice was so widespread that during the nuremberg trials, the charges against german admiral karl donitz for ordering unrestricted submarine warfare were dropped, notwithstanding that the activity constituted a clear violation of the second london naval treaty of 1936. enforcement by states apart from a state ' s natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international law comes from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently and to honor their obligations. as with any system of law, many violations of international law obligations are overlooked. if addressed, it may be through diplomacy and the consequences upon an offending state ' s reputation, submission to international judicial determination, arbitration, sanctions or force including war. though violations may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded international obligations. states may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal action. in some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state ( the realm of private international law ) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of law where international law intersects with domestic law. it is implicit in the westphalian system of nation - states, and explicitly recognized under article 51 of the charter of the united nations, that all states have the inherent right to individual and collective self - defense if an armed attack occurs against them. article 51 of the un charter guarantees the right of states to defend themselves until ( and unless ) the security", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5198112184291724, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.588298"}
{"text": "the charter of the united nations, that all states have the inherent right to individual and collective self - defense if an armed attack occurs against them. article 51 of the un charter guarantees the right of states to defend themselves until ( and unless ) the security council takes measures to keep the peace. enforcement by international bodies violations of the un charter by members of the united nations may be raised by the aggrieved state in the general assembly for debate. the general assembly cannot make binding resolutions, only ' recommendations ', but through its adoption of the \" uniting for peace \" resolution ( a / res / 377 a ), of 3 november 1950, the assembly declared that it has the power to authorize the use of force, under the terms of the un charter, in cases of breaches of the peace or acts of aggression, provided that the security council, owing to the negative vote of a permanent member, fails to act to address the situation. the assembly also declared, by its adoption of resolution 377 a, that it could call for other collective measures \u2014 such as economic and diplomatic sanctions \u2014 in situations constituting the milder \" threat to the peace \". the uniting for peace resolution was initiated by the united states in 1950, shortly after the outbreak of the korean war, as a means of circumventing possible future soviet vetoes in the security council. the legal significance of the resolution is unclear, given that the general assembly cannot issue binding resolutions. however, it was never argued by the \" joint seven - powers \" that put forward the draft resolution, during the corresponding discussions, that it in any way afforded the assembly new powers. instead, they argued that the resolution simply declared what the assembly ' s powers already were, according to the un charter, in the case of a dead - locked security council. the soviet union was the only permanent member of the security council to vote against the charter interpretations that were made law by the assembly ' s adoption of resolution 377 a. alleged violations of the charter can also be raised by states in the security council. the security council could subsequently pass resolutions under chapter vi of the un charter to recommend the \" pacific resolution of disputes. \" such resolutions are not binding under international law, though they usually are expressive of the council ' s convictions. in rare cases, the security council can adopt resolutions under chapter vii of the un charter, related to \" threats to peace, breaches of the peace and acts of aggression, \" which are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5031904289853275, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.589288"}
{"text": "in rare cases, the security council can adopt resolutions under chapter vii of the un charter, related to \" threats to peace, breaches of the peace and acts of aggression, \" which are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up with economic sanctions, military action, and similar uses of force through the auspices of the united nations. it has been argued that resolutions passed outside of chapter vii can also be binding ; the legal basis for that is the council ' s broad powers under article 24 ( 2 ), which states that \" in discharging these duties ( exercise of primary responsibility in international peace and security ), it shall act in accordance with the purposes and principles of the united nations \". the mandatory nature of such resolutions was upheld by the international court of justice ( icj ) in its advisory opinion on namibia. the binding nature of such resolutions can be deduced from an interpretation of their language and intent. states can also, upon mutual consent, submit disputes for arbitration by the international court of justice, located in the hague, netherlands. the judgments given by the court in these cases are binding, although it possesses no means to enforce its rulings. the court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the charter of the united nations to make such a request. some of the advisory cases brought before the court have been controversial with respect to the court ' s competence and jurisdiction. often enormously complicated matters, icj cases ( of which there have been less than 150 since the court was created from the permanent court of international justice in 1945 ) can stretch on for years and generally involve thousands of pages of pleadings, evidence, and the world ' s leading specialist public international lawyers. as of june 2009, there are 15 cases pending at the icj. decisions made through other means of arbitration may be binding or non - binding depending on the nature of the arbitration agreement, whereas decisions resulting from contentious cases argued before the icj are always binding on the involved states. though states ( or increasingly, international organizations ) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the international covenant on civil and political rights have an optional protocol that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international human rights committee. investment treaties commonly and routinely provide for enforcement by individuals or investing entities. and commercial agreements of foreigners with sovereign governments may be enforced on the international plane. international legal theory international legal theory comprises a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5096366167607026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.590392"}
{"text": "violated by member states to petition the international human rights committee. investment treaties commonly and routinely provide for enforcement by individuals or investing entities. and commercial agreements of foreigners with sovereign governments may be enforced on the international plane. international legal theory international legal theory comprises a variety of theoretical and methodological approaches used to explain and analyse the content, formation and effectiveness of public international law and institutions and to suggest improvements. some approaches center on the question of compliance : why states follow international norms in the absence of a coercitive power that ensures compliance. other approaches focus on the problem of the formation of international rules : why states voluntarily adopt international law norms, that limit their freedom of action, in the absence of a world legislature ; while other perspectives are policy oriented : they elaborate theoretical frameworks and instruments to criticize the existing norms and to make suggestions on how to improve them. some of these approaches are based on domestic legal theory, some are interdisciplinary, and others have been developed expressly to analyse international law. classical approaches to international legal theory are the natural law, the eclectic and the legal positivism schools of thought. natural law the natural law approach argues that international norms should be based on axiomatic truths. 16th century natural law writer, francisco de vitoria, a professor of theology at the university of salamanca, examined the questions of the just war, the spanish authority in the americas, and the rights of the native american peoples. eclectic or grotian school in 1625 hugo grotius argued that nations as well as persons ought to be governed by universal principle based on morality and divine justice while the relations among polities ought to be governed by the law of peoples, the jus gentium, established by the consent of the community of nations on the basis of the principle of pacta sunt servanda, that is, on the basis of the observance of commitments. on his part, emmerich de vattel argued instead for the equality of states as articulated by 18th century natural law and suggested that the law of nations was composed of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other. during the 17th century, the basic tenets of the grotian or eclectic school, especially the doctrines of legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became the fundamental principles of the european political and legal system and were enshrined in the 1648 peace of westphalia. legal positivism the early positivist school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. 16th century", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5635261479936445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.591410"}
{"text": ", became the fundamental principles of the european political and legal system and were enshrined in the 1648 peace of westphalia. legal positivism the early positivist school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. 16th century alberico gentili used historical examples to posit that positive law ( jus voluntarium ) was determined by general consent. cornelius van bynkershoek asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties commonly consented to by various states, while john jacob moser emphasized the importance of state practice in international law. the positivism school narrowed the range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring rationality over morality and ethics. the 1815 congress of vienna marked the formal recognition of the political and international legal system based on the conditions of europe. modern legal positivists consider international law as a unified system of rules that emanates from the states ' will. international law, as it is, is an \" objective \" reality that needs to be distinguished from law \" as it should be. \" classic positivism demands rigorous tests for legal validity and it deems irrelevant all extralegal arguments. see also - consular law - diplomatic law - international aviation law - international criminal law - international environmental law - international human rights law - international humanitarian law - international space law - international trade law - law of state responsibility - rule according to higher law - united nations convention on the law of the sea - use of force continuum - diplomatic recognition - environmental agreements - global administrative law - international community - international court of justice - international criminal court - international criminal tribunal for rwanda - international criminal tribunal for the former yugoslavia - international labour organization - international law commission - international legal theory - hans kelsen - laws of war - legal status of the holy see - list of international public law topics - list of treaties - personal jurisdiction over international defendants in the united states - prize law - sources of international law - sovereign state - territorial integrity - third world approaches to international law ( twail ) - united nations - united nations general assembly sixth committee ( legal ) - university for peace - world government - history of public international law - columbia law school, mckeever, 2003 \u2014 definition of international law - greig, d. w., international law, 2nd edn ( butterworths : london, 1976 ) - janis, m. and noyes, j. international law \" : cases and commentary ( 3rd ed. ), prosecutor v. furundzi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5260312142821644, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c00fe941-1d71-49e4-b482-7f101b97ba51>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.592486"}
{"text": "support vector machine in machine learning, support vector machines ( svms, also support vector networks ) are supervised learning models with associated learning algorithms that analyze data and recognize patterns, used for classification and regression analysis. the basic svm takes a set of input data and predicts, for each given input, which of two possible classes forms the output, making it a non - probabilistic binary linear classifier. given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an svm training algorithm builds a model that assigns new examples into one category or the other. an svm model is a representation of the examples as points in space, mapped so that the examples of the separate categories are divided by a clear gap that is as wide as possible. new examples are then mapped into that same space and predicted to belong to a category based on which side of the gap they fall on. in addition to performing linear classification, svms can efficiently perform non - linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high - dimensional feature spaces. formal definition more formally, a support vector machine constructs a hyperplane or set of hyperplanes in a high - or infinite - dimensional space, which can be used for classification, regression, or other tasks. intuitively, a good separation is achieved by the hyperplane that has the largest distance to the nearest training data point of any class ( so - called functional margin ), since in general the larger the margin the lower the generalization error of the classifier. whereas the original problem may be stated in a finite dimensional space, it often happens that the sets to discriminate are not linearly separable in that space. for this reason, it was proposed that the original finite - dimensional space be mapped into a much higher - dimensional space, presumably making the separation easier in that space. to keep the computational load reasonable, the mappings used by svm schemes are designed to ensure that dot products may be computed easily in terms of the variables in the original space, by defining them in terms of a kernel function selected to suit the problem. the hyperplanes in the higher - dimensional space are defined as the set of points whose dot product with a vector in that space is constant. the vectors defining the hyperplanes can be chosen to be linear combinations with parameters of images of feature vectors that occur in the data base. with this choice of a hyperplane, the points in the feature space that are mapped into the hyperplane are defined by the relation :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6007254344064656, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.612768"}
{"text": "hyperplanes can be chosen to be linear combinations with parameters of images of feature vectors that occur in the data base. with this choice of a hyperplane, the points in the feature space that are mapped into the hyperplane are defined by the relation : note that if becomes small as grows further away from, each element in the sum measures the degree of closeness of the test point to the corresponding data base point. in this way, the sum of kernels above can be used to measure the relative nearness of each test point to the data points originating in one or the other of the sets to be discriminated. note the fact that the set of points mapped into any hyperplane can be quite convoluted as a result, allowing much more complex discrimination between sets which are not convex at all in the original space. classifying data is a common task in machine learning. suppose some given data points each belong to one of two classes, and the goal is to decide which class a new data point will be in. in the case of support vector machines, a data point is viewed as a p - dimensional vector ( a list of p numbers ), and we want to know whether we can separate such points with a ( p \u2212 1 ) - dimensional hyperplane. this is called a linear classifier. there are many hyperplanes that might classify the data. one reasonable choice as the best hyperplane is the one that represents the largest separation, or margin, between the two classes. so we choose the hyperplane so that the distance from it to the nearest data point on each side is maximized. if such a hyperplane exists, it is known as the maximum - margin hyperplane and the linear classifier it defines is known as a maximum margin classifier ; or equivalently, the perceptron of optimal stability. linear svm given some training data, a set of n points of the form where the yi is either 1 or \u22121, indicating the class to which the point belongs. each is a p - dimensional real vector. we want to find the maximum - margin hyperplane that divides the points having from those having. any hyperplane can be written as the set of points satisfying if the training data are linearly separable, we can select two hyperplanes in a way that they separate the data and there are no points between them, and then try to maximize their distance. the region bounded by them is called \" the margin \". these hyperplanes can be described by the equations by using geometry, we find", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5549763931041563, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.614389"}
{"text": "a way that they separate the data and there are no points between them, and then try to maximize their distance. the region bounded by them is called \" the margin \". these hyperplanes can be described by the equations by using geometry, we find the distance between these two hyperplanes is, so we want to minimize. as we also have to prevent data points from falling into the margin, we add the following constraint : for each either - of the first class - of the second. this can be rewritten as : we can put this together to get the optimization problem : minimize ( in ) subject to ( for any ) primal form the optimization problem presented in the preceding section is difficult to solve because it depends on | | w | |, the norm of w, which involves a square root. fortunately it is possible to alter the equation by substituting | | w | | with ( the factor of 1 / 2 being used for mathematical convenience ) without changing the solution ( the minimum of the original and the modified equation have the same w and b ). this is a quadratic programming optimization problem. more clearly : minimize ( in ) subject to ( for any ) by introducing lagrange multipliers, the previous constrained problem can be expressed as that is we look for a saddle point. in doing so all the points which can be separated as do not matter since we must set the corresponding to zero. this problem can now be solved by standard quadratic programming techniques and programs. the \" stationary \" karush \u2013 kuhn \u2013 tucker condition implies that the solution can be expressed as a linear combination of the training vectors only a few will be greater than zero. the corresponding are exactly the support vectors, which lie on the margin and satisfy. from this one can derive that the support vectors also satisfy which allows one to define the offset. in practice, it is more robust to average over all support vectors : dual form writing the classification rule in its unconstrained dual form reveals that the maximum margin hyperplane and therefore the classification task is only a function of the support vectors, the training data that lie on the margin. using the fact that and substituting, one can show that the dual of the svm reduces to the following optimization problem : maximize ( in ) subject to ( for any ) and to the constraint from the minimization in here the kernel is defined by. can be computed thanks to the terms : biased and unbiased hyperplanes for simplicity reasons, sometimes it is required that the hyperplane pass through the origin", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5575702580872937, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.615685"}
{"text": "any ) and to the constraint from the minimization in here the kernel is defined by. can be computed thanks to the terms : biased and unbiased hyperplanes for simplicity reasons, sometimes it is required that the hyperplane pass through the origin of the coordinate system. such hyperplanes are called unbiased, whereas general hyperplanes not necessarily passing through the origin are called biased. an unbiased hyperplane can be enforced by setting in the primal optimization problem. the corresponding dual is identical to the dual given above without the equality constraint soft margin in 1995, corinna cortes and vladimir n. vapnik suggested a modified maximum margin idea that allows for mislabeled examples. if there exists no hyperplane that can split the \" yes \" and \" no \" examples, the soft margin method will choose a hyperplane that splits the examples as cleanly as possible, while still maximizing the distance to the nearest cleanly split examples. the method introduces non - negative slack variables,, which measure the degree of misclassification of the data the objective function is then increased by a function which penalizes non - zero, and the optimization becomes a trade off between a large margin and a small error penalty. if the penalty function is linear, the optimization problem becomes : subject to ( for any ) this constraint in ( 2 ) along with the objective of minimizing can be solved using lagrange multipliers as done above. one has then to solve the following problem : dual form maximize ( in ) subject to ( for any ) the key advantage of a linear penalty function is that the slack variables vanish from the dual problem, with the constant c appearing only as an additional constraint on the lagrange multipliers. for the above formulation and its huge impact in practice, cortes and vapnik received the 2008 acm paris kanellakis award. nonlinear penalty functions have been used, particularly to reduce the effect of outliers on the classifier, but unless care is taken the problem becomes non - convex, and thus it is considerably more difficult to find a global solution. nonlinear classification the original optimal hyperplane algorithm proposed by vapnik in 1963 was a linear classifier. however, in 1992, bernhard e. boser, isabelle m. guyon and vladimir n. vapnik suggested a way to create nonlinear classifiers by applying the kernel trick ( originally proposed by aizerman et al. ) to maximum - margin hyperplanes. the resulting algorithm is formally similar, except that every dot product is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5433623156232655, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.616658"}
{"text": "vladimir n. vapnik suggested a way to create nonlinear classifiers by applying the kernel trick ( originally proposed by aizerman et al. ) to maximum - margin hyperplanes. the resulting algorithm is formally similar, except that every dot product is replaced by a nonlinear kernel function. this allows the algorithm to fit the maximum - margin hyperplane in a transformed feature space. the transformation may be nonlinear and the transformed space high dimensional ; thus though the classifier is a hyperplane in the high - dimensional feature space, it may be nonlinear in the original input space. if the kernel used is a gaussian radial basis function, the corresponding feature space is a hilbert space of infinite dimensions. maximum margin classifiers are well regularized, so the infinite dimensions do not spoil the results. some common kernels include : - polynomial ( homogeneous ) : - polynomial ( inhomogeneous ) : - gaussian radial basis function :, for sometimes parametrized using - hyperbolic tangent :, for some ( not every ) and the kernel is related to the transform by the equation. the value w is also in the transformed space, with dot products with w for classification can again be computed by the kernel trick, i. e.. however, there does not in general exist a value w ' such that svms belong to a family of generalized linear classifiers and can be interpreted as an extension of the perceptron. they can also be considered a special case of tikhonov regularization. a special property is that they simultaneously minimize the empirical classification error and maximize the geometric margin ; hence they are also known as maximum margin classifiers. a comparison of the svm to other classifiers has been made by meyer, leisch and hornik. parameter selection the effectiveness of svm depends on the selection of kernel, the kernel ' s parameters, and soft margin parameter c. a common choice is a gaussian kernel, which has a single parameter \u03b3. the best combination of c and \u03b3 is often selected by a grid search with exponentially growing sequences of c and \u03b3, for example, ;. typically, each combination of parameter choices is checked using cross validation, and the parameters with best cross - validation accuracy are picked. the final model, which is used for testing and for classifying new data, is then trained on the whole training set using the selected parameters. potential drawbacks of the svm are the following three aspects : - uncalibrated class membership probabilities - the svm is only directly applicable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5371876248915148, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.617615"}
{"text": "for classifying new data, is then trained on the whole training set using the selected parameters. potential drawbacks of the svm are the following three aspects : - uncalibrated class membership probabilities - the svm is only directly applicable for two - class tasks. therefore, algorithms that reduce the multi - class task to several binary problems have to be applied ; see the multi - class svm section. - parameters of a solved model are difficult to interpret. multiclass svm multiclass svm aims to assign labels to instances by using support vector machines, where the labels are drawn from a finite set of several elements. - building binary classifiers which distinguish between ( i ) one of the labels and the rest ( one - versus - all ) or ( ii ) between every pair of classes ( one - versus - one ). classification of new instances for the one - versus - all case is done by a winner - takes - all strategy, in which the classifier with the highest output function assigns the class ( it is important that the output functions be calibrated to produce comparable scores ). for the one - versus - one approach, classification is done by a max - wins voting strategy, in which every classifier assigns the instance to one of the two classes, then the vote for the assigned class is increased by one vote, and finally the class with the most votes determines the instance classification. - directed acyclic graph svm ( dagsvm ) - error - correcting output codes crammer and singer proposed a multiclass svm method which casts the multiclass classification problem into a single optimization problem, rather than decomposing it into multiple binary classification problems. see also lee, lin and wahba. transductive support vector machines transductive support vector machines extend svms in that they could also treat partially labeled data in semi - supervised learning by following the principles of transduction. here, in addition to the training set, the learner is also given a set of test examples to be classified. formally, a transductive support vector machine is defined by the following primal optimization problem : minimize ( in ) subject to ( for any and any ) transductive support vector machines were introduced by vladimir n. vapnik in 1998. structured svm svms have been generalized to structured svms, where the label space is structured and of possibly infinite size. a version of svm for regression was proposed in 1996 by vladimir n. vapnik, harris drucker, christopher j. c.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5341355225765956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.618574"}
{"text": "1995. http : / / www. springerlink. com / content / k238jx04hm87j80g / - * press, william h. ; teukolsky, saul a. ; vetterling, william t. ; flannery, b. p. ( 2007 ). \" section 16. 5. support vector machines \". numerical recipes : the art of scientific computing ( 3rd ed. ). new york : cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 88068 - 8. - acm website, press release of march 17th 2009. http : / / www. acm. org / press - room / news - releases / awards - 08 - groupa - aizerman, mark a. ; braverman, emmanuel m. ; and rozonoer, lev i. ( 1964 ). \" theoretical foundations of the potential function method in pattern recognition learning \". automation and remote control 25 : 821 \u2013 837. - boser, bernhard e. ; guyon, isabelle m. ; and vapnik, vladimir n. ; a training algorithm for optimal margin classifiers. in haussler, david ( editor ) ; 5th annual acm workshop on colt, pages 144 \u2013 152, pittsburgh, pa, 1992. acm press - meyer, david ; leisch, friedrich ; and hornik, kurt ; the support vector machine under test, neurocomputing 55 ( 1 \u2013 2 ) : 169 \u2013 186, 2003 http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 1016 / s0925 - 2312 ( 03 ) 00431 - 4 - hsu, chih - wei ; chang, chih - chung ; and lin, chih - jen ( 2003 ). a practical guide to support vector classification. department of computer science and information engineering, national taiwan university. http : / / www. csie. ntu. edu. tw / ~ cjlin / papers / guide / guide. pdf. - duan, kai - bo ; and keerthi, s. sathiya ( 2005 ). \" which is the best multiclass svm method? an empirical study \". proceedings of the sixth international workshop on multiple classifier systems. lecture notes in computer science 3541 : 278. doi : 10. 1007 / 11494683 _ 28. isbn 978 - 3 - 540 - 26306 - 7. - hsu, chih - wei", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5304114292312312, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.620395"}
{"text": "classifier systems. lecture notes in computer science 3541 : 278. doi : 10. 1007 / 11494683 _ 28. isbn 978 - 3 - 540 - 26306 - 7. - hsu, chih - wei ; and lin, chih - jen ( 2002 ). \" a comparison of methods for multiclass support vector machines \". ieee transactions on neural networks. - platt, john ; cristianini, n. ; and shawe - taylor, j. ( 2000 ). \" large margin dags for multiclass classification \". in solla, sara a. ; leen, todd k. ; and muller, klaus - robert ; eds. advances in neural information processing systems. mit press. pp. 547 \u2013 553. - dietterich, thomas g. ; and bakiri, ghulum ; bakiri ( 1995 ). \" solving multiclass learning problems via error - correcting output codes \". journal of artificial intelligence research, vol. 2 2 : 263 \u2013 286. arxiv : cs / 9501101. bibcode : 1995cs........ 1101d. unknown parameter - crammer, koby ; and singer, yoram ( 2001 ). \" on the algorithmic implementation of multiclass kernel - based vector machines \". j. of machine learning research 2 : 265 \u2013 292. - lee, y. ; lin, y. ; and wahba, g. ( 2001 ). \" multicategory support vector machines \". computing science and statistics 33. - lee, y. ; lin, y. ; and wahba, g. ( 2004 ). \" multicategory support vector machines, theory, and application to the classification of microarray data and satellite radiance data \". journal of the american statistical association 99 ( 465 ) : 67 \u2013 81. doi : 10. 1198 / 016214504000000098. - joachims, thorsten ; \" transductive inference for text classification using support vector machines \", proceedings of the 1999 international conference on machine learning ( icml 1999 ), pp. 200 - 209. - drucker, harris ; burges, christopher j. c. ; kaufman, linda ; smola, alexander j. ; and vapnik, vladimir n. ( 1997 ) ; \" support vector regression machines \", in advances in neural information processing systems 9, nips 1996,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5302013862005881, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.621248"}
{"text": ", christopher j. c. ; kaufman, linda ; smola, alexander j. ; and vapnik, vladimir n. ( 1997 ) ; \" support vector regression machines \", in advances in neural information processing systems 9, nips 1996, 155 \u2013 161, mit press. - suykens, johan a. k. ; vandewalle, joos p. l. ; least squares support vector machine classifiers, neural processing letters, vol. 9, no. 3, jun. 1999, pp. 293 \u2013 300. - ferris, michael c. ; and munson, todd s. ( 2002 ). \" interior - point methods for massive support vector machines \". siam journal on optimization 13 ( 3 ) : 783 \u2013 804. doi : 10. 1137 / s1052623400374379. - burges, christopher j. c. ; a tutorial on support vector machines for pattern recognition, data mining and knowledge discovery 2 : 121 \u2013 167, 1998 - www. kernel - machines. org ( general information and collection of research papers ) - teknomo, k. svm tutorial using spreadsheet visual introduction to svm. - www. support - vector - machines. org ( literature, review, software, links related to support vector machines \u2014 academic site ) - videolectures. net ( svm - related video lectures ) - animation clip : svm with polynomial kernel visualization - fletcher, tristan ; a very basic svm tutorial for complete beginners - karatzoglou, alexandros et al. ; support vector machines in r, journal of statistical software april 2006, volume 15, issue 9. - shogun ( toolbox ) contains about 20 different implementations of svms, written in c + + with matlab, octave, python, r, java, lua, ruby and c # interffaces - libsvm libsvm is a library of svms which is actively patched - liblinear liblinear is a library for large linear classification including some svms - flssvm flssvm is a least squares svm implementation written in fortran - shark shark is a c + + machine learning library implementing various types of svms - dlib dlib is a c + + library for working with kernel methods and svms - svm light is a collection of software tools for learning and classification using svm. - stanford university andrew ng video on sv", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5260891908197574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.622096"}
{"text": "various types of svms - dlib dlib is a c + + library for working with kernel methods and svms - svm light is a collection of software tools for learning and classification using svm. - stanford university andrew ng video on svm - theodoridis, sergios ; and koutroumbas, konstantinos ; \" pattern recognition \", 4th edition, academic press, 2009, isbn 978 - 1 - 59749 - 272 - 0 - cristianini, nello ; and shawe - taylor, john ; an introduction to support vector machines and other kernel - based learning methods, cambridge university press, 2000. isbn 0 - 521 - 78019 - 5 ( svm book ) - huang, te - ming ; kecman, vojislav ; and kopriva, ivica ( 2006 ) ; kernel based algorithms for mining huge data sets, in supervised, semi - supervised, and unsupervised learning, springer - verlag, berlin, heidelberg, 260 pp. 96 illus., hardcover, isbn 3 - 540 - 31681 - 7 - kecman, vojislav ; learning and soft computing \u2014 support vector machines, neural networks, fuzzy logic systems, the mit press, cambridge, ma, 2001. - scholkopf, bernhard ; and smola, alexander j. ; learning with kernels, mit press, cambridge, ma, 2002. isbn 0 - 262 - 19475 - 9 - scholkopf, bernhard ; burges, christopher j. c. ; and smola, alexander j. ( editors ) ; advances in kernel methods : support vector learning, mit press, cambridge, ma, 1999. isbn 0 - 262 - 19416 - 3. - shawe - taylor, john ; and cristianini, nello ; kernel methods for pattern analysis, cambridge university press, 2004. isbn 0 - 521 - 81397 - 2 ( kernel methods book ) - steinwart, ingo ; and christmann, andreas ; support vector machines, springer - verlag, new york, 2008. isbn 978 - 0 - 387 - 77241 - 7 ( svm book ) - tan, peter jing ; and dowe, david l. ( 2004 ) ; mml inference of oblique decision trees, lecture notes in artificial intelligence ( lnai ) 3339, springer - verlag, pp1082 - 1088. ( this paper uses minimum message length ( mml ) and actually incorporates probabilistic support", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5274773404915873, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.623001"}
{"text": "##l inference of oblique decision trees, lecture notes in artificial intelligence ( lnai ) 3339, springer - verlag, pp1082 - 1088. ( this paper uses minimum message length ( mml ) and actually incorporates probabilistic support vector machines in the leaves of decision trees. ) - vapnik, vladimir n. ; the nature of statistical learning theory, springer - verlag, 1995. isbn 0 - 387 - 98780 - 0 - vapnik, vladimir n. ; and kotz, samuel ; estimation of dependences based on empirical data, springer, 2006. isbn 0 - 387 - 30865 - 2, 510 pages [ this is a reprint of vapnik ' s early book describing philosophy behind svm approach. the 2006 appendix describes recent development ]. - fradkin, dmitriy ; and muchnik, ilya ; support vector machines for classification in abello, j. ; and carmode, g. ( eds ) ; discrete methods in epidemiology, dimacs series in discrete mathematics and theoretical computer science, volume 70, pp. 13 \u2013 20, 2006.. succinctly describes theoretical ideas behind svm. - bennett, kristin p. ; and campbell, colin ; support vector machines : hype or hallelujah?, sigkdd explorations, 2, 2, 2000, 1 \u2013 13.. excellent introduction to svms with helpful figures. - ivanciuc, ovidiu ; applications of support vector machines in chemistry, in reviews in computational chemistry, volume 23, 2007, pp. 291 \u2013 400. reprint available : - catanzaro, bryan ; sundaram, narayanan ; and keutzer, kurt ; fast support vector machine training and classification on graphics processors, in international conference on machine learning, 2008 - campbell, colin ; and ying, yiming ; learning with support vector machines, 2011, morgan and claypool. isbn 978 - 1 - 60845 - 616 - 1.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.539123854765199, "token_count": 411, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ddf0642-0ff8-47be-9f77-c75b451a819b>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.623715"}
{"text": "the troposphere is the lowest portion of earth ' s atmosphere. it contains approximately 80 % of the atmosphere ' s mass and 99 % of its water vapor and aerosols. the average depth of the troposphere is approximately 17 km ( 11 mi ) in the middle latitudes. it is deeper in the tropics, up to 20 km ( 12 mi ), and shallower near the polar regions, at 7 km ( 4. 3 mi ) in summer, and indistinct in winter. the lowest part of the troposphere, where friction with the earth ' s surface influences air flow, is the planetary boundary layer. this layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km ( 1. 2 mi ) deep depending on the landform and time of day. the border between the troposphere and stratosphere, called the tropopause, is a temperature inversion. the word troposphere derives from the greek : tropos for \" change \" reflecting the fact that turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere ' s structure and behavior. most of the phenomena we associate with day - to - day weather occur in the troposphere. pressure and temperature structure the chemical composition of the troposphere is essentially uniform, with the notable exception of water vapor. the source of water vapor is at the surface through the processes of evaporation and transpiration. furthermore the temperature of the troposphere decreases with height, and saturation vapor pressure decreases strongly as temperature drops, so the amount of water vapor that can exist in the atmosphere decreases strongly with height. thus the proportion of water vapor is normally greatest near the surface and decreases with height. the pressure of the atmosphere is maximum at sea level and decreases with higher altitude. this is because the atmosphere is very nearly in hydrostatic equilibrium, so that the pressure is equal to the weight of air above a given point. the change in pressure with height, therefore can be equated to the density with this hydrostatic equation : since temperature in principle also depends on altitude, one needs a second equation to determine the pressure as a function of height, as discussed in the next section. * the temperature of the troposphere generally decreases as altitude increases. the rate at which the temperature decreases,, is called the environmental lapse rate ( elr ). the elr is nothing more than the difference in temperature between the surface and the tropopause divided by the height. the reason for this temperature difference is the absorption of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5609414197857664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:289d13f0-c4f6-44f9-8b69-3daada4f7990>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.633937"}
{"text": ",, is called the environmental lapse rate ( elr ). the elr is nothing more than the difference in temperature between the surface and the tropopause divided by the height. the reason for this temperature difference is the absorption of the sun ' s energy occurs at the ground which heats the lower levels of the atmosphere, and the radiation of heat occurs at the top of the atmosphere cooling the earth, this process maintaining the overall heat balance of the earth. as parcels of air in the atmosphere rise and fall, they also undergo changes in temperature for reasons described below. the rate of change of the temperature in the parcel may be less than or more than the elr. when a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. as the air parcel expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing work ; but generally it does not gain heat in exchange from its environment, because its thermal conductivity is low ( such a process is called adiabatic ). since the parcel does work and gains no heat, it loses energy, and so its temperature decreases. ( the reverse, of course, will be true for a sinking parcel of air. ) since the heat exchanged is related to the entropy change by, the equation governing the temperature as a function of height for a thoroughly mixed atmosphere is if the air contains water vapor, then cooling of the air can cause the water to condense, and the behavior is no longer that of an ideal gas. if the air is at the saturated vapor pressure, then the rate at which temperature drops with height is called the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. more generally, the actual rate at which the temperature drops with altitude is called the environmental lapse rate. in the troposphere, the average environmental lapse rate is a drop of about 6. 5 \u00b0c for every 1 km ( 1, 000 meters ) in increased height. the environmental lapse rate ( the actual rate at which temperature drops with height, ) is not usually equal to the adiabatic lapse rate ( or correspondingly, ). if the upper air is warmer than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate ( ), then when a parcel of air rises and expands, it will arrive at the new height at a lower temperature than its surroundings. in this case, the air parcel is denser than its surroundings, so it sinks back to its original height, and the air is stable against being lifted. if, on the contrary, the upper air is cooler than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5654484566278233, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:289d13f0-c4f6-44f9-8b69-3daada4f7990>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.635002"}
{"text": "lower temperature than its surroundings. in this case, the air parcel is denser than its surroundings, so it sinks back to its original height, and the air is stable against being lifted. if, on the contrary, the upper air is cooler than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate, then when the air parcel rises to its new height it will have a higher temperature and a lower density than its surroundings, and will continue to accelerate upward. temperatures decrease at middle latitudes from an average of 15\u00b0c at sea level to about - 55\u00b0c at the top of the tropopause. at the poles, the troposphere is thinner and the temperature only decreases to - 45\u00b0c, while at the equator the temperature at the top of the troposphere can reach - 75\u00b0c. the tropopause is the boundary region between the troposphere and the stratosphere. measuring the temperature change with height through the troposphere and the stratosphere identifies the location of the tropopause. in the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude. in the stratosphere, however, the temperature remains constant for a while and then increases with altitude. the region of the atmosphere where the lapse rate changes from positive ( in the troposphere ) to negative ( in the stratosphere ), is defined as the tropopause. thus, the tropopause is an inversion layer, and there is little mixing between the two layers of the atmosphere. atmospheric flow the flow of the atmosphere generally moves in a west to east direction. this however can often become interrupted, creating a more north to south or south to north flow. these scenarios are often described in meteorology as zonal or meridional. these terms, however, tend to be used in reference to localised areas of atmosphere ( at a synoptic scale ). a fuller explanation of the flow of atmosphere around the earth as a whole can be found in the three - cell model. zonal flow a zonal flow regime is the meteorological term meaning that the general flow pattern is west to east along the earth ' s latitude lines, with weak shortwaves embedded in the flow. the use of the word \" zone \" refers to the flow being along the earth ' s latitudinal \" zones \". this pattern can buckle and thus become a meridional flow. meridional flow when the zonal flow buckles, the atmosphere can flow in a more longitudinal ( or meridi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5401667318181156, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:289d13f0-c4f6-44f9-8b69-3daada4f7990>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.635964"}
{"text": "the earth ' s latitudinal \" zones \". this pattern can buckle and thus become a meridional flow. meridional flow when the zonal flow buckles, the atmosphere can flow in a more longitudinal ( or meridional ) direction, and thus the term \" meridional flow \" arises. meridional flow patterns feature strong, amplified troughs and ridges, with more north - south flow in the general pattern than west - to - east flow. three - cell model the three cells model attempts to describe the actual flow of the earth ' s atmosphere as a whole. it divides the earth into the tropical ( hadley cell ), mid latitude ( ferrel cell ), and polar ( polar cell ) regions, dealing with energy flow and global circulation. its fundamental principle is that of balance - the energy that the earth absorbs from the sun each year is equal to that which it loses back into space, but this however is not a balance precisely maintained in each latitude due to the varying strength of the sun in each \" cell \" resulting from the tilt of the earth ' s axis in relation to its orbit. it demonstrates that a pattern emerges to mirror that of the ocean - the tropics do not continue to get warmer because the atmosphere transports warm air poleward and cold air equatorward, the effect of which appears to be that of heat and moisture distribution around the planet. synoptic scale observations and concepts forcing is a term used by meteorologists to describe the situation where a change or an event in one part of the atmosphere causes a strengthening change in another part of the atmosphere. it is usually used to describe connections between upper, middle or lower levels ( such as upper - level divergence causing lower level convergence in cyclone formation ), but can sometimes also be used to describe such connections over distance rather than height alone. in some respects, tele - connections could be considered a type of forcing. divergence and convergence an area of convergence is one in which the total mass of air is increasing with time, resulting in an increase in pressure at locations below the convergence level ( recall that atmospheric pressure is just the total weight of air above a given point ). divergence is the opposite of convergence - an area where the total mass of air is decreasing with time, resulting in falling pressure in regions below the area of divergence. where divergence is occurring in the upper atmosphere, there will be air coming in to try to balance the net loss of mass ( this is called the principle of mass conservation )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5899238108916747, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:289d13f0-c4f6-44f9-8b69-3daada4f7990>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.637053"}
{"text": "time, resulting in falling pressure in regions below the area of divergence. where divergence is occurring in the upper atmosphere, there will be air coming in to try to balance the net loss of mass ( this is called the principle of mass conservation ), and there is a resulting upward motion ( positive vertical velocity ). another way to state this is to say that regions of upper air divergence are conducive to lower level convergence, cyclone formation, and positive vertical velocity. therefore, identifying regions of upper air divergence is an important step in forecasting the formation of a surface low pressure area. - \" iss022 - e - 062672 caption \". nasa. retrieved 21 september 2012. - mcgraw - hill concise encyclopedia of science & technology. ( 1984 ). troposhere. \" it contains about four - fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere. \" - danielson, levin, and abrams, meteorology, mcgraw hill, 2003 - landau and lifshitz, fluid mechanics, pergamon, 1979 - landau and lifshitz, statistical physics part 1, pergamon, 1980 - kittel and kroemer, thermal physics, freeman, 1980 ; chapter 6, problem 11 - \" american meteorological society glossary - zonal flow \". allen press inc. june 2000. retrieved 2006 - 10 - 03. - \" american meteorological society glossary - meridional flow \". allen press inc. june 2000. retrieved 2006 - 10 - 03. - \" meteorology - msn encarta, \" energy flow and global circulation \" \". encarta. msn. com. archived from the original on 2009 - 10 - 31. retrieved 2006 - 10 - 13. | look up troposphere in wiktionary, the free dictionary. | - composition of the atmosphere, from the university of tennessee physics dept. - chemical reactions in the atmosphere - http : / / encarta. msn. com / encyclopedia _ 761571037 _ 3 / meteorology. html # s12 ( archived 2009 - 10 - 31 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5602561549075991, "token_count": 432, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:289d13f0-c4f6-44f9-8b69-3daada4f7990>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.637813"}
{"text": "case study is often defined in different ways, reflecting evolving practice. what is important then is to define the concept for yourself, and explain to your audience how you are using the term. - a research approach in which one or few instances of a phenomenon are studied in depth ( given, 2008 ). - an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real - life context ; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident ; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. ( yin, 1984 ) case study involves a detailed in depth analysis of an organisation, person, a group, an event, allowing an understanding of complex phenomena, such as organisations. a case study generally involves looking at a single case ( which already exists ), an object of study which is easily identified and separated ( a bounded system ) from other similar objects e. g. an organization, a place, an illness in one patient. case study is a useful methodology for focussing on relationships connecting everyday practices in natural settings, placing attention on a local situation ( stake, 2006 ). the case study is useful to investigate an issue in depth and \u2018 provide an explanation that can cope with the complexity and subtlety of real of life situation \u2019 ( denscombe, 2010, p55 ). research questions revolve around \u2018 how? \u2019 or \u2018 why? \u2019 and may be explanatory, exploratory or descriptive in nature ( yin, 2003 ). case study can be used to develop theory. yin ( 2003, p 1 ) notes that a case study is a way to \u2018 contribute to our knowledge of individual, group, organisational, social, political and related phenomena \u2019 case study can be used to test theory : what is it supposed to do and does it do that? case studies can be used to trace a process, developing an understanding and then test it ( bennett, andrew ) data collection case studies generally use a combination of data collection methods. multiple case studies in multiple cases, research single cases are meaningful in relation to the other cases cited. multiple case study research needs to use cases that are similar in some ways. the cases become \" members of a group or examples of a phenomenon \" ( stake, 2006, p. 6 ). this allows examination of what is similar and dissimilar about the cases. the researcher is looking for patterns and uniqueness, particulars and generalisations in the cases developed. references and resources denscombe, martyn ( 2010 ) ( 4th ed ). the good research guide", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5654052060438793, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3a2edbe4-1293-4c1d-879f-8c5b1f629fc7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.642158"}
{"text": "dissimilar about the cases. the researcher is looking for patterns and uniqueness, particulars and generalisations in the cases developed. references and resources denscombe, martyn ( 2010 ) ( 4th ed ). the good research guide for small scale social research projects. maidenhead : open university pres mcgraw hill dufour, s. & foutin, v., \u2018 annotated bibliography of case study method \u2019, current sociology vol. 40 / 1, 1992, pp. 166 - 181. fidel, r. ( 1984 ). \u2018 the case study method : a case study \u2019, library and information science research vol. 6 / 3, pp. 273 - 288. garson, g. d. ( 2008 ). case studies, available from http : / / faculty. chass. ncsu. edu / garson / pa765 / cases. htm gerring, j. ( 2007 ). case study research : principles and practices, cambridge university press, cambridge. gilbertson, d. w. & stone, r. j. ( 1985 ) ( 2nd ed ). human resources management : cases and readings. sydney : mcgraw - hill, 1985. giving, l. m. ( 2008 ) ( ed. ), the sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods, los angeles : sage. hossain, dewan mahboob ( 2009 ). ' case study research ' social science research network http : / / ssrn. com / abstract = 1444863 marshall, c. & rossman, g. b. ( 2006 ) ( 4th ed ). designing qualitative research, thousand oaks : sage. merriam s. ( 1998 ). qualitative research and case study application in education. san francisco : jossey bass. ragin, c. c. & becker, h. s. ( 1992 ), what is a case? exploring the foundations of social enquiry, cambridge university press, cambridge. sadler, d. royce ( 1985 ). \u2018 evaluation, policy analysis and multiple case studies : aspects of focus and sampling \u2019, educational evaluation and policy analysis, vol. 7 / 2, pp. 143 - 149. simons ( 2009 ). case study research in practice. london : sage stake, r. e. ( 1995 ). the art of case study research. thousand oaks : sage publications. stake, r. e. ( 2006 ), multiple case study analysis, new york & london :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5216782698598339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3a2edbe4-1293-4c1d-879f-8c5b1f629fc7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.643016"}
{"text": "we need another and a wiser and perhaps a more mystical concept of wild animals. remote from universal nature, and living by complicated artifice, man in civilization surveys the creatures through the glass of his knowledge and sees thereby a feather magnified and the whole image in distortion. we patronize them for their incompleteness, for their tragic fate for having taken a form so far below ourselves. and therein we err, greatly err. for the animal shall not be measured by man. in a world older and more complete than ours they move finished and complete, gifted with extensions of the senses we have lost or never attained, living by voices we shall never hear. they are not brethren, they are not underlings ; they are other nations, caught with ourselves in the net of life and time, fellow prisoners of the splendour and the travail of the earth. - henry beston, the outermost house, as cited by karsten heuer in being caribou : five months on foot with an arctic herd, p. 10 in the \u201c complicated artifice \u201d of immured, urban life, i often experience the living world of the animals, plants and minerals in the tundras, deserts, mountains, rivers, lakes, forests, caves and oceans like a ghost - appendage, like a part of me that i can \u2019 t shake the awareness of, though i live in a fast - moving, technologically driven human \u2018 nation \u2019 that has severed itself from these other nations both in habitat and in consciousness. the influential philosophical writings of the ancient greeks, particularly of aristotle, conveyed down to us through innumerable refracted lenses in the post - classical tradition the notion that human beings are superior to the animal kingdom as a result of their unique possession of \u2018 logos \u2019, or the capacity to reason. aristotle took this analogy even further, to suggest that just as domestic animals \u2019 benefit \u2019 from their domination by human beings, so do women and slaves \u2018 benefit \u2019 by being ruled by free men. aristotle \u2019 s writings supplied the european and early american slave - traders and slave - owners of the 17th - 19th centuries with canonical arguments for racialized, chattel slavery. what comes of the persistent human belief in separation? our human history is littered with exemplum upon exemplum of the tragic consequences of this belief. mindfulness practices provide an antidote. they help us to reestablish connections with each other and with other nations. they help us to really feel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5656980093751959, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4ce45ed4-2bf7-430a-8b37-d43dc17877f6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.657801"}
{"text": "the natural objects that i propose to consider are broadly those physical objects which are studied and referred to by science and by a common sense view, informed by science, of the world. natural objects are, philosophically speaking, individuals ; they are involved as units in dynamic, causal processes. i shall draw a distinction between natural objects and the abstract objects of mathematics, in particular set theory. natural objects encompass atoms and molecules ; cells and organisms, including you and me ; the objects of everyday life such as chairs and automobiles ; nations, continents, ecosystems, mountain ranges, geological faults ; planets, stars and galaxies. each natural object, when regarded internally, is a dynamic system with various interacting parts and components ( some of which may be natural objects in their own right ) ; when regarded externally, a natural object acts as a unit with respect to a larger system or systems ( which may again be natural objects ) of which the given object forms a part or component. it is sometimes argued that objects such as atoms or galaxies are theoretical constructs, as much so as mathematical objects ( or even, according to some, more so ). it is true that any reference to an object rests on epistemological assumptions. the approach here will be not to belittle these important epistemological questions but to leave them aside, and accept as a working assumption the practical viewpoint of people who are dealing with the world : that natural objects exist, act, and are acted upon, independently of the observer - - although any description of them or of their actions is dependent on the describer. scientific theories refer to natural objects as well as to abstractions of them ; they also refer to and quantify over other entities, in particular, the real numbers, points in space, time, and other mathematical spaces such as vector spaces, hilbert space, etc. - - these are abstract objects which are not necessarily abstractions of any natural objects. thus the ontology of natural objects may be said to be more restrictive than, say, a quinesque one. my point, however, is again not to dispute the validity of this or that ontology, but rather to describe a level of existence. no judgment will be presumed about the question of what ontological commitment should be made to abstract objects : rather, our focus of attention will be elsewhere. in the examples above and in what follows, i concentrate on physical objects. i do not mean to rule out psychic or spiritual or intellectual objects. you and i, as objects, have these aspects ; french society", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6680647864904578, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.812339"}
{"text": "our focus of attention will be elsewhere. in the examples above and in what follows, i concentrate on physical objects. i do not mean to rule out psychic or spiritual or intellectual objects. you and i, as objects, have these aspects ; french society, indian classical music, the theory of natural selection, king lear, king lear, the collective unconscious may all be regarded as natural objects. their ties to physical existence ( in the sense of matter and energy ) or to extensional ( spatial ) existence are various, and there is scope for varied theories about their ontological status ; i tend to follow nicolai hartmann ( 1949 ) in assigning to spiritual and psychic strata \" categorial dependence \" on the strata of physical existence in spaces : thus these objects are tied, however indirectly, to the physical level of existence. what i have to say will apply to such objects, in so far as they are acknowledged to exist ; and even to purely spiritual or psychic objects not tied to the physical level of existence at all, if they are admitted to exist. but i shall keep largely to physical and biological examples as being less problematic. this will also insulate the discussion from problems of consciousness and free will which inevitably come up but are not my concern here. thus the natural objects to be considered here may correspond more or less to the \" natural bodies \" of francis bacon : \" toward the effecting of works, all that man can do is to put together or put asunder natural bodies. \" ( bacon 1620, 39 ) an interesting example of a natural object is a hurricane. it is an open system, exchanging matter, energy and information with its environment, and acting as a whole. it is certainly accorded the status of an individual, in everyday language and in meteorology, even to the extent of being given a proper name ( such as floyd, mitch, zeb or babs ). it cannot be precisely identified with any set of atoms or molecules ; and any boundary in space or time that you try to draw for the hurricane will be arbitrary. meteorologists will draw such a boundary - - say, the point in time when a tropical storm is upgraded to a hurricane - - according to conventions about energy content and wind speeds, but the passing of a boundary is merely the employment of a convenient yardstick and is not supposed to have absolute significance. natural objects may usefully be described as systems. von bertalanffy ( 1968 ) defines a system as \" a complex of interacting elements \" ( although von bertalanffy '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6401551367986005, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.826018"}
{"text": "a convenient yardstick and is not supposed to have absolute significance. natural objects may usefully be described as systems. von bertalanffy ( 1968 ) defines a system as \" a complex of interacting elements \" ( although von bertalanffy ' s elements are not to be equated with elements in the set - theoretic sense, and to avoid confusion i use \" components \" ). he goes on to study systems defined in terms of partial differential equations. mesarovic and takahara ( 1975 ) develop a more general, set - based concept of system. they are able to define such notions as cascading, feedback, and open systems. natural objects can be named, or they can be defined by ostension. often, naming and pointing will be essentially the only ways to refer unambiguously to a particular object. 2. natural and abstract objects the words \" a logic \" of the title are intended to suggest the aim of depicting how we reason or infer about natural objects. set theory, as a foundation for mathematics, is a way of doing this for abstract objects. before examining natural objects more closely, i wish to compare them with abstract objects - - which i shall identify, for concision, with sets - - in order to bring out some properties relevant to both. cantor ( 1895 ) introduced the concept of set as \" any comprehension into a whole m of definite and separate objects m of our intuition or our thought \", and the modern development of set theory has retained the spirit of cantor ' s conception, in particular through the fundamental role of the comprehension axiom. even in the limited form necessary to avoid the paradoxes, comprehension formalizes the grouping together of objects with like properties into a single entity. the objects - - sets, classes - - of set theory are abstractions, the product of our mental processes ( \" our intuition or our thought \" ) which impose an organization on the world we perceive. except under a naive platonist interpretation, sets are not required to have an autonomous existence outside the formal system that creates them : that is to say, outside the language of the observer. ( the same goes for all other mathematical objects, including categories. ) thus set theory may be said to be a part of epistemology, the study of our knowledge of the world. following a hint of graham c. d. griffiths ( 1974, 87 ) i wish to contrast this with ontology, the study of what things exist, independently of any observer. from a scientific perspective, objects such", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.668395387181366, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.827492"}
{"text": "of our knowledge of the world. following a hint of graham c. d. griffiths ( 1974, 87 ) i wish to contrast this with ontology, the study of what things exist, independently of any observer. from a scientific perspective, objects such as atoms, molecules, organisms ( including persons ), stars, galaxies may be said to have an objective individual existence - - although there are borderline cases where the object ' s existence as a separate individual may be questionable, and the individuality of, say, a quark is of a very different nature from yours or mine. on the other hand, sets of objects, such as the set of all stars, or an arbitrary collection of, say, 100 people chosen at random, can exist as individuals only in an abstract sense ( though the former example may be viewed as a natural kind ). in addition, the \" definite and separate \" character of the elements of a set is not always found in nature where boundaries are generally ill - defined and separation may be relative and time - dependent. natural objects interact, are born of others, and die. to bring out how natural objects in general differ from sets, let me pause to consider the nature of one particular object, myself, whose autonomy and continuity i feel so clearly ( but proceeding in a different direction from descartes ). can i precisely be identified with a set? what about the set of cells that contain my unique dna? this set provides a good approximation to my physical extent, but there are many problems with identifying \" me \" with this set : i am not trying to attack set theory as such. i simply wish to note that the common mode of talking about the world leaves philosophical doubts aside and names natural objects ; that the language of science is full of them ( as well as of abstract objects ) ; and that set - theoretic language does not capture the nature of natural objects, as of course it was never intended to. it therefore seems worthwhile to try and develop a theory of natural objects. as jody azzouni puts it ( 1994, 4 ), mathematical objects are metaphysically inert. natural objects, by contrast, interact intensively with the rest of the world, and this interaction in fact cannot be separated from their nature. but great care will be needed because once a mathematical framework for referring to these objects has been established, the referents themselves will be mathematical objects. rigorous separation of levels of discourse will be necessary - - but this is nothing new in logic and metamathematics. sets are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6665357720906682, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.833056"}
{"text": "needed because once a mathematical framework for referring to these objects has been established, the referents themselves will be mathematical objects. rigorous separation of levels of discourse will be necessary - - but this is nothing new in logic and metamathematics. sets are abstracted ( from the latin : drawn away ) from direct physical experience. a common example frequently seen in expositions of elementary ( naive ) set theory illustrates the abstract nature of the set concept by explaining how a collection of disparate objects can be grouped together into a set merely by enumerating them or by specifying a common property - - no matter how incongruous and varied their natures or how widely separated they are in space and time. this kind of construction is counter - intuitive to a student who is not accustomed to thinking in terms of abstractions ; the natural objects one is used to dealing with in less abstract contexts do not have these properties. even the pair set axiom does not hold, in general, for natural objects. a pair of objects is not, usually, a single object ( although in special cases one will consider certain pairs as a unit ; for example a married couple is an object in legal considerations ). the same goes for other elementary set - theoretic constructions such as unions and intersections. the distinction between individuals and classes is relevant here. ( some philosophers talk of natural kinds ; others oppose individuals to \" sets \". ) this distinction, which goes back to plato and aristotle, was blurred by cantor : his sets are both individuals and classes. indeed, the principle of comprehension is a formalization of the notion that a class of objects is defined, as an individual, by a common property that they share. the subsequent development of set theory reinstated the individual / class distinction in a different form with sets and proper classes ; this happened as early as cantor ( 1899 ). different versions of modern set theory ( zermelo - fraenkel, von neumann - bernays - godel ) vary in the ontological status accorded to proper classes, as do different interpretations of the formalisms. however, the basic point here is that sets are essentially collections ( \" multiplicities \" - - cantor ) treated as individuals. a natural object is never merely a collection ; the interaction of its components is an essential part of its individuality. it is perhaps of interest to note that ernst zermelo, in his fundamental paper ( 1908 ) on axiomatizing set theory, seemed to be open - minded about whether all objects are sets : \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6303230280659708, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:53.842368"}
{"text": "an essential part of its individuality. it is perhaps of interest to note that ernst zermelo, in his fundamental paper ( 1908 ) on axiomatizing set theory, seemed to be open - minded about whether all objects are sets : \" set theory is concerned with a domain b of individuals, which we shall call simply objects and among which are the sets. \" ( emphases in original. ) for zermelo, the membership relation is fundamental ; sets are defined in terms of this relation, as objects which have elements, so that a special case is needed for the empty set. so sets are logically posterior to, not prior to, the fundamental binary relation. but unlike later authors zermelo does not rule out the possibility that some objects are nonsets. of course the nonsets which he had principally in mind were atoms or urelements ; these have continued to play a role in set theory, but only in connection with the membership relation. other possible relations or properties of urelements are not considered. natural objects may be urelements - - the raw material for forming sets - - for example, the set of all hurricanes in 1999 may be used, and abstracted, in a statistical analysis. what interests me here is not the properties of natural objects qua urelements, but what other properties they may have, orthogonal as it were to their set - theoretic ones, because not expressed in terms of the membership relation. as a first approximation, let us suppose that an appropriate language for natural objects has a binary relation, analogous to the fundamental binary relation ( \" x is an element of y \" ) of set theory, but stating rather \" x is a component of y \". this relation will have very different properties from. in fact partakes of some of the properties of natural objects : it changes through time and space. its properties in the subatomic and the macroscopic realms diverge. but we can certainly see whether set - theoretic ideas apply to, exploring the correspondence, more than an analogy, between and. as intimated above, basic set - theoretic axioms including comprehension and the pair set axiom do not hold for natural objects under this - interpretation. there is something of a tradition of alternate set theories in which some of the standard axioms are negated. we may gain clues about reasoning with natural objects from what has been learned about reasoning with weak sets. one important line of work in this direction negates the axiom of foundation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6423043898611899, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.038024"}
{"text": "set theories in which some of the standard axioms are negated. we may gain clues about reasoning with natural objects from what has been learned about reasoning with weak sets. one important line of work in this direction negates the axiom of foundation. this has been most successfully done by peter aczel ( 1988 ), building on work of boffa ( 1969 ), forti and honsell ( 1983 ), finsler, scott, and others. aczel ' s work in turn has had important applications in situation theory, theory of communicating systems, and elsewhere ( e. g. barwise 1989, barwise and moss 1998 ). aczel has built a universe of set theory, extending and not supplanting the standard universe of set theory, that provides a useful formalism for certain ways of looking at the world ( e. g. situation theory ). the axiom of foundation was historically one of the last of the standard axioms of set theory to be added to the canon. the axiom of choice was introduced earlier ( choice : zermelo 1904 ; well - foundedness and foundation : mirimanoff 1917, skolem 1922 ), but its separate status was recognized from the start, and has, of course, been a central theme in 20th century set theory. other authors have more recently examined the independence of some of the core axioms of set theory from weak base systems, thus bringing into question even these axioms that were, unlike choice, readily accepted. for example, boffa ( 1972 ) proved an independence result concerning the pair set axiom ; gonzalez ( 1992 ) showed the independence of the union axiom in zermelo set theory, using a permutation method ; zarach ( 1998 ) used forcing to show that collection is not implied 3. species and the indescribability in this and the next section i turn from a comparison with set theory to motivating influences from the sciences. problems of behaviour of natural objects, and of the constitution of an individual, have arisen in concrete situations, and i shall attempt to draw some working principles from these lessons. an important case study in the investigation of natural objects is the work of philosophers of biology on the nature of individuals. this has arisen in large part because a set - theoretic framework has been found by many to be inadequate for the ontological status of taxonomic groups. in particular, the traditional conception, which goes back to aristotle, of each species as a class has been questioned, first by michael", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6449117506938752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.040007"}
{"text": "a set - theoretic framework has been found by many to be inadequate for the ontological status of taxonomic groups. in particular, the traditional conception, which goes back to aristotle, of each species as a class has been questioned, first by michael ghiselin ( 1966 ; see also 1974, 1981, 1987 ), and then by many other authors ( e. g. holsinger 1984, hull 1978, sober 1984, sober 1993, griffiths 1974 ). they point out that to consider a species as a class, or as defined by a set of properties, is to impose on it a character that it does not have, and to miss the actual nature of species. since darwin we know : this has the added advantage of unifying the biological hierarchy of entities : at each level - - cell, organism, population, species, etc. - - there occur individuals that are defined, not by comprehension in terms of their elements ( this is impossible ), but as dynamical, changing systems whose behaviour can be characterized internally by interactions among their components, or externally by their interactions with their environment. indeed, one can extend this hierarchy to the physical level ( s ) as well ( molecules, atoms,... stars, galaxies,... ) with the same remarks still holding ( griffiths 1974 ). ghiselin ( 1987, 128 ) goes so far as to say that treating species as individuals opens \" the prospect that we can develop a single body of knowledge for the entire universe. \" thus the practical pursuit of systematics in biology broadens into a picture of the universe as consisting of individuals, each individual being bounded in space and time but not ( necessarily ) contiguous or connected, characterized by a dynamical interplay of its components and its environment, and definable by ostension or by naming and not by comprehension : when anyone tries to find the \" defining properties \" of an individual, he is wasting his time. this is equally true for homo sapiens, tellurian life, human language, french, and noam chomsky. ( ghiselin 1981, 283 ) another biological science, ecology, similarly encourages us to view biological systems as wholes, with components that are dynamically interdependent ( e. g. levins and lewontin 1980 ). the notion of supervenience ( kim 1978 ) is a good candidate for formalization in any attempt to describe the articulation of the different levels of the hierarchy of natural objects. an important principle suggested by all the above discussions is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6235414333406631, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.042506"}
{"text": "1980 ). the notion of supervenience ( kim 1978 ) is a good candidate for formalization in any attempt to describe the articulation of the different levels of the hierarchy of natural objects. an important principle suggested by all the above discussions is the inadequacy of any ( finite ) language to describe any natural object fully, other than by naming or ostension. everyday life, and the example of \" me \", tend to confirm this principle ; and of course it is fundamental to quantum mechanics as expressed in the uncertainty principle and complementarity, construed ( as in the copenhagen interpretation ) as precluding a complete objective description of phenomena : i shall say more on this in the next section. the principle of the indescribability of objects provides a contrast between natural objects and abstract objects : in set theory, the exact specification and construction of objects using comprehension and the other constructive axioms is essential. a second principle is, in contrast, shared by natural and abstract objects. in fact it is suggested both by set theory and by recent work in cosmology. cosmologists are facing more and more consciously the problem of describing everything. set theory, among other branches of mathematical logic, has a similar ambition in that an entire universe is to be constructed - - not in this case the physical universe but the \" universe of discourse \" of mathematics, the aggregate of all the abstract objects studied by mathematicians. incidentally, the habitual use of the term \" universe \" for the class of all sets is relatively recent. zermelo ( 1908 ) merely spoke, as we have seen, of a \" domain \" of individuals ; russell and whitehead in principia mathematica ( 1910 ) referred to the \" universal class \" v, and even godel in his work on v = l, which set the tone for all subsequent set theory, refers to the \" universal class \" and not the \" universe \" ( godel 1940, 40 ). the principle i am proposing here is the impossibility of describing everything. in set theory, it was necessitated by the early paradoxes and is articulated in a fundamental series of theorems, including those of lowenheim - skolem, of godel, and the related result of tarski on the undefinability of truth ( these are not confined to set theory ). even before these results, it was realized that sets have a way of spilling over any circumscription that one may attempt to put on them :...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6912100967670813, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.044439"}
{"text": "undefinability of truth ( these are not confined to set theory ). even before these results, it was realized that sets have a way of spilling over any circumscription that one may attempt to put on them :... quel que soit l ' ensemble qu ' on envisage ( pourvu qu ' il existe ), des individus nouveaux surgissent, et un ensemble plus vaste apparait necessairement ; on est bien en presence d ' une extension indefinie qui ne comporte pas d ' arret ni borne. ( mirimanoff 1917, 48 ) since godel ' s work, there has been what akihiro kanamori ( 1996, 46 ) calls a \" cornucopia of models of set theory \" ( i. e. models of everything ) and in fact these are a basic research tool. in cosmology, the attention of some researchers has been focussed more recently on the problem of everything. it arises acutely when the universe ( defined, perhaps, as what emerged from the big bang ) turns out not to be everything : when in order to account for the observed properties of our universe, it is found that the best explanation is a theory incorporating the existence of many universes, of which ours is just one. several modern cosmological theories call for multiple universes, including lee smolin ' s theory of the creation and natural selection of universes ( smolin 1997 ). andrei linde ' s \" chaotic inflation \" and \" eternally self - reproducing universe \" ( e. g. linde 1990 ) also call for many, perhaps infinitely many, universes - - if by universe we mean everything that we can in principle communicate with. smolin ( 1997, 14 ) has addressed the issues that emerge when attempting to describe everything : the problem of how to make a theory of the whole universe is thus the problem of how to construct a theory without making any reference to anything that exists, or anything that we might have imagined happened, outside of the system we are describing. a related lesson is taught by quantum theory ; thus heinz r. pagels ( 1982, 103 ) : bohr ' s principle of complementarity implies that knowing everything at one time about the world - - a requirement of determinism - - is impossible because the conditions for knowing one thing necessarily exclude knowledge of others. the separation of observer and observed, in the copenhagen interpretation, carries the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6724984309543236, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.047737"}
{"text": "expressed in terms of a space and time that were absolute and prior to the physical universe. newton himself realized this and had recourse to a metaphysical notion of space and time. leibniz also realized it and made it a central part of his criticisms of the newtonian cosmos, proposing instead a relational view of space and time. it was part of the achievement of einstein to remove space and time from their privileged position as the \" stage \" on which the events of the universe are played out, and replace them by a concept of space and time as part of the fabric of the universe, acting and acted upon by matter and energy in a dynamical system. analogously, in \" classical \" logic one first specifies the language ( syntax and rules of inference ) and then constructs \" universes \" with this language as the stage - setting. a way to avoid the paradoxes and limitations to which this gives rise is a description in which the language is no longer separate from and prior to the object being described. ( barwise and etchemendy ( 1987 ) use just such a strategy to deal with the liar paradox, although the limitations of logic to abstract objects are not challenged. i comment further on situation semantics below. ) such descriptions would be impredicative - - physicists might call them non - local - - in that the specification of a single object would involve the whole universe or a substantial part of it : that each singular substance expresses the whole universe in its own way, and that in its concept are included all of the experiences belonging to it together with all of their circumstances and the entire sequence of exterior events. ( leibniz 1686, 308 ) mach ' s principle may be regarded as an expression of this in dynamics. in quantum theory, bohr frequently noted the following corollary to, or instance of, complementarity : on the lines of objective description, it is indeed more appropriate to use the word phenomenon to refer only to observations obtained under circumstances whose description includes an account of the whole experimental arrangement. ( bohr 1961, 73 ) this means, in fact, since it is not clear where to draw the line that separates the \" whole experimental arrangement \" ( and the laws governing it ) from the rest of the world, that the description of a phenomenon implicitly includes the whole universe. such impredicativity has the consequence that one cannot construct from scratch models of a universe consisting of \" singular substances \". this would be considered by logicians a drawback of impredicativity ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6914483277969607, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.054617"}
{"text": "implicitly includes the whole universe. such impredicativity has the consequence that one cannot construct from scratch models of a universe consisting of \" singular substances \". this would be considered by logicians a drawback of impredicativity ; but in the context of the problem of smolin, it may be an advantage that not only are there no obvious models of the system which are describable from outside, but perhaps such models are in principle not possible. situation semantics ( barwise and perry 1983 ; barwise 1989 ) is a different kind of attempt to address the problem of the impossibility of describing everything in the context of the analysis of natural language. the approach of viewing utterances and inferences as situated activities differs from the present one in that it is epistemological rather than ontological. it \" shifts attention from truth preservation to information extraction and information processing \" ( barwise 1989, xiv ; emphases in original ). furthermore, its syntax presupposes the existence and discreteness - - the abstractness - - of objects. ian hacking ( 1972, 148 ), discussing leibniz ' s notion of individual substance, makes an important point : which bundles [ of qualities ] are substances? only those bundles that are active, in the sense of having laws of their own. laws provide the active principle of unity. there is a tendency in much analytic philosophy to conceive things as given, and then to speculate on what laws they enter into. on the contrary, things are in the first instance recognized by regularities. ( emphasis in original ) thus a logic of natural objects will put priority on addressing the question : what makes an individual an individual? as hacking points out, leibniz shares with berkeley the view that substances are bundles of qualities ; the important question, as in the quote above, is the converse. with the principle that each object ( or singular substance, or thing, or individual, or phenomenon ) irreducibly reflects its entire surroundings, we have come to a fusion of the first two principles mooted : the indescribability of the individual and of the universe. in combination with either of these, it implies the other. in leibniz ' s case, this third principle is a consequence of the principle of reason ( or of \" predicate - in - notion \" ) - - as is another principle, that no two individuals are exactly alike. the identity of indiscernibles has not received attention here but is indeed logically", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6471850669379049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.056126"}
{"text": "of the principle of reason ( or of \" predicate - in - notion \" ) - - as is another principle, that no two individuals are exactly alike. the identity of indiscernibles has not received attention here but is indeed logically linked to the principles adduced above. the principle of reason does not stand up to scrutiny in the light of contemporary logic, but some of its consequences may be recast for our use. in the novum organum bacon ( 1620, 41 ) criticizes aristotelian logic thus : the syllogism is not applied to the first principles of sciences, and is applied in vain to intermediate axioms, being no match for the subtlety of nature. it commands assent therefore to the proposition, but does not take hold of the thing. a modern logic of natural objects would aim to take hold of the thing, aiming to secure sound principles for reasoning with individuals without need of leibniz ' s metaphysical starting point. 1. i am grateful to john wahlert for elucidating this example for me. aczel, peter ( 1988 ). non - well - founded sets, csli lecture notes 14, stanford. azzouni, jody ( 1994 ). metaphysical myths, mathematical practice : the ontology and epistemology of the exact sciences, cambridge university press. bacon, francis ( 1620 ). the new organon, ed. fulton h. anderson, the library of liberal arts, bobbs - merrill, 1960. barwise, jon ( 1989 ). the situation in logic, csli lecture notes 17, stanford. barwise, jon and john etchemendy ( 1987 ). the liar, oxford university press. barwise, jon and lawrence moss ( 1998 ). vicious circles. csli lecture notes 60. barwise, jon and j. perry ( 1983 ). situations and attitudes, mit press, cambridge, mass. and london. bertalanffy, ludwig von ( 1968 ). general systems theory, george braziller, new york. boffa, m ( 1969 ). sur la theorie des ensembles sans axiome de fondement, bull soc. math. belg. 31, 16 - 56. boffa, m ( 1972 ). l ' axiome de paire dans le systeme de zermelo, arch. math. logik grundlagenforsch. 15, 97 - 98. bohr, niels ( 1961 ). atomic physics and human knowledge, science editions,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6288781582611878, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.058155"}
{"text": ", ian ( 1972 ). individual substance, in : leibniz : a collection of critical essays, ed. harry g. frankfurt, anchor books. hartmann, nicolai ( 1949 ). new ways of ontology, greenwood press, henry regnery co., 1975. translation of neue wege der ontologie, w. kohlhammer, stuttgart. holsinger, kent e. ( 1984 ). the nature of biological species, philosophy of science 51, 293 - 307. hull, david l. ( 1978 ). a matter of individuality, philosophy of science 45, 335 - 360. kanamori, akihiro ( 1996 ). the mathematical development of set theory from cantor to cohen, bull. symbolic logic 2 ( 1 ), 1 - 71. kim, jaegwon ( 1978 ). supervenience and nomological incommensurables, american philosophical quarterly, 15 ( 2 ), 149 - 156. leibniz, gottfried wilhelm ( 1686 ). discourse on metaphysivs, in philosophical papers and letters, trans. leroy e. loemker, 2nd ed., d. reidel, 1969. levins, richard and richard lewontin ( 1980 ). dialectics and reduction in ecology, synthese 43, 47 - 78. linde, andrei ( 1990 ). inflation and quantum cosmology, academic press. mayr, ernst ( 1976 ). evolution and the diversity of life, belknap press, harvard university press. mesarovic, m. d. and yasuhiko takahara ( 1975 ). general systems theory : mathematical foundations, academic press. mirimanoff, d. ( 1917 ). remarques sur la theorie des ensembles et les antinomies cantoriennes, i, l ' enseignement math. 19, 209 - 217. pagels, heinz r. ( 1982 ). the cosmic code : quantum physics as the language of nature, simon & schuster, new york. russell, bertrand, and alfred north whitehead ( 1910 ). principia mathematica, cambridge university press, 1962. skolem, thoralf ( 1922 ). some remarks on axiomatized set theory, translated in van heijenoort ( 1967, 290 - 301 ). smolin, lee ( 1997 ). the life of the cosmos, oxford university press. sober, elliott ( 1984 ). sets, species, and evolution : comments on philip kitcher '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6664541240977835, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa29e216-b020-4838-a6ce-5ed332a4e2c0>", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.063765"}
{"text": "| foundation of quantum theory | the following well - known experiments serve as a motivation for studying quantum theory. the experimental results cannot be explained using ideas from classical physics. | 1. blackbody radiation | | 2. photoelectric effect | | 3. compton effect | it is well - known that when a body is heated it emits electromagnetic radiation. for example, if a piece of iron is heated to a few hundred degrees, it gives off e. m. radiation which is predominantly in the infra - red region. when the temperature is raised to 1000c it will begin to glow with reddish color which means that the radiation emitted by it is in the visible red region having wavelengths shorter than in the previous case. if heated further it will become white - hot and the radiation emitted is shifted towards the still shorter wave - length blue color in the visible spectrum. thus the nature of the radiation depends on the temperature of the emitter. a heated body not only emits radiation but it also absorbs a part of radiation falling on it. if a body absorbs all the radiant energy falling on it, then its absorptive power is unity. such a body is called a black body. an ideal blackbody is realized in practice by heating to any desired temperature a hollow enclosure ( cavity ) and with a very small orifice. the inner surface is coated with lamp - black. thus radiation entering the cavity through the orifice is incident on its blackened inner surface and is partly absorbed and partly reflected. the reflected component is again incident at another point on the inner surface and gets partly absorbed and partly reflected. this process of absorption and reflection continues until the incident beam is totally absorbed by the body. the inner walls of the heated cavity also emit radiation, a part of which can come out through the orifice. this radiation has the characteristics of blackbody radiation - the spectrum of which can be analyzed by an infra - red spectrometer. experimental results show that the blackbody radiation has a continuous spectrum ( shown in the graph ). the intensity of the emitted radiation el is plotted as a function of the wavelength l for different temperatures. the wavelength of the emitted radiation ranges continuously from zero to infinity. el increases with increasing temperature for all wavelengths. it has very low values for both very short and very long wavelengths and has a maximum in between at some wavelength lmax. lmax depends on the temperature of the blackbody and decreases with increasing temperature. the shift in the peak of the intensity distribution curve obeys an empirical relationship known as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6973197535832094, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce82c755-4001-49b5-866b-576e95373ef8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.078433"}
{"text": "short and very long wavelengths and has a maximum in between at some wavelength lmax. lmax depends on the temperature of the blackbody and decreases with increasing temperature. the shift in the peak of the intensity distribution curve obeys an empirical relationship known as wien ' s displacement law : lmax t = constant. the total power radiated per unit area of a blackbody can be derived from thermodynamics. this is known as stefan - boltzmann law which can be expressed mathematically as : e = s t4, where s = 5. 67 x 10 - 8 w m - 2 k - 4 is known as stefan ' s constant. note that the total power e radiated is obtained by integrating el over all wavelengths. w. wien proposed an empirical relationship between el with l for a given temperature t : el ( t ) = a exp ( - b / lt ) / l5, where the constants a and b are chosen arbitrarily so as to fit the experimental energy distribution curves. but it was later found that the experimental data don ' t follow wien ' s empirical relation at larger wavelengths [ see fig. below ]. wien ' s theory of intensity of radiation was based only on arguments from thermodynamics not on any plausible model. considering the radiation system as composed of a bunch of harmonic oscillators rayleigh and jeans derived ( using thermodynamics ) an expression for the emitted radiation el : el = ( c / 4 ) ( 8pkbt / l4 ). ' kb ' is the boltzman constant ( kb = 1. 345 x 10 - 23 j / k ). the above expression agrees well with the experimental results at long wavelengths but drastically fails at shorter wavelengths. in the limit l - > 0, el - > infinity from the expression above, but in the experiments el - > 0, as l - > 0. this serious disagreement between theory and experiment indicates the limitations of classical mechanics. max planck later derived an expression for the emitted radiation using quantum mechanics. he made a bold new postulate that an oscillator can have only energies which are discrete, i. e., an integral multiple of a finite quantum of energy hf where h is planck ' s constant ( h = 6. 55 x 10 - 34 j. s ) and f is the frequency of the oscillator. thus the energy of the oscillator is, e = nhf, where n is an integer or zero. planck further assumed that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6318188215931222, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce82c755-4001-49b5-866b-576e95373ef8>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.079597"}
{"text": ". 55 x 10 - 34 j. s ) and f is the frequency of the oscillator. thus the energy of the oscillator is, e = nhf, where n is an integer or zero. planck further assumed that the change in energy of the oscillator due to emission or absorption of radiant energy can also take place by a discrete amount hf. since radiation is emitted from the oscillators, and since according to planck, the change in energy of the oscillators can only take discrete values, the energy carried by the emitted radiation, which is called a photon, will be hf, and that is also equal to the loss of energy of the oscillator. again, this is also the energy gain of the oscillator when it absorbs a photon. based on these ideas planck derived the expression for the energy distribution of blackbody radiation : el = ( c / 4 ) ( 8phc / l5 ) ( 1 / [ exp ( hc / lkbt ) - 1 ] ). rayleigh - jean ' s expression and wien ' s displacement law are special cases of planck ' s law of radiation. planck ' s formula for the energy distribution of blackbody radiation agrees well with the experimental results, both for the long wavelengths and the short wavelengths of the energy spectrum. please on the simulation below to see nice interactive demonstration of the physics of blackbody radiation. simulation on blackbody radiation back to top planck ' s postulate regarding the discrete nature of the possible energy states of an oscillator marked a radical departure from the ideas of classical physics. according to the laws of classical mechanics, the energy of an oscillator can vary continuously, depending only on the amplitude of the vibrations - this is in total contrast to planck ' s hypothesis of discrete energy states of an oscillator. photoelectric effect is another classic example which can not be explained with classical physics. einstein was awarded nobel prize for his explanation of the physics of photoelectric effect. the basic experiment of photoelectric effect is simple. it was observed that a metal plate when exposed to ultraviolet radiation became positively charged which showed that it has lost negative charges from its surface. these negatively charged particles were later identified to be electrons ( later named photoelectrons ). this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. please out the physics applet below which shows the effect of light on various metals. simulation on photoelectric effect the main results of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.698213388447473, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce82c755-4001-49b5-866b-576e95373ef8>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.081527"}
{"text": "to be electrons ( later named photoelectrons ). this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. please out the physics applet below which shows the effect of light on various metals. simulation on photoelectric effect the main results of the experiment can be summarized as follows : on exposure to the incident light, photoelectrons with all possible velocities ranging from 0 upto a maximum vm are emitted from the metal plate. when a positive potential is applied to the collector ( which collects the emitted photoelectrons ), a fraction of the total number emitted is collected by the collector. this fraction increases as the voltage is increased. for potentials above about + 10 volts, all the electrons emitted by the light are collected by the collector which accounts for the saturation of the photoelectric current [ figs. ( a ) and ( b ) below ]. on the other hand, when a negative retarding potential is applied on the collector, the lower energy electrons are unable to reach the collector so that the current gradually decreases with increasing negative potential. finally for a potential - v0 ( known as the stopping potential ), the photoelectrons of all velocities upto the maximum vm are prevented from reaching the collector. at this point, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons equals the energy required to overcome the effect of the retarding potential - so we can write mvm2 / 2 = ev0. conclusion from the experimental results : ( 1 ) the photoelectric current depends upon the intensity of the light used. it is independent of the wavelength of the light [ see fig. ( a ) above ]. ( 2 ) the photoelectrons are emitted with all possible velocities from 0 upto a maximum vm which is independent of the intensity of the incident light, but depends only on its wavelength ( or frequency ). it is found that if f is the frequency of the light used, then the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases linearly with f [ see figs. ( b ) and ( c ) above ]. ( 3 ) photoelectron emission is an instantaneous effect. there is no time gap between the incidence of the light and the emission of the photoelectrons. ( 4 ) the straight line graph showing the variation of the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons with the frequency f of the light intersects the abscissa at some point f0. no photoelectron emission takes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6127199935251089, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce82c755-4001-49b5-866b-576e95373ef8>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.083211"}
{"text": "the photoelectrons. ( 4 ) the straight line graph showing the variation of the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons with the frequency f of the light intersects the abscissa at some point f0. no photoelectron emission takes place in the frequency range f < f0. this minimum frequency f0 is known as the threshold frequency. its value depends on the nature of the emitting material [ see fig. ( c ) above ]. breakdown of classical physics : according to classical physics - ( a ) light is an electromagnetic wave - the intensity of light is determined by the amplitudes of these electromagnetic oscillations. when light falls on an electron bound in an atom, it gains energy from the oscillating electric field. larger the amplitude of oscillations, larger is the energy gained by the emitted electron - thus energy of the emitted electrons should depend on the intensity of the incident light. this is in contrast to what has been observed in experiment ( point 2 above ). ( b ) according to the electromagnetic theory, the velocity of the emitted electrons should not depend on the frequency of the incident light. whatever may be the frequency of the incident light, the electron would be emitted if it gets sufficient time to collect the necessary energy for emission. so the photoelectric emission is not an instantaneous effect. these are in contrary to points 3 and 4 above. ( c ) finally, the incident electromagnetic wave acts equally on all the electrons of the metal surface. there is no reason why only some electrons will be able to collect the necessary energy for emission from the incident waves. given sufficient time, all electrons should be able to collect the energy necessary for emission. so there is no reason why the photoelectric current should depend upon the intensity of the incident light. however, this is again in contrary to the observed facts ( point 1 above ). einstein ' s light quantum hypothesis and photoelectric equation : we have seen from above that the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident light. in terms of equation we have mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = af - w where a and w are constants. w is known as the work function of the emitting material. the constant a was determined experimentally and is found to be equal to the planck ' s constant h. we can then rewrite the above equation as - mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = hf - w. for the special value of f =", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6431279820304105, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce82c755-4001-49b5-866b-576e95373ef8>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.084708"}
{"text": "a was determined experimentally and is found to be equal to the planck ' s constant h. we can then rewrite the above equation as - mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = hf - w. for the special value of f = f0 = w / h, the k. e. of the emitted photoelectrons becomes zero. so there will be no photoelectron emission if f < f0. f0 is the threshold frequency. the equation, mvm2 / 2 = ev0 = hf - hf0 is known as the famous einstein ' s photoelectric equation. einstein used the quantum hypothesis of planck to explain the photoelectric effect. he postulated that light is emitted from a source in the form of energy packets of the amount hf known as the light quantum or photon. this is known as einstein ' s light quantum hypothesis. when a photon of energy hf falls on an electron bound inside an atom, the electron absorbs the energy hf and is emitted from the atom provided that hf is greater than the energy of binding of the electron in the atom which is equal to the work function w of the metal. the surplus of energy ( hf - w ) is taken away by the electron as its kinetic energy. obviously if hf < w, i. e. f < f0, no photoelectric emission can take place. this explains the existence of the threshold frequency. furthermore, according to einstein ' s theory, larger the number of photons falling on the metal, greater is the probability of their encounter with the atomic electrons and hence greater is the photoelectric current. so the increase of photoelectric current with the increasing light intensity can be easily explained. finally, as soon as the photon of energy hf > w falls on an electron, the latter absorbs it and is emitted instantaneously. note that einstein ' s light quantum hypothesis postulates the corpuscular nature of light in contrast to the wave nature. we will talk about this wave - particle duality later on in this course. back to top the discovery of compton scattering of x - rays provides direct support that light consists of pointlike quanta of energy called photons. a schematic diagram of the apparatus used by compton is shown in the figure below. a graphite target was bombarded with monochromatic x - rays and the wavelength of the scattered radiation was measured with a rotating crystal spectrometer. the intensity was determined by a movable ionization chamber", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6812795023707788, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce82c755-4001-49b5-866b-576e95373ef8>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.085641"}
{"text": "compton is shown in the figure below. a graphite target was bombarded with monochromatic x - rays and the wavelength of the scattered radiation was measured with a rotating crystal spectrometer. the intensity was determined by a movable ionization chamber that generated a current proportional to the x - ray intensity. compton measured the dependence of scattered x - ray intensity on wavelength at three different scattering angles of 45o, 90o, and 135o. the experimental intensity vs. wavelength plots observed by compton for the above three scattering angles ( see fig. below ) show two peaks, one at the wavelength l of the incident x - rays and the other at a longer wavelength l '. the functional dependence of l ' on the scattering angle and l was predicted by compton to be : l ' - l = ( h / mec ) [ 1 - cosq ] = l0 [ 1 - cosq ]. the factor l0 = h / mec, also known as compton wavelength can be calculated to be equal to 0. 00243 nm. the physics of compton effect : to explain his observations compton assumed that light consists of photons each of which carries an energy hf and a momentum hf / c ( as p = e / c = hf / c ). when such a photon strikes a free electron the electron gets some momentum ( pe ) and kinetic energy ( te ) due to the collision, as a result of which the momentum and energy of the photon are reduced. considering energy and momentum conservation ( for the detail derivation please here ) one can derive the change in wavelength due to compton scattering : l ' - l = ( h / mec ) [ 1 - cosq ]. note that the result is independent of the scattering material and depends only on the angle of scattering. the appearance of the peak at the longer wavelength in the intensity vs. wavelength curve is due to compton scattering from the electron which may be considered free, since its energy of binding in the atom is small compared to the energy hf of the photon. the appearance of the other peak at the wavelength of the incident radiation is due to scattering from a bound electron. in this case the recoil momentum is taken up by the entire atom, which being much heavier compared to the electron, produces negligible wavelength shift. compton effect gives conclusive evidence in support of the corpuscular character of electromagnetic radiation. please out the simulation below which shows compton scattering. simulation on compton scattering back to top \u00a9 kingshuk majumdar ( 2000 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5966028822704441, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce82c755-4001-49b5-866b-576e95373ef8>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.086854"}
{"text": "bivalves in time and space ( bits ) : clams as tools to understand macroevolution 2011 reu project : this study is part of a collaborative effort ( see also www. bivatol. org / bits / ) to develop bivalves as a model clade for macroevolutionary studies. by integrating molecular, morphological and paleontological datasets, bits aims to test methods of molecular clock dating, ancestral state reconstruction and historical biogeography, as well as to detect spatial and temporal trends in evolution. bits researchers at the field museum concentrate on the morphological and paleontological components of the project, investigating the evolution of numerous shell and anatomical features in two of the commonest bivalve lineages - venus clams and cockles. research methods and techniques : reu participants in the project will receive an introduction to bivalve morphology and systematics, with particular focus on shell characters - i. e., those that preserve well in fossils. they will prepare specimens, document diagnostic characters with optical and scanning electron microscopy, build and analyze phylogenetic trees, and gain experience with relevant literature research and collection management techniques. curator / advisors : dr. rudiger bieler, zoology / invertebrates, in collaboration with postdoctoral fellow dr. andre sartori. reu intern : katherine anderson ecology and evolutionary biology major university of michigan, ann arbor symposium presentation title : diversity of venus clams : building an online resource for species identification symposium presentation abstract : venerids, commonly known as venus clams, are the most diverse family of marine bivalves, with over 500 extant species. they are found on every continent except antarctica, and many are edible, commercially collected and cultured, comprising an important food source worldwide. despite their prevalence and economic importance, there is still no freely accessible, online catalogue available to aid in recognition of venerid species. species identification is crucial not only for economic reasons, but also for conserving biodiversity and ensuring accuracy in scientific studies. an online catalogue consisting of individual species pages with detailed morphological descriptions and high quality photographs is being built in order to provide a resource that is both complete and available for anyone to use. specimens from the collections of the field museum of natural history were identified to species level using primary and secondary literature. following identification, the morphology of the shell of each species was thoroughly described based on characteristics of all specimens available. descriptions include details of overall shape and coloration, as well as features important for bivalve taxonomy, such as the morphology of the hinge", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5436746286003864, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9852024a-517f-481c-8747-c26fb866b524>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.101974"}
{"text": "robert a. pritzker assistant curator of meteoritics and polar studies philipp heck and co - authors from the max - planck - institute for chemistry in germany had their paper on the first isotopic analysis of sulfur - rich comet dust published in the april issue of the journal meteoritics & planetary science. the dust was captured during a flyby of comet wild 2 by nasa \u2019 s stardust mission and returned to earth. the robert a. pritzker center for meteoritics and polar studies is proud to announce the newest addition to the meteorite collection. the newly named meteorite thika, recently classified as a l6 ordinary chondrite, was donated to the center by collections and research committee member terry boudreaux in mid - september. field museum researchers at the robert a. pritzker center for meteoritics and polar studies have received a second target foil from the interstellar dust collector onboard nasa ' s stardust mission - that returned the first solid extraterrestrial material to earth from beyond the moon. we announce a call for abstracts for the session p15 \u201c laboratory analysis of extraterrestrial dust returned to earth \u201d at the fall meeting 2011 of the american geophysical union ( agu ), december 5 - 9, 2011 san francisco, california, usa. collections & research committee member terry boudreaux donated a very unusual meteorite specimen to the field museum \u2019 s robert a. pritzker center for meteoritics and polar studies. the meteorite is named nwa 5492 after northwest africa where it was found. its petrology and chemical composition are very different compared to other meteorites and it cannot be classified with the existing scheme. about 470 million years ago \u2013 in a time period called ordovician \u2013 the parent asteroid of one of the l chondrites, one of the most common meteorite types, was disrupted in a collision with another body. this event led to a subsequent bombardment of earth with collisional debris for at least 10 million years. this finding is reported in a recent study in earth and planetary science letters by field museum scientists dr. birger schmitz ( research associate ), robert a. pritzker assistant curator of meteoritics and polar studies dr. philipp heck, and an international team of coauthors. right after the mifflin meteorite fell in sw wisconsin in april 2010 the robert a. pritzker assistant curator of meteoritics and polar studies dr. philipp r. heck coordinated an international study to determine the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5050543896737705, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5f953902-9e10-4542-9451-f2f8fa14bc64>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.111682"}
{"text": "air force project could ' transform ' supercomputing recent advances in supercomputing haven \u2019 t just been about speed, but in developing more energy - efficient architectures, as the energy department has shown with sequoia at lawrence livermore national laboratory and work on titan at oak ridge national laboratory. the air force is heading down this path too, recently awarding a contract to wu feng, associate professor of computer science in the college of engineering at virginia tech, to speed up simulations of its unmanned micro air vehicles ( mavs ). the tiny aircraft, as small as five inches, with insect - sized models expected in the future, can be used in a variety of military and hazardous conditions. feng, a proponent of green supercomputing, plans to carry out the project with an approach to multi - and many - core parallel computing that he said will \u201c transform supercomputing, \u201d according to a virginia tech announcement. the air force project will make use of accelerator - based supercomputers such as hokiespeed, which feng designed and built in 2011 for a mere ( in supercomputing terms ) $ 1. 4 million national science foundation grant. virginia tech ' s wu feng on hokiespeed via vimeo the approach to mav simulations \u2014 conducted under a contract with a maximum of $ 6 million over five years \u2014 is a multidisciplinary effort, involving aerospace and mechanical engineers, mathematicians and computer scientists from virginia tech and north carolina state university, who by combining advances in math, algorithms and engineering will develop computational fluid dynamic codes and supporting hardware and software, virginia tech said. researchers expect to \u201c achieve substantial speed - up over current simulations and provide significantly better utilization of the underlying and co - designed hardware - software of a supercomputer, \u201d feng said. improving performance through parallel hardware and co - designed software is an emerging field, he said. \u201c furthermore, coupling hardware - software co - design with advances in algorithmic innovation offers the promise of multiplicative speed - ups, \u201d he said. as supercomputing has gotten steadily more powerful, the amount of energy the machines draw has become a concern. that \u2019 s one reason feng and kirk cameron of the virginia tech college of engineering started the green500, which ranks supercomputers, in essence, according to how much mileage they get out of the power they use. feng \u2019 s work on efficient computing dates to when he worked at los alamos national laboratory, where he built a 240 - node cluster", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5109900648018091, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:943bcd86-b76c-4b12-ae9b-a39839ac294b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.132832"}
{"text": "the neem tree has been called \" the village pharmacy \" because its bark, leaves, sap, fruit, seeds, and twigs have so many diverse uses in the traditional medicine of india. this member of the mahogany family has been used medicinally for at least 4, 000 years and is held in such esteem that indian poets called it sarva roga nivarini, meaning \" the one that can cure all ailments. \" mohandas gandhi encouraged scientific investigation of the neem tree as part of his program to revitalize indian traditions, which eventually let to more than 2, 000 research papers and intense commercial interest. at least 50 patents have been filed on neem and neem - based products in the united states for control of insects in food and ornamental crops. however, the indian government and many nongovernmental organizations have united to overthrow some patents of this type, which they regard as \" folk - wisdom piracy. \" one fear is that if neem is patented, indigenous people who already use it will lose the right to continue to do so. another point is the fundamental question : who owns the genetic diversity of plants? the nations where the plants come from or the transnational corporations that pay for the research into those plants? although this area of international law is rapidly evolving, a patent on the spice turmeric has already been overturned, and neem may follow soon. at least 100 bioactive substances have been found in neem, including nimbidin, azadiracthins, and other triterpenoids and limonoids. although the scientific evidence for all of neem ' s uses in healthcare remains preliminary, the intense interest in the plant will eventually lead to proper double - blind, placebo - controlled trials. ( for information on why such studies are so important, see why does this database rely on double - blind studies? ) because of the numerous parts of the neem tree used, and the many different ways these can be prepared, the only advice we can give at this time is to follow the directions on the label of the neem product you purchase. for all these reasons, as well as the lack of comprehensive safety investigation of neem products other than neem oil, we recommend that young children, pregnant or nursing women, or individuals with severe liver or kidney disease avoid use of neem. - reviewer : ebsco cam review board - review date : 07 / 2012 - - update date : 07 / 25 / 2012 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5049880931613189, "token_count": 503, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8e763d24-b19f-4d66-9284-26d4da20e630>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.145825"}
{"text": "charles peirce and allan marquand charles sanders peirce ( 1839 \u2013 1914 ) was a famous american philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist. peirce was an innovator in many fields, including philosophy of science, epistemology, metaphysics, mathematics, statistics, research methodology, and the design of experiments in astronomy, geophysics, and psychology, but he considered himself a logician first and foremost ( he was perhaps the leading logician in the world at that time ). he made major contributions to logic, but logic for him encompassed much of that which is now called epistemology and philosophy of science. he saw logic as the formal branch of semiotics, of which he is a founder. one of his striking discoveries in foundational mathematics was ( in 1880 ) how boolean algebra could be expressed via a single binary operation, either nand or its dual, nor. from 1879 till 1884 peirce was a lecturer on the logic at the new johns hopkins university. although his appointment at hopkins was in logic, he was also busy there with research in psychology and philosophy. peirce had a number of talented students in logic, whose work may be sampled in studies in logic, printed in 1883. among this bright pupils was allan marquand ( 1853 - 1924 ), at that time fellow in philosophy and ethics at hopkins, until he graduated in 1880 as ph. d. in philosophy. his thesis, supervised by peirce, was on the logic of philodemus. marquand returned to princeton in 1881 to teach latin and logic. during the 1881 - 82 academic year, he built a mechanical logical machine, that is interesting for us. the machine was presented in 1885 and described in the 1886 article a new logical machine. allan worked within the history of logic and upon trying to improve the design and function of what were then called logical machines, at least they were so called within peirce ' s circle. marquand however decided to went further and began with improvements upon the logical piano of jevon. ( it is unknown, if marquand was acquainted with the logical machine of british logician and philosopher john venn ( 1834 - 1920 ). venn speculates on the design of a logical machine, based on the machine of jevons. he even gives schematic diagrams for the construction of such a machine for four propositions, but it is not clear whether the machine was ever built. ) the logical machine of marquand ( see the nearby photo ) was designed to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5477138219708815, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e63fcd28-4677-4433-b041-13a7f2a25d31>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.187455"}
{"text": "in the applet below you see 1d realisation of white and correlated noise with equidistant step in x. independent random points uniform distribution on interval ( - 1, 1 ) make the white noise ( the blue curve ). correlated random points vi ( the red curve ) are obtained by averaging of white noise in radius rc sphere, i. e. kernel ko is used vi = = - rc, rc fi + j to get a 2d fractal noise ( mountain ) you take an elastic string ( see fig. 1 ), then a random vertical displacement is applied to its middle point. the process is repeated recursively to the middle point of every new segment. the random displacement decreases m times each iteration ( usually m = 2 are used ). using fourier transformation for v ( r ), k ( r ), f ( r ) g ( k ) = g ( r ) eikr dr, we get for v ( k ) v ( k ) = k ( k ) f ( k ). i. e. averaging ( * ) means the white noise filtration by means of a filter with bandwidth k ( k ). the bandwidths for the two used filters are shown in fig. 3 ( for rc = 1 ) kg ( k ) ~ exp [ - ( rck ) 2 ], ko ~ sin ( rck ) / k. at last 2d correlated random landscape. to get a smooth potential 2d gauss kernel is used percolation in random potential landscape drag mouse to rotate 3d image ( with \" shift \" to zoom it ). the white line ( in the blue bar to the right ) corresponds to the average < v > value. the yellow line corresponds to the fermi energy \u03b5f. drag the line by mouse to change \u03b5f. see also 3d mountains and hidden surface removal algorithms.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5813932657053302, "token_count": 376, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad8ea79d-d059-4e6b-9162-059c5c2dc206>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.191347"}
{"text": "after maintaining a steady pace for a century, lighting technology has begun to leap forward, fueled by tightening energy efficiency standards and hefty incentives for manufacturers. and despite a bit of price shock on some lighting products, co - op members - especially large commercial and industrial accounts - are working with their local, not - for - profit, consumer - owned power providers to see if emerging lighting options can curb rising costs. congress first enacted improved energy efficiency standards for incandescent bulbs under the federal energy independence and security act of 2007. but when new lightbulb rules began to take effect in 2012, they were met with confusion. under the law, by 2014, lightbulbs using between 40 - w to 100 - w must consume at least 28 percent less energy than traditional incandescents, which will save americans an estimated $ 6 billion to $ 10 billion in lighting costs annually. the measure also mandates that lightbulbs become 70 percent more efficient by 2020. in june of this year, the u. s. house passed an amendment to stop enforcement of these standards, mirroring a funding freeze for enforcement efforts adopted in late 2011. yet even if the provision becomes law, very little will change. congress has not repealed or adjusted existing lightbulb efficiency standards or changed the timeline for implementation. major lighting manufacturers like general electric, philips, and osram sylvania continue working to comply with the 2007 law. as the next wave of standards kicks in, traditional 75 - w incandescent lightbulbs will no longer be available as of january 1, 2013, and 40 - w and 60 - w versions will no longer be available as of january 1, 2014. in the race to fill the nation \u2019 s growing need for efficient lighting comes a new breed of illuminators, led by light - emitting diodes ( leds ). incandescent bulbs create light using a thin wire ( filament ) inside a glass bulb - a delicate connection that can easily be broken, as frustrated homeowners can attest. in contrast, leds are at the forefront of solid - state lighting - small, packed electronic chip devices. two conductive materials are placed together on a chip ( a diode ). electricity passes through the diode, releasing energy in the form of light. invented in 1960 by general electric, the first leds were red - the color depends on materials placed on the diode. yellow, green, and orange leds were created in the 1970s and the recipe for the color", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5047602426705152, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:23ca6841-392b-449b-ac48-b37d3b4e2f38>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.200575"}
{"text": "in the form of light. invented in 1960 by general electric, the first leds were red - the color depends on materials placed on the diode. yellow, green, and orange leds were created in the 1970s and the recipe for the color blue - the foundation for white leds - was unlocked in the mid - 1990s. originally used in remote controls, exit signs, digital watches, alarm clocks, and car signal lights, leds quickly gained momentum for large - scale lighting. by 2030, the u. s. department of energy estimates solid - state lighting technologies could reduce the amount of electricity used for lighting ( currently 13. 6 percent of the nation \u2019 s total ) by half, saving up to $ 30 billion a year in energy costs. electric cooperatives are supporting led study through the cooperative research network ( crn ), an arm of the arlington, va. - based national rural electric cooperative association. recently, crn worked with western farmers electric cooperative, a generation and transmission cooperative based in anadarko, okla., and the oklahoma state university animal science department to evaluate leds at a farrowing operation and a dairy farm in the sooner state. the project measured the effectiveness of leds in harsh environments and looked for any influence on animal behavior. t - bar m dairy ranch, outside of durant, okla., normally uses 250 - w metal halide lights in its barns. crn exchanged those bulbs in 10 fixtures with 120 - w leds. after six months, the dairy had cut energy use by 55 percent and boosted brightness by 30 percent. \u201c utility costs go up every year - that \u2019 s reality, \u201d explains tami tollenaar, who manages the dairy. \u201c to move forward in your business, you have to look for ways to be more efficient. leds are one of the things we can do to help us move forward. \u201d crn also worked with robinson family farms, a 380, 000 - head hog operation in holdenville, okla. the farm already used compact fluorescent lamps ( cfls ) but had problems because those bulbs didn \u2019 t work well in harsh conditions. \u201c lighting for a swine facility is pretty important, \u201d explains owner rich robinson. \u201c we try to convince the sows it \u2019 s spring year - round to improve their eating habits. \u201d crn switched 25 fixtures from 26 - w cfls to 15 - w leds. after six months, robinson slashed his energy use by 54 percent. \u201c i was worried because normally when", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5112407055670598, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:23ca6841-392b-449b-ac48-b37d3b4e2f38>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.201492"}
{"text": "intellectual knowledge appears to be innate and privy to the few, but in fact, access to information, development of intellectual work skills, time investment, and the maintenance of intellectual appearances are key to being perceived as an intellectual. to make education more equitable, professors must go beyond knowledge transmission and instruct students in the concrete skills of knowledge acquisition and knowledge presentation. instruction in intellectual skills - acquisition implies the breakdown of the traditional professor - student relationship and of the academic intellectual hierarchy and professors must learn to cope with the consequences of adopting new pedagogies. if we wish to share the secrets of our professions, how do we prepare our students for such a democratic approach and at the same time maintain our professional status? the author, a professor of spanish language and literature, presents strategies for democratizing education and demystifying intellectual work through the application of skills - based pedagogical methodologies to the teaching of literature. the implications that these strategies have for a new type of learning and the impact that they have on social stratification will also be discussed. | keywords : | | democratizing education, demystifying intellectual work, knowledge acquisition skills, interpretative skills, teaching literature, skills based teaching | assistant professor of spanish, department of literature and languages, roosevelt university, chicago, illinois, usa there are currently no reviews of this product. write a review", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5219079661918151, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2db016d0-d509-4003-8288-668024b1c2bf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.203816"}
{"text": "needs to know the features of the sound methodology so as to distinguish sound lecturers from others and look for their tapes, which they can listen to with confidence. among these features are : the lecturer should be a believer in the \u2018 aqeedah of the saved group, ahl al - sunnah wa \u2019 l - jamaa \u2019 ah, adhering to the sunnah and firmly rejecting bid \u2019 ah. the speaker should be moderate, neither extremist nor he should base his talks on sound ahaadeeth, and beware of weak and fabricated ahaadeeth. he should have insight into people \u2019 s situations and the realities of the ummah, and should offer the appropriate remedy for any problem, giving the people what they need. he should speak the truth as much as he can, and not utter falsehood or please the people by angering allaah. we often find that tapes for children have a great influence on them, whether by helping them to memorize qur \u2019 aan by listening to a young reader, or du \u2019 aa \u2019 s to be recited at various times of day and night, or islamic manners, or nasheeds ( religious \u201c songs \u201d with no instrumental accompaniment ) with a useful message, and so on. putting tapes in drawers in an organized fashion will make it easier to find them, and will also protect them from getting damaged or from being played with by young children. we should distribute good tapes by giving or lending them to others after listening to them. having a recorder in the kitchen will be very useful for the lady of the house, and having a recorder in the bedroom will help a person make good use of time until the last moments of the day. ( 11 ) inviting good and righteous people and seekers of knowledge to visit the home. \u201c my lord! forgive me, and my parents, and him who enters my home as a believer, and all the believing men and women \u2026 \u201d [ nooh 71 : 28 \u2013 interpretation of the meaning ]. if people of faith enter your home, it will increase in light ( noor ), and will bring many benefits because of your conversations and discussion with them. the bearer of musk will either give you some, or you will buy from him, or you will find that he has a pleasant scent. when children, brothers and parents sit with such visitors, and women listen from behind a curtain or screen to what is said, this offers an educational experience to all. if you bring good people into your home, by doing so you keep", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5235989378408668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9157ebb-4836-4460-a122-9e2626be02e2>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.302326"}
{"text": "bedtime. some houses are like hotels where the people who live there hardly know one another and hardly ever meet. some children eat whenever they want and sleep whenever they want, which leads to them staying up late and wasting their time, or eating on a full stomach. this chaos leads to a weakening of family ties and a waste of time and energy, and exacerbates the lack of discipline among family members. you could excuse those who have legitimate reasons, because students, male and female, may have different times of leaving schools and universities, and those who are employed or who run stores do not have the same work schedules, but still there is nothing nicer than a family gathering together at the table and making the most of this opportunity to ask how everyone is and to discuss useful topics. the head of the household has to be strict in setting a time for everyone to be back home, and in insisting that everyone asks permission before going out, especially those who are young, whether in terms of chronological age or mental age, as it were, for whom one might have fears. ( 19 ) re - evaluating women \u2019 s work outside the the laws of islam complement one another. when allaah commanded women to \u201c \u2026 stay in your houses \u2026 \u201d [ al - ahzaab 33 : 33 \u2013 interpretation of the meaning ], he also decreed that men, their fathers and husbands, etc., should be obliged to spend on them. the basic principle is that women should not work outside the home unless they have to. when moosa ( peace be upon him ) saw the two daughters of the righteous man keeping back their flocks and waiting to water them, he asked them : \u201c \u2026 \u2018 what is the matter with you? \u2019 they said, \u2018 we cannot water ( our flocks ) until the shepherds take ( their flocks ), and our father is a very old man. \u2019 \u201d [ al - qasas 28 : 23 \u2013 interpretation of the meaning ]. they were apologetic about the fact that they had come out to water their flocks, because the guardian [ their father ] was unable to do so due to old age. so they were keen to do away with the need to work outside the home as soon as the opportunity arose : \u201c and said one of them ( the two women ) : \u2018 o my father! hire him! verily the best of men for you to hire is the strong, the trustworthy. \u2019 \u201d [ al - qasas 28 : 26 \u2013 interpretation of the meaning ].", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5102139716200089, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9157ebb-4836-4460-a122-9e2626be02e2>", "chunk_index": 31, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.318459"}
{"text": "( the two women ) : \u2018 o my father! hire him! verily the best of men for you to hire is the strong, the trustworthy. \u2019 \u201d [ al - qasas 28 : 26 \u2013 interpretation of the meaning ]. this woman made clear her desire to go back to staying at home to protect herself from the vulgarity to which she could be exposed if she worked outside the home. in modern times, when the kuffaar needed women \u2019 s labour after the two world wars, to make up for the resulting lack of men in the workforce, and there was a critical need to rebuild their economies, this coincided with the jewish plots to \u201c liberate \u201d women and advocate their rights with the aim of corrupting them and consequently corrupting society as a whole. thus the idea of women going out to work was established. in spite of the fact that the same motives were not present in our lands, and that muslim men protect their womenfolk and spend on them, the women \u2019 s liberation movement developed in the muslim world too, and even reached such an extent that women are sent abroad to study, then are expected to work so that these degrees will not go to waste. the muslim societies are not in need of such a thing on such a grand scale as is the case, and one of the signs of this is the fact that there are men who are without work whilst fields are still being opened up to women. when we say \u201c not on such a grand scale \u201d, we mean that there is a need for women to work in some fields, such as teaching, nursing and medicine, within the conditions set out by sharee \u2019 ah, and when there is a need for them to do so. but we started by saying that there is no great need, because of the fact that we notice some women going out to work when there is no need, and sometimes they work for very low wages, because they feel that they have to go out to work even when there is no need to do so, or they work in places that are not suitable, which leads to much fitnah and trouble. one of the main differences between the islamic view on women \u2019 s work and the secular view is that the basic principle in islam is to \u201c \u2026 stay in your houses \u2026 \u201d [ al - ahzaab 33 : 33 \u2013 interpretation of the meaning ], although women may go out when they need to \u2013 \u201c and permission has been given to you to go out for your needs \u201d ( hadeeth ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5047984365749023, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9157ebb-4836-4460-a122-9e2626be02e2>", "chunk_index": 32, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.319429"}
{"text": "houses \u2026 \u201d [ al - ahzaab 33 : 33 \u2013 interpretation of the meaning ], although women may go out when they need to \u2013 \u201c and permission has been given to you to go out for your needs \u201d ( hadeeth ). the secular principle, on the other hand, is to go out no matter what the circumstances. to be fair, we should say that there may indeed be a need for women to work, such as a woman who is the breadwinner for her family after her husband has died or her father has become too old to work, and so on. indeed, in some societies which are not based on islamic principles, a woman may find herself forced to work to help her husband cover the living expenses of the family. a man may not propose to a woman unless she is working, and some men may even make it a condition of the marriage contract that the wife in conclusion : a woman may work if she needs to or for some islamic purpose, such as calling others to allaah in the field of teaching, or to make use of her time, as some women do who do not have with regard to the negative aspects of women working outside the home, these include : \u00a7 what often happens of things that are forbidden in islam, such as mixing with men, getting to know them and being alone with them, wearing perfume for them and starting to show one ' s adornment to strangers ( non - mahrem men ), which can ultimately lead to \u00a7 not giving the husband his rights, neglecting the house, not giving the children their proper rights. ( this is our basic point here ). \u00a7 undermining the feeling in some women \u2019 s minds that the husband is the qawwaam ( protector and maintainer ). let us take the case of a woman whose qualifications are equal to those of her husband, or even higher ( although there is nothing wrong with that in and of itself ), and who works and earns more than he does. will she feel the proper need towards her husband and obey him properly, or will she feel that she is independent of him, which could rock the household on its foundations, unless allaah wills good for her? these arguments about spending on the working wife and how much she should spend on the family may never end. \u00a7 physical exhaustion and psychological and nervous pressure which do not befit the nature of women. having briefly discussed the pros and cons of women \u2019 s work, we conclude that we have to fear allaah", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5382331640548548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9157ebb-4836-4460-a122-9e2626be02e2>", "chunk_index": 33, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.320388"}
{"text": "by spreading their secrets \u2013 this is not permissible, because it is covered by the words of the prophet ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) : \u201c there should be neither harming nor reciprocating harm. \u201d ( reported by imaam ahmad, 1 / 313 ; al - silsilat al - saheehah, no. 250 ). an example of this was narrated in the tafseer of the aayah ( interpretation of the meaning ) : \u201c allaah sets forth an example for those who disbelieve, the wife of nooh and the wife of loot. they were under two of our righteous slaves, but they both betrayed their [ husbands ] \u2026 \u201d [ al - tahreem 66 : 10 ]. ibn katheer ( may allaah have mercy on him ) reported the following in his tafseer of this aayah : \u201c the wife of nooh used to know about his secrets, and whenever anyone believed in him, she would tell the oppressors among the people of nooh about it. as for the wife of loot, whenever loot welcomed anyone as a guest, she would tell the people of the city who used to do evil things \u201d ( tafseer ibn katheer, 8 / 198 ), i. e., to come and do immoral things to them. manners at home ( 21 ) spreading kindness in the home. \u2018 aa \u2019 ishah ( may allaah be pleased with her ) said : \u201c the messenger of allaah ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) said : \u2018 when allaah \u2013 may he be glorified \u2013 wills some good towards the people of a household, he introduces kindness among them. \u2019 \u201d ( reported by imaam ahmad in al - musnad, 6 / 71 ; saheeh al - jaami \u2019, 303 ). according to another report : \u201c when allaah loves the people of a household, he introduces kindness among them. \u201d ( reported by ibn abi al - dunya and others ; saheeh al - jaami \u2019, no. 1704 ). in other words, they start to be kind to one another. this is one of the means of attaining happiness in the home, for kindness is very beneficial between the spouses, and with the children, and brings results that cannot be achieved through harshness, as the prophet ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) said : \u201c allaah loves kindness and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5204883724088023, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9157ebb-4836-4460-a122-9e2626be02e2>", "chunk_index": 36, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.323075"}
{"text": "practical solution is that implemented by some good people who rent neighbouring homes for their families, so as to solve the neighbour problem. this may be an expensive solution, but a good neighbour ( 39 ) paying attention to necessary repairs in the home, and making sure that the amenities are in good working order. among the blessings of allaah in this modern age are the \u201c mod cons \u201d that he has bestowed upon us, which make many things easier and save time, such as air - conditioners, fridges, washing - machines and so on. it is wise to have the best quality of appliances that one can afford, without being extravagant or putting oneself under financial strain. we should also be careful to distinguish between useful extras and extravagant additions that have no real value. part of caring for the home includes fixing appliances and amenities that break down. some people neglect these things, and their wives complain about homes crawling with vermin, with overflowing drains and piles of stinking garbage, filled with broken and worn out furniture. no doubt this is one of the obstacles to happiness in the home, and causes problems in the marriage and health problems. the smart person is the one who hastens to fix these things. ( 40 ) paying attention to the family \u2019 s health and safety procedures. when any member of his family got sick, the messenger of allaah ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) would blow on them and recite al - mi \u2019 wadhatayn ( last two soorahs of the qur \u2019 aan ). ( reported by muslim, no. 2192 ). when one of his family members got sick, he would call for soup, and it would be made for him, then he would tell them to drink it, and he would say, \u201c it will strengthen the heart of the one who is grieving and cleanse ( heal ) the heart of the one who is sick just as any one of you wipes the dirt from her face. \u201d ( reported by al - tirmidhi, no. 2039 ; saheeh al - jaami \u2019, no. 4646 ). one of the ways of taking safety precautions is : the messenger of allaah ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) said : \u201c when evening comes, keep your children inside, for the shayaateen ( devils ) spread out at that time. then when an hour of the night has passed, let your children go, lock the doors and mention the name of allaah, cover", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5020919805563602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9157ebb-4836-4460-a122-9e2626be02e2>", "chunk_index": 44, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.332253"}
{"text": "quant blogger half sigma and gnxp ' s jason malloy are quoted in a new york times article by amy harmon entitled \" in dna era, new worries about prejudice \" about what ' s happening now that \" genetic information is slipping out of the laboratory and into everyday life, carrying with it the inescapable message that people of different races have different dna. \" in case you are wondering, this article isn ' t written by nicholas wade, who i imagine has been put on heavy sedation by the nyt editors ever since the watson show trial. when scientists first decoded the human genome in 2000, they were quick to portray it as proof of humankind \u2019 s remarkable similarity. the dna of any two people, they emphasized, is at least 99 percent identical. but new research is exploring the remaining fraction to explain differences between people of different continental origins. scientists, for instance, have recently identified small changes in dna that account for the pale skin of europeans, the tendency of asians to sweat less and west africans \u2019 resistance to certain diseases. at the same time, genetic information is slipping out of the laboratory and into everyday life, carrying with it the inescapable message that people of different races have different dna. ancestry tests tell customers what percentage of their genes are from asia, europe, africa and the americas. the heart - disease drug bidil is marketed exclusively to african - americans, who seem genetically predisposed to respond to it. jews are offered prenatal tests for genetic disorders rarely found in other ethnic groups. such developments are providing some of the first tangible benefits of the genetic revolution. yet some social critics fear they may also be giving long - discredited racial prejudices a new potency. the notion that race is more than skin deep, they fear, could undermine principles of equal treatment and opportunity that have relied on the presumption that we are all fundamentally equal. \u201c we are living through an era of the ascendance of biology, and we have to be very careful, \u201d said henry louis gates jr., director of the w. e. b. du bois institute for african and african american research at harvard university. \u201c we will all be walking a fine line between using biology and allowing it to be abused. \u201d certain superficial traits like skin pigmentation have long been presumed to be genetic. but the ability to pinpoint their dna source makes the link between genes and race more palpable. and on mainstream blogs, in college classrooms and among the growing community of ancestry test", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5352557911520621, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5a620981-b136-4762-8f04-6f39d9d7c5e3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.340484"}
{"text": "i wanted to describe that \u300c \u3048\u3063\u3068 \u300d was similar to \" ummm \" in english when someone is trying to think about what they are going to say, but i wasn ' t even sure if that was correct. is that just a generalization? what does \u300c \u3048\u3063\u3068 \u300d actually come from? can it be considered to be a word or phrase? \u3048\u3063\u3068 is just a sound. yes, it is like \" umm \" in english and it is used when you ' re thinking of what to say, hesitating, or otherwise trying to fill the silence with something before you speak. as dono mentioned, you can find \u3048\u3063\u3068 ' s general form in the dictionary, so it can be considered a word. there is some discussion of this on the internet here, but this discussion also boils down to it just being a sound. \u3048\u3063\u3068 as just a sound is a satisfactory answer to me in terms of etymology. i ' m not sure if the \u3068 in it is related at all to the quotation particle \u3068, but i have to wonder if anyone is sure. basically your description of \u3048\u3063\u3068 as \" umm \" is fine, and the dictionaries define it as something that you say to think before saying something else. \u3048\u3063\u3068 is related to \u3048\u306a\u3044\u3068, which is no longer said. over time, it ' s just become something we say to fill the silence when thinking, like \" anno \". in the edo times you would hear people say \u3048\u306a\u3044\u3068, which would have sounded like, \" yunaito \" back then. think of how \u884c \u304b\u306a\u3044\u3068 means \" i have to go. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5133396244433495, "token_count": 342, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d76b88dd-c257-49b3-a12b-190d8ab2ab6f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.349633"}
{"text": "introduction / history china is a land of great diversity in geography, climate, languages, and ethnic groups. it is home to approximately 180 distinct groups, including the 12, 000 mahei who live in yunnan province of southern china. they are generally included with the hani, one of china ' s 55 national minorities, although some scholars think they may be related to the akha, who live in the same area. their origin is not known, but legends say that their nomadic ancestors gradually migrated south from a far away northern plain. since their language is of the tibeto - burmese group, some believe that they originated in tibet. where are they located? the mahei live near the myanmar border in an area that is characterized by forested mountains, abundant rainfall, and rich soil. their farmers are noted for building tiered terraces along steep mountain slopes. their small farming villages usually consist of 30 to 40 homes. centuries of isolation in the high mountain terrain have left the mahei socially and economically backward. what are their lives like? the family unit is considered to be very important among the mahei. some aspects of family life, however, differ from region to region. for instance, monogamy ( one husband, one wife ) is the rule in some areas, while having multiple spouses is common in others. \" family order \" is both patriarchal ( male dominated ) and patrilineal, meaning that a male child becomes part of the father ' s lineage, while a female will become part of her husband ' s lineage. male children are given names that are connected with their father ' s name, but females are not. the mahei are well known for their sincere hospitality. when a guest enters a mahei home, he is offered wine and strong tea. if he declines the drinks, the family will be highly offended ; if he drinks them, the host will generously serve him with the finest he has to offer. the mahei celebrate several major festivals each year, the most notable being the new year festival. this seven day event is celebrated at harvest time, during the tenth month. at noon on new year ' s day, an announcer throws three balls of blackened rice behind him to bid farewell to the old year. he then greets the new year by tossing three balls of white rice in front of him. next, he pushes the ropes of a special swing and all of the people, regardless of sex or age, begin swinging. ( they believe that this will ward off disaster and ensure a prosperous year. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5186382050422498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e4fb89-52ae-48a1-88ab-db216a669729>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.354102"}
{"text": "balls of white rice in front of him. next, he pushes the ropes of a special swing and all of the people, regardless of sex or age, begin swinging. ( they believe that this will ward off disaster and ensure a prosperous year. ) that evening, the villagers stand around a bonfire eating, drinking, singing, and dancing. at midnight, the announcer cuts down the frame of the swing to signify the end of the festival and the beginning of a new work year. during times of celebration, the mahei wear attractive tribal costumes of hand - woven cotton dyed blue or black. the men wear distinctive jackets and turbans, while the women wear collarless blouses and special caps. what are their beliefs? traditionally, mahei beliefs were a combination of animism ( belief that non - human objects have spirits ), polytheism ( belief in many gods ), and ancestor worship ( praying to the dead for blessings and guidance ). trees in the \" holy hills \" were believed to be their guardian spirits. today, most still adhere to similar beliefs, however, approximately 28 % are buddhist. they are very superstitious and view certain events, such as the birth of twins or handicapped children, as unlucky. these children are killed, their parents banished, and their homes and possessions burned. they believe in the existence of many ruling spirits, such as spirits that rule over heaven and earth, spirits that protect their villages, and evil spirits that bring diseases. the mahei have three major religious leaders : the zuima ( a male elder who directs all religious activities ), the beima ( males who perform magic and exorcisms ), and nima ( fortune tellers and medicine men ). what are their needs? since china ' s government strictly forbids christianity, there are currently no missions agencies working among the mahei. the bible has not yet been translated into their language and there are no christian broadcasts in their area. intercession and missions activity are necessary for these people to hear the gospel. prayer points pray that god will reveal himself to the mahei through dreams and visions. pray that god will give the mahei believers boldness to share christ with their own people. ask god to speed the completion of evangelistic materials into the mahei language. pray that the doors of china will soon open to missionaries. ask god to strengthen, encourage, and protect the small number of mahei christians. pray that god will raise up qualified linguists to translate the bible into the mahei language", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5061388391820422, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e4fb89-52ae-48a1-88ab-db216a669729>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.355263"}
{"text": "his terms, although his well known work, jews in the mediterranean diaspora does not address 1 peter. barclay distinguishes three terms. first, barclay uses the word assimilation in reference to the category of social interaction and the adoption of social practices from one ' s environment. acculturation then is used in relation to broader cultural features like the use of the same language. finally, accommodation has to do with the degree to which acculturation takes place, the level of separateness that either is or is not maintained. in the end, seland does not find this typology very helpful. he does not find barclay ' s distinction between assimilation and acculturation very clear. further, barclay ' s nomenclature does not mesh well with the social scientific use of these terms. and so seland embarks next on an exploration of recent research in the social sciences on acculturation and assimilation ( 156 - 66 ). his first stop is b. s. heisler, whose work analyzes the history of research on this topic in three stages. she dubs research up until the late 60 ' s the \" classical period. \" in this period, the process of assimilation was viewed as a one way process ending in complete assimilation. heisler dubs the second period the \" modern \" period, beginning in the seventies. in this period research focused more on conflict, particularly long term conflict, and less on equilibrium. the third period is the \" post - modern period, \" of recent origin ( which given the date of this article would be the 1990 ' s ). here we find the expectation of multicultural societies and ethnic pluralisms ( 158 ). seland mentions several other sources from which one might construct a model of acculturation / assimilation appropriate for 1 peter. these include the fields of social psychology and communication research. finally, he draws definitions of acculturation and assimilation from the international encyclopedia of the social sciences ( 160 ). acculturation : \" those changes set in motion by the coming together of societies with different cultural traditions. \" seland finds this statement in the article even more helpful : \" acculturation comprehends those phenomena which results [ sic ] when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first - hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. \" assimilation : \" a process in which persons of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds come to interact, free of these constraints, in the life of the larger society. \" after all this background, seland ultimately turns to milton gordon '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5463609363179174, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:584adc42-d67f-4196-a479-a3f5c7c5c8fe>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.375669"}
{"text": "or both groups. \" assimilation : \" a process in which persons of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds come to interact, free of these constraints, in the life of the larger society. \" after all this background, seland ultimately turns to milton gordon ' s 1964 model ( from the so called classical period of such research ) with a few caveats. the main caveat is a warning that gordon was wrongly \" deterministic \" in his sense of inevitability to the process of assimilation. adjustment of two groups to each other is not the only option. gordon ' s model breaks down several different categories of assimilation : 1. cultural or behavioral assimilation ( = acculturation ) - - fitting in with the host culture in a most basic way ( presumably things like learning the language, getting the appropriate documents, etc... ) 2. structural assimilation - - participating in the clubs, institutions, etc. in large numbers. gordon believed that once structural assimilation had taken place, all the forms of assimilation below would inevitably follow. 3. marital assimilation ( intermarriage ) 4. identificational assimilation ( identity by way of host society ) 5. attitude receptional assimilation ( no prejudice toward immigrants ) 6. behavior receptional assimilation ( no discrimination toward immigrants ) 7. civic assimilation ( absence of power conflict ) john berry, in 1980, built on gordon ' s categories by posing two questions : 1 ) does the immigrant group wish to maintain its distinct cultural identity and 2 ) does the immigrant group wish good relationships with the host culture ( 163 - 164 )? the result are four basic relationships to the broader culture : 1. if the immigrant group does not want to maintain a distinct identity and does want good relationships with the host culture, the result is assimilation. 2. if the immigrant group does want to maintain a distinct identity yet also wants good relationships with the host culture, the result is integration. 3. if the immigrant group does want to maintain a distinct identity yet does not want good relationships with the host culture, the result is separation. 4. finally, if the immigrant group does not want to maintain a distinct identity and at the same time does not care about good relationships with the host culture, the result is marginalization. the final part of the chapter then takes all of the preceding processing of social scientific theory and attempts to use it in relation to 1 peter. here we arrive at one of seland ' s contributions to the balch / elliott debate. the question is not really one of assimilation to greco - roman culture, as this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5900168652793747, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:584adc42-d67f-4196-a479-a3f5c7c5c8fe>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.376662"}
{"text": "of social scientific theory and attempts to use it in relation to 1 peter. here we arrive at one of seland ' s contributions to the balch / elliott debate. the question is not really one of assimilation to greco - roman culture, as this is the cultural background of the likely gentile audience ( 169 - 170 ). the question is that of the assimilation of the audience \" to the ( still developing ) christian system of cult, beliefs, ethos and symbols \" ( 168 ). so in relation to the host culture, the question is best put as, \" how much did he, by his letter, intend his readers to retain of that culture? \" ( 173 ). first, seland argues that they are first generation christians, \" still in need of further acculturation / assimilation into the christian system \" ( 169 ). he is surely more correct than not in the light of statements such as we find in 1 peter 1 : 14 and 4 : 3. however, we remember how large an area 1 peter addresses and are careful not to presume an audience of any monolithic kind. they are primarily gentile, and it is early enough in the christian movement for the author to presume that the majority converted from paganism. they are in a precarious social location. here torrey mentions briefly what he discusses more thoroughly in chapter 2. john elliott is once again his requisite dialog partner. on the one hand, he agrees with elliott that the phrase \" aliens and exiles \" in 1 peter 2 : 11 does not refer to exile from heaven, as if the audience is on a heavenly pilgrimage ( 171 ). yet he also finds unconvincing elliott ' s sense that they were strangers to these regions even before they converted. we will discuss this thesis in the next post as we review chapter 2. i am also unconvinced of elliott ' s thesis and remain puzzled that commentators like paul achtemeier and scot mcknight have followed elliott on this issue. at the same time, i ' m still struggling with seland ' s signature idea that this language in 1 peter evokes connotations of proselyte language ( more when we come to chapter 2 ). seland is spot on when it comes to the audience being \" proselytes \" to christian judaism. but i ' m having trouble seeing that the specific terms \" aliens and exiles \" carried those overtones. indeed, i don ' t think it is safe at all to assume that the audience, especially", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5160083015393075, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:584adc42-d67f-4196-a479-a3f5c7c5c8fe>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.377566"}
{"text": "being \" proselytes \" to christian judaism. but i ' m having trouble seeing that the specific terms \" aliens and exiles \" carried those overtones. indeed, i don ' t think it is safe at all to assume that the audience, especially in such a vast area, are relatively new converts. * * * coming articles the rest of the section then explores where 1 peter might fit in relation to john berry ' s four categories. seland immediately dismisses out of hand the options of marginalization and separation. the author wishes the audience to maintain good relationships with the host society. to address the question of integration versus assimilation, he switches back to gordon ' s more detailed delineation of the process of assimilation ( 173 - 87 ). the first stage is acculturation or cultural assimilation in matters such as language. they are to live honorably among the gentiles ( 2 : 12 ) while following a \" new code of honor and shame \" ( 176 ). seland thus considers their level of acculturation to be high with some significant modifications. he does not, however, consider their assimilation to be high in any of gordon ' s other categories. the strong sense of harassment and conflict evoked in 1 peter 2 - 3 do not reflect that of high assimilation between christians and their environment structurally, and certainly not in terms of attitude or behavioral reception, let alone civic assimilation. it is assumed that some women will be married to non - believers, but it is unlikely the author would encourage such if it were possible to avoid. and while the audience is not encouraged to withdraw from its societal relations, it is clear that its self - indentification departs quite dramatically from its host environment. the conclusion, which ironically seland himself never mentions explicitly, is that the audience would best be typified by \" integration \" in berry ' s typology. more to come...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5140662070598561, "token_count": 384, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:584adc42-d67f-4196-a479-a3f5c7c5c8fe>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.378438"}
{"text": "\" simultaneously mitigating near - term climate change and improving human health and food security. \" well, yes. what ' s new for science doesn ' t have to be new for klimazwiebel authors and readers. but finally, good to hear that other people, too, seem to give up their 2 - degree goals and become more pragmatic and realistic! here the abstract : tropospheric ozone and black carbon ( bc ) contribute to both degraded air quality and global warming. we considered ~ 400 emission control measures to reduce these pollutants by using current technology and experience. we identified 14 measures targeting methane and bc emissions that reduce projected global mean warming ~ 0. 5\u00b0c by 2050. this strategy avoids 0. 7 to 4. 7 million annual premature deaths from outdoor air pollution and increases annual crop yields by 30 to 135 million metric tons due to ozone reductions in 2030 and beyond. benefits of methane emissions reductions are valued at $ 700 to $ 5000 per metric ton, which is well above typical marginal abatement costs ( less than $ 250 ). the selected controls target different sources and influence climate on shorter time scales than those of carbon dioxide \u2013 reduction measures. implementing both substantially reduces the risks of crossing the 2\u00b0c threshold.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5250393413351535, "token_count": 258, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fd9742e0-924f-479c-9313-efc2f990fbff>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.391257"}
{"text": ", \" whitney says. \" he broke with the aristocratic formalities of his predecessors, george washington and john adams, and introduced the revolutionary republican greeting from france \u2014 the hand shake \u2014 to welcome guests to monticello and the white house. quite hip in his day, he was a renowned musician and elegant dancer with whom women fell in love. \" cool, of course, can have more than one definition, according to julia azari, an assistant political science professor at marquette university. on one hand, presidential cool can refer to a president ' s ability to charm others, defy convention and appear hip \u2014 exemplified by clinton ' s saxophone playing and kennedy ' s movie - grade glamour. but it also can refer to a president ' s unflappable and seemingly detached manner. in presidential politics, azari says, the two definitions are often at odds. the first definition \" sets the president up as a celebrity, but also speaks to the intimacy of his connection with not only the people but also popular, ' low ' culture. \" the second definition, she says, \" positions the president as above the fray, impervious to petty political criticism. this is a key quality to cultivate during times when presidents have to make difficult political decisions. \" 6 ) franklin d. roosevelt. using the second definition, azari says, \" i would add fdr to the list. he told critics he ' welcomed their hatred. ' \" he was \" unflappable and in control, calm in a crisis. \" 7 ) george w. bush. using the first definition, \" i ' d add george w. bush, \" azari says. \" everyone wanted to have a beer with him. too bad he doesn ' t drink. \" that likability quality seemed to serve bush well politically, she adds, \" at least in the short term. \" on a closing note, azari says, \" i think a few presidents have suffered from a seeming lack of cool \u2014 in the sense of both hipness and unflappability : herbert hoover, richard nixon and jimmy carter. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5073972333046414, "token_count": 424, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3147494d-3cd3-40bf-b77d-a6c3e48fb2ed>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.401188"}
{"text": "it is surely the horse, the ostrich, or the tailor! and how very contemptible it is to rest our hope of esteem in a horse, a feather, or a garment! philothea : true. it \u2019 s the same as having a car, a hairstyle, or name - brand clothes. surely, it was not me who made any of those, or, even if i did, i cannot make those things be accepted as \u201c cool. \u201d things should not define me. mmmmm \u2026 st. francis : another thinks of his well - trimmed beard and mustache, or his well - curled hair, his delicate hands, or of his accomplishments in dancing, music, and so on, but is it not very contemptible to try to enhance his worth or his reputation through such frivolous and foolish things? philothea : i get it. i know the type of people you are talking about. they used to be called fops or dandies, but they are called something else today. st. francis : others who have acquired a little science demand the respect and honor of the world on that account, as if all must needs come to learn of them and bow before them. such men we call pendants [ those who present their knowledge in an ostentatious, dogmatic, or dull manner, often placing excessive emphasis on trivial details and formal rules ]. philothea : they tell others that all people need only learn from their studies and ask them to bow before them as if they knew everything? oh, my gosh. i never thought of people making science into its own dogmatic formulation of rules with its own high priests, but i guess it can happen to people in any discipline, and you know what? that actually makes a lot of sense! everybody only has a piece of knowledge, so if a person of science, literature, politics, prayer, psychology, religion, art, or anything claims they know everything, then persuades others to follow them with certain exacting behaviors, bowing to worldly mannerisms \u2026 anyone who is this extreme is a pendant! it doesn \u2019 t matter if they believe in god or not. if they claim to know more than every other person in the world with their one piece of knowledge, if they claim that they own all the rights to human progress because they think their one piece of a whole will lead the way, then they have succumbed to pedantry. sadly, i think anybody who falls into this pedantry works to persuade themselves and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5038185282734182, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:60aa9235-7572-4e81-b90a-6514f0583303>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.412004"}
{"text": ". it really just got me thinking. usually, people accuse religious folk of being this way, but it can happen to even those who claim no religion. i can see why people could lose their way with this. they see a piece and run with it as if it were whole. a person who really searches for the length, the breadth, the width, the depth of all things, knows that he cannot know all or prove all on his own. anyone who makes that claim must be false, superficial, artificial. sorry. i didn \u2019 t mean to take up your time. go ahead. st. francis : others pride themselves on their personal beauty, and think that everyone is admiring them : all of them in their turn are utterly silly, foolish, and impertinent, and their glory in such empty things we call vain, absurd, and frivolous. philothea : yep. i know the type. so how can you tell if a person is really humble? st. francis : you may judge of real worth as of real balm, which is tried in water, and if it sinks, and remains at the bottom, it is known to be precious and costly ; and so in order to know whether a man is really wise, learned, generous, and noble, observe whether his gifts make him humble, modest and submissive. if so, they are genuine, but if they float to the surface and would fain display themselves, be sure that in proportion as they make a show, so are they less worthy. philothea : they get puffed up, arrogant, detracting all others, proud of themselves, thinking they \u201c know - it - all, \u201d can do anything they want to do, make up their own rules because they have a title, beauty, or some certificate of knowledge. st. francis : those pearls which are formed or fed in the wind and thunder leave only a pearly shell with no substance ; and so those virtues and attractive qualities which have their root and support in pride, self - sufficiency, and vanity, have but the outward show of excellence, and are without sap, marrow, and solidity. philothea : i think you just described a person who has no integrity, no sense of fellowship, and no sense of compassion. st. francis : honor, rank, and dignity are like the saffron, which flourishes and increases most when it is trodden underfoot. all the value of beauty is gone when its possessor is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5039403671667895, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:60aa9235-7572-4e81-b90a-6514f0583303>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.415059"}
{"text": "love to each other. i then read a few of my favorite picture books and had the students reflect on the \" top ten things i love about myself! \" we then learned about the different adjectives that could be used to describe our personality ( postive ones of course! ) and create a cute, little art project that we turned into a bulletin board. check out some of the pictures that i took from our lessons : i used to teach this lesson earlier in the school year, but i wanted to wait for the \" love \" theme of february to inspire the lessons this year. ( * * * tpt customers - this was a file that we revised from our tpt store. if you already purchased the file titled, awesome adjectives that describe me!, then please redown the revised file!!! ) if you are interested in this file, click on the image below to buy the file from tpt ( it is $ 3. 50 ) : this file is also sold in our show your students the love february unit, also on tpt, for $ 8. 00. speaking of all this love.... the first two readers who leave a nice comment will get our valentine ' s unit for free! : ) please don ' t forget your email address! enjoy your weekend!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5238777055512653, "token_count": 263, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cac0a311-c5a0-4106-a356-1940b97e393c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.424051"}
{"text": "commercial tracking software often secretly records where users go on the internet. if businesses don ' t set their own clear, simple privacy standards, government may need to step in with a ' do not track ' option. the ease and speed with which people can share information over the internet is perhaps the marvel of this era. the way they live and work is changing rapidly, posing new opportunities and new hazards. one area undergoing massive change is personal privacy. fluid exchanges of information mean that more knowledge about people \u2019 s lives can be shared than they realize or desire. facebook and google are two web giants that have recently faced criticism for playing fast and loose with information about their users. a significant number of apps \u2013 small software applications that users download onto their iphones or other smart phones \u2013 have been shown to be surreptitiously collecting information on their users, such as the person \u2019 s location or their list of contacts. meanwhile, the united arab emirates and saudi arabia say they will curtail the use of blackberry phones for the opposite reason \u2013 their texts and e - mails are encrypted and difficult to intercept and decipher. the uae claims this privacy feature is a threat to its national security. the development of computerized data banks \u2013 such as those storing credit - card information, medical records, or store \u201c loyalty card \u201d buying habits \u2013 continues to erode personal privacy. page 1 of 4", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5452267298153237, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:822cf9bc-07a3-459a-a63d-653d30ed3aea>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.440044"}
{"text": "see also the browse high school calculus stars indicate particularly interesting answers or good places to begin browsing. selected answers to common questions : maximizing the volume of a box. maximizing the volume of a cylinder. volume of a tank. what is a derivative? - deriving simpson ' s rule [ 06 / 07 / 1998 ] can you show me a derivation of simpson ' s rule? - deriving the area of a sphere [ 10 / 21 / 2003 ] i know the area of a sphere is 4phi ( r ^ 2 ), but i ' m wondering how to derive that formula. i know it should be done in cylindrical coordinates, and i ' m thinking that the arc of a circle is defined as rd ( theta ) and it ' s multiplied with rd ( phi ) to get ( r ^ 2 ) d ( theta ) d ( phi ). could you please help explain this? - deriving the gamma function [ 12 / 15 / 2000 ] how can you prove that sqrt ( pi ) / 2 = ( 1 / 2 )!, and what is a fractional factorial like that equal to? - deriving the integral for the surface area of a sphere [ 06 / 28 / 2001 ] i need to find the cost per square foot of steel that makes up a tank, so i need a way to derive the surface area of part of a sphere with a given - deriving the quotient rule [ 9 / 5 / 1995 ] how do i prove this derivation : ( f / g ) ' = fg ' - fg ' / g ^ 2? - deriving trig functions ; taylor series [ 05 / 01 / 2001 ] how would i find, from first principles - no tables, no calculator - for example, 32 degrees? if i use a formula, how is it derived? - descartes ' method for tangents [ 09 / 02 / 1998 ] can you help me find the equation of the tangent of y ^ 2 = 2x using - design a more efficient soda can [ 4 / 23 / 1995 ] the problem is to design a more efficient soda can that holds the regular 12 oz. of liquid. the can needs to have the least possible surface area. - determining tangent to an ellipse, minimizing area [ 02 / 20 / 1998 ] find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse that forms, with the coordinate axes, the triangle of smallest possible area. - determining the length of a coil of ribbon [ 08 / 31 /", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5340121194575594, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2bbf72e8-313f-48ed-8dab-5e0b80a41377>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.461238"}
{"text": "is disintegrating at time ' t ' days after it was first observed to have mass 10 grams and : ( dm / dt ) = - km ( where k is a positive constant ). find the time, in days, for the substance to reduce to 1 gram in mass, given that its half life is 8 days. - differentiating under the integral sign [ 01 / 11 / 2001 ] can you give me an example of the integration method called \" differentiating under the integral sign \"? - differentiating y with respect to... y? [ 11 / 05 / 2010 ] a student familiar with differentiation struggles to take the derivative of a function with respect to the self - same variable. doctor ali puts the student back on track with a - differentiating y = x ^ x [ 11 / 3 / 1994 ] please could you differentiate y = x ^ x ( that ' s x to the power of x )? - differentiation problem [ 11 / 15 / 1997 ] a light shines from the top of a pole 50 ft. high. a ball is dropped from the same height at a point 30 ft. away from the light... - distance from a point to a plane [ 03 / 31 / 1998 ] can you show me the proof of the formula for the distance between a point and a plane? - distance to the sun [ 04 / 16 / 1999 ] find the distance from earth to the sun when t = 90 days... - does f have a local extrema at x = 0? [ 07 / 10 / 2003 ] f ( x ) = ( x ^ 3 ) / 6 + ( x ^ 2 ) / 2 + cosx - 1. does f have a local extremum at x - domain, asymptotes, intercepts of a function [ 04 / 01 / 2003 ] what is the domain of this function? what asymptotes does it have? what are the x and y intercepts? etc... - domain / range of a function [ 01 / 22 / 1997 ] how do you find the domain and range of the function f ( x ) = 2x ^ 2 - 3x + 1? ( both with and without calculus. ) - dominant terms [ 03 / 25 / 1998 ] what are dominant terms, and how do you obtain their values? - donkey grazing half a field [ 08 / 08 / 1997 ] a donkey is attached by a rope to a point on the perimeter of a circular field. how long should", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5418456684140374, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2bbf72e8-313f-48ed-8dab-5e0b80a41377>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.463200"}
{"text": "/ 1998 ] what are dominant terms, and how do you obtain their values? - donkey grazing half a field [ 08 / 08 / 1997 ] a donkey is attached by a rope to a point on the perimeter of a circular field. how long should the rope be so that the donkey can graze exactly half the field? - double integration in polar coordinates [ 03 / 27 / 2003 ] evaluate double integral x - y / x * 2 + y * 2 over x * 2 + y * 2 equal to or less - e as a series and a limit [ 03 / 30 / 1998 ] why does e = 1 + 1 / 2! + 1 / 3! + 1 / 4! +... and lim ( 1 + 1 / n ) ^ n, as n - - - an easy definition of calculus [ 9 / 4 / 1995 ] what is calculus? - e ^ ( e ^ x ) = 2 [ 01 / 28 / 2002 ] i have been trying to solve e ^ ( e ^ x ) = 2. help! - an ellipse or a circle? - parametric equations [ 12 / 05 / 1998 ] is this parametric equation elliptical or a circle?... and how do i compute the slopes at points 0, pi / 4, pi / 2, 3pi / 2, and 2pi? - an elliptic integral [ 01 / 05 / 2003 ] - epsilon / delta definition of limits [ 08 / 26 / 1999 ] can you explain how to use the epsilon / delta definition of limits? - epsilon - delta proofs [ 09 / 28 / 2004 ] an explanation of the thinking behind two epsilon - delta proofs, one from a calculus textbook and one from an answer in our archives.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6002315440666597, "token_count": 351, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2bbf72e8-313f-48ed-8dab-5e0b80a41377>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.463846"}
{"text": "previously known as manic - depressive disease, bipolar disorder is a relatively common mental health condition manifested in its classic form by alternating periods of mania \u2014 extreme high energy \u2014 and deep depression. in the \" up \" or manic phase, people may sleep little, talk fast, develop grand and unworkable plans, and sometimes behave bizarrely \u2014 for example, giving away all their money overnight. in the \" down \" phase, they may contemplate suicide. in many people with this disorder, the \" down \" phase predominates, and for that reason, the diagnosis may be missed. other, more subtle versions of the condition also exist. bipolar disorder is dangerous unless treated, leading to a high rate of suicide and injury. the mineral has been shown to dramatically improve symptoms of mania and reduce the rate of suicide. various antiseizure medications also appear to help against mania. proposed natural treatments for bipolar disorder : there are no natural treatments that can substitute for medications in the treatment of bipolar disorder. however, some might help enhance the effectiveness of standard treatment. study, 30 people with bipolar disorder took either capsules or placebo for 4 months, in addition to their regular medications. those taking fish oil had longer symptom - free periods than those taking placebo. the researchers used five different standardized tests to measure symptoms, examining levels of depression, mania, and overall progress. the people taking fish oil proved emotionally healthier than those taking placebo on all but one of these tests. another study found that ethyl - epa ( a modified form of a constituent of fish oil ) was helpful along with standard treatment for the depressed phase of bipolar disorder. however, ethyl - epa does not appear to offer benefits for rapid cycling bipolar disorder. researchers pooling the results of 10 randomized trials involving 329 patients found that omega - 3 fatty acids ( found in fish oil ) improved depressive symptoms in patient with either bipolar disorder or major depression compared to placebo. in a subsequent systematic review, researchers pooled the results of 5 trials involving 291 patients with bipolar disorder only and found that those in the omega - 3 group experienced a modest improvement in their symptoms of depression ( but not of mania ) compared to placebo. the same researchers who conducted the fish oil study have also experimented with for bipolar disorder. flaxseed oil contains alpha - linoleic acid ( ala ), an omega - 3 fatty acid related to the fatty acids in fish oil. in the researchers ' informal observations of 22 people with bipolar disorder, all but", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5062987090742954, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:047846f1-039b-496b-b69b-d95392b7c63d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.478467"}
{"text": "hybrid vehicles keep getting bigger : first there were tiny experimental cars, then hybrid suvs began to appear on the road. and now some of delta \u2019 s next - generation boeing 737 aircraft ( like the one pictured above ) will be equipped with wheeltug hybrid motors for taxiing on the ground. these motors will improve efficiency and safety while planes maneuver around the tarmac, reducing fuel use and maintenance requirements. a substantial amount of a typical airliner \u2019 s fuel usage and engine wear occurs while the plane is still on the ground. its jet engines are used to propel it to and from runways, and it requires towing vehicles for precise positioning at the gate. using the wheeltug system, however, an aircraft can propel itself forward or backward via a pair of chorus meshcon electric motors that drive the front wheels. electric power comes from the plane \u2019 s existing auxiliary power unit, which is a much smaller gas - powered unit and requires much less fuel than the primary engines. the wheeltug system requires no modifications to the airframe aside from additional wiring, and the joystick steering control doesn \u2019 t interfere with existing cockpit designs. the manufacturer estimates that a wheeltug - equipped 737 aircraft could save nearly 100, 000 gallons of fuel per year, while avoiding the safety and maintenance concerns of jet engine use on the ground. and as airports become busier and more crowded, the system could speed turn - around times by eliminating the need for tug vehicles to position planes at their gates. ( via wheeltug plc )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5018332620411381, "token_count": 308, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:edffc682-4594-45f3-a91a-7ad7f6531777>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.483164"}
{"text": "| we seem to form our picture of reality based on a pattern matching algorithm. it doesn ' t really matter if you consider that a function of neurology or as a deeper metaphysical principle, the result it about the same. if \" enough \" pieces of a reality are assembled and they are recognizable and familiar to us, we assume that the remaining details are probably also in place and that we ' re dealing with a \" real \" reality. it is perfectly possible to fool people into accepting a scenario as reality that really isn ' t, if you put enough familiar elements into place. most candid camera episodes are built on that kind of principle. an environment is set up so that it looks like you ' ve been hired for a new job, and there ' s a real office and other employees and everything. and then a surprise element is thrown in, like the arrival of a stripping telegram, or the need to handle some impossible problem, like your desk falling apart. and the \" employee \" accepts it as real, because everything else looked right. or how about experiments that were done where a comedian managed to get up in front of a medical convention and give a speech in complete giberish without anybody noticing. because he looked right, and sounded right, and even though the attendees where highly educated m. d. s they were also used to not having to understand all the details of what everybody was saying, and they were used to displaying a certain respect towards their peers. the emperor ' s new clothes. we ' re all trying to act normal, unwilling to admit we don ' t understand everything. conversely, we can also create an invisible reality, if it is constructed of elements that are so unfamiliar and unexpected that we just can ' t see it. a stage magician is usually quite adept at that. you don ' t see what he ' s really doing because you ' re not attuned to the patterns he ' s using. it is said that when captain cook ' s ship first approached the island of tahiti in the south pacific, the inhabitants could literally not see it coming. even when cook and his crew got out and pointed out their ship to the tahitians, and explained how they arrived, the natives couldn ' t see the ship at first. because it was totally unfamiliar and they didn ' t have any belief that included the possibility that somebody could arrive from the ocean in a large sailing vessel. in our modern society we tend to walk around believing that we ' re very rational and observant and we ' ve", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.6108661262543568, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4075ca42-ce16-4a3c-b969-e8b51e55c498>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.492398"}
{"text": "unfamiliar and they didn ' t have any belief that included the possibility that somebody could arrive from the ocean in a large sailing vessel. in our modern society we tend to walk around believing that we ' re very rational and observant and we ' ve got a pretty good grip on what is reality. science tends to create that picture. but yet, science, however useful it is, is just a systematic way of agreeing on what a certain reality is, and how to get predictable results with it, and it tends to stay within the boundaries of those codified agreements, often ignoring anything that doesn ' t fit. science only very cautiously and gradually will expand that area. if you master these principles, and you have sufficient resources at your disposal, it is entirely possible to both create fake realities that large numbers of people will accept as the truth, as well as to create realities that are invisible to the general population. think for example of a black project that has access to sufficiently advanced principles and technologies that have been kept out of the public knowledge, out of scientific text books, and out out of the educational system. say, teleportation or time travel. you don ' t even have to worry much about leaks, because they will pretty much be self - healing. if somebody puts out a story about secret time travel experiments, it is very easy to ridicule them, and you don ' t even have to do it yourself, as there will be plenty of respectable scientists and good citizens who ' ll stand up and say that it of course is impossible and complete nonsense. somebody could even write a book with all the details and you could pick it up in the ufo section of your local bookstore, but it wouldn ' t sink into the public awareness as anything real. you can keep very big things very secret if you just make sure that enough of the components and participants are far enough removed from what is normal and expected, and the facts are generally so hard to get to, and so hard to piece together, that the whole thing becomes invisible to most people. single secrets hidden by known people can fairly easily be discovered. but complex secrets, put together from many individually incredible elements, those are much harder to bring to the light. conversely, you can make fake stories appear very real and accepted if you just make sure that you provide enough components of normal reality. like, pictures, sound, stories, information, and lots of it, and repetitive delivery of it. and that the people presenting it look like the right kind of people to do so", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.6040513100602559, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4075ca42-ce16-4a3c-b969-e8b51e55c498>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.493467"}
{"text": "you just make sure that you provide enough components of normal reality. like, pictures, sound, stories, information, and lots of it, and repetitive delivery of it. and that the people presenting it look like the right kind of people to do so. reporters, scientists, government officials, etc. i ' m not really even talking about conspiracy theory particularly. a bigger view than that. conspiracies are usually imagined as something the known and accepted players are doing when you aren ' t looking. like, does george bush and tom brokaw and kenneth lay and everybody else you see on the news have secret meetings where they plan out how they ' ll fool everybody? well, maybe they do, but that ' s probably not where it is really at. whatever specific things they do will quite likely come to light sooner or later and would be too hard to hide. what matters is not what they did, but what reality we end up accepting, and which realities we ' ll ignore. the real secret stuff would probably be going on in places you don ' t even know to look at, and would be done by people you ' ve never heard of. and the people you are looking at on the news are quite likely thinking they ' re just doing the best they can with what ' s available to them. because they probably live in a manufactured reality as well. [ patterns | 2003 - 10 - 22 05 : 15 | | permalink ] more >", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5424688726969555, "token_count": 295, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4075ca42-ce16-4a3c-b969-e8b51e55c498>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.494082"}
{"text": "##meter - peak surfaces showed a 15 - percent decrease in the production of a protein ( vegf ) upon which endothelial breast - cancer cells depend, compared to an implant surface with no surface modification. the 23 - nanometer surface showed greater reduction in vegf concentration when compared to the 300 - nanometer and 400 - nanometer - modified implants as well. while it is unclear why the 23 - nanoneter surface appears to work best at deterring breast - cancer cells, webster thinks it may have to do something with the stiffness of malignant breast cells. when they come into contact with the bumpy surface, they are unable to fully wrap themselves around the rounded contours, depriving them of the ability to ingest the life - sustaining nutrients that permeate the surface. he likened the peak - covered surface to a bed - of - nails to cancer cells. the researchers hypothesize that even smaller surface peaks would work better at repelling cancer cells. somewhat to their surprise, webster and zhang found that that the 23 - nanometer semispherical surface yielded 15 percent more healthy endothelial breast cells compared to normal surface after one day of lab tests. this work is detailed in a paper titled, \" poly - lactic - glycolic acid surface nanotopographies selectively decrease breast adenocarcinoma cell functions. \" an abstract of this paper is available at the journal ' s website.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5041817502918218, "token_count": 299, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1318a7d2-4be3-489a-8dec-2aba4f508627>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.520262"}
{"text": "subsequent smaller folds would include the assumptions associated with the theory. the finished object might resemble a silhouette of two people connected to one another, alluding to the ongoing nurse and client interaction required for deliberative care to effectively take place. dynamic nurse - patient relationship know the theorist distinguish the theory \u201c nurse, can you give me my morphine, \u201d cried out mrs. so. \u201c can you tell how painful it is using the 0 \u2010 10 pain scale, where 0 being not painful and 10 being severely painful? \u201d replied the nurse. \u201c ummm... i think it \u2019 s about 7. can i have my morphine now? \u201d \u201c mrs. so, i think something is bothering you besides your pain. am i correct? \u201d mrs. so cried and said, \u201c i can \u2019 t help it. i \u2019 m so worried about my 3 boys. i \u2019 m not sure how they are or who \u2019 s been taking care of them. they \u2019 re still so young to be left alone. my husband is in yemen right now and he won \u2019 t be back until next month. \u201d \u201c why don \u2019 t we make a phone call to your house so you could check out on your boys? \u201d mrs. so phoned his sons. \u201c thank you nurse. i don \u2019 t think i still need that morphine. my boys are fine. our neighbour, mrs. yee, she \u2019 s watching over my boys right now. \u201d the focus of orlando \u2019 s paradigm hubs the context of a dynamic nurse - patient phenomenon constructively realized through highlighting the key concepts such as : patient behavior, nurse reaction, nurse action. 1. the nursing process is set in motion by the patient behavior. all patient behavior, verbal ( a patient \u2019 s use of language ) or non - verbal ( includes physiological symptoms, motor activity, and nonverbal communication ), no matter how insignificant, must be considered an expression of a need for help and needs to be validated. if a patient \u2019 s behavior does not effectively assessed by the nurse then a major problem in giving care would rise leading to a nurse - patient relationship failure. overtime. the more it is difficult to establish rapport to the patient once behavior is not determined. communicating effectively is vital to achieve patient \u2019 s cooperation in achieving health. remember : when a patient has a need for help that cannot be resolved without the help of another, helplessness results 2. the patient behavior stimulates a nurse reaction. in this part, the beginning of the nurse -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.588285095899383, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e906d7-7638-47de-86c7-7290a8e7b964>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.562110"}
{"text": "s cooperation in achieving health. remember : when a patient has a need for help that cannot be resolved without the help of another, helplessness results 2. the patient behavior stimulates a nurse reaction. in this part, the beginning of the nurse - patient relationship takes place. it is important to correctly evaluate the behavior of the patient using the nurse reactions steps to achieve positive feedback response from the patient. the steps are as follows : the nurse perceives behavior through any of the senses - > the perception leads to automatic thought - > the thought produces an automatic feeling - > the nurse shares reactions with the patient to ascertain whether perceptions are accurate or inaccurate - > the nurse consciously deliberates about personal reactions and patient input in order to produce professional deliberative actions based on mindful assessment rather than automatic reactions. remember : exploration with the patient helps validate the patient \u2019 s behavior. 3. critically considering one or two ways in implementing nurse action. when providing care, nursing action can be done either automatic or deliberative. automatic reactions stem from nursing behaviors that are performed to satisfy a directive other than the patient \u2019 s need for help. for example, the nurse who gives a sleeping pill to a patient every evening because it is ordered by the physician, without first discussing the need for the medication with the patient, is engaging in automatic, non - deliberative behavior. this is because the reason for giving the pill has more to do with following medical orders ( automatically ) than with the patient \u2019 s immediate expressed need for help. deliberative reaction is a \u201c disciplined professional response \u201d it can be argued that all nursing actions are meant to help the client and should be considered deliberative. however, correct identification of actions from the nurse \u2019 s assessment should be determined to achieve reciprocal help between nurse and patient \u2019 s health. the following criterias should be considered. - deliberative actions result from the correct identification of patient needs by validation of the nurses \u2019 s reaction to patient behavior. - the nurse explores the meaning of the action with the patient and its relevance to meeting his need. - the nurse validates the action \u2019 s effectiveness immediately after compelling it. - the nurse is free of stimuli unrelated to the patient \u2019 s need ( when action is taken ). remember : for an action to have been truly deliberative, it must undergo reflective evaluation to determine if the action helped the client by addressing the need as determined by the nurse and the client in the immediate situation. learn more about the theorymetaparadigm concepts", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5156956662435246, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e906d7-7638-47de-86c7-7290a8e7b964>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.563165"}
{"text": "action to have been truly deliberative, it must undergo reflective evaluation to determine if the action helped the client by addressing the need as determined by the nurse and the client in the immediate situation. learn more about the theorymetaparadigm concepts human / person an individual in need. unique individual behaving verbally or nonverbally. assumption is that individuals are at times able to meet their own needs and at other times unable to do so. health assumption is that being without emotional or physical discomfort and having a sense of well - being contribute to a healthy state. she further assumed that freedom from mental or physical discomfort and feelings of adequacy and well being contribute to health. she also noted that repeated experiences of having been helped undoubtedly culminate over periods of time in greater degrees of improvement environment orlando assumes it as a nursing situation that occurs when there is a nurse - patient contact and that both nurse and patient perceive, think, feel and act in the immediate situation. any aspect of the environment, even though its designed for therapeutic and helpful purposes, can cause the patient to become distressed. she stressed out that when a nurse observes a patient behavior, it should be perceived as a signal of distress. nursing a distinct profession \" providing direct assistance to individuals in whatever setting they are found for he purpose of avoiding, relieving, diminishing, or curing the individual ' s sense of helplessness \" ( orlando, 1972, p. 22 ). professional nursing is conceptualized as finding out and meeting the client \u2019 s immediate need for help. cite the applications of the theory in nursing research in nursing education - in a veterans administration ( va ) ambulatory psychiatric practice in providence, rishea, mcbride, gavin, and bauer ( 1987 ) used \u2019 s theoretical model with patients having a bipolar disorder. their research results indicate that there were : higher patient retention, reduction of emergency services, decreased hospital stay, and increased satisfaction. they recommended its use throughout the va system. currently orlando \u2019 s model is being used in a multi - million dollar research study of patients with a bipolar disorder at 12 sites in the va system ( mcbride, telephone interview, july, 2000 ). mcbride and colleagues continue its use in practice and research at the orlando veteran administration hospitalin. providence, ri - in a pilot study, potter and bockenhauer ( 2000 ) found positive results after implementing \u2019 s theory. these included : positive, patient - centered outcomes, a model for staff to use to approach patients, and a decrease", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5597002015296663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e906d7-7638-47de-86c7-7290a8e7b964>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.565923"}
{"text": "providence, ri - in a pilot study, potter and bockenhauer ( 2000 ) found positive results after implementing \u2019 s theory. these included : positive, patient - centered outcomes, a model for staff to use to approach patients, and a decrease in patient \u2019 s immediate distress. the study provides variable measurements that might be used in other research studies. orlando in nursing practice ' s theory has a continuing influence on nursing education. through e - mail communication it was found that the orlando midwestern state universi tyin wichita falls, texas, is using ' s theory for teaching entering nursing students. according to greene ( e - mail communication, june, 2000 ) she became aware, when taking a doctoral course about nursing theories, that it was orlando theory used by its school. orlando - through networking the author found that for over 10 years south dakota state university in brookings, sd has been using haggerty \u2019 s ( 1985 ) description of the communication based on orlando \u2019 s theory for entering nursing students as well as re - enforcing it in their junior year ( e - mail communication, ( j. fjelland, june, 2000 ). joyce fjelland, ms, rn. after working with schmieding at boston city hospital, lois haggerty used orlando \u2019 s theory in her teaching of students and in conducting a research study of students \u2019 responses to distressed patients at boston collegein. chestnut hill, massachusetts from an icu nurse : \u201c patients have an initial ability to communicate their need for help \u201d. consider a case of an immediate post coronary artery bypass graft ( cabg ) patient. once relieved from the effects of anesthetic sedation, though intubated, you would realize his excruciating retort from the sternotomy incisional pain through implicit cues. morphine sulfate 1 to 2 mg to be given via slow iv push every 1 to 2 hours or ketorolac 15 mg iv every 6 hours is the typical pro re nata ( prn ) order of a cardiac intensivist to relieve the client from pain. automatic response of a nurse is to calm the client and encourage relaxation through deep breathing while splinting the chest with a pillow. being deliberate in your actions include knowing the pharmacokinetics of an ordered drug in relation to the client \u2019 s physiologic standing. if the creatinine level were elevated, would you administer ketorolac? if the client is on respiratory precaution, would you administer mor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5194249680738305, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e906d7-7638-47de-86c7-7290a8e7b964>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.566946"}
{"text": "of an ordered drug in relation to the client \u2019 s physiologic standing. if the creatinine level were elevated, would you administer ketorolac? if the client is on respiratory precaution, would you administer morphine? you would ask yourself, what other alternatives do i have to ease my client from pain? \u201c the client \u2019 s behavior is meaningful \u201d. if such \u201c need \u201d would be fittingly dealt with, the intervention is thriving. \u201c when patient \u2019 s needs are not met, they become distressed. \u201d analyze the theory a relative of a patient at the emergency room went to the nurse \u2019 s station and began complaining in a loud shouting voice that their patient being a charity case is not being given the same quality of care as that of the other patients who are under private consultants. he claimed that their patient who was hyperventilating and was complanining of difficulty of breathing due to neurocirculatory astheinia was just forced to sit in the cubicle, while the rich - looking patient was a gomey. how will you handle this kind of situation and avoid conflict? how can \u2019 s dynamic nurse - patient interaction theory be utilized in this type of situation? orlando this group blog is submitted to ms. sheila bonito, fic, in partial fulfillment of the requirements in n207. manager : aux lizares editor : maria mae juanich katrina anne limos ginno paulo maglaya diana jasmin lee acknowledgmentwe would like to acknowledge the following people : ma \u2019 am shiela bonito, for coming up with this group work which really challenged not only our knowledge, understanding and creativity but also our ability to stay connected despite the distance, ms. aux lizares, for diligently sorting out the articles, ms. maria mae juanich, for organizing the articles into a working blog, and for ms. katrina anne limos, mr. gino paulo maglaya, and ms. diana jasmin lee, for tirelessly contributing their thoughts, ideas, and resources. without all of you, this blog would have never been possible. thank you very much!!! let us learn together. have we done justice to ida j. orlando in presenting her theory this way? we would like to invite you to share with us your thoughts, feelings, comments or reactions on our blog entitled, \u201c understanding ida jean orlando - pelletier \u2019 sdynamic nurse - patient relationship. \u201d thank you for your participation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5159616244656517, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e906d7-7638-47de-86c7-7290a8e7b964>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.568037"}
{"text": "this way? we would like to invite you to share with us your thoughts, feelings, comments or reactions on our blog entitled, \u201c understanding ida jean orlando - pelletier \u2019 sdynamic nurse - patient relationship. \u201d thank you for your participation! regards, i. j. ( 1972 ). the discipline and teaching of nursing process : an evaluative study. : g. p. putnam. new york george, j. b. ( 2002 ). nursing process discipline : ida jean orlando. in george, j. b. ( ed. ). nursing theories : the base for professional nursing practice ( 5th ed. ). : prentice hall, pp. 189 - 208. upper saddle river, new jersey ( 2002 ). ida jean orlando ( pelletier ) : nursing process theory. in tomey, a. m., & alligood, m. r.. nurse theorists and their work ( 5th ed. ). st. louis : mosby, pp. 399 - 417. schmieding, n. j. orlando, i. j. ( 1961 ). the dynamic nurse - patient relationship, function, process and principles. new york : g. p. putnam. ] haggerty, l. a. ( 1985 ). a theoretical model for developing students \u2019 communication skills. journal of nursing education, 24 ( 7 ), 296 - 298. haggerty, l. a. ( 1987 ). an analysis of senior nursing students \u2019 immediate responses to distressed patients.. journal of advanced nursing, 12, 451 - 461. nancy m. shea, linda mcbride, christopher gavin, and mark bauer bauer, m. s. ( 2001 ). the collaborative practice model for bipolar disorder - design and implementation in a multisite randomized controlled trial. bipolar disorders 3 ( 5 ), 233 - 244. bauer, m. s., & mcbride, l. ( 2002 ). structured group psychotherapy for bipolar disorder ( 2nd ed ). new york : springer publishing co. shea, n. m., mcbride, l. gavin, c., & bauer, m. ( 1997 ). the effects of ambulatory collaboration practice model on process and outcome of care for bipolar disorder. journal of the american psychiatric nurses association 3 ( 2 ), 49 - 57. mertie. l. potter, nd, arnp, cs and barbara jo bockenhauer, ms, rnc potter, m. l. & bockenhauer, b.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5881398981040724, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74e906d7-7638-47de-86c7-7290a8e7b964>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.569037"}
{"text": "is concept attainment? attainment is an indirect instructional strategy that uses a structured inquiry process. it is based on the work of jerome bruner. in concept attainment, students figure out the attributes of a group or category that has already been formed by the teacher. to do so, students compare and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not contain those attributes. they then separate them into two groups. concept attainment, then, is the search for and identification of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of a given group or category from non - examples. is its purpose? attainment is designed to clarify ideas and to introduce aspects of content. it engages students into formulating a concept through the use of illustrations, word cards or specimens called examples. students who catch onto the idea before others are able to resolve the concept and then are invited to suggest their own examples, while other students are still trying to form the concept. for this reason, concept attainment is well suited to classroom use because all thinking abilities can be challenged throughout the activity. with experience, children become skilled at identifying relationships in the word cards or specimens. with carefully chosen examples, it is possible to use concept attainment to teach almost any concept in all subjects. make connections between what students know and what they will how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives how to sort out relevant information their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example of that concept go beyond merely associating a key term with a definition concept is learned more thoroughly and retention is improved do i do it? of concept attainment : and define a concept positive and negative examples the process to the students the examples and list the attributes a concept definition the process with the class the teacher chooses a concept to developed. ( i. e. math facts that by making list of both positive \" yes \" and negative \" no \" examples : the examples are put onto sheets of paper or examples : ( positive examples contain attributes of the concept to be taught ) i. e. 5 + 5, 11 - 1, 10x1, 3 + 4 + 4, 12 - 2, 15 - 5, ( 4x2 ) + 2, examples : ( for examples choose facts that do not have 10 as the answer ) i. e. 6 + 6, 3 + 3, 12 - 4, 3x3, 4x4, 16 - 5, 6x2, 3 + 4 + 6, 2 + ( 2x3 ), one area", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5897515324121249, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4145631-903a-437e-a7a1-58e615ed6089>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.573854"}
{"text": "answer ) i. e. 6 + 6, 3 + 3, 12 - 4, 3x3, 4x4, 16 - 5, 6x2, 3 + 4 + 6, 2 + ( 2x3 ), one area of the chalkboard for the positive examples and one area for negative examples. a chart could be set up at the front of the room with two columns - one marked yes and the other marked the first card by saying, \" this is a yes. \" place it under the appropriate column. i. e. 5 + 5 is a yes the next card and say, \" this is a no. \" place it under the no column. i. e. 6 + 6 is a no this process until there are three examples under each column. the class to look at the three examples under the yes column and discuss how they are alike. ( i. e. 5 + 5, 11 - 1, 2x5 ) ask \" what do they have in common? \" the next tree examples under each column, ask the students to decide if the examples go under yes or no. this point, there are 6 examples under each column. several students will have identified the concept but it is important that they not tell it out loud to the class. they can however show that they have caught on by giving an example of their own for each column. at this point, the examples are student - generated. ask the class if anyone else has the concept in mind. students who have not yet defined the concept are still busy trying to see the similarities of the yes examples. place at least three more examples under each column that are student - generated. the process with the class. once most students have caught on, they can define the concept. once they have pointed out that everything under the yes column has an answer of 10, then print a new heading at the top of the column ( 10 facts ). the print a new heading for the no column ( not 10 facts ). can i adapt it? activity can be done on the chalkboard, chart paper or overhead projector to a large or small group. it also works well as one - on - one work. rather than starting with the teacher ' s concept, use a student ' s concept. concept attainment can be used to introduce or conclude a unit of study. on the concept attainment model all of the positive examples to the students at once and have them determine the essential attributes. all of the positive and negative examples to the students without", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5533370332112404, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4145631-903a-437e-a7a1-58e615ed6089>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.574751"}
{"text": "in heterosexual conflicts but females supported each other irrespective of preferences for genital rubbing. the frequency of genital rubbing did not vary in dependence of the degree of genital swelling and the solicitation of genital rubbing was not asymmetric in dependence of the relative degree of swelling of the two partners. the degree of tumescence did not influence the frequency of received or overall aggression for a female. although most female dyads were involved in same - sex conflicts, genital rubbing was observed in less than half of the dyads after the conflict. no increase of gg rubbing occurred 15 minutes after a conflict compared to 15 minutes before. high - ranking females took the male position during genital rubbing significantly more often than low ranking ones. the direction of initiation of genital rubbing was not influenced by social status. the data do no support the hypothesis that genial rubbing serves to form or maintain alliances, to reduce competition among females or to reconcile former opponents. however, genital rubbing may be a display of social status or may serve to reduce tension. finally, the correlation of physiological parameters and social status in female bonobos was studied. i investigated whether females differ in their excretion pattern of the glucocorticoid 11 - ketoetiocholanolone ( doa ) in dependence of their social status. based on displacements, females were categorised to either high or low social status. during the feeding experiments carried out on one group, high social status transferred in access to monopolisable food, the low ranking female was not successful in monopolising the food item. however, female social status was not reflected in the faecal excretion pattern of glucocorticoid metabolites in any of the three groups analysed. in two groups the high - ranking individuals had higher levels of idoa than low - ranking individuals, in the other group it was vice versa. the fourth group did not allow this investigation as the high ranking individual was pregnant and pregnancy was found to result in elevated glucocorticoid levels. the results indicate that also in bonobo females, high social status translates into better access to monopolizable resources. status dependent differences in cortisol excretion may not exist in bonobos or may become obvious only during periods of social instability. alternatively, social status may not influence adrenocortical function but other physiological parameters of the so - called stress axes. taken together, this study provides an interdisciplinary view on bono", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.508424512975471, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ab0f4f72-67d4-4b23-8bf9-3bf28c987cc1>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.580983"}
{"text": "( physorg. com ) - - ' fossil viruses ' preserved inside the dna of mammals and insects suggest that all viruses, including relatives of hiv and ebola, could potentially be stowaways transmitted from generation to generation for millions of years, according to new research. a team from oxford university and the aaron diamond aids research center built on earlier work at oxford that discovered the fossilised remains of an ancient hiv - like virus in the genomes of animals including sloths, lemurs and rabbits. the teams new research, reported in this weeks plos genetics, shows that many more different types of viruses are endogenous capable of being transmitted from generation to generation with fossil viruses turning up in the genomes of creatures as different as mosquitoes, wallabies, and humans. many of these viruses, such as the ancestors of ebola, are far more ancient and spread across many more animal groups than anyone ever suspected, said dr aris katzourakis of oxford universitys department of zoology, an author of the report. weve demonstrated that viruses have been integrating within animal genomes for at least 100 million years. weve also shown that, in some cases, viral genes have been domesticated by their hosts, and put to use by the hosts for their own purposes, demonstrating that captured viral sequences may have played a larger than expected role in animal evolution. understanding the historical conflict between viruses and animal immune systems could lead to new approaches to combating existing viruses such as hiv and ebola. it could also help scientists to decide which viruses that cross species are likely to cause dangerous pandemics in the future. these viruses represent the tip of the iceberg of endogenous viral diversity, said dr katzourakis. we have discovered a large and diverse set of virus sequences preserved in animal genomes, which together include representatives of all known viral groups. this demonstrates a potential for endogenisation for any virus, and illustrates that viral fossil records may be uncovered for many elusive viral groups. explore further : new formula invented for microscope viewing, substitutes for federally controlled drug", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5109249849651234, "token_count": 421, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:71c0ad1a-5dbd-4c52-b4c8-e379a50094d8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.603183"}
{"text": "( phys. org ) \u2014 controlling \" mixing \" between acceptor and donor layers, or domains, in polymer - based solar cells could increase their efficiency, according to a team of researchers that included physicists from north carolina state university. their findings shed light on the inner workings of these solar cells, and could lead to further improvements in efficiency. polymer - based solar cells consist of two domains, known as the acceptor and the donor layers. excitons, the energy particles created by solar cells, must be able to travel quickly to the interface of the donor and acceptor domains in order to be harnessed as an energy source. researchers had believed that keeping the donor and acceptor layers as pure as possible was the best way to ensure that the excitons could travel unimpeded, so that solar cells could capture the maximum amount of energy. nc state physicist harald ade and his group worked with teams of scientists from the united kingdom, australia and china to examine the physical structure and improve the production of polymer - based solar cells. in findings published in two separate papers appearing this month online in advanced energy materials and advanced materials, the researchers show that some mixing of the two domains may not be a bad thing. in fact, if the morphology, or structure, of the mixed domains is small, the solar cell can still be quite efficient. according to ade, \" we had previously found that the domains in these solar cells weren ' t pure. so we looked at how additives affected the production of these cells. when you manufacture the cell, the relative rate of evaporation of the solvents and additives determines how the active layer forms and the donor and acceptor mix. ideally, you want the solvent to evaporate slowly enough so that the materials have time to separate \u2013 otherwise the layers ' gum up ' and lower the cell ' s efficiency. we utilized an additive that slowed evaporation. this controlled the mixing and domain size of the active layer, and the portions that mixed were small. \" the efficiency of those mixed layers was excellent, leading to speculation that perhaps some mixing of the donor and acceptor isn ' t a problem, as long as the domains are small. \" we ' re looking for the perfect mix here, both in terms of the solvents and additives we might use in order to manufacture polymer - based solar cells, and in terms of the physical mixing of the domains and how that may affect efficiency, \" ade says. explore further : femtosecond '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5684478140502831, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cb5db99f-40e4-45b6-9b59-e96df82a88dc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.609306"}
{"text": "the solvents and additives we might use in order to manufacture polymer - based solar cells, and in terms of the physical mixing of the domains and how that may affect efficiency, \" ade says. explore further : femtosecond ' snapshots ' reveal a dramatic bond tightening in photo - excited gold complexes more information : \" from binary to ternary solvent : morphology fine - tuning of d / a blend in pdpp3t - based polymer solar cells \", advanced materials, 2012. in the past decade, great success has been achieved in bulk hetero - junction ( bhj ) polymer solar cells ( pscs ) in which donor / acceptor ( d / a ) bi - continuous interpenetrating networks can be formed and in some recent reports, power conversion efficiency ( pce ) even approach 8 %. in addition to the intrinsic properties of active layer materials, such as band gaps and molecular energy levels, morphological properties of the d / a blends including crystallinity of polymers, domain size, materials miscibility, hierarchical structures, and molecular orientation, are also of great importance for photovoltaic performance of the devices. therefore, several strategies including slow growth, solvent annealing, thermal annealing, selection of solvent or mixed solvent have been applied to modify or control of the morphology of the d / a blends. among these, binary solvent mixtures have been successfully used in morphology control. for example, the dichlorobenzene ( dcb ) or chlorobenzene ( cb ) / 1, 8 - diiodooctane ( dio ) binary solvent system has been widely applied in psc device fabrication process. by mixing a few volume percent of dio with the host solvent ( dcb or cb ), efficiencies of many kinds of polymers can be improved dramatically. besides dio, other solvents, like 1, 8 - octanedithiol ( ot ), n - methyl - 2 - pyrrolidone ( nmp ), 1 - chloronaphthalene ( cn ), chloroform ( cf ), can also be used. according to these works, it can be concluded that crystallinity, as well as domain size in the blends can be tuned effectively by using binary solvent mixtures, and thus binary solvent mixtures play a very important role in high performance pscs.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5539007198791859, "token_count": 492, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cb5db99f-40e4-45b6-9b59-e96df82a88dc>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.610252"}
{"text": "newton ' s first law states that an object will keep doing what it is doing if left alone, in other words - the natural state of an object is static - unchanging - motion. newton ' s second law clarifies the first. acceleration, or any change in motion, is an unnatural state for an arbitrary object left to its laurels, however it is a state that clearly exists all around us. newton defines the \" thing \" that forces an object to change its state of being - a force. in this most rigorous sense, a force is defined to be that which causes a change in motion. the observation of a change in momentum necessitates that there is some force driving that change, so in this sense the two are equivalent ( there is an equals sign there after all ) - wherever you see a ( net ) force you will see an acceleration, wherever you see an acceleration you will find a force responsible for it. however, going back to the first law, acceleration is a change in the ( kinetic ) state of an object, an objects natural tendency is to statically maintain its state. the observation of an unnatural state of being would logically imply that there is a cause. intuitively it seems unnatural that accelerations would happen spontaneously and that the universe will invent a force just to balance the books if you will.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6291738368622786, "token_count": 273, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9653235f-f275-4ae2-8e05-52f71a5a082d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.615697"}
{"text": "defects combine to make perfect devices jun 26, 2002 faulty components are usually rejected in the manufacture of computers and other high - tech devices. however, damien challet and neil johnson of oxford university say that this need not be the case. they have used statistical physics to show that the errors from defective electronic components or other imperfect objects can be combined to create near perfect devices ( d challet and n johnson 2002 phys. rev. lett. 89 028701 ). most computers are built to withstand the faults that develop in some of their components over the course of the computer \u2019 s lifetime, although these components initially contain no defects. however, many emerging nano - and microscale technologies will be inherently susceptible to defects. for example, no two quantum dots manufactured by self - assembly will be identical. each will contain a time - independent systematic defect compared to the original design. historically, sailors have had to cope with a similar problem \u2013 the inaccuracy in their clocks. to get round this they often took the average time of several clocks so that the errors in their clocks would more or less cancel out. similarly, challet and johnson consider a set of n components, each with a certain systematic error \u2013 for example the difference between the actual and registered current in a nanoscale transistor at a given applied voltage. they calculated the effect of combining the components and found that the best way to minimize the error is to select a well - chosen subset of the n components. they worked out that the optimum size of this subset for large numbers of devices should equal n / 2. on this basis, the researchers say that it should be possible to generate a continuous output of useful devices using only defective components. to find the optimum subset from each batch of defective devices, all of the defects can be measured individually and the minimum calculated with a computer. alternatively, components can be combined through trial and error until the aggregate error is minimized. once the optimum subset has been selected, fresh components can be added to replenish the original batch and the cycle started over again. challet and johnson point out that this process and the wiring together of the components will add to the overall cost of making the device. but they believe that these extra costs are likely to be outweighed by the fact that defective components can be produced cheaply en masse. hewlett packard, for example, has already built a supercomputer \u2013 known as teramac \u2013 from partially defective conventional components using adaptive wiring. \u201c", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5958109655343691, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7ed1dcb4-7e35-4561-bffe-329002b7a93d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.620307"}
{"text": "individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | \" social style \" is the behavior that one exhibits when interacting with others. being aware of your own social style helps a person develop relationships, particularly at work. \" social styles \" is the name of a particular psychometric instrument that helps people to better understand and work with others through appreciation of their basic decision making and control needs. originally, social styles was determined by having respondents say \" yes \" or \" no \" to 150 adjectives measuring three scales : assertiveness, responsiveness, and versatility. assertiveness : the effort a person makes to influence the thinking and actions of others. or - the measure of whether a person appears to ask or tell in interactions with others. responsiveness : the extent to which a person reacts readily to influence or stimulation with a display of feelings. versatility : a type of social endorsement based, in part, on the extent to which others see the individual as competent, adaptable, and behaving appropriately. versatility measures the extent to which a person appears to be working to make relationships mutually productive. the first two trace back to robert r. blake and jane mouton ' s managerial grid model. the two social style scales revealed that by combining the two dimensions, assertiveness and responsiveness, four patters of behavior, or \" social styles \", can be identified. driving : ( tell assertive + control responsive ) these individuals are seen as strong willed and more emotionally controlled. expressive : ( tell assertive + emote responsive ) these individuals are described as outgoing and more dramatic. amiable : ( ask assertive + emote responsive ) these individuals are seen as easy going and supportive. analytical : ( ask assertive + control responsive ) these individuals are described as serious and more exacting. in 1964 dr. david w merrill and roger reid began research to create a model that could predict the success in selling and management careers. what the partners ended up discovering was that people ' s behaviors and actions are consistent. the original social style model was worked on by dr. james w. taylor, who at the time was a staff psychologist at martin corporation ( later martin marietta ) in denver. dr. merrill obtained the rights to use the social styles modeltm ( whose rights are now owned by the tracom group, a workplace performance company specializing in interpersonal skills training and performance consulting, formerly a division of reed business information, whose parent company is reed elsevier ). new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5287169228266747, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b3aef04-25d5-4585-9ede-b36b5634fc9e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.629442"}
{"text": "methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | a word is a unit of language that carries meaning and consists of one or more morphemes which are linked more or less tightly together. typically a word will consist of a root or stem and zero or more affixes. words can be combined to create phrases, clauses and sentences. a word consisting of two or more stems joined together is called a compound. difficulty in defining the term edit the precise definition of what a word is depends on which language the definition is for, and the dividing line between words and phrases is not always clear. in most writing systems, a word is usually marked out in the text by interword separation such as spaces or word dividers used in some languages such as amharic. in other languages such as chinese and japanese, and in many ancient languages such as sanskrit, word boundaries are not shown. even in writing systems that use interword separation, word boundaries are not always clear ; for example, even though ice cream is written like two words, it is a single compound because it cannot be separated by another morpheme or rephrased like iced cream or cream of ice. likewise, a proper noun is a word, however long it is. a space may not be even the main morpheme boundary in a word ; the word new yorker is a compound of new york and - er, not of new and yorker. in english, many common words have historically progressed from being written as two separate words ( e. g. to day ) to hyphenated ( to - day ) to a single word ( today ), a process which is still ongoing, as in the common spelling of all right as alright. words in different classes of languages edit in synthetic languages, a single word stem ( for example, love ) may have a number of different forms ( for example, loves, loving, and loved ). however, these are not usually considered to be different words, but different forms of the same word. in these languages, words may be considered to be constructed from a number of morphemes ( such as love and - s ). in polysynthetic languages, the number of morphemes per word can become so large that the word performs the same grammatical role as a phrase or clause in less synthetic languages ( for example, in yupik, angyaghllangyugtuq means \" he wants to acquire a big boat \" ). these large - construction words are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6207931174718395, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6aa6792f-6094-41f1-bfe9-1d3df5411e28>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.696051"}
{"text": "word performs the same grammatical role as a phrase or clause in less synthetic languages ( for example, in yupik, angyaghllangyugtuq means \" he wants to acquire a big boat \" ). these large - construction words are still single words, because they contain only one content word ; the other morphemes are grammatical bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone. matters seem easier for analytic languages. for these languages, a word usually consists of only a root morpheme, which is often single - syllable. however, it is common even in those languages to combine roots into a compound stem. complexity of word boundaries in speech edit in spoken language, the distinction of individual words is even more complex : short words are often run together, and long words are often broken up. spoken french has some of the features of a polysynthetic language : je ne le sais pas ( \" i do not know it \" ) tends towards / \u0292\u0259n\u0259l\u0259sepa /. as the majority of the world ' s languages are not written, the scientific determination of word boundaries becomes important. determining word boundaries edit there are five ways to determine where the word boundaries of spoken language should be placed : - potential pause - a speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly, allowing for pauses. the speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries. however, this method is not foolproof : the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words. - a speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, and then is told to say the sentence again with extra words added to it. thus, i have lived in this village for ten years might become i and my family have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. these extra words will tend to be added in the word boundaries of the original sentence. however, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word. similarly, some have separable affixes ; in the german sentence \" ich komme gut zu hause an, \" the verb ankommen is separated. - minimal free forms - this concept was proposed by leonard bloomfield. words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. this correlates phonemes ( units of sound ) to lexemes ( units of meaning ). however, some written words are not minimal free forms, as they make no sense by themselves ( for example, the and of ). - phonetic boundaries - some languages have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5227573383033257, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6aa6792f-6094-41f1-bfe9-1d3df5411e28>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.706917"}
{"text": "##mes ( units of sound ) to lexemes ( units of meaning ). however, some written words are not minimal free forms, as they make no sense by themselves ( for example, the and of ). - phonetic boundaries - some languages have particular rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be. for example, in a language that regularly stresses the last syllable of a word ( like hebrew ), a word boundary is likely to fall after each stressed syllable. another example can be seen in a language that has vowel harmony ( like turkish ) : the vowels within a given word share the same quality, so a word boundary is likely to occur whenever the vowel quality changes. however, not all languages have such convenient phonetic rules, and even those that do present the occasional exceptions. - semantic units - much like the abovementioned minimal free forms, this method breaks down a sentence into its smallest semantic units. however, language often contains words that have little semantic value ( and often play a more grammatical role ), or semantic units that are compound words. in practice, linguists apply a mixture of all these methods to determine the word boundaries of any given sentence. even with the careful application of these methods, the exact definition of a word is often still elusive. - function word - lexical access - lexical decision - morphology ( language ) - nonsense word - word recognition - word meaning | this page uses creative commons licensed content from wikipedia ( view authors ). |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5547903424111285, "token_count": 303, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6aa6792f-6094-41f1-bfe9-1d3df5411e28>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.707810"}
{"text": "\u2022 setfree [ dropcon, options ] builds a freesystem object containing the mathematical equations required to find equilibrium conditions of the current model. the dropcon argument is used to specify the constraint ( s ) that are dropped to make the system underconstrained. \u2022 the format of dropcon is identical to that used by the constraints function. \u2022 the freesystem object is solved with solvefree. \u2022 the following options can be given : \u2022 if initialguess or initialcondition is unspecified, setfree uses the current model initial guesses, as obtained from lastsolve. \u2022 initialcondition can also be specified in solvefree. \u2022 if solution - > static is given, the model must have some nonzero applied loads for a static equilibrium position to exist. \u2022 if solution - > kinematic is given, the model must have velocity - dependent loads applied, or no equilibrium velocity can exist. \u2022 if solution - > dynamic is given, the model must have nonzero masses applied to at least one moving body with setbodies. \u2022 see also : setcouple. load the modeler2d package and define a simple model. here we build a freesystem object that can be used to simulate the underconstrained motion of the help model when the constraint that controls the rotation of the crank has been removed. before calling setfree, a velocity solution is generated with solvemech so that initial conditions for the location and velocity of each body will be available. because the help model has only one body with nonzero mass and one applied load ( the link body has a 10 - unit mass and a 10 - unit applied load in the x direction ), the instantaneous free acceleration is somewhat predictable. the x acceleration of the link body, x3dd, is equal to 1. 0. here we integrate the free acceleration of the help model with respect to time for four seconds. here is a plot of the x position of the link. the link is initially decelerating until its x coordinate reaches a local minimum, and then it accelerates the other way.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5495660158559108, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:45c7dc79-1d33-4fbd-a4b1-3598e9952123>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.729914"}
{"text": "commit themselves to a set of promises that they called the \" sixteen decisions. \" these are commitments to improve the welfare of the borrowers and their families above and beyond the loans. they agreed to send their children to school, they decided to maintain discipline, to create unity, to act with courage, and to work hard in all their endeavors. they agreed to keep their families small, to send their children to school, to plant as many seedlings as possible, even to eat vegetables. these are some of the resolutions created by the women, not imposed by the bank. these aspirations were critical to their lives. listening to them, you see what a difference women make. a typical initial loan is something like thirty - five dollars. the night before a woman is going to accept that money from the bank, she will be tossing and turning to decide whether she is really ready for it. she is scared that maybe something terrible will happen to her. and finally in the morning her friends will come over and they will try to persuade her : \" let \u2019 s go through with it. if you don \u2019 t go, we can \u2019 t. we can \u2019 t always worry. it was not easy coming to this point. let \u2019 s go. \" and finally, with their encouragement, she will come to the bank. when she holds that money, it is such a huge amount in her hands, it is like holding the hope and treasure that she never dreamt she would achieve. she will tremble, tears will roll down her cheeks, and she won \u2019 t believe we would trust her with such a large sum. and she promises that she will pay back this money, because the money is the symbol of the trust put in her and she does not want to betray that trust. and then she struggles to pay that first loan, that first installment, which is due the following week, and the second installment, which is payable the following week, and this goes on for fifty weeks in sequence, and every time that she repays another installment she is braver! and when she finishes her fiftieth installment, the last one, and she has now paid in full, she can say, \" i did it! \" she wants to celebrate. it \u2019 s not just a monetary transaction that has been completed, it is nothing less than a transformation of that person. in the beginning of it all, she was trembling, she was tossing and turning, she felt she was nobody and she really did not exist. now she is a woman", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5046973360831137, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a0e392d-cc2b-484c-a532-240386d5ca9f>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.749813"}
{"text": "that has been completed, it is nothing less than a transformation of that person. in the beginning of it all, she was trembling, she was tossing and turning, she felt she was nobody and she really did not exist. now she is a woman who feels like she is somebody. now she can almost stand up and challenge the whole world, shouting, \" i can do it, i can make it on my own. \" so it \u2019 s a process of transformation and finding self - worth, self - esteem. proving that she can take care of herself. you see, if you only look at the lending program of grameen, you have missed most of its impact. grameen is involved in a process of transformation. the sixteen decisions is an example : we found that grameen children attend school in record numbers because their mothers really take that commitment seriously. and now many of the children are continuing in colleges, universities, going on to medical schools, and so on. it is really striking to see young boys and girls go on to higher levels of education. the program has been so successful that we now foresee a big wave of students needing loans, so we recently came up with another loan product to finance higher education for all grameen children in professional schools. now they don \u2019 t have to worry about whether their parents will be able to pay for their higher education when tuition is so expensive. a recent study in bangladesh showed that children in grameen families are healthier than non - grameen children. scientific american did a study of population growth in bangladesh showing that the average number of children per family twenty years back was seven, but now it has been reduced to three. what happened? why did it happen? scientific american has spurred controversy by claiming the change is due to our program. as women become empowered, they look at themselves and at what they can do. they are making economic progress and alongside that, making decisions about their personal lives and how many children they choose to have. and of course article 16, decision 1, says that we should keep our families small. so this is an important part of the equation. at the population summit in cairo all the sessions spoke of the grameen model, because the adoption of family planning practices of women in our program is twice as high as the national average. now, we are not a population program, but this is a beneficial side effect. there are other side effects. starting seven years back we encouraged grameen borrowers to participate in the political process by voting. their first reaction was", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5143145485298615, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a0e392d-cc2b-484c-a532-240386d5ca9f>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.750895"}
{"text": "the national average. now, we are not a population program, but this is a beneficial side effect. there are other side effects. starting seven years back we encouraged grameen borrowers to participate in the political process by voting. their first reaction was negative. they said, \" the candidates are all devils, so why should we vote for them? \" it was very depressing that people looked at their electoral process in that way. so we replied, \" okay, yes, they are all devils, but if you don \u2019 t go and vote, the worst devil will get elected. so go sit down in your centers, discuss who could be the worst, what could happen if he gets elected, and if you find this prospect terrible, then you have an opportunity to choose among all the devils, the least evil. \" people immediately got excited, and we had almost 100 percent participation in that first election. it was very well organized. all the grameen families met the morning of the elections, and went to the voting place together, so the politicians would take note of their large numbers, so that they were taken seriously. in the next elections we organized grameen families to vote themselves and also to bring their friends and neighbors to vote, particularly the women. the result was that in the 1996 election in bangladesh voter participation was 73 percent, the highest percentage ever. and what shocked everybody was that across the board more women voted than men. in fact, women waited for hours, because when the voting arrangements were made, the authorities had expected only half the number to show up. the outcome changed the political landscape. in the previous parliament, the fundamentalist religious party had seventeen seats ; in the 1996 election, their number was reduced to three, because women found nothing interesting in the fundamentalist party \u2019 s program. so that was very empowering, very empowering indeed. then, in last year \u2019 s local elections, we were shocked to see that many grameen members themselves got elected. so i went around and talked to those people, and asked why they chose to run for office. they said, \" you told us to select the least of the devils, and we tried, but it was such an ugly job that we got fed up, and we started looking at each other, thinking, \u2018 why are we looking for the least devil, when we are good people here? why don \u2019 t we run ourselves? \" and that started the snowball effect which ended with more than four thousand grameen members elected into local office. that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5058432466312182, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a0e392d-cc2b-484c-a532-240386d5ca9f>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.751882"}
{"text": ", \u2018 why are we looking for the least devil, when we are good people here? why don \u2019 t we run ourselves? \" and that started the snowball effect which ended with more than four thousand grameen members elected into local office. that \u2019 s amazing. and the way they talk is completely different. i never heard women in bangladesh talking like this. they are challenging the government. they say, \" the government can \u2019 t tell us how to vote. we made commitments to our electorate. \" this is the kind of thing that happens. so in health care, in political participation, in the relationship between mother and child and between husband and wife, there are transformations of society. now you can open up, you can do things, you can discover your own talent and ability and look at the world in a very different way than you looked at before. because grameen offers a chance to become part of an institution, with some financial support to do your own thing. our customers are in a kind of business relationship, but one that makes such a difference to their lives. of course there is resistance. the first resistance came from the husbands who felt insulted, humiliated, threatened that their wives were given a loan and they were not. the tension within the family structure sometimes led to violence against the women. so we paused for a while and then came up with an idea. we started meeting with the husbands and explaining the program in a way where they could see it would be beneficial to their family. and we made sure to meet with husbands and wives together so everyone understood what was expected. so that reduced a lot of initial resistance by the husbands. neighborhood men also raised objections, and cloaked the fact that they felt threatened by women \u2019 s empowerment in religious trappings. we carefully examined whether our program was in some way antireligious. but they were hiding behind religion instead of admitting that they felt bypassed. it was the male ego speaking in religious terms. our best counterargument was just to give it time. it soon became clear that our borrowers were still attending to their religious duties, at the same time earning money and becoming confident. women started confronting the religious people. they said, \" you think taking money from grameen bank is a bad idea? okay, we won \u2019 t take any more \u2014 if you give the money yourself. we don \u2019 t care who gives it to us, but without money we cannot do anything. \" and of course the religious advocates said, \" no, no, we can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5290710332784142, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a0e392d-cc2b-484c-a532-240386d5ca9f>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.753018"}
{"text": "point - - similar to the gospel writers \u2019 point, i suppose - - is that despite how much we say we know about everything, despite how boringly predictable our lives and the world in which we live sometimes seems, i want to suggest that our lives and our world are a little less predictable than we imagine. to the very best of my knowledge, i don \u2019 t remember any predictions about anything like the arab spring or occupy wall street. i especially don \u2019 t remember anybody making any predictions about the way all of this would happen. to be fair, some of you may have questions about the way i \u2019 ve told this story. if bradley manning hadn \u2019 t been harassed for his sexual orientation, would he have leaked the secret documents? if he hadn \u2019 t leaked the secret documents, would the revolution in tunisia and the rest of the arab spring still happened? if the arab spring hadn \u2019 t happened, would the occupy wall street protests have occurred? i don \u2019 t know the answer to these questions either. here \u2019 s what i do know though \u2026 in ancient greek, there are two words for time - - chronos and kairos. chronos is regular, linear, predictable time. it \u2019 s the root of the english word \u201c chronology. \u201d kairos, though, refers to special time. to use more traditional theological language, it \u2019 s when the power of the divine breaks into history to bring about something new and totally unexpected. to use less traditional language, it \u2019 s when the events of the universe, the events of history, the events of life, serendipitously conspire to bring about something totally new and totally unexpected in our lives, often in a totally unexpected way, and sometimes even something good. what i want to suggest for your consideration this morning is that too often, i suspect most of us live our lives according to a chronos mentality rather than living with a kairos mentality. the biblical stories of jesus \u2019 birth were originally written to inspire us toward a kairos mentality - - but in our 21st century culture these stories are usually not understood too literally, but even among skeptics, the stories have become so familiar to us that they \u2019 ve lost their power to jar and jolt us out of a chronos mentality. \u201c that \u2019 s the way, it was supposed to happen! \u201d we say when we hear a story about a baby being born in a manger growing up to change the world. many of the events of 2011 seem to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5086191501485062, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:827be1f8-e696-40a7-82c6-d7b60d7a3af2>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.780386"}
{"text": "washington, dc \u2014 the u. s. department of energy ( doe ) today announced the launch of a website, doepatents, which allows search and retrieval of information from a collection of more than 20, 000 patent records. the database represents a growing collection of patents resulting from r & d supported by doe and demonstrates the department \u2019 s considerable contribution to scientific progress from the 1940s to the present. \u201c from helping the blind to see again to identifying hidden weapons through holographic computerized imaging technology, the u. s. department of energy has supported and will continue to support research addressing some of the world \u2019 s most pressing scientific challenges, \u201d under secretary for science dr. raymond l. orbach said. \u201c content within doepatents represents a truly impressive demonstration of doe research and development and technological innovation. \u201d highlighted at doepatents is a compilation of noteworthy doe innovations from the past few decades. these technologies have improved quality of life and provided national economic, health and environmental benefits. one such invention is the artificial retina, a collaborative research project between doe national laboratories, universities and the private sector aimed at restoring vision to millions of people blinded by retinal disease. another invention is the doe national renewable energy laboratory \u2019 s pioneering multi - junction solar cell. a cell based on this design set a world efficiency record in converting sunlight to electricity. the doepatents database also includes inventions of nobel laureates associated with doe or its predecessors such as enrico fermi, glenn seaborg and luis alvarez, along with other distinguished scientists. patents consists of bibliographic records, with full text where available via either a pdf file or an html link to the record at the united states patent and trademark office. the doepatents database is updated quarterly with new patent records. the website is updated on a regular basis with news and information about significant and recent inventions. resource links for inventors are included at the site, as well as recent inventions and patent news pages. doepatents was developed by the doe office of scientific and technical information ( osti ) and may be viewed at http : / / www. osti. gov / doepatents /. osti, a part of the doe office of science, accelerates discovery by making research results rapidly available to scientists and to the public. the office of science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the nation. jeff sherwood, doe, ( 202 ) 586 - 5806 cathey daniels, osti, ( 865 ) 576 - 9539", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5293817171841748, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d8e7ee42-2942-4f4e-bc3f-b0ba6d06cc68>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.789593"}
{"text": "php is considered an insecure language to develop in not because of secret backdoors put in by the php language developers, but because it was initially developed without security as a major concern and compared to other languages / web frameworks its difficult to develop securely in it. e. g., if you develop a lamp / lapp ( linux + apache + mysql / postgresql + php ) web app, you have to manually code in input / output sanitation to prevent sql injection / xss / csrf, make sure there are no subtle calls to eval user - supplied code ( like in preg _ replace with a ' / e ' ending the regexp argument ), safely deal with file uploads, make sure user passwords are securely hashed ( not plaintext ), authentication cookies are unguessable, secure ( https ) and http - only, etc. most modern web - frameworks simplify many of these issues by doing most of these things in a secure fashion ( or initially doing them insecurely and then getting secure updates ). the risk of there being a secret backdoor in an open - source php is small ; and the risk is present in every piece of software ( windows / linux / apache / nginx / iis / postgresql / oracle ) you use - - both open - source and closed - source. the open - source ones at least have the benefit that many independent eyes look at it all the time and you could examine it if you wanted. also note in principle, even after fully examining the source code and finding no backdoors and fully examining the source code of your compiler ( finding no backdoors ), if you then recompile your compiler ( bootstrap by using some untrusted existing compiler ) and then compile the safe source code with your newly compiled \" safe \" compiler, your executable code could still have backdoors brought in from using the untrusted existing compiler to compile the new compiler. see ken thompson ' s reflections on trusting trust. ( the way this is defended against in practice is by using many independent and obscure compilers from multiple sources to compile any new compiler and then compare the output ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5027528381000298, "token_count": 459, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9f5695bc-5609-4c4f-ad0d-a28ed7a4e1d1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.807566"}
{"text": "the cerebral cortex, a layer of neural tissue surrounding the cerebrum of the mammalian brain, has been known to play various roles in memory, language, thought, attention, and consciousness. up until now, no invertebrate equivalent to the cerebral cortex has been encountered, but detlev arendt, raju tomer, and colleagues may have found an evolutionary counterpart. the obvious answer is hidden in one simple creature \u2013 the worm. wait, what? yeah, you heard me. the marine ragworm, found at all water depths, has been shown to possess a tissue resembling that of our mysterious cerebral cortex. arendt and his colleagues used a technique called cellular profiling to determine a molecular footprint for each kind of cell in this particular type of ragworm. by utilizing this technique, they were able to uncover which genes were turned on and off in each cell, providing a means for cellular categorization. surprisingly, mushroom bodies, regions of the ragworm \u2019 s brain that are thought to control olfactory senses, show a striking similarity to tissue found in our cerebral cortex. this intriguing discovery may provide remarkable insight into the evolutionary basis of what has developed into an incredibly important cerebral structure. read more about this review here, or see the original article in cell.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5569833183809597, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1a0e3f67-9ec4-493a-8b64-388a43f16bf0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.814073"}
{"text": "object pool design pattern object pooling can offer a significant performance boost ; it is most effective in situations where the cost of initializing a class instance is high, the rate of instantiation of a class is high, and the number of instantiations in use at any one time is low. object pools ( otherwise known as resource pools ) are used to manage the object caching. a client with access to a object pool can avoid creating a new objects by simply asking the pool for one that has already been instantiated instead. generally the pool will be a growing pool, i. e. the pool itself will create new objects if the pool is empty, or we can have a pool, which restricts the number of objects created. it is desirable to keep all reusable objects that are not currently in use in the same object pool so that they can be managed by one coherent policy. to achieve this, the reusable pool class is designed to be a singleton class. the object pool lets others \u201c check out \u201d objects from its pool, when those objects are no longer needed by their processes, they are returned to the pool in order to be reused. however, we don \u2019 t want a process to have to wait for a particular object to be released, so the object pool also instantiates new objects as they are required, but must also implement a facility to clean up unused objects periodically. the general idea for the connection pool pattern is that if instances of a class can be reused, you avoid creating instances of the class by reusing them. < strong > reusable < / strong > - instances of classes in this role collaborate with other objects for a limited amount of time, then they are no longer needed for that collaboration. < strong > client < / strong > - instances of classes in this role use reusable objects. < strong > reusablepool < / strong > - instances of classes in this role manage reusable objects for use by client objects. usually, it is desirable to keep all reusable objects that are not currently in use in the same object pool so that they can be managed by one coherent policy. to achieve this, the reusablepool class is designed to be a singleton class. its constructor ( s ) are private, which forces other classes to call its getinstance method to get the one instance of the a client object calls a acquirereusable method when it needs a reusable object. a reusablepool object maintains a collection of reusa", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5232061038583078, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2cf5c550-c98e-4074-8ffd-0e998c786591>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.822036"}
{"text": "private, which forces other classes to call its getinstance method to get the one instance of the a client object calls a acquirereusable method when it needs a reusable object. a reusablepool object maintains a collection of reusable objects. it uses the collection of reusable objects to contain a pool of reusable objects that are not currently in use. if there are any reusable objects in the pool when the acquirereusable method is called, it removes a reusable object from the pool and returns it. if the pool is empty, then the acquirereusable method creates a reusable object if it can. if the acquirereusable method cannot create a new reusable object, then it waits until a reusable object is returned to the collection. client objects pass a reusable object to a releasereusable method when they are finished with the object. the releasereusable method returns a reusable object to the pool of reusable objects that are not in use. in many applications of the object pool pattern, there are reasons for limiting the total number of reusable objects that may exist. in such cases, the reusablepool object that creates reusable objects is responsible for not creating more than a specified maximum number of reusable objects. if reusablepool objects are responsible for limiting the number of objects they will create, then the reusablepool class will have a method for specifying the maximum number of objects to be created. that method is indicated in the above diagram as setmaxpoolsize. do you like bowling? if you do, you probably know that you should change your shoes when you getting the bowling club. shoe shelf is wonderful example of object pool. once you want to play, you \u2019 ll get your pair ( aquirereusable ) from it. after the game, you \u2019 ll return shoes back to the shelf ( objectpoolclass with private array of releasemethods in objectpool class - make sure that your objectpool is singleton rules of thumb - the factory method pattern can be used to encapsulate the creation logic for objects. however, it does not manage them after their creation, the object pool pattern keeps track of the objects it creates. - object pools are usually implemented as singletons. object pool code examples | this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - no derivative works 3. 0 unported license |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5198157520360625, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2cf5c550-c98e-4074-8ffd-0e998c786591>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.823119"}
{"text": "stats articles 2010 why any ol ' diet will work ( if your bmi is high enough ) : a case study in regression toward the mean rebecca goldin, phd, february 10, 2010 understanding regression toward the mean imagine a city where, from year to year, the overall height of the population is stable. there are no sudden growth spurts or frantic attempts by parents to give their children growth hormones, or movements of very short people in or very tall people out of the city limits. now consider the following statistical conundrum : if you measure the tall people in the city, they will tend to have children who are shorter and, similarly, the short people will tend to have children who are taller. other strange things are happening too. though the city ' s school test scores are not improving overall, the children with the worst test scores last year, appear to be doing better this year. what you are witnessing is called \" regression toward the mean, \" and it means that whenever you measure something more than once in a population, the extremes tend to move more toward the average. consider height : suppose the range of adult heights ( the minimum to maximum heights ) is four feet to seven feet, and stays the same over several generations. if we look at just those who are 7 feet tall, we will find that they have children who are shorter, since if these children grow to be taller than 7 feet, the height range of the population would change. if the range stays the same, the 7 - feet people cannot have children who are taller than themselves! you might ask : but where do we get the new 7 - feet tall people if the tallest people have shorter kids? first, a maximum height individual might have a same - heigh child. second, invariably, some tall people who are not quite at the maximum will have taller children - for example, someone 6 feet 6 inches could have a child who grows to be 7 feet tall. these kids will become the next generation of \u201c tallest. \u201d \u201c height of children \u201d is an example of a measurement that has some random fluctuation, that has nothing to do with genetics at all. regression toward the mean describes the behavior of such randomness. unfortunately, it can lead to some bias in observational studies, and understanding its effects is an important defense against false conclusions. just as we may be misled about what is happening to our society \u2019 s height if we only observe the heights of the children of very tall people ( thinking that they are shrinking ) we may be misled", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5529349924051182, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:afb4aadf-971b-4748-bc3d-995e5115be2f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.838467"}
{"text": "is an important defense against false conclusions. just as we may be misled about what is happening to our society \u2019 s height if we only observe the heights of the children of very tall people ( thinking that they are shrinking ) we may be misled about social progress and medical success if we do not recognize the phenomenon. how bias sneaks in : an experiment in regressing we can set up an experiment that illustrates the phenomenon without having to wait generations to see the result. take a random group of people and ask them each to flip a coin 100 times and record the result. we would expect to find that many people got close to 50 heads and 50 tails. but we would also find that a few people got many more heads than tails and vice versa. suppose we did the experiment again with just those who got the outlying results. let \u2019 s call someone a \u201c head - flipper \u201d if he / she got at least 60 heads, and we only include head - flippers in our second experiment. we would still expect these people to have, on average, 50 heads and 50 tails in second set of flips. the head - flippers would generally not be head - flippers any longer. as these experiments are independent of each other, we do not expect head - flippers to be particularly likely to flip heads the second time they participate in the experiment. now imagine i have noted the first set of results and decided that what the world needed was a medication that improved one ' s ability to flip tails ( imagine i ' m crazy ). of course, i am only interested in what this medicine does to head - flippers, since they are the ones with the very serious problem of over - flipping heads. what will i find if i give all the head - flippers the medicine and run my test again? amazingly, most of them will no - longer flip at least 60 heads - i will have proven success! of course, the medication is illusory, as this purported increase in tail - flipping is only in comparison to those people who were chosen because they had flipped a lot of heads. we have simply observed regression toward the mean. regression toward the mean is a fundamental notion in statistics, and important to account for in experiments. it can create bias in poorly done observational studies. if the score on the coin flips were replaced by blood pressure measurements, for example, we should expect that people with the highest blood pressure readings are also those whose pressure will go down at the next measurement, whether they are given a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5517495508780915, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:afb4aadf-971b-4748-bc3d-995e5115be2f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.839730"}
{"text": "critical the second reading. the situation becomes much clearer when we look at the whole picture. by looking at the whole graph, we see there were five people below the red line, but to the right of the blue line, who had non - critically high blood pressure on the first reading, but above critical on the second. these people whose condition \u201c worsened \u201d from one reading to the next will compensate for those who \u201c improved, \u201d so that we see an average of no change. the point of a clinical trial is to get rid of the ( random ) bias introduced by regression toward the mean. a randomized clinical trial would compare groups of people with high blood pressure readings, by giving one group the medicine and the other not. it would then observe whether there is more benefit for the group that takes the medicine. alternatively, one could introduce a regimen for everyone without regard to blood pressure levels ( such as an exercise routine ) and see whether the average changes. weight loss and regression toward the mean by the same principle, the heaviest people are in a good position not to be heaviest at the next weigh - in. suppose that in february, 2010, we observe the weight of a population of people whose overall average weight and distribution of weights does not change. at the end of the year, the people with the highest bmi are likely to have decreased their weight while those with the smallest are likely to increase. these changes which are attributed to \" regression toward the mean \" should be understood to be the changes due to random fluctuations of the weight measurement - - it could be because our weights do fluctuate some without any intervention on our part, or because the scales we use have some random error. if the population as a whole does not have an increased average or change its weight distribution, then as people below the average will tend to put on weight, while those who have a very high bmi will be likely to go down in weight. [ keep in mind that the average bmi may well be over 25, classifying the average person as overweight - regression toward the mean doesn ' t do anything for the average! ] now throw \" going on a diet to lose weight \" into the picture, something that typically only overweight people do, and this effect should be exaggerated. on average, attempting to lose weight has a positive impact on losing weight. of course there are many aspects of changing bmi levels that are more complicated than we have presented here. in particular, american bmi is not standing still ; it is increasing. and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5263871109645861, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:afb4aadf-971b-4748-bc3d-995e5115be2f>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.842079"}
{"text": "i see real promise in the making. people are starting to embrace the scholarship of teaching and learning as a critical aspect of our work. while the philosophy may be new to some, it \u2019 s really just about cultivating a culture where educators and \u201c students by nature \u201d can thrive. filed under : uncategorized | leave a comment \u00bb posted on february 20, 2012 by ollie dreon innovation is another buzz word you \u2019 ll hear around the water cooler these days. everyone is promoting innovative teaching practices or trying to promote innovative solutions to the big problems facing schools, education and society. lost in the discussion of innovation, however, is the fact that being innovative requires a great deal of risk taking and possibly some failure. as a culture, we struggle with the idea of failure which limits our desire to take risks and innovate. but perspective is everything. take thomas edison. arguably one of the greatest american innovators of the 19th century, edison tried almost a thousand times to build the incandescent light bulb before eventually getting it right. when asked about failing so many times, edison reportedly replied \u201c i have not failed 1, 000 times. i have successfully discovered 1, 000 ways to not make a light bulb. \u201d it \u2019 s all about perspective. or look at michael wesch. wesch is an associate professor of cultural anthropology at kansas state university and has been an advocate for using technology instructionally to engage students actively in classroom content. wesch has given ted talks and created several technology - based videos that have gone viral. for instance, wesch \u2019 s vision of students today which describes the digital lives of collegiate students has been watched over 4 million times. he \u2019 s a world renowned technology leader and educator. last week, the chronicle of higher education featured wesch in an article titled \u201c a tech - happy professor reboots after hearing his teaching advice isn \u2019 t working. \u201d while wesch has been advising colleagues to use twitter and blogs in their teaching, his colleagues have not reported the same level of success as wesch has had. \u201c it was chaos, \u201d one of wesch \u2019 s colleagues said after implementing wesch \u2019 s strategies. \u201d it just didn \u2019 t work. \u201d but it \u2019 s all about perspective. innovation requires risk taking and involves educators learning from their efforts. rather than focusing on his colleagues \u2019 failures and dismissing technology outright, wesch chose to re - examine its use and learn from their mistakes. educators need to have a purpose for integrating technology and focus on establishing relationships with students,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.538230799539281, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8076427c-d8d3-41a5-90c3-181e0e1825a5>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.871886"}
{"text": "does is done alone at every level in the educational system \u2026 for most people, school is the last time ( students ) will be evaluated on individual effort. \u201d but cultivating collaboration isn \u2019 t just a curricular challenge. we as educators must be models of collaboration ourselves. we can \u2019 t just talk the talk. we must walk the walk. we must break free of our respective silos and learn to collaborate with one another. in his book called collaboration, morten hansen identified four barriers to collaboration that institutions may face. these barrier include : - the not invented - here barrier : people are unwilling to reach out to others and reject the ideas from the outisde - the hoarding barrier : people are unwilling to provide help or keep information close at hand because they are competing with one another - the search barrier : people are not able to find what they are looking for because information is spread across the institution - the transfer barrier : people are not able to work with people, especially ones they don \u2019 t know well. i \u2019 m sure hansen \u2019 s barriers will resonate with many readers but they can be overcome. and they need to be overcome. not only to be better educational models for our students, but also so we can be more productive, more creative and more innovative. collaboration is more than a bridge between two ideas. it is the catalyst that spawns a multitude of new ideas. and that needs to be valued, cultivated and celebrated. filed under : collaboration | leave a comment \u00bb posted on february 8, 2012 by ollie dreon a few weeks ago, i discussed the new ibooks author app and also outlined some of my concerns with the end user licensing agreement for the application. if you recall, some people were interpreting the eula as apple claiming some ownership of any content that is authored using the ibooks author app, whether it is uploaded onto the ibookstore or not. they compared it to microsoft claiming some ownership of every document written with ms word or any presentation created with powerpoint. enough people expressed their concerns that apple recently modified its eula to clarify their intentions. looking at the revised eula, authors will retain all of their rights for the content of their work but are not able to sell the specific ibooks files anywhere but through the ibookstore. to check out the eula for yourself, visit the app store preview. for an in - depth analysis of the eula language, check out this post from appadvice. filed under : etexts, ipad", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5288930198405208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8076427c-d8d3-41a5-90c3-181e0e1825a5>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.874034"}
{"text": "friends on the brain posted by adam benforado on october 27, 2011 have a lot of friends on facebook? think that makes you special? well, researchers at university college london suggest that you might just be right. according to a new study published in proceedings of the royal society b, facebook users with the largest number of pals had greater brain density in areas of the brain associated with social perception and associative memory. for anyone who has been following the debate over whether technology has been changing our brains, it \u2019 s worth a read, although the research doesn \u2019 t answer the question of whether the brain differences in the sample were an effect or a cause of individuals having more online friends. an abstract of the paper appears below : the increasing ubiquity of web - based social networking services is a striking feature of modern human society. the degree to which individuals participate in these networks varies substantially for reasons that are unclear. here, we show a biological basis for such variability by demonstrating that quantitative variation in the number of friends an individual declares on a web - based social networking service reliably predicted grey matter density in the right superior temporal sulcus, left middle temporal gyrus and entorhinal cortex. such regions have been previously implicated in social perception and associative memory, respectively. we further show that variability in the size of such online friendship networks was significantly correlated with the size of more intimate real - world social groups. however, the brain regions we identified were specifically associated with online social network size, whereas the grey matter density of the amygdala was correlated both with online and real - world social network sizes. taken together, our findings demonstrate that the size of an individual \u2019 s online social network is closely linked to focal brain structure implicated in social cognition. related situationist posts :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5724493687959931, "token_count": 367, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f20b6033-0b1d-4eff-bc76-060dff381575>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.885505"}
{"text": "this tree diagram shows the relationships between several groups of organisms. the root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life. the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree. this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups, which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right. you can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life, and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species. close box insects have a large number of unique, derived characteristics, although none of these are externally obvious in most species. these include ( kristensen, 1991 ) : - lack of musculature beyond the first segment of antenna. - johnston ' s organ in pedicel ( second segment ) of antenna. this organ is a collection of sensory cells that detect movement of the flagellum. - a transverse bar forming the posterior tentorium inside the head - tarsi subsegmented - females with ovipositor formed by gonapophyses from segments 8 and 9 - annulated, terminal filament extending out from end of segment 11 of abdomen ( subsequently lost in most groups of insects ) one notable feature linking thysanura + pterygota is the presence of two articulations on each mandible. archaeognathans have only one mandibular condyle or articulation point ; they are \" monocondylic \". thysanura + pterygota, with their two mandibular condyles, are sometimes called dicondylia. the many other apomorphies linking dicondylia are described in kristensen ( 1991 ). it is possible that the thysanurans are not themselves monophyletic ; thysanura ( exclusive of the family lepidothricidae ) plus pterygotes may be monophyletic, with lepidothricids sister to this complex ( kristensen, 1991 ). beutel, r. g. and s. n. gorb. 2001. ultrastructure of attachment specializations of hexapods, ( arthropoda ) : evolutionary patterns inferred from a revised ordinal phylogeny. journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 39 : 177 - 207. bitsch, j", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5250008659484795, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1175fce3-6e6f-4cc3-a81c-14516c744153>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.901910"}
{"text": "of attachment specializations of hexapods, ( arthropoda ) : evolutionary patterns inferred from a revised ordinal phylogeny. journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 39 : 177 - 207. bitsch, j. and a. nel. 1999. morphology and classification of the extinct archaeognatha and related taxa ( hexapoda ). annales de la societe entomologique de france 35 : 17 - 29. boudreaux, h. b. 1979. arthropod phylogeny with special reference to insects. new york, j. wiley. carpenter, f. m. 1992. superclass hexapoda. volumes 3 and 4 of part r, arthropoda 4 of treatise on invertebrate paleontology. boulder, colorado, geological society of america. carpenter, f. m. and l. burnham. 1985. the geological record of insects. annual review of earth and planetary sciences 13 : 297 - 314. caterino, m. s., s. cho, and f. a. h. sperling. 1999. the current state of insect molecular systematics : a thriving tower of babel. annual review of entomology 45 : 1 \u2013 54. chapman, r. f. 1998. the insects : structure and function. cambridge university press, cambridge, u. k., new york. daly, h. v., j. t. doyen, and a. h. purcell iii. 1998. introduction to insect biology and diversity, 2nd edn. oxford university press, oxford. dindall, d. l. 1990. soil biology guide. new york, john wiley & sons. engel, m. s. and d. a. grimaldi. 2004. new light shed on the oldest insect. nature 427 : 627 - 630. evans, h. e. 1993. life on a little - known planet. new york, lyons & burford. gereben - krenn, b. a. and g. pass. 2000. circulatory organs of abdominal appendages in primitive insects ( hexapoda : archaeognatha, zygentoma and ephemeroptera ). acta zoologica 81 : 285 - 292. grimaldi, d. 2001. insect evolutionary history from handlirsch to hennig, and beyond. journal of paleontology 75 : 1152 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5003990040084824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1175fce3-6e6f-4cc3-a81c-14516c744153>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.902803"}
{"text": "5th grade oral language resources students will : \u2022 learn about the concept of whales. \u2022 access prior knowledge and build background about whales. \u2022 explore and apply the concept of whales. students will : \u2022 demonstrate an understanding of the concept of whales. \u2022 orally use words that describe different types of whales and where they live. \u2022 extend oral vocabulary by speaking about terms that describe whales and whale body parts. \u2022 use key concept words [ inlet, humpback, ocean, fins, underwater ; submerge, ascend, baleen, mammal ]. explain \u2022 use the slideshow to review the key concept words. \u2022 explain that students are going to learn about : \u2022 where whales live. \u2022 parts of a whale ' s body. model \u2022 after the host introduces the slideshow, point to the photo on screen. ask students : what kind of animal do you see in this picture? ( whale ). what do you know about these animals? ( answers will vary ). \u2022 ask students : what are the dangers facing whales? ( too much hunting, polluted environment ). \u2022 say : in this activity, we ' re going to learn about whales. how can we protect whales? ( not pollute the environment, join groups that are concerned with their safety ). guided practice \u2022 guide students through the next two slides, showing them examples of whales and the way whales live. always have the students describe how people are different from whales. apply \u2022 play the games that follow. have them discuss with their partner the different topics that appear during the talk about it feature. \u2022 after the first game, ask students to talk about what they think a whale ' s living environment is like. after the second game, have them discuss what they would like and dislike about having the body of a whale. close \u2022 ask students : how do you move in the water? \u2022 summarize for students that since whales are mammals, they have to come above water to breathe. encourage them to think about how they breathe underwater.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5168841066730945, "token_count": 406, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a16eb0ef-5e43-45e5-b0fb-052d92b4dd25>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.908042"}
{"text": "injectable nanogel can monitor blood - sugar levels and secrete insulin when needed. cambridge, mass. - in work that recasts archaeologists ' thinking aboutpeoples living in the western region of ancient mexico, mit researchershave shown that these people had a significant impact on other culturalgroups by producing large numbers of metal artifacts and distributing themto centers as far south as belize. because the majority of these artifacts, such as bells andtweezers, were symbols of sacred and political power, by exporting them thewest mexican peoples not only affected economic systems but also influencedreligious and ritual behavior. \" they were exporting a religious ideology, \" said dorothy hosler, associate professor of archaeology and ancient technology in the departmentof materials science and engineering. professor hosler and andrew w. macfarlane, a research affiliate in the department and an associateprofessor at florida international university, are authors of an article onthe work in the september 27 issue of science. west mexican peoples were one of many cultural groups, includingthe aztec and maya, who lived in a region archaeologists call mesoamerica. this region encompassed central and southern mexico, guatemala, belize, western honduras, and el salvador. until now, archaeologists had thoughtthat the west mexicans were relatively isolated and had little impact onother mesoamerican peoples. the new work, which links copper and bronze artifacts excavated atmany sites in mesoamerica to west mexican ore deposits, \" is the firstevidence we have that west mexican peoples were interacting intensivelywith other mesoamerican groups, \" professor hosler said. \" so it alters ourthinking about the economic and social networks in this period [ ~ a. d. 1200 - 1521 ]. \" in the summer of 1995 professor hosler spent two months in mexicocollecting ore samples from 15 deposits in west mexico, oaxaca, and easternmexico ( veracruz ). with a permit granted by mexico ' s national institute ofanthropology and history, she also took samples of 171 copper artifactsfrom a variety of mesoamerican archaeological sites. \" i came back to mitwith boxes and boxes of artifact and ore samples, \" said professor hosler, who is also a member of the mit center for archaeological materials. the researchers then determined the ratios of lead isotopes in eachsample ( isotopes of an element have different atomic weights ). lead isotopeanalysis, a standard technique, \" can be used", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.522685127503093, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a0110e54-d4da-4f25-afc0-1a7636ce8050>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.930554"}
{"text": "is also a member of the mit center for archaeological materials. the researchers then determined the ratios of lead isotopes in eachsample ( isotopes of an element have different atomic weights ). lead isotopeanalysis, a standard technique, \" can be used to identify ore sources forartifacts made from copper and copper alloys by matching the isotopicsignatures of ore lead to those of the artifacts, \" the researchers write inscience. professor hosler notes that mit undergraduate jennifer pinson, nowa junior in materials science, played a key role in the analysis. \" sheworked all last year on the project ; at one point she went to florida tohand - deliver ore samples to professor macfarlane because we were afraid wemight lose them if we shipped them. \" ( the samples were analyzed atprofessor macfarlane ' s lab. ) the lead - isotope results showed that most of the mesoamericanartifacts sampled were indeed made of metal smelted from west mexican ores. these analytical data combined with historical and archaeological evidencetherefore show that the west mexicans were exporting artifacts throughoutthe mesoamerican region. among the archaeological evidence that supports this conclusion isthat \" as far as we know, other mesoamerican peoples did not develop thetechnical expertise to make these artifacts, \" professor hosler said. shenoted that west mexican bells, for example, are difficult to cast. \" last january, mit professors sam allen, linn hobbs, and i led a class in ancientmexican bell casting. the students spent two weeks trying to cast copies ofthese bells, and we don ' t have it exactly right yet. \" professor hosler concluded that although she had suspected that thewest mexicans played a major role in the production and distribution ofmetal artifacts, \" until the lead isotope analysis we had no way ofsubstantiating what we thought might be true. \" for more information about mit research on the history ofmaterials, go to : < http : / / tantalum. mit. edu / dmse _ research / crabrochure / history _ of _ materials. html >. the work reported in science was supported by a grant from grupomexico ( industrial minera mexico ), american smelting and refining company, and southern peru copper.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5036255290552785, "token_count": 486, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a0110e54-d4da-4f25-afc0-1a7636ce8050>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.933835"}
{"text": "from lawguru wiki template : crimpro in united states constitutional law, the exclusionary rule is a legal principle holding that evidence collected or analyzed in violation of the u. s. constitution is inadmissible for a criminal prosecution in a court of law ( that is, it cannot be used in a criminal trial ). the exclusionary rule does not apply to all violations of the fourth, fifth, or sixth amendments. an example of this is the 2006 supreme court ruling hudson v. michigan, the exclusionary rule is designed to provide a remedy and disincentive, short of criminal prosecution, for prosecutors and police who illegally gather evidence in violation of the fourth and fifth amendments in the bill of rights, which provide for protection from unreasonable searches and seizure and compelled self - incrimination. the exclusionary rule applies to all citizens or aliens ( illegal or documented ) that reside within the united states. it is not applicable to aliens residing outside of u. s. borders. united states v. alvarez decided that property owned by aliens in a foreign country is admissible in court. certain persons in the u. s. receive limited protections, such as prisoners, probationers, parolees, and persons crossing u. s. borders. corporations, by virtue of being, also have limited rights under the fourth amendment ( see corporate personhood ). the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine holds that any evidence discovered indirectly through an illegal search or seizure is inadmissible in court. the rationale is that the evidence would not have been found were it not for the violation of the fourth amendment and therefore must be suppressed because it is the \" fruit of the poisonous tree. \" if the prosecution can prove that the evidence in question would have been discovered even without the illegal search, then this evidence is admissible. this principle is known as inevitable discovery. history of the rule the exclusionary rule was created in 1914 in the case of weeks v. united states. this decision, however, created the rule only on the federal level. it was not until mapp v. ohio, 367 u. s. 643 ( 1961 ) that the exclusionary rule was also held to be binding on the states through the fourteenth amendment, which guarantees due process. this landmark decision was considered by former justice potter stewart as \" the most important search and seizure decision in [ american ] history. \" the court ' s rationale for its holding in hudson is that a search whose only illegality is the failure to announce cannot uncover any evidence that would", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5086907475722393, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:eac05fd2-9274-4cd0-9afd-5b9d860d5778>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.964099"}
{"text": "former justice potter stewart as \" the most important search and seizure decision in [ american ] history. \" the court ' s rationale for its holding in hudson is that a search whose only illegality is the failure to announce cannot uncover any evidence that would not have been uncovered if the announcement had been properly made, and therefore the suppression of evidence is not an appropriate remedy. exceptions to the rule the exclusionary rule does not apply in a civil case, in a grand jury proceeding, or in a parole revocation hearing. in any of these circumstances, illegally obtained evidence will not be barred by the rule. furthermore, such evidence can be admitted to impeach the credibility of the defendant ' s trial testimony ; however, this exception applies only if the defendant testifies, and the evidence is relevant to call into question the truthfulness of the defendant ' s testimony. the inevitable discovery doctrine was adopted first by the united states supreme court in nix v williams in 1984. it holds that evidence obtained through an unlawful search or seizure is admissible in court if it can be established, to a very high degree of probability, that normal police investigation would have inevitably led to the discovery of the evidence. this decision was upheld because given the fact that the exclusionary rule was created specifically to deter police and state misconduct, excluding evidence that would inevitably ( hypothetically ) have been discovered otherwise would not serve to deter police misconduct. in people v. stith, the court stated that this doctrine may not be used to admit primary evidence but only secondary evidence, i. e. evidence found as a result of the primary evidence. the attenuation exception to the exclusionary rule is that evidence may be suppressed only if there is a clear causal connection between the illegal police action and the evidence. the evidence must result from the unlawful conduct. a three - pronged test was created in people v. martinez to determine whether there was sufficient attenuation of this connection ( i. e. the lack of connection between the disputed evidence and the unlawful conduct ) : ( 1 ) the time period between the illegal arrest and the ensuing confession or consensual search ; ( 2 ) the presence of intervening factors or event ; and ( 3 ) the purpose and flagrancy of the official misconduct. the independent source exception allows evidence to be admitted in court if knowledge of the evidence is gained from a separate, or independent, source that is completely unrelated to the illegality at hand. this rule was formally accepted in people v. arnau. the good - faith exception may allow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5128788268703135, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:eac05fd2-9274-4cd0-9afd-5b9d860d5778>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.966222"}
{"text": "troubleshooting problems while in safe mode safe mode is a troubleshooting option for windows that starts your computer with only basic services and functionality. if an existing problem does not reappear when you start windows in safe mode, you can eliminate the default settings and basic device drivers as possible causes. if you haven ' t installed any new programs or hardware recently, you can use the process of elimination to help you find the problem. try starting all of the programs you commonly use, including the programs in your startup folder, one by one to see if a program might be the cause of the problem. the program might be incompatible with this version of windows. try using system restore to restore your system to a point in time when it worked correctly. for more information, see what is system restore? the driver for the device might be incompatible with this version of windows. for information about uninstalling a device driver, see tips for fixing common driver problems. if uninstalling or restoring the driver back to a previous version does not fix the problem, try uninstalling or removing the hardware, and then restarting your computer. try restarting your computer using safe mode with networking, the only safe mode option that allows networking and internet capabilities. if you can ' t connect using this option, be sure to rule out hardware issues by restarting your computer and also any network hardware you are using, such as a modem or router. for more information, see troubleshoot internet connection problems. system restore can return your system files to a previous point in time before you noticed a problem. for more information, see what is system restore? if system restore does not fix the problem, try running startup repair from your windows installation disc. for more information, see startup repair : frequently asked questions.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5224039315980282, "token_count": 364, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:497030fc-99a7-4872-b93c-a37a7ab2520e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.969814"}
{"text": "is simply a weight around women \u2019 s necks. often people value their personal relationships and home life above all else, because they seem to offer a haven from the stresses of the outside world. but that doesn \u2019 t change the role the family plays under capitalism. and for a lot of the time, people looking for comfort and sanctuary in the family are disappointed. the haven they hoped to find ends up being a pressure cooker where built - up tensions are unleashed \u2014 and women often bear the brunt of them. the key role that the family plays explains why our rulers hate criticism of it and attack anyone who falls outside it. that \u2019 s why there is homophobia, panic over single parents and pressure on single people to get married. this also shapes the way people think about rape. most women who are raped know their attacker, and violence is more likely to happen within families \u2014 yet the most common view of rape is of a shadowy stranger leaping out of a bush late at night. sexist ideas are so ingrained because women \u2019 s oppression has existed for thousands of years, since the rise of class societies. this is why it seems so natural and permanent. but some of those who argue that we can \u2019 t challenge oppression do so because they have an interest in maintaining it. and it helps them to focus on individual acts of violence, because that distracts from the systemic oppression at the heart of capitalism. we can end women \u2019 s oppression \u2014 but to do it we need to get rid of the system that props it up. oppression affects all women, but the impact is vastly different depending on class. it is key to a system that ruling class women do very well out of \u2014 which is why we can \u2019 t rely on alliances with rich women to win change. ordinary people have a common interest in getting rid of capitalism. it wrecks the lives of working class women and men. it relies on oppression to divide and weaken the working class. and it atomises us and distorts even our most intimate relationships. in the process of creating a new world, people transform themselves. they throw off what marx called the \u201c muck of ages \u201d and ideas that have survived for centuries start to fall away. and in every revolutionary movement, women come to the forefront to lead the struggle. revolution isn \u2019 t a fairytale. already this year we \u2019 ve seen revolutions in egypt and tunisia that have thrown out dictators and raised the prospect of workers \u2019 control of society. collectively, we have the power to smash the system and create real", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5271516763620481, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c297ad3d-1642-43bf-a329-34a9b68dbf9b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:54.989674"}
{"text": "numbers on the page that the user must enter to login. make sure this series changes each time the user tries to login, that it is an image ( rather than simple text ), and that it cannot be identified by an optical character recognition script. second, add in a simple counter. if you detect a certain number of failed logins in a row, disable logging in to the administration area until it is reactivated by someone responsible. if you only allow each potential attacker a small number of attempts to guess a password, they will have to be very lucky indeed to gain access to the protected area. this might be inconvenient for authentic users, however is usually a price worth paying. finally, make sure you track ip addresses of both those users who successfully login and those who don ' t. if you spot repeated attempts from a single ip address to access the site, you may consider blocking access from that ip address altogether. one excellent way to make sure that even if you have a problem with someone accessing your database who shouldn ' t be able to, you can limit the damage they can cause. modern databases like mysql and sql server allow you to control what a user can and cannot do. you can give users ( or not ) permission to create data, edit, delete, and more using these permissions. usually, i try and ensure that i only allow users to add and edit data. if a site requires an item be deleted, i will usually set the front end of the site to only appear to delete the item. for example, you could have a numeric field called \" item _ deleted \", and set it to 1 when an item is deleted. you can then use that to prevent users seeing these items. you can then purge these later if required, yourself, while not giving your users \" delete \" permissions for the database. if a user cannot delete or drop tables, neither can someone who finds out the user login to the database ( though obviously they can still do damage ). php contains a variety of commands with access to the operating system of the server, and that can interact with other programs. unless you need access to these specific commands, it is highly recommended that you disable them entirely. for example, the eval ( ) function allows you to treat a string as php code and execute it. this can be a useful tool on occasion. however, if using the eval ( ) function on any input from the user, the user", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5049860084688917, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:88a3943e-6d77-4211-8079-34a232f009fd>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.019968"}
{"text": "background : a new type of stethoscope relies on ultrasound to enable doctors to hear the sounds of the body in extremely loud situations, such as during the transportation of patients in medevac helicopters, or wounded soldiers in blackhawk helicopters. how it works : these new ultrasound models transmit a sound signal into the patient\u0131s body. this sound is reflected back to the stethoscope at a slightly different frequency because it bounces off the internal organs, changing the sound wave pattern\u0131 essentially, the doppler effect. the difference in frequencies between the transmitted sound wave and the returning sound wave received by the instrument can be computed to determine the motion of the internal organs. this difference in frequency is then converted into audible sound. ultrasound stethoscopes produce a markedly different sound than conventional ones. an acoustic stethoscope yields a \u0131lub - dub\u0131 sound from a heartbeat with the first beat being the strongest. an ultrasound stethoscope yields a \u0131ta - da - ta\u0131 pattern with the second beat being the strongest. the problem : traditional stethoscopes transmit and amplify sound within the range of human hearing : from 20 hertz to 20, 000 hertz. most body sound, such as that of the heart and lungs, fall into the 100 to 200 hertz range. current acoustic stethoscopes detect and amplify vibrations that allow doctors to hear the heart and lungs better. however, they become difficult to use around 80 decibels \u0131 a noise level comparable to an alarm clock or a busy street, - - and are useless above 90 decibels. modern electronic stethoscopes improved that threshold to 95 decibels by replacing the earpieces with loudspeaker inserts, which provide a better seal over the ear canal. they also have electrical cables instead of the conventional tubing, decreasing acoustic noise. but this is still not sufficient to make the instruments useful in very noisy environments. the ultrasound stethoscope is nearly impervious to loud noise and can make accurate readings at noise levels up to 120 decibels, similar to the volume experienced in the front row at a rock concert. the doppler effect : both sound waves and light waves exhibit the doppler effect. just as a train whistle will sound higher as it approaches a platform and then become lower in pitch as it moves away, light emitted by a moving object is perceived to increase in frequency ( a blue shift ) if it is moving toward the observer ; if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5220762315120733, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:02a0c66a-8a2e-4550-bf96-abaa1418098e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.030433"}
{"text": "restrictions of freedom the act on protection against family violence of 2003 covers the issue of violence perpetrated within families and therefore covers the case of violence towards a relative with dementia. the definition of violence is very comprehensive and includes restriction of freedom of movement and presumably various coercive measures. \u201c family violence is any use of physical force or psychological pressure against the integrity of a person ; any other behaviour of a family member which can cause or potentially cause physical or psychological pain ; causing feelings of fear or being personally endangered or feeling of offended dignity ; physical attack regardless of whether or not it results in physical injury, verbal assaults, insults, cursing, name - calling and other forms of severe disturbance ; sexual harassment ; stalking and other forms of disturbance ; illegal isolation or restriction of the freedom of movement or communication with third persons ; damage or destruction of property or attempts to do so. \u201d ( cited by the united nations division for the advancement of women, 2009 ). united nations division for the advancement of women ( 2009 ), the un secretary - general \u2019 s database on violence against women : extract on croatia. accessed online on 20 october 2011 at : http : / / webapps01. un. org / vawdatabase / searchdetail. action? measureid = 6015 & basehref = country & basehrefid = 388 last updated : mercredi 14 mars 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5492006240803764, "token_count": 280, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e99a9177-7071-4cc4-9436-91ad85a08f52>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.041934"}
{"text": "so i ' ve been reading a lot of carl jung ' s works recently. in ' dreams, memories and reflections ' as well as ' the archetypes and the collective unconscious ', he describes in great detail various communications he has made with his unconscious mind, which manifest themselves in all sorts of figures and scenes. many of the experiences he describes were prophetic in nature and in my opinion, his description of the archetypes is incredibly fascinating and links in with tony ' s idea of the daemon. in ' on the relation of analytical psychology to poetry ' jung writes : - ' the primordial image, or archetype, is a figure - - be it a daemon, a human being, or a process - - that constantly recurs in the course of history and appears wherever creative fantasy is freely expressed. essentially, therefore, it is a mythological figure.... in each of these images there is a little piece of human psychology and human fate, a remnant of the joys and sorrows that have been repeated countless times in our ancestral history.. ' concerning direct communication with this ' daemon ' archetype jung came up with a method called ' active imagination ', which he said he had used on himself and his patients to communicate with their subconscious ( their daemon ). copied from wikipedia : - active imagination is a concept developed by carl jung between 1913 and 1916. it is a meditation technique wherein the contents of one ' s unconscious are translated into images, narrative or personified as separate entities. it can serve as a bridge between the conscious ' ego ' and the unconscious and includes working with dreams and the creative self via imagination or fantasy. jung linked active imagination with the processes of alchemy in that both strive for oneness and inter - relatedness from a set of fragmented and dissociated parts. key to the process of active imagination is the goal of exerting as little influence as possible on mental images as they unfold. for example, if a person were recording a spoken visualization of a scene or object from a dream, jung ' s approach would ask the practitioner to observe the scene, watch for changes, and report them, rather than to consciously fill the scene with one ' s desired changes. one would then respond genuinely to these changes, and report any further changes in the scene. this approach is meant to ensure that the unconscious contents express themselves without overbearing influence from the conscious mind. at the same time, however, jung was insistent that some form of participation in active imagination", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5727732335148282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3e9d77a7-4e98-4651-92d9-2d11a816fb7f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.058031"}
{"text": ", and report any further changes in the scene. this approach is meant to ensure that the unconscious contents express themselves without overbearing influence from the conscious mind. at the same time, however, jung was insistent that some form of participation in active imagination was essential : ' you yourself must enter into the process with your personal reactions... as if the drama being enacted before your eyes were real '. of the origination of active imagination, jung wrote : \u201c it was during advent of the year 1913 \u2013 december 12, to be exact \u2013 that i resolved upon the decisive step. i was sitting at my desk once more, thinking over my fears. then i let myself drop. suddenly it was as though the ground literally gave way beneath my feet, and i plunged into the dark depths. \u201d carl jung developed this technique as one of several that would define his distinctive contribution to the practice of psychotherapy. active imagination is a method for visualizing unconscious issues by letting them act themselves out. active imagination can be done by visualization ( which is how jung himself did it ), which can be considered similar in technique at least to shamanic journeying. active imagination can also be done by automatic writing, or by artistic activities such as dance, music, painting, sculpting, ceramics, crafts, etc. jung considered indeed that ' the patient can make himself creatively independent through this method... by painting himself he gives shape to himself '. doing active imagination permits the thoughtforms of the unconscious, or inner ' self ', and of the totality of the psyche, to act out whatever messages they are trying to communicate to the conscious mind. for jung however, this technique had the potential not only to allow communication between the conscious and unconscious aspects of the personal psyche with its various components and inter - dynamics, but also between the personal and ' collective ' unconscious ; and therefore was to be embarked upon with due care and attentiveness. indeed, he warned with respect to ' \" active imagination \"... the method is not entirely without danger, because it may carry the patient too far away from reality '. the post - jungian michael fordham was to go further, suggesting that ' active imagination, as a transitional phenomenon... can be, and often is, both in adults and children put to nefarious purposes and promotes psychopathology '. http : / / en. wikipedia. org / wiki / active _ imagination has anybody tried this method or done any further research into it?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.502491137378857, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3e9d77a7-4e98-4651-92d9-2d11a816fb7f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.058950"}
{"text": "one half of optics was missing at optical frequencies, electromagnetic waves interact with an ordinary optical material ( e. g., glass ) via the electronic polarizability of the material. in contrast, the corresponding magnetizability is negligible for frequencies above a few thz, or in other words, its magnetic permeability is identical to unity ( \u03bc ( \u03c9 ) = 1 ). consequently, the optical properties of an ordinary optical material are completely characterized by its electric permittivity \u03b5 ( \u03c9 ) ( or dielectric function ). as a result, we can only directly manipulate the electric component of light with an appropriate optical device while we have no immediate handle on the corresponding magnetic component. one half of optics has been missing. artificial magnetism at optical frequencies photonic metamaterials open up a way to overcome this constraint. the basic idea is to create an artificial crystal with significantly sub - wavelength periods. analogous to an ordinary optical material, such a photonic metamaterial can approximately be treated as an effective medium characterized by effective material parameters \u03b5 ( \u03c9 ) and \u03bc ( \u03c9 ). however, the proper design of the elementary building blocks ( or \" artificial atoms \" or \" meta - atoms \" ) of the photonic metamaterial allows for a non - vanishing magnetic response and even for \u03bc < 0 at optical frequencies \u2013 despite the fact that the constituent materials of the photonic metamaterial are completely non - magnetic. negative refractive index \u2026 much of the early excitement in the field has been about achieving a negative index of refraction n < 0 by simultaneous \u03b5 < 0 and \u00b5 < 0 at near - infrared or even at visible frequencies. a negative refractive index means that the phase velocity of light is opposite to the electromagnetic energy flow ( the poynting vector ). this unusual situation has inspired fascinating ideas like the so - called \" perfect lens \", which employs the fact that the optical path length between two spatially separate points can be made equal to zero, rendering the two points equivalent for the purpose of optics. \u2026 and beyond artificial magnetism is also a necessary prerequisite for obtaining strong optical activity and circular dichroism. these phenomena are based on magnetic dipoles excited by the electric component of the light field and vice versa. three - dimensional metal helices have been a corresponding paradigm building block in optical textbooks, but their nanofabrication has not been possible until quite recently. such gold - helix metamaterials can be applied as compact and broadband ( more than one octave ) circular", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.608445618558298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:daebb916-fc77-4989-a71e-ab10d0c822cd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.063278"}
{"text": "metal helices have been a corresponding paradigm building block in optical textbooks, but their nanofabrication has not been possible until quite recently. such gold - helix metamaterials can be applied as compact and broadband ( more than one octave ) circular polarizers - the circular analogue of the good old wire - grid linear polarizer ( already used by heinrich hertz in his pioneering experiments on electromagnetic waves in karlsruhe in 1887 ) and possibly a first down - to - earth application of the deceptively simple but far - reaching ideas of photonic metamaterials. transforming optical space further flexibility for achieving certain functions arises from intentionally spatially inhomogeneous optical metamaterials. such structures can be designed using the concepts of transformation optics, which is inspired by albert einstein \u2019 s theory of general relativity. in essence, distortions of actual space ( e. g., due to heavy masses ) can equivalently be mimicked by distortions of optical space, i. e., by tailoring the local index of refraction. invisibility cloaking structures have been a demanding benchmark example for the strength of transformation optics because invisibility cloaks would have been considered \" impossible \" just five years ago. today, direct laser writing has allowed for the first three - dimensional invisibility cloaking structures. lately, even visible operation frequencies have become accessible. a complete list of publications can be found here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.609955344650297, "token_count": 288, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:daebb916-fc77-4989-a71e-ab10d0c822cd>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.064366"}
{"text": "| risk factors is a chronic, severe, disabling brain disorder. it interferes with the way a person interprets reality. people with schizophrenia may : - hear voices or see things that others do not - become paranoid that people are plotting against them - experience cognitive deficits - withdraw socially these and other symptoms make it difficult for people with schizophrenia to have positive relationships with others. regions of the brain copyright \u00a9 nucleus medical media, inc. the cause of schizophrenia is unknown but it is associated with problems in brain structure and chemistry. there may be some genetic role. schizophrenia does not develop because of one factor. you may have a gene that increases your chance of schizophrenia, but you may not develop the disease based on your environment. environment means any outside factor like stress or infection. factors that increase your risk of schizophrenia include : - having a parent or sibling with schizophrenia - marijuana use or other drug use - father being of older age - other factors, like problems during pregnancy or birth such as infection men typically develop symptoms in their late teens or early twenties. schizophrenia in women tends to occur in their twenties or thirties. in rare cases, it is seen in childhood. symptoms often appear slowly. they may become more disturbing and bizarre over time or occur in a matter of weeks or months. symptoms may include : - hallucinations \u2014 seeing or hearing things / voices that are not there - delusions \u2014 strong but false personal beliefs that are not based in reality - disorganized thinking - disorganized speech \u2014 lack of ability to speak in a way that makes sense - catatonic behavior \u2014 slow movement, repeating rhythmic gestures, pacing, walking in circles, refusal to do things, repetitive speech - emotional flatness \u2014 flat speech, lack of facial expression, and general disinterest and withdrawal - inappropriate laughter - poor hygiene and self - care your doctor will ask you about your symptoms and medical history. a physical exam will be done. schizophrenia is diagnosed by certain symptoms that : - exist most of the time during a period of one month - cause a decreased level of functioning - continue for at least six months ( certain symptoms ) the doctor will rule out other causes, such as drug use, physical illness, or other mental health conditions. schizophrenia is not curable, but it is highly treatable. hospitalization may be required during acute episodes. symptoms are usually controlled with antipsychotic medicine. talk to your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. options may include one or more of the following : antipsychotic medicines", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5122767630710947, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4d77d96e-83ef-417e-b94d-d9b9cdc397d1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.088108"}
{"text": "cyberattacks on it systems are increasing at an exponential rate. from 2006 to 2009, organizations reported that the number of security incidents grew more than 400 percent. according to reports, many of these security breaches were introduced at the user level. along with an increase in attacks, there has also been an increase in the quantity and type of data stored on networks. given the number of staff members with varying security levels who require access to networks, organizations have had to redouble efforts to protect data and systems. yet securing the desktop, a major access point to the network, is often overlooked. following are some simple and effective ways to protect desktops \u2014 ensuring that they do not become gateways for unauthorized access to the agency network. although it ' s common practice in many organizations to limit the use of flash drives and other devices that utilize usb ports, many others do not do this. flash drives open organizations to data theft, and an infected usb device can introduce viruses. if it ' s necessary to use flash drives, it ' s best to select a secure drive with on - board antivirus software. typically, antivirus software is already installed on pcs when they arrive from the factory. this is often the first line of defense against viruses attempting to gain access via individual client devices. whether scanning e - mail attachments or preventing intrusions from infected websites, antivirus software should not be ignored. many users, however, disable their antivirus software or do not update it. these actions render the software ineffective or obsolete. scheduling automatic updates and maintaining the software are both necessary for it to remain effective and serve as a defense against the barrage of viruses that attack networks every day. most malware that enters a desktop, and ultimately the network, comes from users who have downloaded infected software or applications. restricting the ability of staff to automatically download software or applications reduces vulnerabilities at the desktop and limits the ways in which malware can access an organization ' s systems. secure kvm ( keyboard, video, mouse ) switches let users access both secure and nonsecure networks through a single set of peripherals. by keeping various networks isolated from one another, secure kvm switching devices eliminate potential data breaches. authorized workers can then access secure data with neither the threat of introducing harmful data to the secure network nor any risk of accidentally copying or transferring classified data to systems outside the secure network. additionally, many secure kvm switches can lock down usb devices, allowing only authorized devices \u2014 such as keyboards, mice and common access card readers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5371612030267785, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d06c5048-1e9f-4eb0-ae1b-e87fabe21fa2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.091617"}
{"text": "unexplained spiritual experiences, seemingly accidental that pushed him more and more towards spiritual quests of higher levels. these experiences were enhanced by his meetings with sister nivedita in 1902 and an experience of ' the vacant infinite ' at the sankarachaya hill in kashmir in 1903. mrinalini bose, the young wife of aurobindo had not been able to join in her husband ' s spiritual journey, and their differences became more than just the differences in their ages, as he became more involved in politics and yoga. five years after his marriage to her, he wrote to her saying that he was suffering from madness. he categorized his madness at three levels. first, was that he realized his talents and resources had to be used for one purpose only i. e. for god ' s work. his second madness he describes as his quest to have a direct ' realization with god '. thirdly, to him india was the mother, the divine embodiment of sakti that propelled him towards politics. politically aurobindo was becoming more and more determined to help the cause of independence for indians from the british. he was convinced that the western influence on the indian mind was an impediment for the indian spiritual maturity. he moved to bengal in 1906 to become the principal of bengal national college. here he joined secret political societies, and orchestrated an underground organization with printing of anti - british pamphlets. the same year he assisted bipin chandra pal in founding the radical newspaper, bande mataram. later, he took over the editorship of the newspaper and succeeded bipin chandra pal as the leader of national party in bengal. he wrote several articles including the one called ' the doctrine of passive resistance, ' that later became the main instrument of gandhi in his freedom struggle to oust the british from india. for his article in bande mataram, he was arrested in 1907, on charges of sedition and then released on bail. even in his development as a political revolutionary, aurobindo went through several evolutions as well. first he was the secret revolutionary, advocating and preparing for an armed insurrection. secondly, he undertook the task of convincing the nation that its citizens deserved and could attain independence. the country was in a state of forced subjugation, and thought that the british were too powerful and indians too impotent to dream of independence. moreover, indians were under the impression that the lofty idea about independence was impractical, unattainable and almost an insane chimera", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5050183525891953, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d75780fb-80df-4b1b-a592-2f28ec9f07f8>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.126792"}
{"text": ", and thought that the british were too powerful and indians too impotent to dream of independence. moreover, indians were under the impression that the lofty idea about independence was impractical, unattainable and almost an insane chimera. lastly, aurobindo had come a full circle when he wrote articles and assisted in organizing people to passively resist and practice non - cooperation. aurobindo resigned from bengal national college and became a leader of the nationalist movement, giving several speeches both in bengal and western india. in january of 1908 he met vishnu bhaskar lele, a yogi in baroda, who taught him the technique of silencing the mind and experiencing the timeless brahman, a form of spiritual realization. he was again arrested in 1908 in connection with alipore conspiracy case and spent a year in jail, including in solitary confinement. he utilized his time in jail studying the geeta, meditation and practice of yoga. after his acquittal, he started publications of two weeklies - karmayoga in english and dharma in bengali. during his stay in calcutta for a period of five years as a revolutionary leader, aravinda ghose tried to prove to the indians that a politically oppressed population could not express its distinctive spiritual and cultural genius. move to pondicherry aurobindo had concluded that independence for india was inevitable, and he then embraced the spiritual evolution of the soul with the same fervor as he had in raising the consciousness of indians. in the year 1910, when aurobindo was 37 years old, he abruptly withdrew from active politics and moved to pondicherry to continue his spiritual work. there he met paul richard, a french diplomat who became an ardent fan of aurobindo. mira richard, * * his wife was a spiritual personality ( born mira alfassa on february 21, 1878 in paris ), who had mystic and psychic experiences during her adolescence. after hearing about aurobindo she met him in 1914, an encounter instantly and profoundly spiritual for both. mira richard was to become \u201c mother \u201d later, a symbol of sakti who was to play a central role in the creation of the aurobindo ashram and auroville in pondicherry. mira richard saw aurobindo as the divine hero of tomorrow and hope for all humanity. the day after her meeting with him she wrote in her diary : \u201c little by little the horizon becomes precise, the path becomes clear. and we advance to an even greater", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5016718890093164, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d75780fb-80df-4b1b-a592-2f28ec9f07f8>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.128718"}
{"text": "| \u00a9 1999 - 2013 brainpop. all rights reserved. | in this movie, children will learn about different seasons and different types of weather. they ' ll learn how earth is tilted on its axis, and how as our planet orbits the sun, seasons change in different parts of the world! review with children that we divide the year into seasons, or sets of consecutive months that have similar weather patterns and length of days. there are four seasons in many parts of the world : winter, spring, summer, and fall ( also called autumn ). other parts of the world have two seasons : wet and dry. children should observe that seasons happen in the same cycles year after year and that different types of weather occur during different seasons. which is the coldest season? which is the hottest? children should know that temperature is how hot or cold something is, and this can be measured with a thermometer. though temperatures and amount of precipitation varies across different areas, winter typically has lower temperatures than the rest of the year. snow, sleet, hail, and rain are common forms of precipitation in the winter. in snowy areas, many animals have difficulties finding food and some will even hibernate to conserve energy. children can learn more about hibernation by watching the hibernation movie. december, january, and february are considered winter months in the northern hemisphere, though some countries acknowledge november to be a part of winter. children should understand that during winter they may wear heavier clothing like coats, hats, and scarves and participate in cold - weather activities such as sledding or skiing. as the winter ends, spring begins and temperatures slowly rise as the days get longer. snow and ice melt and more rain tends to fall during this season. flowers and plants grow and bloom, and animals become active again. many animals will have their young in the spring when food is plentiful. furthermore, their young will have time to grow before experiencing a cold winter themselves. the united states marks the beginning of spring with the vernal equinox in march and the end of spring with the summer solstice in june. children should understand that in spring they may wear lighter coats and rain gear, and also begin outdoor activities like baseball, softball, or gardening. after spring is summer, which begins in june and ends around september in the united states. summer is the warmest season and has the longest days, because our part of earth is tilted toward the sun throughout the season. most areas receive the least amount of precipitation during this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5164104468153896, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:35298b44-a7a1-4b94-98e6-74ba6b168b22>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.161617"}
{"text": "in the northern hemisphere might see a particular constellation in the summer, people living in the southern hemisphere might see the same constellation in the winter. for children who want to learn more information about the seasons, we recommend watching other movies in the weather unit. | \u00a9 1999 - 2013 brainpop. all rights reserved. | season to season as a long - term project, have your students observe and record the weather each week of the school term or year. students can take the temperature outdoors and measure the amount of precipitation with a rain or snow gauge. ( simply take a waterproof ruler and place it in a clear plastic container to create a homemade gauge. ) if possible, students can use a wind sock or anemometer to measure the amount of wind. you can have students record their observations in their notebooks or use a large class calendar or datebook. different small groups could also be responsible for recording the weather conditions each week, and reporting their findings to the class. as the seasons change, have students look at the data and make inferences about the weather. how does the weather change throughout the year? what patterns do they see? bring in examples of travel guides and brochures to your students. explain that many guides have descriptions of the weather and activities available each season. have your students pick a city or country from around the world and create a travel guide or poster. you may wish to break up the students into small groups so they can research together. students should find out about average temperatures for each season, kinds of precipitation, historical landmarks, as well as fun activities or festivals that occur during each season. if possible, hold a \u201c travel fair \u201d where students can share their work and make recommendations about which season is preferable to visit their chosen country. for example, students might like to recommend mexico in the fall to see the migrating monarch butterflies arrive or holland in the spring to view the tulips. students will learn how people have always celebrated the seasons ' annual cycle. seasonal fashion show hold a seasonal fashion show with your students. students can bring in outfits that they wear during the winter, spring, summer, and fall and model them with the class. teach students the correlation between temperature and proper attire : at 50 degrees fahrenheit ( 10 degrees celsius ), students might wear an autumn jacket over their clothes. at 80 degrees ( 27 celsius ), they might be dressed in shorts and a shirt. you can encourage students to bring in athletic jerseys and equipment that they use during each season. have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5074011078432905, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:35298b44-a7a1-4b94-98e6-74ba6b168b22>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.165802"}
{"text": ", students might wear an autumn jacket over their clothes. at 80 degrees ( 27 celsius ), they might be dressed in shorts and a shirt. you can encourage students to bring in athletic jerseys and equipment that they use during each season. have student volunteers describe their outfits and discuss why they are appropriate for each season. ( make sure children understand dress codes and wear appropriate cover - ups for any beachwear. ) as the world turns have small groups of students make models of earth and the sun and show how earth orbits around the sun. remind students that earth tilts at an angle as it orbits the sun. students can paint styrofoam balls to model the earth and sun ( take care to use relative sizes of balls ) or use different colors of clay. students can put in a paper clip or pencil at the poles of the earth to show the tilt, and draw a horizontal line to show the equator. modeling the earth and sun will help students visualize how the tilt and orbit cause the seasons to change. | \u00a9 1999 - 2013 brainpop. all rights reserved. | remind your child that different plants grow in different seasons. for example, apple trees bear fruit in the fall while orange trees bear fruit in the winter. despite this, your child may notice that apples and oranges are available in the grocery store all year round. why do they think that is? research the fruits and vegetables to find out the season those plants bear fruit. look for stickers and labels on the fruits and vegetables that identify the country or place of origin. how do we get apples in early summer if trees bear fruit in the fall? explain that because of earth \u2019 s tilt and orbit around the sun, different parts of the world have different seasons. explain to students that these fruits and vegetables are flown around the world. if possible, visit a local farmer \u2019 s market to explore seasonal produce together, and see if you can create a seasonal meal made from locally - grown produce. \u2018 tis the season for \u2026 together with your child, set goals that are appropriate for each season. for example, the goal for the summer might be to go camping for a weekend, remember to wear sunscreen, or learn how to dive. a goal for the spring might be to spot a nest of eggs or hatchlings, plant flowers, spring clean, or go see a baseball game. find goals that you and your family can do together and are realistic and able to be fulfilled. have your child write them down in his or her notebook or create a list", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5128859841872695, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:35298b44-a7a1-4b94-98e6-74ba6b168b22>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.167488"}
{"text": "this is a \" self delivery \" pack which has been designed specifically for national science and engineering week 2013. the science behind fingeprints is well known! what is not so well known is the link between fingerprints and footprints. right angle events have launched a new education pack called \u2018 toes for turf \u2019 comprising at least 4 hours of fun teaching material linked to key stage 1 - 4 mathematics. we have designed a fantastic scheme especially for national science & engineering week called \" toes for turf \". the science behind fingerprints is well known. what is not so well known is the science behind footprints or \" feet prints \". this activity enables students to take, classify and \" lift \" both fingerprints and foot prints. as the research on footprints is meagre, this scheme will allow students to make some discoveries about the correlation or otherwise between fingerprints and feet prints. barbara hepworth : the hospital drawings, taking place at pallant house gallery, chichester, ( 16 february - 2 june 2013 ) reveals the remarkable series of drawings and paintings made by barbara hepworth during the late 1940s, illustrating surgeons at work in operating theatres within post - war britain. featuring over 30 works, including hepworth \u2019 s sketchbook, the exhibition is the most significant presentation of this extraordinary series to date, comprising key loans from national, public and private collections. saturday, 16 february, 2013 - 10 : 00 to sunday, 5 may, 2013 - 16 : 30 scottish fisheries museum an exhibition investigating the existence of sea monsters and exploring the science behind the myths. curated by dr charles paxton of the university of st andrews, the exhibition looks at various sea monster legends and tests them scientifically to see whether such monsters could actually exist \u2013 with sometimes surprising conclusions. the exhibition comprises display panels, natural history specimens from the university and the museum \u2019 s collections, and interactive activities. all our students will be making their own enclosed garden in a plastic bottle or a plastic container. they will be doing this to demonstrate how the water cycle works on our planet. over the coming weeks the students will be able to make their own observations about what is happening in their enclosed gardens. come and take a tour around the museum to learn about five victorians who were responsible for making great advances in science and technology in the region. the tour will focus on the lives and inventions of william armstrong, charles parsons, joseph swan and george and robert stephenson. discover how stanley mills was using renewable energy over 200 years ago. learners will find out about different types of waterwheels then work in teams", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5617961126582263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d22827f2-3fe3-43c7-afb0-5479a55dd3af>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.188046"}
{"text": "innovation in education the existence of schools such as carroll represents, in and of itself, a significant educational innovation. schools that are dedicated to an atypical learning profile, in carroll \u2019 s case dyslexia, are relatively rare. a program that is designed specifically for one type of learner is also innovative in a landscape of schools that are required to serve all children in their city or town. carroll balances curriculum, instructional practices, and programs that have helped children for over 45 years at carroll with compelling new interventions resulting from both research and implementation evidence. carroll is so fortunate to be located in the greater boston area, where an incredible amount of revolutionary research is underway about how the human brain learns. carroll constantly seeks to combine the proven with the promising. the combination of interventions that carroll uses reveals this balance with a set of innovative, evidence - based programs, such as orton - gillingham, rave - o, visualizing and verbalizing, lexia learning, kurzweil, thinking reader, singapore math, thinking through math, symphony math, stern structured materials, the number race, reflexmath, cognitive development, inspiration, and scores of web - based software applications. much of our decision making about educational innovation results from our associations with some of the most accomplished researchers in the fields of education, neuroscience, and technology. the research updates section of the carroll website will keep viewers apprised of some of the research that we are following.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5494755443549278, "token_count": 293, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f4117a36-9cc2-459e-81a3-a6c79a360472>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.199481"}
{"text": "a composting program to reduce waste output, and the impact of weekly \" power down \" days started by the environmental clubs to reduce energy usage. an easier path might have been to ask for the energy and water bills and call it a day, or to plant a few trees and declare our \" greening \" mission complete. but we wanted the students, teachers, and administrators to take ownership of the process, to figure out what their impact is, and decide what kind of sustainability initiatives made sense. by modeling an iterative process, we are showing students how science can inform their actions and lead to lasting change. we are also helping them think through some of the really difficult questions that relate to any greening initiative, such as whether it really is more \" green \" to purchase compostable lunch trays made from corn if we ' re unable to compost them on site, or whether we should install energy - efficient lightbulbs when most of the energy in the school is being used for heating and cooling. engaging in this process is complex, but we believe such engagement develops a citizenry that is thoughtfully dedicated to understanding their local environment. we are thrilled that we have been able to undertake this long - term project with the rhinebeck school district and look forward to expanding this effort to other districts.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5272746980828666, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d0aebed-b266-4459-b54d-8f47b27347ec>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.208185"}
{"text": "affect vision. treatment is often controversial because complete surgical removal may be curative but can also cause memory, vision, behavioral, and hormonal problems. partial surgical removal plus radiation therapy is an alternative. children treated for these tumors usually need long - term follow - up care for visual and / or hormonal problems. germ cell tumors : a small percentage of childhood brain tumors arise in the pineal or suprasellar regions, above the pituitary gland. they are most often diagnosed around the time of puberty and are more likely to affect boys than girls. these tumors often respond favorably to chemotherapy and / or radiation therapy, following surgery. choroid plexus papillomas : the choroid plexus is located within the ventricles in the brain and produces csf. choroid plexus papillomas ( benign ) and choroid plexus carcinomas ( malignant ) account for 1 % to 3 % of pediatric brain tumors. these types of tumors usually arise in infants and often cause hydrocephalus. the treatment of choice is surgery and, if the tumor is malignant, chemotherapy, and / or radiation therapy. supratentorial pnets / pineoblastomas : supratentorial pnets and pineoblastomas account for approximately 5 % of pediatric brain tumors. their symptoms depend on location and proximity to the csf spaces. treatment involves maximal surgical resection, radiation therapy to the brain and spine, and chemotherapy. - related topics - brain tumor facts and glossary - research news and reports - cbtf publications", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5115358610870393, "token_count": 327, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d061f8d-d63f-459c-93f3-8e9ba2f9ee1b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.228193"}
{"text": "in the rear seats of a vehicle. the legislative history of cgs 14 - 296aa does not address the issue of whether it applies to frs and gmrs equipment. according to the federal communications commission ( fcc ), frs is a type of citizens band radio service. family, friends, and associates can use it to communicate within a neighborhood and while on group outings. frs has a communications range of less than one mile and the radio has a maximum power of no more than one - half watt. it cannot be used to make a telephone call but can be used for business - related communications. gmrs is a land - mobile radio service available for short - distance two - way communications to facilitate the activities of an adult and his or her immediate family members. in most cases it has a power capacity of no more than 50 watts. family members typically use the equipment to communicate among themselves near their residence or during recreational outings. some equipment can be used for both frs and gmrs. the fcc rules consistently refer to the equipment used by both services as \u201c radios \u201d rather than \u201c telephones. \u201d since frs cannot be connected to the public switched telephone network under 47 cfr 95. 193 ( e ), it appears that such devices do not fall within the definition of mobile telephones. however, they may fall within the definition of mobile electronic devices. fcc rules permit transmissions of data regarding the location of the frs station. the rules also permit the transmission of brief text messages. the maximum transmission time may not exceed one second, and the minimum time before the next data transmission must be not less than 30 seconds. only those frs radios that the fcc has specifically certified for such data operation may actually transmit data. so it appears that using frs equipment can be used to make calls while driving, but using it to transmit text messages or data would violate cgs \u00a7 14 - 296aa. gmrs equipment can only be connected with the public switched telephone network under very limited circumstances under 47 cfr 95. 141. it generally can only be used for voice communications, but 47 cfr 95. 181 also permits a gmrs station operator to communicate a one - way voice page to a paging receiver. it appears that gmrs equipment can be used to make calls while driving, but using it to send pages would violate cgs \u00a7 14 - 296aa. using a speakerphone it appears that cgs \u00a7 14 - 296aa does not prohibit a driver from dialing a number and then using the speakerphone function to hold a conversation, so long as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5008431751892142, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e24453d4-bdf0-4bff-adb9-3b2ba8b7e8d6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.237973"}
{"text": "without sensors, a robot is just a machine. robots need sensors to deduce what is happening in their world and to be able to react to changing situations. this chapter introduces a variety of robotic sensors and explains their electrical use and practical application. the sensor applications presented here are not meant to be exhaustive, but merely to suggest some of the possibilities. please do not be limited by the ideas contained in this chapter! assembly instructions for the kit sensors are given in section 2. 6. the basic function of an electronic sensor is to measure some feature of the world, such as light, sound, or pressure and convert that measurement into an electrical signal, usually a voltage or current. typical sensors respond to stimuli by changing their resistance ( photocells ), changing their current flow ( phototransistors ), or changing their voltage output ( the sharp ir sensor ). the electrical output of a given sensor can easily be converted into other electrical representations. there are two basic types of sensors : analog and digital. the two are quite different in function, in application, and in how they are used with the roboboard. an analog sensor produces a continuously varying output value over its range of measurement. for example, a particular photocell might have a resistance of 1kin bright light and a resistance of 300k in complete darkness. any value between these two is possible depending on the particular light level present. digital sensors, on the other hand, have only two states, often called \" on \" and \" off. \" perhaps the simplest example of a digital sensor is the touch switch. a typical touch switch is an open circuit ( infinite resistance ) when it is not pressed, and a short circuit ( zero resistance ) when it is depressed. some sensors that produce a digital output are more complicated. these sensors produce pulse trains of transitions between the 0 volt state and the 5 volt state. with these types of sensors, the frequency characteristics or shape of this pulse train convey the sensor ' s measurement. an example of this type of sensor is the sharp modulated infrared light detector. with this sensor, the actual element measuring light is an analog device, but signal - processing circuitry is integral to the sensor produces a digital output. the roboboard contains input ports for both analog and digital sensors. while both types of ports are sensitive to voltage, each type interprets the input voltage differently and provides different data to the microprocessor. the analog ports measure the voltage and convert it to a number between 0 and 255,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5699059315299518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.260973"}
{"text": "and digital sensors. while both types of ports are sensitive to voltage, each type interprets the input voltage differently and provides different data to the microprocessor. the analog ports measure the voltage and convert it to a number between 0 and 255, corresponding to input voltage levels between 0 and 5 volts. the conversion scale is linear, so a voltage of 2. 5 volts would generate an output value of 127 or 128. the digital ports, however, convert an input voltage to just two output values, zero and one. if the voltage on a digital port is less than 2. 5 volts, the output will be 0, while if the input is greater than 2. 5 volts, the output will be 1. thus, the conversion is very nonlinear. the c library function analog ( port - # ) is used to return the value of a particular analog sensor port. for example, the ic statement sets the value of the variable val equal to the output of port # 27. many devices used as digital sensors are wired to be active low, meaning that they generate 0 volts when they are active ( or true ). the digital inputs on the roboboard have a pull - up resistor that makes the voltage input equal to 5 volts when nothing is connected. a closed or depressed touch switch connected to a digital port would change that voltage to 0 volts by shorting the input to ground. the resulting outputs : open switch, and closed switch, are the logical opposite of what we usually want. that is, we would prefer the output of the digital port to have value 0 or false normally, and change to 1 or true only when the switch hit something ( like a wall or another robot ) and was depressed. the ic library function digital ( port - # ), used to read a true - or - false value associated with a particular sensor port, performs this logical inversion of the signal measured on a digital port. hence, the depressed touch switch ( measuring 0 volts on the hardware ) causes the digital ( ) function to return a 1 ( logic true ) or logical true value. for example, the c statement returns a true value ( the number 1 ) and calls the function do _ it ( ) if the value at port # 2 was zero volts ( indicating a depressed switch ). the standard plug configuration used to connect sensors to the roboboard is shown in figure 9. 1. notice that the plug is asymmetric ( made by removing one pin from a four - pin section", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5269357964851316, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.261990"}
{"text": "as illustrated in figure 9. 5. touch sensors can also serve as limit switches to determine when some movable part of the robot has reached the desired position. for example, if a robot arm is driven by a motor, perhaps using a gear rack, touch switches could detect when the arm reached the limit of travel on the rack in each direction. figure 9. 6 shows how a switch is wired to a sensor input port. when the switch is open ( as it is shown in the diagram ), the sensor input is connected to the 5 volt supply by the pull - up resistor. when the switch is closed, the input is connected directly to ground, generating a 0 volt signal ( and causing current to flow through the resistor and switch ). most push - button - style switches are \" normally open, \" meaning that the switch contacts are in the open - circuit position when the switch has not been pressed. microswitches often have both normally open and normally closed contacts along with a common contact. when wiring a microswitch, it is customary to use the normally open contacts. also, this configuration is the active - low mode expected by the standard library software used to read the output values from digital sensor ports. however, you can wire the switch differently to perform some special function. in particular, several switches can be wired in series or parallel and connected to a single digital input port. for example, a touch bumper might have two switches, and the robot only needs to know if either of them ( # 1 or # 2 ) are closed. it takes less code and less time to check just one digital port and to use parallel switch wiring to implement the logic or function in hardware. as the name suggests, a mercury tilt switch contains a small amount of mercury inside a glass bulb. the operation of the switch is based on the unique properties of mercury : it is both a conductor and a liquid. when the switch tilts mercury flows to the bottom of the bulb closing the circuit between two metal pins. the mercury tilt switch can be used in any application to sense inclination. for example, the tilt switch could be used to adjust the position of an arm or ramp. most thermostats contain a mercury tilt switch mounted on a temperature sensitive spring. changes in temperature tilt the switch, turning the furnace or air conditioner on or off. a potentiometer ( or \" pot, \" for short ) is a manually - adjustable, variable resistor. it is commonly used for volume and tone controls in stereo equipment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5457448545504122, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.267469"}
{"text": "tilt the switch, turning the furnace or air conditioner on or off. a potentiometer ( or \" pot, \" for short ) is a manually - adjustable, variable resistor. it is commonly used for volume and tone controls in stereo equipment. on the roboboard a 10k pot is used as a contrast dial for the lcd screen, and the roboknob of the board is also a potentiometer. in robotics, a potentiometer can be used as a position sensor. a rotary potentiometer ( the most common type ) can be used to measure the rotation of a shaft. gears can be used to connect the rotation of the shaft being measured to the potentiometer shaft. it is easiest to use if the shaft being measured does not need to rotate continuously ( like the second hand on a clock ), but rather rotates back and forth ( like the pendulum on a grandfather clock ). most potentiometers rotate only about 270 degrees ; some can be rotated continuously, but the values are the same on each rotation. by using a gear ratio other than 1 : 1, the position of a shaft that rotates more than 270 degrees can be measured. a potentiometer connected to a shaft and a lever can also be used to determine the distance to a wall and to make the robot follow a path parallel to the wall. the lever, perhaps with a small wheel on the end, would extend from the side of the robot and contact the wall ; a rubber band would provide a restoring force. if the robot moved closer to the wall, the lever would pivot, turning the shaft and the potentiometer. the control program would read the resulting voltage and adjust the robot steering to keep the voltage constant. potentiometers have three terminals. the outer two terminals are connected to a resistor and the resistance between them is constant ( the value of the potentiometer ). the center terminal is connected to a contact that slides along the resistance element as the shaft is turned, so the resistance between it and either of the other terminals varies ( one increases while the other decreases ). the assembly instructions suggest wiring the potentiometer in the voltage divider configuration, with the on - board pull - up resistor in parallel with one of the potentiometer ' s two effective resistances ( figure 9. 7 ). this will yield readings of greater precision ( although they will not be linear ) than if the pot were used as a two - terminal variable resistor. you may want to try", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5639080641050016, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.268619"}
{"text": ". the resistance of a photocell decreases with an increase in illumination ( an inverse relationship ). because of the wiring of the voltage divider ( the photocell is on the lower side of the voltage divider ), an increase in light will correspond to a decrease in sensor voltage and a lower analog value. the infrared reflectance sensor is a small rectangular device that contains a phototransistor ( sensitive to infrared light ) and an infrared emitter. the amount of light reflected from the emitter into the phototransistor yields a measurement of a surface ' s reflectance, for example, to determine whether the surface is black or white. the phototransistor has peak sensitivity at the wavelength of the emitter ( a near - visible infrared ), but is also sensitive to visible light and infrared light emitted by visible light sources. for this reason, the device should be shielded from ambient lighting as much as possible in order to obtain reliable results. the amount of light reflected from the emitter into the phototransistor yields a measurement of a surface ' s reflectance ( when other factors, such as the distance from the sensor to the surface, are held constant ). the reflectance sensor can also be used to measure distance, provided that the surface reflectance is constant. a reflectance sensor can be used to detect features drawn on a surface or segments on a wheel used to encode rotations of a shaft. it is important to remember that the reflectivity measurement indicates the surface ' s reflectivity at a particular wavelength of light ( the near - visible infrared ). a surface ' s properties with respect to visible light may or may not be indicators of infrared light reflectance. in general, though, surfaces that absorb visible light ( making them appear dark to the eye ) will absorb infrared light as well. the sensor part ( the phototransistor ) can be used alone as a light sensor, for example to detect the starting light, and it is usually much more sensitive than the photocell. the light falling on a phototransistor creates charge carriers in the base region of a transistor, effectively providing base current. the intensity of the light determines the effective base drive and thus the conductivity of the transistor. greater amounts of light cause greater currents to flow through the collector - emitter leads. because a transistor is an active element having current gain, the phototransistor is more sensitive than a simple photoresistor. however, the increased sensitivity comes at the price", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5318963527099934, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.275725"}
{"text": "greater currents to flow through the collector - emitter leads. because a transistor is an active element having current gain, the phototransistor is more sensitive than a simple photoresistor. however, the increased sensitivity comes at the price of reduced dynamic range. dynamic range is the difference between the lowest and highest levels that can be measured. the roboboard analog sensor inputs have a range of 0 - 5 volts, and relatively small variations in light can cause the phototransistor output to change through this range. the exact range depends on the circuit used. as shown in figure 9. 8, the phototransistor is wired in a configuration similar to the voltage divider. the variable current traveling through the resistor causes a voltage drop in the pull - up resistor. this voltage is measured as the output of the device. the light emitting element ( an led ) uses a resistor to limit the current that can flow through the device to the proper value of about 10 milliamps. normally the emitter is always on, but it could be wired to one of the led output ports if you wanted to control it separately. in this way you could use the same sensor to detect the starting light ( using the phototransistor with the emitter off ) and then to follow a line on the board ( normal operation with the emitter on ). the infrared slotted optical switch is similar to the infrared reflectance sensor except that the emitter is pointed directly at the phototransistor across a small gap. as the name implies, the slotted optical switch is a digital sensor, designed to provide only two output states. the output of the switch changes if something opaque enters the gap and blocks the light path. the slotted optical switch is commonly used to build shaft encoders, which count the revolution of a shaft. a gear or other type of wheel with with holes or slots is placed in the gap between the emitter and detector. the light pulses created by the turning wheel can be detected and counted with special software to yield rotation or distance data. this detector also might be used to detect when an arm or other part of the robot has reached a particular position by attaching a piece of cardboard to the arm so that it entered the gap at the desired arm position. the slotted optical switch operates in the same fashion as the infrared reflectance sensor, with the exception that a different value of pull - up resistor must be added externally for the particular model of optical switch we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5419018115945926, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.278414"}
{"text": "the gap at the desired arm position. the slotted optical switch operates in the same fashion as the infrared reflectance sensor, with the exception that a different value of pull - up resistor must be added externally for the particular model of optical switch we use. the modulated infrared light detector is a device that combines an infrared phototransistor with specialized signal processing circuitry to detect only light that is pulsing at a particular rate. the elec 201 kit includes the sharp gp1u52 sensor, which detects the presence of infrared light modulated ( pulsed ) at 40, 000 hz. normal room light, which is not modulated, does not effect the sensor, a big advantage. this type of sensor is used for the remote control function on televisions, vcrs, etc. in elec 201 this sensor is used to detect the specially modulated infrared light emitted by the beacon on the opponent robot. the software can distinguish different pulse patterns in order to distinguish between the beacons on the two robots. ( in a television remote, different pulse patterns would correspond to different functions, such a changing the channel up or down. ) the principles of operation and use are explained further in section 5. 8, which also discusses the circuit used to create the modulated infrared light for the beacon. an explanation of the software interface to the sharp sensors is given in section 10. 11. 2. the elec 201 kit contains both an analog sensor that provides information about the strength of the magnetic field and a digital sensor, a magnetic switch. a device called a hall effect sensor can be used to detect the presence and strength of magnetic fields. the hall effect sensors have an output voltage even when no magnetic field is present, and the output changes when a magnetic field is present, the direction of change depending on the polarity of the field. the digital magnetic sensors are simple switches that are open or closed. internally the switches have an arm made of magnetic material that is attracted to a magnet and moves to short out the switch contacts. these switches are commonly used as door and window position sensors in home security systems. the switch will close when it comes within 1 ' ' of its companion magnet. either sensor can be used to detect magnets or magnetic strips that may be present on the elec 201 game board table. with the magnets typically used on the game board, the hall effect sensor output voltage changes only a small amount when a field is present. the no - field voltage varies between sensors, but it is very stable for a particular sensor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5967497951538665, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.287254"}
{"text": "game board table. with the magnets typically used on the game board, the hall effect sensor output voltage changes only a small amount when a field is present. the no - field voltage varies between sensors, but it is very stable for a particular sensor, so the small changes can be detected reliably to determine the presence of a magnet. hall effect sensors can be used to make magnetic shaft encoders, by mounting a small piece of magnet on a wheel that rotates past the sensor element. hall effect sensors can also be used to build a proximity sensor or bounce - free switch, which detects a magnet mounted on a moving component when it is near the sensor element. magnetic switches are used in much the same way as a touch switch, except the switch closes when it is near a magnetic, instead of when it contacts something. the digital nature of the switch makes it easier to use than the hall effect sensors, but it may be less sensitive. you should try both. they can also be used to make an inclination sensor by dangling a magnet above the sensor. the hall effect sensor included in the elec 201 kit is a digital device that operates from a 5 volts power supply. it uses about 6 ma of current for standard operation. it can sink 250 ma of current into its output, creating a logic low. the sensor cannot drive a logic high and therefore requires a pullup resistor for proper operation. the motor output drivers of the elec 201 roboboard contains circuitry that produces an output voltage related to the amount of current being used by a motor. since the motor current corresponds to the load on the motor, this signal can be used to determine if the motor is stalled and the robot is stuck. the voltage signal depends on a number of factors, including battery voltage, and must be calibrated for each application. this application is explained further in section 5. 4. 1.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5460834501296481, "token_count": 387, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79033af1-f427-4ee1-ac1a-e14acac573c9>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.288758"}
{"text": "cascading style sheets and themes development cascading style sheets, commonly referred to as css, is commonly used to style web pages written in html and xhtml, but can be used together with any kind of xml document. it is a style sheet language used to describe the look and formatting ( presentation semantics ) of a document written in a markup language. the primary use of css is to separate document content from document presentation, such as layout, fonts and colors. this allows for tableless web design, gives the web designer more flexibility and control, and makes it possible for multiple pages to share the same formatting. the css specifications are maintained by the world wide web consortium ( w3c ). css history \u2013 the beginning before css was developed, the presentational attributes of html documents were almost always contained within the html markup. the web designer had to explicitly describe all backgrounds, font colors, borders, element alignments, etcetera. the aim of css was to allow web designers to move most of this information to a separate style sheet. style sheets have been round since the early days of sgml ( standard generalized markup language ), i. e. since the 1970s. as html became more and more widely used, html came to encompass a wide variety of stylistic possibilities to meet the demands of increasingly complex web page designs. the designers ' gained more and more control, but in the process, html became more and more complicated to write and maintain. robert cailliau, the belgian informatics engineer who together with tim berners - lee developed the world wide web, wanted to find a way to separate the structure from the presentation. he also wanted to give the user the option of choosing between three different kinds of style sheets : one for screen presentation, one suitable for printing and one for the editor. eventually, nine different style sheet languages was presented to the world wide web consortium. two of them was chosen : cascading html style sheets ( chss ) and stream - based style sheet proposal ( ssp ). chss had been suggested by norweigan web pioneer hakon wium lie, while ssp was the brainchild of dutch computer scientist ber bos. lie teamed up with computer scientists yves lafon and dave raggett to make raggett ' s arena browser support css, while lie and bos worked together to turn chss into the css standard. ( the letter h was removed since their style sheets was to be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5349666717208195, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:eaa36fc8-ecca-48d1-8983-07e89d8ceb11>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.302426"}
{"text": "this paper, submitted to astronomy education review, describes a series of activities in which students investigate and use the models of planetary motion introduced by the hellenistic astronomer claudius ptolemy in the 2nd century, by the polish astronomer nicolaus copernicus in the mid - 16th century, and by the danish astronomer tycho brahe in the late16th century. the activities involve the use of open source software to help students discover important observational facts, learn the necessary vocabulary, understand the fundamental properties of different theoretical models, and relate the theoretical models to observational data. once they understand the observations and models, students complete a series of projects in which they observe a fictitious solar system with four planets orbiting in circles around a central star and construct both ptolemaic and copernican models for that system. activities on using stellarium to observe solar and planetary motions this zip archive contains two activity handouts that guide students through using open source planetarium software ( stellarium, available at \u2026 more... download 211kb. zip published : january 4, 2013 modeling the history of astronomy poster a poster describing the same material, presented at the winter meeting of the american association of physics teachers, january 2013, new orleans, la. download 370kb. pdf published : january 11, 2013 % a todd timberlake % t modeling the history of astronomy : ptolemy, copernicus and tycho % d january 10, 2013 % u http : / / www. compadre. org / repository / document / servefile. cfm? id = 12579 & docid = 3173 % o application / pdf % 0 report % a timberlake, todd % d january 10, 2013 % t modeling the history of astronomy : ptolemy, copernicus and tycho % 8 january 10, 2013 % u http : / / www. compadre. org / repository / document / servefile. cfm? id = 12579 & docid = 3173 disclaimer : compadre offers citation styles as a guide only. we cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. please refer to the style manuals in the citation source information area for clarifications.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5316761299672685, "token_count": 446, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:102a5db2-f481-46cf-afab-1db694198613>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.310453"}
{"text": "- about us - schools & departments - news & events - prospective students - alumni & giving - contact us - faculty resources more clues about why chimps and humans are genetically different contact : jason maderer aug 23, 2012 | atlanta, ga ninety - six percent of a chimpanzee \u2019 s genome is the same as a human \u2019 s. it \u2019 s the other four percent, and the vast differences, that pique the interest of georgia tech \u2019 s soojin yi. for instance, why do humans have a high risk of cancer, even though chimps rarely develop the disease? in research published in september \u2019 s american journal of human genetics, yi looked at brain samples of each species. she found that differences in certain dna modifications, called methylation, may contribute to phenotypic changes. the results also hint that dna methylation plays an important role for some disease - related phenotypes in humans, including cancer and autism. \u201c our study indicates that certain human diseases may have evolutionary epigenetic origins, \u201d says yi, a faculty member in the school of biology. \u201c such findings, in the long term, may help to develop better therapeutic targets or means for some human diseases. \u201c dna methylation modifies gene expression but doesn \u2019 t change a cell \u2019 s genetic information. to understand how it differs between the two species, yi and her research team generated genome - wide methylation maps of the prefrontal cortex of multiple humans and chimps. they found hundreds of genes that exhibit significantly lower levels of methylation in the human brain than in the chimpanzee brain. most of them were promoters involved with protein binding and cellular metabolic processes. \u201c this list of genes includes disproportionately high numbers of those related to diseases, \u201d said yi. \u201c they are linked to autism, neural - tube defects and alcohol and other chemical dependencies. this suggests that methylation differences between the species might have significant functional consequences. they also might be linked to the evolution of our vulnerability to certain diseases, including cancer. \u201d yi, graduate student jia zeng and postdoctoral researcher brendan hunt worked with a team of researchers from emory university and ucla. the yerkes national primate research center provided the animal samples used in the study. it was also funded by the georgia tech fund for innovation in research and education ( gt - fire ) and national science foundation grants ( mcb - 0950896 and bcs - 0751481 ). the content is solely the responsibility of the principal investigators and does not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5295005930339396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:22abc9a8-3be6-4a4e-9f83-815fea4c66ff>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.322001"}
{"text": "osteoporosis is a disease, more common in women, that causes bones to become fragile and more susceptible to breaking. the disease can have serious effects on women ' s health and quality of life. some women - most commonly those who don ' t have good access to health care - experience fractures that could have been prevented if their osteoporosis had been treated. at the same time, not every woman who is warned about bone thinning needs to be worried. what is osteoporosis? osteoporosis literally means porous bone. throughout life, natural process breaks down bones and builds them back up again at the microscopic level. pregnant women release bone to transfer needed minerals to the developing fetus and then build their own bone strength up again after giving birth. after age 35 - 40 all adults begin to lose bone as the breaking down process overwhelms the building process. for a few years around the time of menopause, women lose bone more quickly, possibly because they no longer need extra stores of minerals to support a developing fetus. osteoporosis occurs when the natural process of aging goes too far and bones become weak and fragile. osteoporosis has several causes - age alone can be a cause of osteoporosis, especially in people who didn ' t build up their bones to their fullest potential during childhood and young adulthood. removing women ' s ovaries increases their risk of getting osteoporosis. people who have osteoporosis are at greater risk for fracturing their bones, especially in the hip, vertebrae ( spine ) and wrist. hip fractures lead to hospitalization, can take a long time to heal, and many women never fully recover from them. the most common screening tool is a dexa x - ray scan, which measures bone mineral density in the hip or spine. dexa results compare a woman ' s bone density to that of a healthy young adult ( almost guaranteeing the scan will reveal bone loss, since everyone loses bone with age ). if a woman ' s bone density is significantly lower than a young adult ' s, she is diagnosed with osteoporosis. women diagnosed with osteoporosis are usually told they need to take prescription medication to prevent further bone loss and reduce the risk of fractures. the most common drugs are : the food and drug administration ( fda ) has approved estrogen and progestin treatment to prevent osteoporosis - - but not to treat it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5221652903541449, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:813f7539-9635-4932-8c88-b381bf793a94>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.335762"}
{"text": "hydraulic head distribution in the plover aquifer system, vulcan sub - basin petroleum hydrogeology reveals oil leakage from traps csiro \u2019 s team of hydrogeologists have developed techniques to help solve problems in australia \u2019 s oil industry and identify safe storage options to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. 30 november 2009 | updated 14 october 2011 in the field of hydrogeology, most scientists work on shallow water resources, groundwater contamination and soil salinity problems. csiro has developed a team of hydrogeologists that have adapted special techniques for understanding hydrodynamic processes of the deep subsurface where oil and gas is generated and trapped and where co2 can be safely stored for thousands of years. this unique application of expertise helps geologists and engineers to understand why some hydrocarbon traps have leaked their oil while others have retained oil fields for millions of years. when an oil company starts producing oil and gas from a deep reservoir, only a portion of the oil can be extracted, leaving the remainder in the pore space of the rocks. csiro petroleum hydrogeologists study new ways that we can improve the percentage of oil that can be extracted from a reservoir. csiro uses this knowledge to provide services to the oil and gas industry to help understand : csiro has a team of hydrogeologists who have developed enabling technologies for understanding hydrodynamic processes of the deep subsurface. oil migration and trapping compartmentalisation of hydrocarbon deposits on production the effects of aquifer pressure depletion to evaluate geological sequestration of co2. improvement in oil recovery could greatly reduce the need to find new hydrocarbon fields. by understanding geological conditions that have retained hydrocarbons for millions of years we can then identify deep geological structures that are capable to safely store co2 for long periods of time. deep underground storage of co2 in abandoned oil fields not only provides an alternative to atmospheric emission, but also provides and opportunity to increase oil production. learn more about csiro ' s work in energy from oil & gas.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5206985388855119, "token_count": 408, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d32b327f-d23d-4ffd-aa3a-8007f8772693>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.344210"}
{"text": "a visual arts lesson combined with language arts, where the students will create a visual poem using crayons. students are asked to make a connection to an important aspect or event their lives. have you ever wondered why children are so afraid to express themselves through poetry? possibly it is because they think a poem has to rhyme, have a certain pattern, or look a certain way. this lesson will allow children to use their imagination to create a visual poem. they will be encouraged to think independently. through this exposure to writing poems and making visual representations of their poems, the children will learn how to respond emotionally and verbally to different visual poems. in addition to this, the students will develop an appreciation for poetry and other forms of expression. creative expression : each student will create a visual poem, using colored crayons, which will illustrate an important aspect of his or her life. aesthetic valuing : the students will share their visual poems with the class, which will help them to appreciate the variations in poetry and recognize the different styles of visual poetry. 1. direct instruction - teacher will explain different types of visual poems and give examples. 2. guided discovery - students will create their own unique visual poem. 3. group process - student will share their poems with a partner. introduction - first, the teacher will read a poem to the students, and ask them if they liked the poem. what things did you like / dislike? then, the teacher will share 3 - 4 different examples of visual poems ( done by 3rd graders ) with the kids, which will show them a couple different styles. these examples will be shown on transparencies. 1. as a beginning activity to expose children to poetry, the teacher will provide the students with a worksheet. the worksheet will have 3 sentences on it, each one starting with \" i wish... \". the students will be asked to respond with 3 things they wish for. then, the students will be told that they just created a poem. 2. the teacher will engage the students in a brainstorming activity ( using a large sheet of white butcher paper ) where they discuss some of their favorite things from favorite colors, to hobbies, to important people, etc. 3. the teacher will instruct the students to create a visual poem, which illustrates something which is very important to them. 4. a piece of plain white paper will be passed out, along with a box of crayons. watercolors will be available at the art table if children elect to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5144873413067608, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed461a25-aaa6-4469-943b-ef17b3b7d1d6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.352500"}
{"text": "a visual poem, which illustrates something which is very important to them. 4. a piece of plain white paper will be passed out, along with a box of crayons. watercolors will be available at the art table if children elect to use them. 5. soft instrumental music will be played in the background, as the students create their visual poems. 6. students will be paired up with a partner to share their visual poem. they will be instructed to tell the person at least 1 thing they liked about the visual poem. have the students do a poetry reading ( on a volunteer basis ), which gives them the opportunity to share their creations in front of an audience. collect the visual poems and put them together into a book. here is an example title of a book, ms. hiltel ' s 3rd grade classes ' wonderful creations! teacher collects the visual poems, and checks for visual evidence of completion of the assignment including use of color and connection to important event or aspect of students ' lives. after poems are shared in partners, each student critiques peer ' s visual poem, by stating one aspect which is particularly liked. teacher also listens to students ' comments during sharing. 1. overhead projector 2. copies of 3 - 4 poems on transparencies 3. 1 poem to read aloud 4. 1 box of crayons ( per student ) 5. watercolors, paintbrushes, plastic cups, paper towels ( for optional use ) 6. white paper ( 1 sheet per student ) 7. large piece of white butcher paper 8. soft instrumental music assigned students will collect crayons and return them to the proper place. students who used the watercolors at the art table will be responsible for cleaning up that area and putting away the watercolor boxes.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5057470896832941, "token_count": 361, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed461a25-aaa6-4469-943b-ef17b3b7d1d6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.353253"}
{"text": "schizophrenia is a mental illness characterized by disturbances in mood, behavior and thinking ( psychosis ). the thinking disturbance shows up as a distortion of reality, sometimes with delusions and hallucinations, and fragmented thinking that results in disturbances of speech. the mood disturbance includes ambivalence and inappropriate or constricted display of emotions. the behavior disturbance may show up as apathetic withdrawal or bizarre activity. schizophrenia is not the same thing as \u2018 split or multiple personalities \u2019 which is dissociative identity disorder ( did ). types of schizophrenia disorganized characterized by wild or silly behavior or mannerisms, inappropriate display of emotions, frequent hypochondriacal complaints and delusions and hallucinations that are transient and unorganized. catatonic typically a state of stupor, usually characterized by muscular rigidity, resistance to movement or opposite behavior to what is being asked. occasionally catatonic excitement occurs which is excited, uncontrollable motor activity. paranoid characterized by unwarranted suspicion and thinking that others have evil motives, and / or an exaggerated sense of self - importance ( delusions of grandeur ). undifferentiated psychotic symptoms are prominent but do not fall into any other subtype. residual no longer psychotic but still shows some symptoms of the disorder. typically, schizophrenia is treated with antipsychotic medications. when the older medications such as mellaril, prolizin, trilafon and thorazine are used for an extended period of time a sometimes - permanent condition called tardive dyskinesia can result. symptoms may include involuntary movements of face, mouth, tongue or limbs. stopping the medication may cause the symptoms to disappear in some but not all. medications can treat the side effects but not the tardive dyskinesia. there is a new generation of antipsychotic medications which have very little risk of tardive dyskinesia including seroquel, zyprexa, risperdal and clozaril.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5177841032945601, "token_count": 414, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:042a711d-af98-4a34-92b6-8ecc8bc2451c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.355267"}
{"text": "this week intel privately shared parts of its roadmap for memory technologies through 2008. intel \u2019 s progress on phase - change memory, pcm or pram, will soon be sampled to customers with mass production possible before the end of the year. phase - change memory is positioned as a replacement for flash memory, as it has non - volatile characteristics, but is faster and can be scaled to smaller dimensions. flash memory cells can degrade and become unreliable after as few as 10, 000 writes, but pcm is much more resilient at more than 100 million write cycles. for these reasons, intel believes that phase - change memory could one day replace dram. \u201c the phase - change memory gets pretty close to nirvana, \u201d said ed doller, cto of intel \u2019 s flash memory group. \u201c it will start to displace some of the ram in the system. \u201d for its implementation of phase - change memory, intel has since 2000 licensed technology from ovonyx inc.. the ovonyx technology uses the properties of chalcogenide glass, the same material found in cd - rw and dvd - rw, which can be switched between crystalline and amorphous states for binary functions. every potential pcram memory maker thus far licenses ovonyx technology. according to ovonyx \u2019 s web site, the first licensee of the technology was lockheed martin in 1999, with intel and stmicroelectronics in the following year. four years after that, nanochip signed an agreement. elpida and samsung were the next two in 2005, and qimonda marks the latest with a signing this year. ibm, macronix and qimonda detailed last december its recent developments on phase - change memory. researchers at ibm \u2019 s labs demonstrated a prototype phase - change memory device that switched more than 500 times faster than flash while using less than one - half the power to write data into a cell. the ibm device \u2019 s cross - section is a minuscule 3 by 20 nanometers in size, far smaller than flash can be built today and equivalent to the industry \u2019 s chip - making capabilities targeted for 2015. intel \u2019 s initial phase - change technology, however, is already a reality, as the chipmaker revealed that it has produced a 90 nanometer phase - change memory wafer. at the 90 nanometer process size, the power requirements to write are approximate to that required for flash. intel said that its early test work shows data retention abilities of greater than 10", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5096380378806782, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:acaee517-f925-4c8d-953a-5cea6da7271d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.361138"}
{"text": "types of resist such as rice paste and wax are also used to protect areas of the fabric to create intricate patterns. indigo was also be used for printing and painting with use of different chemicals like arsenic trisulfide, or iron sulfate and thickeners. when indigo is in solution it is a yellow green color but often the top layer of the vat is blue because it is exposed to the air. indigo is sometimes called a magic dye because of the way the fabric changes color from a yellow green to the deep blues as the air oxidizes the dye. as the dye molecules oxidize they become insoluble in water again so they don ' t wash out of the fabric. the fabric is dipped in the indigo vat to soak up some dye, and then hung in the air to oxidize where it turns blue. another feature of indigo is the ability to build up the depth of color by repeated dippings into the bath. successive dippings and airings give you darker and darker blues. shades can thus range from pale sky blue to deepest dark navy indigo. we are all familiar with the characteristic way in which indigo fades as the fabric is used and worn, such as the fade lines on your favorite jeans. this is because indigo does not actually chemically bond to the fabric. instead it becomes insoluble in water again when it reacts with the air and becomes lodged in the small spaces with the fiber. over time as the fibers are rubbed with wear it rubs out some of the dye creating faded lines. indigo dyed fabric can also do something called crocking where it rubs off on things, and you, if not properly laundered before use. if you dont want to try out for the blue man group, be sure and wash newly dyed or store bought indigo dyed fabric and clothing with hot water and synthrapol. our dharma dye fixative or retayne in a hot soak can cause the fabric to retain more of the indigo before washing, so you will get less fade on the first washing, and still no crocking after. since indigo was one of the only natural blue dyes, and the best, it was often used to over dye yellow fabrics to make greens. in museum tapestries you will often see that many plants are very bluish, this is because natural yellow dyes are more sensitive to fading from uv light than indigo and over time the indigo has become the predominate color in the fibers. these days most indigo dye in commercial use is made synthetic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5366740118758108, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6dc5340a-41bd-45b6-86ba-1b1a1dc3b3fe>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.377432"}
{"text": "a waxy substance found in all of the body \u2019 s cells. the body uses cholesterol for a number of important functions, such as manufacturing certain hormones. as most people know, however, too much cholesterol in the blood can be damaging to the heart and blood vessels. the liver manufactures most of the body \u2019 s cholesterol, but we also get it directly from the foods we eat. cholesterol travels through the bloodstream in the form of complex molecules called lipoproteins. there are several varieties of lipoproteins, including low - density lipoproteins ( ldl \u2019 s ) and high - density lipoproteins ( hdl \u2019 s ). ldl cholesterol, nicknamed the \u201c bad \u201d cholesterol, tends to mix with other substances in the blood and form buildups called plaques on the inner walls of blood vessels. these blood vessels can become hard and narrowed, decreasing blood flow, a condition known as atherosclerosis. plaques can also break off, form clots, and block key blood vessels, causing heart attacks and strokes. hdl \u2019 s carry cholesterol away from the arteries to the liver, where it can be removed from the body. this keeps cholesterol from building up inside blood vessels, earning hdl cholesterol the nickname \u201c good \u201d cholesterol. doctors use the levels of hdl and ldl cholesterol to help determine a person \u2019 s risk of heart disease. the more ldl cholesterol and less hdl cholesterol a person has, the greater his risk of developing heart disease. according to the cholesterol guidelines of the american diabetes association ( ada ), adults with diabetes who have ldl cholesterol levels of 130 mg / dl or greater are at high risk of heart disease, those with levels of 100 - 129 mg / dl are at borderline risk, and those with levels below 100 mg / dl are at low risk. men with hdl cholesterol levels under 35 mg / dl are at high risk, those with levels of 35 - 45 mg / dl are at borderline risk, and those with levels over 45 mg / dl are at low risk. women with hdl levels under 45 mg / dl are at high risk, those with levels of 45 - 55 mg / dl are at borderline risk, and those with levels greater than 55 mg / dl are at low risk. even small improvements in blood cholesterol levels have been shown to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5028705056698546, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a170d8f4-be39-42bf-a2f2-458ebe2a2b32>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.383088"}
{"text": "the common loon ( gavia immer ) is a highly aquatic, migratory bird distributed across north america, greenland, and iceland. the common loon is 66 cm to 91 cm in length and weighs between 2. 5 kg and 6. 1 kg. they have an average wingspan of 130 cm to 140 cm ( mcintyre and barr, 1997 ). the geographic location of the common loon during the breeding season is in forested areas surrounding freshwater, oligotrophic lakes in the northern region of north america, greenland, and iceland. during the winter months, the common loon migrates to coastal marine habitats in the southern portion of north america. migration for the winter occurs between september and december and migration for the summer occurs between march and june. migration groups can be composed of thousands of irregularly spaced individuals, a small group of individuals, or a single individual ( mcintyre and barr, 1997 ). the common loon is high specialized for swimming and diving ( perrins and middleton, 1985 ; mcintyre and barr, 1997 ). individuals spend most of their lives in the air or in water and only come to land to copulate, nest, or when ill ( mcintyre and barr, 1997 ). although most dives underwater last under a minute, the common loon is capable of remaining underwater for several minutes ( perrins and middleton, 1985 ). the species diet primarily consists of live fish, although other aquatic vertebrates and vegetation are also consumed. predators of the common loon most commonly attack young and include crows, ravens, gulls, skunks, weasels, bald eagles, and snapping turtles ( mcintyre and barr, 1997 ). the common loon is monogamous and mates typically remain together throughout the breeding season. mate replacement occurs after the death of one individual. the age at first breeding varies between four and seven years of age and breeding is annual. adults are highly aggressive in territorial defense. both sexes are capable of severely injuring or even killing conspecifics that invade their territory ( mcintyre and barr, 1997 ). clutch size is two eggs and the incubation period is about 28 days ( mcintyre and barr, 1997 ). both parents participate in incubation of the eggs. young are precocial, or well - developed, after hatching. young eat fresh food caught by the parents as opposed to food that has been regurgitated. additionally, young are capable of leaving the nest and even diving the day after hatching ( perrins and middleton, 1985 )! additional information on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5193382443850164, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1831abce-cf95-4e17-bd22-23c169abe8f2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.387608"}
{"text": "r. david lankes, ph. d. this paper examines the domain of digital reference services for and by the primary and secondary education community. data is provided to demonstrate the current understanding of education question types and education users in digital reference. it is believed this data will be of wide utility for digital library builders geared toward primary and secondary users ( k - 12 ) such as the international children ' s digital library and the national science digital library. digital reference and digital libraries for education digital reference refers to internet - based expert answering services [ lankes, 1999b ]. in such a service, a user typically poses a question to a digital reference service through a web form, e - mail or a chat interface. an expert ( such as a scientist or librarian ) uses this input to construct an answer that is both passed back to the user as well as used in some knowledge base or enhancement to a digital library collection. there is a growing body of research and development in digital reference [ janes, 2000 ; mardikian and kesselman, 1995 ; tyckoson, 2002 ; lagace and mcclennen, 1998 ; mon, 2000 ; ferguson and bunge, 1997 ], and digital reference services are being implemented within the context of digital libraries such as the national science foundation ( nsf ) national science digital library [ national research council, 1998 ]. much is known about use of digital reference in primary and secondary education ( in this article, the term \" education \" will refer simply to primary and secondary education ), and this knowledge has utility not only to digital reference services aimed at this population, but to the larger digital library community as well. specifically, the author argues that services aimed at primary and secondary users represent a revelatory case for digital reference for three reasons ; digital reference services for education are : current state of the art in order to present a picture of digital reference for education, the author first presents two major types of services in the education domain. each type is then illustrated with an exemplar service. types of digital reference services in education there are two obvious, though often overlapping, categories of digital reference services in education : library - based services, and aska services. aska services can be further divided into general services that may be of use to the education community as part of a more general mission ( such as ask joan of art\u00ae, an aska service that answers questions concerning american art for anyone who asks, but is particularly useful in art education ) and services targeted squarely at the education community", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5395762073478784, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.423559"}
{"text": "education community as part of a more general mission ( such as ask joan of art\u00ae, an aska service that answers questions concerning american art for anyone who asks, but is particularly useful in art education ) and services targeted squarely at the education community ( such as askeric ( sm ), though it covers all levels of education including higher and continuing education ). the author will concentrate on education aska services for this paper. for the purposes of this discussion, \" library reference \" refers to digital reference services either centered in a public, academic, school or special library, or with primary reliance on library programs. with the advent of digital reference, a great number of libraries are now offering reference service to remote patrons [ janes, 2000 ]. these services take a variety of forms, from e - mail systems, to real - time chat systems. in the library context, digital reference is referred to as virtual reference, e - reference, networked reference, live reference, online reference and even chat reference. while some in the community make a distinction in the mode of delivery and the synchronous nature of the service offered, most agree that these are all part of a single larger concept of digital reference. the library reference community also provides the most in - depth discussion of policy, evaluation [ mcclure and lankes, 2001 ] and the largest set of documented digital reference services ( as opposed to the body of systems and development work out of the aska community discussed later ). much of this work is encapsulated in the proceedings of the annual virtual reference desk ( vrd ) conferences [ virtual reference desk, 2002 ], which have a strong library emphasis. in fact, this article and the digital reference research symposium were outgrowths of the vrd conferences and other work. as a result of this intense interest in digital reference by the library community, several large - scale digital reference projects are available for use by the research and scholarly community. the collaborative digital reference service ( cdrs ) spearheaded by the library of congress and that has evolved into the questionpoint service run by oclc in cooperation with the library of congress, certainly demonstrates the breadth of library - based digital reference services spanning public, academic and international libraries. the national library of canada ' s recent introduction of virtual reference canada to work with canadian digital reference services also promises to be a major source of digital reference activity and development. other prominent digital reference efforts in the library world include knowitnow from the cleveland public library, the 24 / 7 reference service that acts as a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5390117466102347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.424625"}
{"text": "to work with canadian digital reference services also promises to be a major source of digital reference activity and development. other prominent digital reference efforts in the library world include knowitnow from the cleveland public library, the 24 / 7 reference service that acts as a statewide digital reference network for the state of california, and the recent efforts of the state library of washington. also of interest to researchers in digital reference are digital reference vendors in the library domain including lssi ' s virtual reference service. one special case that should not be overlooked is the internet public library, for while it is not based in a library setting ( it is part of the school of information at the university of michigan ), it has its roots and traditions firmly planted in the library community. library reference exemplar : kidsconnect while many library services support the education community ( of course, academic libraries serve a higher education population and public libraries answer questions of students ), few target primary and secondary education exclusively. one exception is the kidsconnect service. kidsconnect is a question - answering, help and referral service to k - 12 students on the internet [ kidsconnect, 2002 ; bennett, 1998 ]. it is a project of the american library association ' s american association of school librarians ( aasl ). kidsconnect has three missions : the first is to educate school library media specialists in the use of the internet and digital reference as part of the larger iconnect project. the second is to promote information literacy in students through digital reference [ mancall et al., 1999 ]. the third is to promote local school libraries ( and school library media specialists ) as valuable sources of information and instruction. the kidsconnect model uses a large number of volunteer school library media specialists ( primarily in the united states ). each volunteer is trained using an in - depth mentoring process, then answers questions ( ranging from one question a day to one a week ). the digital reference transaction is conducted through e - mail and web forms. data from the kidsconnect service provides valuable insight into the types of students using digital reference services as well as the types of questions they ask. the service has been widely advertised to schools, particularly to teachers and school library media specialists. this advertising has been done through the professional association for school library media specialists ( aasl ), as well as through the internet. the data presented in figures 1 - 5 are from 1996 - 1998 ; however, more recent data presented in figures 6 - 9 are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5099408245559991, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.425633"}
{"text": "has been done through the professional association for school library media specialists ( aasl ), as well as through the internet. the data presented in figures 1 - 5 are from 1996 - 1998 ; however, more recent data presented in figures 6 - 9 are used to estimate the current validity of the earlier numbers. figure 1 shows the number of questions answered by kidsconnect for the years 1996 - 1998 : these numbers are very much in line, though on the high end, with current numbers of library - based digital reference services as reported at recent library meetings, including the 2002 american library association conference. figure 2 shows how these questions were distributed across differing student and adult populations : these figures demonstrate a rough equivalence between primary ( elementary and middle school ) and secondary education ( high school ). the low number of users identified as \" adult \" is explained by both the focus of the kidsconnect service ( k - 12 students ), but also that any questions kidsconnect received from teachers were routed ( sent to ) the askeric service. a more interesting finding, however, was the gender distribution of the questioners as seen in figure 3 : one interesting finding of the kidsconnect staff was the prominence of girls asking questions. while many hypotheses were put forward to explain this situation ( e - mail providing a \" safer \" environment to ask questions than the well documented male dominated classroom, for example ), no formal research was conducted to follow up on this finding. the other interesting finding from the kidsconnect data related to the topics or subjects of the questions asked of kidsconnect. the kidsconnect team utilized a \" subject line analysis \" technique whereby the subject lines of a random sample of questions were examined and classified inductively into a subject scheme. if the subject lines were felt to be uninformative ( they did not indicate topicality but instead were words or phrases like \" hello \" or \" please help \" ) the underlying question was examined. the results of this analysis are shown in figure 4 : it is clear from this figure that questions on the topic of science constituted the bulk of questions received. in order to provide a clearer picture of this category, the analysis was further refined by \" type of science questions \", as shown in figure 5 : data such as this should prove of great use to new digital reference services geared towards education, most notably the nsf ' s national smete digital library [ nsdl, 2002 ]. as mentioned before, these statistics represent somewhat dated analysis (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5170150711080261, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.426694"}
{"text": "5 : data such as this should prove of great use to new digital reference services geared towards education, most notably the nsf ' s national smete digital library [ nsdl, 2002 ]. as mentioned before, these statistics represent somewhat dated analysis ( 4 years old ). in 1999, operation of the kidsconnect service moved from syracuse university to drexel university ( the previous statistics are based on syracuse data ). syracuse then transferred much of the staff and processes of kidsconnect into the virtual reference desk learning center. this project had a slightly different aim ; it had a broader focus and also worked in a network of aska services with general foci. however, the main concentration of the service was still on school library media specialists answering questions from the education community. statistics from the vrd service show a strong correlation between older kidsconnect statistics and more recent vrd usage. for example, figure 6 shows the user populations of the vrd service : note the higher \" adult \" population ( as compared with figure 2 ) reflecting the broader focus of the vrd network members. however, with this result removed, the distribution in primary and secondary education remains roughly equivalent to the earlier data, with a greater number of \" middle school \" questions. also note in figure 7 that science questions still dominate the service : once again, figure 8 provides a more fine - grained analysis of science questions : this distributions seems to hold over the three most recent years of the vrd service ( as seen in figure 9 ) : from these more recent statistics, it seems difficult to argue that there has been a massive shift in the types of education users asking questions or in the types of questions they ask. what is also clear from analyzing these two services is that the library community has many contributions to make to the digital reference research agenda specifically with respect to education as well as to digital reference research in general. it is also clear the library community contains large - scale digital reference efforts that make excellent research environments capable of being utilized in the search for generalizable knowledge. education aska services the second progenitor of current digital reference systems is aska services. aska services take their name from expert question and answer services tending to adopt names such as \" ask a scientist \" and \" ask a volcanologist \" [ lankes, 1999b ]. these services tended to originate without interaction with formal library systems and emphasized topical expertise ( as opposed to process expertise such as a librarian ' s ability to search for information ). a fuller picture of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.52015202189072, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.427950"}
{"text": "a volcanologist \" [ lankes, 1999b ]. these services tended to originate without interaction with formal library systems and emphasized topical expertise ( as opposed to process expertise such as a librarian ' s ability to search for information ). a fuller picture of aska services can be drawn from two studies conducted by lankes and white [ lankes, 1999b ; lankes, 1999c ; and white, 1999 ]. lankes presents an in - depth analysis of the structure and commonalities of \" exemplary k - 12 digital reference services. \" specifically this study sought to : the outcome of this study included detailed \" blueprints \" and a tuned framework of aska services grounded in complexity theory, as seen in figure 10 : white developed an analytical framework based on systems for evaluating aska services. this framework was then applied to a variety of 11 services ( including library - based services ). unlike library digital reference services that to this point have seen modest usage, aska services, in general, have begun with large usage and have experienced continuing dramatic increases. the most recent virtual reference desk survey of aska services done in 1999 demonstrates this. survey results in table 1 show an average 44 % increase in use of these asynchronous services from 1997 to 1998, with an average answer rate of 77 % in 1998 [ lankes and shostack, forthcoming ]. table 1 : virtual reference desk survey of aska service usage compare these statistics to those of the libraries studied as part of mcclure and lankes quality study [ mcclure and lankes, 2001 ], \" in all cases the volume of digital reference questions is low, ranging from 3 to 33 per day \" [ gross et al., 2002 ]. this study covered a range of libraries in terms of size and scope ( academic, public, federal, state ). one result of the large volume encountered by aska services has been an emphasis on process, software development and automation. whereas many library services have quickly adopted real - time technologies in which one - to - one interactions require full human intervention, aska services have looked to asynchronous technologies. ( at least this has been so at their onset. see figure 11 for the distribution of questions received by askeric by mode of digital reference as an example of the predominance of asynchronous means. note that \" web \" and \" e - mail \" are both asynchronous modes. ) aska services have also looked for means of shunting users to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5317100968930822, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.428884"}
{"text": "an example of the predominance of asynchronous means. note that \" web \" and \" e - mail \" are both asynchronous modes. ) aska services have also looked for means of shunting users to resources. ( see lankes for a more detailed discussion of aska services and their architectures [ lankes, 1999b ]. ) these run the gambit from sophisticated techniques such as automated searching of previously asked questions ( as in the madsci service ), to forcing users through a list of frequently asked questions before they are able to submit a question ( as in the ask a volcanologist service ). aska services have also tended to develop more in terms of software and systems. early examples include ask dr. math\u00ae, the madsci network, and how things work. though there are excellent examples of software development in the library arena [ meola and starmont, 2002 ], library services have by and large adopted software from the help desk and e - commerce community, such as lssi and 24 / 7 reference ' s use of egain\u00ae and the common use of liveperson\u00ae and netagent. while this may be changing, aska services still remain a hot bed of systems development. another common attribute with aska services is their attention to the primary and secondary education community. in the case of some services, this attention is part of a larger view of the general internet population, but in many cases, it is a special attention where education is foremost and the general population is welcome as well. this can be seen in dr. math and madsci networks. it can also be seen in services, such as askeric, which focus on education professionals. education aska service exemplar : askeric while the kidsconnect discussion sheds light on digital reference use by primary and secondary education students, askeric can shed light on use of digital reference by education professionals. askeric is a project of the u. s. department of education ' s eric program. it was initiated and is still operated by the eric clearinghouse on information & technology ( though nearly all eric components ( clearinghouses, access eric, the eric processing facility and even the parent institution of eric, the national library of education ) are involved in answering questions ). askeric has two primary components : a question / answering service staffed by eric library and education professionals ( see figure 12 for the volume of questions ), and a virtual library of lesson plans, which contains pointers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5178998466390183, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.429985"}
{"text": ", eric citations, discussion groups and more, they are also finding new resources to add and old resources to delete. this means that it is the digital reference process itself that is used as collection development, annotation and expert review. askeric is only one example of aska services geared specifically to the education community. it does, however, serve as a revelatory case. in the askeric exemplar we see the predominance of asynchronous technologies, high - volume usage, and the interconnection of the reference process with systems and digital libraries. digital reference for primary and secondary education has a rich and well - documented tradition. it serves as a revelatory case for other digital reference research and provides valuable insight into digital libraries that serve the education community as well as other communities. what is apparent from this small examination of digital reference in the education context is that all levels of education use digital reference services and education questions, while covering a broad range of topics, concentrate most heavily on science ( in the case of students ) and language arts ( in the case of education professionals ). also apparent is the usefulness of education digital reference services as research environments. aska services and library reference services alike hold large data sets of question and answer transactions. these data sets can be used to evaluate how questions are asked, what topics are of interest to the education community, and what language is used by the education community, as well as used to examine myriad other facts. some of these data sets are publicly available on the internet, while others are proprietary due to privacy concerns. from this examination of digital reference services, some methodological techniques can be added to the digital reference research discussion. first among these is the concept of subject line analysis. this technique seems to provide excellent exploratory power and may provide a rapid way to compare question types across services. lastly, analysis of digital reference services targeted towards the primary and secondary education community ( or at least the study of these services ) provides a wealth of models, theories and frameworks that can be brought to bear in future research. from the lankes / sutton framework, the general digital reference model ( resulting from lankes ' complexity framework ) to white ' s evaluative framework, there are rich analytic tools that can be used in the broader digital reference and digital library domain. ask joan of art\u00ae, < http : / / americanart. si. edu / study / reference - main. html >. [ ala ] american library association", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5186679494100632, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.435037"}
{"text": ": the challenge of seamless access. \" government information quarterly. 16 ( 2 ). [ lankes, 1999a ] lankes, r. d. ( 1999a ). \" the virtual reference desk : question interchange profile. \" white paper for the virtual reference desk. eric clearinghouse on information & technology ; syracuse, ny. [ lankes, 1999b ] lankes, r. ( 1999b ). dissertation : building & maintaining internet information services, syracuse university. [ lankes, 1999c ] lankes, r. d. ( 1999 ). \" aska ' s lesson learned from k - 12 digital reference services. \" reference & user services quarterly. 38 ( 1 ). [ lankes and shostack ] lankes, r. and shostack, p. ( forthcoming ) \" the necessity of real - time : fact and fiction in digital reference systems. \" reference and user services quarterly. [ lankes et al. ] lankes, r. david, collins, j. and kasowitz, a. s. ( eds. ). ( 2000 ). digital reference : models for the new millennium. new york : neal - schuman. [ lankes, 2001 ] lankes, r. d. ( 2001 ). \" creating a new reference librarianship. \" vrd proceedings. ( online ) < http : / / www. vrd. org / conferences / vrd2001 / proceedings / reinventing. shtml >. [ lewis ] lewis, m. ( 2001 ). \" faking it. \" the new york times magazine, new york ; july 15, 2001. [ lita ] lita ( 1999 ). top tech trends. ( online ) < http : / / www. lita. org / committe / toptech / trendsmw99. htm >. [ mancall et al. ] mancall, j. and stafford, b. and zanger, c. ( 1999 ). iconnect : a snapshot of the first three years. knowledge quest. 28 ( 1 ), p24 - 37. [ marchionini ] marchionini, g. ( 1999 ). augmenting library services : toward the sharium. proceedings of the international symposium on digital libraries 1999 ( tsukuba, japan, september 28 - 29, 1999 ). 40 - 47. < http : / / ils. unc. edu / ~ march / sharium / isdl.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5281135787215165, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.436677"}
{"text": "of the international symposium on digital libraries 1999 ( tsukuba, japan, september 28 - 29, 1999 ). 40 - 47. < http : / / ils. unc. edu / ~ march / sharium / isdl. pdf >. [ mardikian and kesselman ] mardikian, j., and kesselman, m. ( 1995 ). beyond the desk : enhanced reference staffing for the electronic library. reference services review, 23 ( 1 ), p21 - 28. [ meola and starmont ] meola, m. and starmont, s. ( 2002 ). starting and operating live virtual reference services : a how - to - do - it manual for librarians. new york : neal - schuman. [ mon ] mon, l. ( 2000 ). \" digital reference service. \" government information quarterly, 17 ( 3 ) 309 - 318. [ nsdl ] nsdl ( 2002 ). national science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education digital library ( nsdl ) ( online ) < http : / / www. ehr. nsf. gov / ehr / due / programs / nsdl > < http : / / www. nsf. gov / search97cgi / vtopic >. [ national research council ] national research council ( 1998 ). developing a digital national library for undergraduate science, mathematics, engineering, and technology education. nrc workshop, august 7 - 8, 1997. ( online ). washington, d. c. : national academy press. < http : / / books. nap. edu / books / 0309059771 / html / r1. html > ( ed425928 ). [ still and campbell ] still, j., and campbell, f. ( 1993 ). librarian in a box : the use of electronic mail for reference. reference services review, 21 ( 1 ), pp 15 - 18. [ tyckoson ] tyckoson, d. ( 2002 ). on the desirableness of personal relations between librarians and readers : the past and future of reference service. the future of reference papers, ( online ) < http : / / www. ala. org / rusa / forums / tyckoson _ forum. html >. [ white ] white, m. d., ed. ( 1999 ). analyzing electronic question / answer services : framework and evaluations of selected services. eric document ed433019. [ virtual", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5222401864424044, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.437617"}
{"text": "tuesday may 11, 2004 hamerschlag hall d - 210 with each technology generation, we are experiencing an increased rate of cosmically - induced soft errors in our chips. in the past, the impact of such errors could be minimized through protection of large memory structures. unfortunately, such techniques alone are becoming insufficient to maintain adequately low error rates. although, to a very rough approximation, the fault rate per transistor is not changing much, the increasing number of transistors is resulting in an ever increasing raw rate of bit upsets. thus, we are starting to see a dark side to moore ' s law in which the increased functionality we get with our exponentially increasing number of transistors is being countered with a exponentially increasing soft error rate. this will take increasing effort and cost to cope with. in this talk i will describe the severity of the soft error problem as well as techniques to estimate a processor ' s soft error rate. these estimates should help designers choose appropriate error protection schemes for various structures within a microprocessor. a key aspect of our soft error analysis is that some single - bit faults ( such as those occurring in the branch predictor ) will not produce an error in a program ' s output. we define a structure ' s architectural vulnerability factor ( avf ) as the probability that a fault in that particular structure will result in an error in the final output of a program. a structure ' s error rate is the product of its raw error rate, as determined by process and circuit technology, and the avf. unfortunately, computing avfs of complex structures, such as the instruction queue, can be quite involved. to guide such complex avf calculation, we identify numerous cases, such as prefetches, dynamically dead code, and wrong - path instructions, in which a fault will not affect correct execution. our simulations using these techniques show that the avfs of a mckinley - like microprocessor ' s instruction queue and execution units are 29 % and 9 %, respectively. shubu mukherjee is the director of intel ' s fact group in hudson, massachusetts. the fault aware computing technology ( fact ) group is involved with various aspects of soft error measurement, detection, and recovery techniques in current and future machines. in the past, he worked for digital equipment corporation for ten days and compaq computer corporation for three years. in compaq, he worked on fault tolerance techniques for alpha processors and was one of the architects of the alpha 21364 interconnection network. he", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5880586221367423, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84333516-8ef2-4c3b-9b31-9c9ce09ea949>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.443769"}
{"text": "reconnecting children and naturethink back to your favorite childhood experience. for many, it \u2019 s being outside on a quest to build a fort in the woods, ride your bike, or freely explore the neighborhood. by : amy reineke, public health educator, alexandria echo press think back to your favorite childhood experience. for many, it \u2019 s being outside on a quest to build a fort in the woods, ride your bike, or freely explore the neighborhood. today, instead of hiking, biking and climbing trees, children are more likely to have limited direct experience with the outdoors and nature. if they are outside, it is more likely to be in organized sports, on playground equipment or being shuttled from activity to activity. research indicates that one of the best medicines to a stressful lifestyle is to spend time in a natural setting outdoors. children who spend time outdoors are likely to be happier, healthier, smarter, more cooperative and more creative. children need leisurely, unscripted and exploratory hours to find the wonders in their own backyards and neighborhoods. children should be discovering the beauty of the stars in the night sky to watching bugs on a warm summer \u2019 s day. according to recent research, there is evidence to suggest that the disconnect from nature creates diminished health ; obesity ; reduced cognitive, creative and problem - solving capacities ; lower school achievement ; lower self esteem, less self discipline ; and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. i recently got ahold of a book called last child in the woods : saving our children from nature deficit disorder by richard louv. he writes about a phrase he coined, nature deficit disorder, which isn \u2019 t a medical term but a social phenomenon. in his book, he brings together a new and growing body of research indicating that direct exposure to nature is essential for healthy childhood development and for the physical and emotional health of children and adults. \u201c there is very little that children do in their lives that compares with their first experience in nature, \u201d louv says. children are the stewards of the future. it \u2019 s a simple solution. get kids outside more often so they can discover the adventure of the natural world. actions to reconnect children to nature \u2022 take a child outside and create the opportunity for children to have unstructured time to play outdoors every day. \u2022 create a nature club for families and plan monthly outings with other families in your community. \u2022 start a new kind of neighborhood watch so children can play within sight of adults while still experiencing the wonder", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5213147580977379, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:54c1eeef-7569-40e9-8ef1-5a4aa46e23c7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.446288"}
{"text": "1 to take into account losses in the system. the number you have left is the size of the solar panel - in watts - which you need to buy. a 12v 80 amp / hour battery stores 960 watt - hours of electricity ( 12 x 80 = 960 ). 960 / 2 hours winter charge = 480 watt - hours 480 / 15 days = 32 watt - hours 32 x 1. 1 = 35 watt solar panel power inverters take the 12v voltage from your batteries and convert it to a 240v ac power supply. they are available in various different power outputs from 75 watts to 3kw and it is important to make sure you do not overload them. power inverters can get extremely hot in operation, so if you are planning to build them into a case, it is important to make sure they have adequate space around them so they do not over heat. when buying a power inverter, it is worth buying one that includes a low - voltage cut out. this means that when the batteries run low, the inverter switches off rather than totally draining the batteries. draining lead acid batteries completely can damage or destroy your batteries, so this is best avoided. power inverters are available from camping and caravan shops, car accessory outlets and most electrical wholesalers. they are commonly sold to motorists who want a 240v mains outlet in their car for running laptop computers. how do i measure how much power my appliances use? you can measure your power requirements using a plug - in energy monitor. these are plugged into a mains socket and the appliance you wish to measure is then plugged into the energy monitor. power drain is then monitored and shown as an average on the built - in display. if you don ' t have a plug - in energy monitor, you can find out how many watts many of your appliances use by reading the power information often printed on the back of them, or by checking the output on power adaptors. often these figures are shown in volts and amps. a transformer for a laptop pc, for instance, may have a power output of 19. 5v and a current of 4. 5 amps. multiplying these two figures together ( volts x amps ) will tell you how many watts are used per hour - in this case, my laptop consumes a maximum of 88 watts / hour of power. it is difficult to produce a table listing all the likely electrical items you will have in a home and provide an exact list", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5022192382004014, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6e3cb0df-4f99-4c12-9b66-65425451d983>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.502498"}
{"text": "( apl ) is a subtype of aml that occurs when parts of two genes stick together. apl usually occurs in middle - aged adults. symptoms of apl may include both bleeding and forming blood clots. anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer ; not having risk factors doesn ' t mean that you will not get cancer. people who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. possible risk factors for aml include the following : possible signs of adult aml include fever, feeling tired, and easy bruising or bleeding. the early signs of aml may be like those caused by the flu or other common diseases. a doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur : tests that examine the blood and bone marrow are used to detect ( find ) and diagnose adult aml. the following tests and procedures may be used : certain factors affect prognosis ( chance of recovery ) and treatment options. the prognosis ( chance of recovery ) and treatment options depend on : it is important that acute leukemia be treated right away. emedicinehealth public information from the national cancer institute this information is produced and provided by the national cancer institute ( nci ). the information in this topic may have changed since it was written. for the most current information, contact the national cancer institute via the internet web site at http : / / cancer. gov or call 1 - 800 - 4 - cancer this information is not intended to replace the advice of a doctor. healthwise disclaims any liability for the decisions you make based on this information. some material in cancernet\u2122 is from copyrighted publications of the respective copyright claimants. users of cancernet\u2122 are referred to the publication data appearing in the bibliographic citations, as well as to the copyright notices appearing in the original publication, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. find out what women really need. pill identifier on rxlist - quick, easy, find a local pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.507060327154163, "token_count": 435, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c41784a-d2c6-4aed-a2ad-3dea7654c5d8>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.530683"}
{"text": "she could never fully comprehend or follow. culture enters at every point of such a reading, controlling what it means to aspire, to be intellectual, to be displaced, to be female, to be declassed, to be applauded, to stage oneself. bacon ' s lifelong work of inventing and reinventing herself as a female intellectual celebrity, though a marginal episode in literary and cultural history, deserves attention for the ways in which it defines the center through the very forms of its marginality. in his shakespeare ' s lives, samuel schoenbaum, the eminent scholar of shakespeare biography, interprets all the anti - stratfordians as rebels against cultural and professional expertise whose invariable substitution of some high - ranking personage for the supposedly unlettered shakespeare paradoxically indexes \" the heretic ' s revulsion against the provincial and lowly. \" schoenbaum ' s use of \" heretic \" is metaphorical, but nathaniel hawthorne thought bacon understood herself quite literally as a heretic. when she realized that her readings of the plays ran counter to the \" religious doctrines in which she had been educated, \" he says, bacon was horrified at first ; but she chose her readings over her religion - - indeed, she made her readings into her religion. shakespeare ' s plays as she read them were nothing less than a new gospel, which she had been appointed to make known ; \" she had faith that special interpositions of providence were forwarding her human efforts. \" to bacon, hawthorne noted elsewhere, \" every leaf and line \" of her work \" was sacred, for all had been written under so deep a conviction of truth as to assume, in her eyes, the aspect of inspiration. \" it is not surprising that bacon fell into such a theological mode of self - understanding ; this was the psychological terminology her culture deployed. the motif of heresy was omnipresent in the calvinist historiography that had trained her, and her writings from the start luxuriated in metaphors of martyrdom. nor, in bacon ' s case, was rejecting authority along with the provincial and lowly a true paradox. it was precisely because authority was provincial and lowly that she rejected it. although of impeccable new england lineage on both sides, delia ' s family had slid far down the social scale. david, her father, was a visionary calvinist minister who failed first in a series of frontier ministries in michigan and then as founding patriarch of a utopian theocracy in tall", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5382043546973244, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.603665"}
{"text": "the quality in her description of the youthful poet lucretia davidson : \" so vivid in my mind is the recollection of her animated and enthusiastic manner at that time, the bright flashing of her dark eye, and the glow of her brilliant complexion, that... it seems as if she now stood before me, the living image of youthful genius and sensibility. \" catharine beecher, delia ' s former teacher, recalled her pupil in similar terms : \" possessing an agreeable person, a pleasing and intelligent countenance, an eye of deep and earnest expression, a melodious voice, a fervid imagination, and the embryo of rare gifts of eloquence in thought and expression, she was pre - eminently one who would be pointed out as a genius. \" the girl genius, at once admired and isolated, stood in complex relation to her classmates. often she came from a lower social class than they. since it was typical of genius to exceed boundaries, those ignorant of the boundaries were most likely to transgress ; moreover, those outside the genteel circle had an obvious need, which the well - positioned did not, to insist upon themselves. paradoxically and painfully for women in a sexually asymmetric society, female excess, even when inspired, was subject to discipline and censure. ultimately, as the tragic plot of corinne so clearly demonstrated, the world preferred ordinary women and aristocrats preferred their own kind. the plot of many an antebellum women ' s novel chronicles this poignant taming and normalizing of a genius who must subside ( or grow ) into conventional womanhood if she is to gain the approbation of society. the double bind of the girl genius in a culture dominated by a female pedagogy like catharine beecher ' s is cruelly obvious in the teacher ' s recollection. success in composition became \" the highest object \" of delia bacon ' s ambition, beecher reports, even as success continually eluded her : for beecher the genius is one who, by definition, cannot win the prize ; had she more discipline - - i. e., more class - - she might win but would be, then, less a genius. given such a context, one can easily imagine bacon attempting throughout her life to combine incompatibles : to operate in the social center while remaining the genius on the margins. these goals were further inflected by the theocentric vocabulary of a milieu where orthodoxy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5284287253199067, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.605962"}
{"text": "ideas as a divine influx. she writes to beecher, a year after the public hearing, of newfound work for which she has been prepared by \" all that i have suffered, \" a \" true and only vocation \" making \" the prospect of my future life not endurable merely, but more precious than it had ever been before. \" \" i have something to do yet before i die, \" she continues, \" and i would gladly suffer all that i have suffered, and think it little, if that were the cost of its accomplishment - l have work to do which is not my own, - ' day labor, ' and the night is at hand! i am tired of this mere suffering. \" in elaborating and promulgating her anti - stratford theory, bacon was ultimately far less concerned to attack shakespeare the impostor than to promulgate the message she found in the plays. her incendiary essay attacking the bard, she told hawthorne, was meant merely \" to send the old player about his business, to make way for this graver performance. \" in this graver performance, bacon boldly theorized that the plays were republican polemics produced from within elizabeth ' s and james ' s court by a secret society founded by walter ralegh and headed in the next generation by francis bacon, who was chief if not sole author of the plays. extending the thesis, she argued that if the plays were not what they had been taken to be, then neither the elizabethan age nor history itself was what it had been taken to be. the heart of bacon ' s re - reading involved rewriting history itself. this fundamentally historicist approach to the plays developed from an intellectual. self - presentation that had always been grounded in a supposed mastery of history. but now, as she thoroughly revised a period of english history that was also foundational to united states history, bacon made herself an agent in history as well as a recounter of it. the influence of shakespeare had been obvious throughout in the construction and rhythms of the bride of fort edwards ; when bacon ventured into drama she worked from her culture ' s most revered model without seeming to question his authorship. but in composing a closet drama rather than a performance play, she worked with one of several possible shakespeares available to her. writing at length about the circulation of shakespeare ' s performed plays among all social levels in the antebellum united states, lawrence levine has argued that the bard ' s popularity reflects a scene where high and low culture were not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.516105167210396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.612069"}
{"text": "patiently collecting concrete, observable facts ; then developing successively broader generalizations from these facts ; and, ultimately, constructing a theory that accounted for every single one of them. this theory was called a law of nature ; it did not presume to explain how anything had come into being but only how it functioned. perfect functioning implied the perfection of the deity, who was the cause of it all. the emergence of baconian empiricism in england just as catholicism was being disestablished there was thought to be no historical coincidence ; rather, it was the express result of protestant ideology, according to which people looked at the world through their own eyes and saw it as the product of divine benevolence. the disciplines of science were in the process of organizing themselves throughout the northeastern united states during delia bacon ' s lifetime, and all the yale professors of chemistry, astronomy, geology, and \" natural philosophy ' ( physics ) were advocates of bacon ' s system as they knew it through the mediation of scottish commonsense philosophy. delia bacon was well acquainted with these men, especially. benjamin silliman, yale ' s first professor of chemistry, and his son benjamin silliman, jr., who succeeded him in the same position. it was known that francis bacon had not fully carried out his plan of work ; delia bacon became convinced that some missing parts of the plan had been completed, specifically, the plays of \" shakespeare, \" a collection of human facts organized to display the laws of a human nature that was ineluctably progressing towards the worldwide institution of republican governments. these were heady ideas, and for some time delia bacon kept them to herself. in the meantime, she found a new field and many new admirers when she reinstituted her history classes in the - hberal precincts of unitarian boston and cambridge. eliza farrar, married to harvard ' s professor of mathematics and author of a best - selling advice book ( the young lady ' s friend, first published in 1836 ), provided here, parlor for one such course. she recalled that bacon \" ended with a fine climax that was quite thrilling.... all who saw her then must remember how handsome she was, and how gracefully she used her wand in pointing to the illustrations of her subject. i used to be reminded by her of raphael ' s sibyls, and she often spoke like an oracle. \" \" even now, \" ; her friend caroline dall remembered much later, \" it is only necessary to close", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5548727029832033, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.615019"}
{"text": "before the insanity but its \" criticism of those times is the most profound that has ever been written. some of the republicanism in the final formulation of the theory may well have come from peabody, just as some of its insistence on the divinity of human nature may have resulted from her exposure to local transcendentalism. but after a while, according to peabody, bacon became quite secretive about her ideas - not because she doubted them but because she was afraid of being scooped. although she used her attack on shakespeare to criticize the market mentality, she considered herself the owner as well as trustee of her theory and meant to get credit for it. she had no doubt that publication of the theory would make her world - famous. when bacon conceptualized the plays as a series of republican polemics authored chiefly by francis bacon, she did not claim kinship with him. yet the coincidence of names must have played a part in her thinking ; here was her unacknowledged forebear, an intellectual if not a blood relation. having affiliated with shakespeare in the bride of fort edward, she was now disavowing him for a far more attractive form of authority, replacing an untalented merchandiser of dramatic goods with a courtier and gentleman who was a great thinker and also, in her reading of him, a republican revolutionary. bacon ' s historicist focus, her insistence that no great literature could be merely entertaining or even purely aesthetic, in her mind privileged her reading above all others, a position that oddly adumbrates counter - aesthetic historicist criticism of the present day. she even went a step further to argue that bacon and his group would not have been content to limit their radical work to mere writing : \" there was to have been a change in the government here at one time, very different from the one which afterwards occurred, if the original plans of these men had succeeded. the ciphered language she insisted was deployed in the plays - the discourse awaiting delia bacon ' s unsealing - had been developed originally as a way for the courtiers to communicate with each other without arousing the crown ' s suspicion. because, on the one hand, the crown was too vigilant and, on the other, the people were insufficiently trained in republican principles to be trustworthy citizens in a free state, the courtiers abandoned their planned revolution. only then did the frustrated elizabethan man of action become a man of letters, who \" invented new letters in his need, letters that would go farther than the sword", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5036976846847031, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.617240"}
{"text": "be trustworthy citizens in a free state, the courtiers abandoned their planned revolution. only then did the frustrated elizabethan man of action become a man of letters, who \" invented new letters in his need, letters that would go farther than the sword \" ( p. xlix ). in short, the plays developed a sophisticated republican political theory in a coded language that conveyed it ( under the very nose of the queen, whose regime the theory sought to undermine ) to an unlettered public via the sensuous immediacy of dramatic performance. if examined closely, bacon ' s argument undermines the religion ' political origins of united states history according to which the puritans were embryonic republican anti - monarchists as well as protestant martyrs. if she was night, anti - monarchism was a courtly, not a puritan, credo ; providential history as it had long been understood and taught in new england, and was increasingly taught in schools throughout the nation, was wrong. yet, what new england had been in its founding was far less important to bacon than what it had become ; her reading of the plays attacks a contemporary mercantile and mercenary elite that sought to justify itself through sham appeals to patriotism, religiob, and high culture. only such a misguided elite could possibly be satisfied with, indeed promote, an idea of the plays as documents created for mere aesthetic pleasure or, worse still, for monetary gain in the artistic marketplace. for many reasons, and in a most un - baconian manner, bacon failed to recognize or even understand the need to corroborate her theory with extrinsic evidence, and it was due to this fundamental flaw that her entire project foundered. her view of history itself was purely textual ; she thought ( like many a literary scholar today ) that a good, convincing interpretation was the same as a proof. caroline dall remembered her saying that \" she drew her evidences of francis bacon ' s authorship from two sources, the internal and the external. she found them in the plays themselves, and outside of the plays, in history. but for bacon \" history \" meant history books, and history books meant the compendium or compilation nearest to hand. for all the scholastic ingenuity she expended on interpretation, she was uninstructed in editorial procedures, naive about the material constitution of documentary evidence. bravely performative though she was, she lacked the mental furniture to live in a non - textual, material, world. she was completely", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5000658767496875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.618277"}
{"text": "heard all her life. stripped of some of its interesting complexities, \" william shakespeare and his plays \" accomplishes its task through a series of arguments. first : shakespeare could not have written the plays attributed to him because they reflect a level of education and cosmopolitan sophistication he lacked. second : his failure to get them printed, or even to preserve the manuscripts, indicates complete ignorance of their true significance. the shakespeare known to history was a poorly educated theatrical hack who \" exhibited these plays at his theatre in the way of his trade, and cared for them precisely as a tradesman would ; cared for them ; as he would have cared for tin kettles, or earthen pans and pots, if they had been in his line \" ( p. 124 ). bacon intends her tradesman metaphor to be taken literally. especially important for the political argument she will develop in the philosophy of shakespeare ' s plays unfolded, bacon maintains that such a self - serving commercial mentality could not possibly have conceived of patriotically disinterested lines like these : third : despite the absurdity of imagining a person like the historical shakespeare as author of such work, the reverence in which the plays have been held testifies to the world ' s sense of their value. but over time the name ascribed to them has been partly detached from the man - \" it is only the work itself that we now know by that name - the phenomenon and not its beginning ' ( p. 125 ). to square the plays ' felt experience with the man supposed to have authored them, critics have endorsed a pernicious theory of aberrant genius that obscures the plays ' complex historicity and is, as well, irrelevant to the historical shakespeare. \" condemned to refer the origin of these works to the vulgar, illiterate man who kept the theatre where they were first exhibited, \" asks bacon, \" how could we, how could any one, dare to see what is really in them? \" the only reasonable solution, again, is to dismiss shakespeare, for the plays are learned and scholarly in a way that genius is not ; this is no question of mere \" lyric inspiration \" or the merely \" dramatic genius \" of a \" bunyan or a burns \" ( pp. 131 - 32 ). the historical shakespeare was neither of the people nor of their rulers ; his was the rising spirit of market values, and so to imagine that he could have written the plays only exhibits one ' s own crass mercantilism. through this \" shakespeare \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5087654921631701, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.623146"}
{"text": "historical shakespeare was neither of the people nor of their rulers ; his was the rising spirit of market values, and so to imagine that he could have written the plays only exhibits one ' s own crass mercantilism. through this \" shakespeare \" she invents, then, bacon criticizes the prevalence of market values among those who should be instructing the populace in civic virtue. what the plays need at this juncture, bacon explains are \" historical investigation and criticism \" ( p. 154 ), which she plans to offer in her anticipated major study. her theory of an authorship by disinterested aristocratic proto - republican patriots working against absolute power and inherited rank obliterates all the crypto - royalist affiliations of her earlier writings, allowing her to embrace the court without embracing its ideology, to have her royals without royalism. \" the fair puritan \" had stated more or less outrightly that the high - ranking woman who abandoned her aristocratic privilege for the puritan cause was much more admirable than the more ordinary person who had much less to lose, materially and socially, by renouncing monarchist politics. bacon ' s theory of shakespearean authorship locates this self - sacrificing idealism within the heart of the court itself, among a group of worldly and educated men who alone had the privileges requisite for writing the plays. thus, the theory of coded discourse makes courtiers into patriots willing to face martyrdom for their cause. at the center of this group of courtiers is francis bacon. identifying shakespeare ' s plays as the missing practical applications of francis bacon ' s novum organum, delia hits upon a strategy that allows her to use the advancement of learning as a gloss on the plays - a substantial revision of bacon as well as shakespeare. she admits that her approach demands \" a very different kind of study from any that we have naturally thought it worth while to spend on them, so long as we regarded them as works of pastime merely.... it is pastime no longer. it is a study, the most patient, the most profoundly earnest to which these works now invite us \" ( philosophy, pp. 175 - 76 ). \" of art as anything in itself, with an independent tribunal, and law with an ethic and ritual of its own, this inventor of the one art, that has for its end the relief of the human estate and the creator ' s glory, knows nothing \" ( p. 303 ). in the plays, she insists,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5040082716989166, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.624100"}
{"text": "an ethic and ritual of its own, this inventor of the one art, that has for its end the relief of the human estate and the creator ' s glory, knows nothing \" ( p. 303 ). in the plays, she insists, we want to find - and we do - \" the new method of scientific inquiry applied to the questions in which men are most deeply interested - questions which were then imperiously and instantly urged on the thoughtful mind. we want to see it applied to politics in the reign of james the first \" ( p. 187 ). bacon ' s works of scientific intellection analyzed human nature ; his imaginative works - the plays - projected his philosophy in concrete examples. the scientific insistence that human nature is entirely lawful, that humans may be perfected by learning and applying the law, is an obvious contradiction of old - style calvinism, even of those forms of perfectionism involving actions of faith and free grace. a perfectionist credo of sorts was already present in the bridge of fort edward, where it manifests itself as routine patriotic enlightenment rationalism of a sort that had long since been reconciled with calvinism in the new england churches. the philosophy of shakespeare ' s plays unfolded goes far beyond the rational patriotism of the bride, however, to sketch out a new gnosis of revealed science, through which instructed individuals might align themselves with historical progress. bypassing the bible, the philosophy ( which includes some sarcastic references to puerile semitic achievements ) substitutes a hew occult corpus for interpretation. the plays become, literally, sacred writ. \" great news for man he [ francis bacon ] brings ; the powers which are working in the human life, and not those which are working without it only, are working in obedience to laws.... good news for the state, good news for man ;... confirmations from the universal scriptures, of the revelation of the divine in the human \" ( pp. 486 - 87 ). this statement rings with the democratic individualism and the protestant inventiveness of an age of numerous new breakaway sects, at least one of which ( mormonism ) was formed around a wholly new ' sacred scripture. the prominence of textual interpretation along with an intensely anti - individualist utopian ethos differentiate bacon ' s theory from the emersonian transcendentalism that it obviously resembles and at times seems to endorse. \" good news, because that law of the greater whole, which is the worthier - that law of the common - weal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5465875751498928, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.625211"}
{"text": "' s theory from the emersonian transcendentalism that it obviously resembles and at times seems to endorse. \" good news, because that law of the greater whole, which is the worthier - that law of the common - weal, which is the human law - that law which in man is reason and conscience, is in the nature of things, and not in man only ' ( p. 487 ). man ' s \" relation to the common - weal is essential to the perfection of his individual nature \" ; \" the highest good of the particular and private nature... comprehends necessarily the good of the whole in its intention \" ( pp. 477 - 78 ). francis bacon ' s project aims to realize the highest form of the polity, the perfect, the truly republican, state. the core of the philosophy of shakespeare ' s plays unfolded is comprised of extended close readings of king lear, julius caesar, and coriolanus, in which the languages of new criticism and new historicism are anachronistically and startlingly foreshadowed. framed by historical material in a long reface preface and a shorter conclusion, the three plays are read as coded attacks on the tudor and stuart monarchies rooted in francis bacon ' s supposed science of human nature, reflecting republican ideals of government by self - governing individuals. in a sequence on presence and absence, bacon argues that though king lear stands for \" pure will and tyranny in their most frantic form \" ( p. 202 ), his presence on the stage as \" insulted trampled outcast majesty ' also signifies what is absent - the people - reminding readers \" that the state is composed throughout, down to its most loathsome unimaginable depths of neglect and misery, of individual men, social units, clothed of nature with the same faculties and essential human dignities and susceptibilities to good and evil, and crowned of nature with the common sovereignty of reason \" ( pp. 204, 208 ). the emperor in julius caesar is \" the most splendid and magnanimous representative of arbitrary power... so that here it is the mere abstract question as to the expediency and propriety of permitting any one man to impose his individual will on the nation \" ( p. 326 ) ; the play ' s outcome, which dramatizes that principled patriots were \" no more fit to be trusted with absolute power than he was, nor, in fact, half so fit \" ( p", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5328841159446269, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6048287f-d6e1-4a0d-b6bc-a8795d367132>", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.626250"}
{"text": "the vlt active optics system due to the low ratio between their thickness and their diameter, the vlt primary mirrors will be rather flexible and sensitive to various disturbances, requiring permanent control of their optical shape. active optics consists in applying controlled forces to the primary mirror and in moving the secondary mirror in order to cancel out the errors. the scheme was developped by eso for the 3. 5 - m new technology telescope ( ntt ) and is now applied to the vlt. the system must essentially compensate for static or slowly varying deformations such as manufacturing errors, thermal effects, low frequency components of wind buffeting, telescope inclination,... it is also used when changing between cassegrain and nasmyth foci. a schematic view of the system is shown below. ( drawing by ed janssen, eso ) descriptionthe different elements of the active optics system of the vlt are the primary mirror, with its active support system located within the m1 cell structure, the m2 unit, the ccd shack - hartmann wavefront sensor ( wfs ) located in the sensor arm of the adapter, and the computer analysing the wavefront sensor data. there are three modes of operation, that are described below baselinethe active optics baseline operation is the correction of wavefront aberrations generated by the optics of the telescope and by slowly varying temperature inhomogeneities in or near the building. the corrections are based on an image analysis. the active optics system constantly monitors the optical quality of the image using an offset reference star as it is picked up in the field by the wavefront sensor ccd in the adapter sensor arm. the same offset star is also used by the acquisition and autoguiding ccd. the system controls the relative position and the shape of the optical elements. the primary mirror shape can be actively controlled by varying the force pattern applied by means of its support system. the latter consists of 150 computer controlled axial actuators, applying a distribution of forces at the back of the mirror. periodically the image analyzer calculates the deviation of the image from the best quality. the image analysis typically requires about 30 seconds ( 1 / 30 hz ) in order to integrate out the effect of atmospheric seeing. the computer decomposes the deviation into single optical contributions ( defocus, astigmatism, coma etc... ) and calculates the force correction which each active element has to perform to achieve the optimal quality. the set of 150 correction forces, one for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5280626901955957, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ef31c15d-b576-4f1b-b814-4c8cde4af40b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.644452"}
{"text": "deviation into single optical contributions ( defocus, astigmatism, coma etc... ) and calculates the force correction which each active element has to perform to achieve the optimal quality. the set of 150 correction forces, one for each axial actuator, is computed and transmitted to the local control of the m1 cell - m3 tower for execution. the focus and coma terms are corrected by displacements of the secondary mirror. fast correctionsthe feedback scheme is the same as above but here the maximum frequency for fast corrections is 1 hz. these shorter integration times reduce the signal to noise ratio of measurements and affect both the sky coverage ( requirement of brighter guide stars in the field ) and the number of aberrations which can be corrected ( only the lowest spatial frequency ones ). open loop corrections this mode does not use feedback information from the image analyser. the open loop mode is used in the absence of any sufficiently bright guide star, or in the case of image analysis failure, or as initialization for baseline operation after a new telescope preset. for this type of operation accurately predicted forces on m1 ( dependent on telescope tube inclination ) and predicted positions ( dependent also on temperature ) are required. more technical information on the principles of active optics can be obtained in the following publications : r. wilson, f. franza, l. noethe, journal of modern optics, vol. 34 / 4, 1987, p. 485 l. noethe et al., journal of modern optics, vol. 35 / 9, 1988, p. 1427", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5642635600616261, "token_count": 319, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ef31c15d-b576-4f1b-b814-4c8cde4af40b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.645105"}
{"text": "joint anglo - american working groups continue to be the focal points for technical exchanges under the 1958 mutual defence agreement for co - operation on the uses of atomic energy for defence purposes. radiation simulation and kinetic effects technology energetic materials test monitoring nuclear materials warhead electrical components and technologies non - nuclear materials nuclear counter - terrorism technology facilities nuclear weapons engineering nuclear warhead physics computational technology aircraft, missile and space system hardening laboratory plasma physics manufacturing practices nuclear weapon accident response technologyseparate arrangements exist for exchanges under the polaris sales agreement, as amended for trident. the working groups concerned are the trident working party group, the joint steering tasks group, the trident joint re - entry systems working group and the joint systems performance and assessment group. in the absence of hydronuclear and boosted - yield underground testing, a significant improvement in methodologies and experimental capabilities is needed to determine the nuclear parameters required to assess the performance and safety of stockpiled weapon systems. the united states department of energy established a committee consisting of sandia, los alamos, and lawrence livermore national laboratories and the atomic weapons establishment ( aldermasten, uk ) to determine the advanced capabilities needed to assess the nuclear primaries of strategic weapons and to define the technologies required to provide these capabilities. the nuclear weapons information project ( nwip ) is an archiving effort established in early 1993 to rescue at - risk weapon development and testing data and knowledge. the nuclear weapons information project will preserve preserve data for training future scientists, engineers, and technicians and will provide immediate critical information for emergency response to nuclear weapon incidents. the nuclear weapons information group ( nwig ) includes participants from doe sites, the department of defense ' s defense special weapons agency, and the united kingdom ' s atomic weapons establishment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5288017884996838, "token_count": 350, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d12aa74b-8235-4e69-a92f-5e412ca00180>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.731667"}
{"text": "reverse osmosis, also known as hyper filtration, is the preferred method of seawater and brackish water purification. as the equipment needed to perform reverse osmosis is cost - effective, and the process requires little input energy compared to other methods of purification, reverse osmosis has become the worldwide leader among desalinization methods. developed at ucla, and used commercially since the 1970 \u2019 s, seawater reverse osmosis has served marine professionals for nearly 40 years. seawater reverse osmosis ( swro ) is used in a wide range of commercial applications. marine professionals such as commercial fisherman and offshore rig workers rely on swro to provide freshwater for routine daily tasks such as bathing, cleaning and of course, drinking. in larger applications, such as cruise ships, swro is sometimes also used. in such applications, it is necessary not only to desalinize water, but to provide quality freshwater. cruise liner restaurant professionals count on swro for water used for cooking, as well as making coffee, soda and other beverages. here, consistency is key. by way of its simple yet effective design, reverse osmosis is able to consistently satisfy the needs of those who count on it. the process itself is relatively simple and straightforward. in order to purify a liquid, the \u201c solvent \u201d ( in this case, water ) is put under pressure in excess of 250 psi for brackish water and 1000 psi for seawater, forcing it through a semi - permeable membrane. this application - specific membrane allows water molecules to pass through, but catches \u201c solutes, \u201d yielding purified water. when employed, reverse osmosis is capable of not only of de - salting water, but also removing other impurities such as bacteria, ions and particulates. if you \u2019 re considering using reverse osmosis to address your water purification needs, browse our inventory of everpure reverse osmosis filters.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5434492401137367, "token_count": 400, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f61a7782-0169-4536-a03a-d5d638bbe515>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.755098"}
{"text": "the characteristics of plants give us clues as to how some plants are similar to and different from others. classification of plant species depends upon common and unique features that are used to identify plants by their characteristics. scientists and plant experts have collected data on numerous plant species from studying the plants in their natural habitats and recording information about their characteristics in scientific literature and databases for future reference. what are the plant ' s features? plant features include the color, shape, size and orientation of the plant ' s leaves on the stem and the color of its stem, branches and / or trunk. is the plant evergreen, or do its leaves change color in the fall? whether the plant ' s leaves fall or not identifies the plant as deciduous or evergreen. plants are also identified by the shape and color of their fruits and the seeds they contain. fruit and seed colors include black, brown, green, orange, yellow, red and white. how does the plant grow and change? plant types are identified by their active growth seasons, which vary at different times of the year and in different parts of the world. some actively grow during the spring and summer, while others grow during the winter months. the height of the plant is an identifying characteristic that defines its variety within a species. some plants grow to a minimum height in dry soils but to a towering height in moist soil conditions. what are its growth requirements? the types of soil and soil conditions that support a plant ' s growth are identifying characteristics that define where a plant will and will not grow. soil types include varying degrees and combinations of sand, loam, silt and clay. soil ph levels and levels of potassium, phosphorus, nitrogen and salt are also characteristics that help to identify a plant. how does the plant reproduce? plants are identified by their reproduction characteristics. plants naturally reproduce by seed, through the spreading of their roots or through their bulb or corm production. some plants are propagated through cuttings as well. flowering plants bloom before the formation of their fruits and seeds. plants are identified by the shapes of their flowers and their color, whether white, yellow, orange, red, purple, brown, green or blue. plant identification includes the times when the plants are in full bloom and for how long. the fruiting characteristics of plants - - the season when the fruits form, their shape, size, color and whether the fruit is edible or poisonous - - - describe and identify plants. observe and make notes about your plant. take measurements of its leaves, its height and spread, the circ", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5132679229298669, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2ada8ed4-fed6-442b-9ce9-2e40e2a6ca09>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.796476"}
{"text": "environment - search results articles about environment companies around the world are learning to embrace the environment, and the gear industry is no exception. this special section takes a look at how some gear manufacturers are doing their part to conserve resources, preserve and protect the environment, and give back to the land. what we \u2019 ve found is that adopting environmental measures is far more than just good corporate citizenship. for many gear industry companies, good environmental practices also turn out to be good for the bottom line. environmentally friendly cutting fluids aren ' t just good for the environment. they can also be good for performance. not long ago, many manufacturing managers thought sensitivity to environmental protection standards meant additional expenses, decreased productivity, and a plethora of headaches and hassles. okay, so you want to make some high quality gears for your customers, and you want to make a profit for your company, but you don ' t want to make a mess of the environment. what can you do? heat treatment industry reinforces environmental / energy conservation. design problem : develop a gear drive for a pedal - powered water craft that will be easy to manufacture, use and maintain ; that will be lightweight enough for the boat to be portable ; and that will eliminate the environmental risk of lubricants leaking into the water. one of the hot items on the public agenda these days is \" the environment. \" suddenly everyone wants to save the whales and the rain forest. politicians, rock stars, and big business have all discovered that you can ' t get anything but good press for saying that you ' re in favor of trees and marine mammals. for environmental and economic reasons, the use of coolant in machining processes is increasingly being questioned. rising coolant prices and disposal costs, as well as strains on workers and the environment, have fueled the debate. the use of coolant has given rise to a highly technical system for handling coolant in the machine ( cooling, filtering ) and protecting the environment ( filter, oil - mist collector ). in this area the latest cutting materials - used with or without coolant - have great potential for making the metal - removal process more economical. the natural progression to completely dry machining has decisive advantages for hobbing. a main limiting factor in extending the use of hard coatings to machine component application is the lack of knowledge about how these inert coatings perform under lubricated conditions using today ' s lubricants. nondestructive examination ( nde ) of ferrous and nonferrous materials has long proved", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5093709543175714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d133a241-86e3-4721-bbe0-4771cbc01347>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.816753"}
{"text": "component application is the lack of knowledge about how these inert coatings perform under lubricated conditions using today ' s lubricants. nondestructive examination ( nde ) of ferrous and nonferrous materials has long proved an effective maintenance and anomaly characterization tool for many industries. recent research has expanded its applicability to include the inspection of large, open gear drives. difficulties inherent in other nde methods make them time - consuming and labor - intensive. they also present the user with the environmental problem of the disposal of used oil. the eddy current method addresses these problems. the trend toward moving coordinate measuring machines to the shop floor to become an integral part of the manufacturing operations brings real time process control within the reach of many companies. putting measuring machines on the shop floor, however, subjects them to harsh environmental conditions. like any measuring system, cmms are sensitive to any ambient condition that deviates from the \" perfect \" conditions of the metrology lab. the wind turbine industry has been plagued with gearbox failures, which cause repair costs, legal expenses, lost energy production and environmental pollution. it used to be that a shop with hustle and plenty of big, fast machines could thrive using a manual system. but no more. today ' s economic environment requires more and more in the way of topnotch service and quick turnaround - which frequently means a completely integrated shop floor control system. electroless nickel ( en ) plating, a process dating back to the 1940s, is one of the predominant metal finishing methods today. it is especially suitable for the gear industry, whose end uses span innumerable other industries, providing an endless assortment of requirements, environments, materials and specifications. en plating has a broad array of functional features, which include : several trends in mechanical engineering are leading to greater surface stress on components and thus to unacceptable wear. these trends include greater stresses due to increased power densities ; the need to maintain high precision of components throughout their service life ; and the environmental imperative to reduce use of lubricants and additives. top secret code name : ginger mission : design, prototype and test a transmission for a new device. the transmission must be compact and efficient. it should have almost no backlash, and it must be able to operate in both forward and reverse. most importantly, the transmission must be quiet. in fact, it shouldn ' t sound like a transmission at all. it should blend in with the environment and sound like music or the wind. this mission, should you choose to accept", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5839517578868012, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d133a241-86e3-4721-bbe0-4771cbc01347>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.818026"}
{"text": "forward and reverse. most importantly, the transmission must be quiet. in fact, it shouldn ' t sound like a transmission at all. it should blend in with the environment and sound like music or the wind. this mission, should you choose to accept it, is top secret. not even your employees can know what you ' re working on... why traditional lean manufacturing approaches need to be adapted for job shop environments. gearbox performance, reliability, total cost of ownership ( energy cost ), overall impact on the environment, and anticipation of additional future regulations are top - of - mind issues in the industry. optimization of the bearing set can significantly improve gearbox performance. this paper reviews the necessity for detailed specification, design and manufacture to achieve required performance in service. the precise definition of duty rating and a thorough understanding of the environmental conditions, whether it is in a marine or industrial application, is required to predict reliable performance of a gearbox through its service life. a case study relating to complex marine gears and other general practice is presented to review the techniques used by allen gears to design and develop a gearbox that integrates with the requirements of the whole machinery installation. allen gears has considerable experience in the design of a variety of industrial and marine gears ( ref. 1, 2 ). for a long time, relatively high noise levels have been generally accepted for industrial gear units in the 10 - 100 kw power range. however, due to changing environmental awareness - both in and around industrial sites - customers expectations have moved drastically towards low noise as a key differentiating factor. the cutting tool industry has undergone some serious changes in the last couple of years in both technology and the way the industry does business. the emerging technology today, as well as for the foreseeable future, is dry cutting, especially in high volume production settings. wet cutting continues to be as popular as ever with lubrication advances making it more economical and environmentally friendly. there has also developed a process called \" near dry cutting. \" this process offers many of the benefits of fluids while eliminating many of hte associated problems. three years ago, coated gears seemed to be the perfect solution for the micro marine corporation. the early designs for the gear drive of their microcat human - powered boat used a combination of thin - film dry gear coatings with lubrication and wear - resistance properties. these coatings simplified their design, provided corrosion resistance, made the gear drive environmentally safe and eliminated the need for gear drive lubrication and maintenance. it was a success story in the making. new innovations in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.536163697827615, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d133a241-86e3-4721-bbe0-4771cbc01347>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.819204"}
{"text": "caused by churning, windage and mesh friction is important if plant operating costs and environmental impact are to be minimized. this paper concentrates on mesh friction losses and associated scuffing risk. it describes the preliminary results from using a validated, 3 - d finite element analysis ( fea ) and tooth contact analysis ( tca ) program to optimize cylindrical gears for low friction losses without compromising transmission error ( te ), noise and power density. some case studies and generic procedures for minimizing losses are presented. future development and further validation work is discussed. in today \u2019 s manufacturing environment, shorter and more efficient product development has become the norm. it is therefore important to consider every detail of the development process, with a particular emphasis on design. for green machining of gears, the most productive and important process is hobbing. in order to analyze process design for this paper, a manufacturing simulation was developed capable of calculating chip geometries and process forces based on different models. as an important tool for manufacturing technology engineers, an economic feasibility analysis is implemented as well. the aim of this paper is to show how an efficient process design \u2014 as well as an efficient process \u2014 can be designed. there are great advantages in dry hobbing, not only for friendliness toward the environment, but also for increasing productivity and for decreasing manufacturing cost. dry hobbing, however, often causes failures in hob cutting edges or problems with the surface quality of gear tooth flanks. these difficulties are not present when hobbing with cutting oil. pinching and crushing of generated chips between the hob cutting edge and the work gear tooth flank is considered a major cause of those problems. recent history has taught us that global competition has become tougher and is a major concern of american gear manufacturers from abroad have invaded american markets with products designed in an environment where management of technology has been practiced effectively. if american companies intend to compete in the changing world market, they must acquire the technologies that will allow them to do so. this article deals with certain item to be taken into consideration for gear grinding, common problems that arise in gear grinding and their solutions. the discussion will be limited to jobbing or low - batch production environments, where experimental setup and testing is not possible for economic and other reasons. in this issue of gear technology, we are focusing on using computers to their greatest advantage in gear design and manufacturing. in a sense, that ' s old news. it ' s a cliche to suggest that computers make our work life easier and more productive", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5353859463157826, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d133a241-86e3-4721-bbe0-4771cbc01347>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.822019"}
{"text": "this issue of gear technology, we are focusing on using computers to their greatest advantage in gear design and manufacturing. in a sense, that ' s old news. it ' s a cliche to suggest that computers make our work life easier and more productive. no company that wishes to remain competitive in today ' s global manufacturing environment can afford to be without computers in all their manifestations. we need them in the office ; we need them next to our desks in place of drafting boards ; we need them on the shop floor. this article discusses briefly some common manufacturing problems relating to coarse pitch gears and their suggested solutions. most of the discussion will be limited to a low - quality production environment using universal machine tools. 8 gear technology advertisers will have booths at imts 92, the largest trade show in the western hemisphere. the show opens in chicago on sept. 9 and runs through the 17th. more than 800 companies from around the world will cover some 931, 000 sq. ft. of exhibit space to show the latest manufacturing technology - everything from forming and fabrication products to environmental and plant safety equipment. dictatorships can be stifling. in an autocratic organization, employees seldom participate in decisions that affect them. by establishing a collaborative environment, you allow everyone to play a role in making your organization a success. this article discusses an application driven approach to the computer - aided sizing of spur gear teeth. the methodology is bases on the index of tooth loading and environment of application of the gear. it employs handbook knowledge and empirical information to facilitate the design process for a novice. results show that the approach is in agreement with the textbook data. however, this technique requires less expert knowledge to arrive at the conclusion. the methodology has been successfully implemented as a gear tooth sizing module of a parallel axis gear drive expert system. an investigation of transmission errors and bearing contact of spur, helical, and spiral bevel gears was performed. modified tooth surfaces for these gears have been proposed in order to absorb linear transmission errors caused by gear misalignment and to localize the bearing contact. numerical examples for spur, helical, and spiral bevel gears are presented to illustrate the behavior of the modified gear surfaces with respect to misalignment and errors of assembly. the numerical results indicate that the modified surfaces will perform with a low level of transmission error in non - ideal operating environments. the two reports referred to in this article, \" the people wise organization \" and \" house divided : views on change from top management - and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5194225800123777, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d133a241-86e3-4721-bbe0-4771cbc01347>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.822998"}
{"text": "view all by first five books explore the books that started a collection. explore the guggenheim \u2019 s 20th - century collection in this exhibition featuring 40 paintings, sculptures, and works on paper. preview the upcoming exhibition schedule. published in 2005 14 pages, fully illustrated providing an introduction to the exhibition catalogue russia!, james billington discusses the development and culture of russia, looking particularly at its geography, its religion, and its perplexing relationship with western europe. billington provides a background on russian icons, the orthodox church, the nation ' s architecture, the lineage of tsars, and the soviet era. between the birth of a popular national culture in the tsarist nineteenth century and its destruction in the soviet twentieth century, russia produced one of the world ' s most innovative explosions of artistic modernism. this extraordinarily creative period between the late 1890s and the outbreak of world war i is sometimes called the silver age, but is also more accurately described as the russian renaissance. like the earlier renaissance in the west, this belated \" rebirth \" in russia began with the rediscovery of a forgotten ancient culture. it was radically different from either the populist realism that came before or the socialist realism that came later. music looked back to real or imagined pre - christian antiquity for its leap into the pioneering, discordant modernism of igor stravinsky ' s rite of spring ( 1912 ) and sergei prokofiev ' s scythian suite ( 1914 \u2013 15 ). painters were dazzled into pure abstraction by the restoration ( newly possible ) of icons that now revealed their pure lines and colors, long obscured from view by a dark overlay from candle smoke.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5043434362984087, "token_count": 337, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38513ace-3156-433a-8ad6-b156ef6232d9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.843957"}
{"text": "storage disk with phase - change memory posted by hilbert hagedoorn on : 06 / 17 / 2011 09 : 30 am | 0 comment ( s ) ] researchers at the university of california in san diego have developed a prototype disk drive based on phase - change memory. full details over here. a new type of data storage technology, called phase - change memory, has proven capable of writing some types of data faster than conventional flash based storage. the tests used a hard drive based on prototype phase - change memory chips. disks based on solid - state, flash memory chips are increasingly used in computers and servers because they perform faster than conventional magnetic hard drives. the performance of the experimental phase - change disk drive, created by researchers at university of california san diego, suggests that it won ' t be long before that technology is able to give computing devices another speed boost. \" phase - change chips are not quite ready for prime time, but if the technology continues to develop, this is what [ solid state drives ] will look like in the next few years, \" says steve swanson, who built the prototype, known as onyx, with colleagues. it had a data capacity of eight gigabytes and went head - to - head with what swanson calls a \" high - end \" 80 gb flash drive made for use in servers. when it came to writing small chunks of data on the order of kilobytes in size, onyx was between 70 percent and 120 percent faster than the commercial drive. at the same time, the prototype placed significantly less computational load on the processor of the computer using it. it was also much faster at reading data than the flash drive when accessing blocks of data of any size. the kind of large volume, small read and write patterns that onyx excelled at are a hallmark of the type of calculations involved in analyzing social networks like those of twitter, says swanson. however, onyx was much slower at writing larger chunks of data than its commercially established competitor. ocz announces revodrive hybrid pci express ( pcie ) storage solution - 08 / 31 / 2011 04 : 15 pm well, it ' s official. we already reported about this product back at computex and hope to receive the first samples in two maybe three weeks. ocz technology announced the release of the revodrive hybri... ebay goes ssd and cuts storage power consumption by 78 percent - 08 / 04 / 2011 09 : 47 am ebay switched 100tb of hdd - based", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5318756627367537, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ba1d1282-b3ec-4f60-bd40-3d3731159d66>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.851595"}
{"text": "tai chi \u2013 qi gong the chinese characters for tai chi chuan can be translated as the \u2018 supreme ultimate force \u2019. the notion of \u2018 supreme ultimate \u2019 is often associated with the chinese concept of yin - yang, the notion that one can see a dynamic duality ( male / female, active / passive, dark / light, forceful / yielding, etc. ) in all things. \u2018 force \u2019 ( or, more literally, \u2018 fist \u2019 ) can be thought of here as the means or way of achieving this ying - yang, or \u2018 supreme - ultimate \u2019 discipline. tai chi, as it is practiced in the west today, can perhaps best be thought of as a moving form of yoga and meditation combined. there are a number of so - called forms ( sometimes also called \u2018 sets \u2019 ) which consist of a sequence of movements. many of these movements are originally derived from the martial arts ( and perhaps even more ancestrally than that, from the natural movements of animals and birds ) although the way they are performed in tai chi is slowly, softly and gracefully with smooth and even transitions between them. for many practicioners the focus in doing them is not, first and foremost, martial, but as a meditative exercise for the body. for others the combat aspects of tai chi are of considerable interest. in chinese philosophy and medicine there exists the concept of \u2018 chi \u2019, a vital force that animates the body. one of the avowed aims of tai chi is to foster the circulation of this \u2018 chi \u2019 within the body, the belief being that by doing so the health and vitality of the person are enhanced. this \u2018 chi \u2019 circulates in patterns that are close related to the nervous and vascular system and thus the notion is closely connected with that of the practice of acupuncture and other oriental healing arts. another aim of tai chi is to foster a calm and tranquil mind, focused on the precise execution of these exercises. learning to do them correctly provides a practical avenue for learning about such things as balance, alignment, fine - scale motor control, rhythm of movement, the genesis of movement from the body \u2019 s vital center, and so on. thus the practice of tai chi can in some measure contribute to being able to better stand, walk, move, run, etc. in other spheres of life as well. many practitioners notice benefits in terms of correcting poor postural, alignment or movement patterns which can contribute to tension or injury. furthermore the meditative nature of the exercises is calming and relaxing in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5730288354426686, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c204202e-4913-462e-b31f-42a52421bd40>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.860955"}
{"text": "run, etc. in other spheres of life as well. many practitioners notice benefits in terms of correcting poor postural, alignment or movement patterns which can contribute to tension or injury. furthermore the meditative nature of the exercises is calming and relaxing in and of itself. the practical exercises of tai chi are also situated in a wider philosophical context of taoism. this is a reflective, mystical chinese tradition first associated with the scholar and mystic lao tsu, an older contemporary of confucius. he wrote and taught in the province of honan in the 6th century b. c. and authored the seminal work of taoism, the tao te ching. as a philosophy, taoism has many elements but fundamentally it espouses a calm, reflective and mystic view of the world steeped in the beauty and tranquillity of nature. for more information link the effectiveness of qigong has been proven in china by its bene\ufb01cial impact on the health of millions of people over thousands of years. developing the life force, or chi, is the focus of taoism, china \u2019 s original religion / philosophy. the taoists are the same people who brought acupuncture, chinese herbal medicine, bone setting, and the yin / yang concept to the world. for most people, the \ufb01rst and foremost bene\ufb01t of qigong lies in the relief or prevention of chronic health problems. the range of maladies that have been helped by qigong in china include cancer, internal organ ailments, poor circulation, nerve pain, back and joint problems and general physical disease. many physical problems are at least partially due to, or aggravated by, mental or emotional stress, so the importance of the inner tranquility developed through chi gung cannot be overestimated. the practice of qigong helps manage the stress, anger, depression, morbid thoughts, and general confusion that prey on your mind when your chi is not regulated and balanced. strengthening and balancing the energy of your mind enhances your ability to detect subtle nuances and to perceive the world and its patterns at ever - increasing levels of complexity. qigong is also useful on the spiritual level. the ultimate aim of all inner taoist practices is the alchemical transformation of the body, mind, and spirit, leading to union with the tao. feeling the energy of your body makes it possible for you to understand the energy of your thoughts and emotions, and this leads to comprehending the energy of the spirit. from here it is possible to fully understand the energy of meditation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5076109536725699, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c204202e-4913-462e-b31f-42a52421bd40>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.862309"}
{"text": "union with the tao. feeling the energy of your body makes it possible for you to understand the energy of your thoughts and emotions, and this leads to comprehending the energy of the spirit. from here it is possible to fully understand the energy of meditation or emptiness, and through emptiness it is possible to become one with the tao. according to taoism, every human being contains \u201c the three treasures \u201d \u2014 jing ( sperm / ovary energy, or the essence of the physical body ), chi ( energy, including the thoughts and emotions ), and shen ( spirit or spiritual power ). wu ( emptiness ) gives birth to and integrates the three treasures. the taoists use the all - pervasive life energy as the basis of spiritual investigation. the ultimate goal, becoming one with the tao, has been called many things, such as \u201c enlightenment, \u201d \u201c meeting with the father in heaven, \u201d \u201c reaching nirvana, \u201d and \u201c ultimate understanding. \u201d taoists feel that it is best for one to begin with the energy of the body, then progress through emotions and thoughts to spiritual power, before going for the ultimate. what is the difference between tai chi and qigong? each answer gives a progressively more complete answer. all are only partial truths, but at least they are the most accurate answers that can be given without going into excessive detail. the accurate part of the statement is this : the invisible chi or internal power aspects included within the tai chi part of tai chi chuan derive directly from one branch of the 3, 000 - year - old taoist qigong tradition, whereas taoist qigong does not come from tai chi. however, the statement is misleading because it omits buddhist or confucian qigong, which have little in common with tai chi \u2019 s roots in taoist qigong or taoism. this answer also involves a common error in logic : since to the western ear it sounds as if the word energy is contained in both words, they must mean the same thing. right? wrong! the qi or chi of qigong means energy, the chi of tai chi does not. in tai chi the chi means \u2018 ultimate \u2019. to add to the confusion, the chi in tai chi and qigong are almost universally pronounced by westerners as \u201c chee, \u201d which is accurate for qigong and inaccurate for tai chi ( \u201c gee \u201d ) chuan. those who commonly both see and mispronounce tai chi as chee also tend to assume both mean the same thing, which they do not.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.553505645692473, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c204202e-4913-462e-b31f-42a52421bd40>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.866626"}
{"text": "324 ( 8 ) : 558 - 9. - farrar g et al. defective gallium - transferrin binding in alzheimer disease and down syndrome : possible mechanism for accumulation of aluminum in brain. the lancet 1990 ; 335 : 747 - 50. - rosenberg ih, miller jw. nutritional factors in physical and cognitive functions of elderly people. american journal of clinical nutrition 1992 ; 55 : 1237s - 43s. - jenner fa. vitamins in schizophrenia. the lancet 1973, october 6 : 787 - 88. - foster hd. the geography of schizophrenia : possible links with selenium and calcium deficiencies, inadequate exposure to sunlight and industrialization. journal of orthomolecular medicine 1988 ; 3 ( 3 ) : 135 - 40. - nielsen fh. nutritional requirements for boron, silicon, vanadium, nickel, and arsenic : currently knowledge and speculation. federation of american societies for experimental biology 1991 ; 5 : 2661 - 2667. - mcbride j. the making of an essential element? agricultural research 1989, april : 12 - 13. - czeizel ae, dudas i. prevention of the first occurrence of neural - tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. the new england journal of medicine 1992 ; 327 ( 26 ) : 1832 - 35. - mrc vitamin study research group. prevention of neural tube defects : results of the medical research council vitamin study 1991 ; 338 ( 8760 ) : 131 - 37. - cimons m. us advises folic acid use to reduce birth defects. los angeles times 1992, september 15 : a1 & a17.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5269195058829159, "token_count": 332, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f03160cc-e03e-4433-9955-24ed4a39359e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.901828"}
{"text": "to what some historians might consider outlandish neologisms. interest was developed in group dynamics, in the behavior of small groups, in mass psychology, in competition and cooperation, and in other forms of human behavior with which the historian must on occasion be concerned. the use of scientific analogies likewise continued. certain patterns of thought developed by the natural scientists had attracted or repelled social scientists and humanists since the days of isaac newton and john locke. within the memories of many of us, historians had been looking for law, for dynamic interpretation. edward p. cheyney developed a concept of law in history. henry adams professed to see in the physicists ' second law of thermodynamics the doom of man ' s intellect. others pondered over concepts of relativity, uncertainty, and the immaterial nature of matter. historians in some instances were no longer so confident that they could discover just how eigentlich things might have gewesen. during this period of fragmentation, however, the tradition of synthesis was by no means forgotten. there was a deliberate interest in continuing it and, incidentally, in arresting the chaotic influence of specialization and fragmentation upon the historian ' s capacity to generalize. various efforts were made in the early years of the twentieth century to restore the desire and the power to scan wider horizons. one of these was the use of a civilization concept such as employed in different ways by arnold toynbee, charles and mary beard, and later by william mcneill. another very significant instrument for this purpose was the culture concept borrowed not from scholars in belles - lettres, but adopted in broader terms from social anthropologists. as i have found this cultural concept one of the most useful aids available to historians in developing the synthesis, which is one of their main responsibilities, i propose to dwell upon some of its implications for members of this association. the term \" culture \" used in this sense is all - inclusive, embracing as it does all the behavior patterns employed by any given society. it also supplies the concept of a unity greater than even the sum of its definable parts. into such a synthesis can be fitted any specialized, any personal, or any national experience. each of us can relate his interest to any such concept of image, national character, or gestalt that appeals to the individual ' s sense of the all - embracing. viewing any specific problems in the light of such over - all interpretation supplies whatever each of us may do with a maximum of significance and interpretive meaning. there", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6486533164528288, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.954615"}
{"text": ", or gestalt that appeals to the individual ' s sense of the all - embracing. viewing any specific problems in the light of such over - all interpretation supplies whatever each of us may do with a maximum of significance and interpretive meaning. there are various types of cultural definitions, but one in particular can be especially useful : namely, i believe, the design most indicative of the nature and the identity of any society. this is its plan of operation, the force or influence that organizes it and keeps within it a semblance of recognizable structure and order. in highly complicated societies this plan takes the form of government, the customs of rule, of the exercise of authority, of the structure of power. a culture therefore may be known as a democracy, an empire, a totalitarian state. any such designation is not merely derived from constitutional institutions, but it embraces attitudes, ideas of community identification, and social as well as political relationships. the distinguishing characteristic of the society known as the united states of america is the fact that it is a democratic culture dedicated to a self - government in which all are technically involved and in which this interest is demonstrably central to the self - identification of the people. it can be used as the hallmark of the culture. this use is appropriate likewise because a basic, if not the basic, historical problem in this culture is how a society expanding so quickly in so large an area became and has remained self - governing. the study of this problem has involved me and many others in working out the process of the evolution and the operation of this culture and has also concentrated much interest on a particular phase of it, namely the stresses and strains that eventually led to the destructive social war of 1861 - 1865, which nearly destroyed it. this culture concept, which has dominated and determined the history of the united states, is broader and older than the boundaries of the united states would imply. it has involved consideration of the european origin of folkways and institutions. the proper definition of this broader field of analysis is the anglo - american culture, including much that evolved in the british isles and was transported to america. there it was transplanted and eventually matured in a new society. the employment of this very broad culture concept is extremely useful not only in overcoming the disadvantages of fragmentation but in quickening the capacity for synthesis. likewise, it has sharpened our understanding of historical process by giving greater opportunity for more sophisticated conceptualization of certain of our historical responsibilities. setting significant chronological limits to the study of the evolution of the anglo - american", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6217263871193512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.955714"}
{"text": "but in quickening the capacity for synthesis. likewise, it has sharpened our understanding of historical process by giving greater opportunity for more sophisticated conceptualization of certain of our historical responsibilities. setting significant chronological limits to the study of the evolution of the anglo - american cultural patterns shows how old many of these patterns actually are. customs of local self - government and representative lawgiving and lawmaking processes involving the beginning of election procedures go back into the \" good customs of the realm \" of england, some of which originated among the british tribes and antedate history. folkways deriving from the various invasions of britain and from phases of the religious transformation of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries stimulated popular interest in participation in government and produced the beginnings of something like political parties. in other words, the basic patterns of community organization and self - consciousness, together with an operating power structure of self - government, were created and developed in england. during the period of the folk migration across the atlantic ocean that resulted in the establishment of the american colonies, these cultural patterns were transported across the sea. consequently, much of the time there was little invention involved : the migrants took what they knew, imported it when they could, and used it with a minimum of adjustment. this process of adaptation therefore emphasized the sense of age that characterized the customs of even those in a new world. the american phase of the anglo - american cultural evolution was separated by both time and space from the parent culture in a fashion difficult to understand in this age of television and jet propulsion. this distance and the difficulty of communication meant that the same qualities of intrepidity and enterprise that brought colonists across the sea would stimulate their long - accustomed habits of self - government to the point where they would employ another cultural pattern long in use. not only had the british developed a habit of community self - rule and a search for consensus, but there was also a pattern of violent change in government. regicide and revolution in some form had occurred in england about once a century from the days of the norman conquest, and in the seventeenth century two full - fledged revolutions, the puritan and the glorious revolution, had occurred, the latter with an interesting american phase that indicated a growing jealousy of american self - governing autonomy and promised that perhaps a light weight would be assigned to european authority. the possibly inevitable rupture came at the end of the eighteenth century when, in the interesting years of the age of reason, american colonial leaders, impatient at certain limits imposed on their cherished autonomy, found themselves involved in violence just about a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5258561705102105, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.956933"}
{"text": ". the possibly inevitable rupture came at the end of the eighteenth century when, in the interesting years of the age of reason, american colonial leaders, impatient at certain limits imposed on their cherished autonomy, found themselves involved in violence just about a century after the glorious revolution of 1688. their experience with the responsibilities and confusions of complete autonomy subsequent to 1783 led the erstwhile colonies to seek a new surrogate in place of the crown and empire. they constructed a curiously wrought instrument that they invented probably at the only time and place where such a feat, up to this point, could have been contrived. they created a federal system in which the power structure was divided and modified by a series of checks and balances described in an unprecedented document, the constitution of the united states. despite their care, however, its authors did not foresee the problems involved in the choice and conduct of those exercising power, particularly executive power. the new federal republic was to have its capacity for order and definition of identity complicated by its ecology. its area was so great, its population so scattered, and its wealth and variety so fabulous that the question began to concern the thoughtful few : could such a people so situated practice the art of self - government? was the surrogate that was substituted for the crown adequate? the size of the republic and the variety of the ecological characteristics soon demonstrated that the so - called political federalism described in the constitution was much more intricate than a mere political federalism. the american society was a cultural federalism, not so much a federation of political units fused into a republic as a federation of varying groups identified by attitudes, customs, and community associations and combined in a society. this variety of elements produced differences of views that in turn could be used as points of dispute and debate in the periodic elections required to determine the exercise of power decreed by the constitutions, federal and state. as the decades of the nineteenth century wore on, it became apparent that this product of the age of reason was not too successful in dealing with all the confusions of this rapidly growing state, and the question began to arise as to whether the confusion was not reaching a point at which it would no longer be possible for even the capacity of this self - governing society to control it and to maintain orderly self - government. had conditions tending to disorder reached a degree at which it was no longer possible for men to control them? in 1861 - 1865 the outbreak of the social war seemed to indicate that such was the case - - just about one century after", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5145495510867416, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.958011"}
{"text": "self - government. had conditions tending to disorder reached a degree at which it was no longer possible for men to control them? in 1861 - 1865 the outbreak of the social war seemed to indicate that such was the case - - just about one century after the last appreciable outbreak of violence, the american revolution. at the moment we happen to know much about this last episode because we have just passed through a four - year period of centennial commemoration in which many of the historical guild actively participated. and from this four - year period we have learned much about the nature of this anglo - american culture pattern, particularly its now predominantly american phase. we have learned, or we should have learned, a great deal about the antecedents of violence and the phenomena that accompanied its outbreak. perhaps in 1966 it may be well to make reference to some of these attendant circumstances. in the first place it is appropriate to point out what may not appear to be a truism to all of us : that we are too prone to think backward in history and to shape conclusions by what we find in the past. to use the example of 1861 - 1865, when the bitter war between the union and the confederacy was fought, it was easy to assume that this conflict between two well - defined forces must have been inevitable and have been inexorably building up during a long range of time variously defined. but the closest kind of study of the outbreak of the conflict and the antecedent years presents evidence that the dominant situation was confusion. there was not one south but several, and in the end the south presented by no means a united front in the confederacy. and it can hardly be said that there was any north until sumter. in fact, so great was the confusion that there were not just two alternatives, war or peace, but several. it is convenient to characterize this situation as the operation of a third force, for wherever there seems to be a convergence of two forces there are probably one or more others at work that may at any time intervene and produce a different combination. in the past this third force had on occasion been some form of compromise, and so usual had been this intervention that many in 1860 felt sure it would operate again. the confusion was too great, however, and until the last minute a variety of alternatives might have taken over. in the end i feel that a series of accidents rather than destiny, or great forces, or any deus ex machina decided the issue. eventually, after bitter and expensive conflict, the republic right", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5387285826887345, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.959015"}
{"text": "minute a variety of alternatives might have taken over. in the end i feel that a series of accidents rather than destiny, or great forces, or any deus ex machina decided the issue. eventually, after bitter and expensive conflict, the republic righted itself - - but that was a century ago. this description of the concept of american self - governing culture, which we have used in our search to overcome fragmentation and to re - establish synthesis, and of the observable tendency to periodic resorts to violence to change our patterns of self - government, not only indicates an interesting paradox, but also gives us food for thought as we ponder certain problems which today ' s necessities call upon us to face and which we may illustrate by asking ourselves certain questions in this year of 1966. since that holiday season when channing asked his questions, nearly a half century ago, many more things have changed than the fashions of history writing about which we have just been thinking. many new conditions of life have appeared and have added much to the complexity of our task and thus to our responsibility. now wars seem never to end, and where there is no war there may be racial tension, for a world - wide reorientation of peoples is in process. the energy of the atom has been released ; population is exploding. time and space seem no longer to be limiting concepts ; man not only stands on the verge of outer space, but on occasions walks in its vastness. a mechanism is replacing the human brain in some forms of computation. we are told that the genetic code has been broken and that the universe has lost its parity and is lopsided. we are reminded that upon occasion when some basic irregularity, operating contrary to the accepted laws of the universe, has been discovered, such observation can be the prelude to significant new knowledge. a drift in the perihelion of the orbit of the planet mercury was eventually accounted for when the general theory of relativity was formulated. with all these aberrations and incongruities may we not be on the eve of certain discoveries in human knowledge? at any rate this wide variety of new circumstances carries us far away from the days of white and channing, and certainly into a period of new responsibility. in the light of this possible new experience we are justified in asking questions, even as channing asked them - - though they will be of a different nature. the main question that we raise is this : if we are on the verge or in the midst of certain basic changes, not only", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6274991647582896, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.960082"}
{"text": "we are justified in asking questions, even as channing asked them - - though they will be of a different nature. the main question that we raise is this : if we are on the verge or in the midst of certain basic changes, not only within our culture but within the cultural structure of the world, what should be the centers of our scholarly interests? further, if we grant that there are few questions more significant than whether self - government can be maintained in the world in general and in the united states in particular, we have a closely correlated series of queries. among today ' s circumstances most vigorously suggesting questions of this character are a number connected with the power situation in our self - governing culture. the desire for power has intensified in the lives of so many people. rivalries, conflicts, tensions are everywhere and seemingly increasing. despite our pride in our capacity for self - government, we may at times wonder whether we are keeping up. there are signs that we have a confidence in our political capacity that may have been more adequate in other times, and that we may be depending upon a changing power and status. for our security ' s sake do we know enough about the history of this american self - governing culture of ours, of the nature and the location of the power that is operated within it? many calls are made upon us for the use of our power from within and without our society. and there is no certainty as to our answers to these calls. much in fact is at stake. for if we exert too little power, we may become anarchic ; if we contrive too much, we could become totalitarian. in either case we would be abandoning our basic culture pattern. do we know enough about the evolution of our power of self - government? can political institutions defined in the age of reason remain adequate in an age when reason is more in the background? do we know enough about and do we understand the process of power choice and power change as revealed in our history? do we understand our changing techniques of choice and decision making, of our attitudes toward the responsibilities of self - government, of the dynamics of our political emotions? do we have adequate information about the types of people who seek political power and how they achieve it? do we realize sufficiently the dangers involved in operating self - government in times of increasing change? do we understand the changes and the rhythms in the exercise of the powers of self - government? are we aware of the implications of the rhythm of our power distribution, caused by our custom of inducing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5081316984196047, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.961164"}
{"text": "in operating self - government in times of increasing change? do we understand the changes and the rhythms in the exercise of the powers of self - government? are we aware of the implications of the rhythm of our power distribution, caused by our custom of inducing an artificial crisis every four years by putting the executive and legislative power up for possible change? do we realize that every so often confusion can increase to the point where it threatens men ' s understanding of and capacity to handle it, as in 1861 - 1865? what within the historian ' s range of recognition of events and behavior trends can he identify and interpret for society ' s benefit, because of his capacity to think in time? our experience in 1861 - 1865 was that in those times there were so many signs pointing in so many directions that the observers and the analysts of that day were quite beyond their depth. do we not have a greater capacity for observation and analysis today, and are we using it? in times such as these when there are signs of shifts in the power structure that could prove drastic, is it not essential to know the nature of the relationship between prevailing custom and the power structure? it does little good to any society to think that it is behaving as though it were independent and self - governing and then to wake up to find it is not. finally and most important, as political change is generally determined by cultural change, have we command of sufficient skill in directing human mechanisms to make certain that we calculate and operate an efficient adjustment of political to social change so that self - government can proceed with safety? when channing asked his questions in 1920 they were phrased in terms of achieving and maintaining human welfare and happiness. the questions we ask today are rather expressed in terms concerned about continuing efficient self - government and ensuring its survival. having asked these questions, how well equipped are we to answer them? to do so, we need more than a skill at simple narrative. these complex times demand sophisticated analyses that will place new obligations upon us to develop our intellectual potential. do we have it at our command? we have a much more formidable foundation of fact at our disposal upon which to erect a structure of interpretation and synthesis. so many more historical facts are now available. we know about many more individuals and types of individuals. much more information has been collected by statistical techniques. the behavioral sciences have mobilized much knowledge about human behavior. advances in the natural sciences are again tempting the historian into the alluring realms of geisteswissenschaft as he dreams of discovering genetic codes shaping the destiny of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5335001808409109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.962238"}
{"text": "been collected by statistical techniques. the behavioral sciences have mobilized much knowledge about human behavior. advances in the natural sciences are again tempting the historian into the alluring realms of geisteswissenschaft as he dreams of discovering genetic codes shaping the destiny of societies and wonders about the effects of living in a universe that has lost its parity, in an age sometimes called absurd. not only have we many more facts at our command, real or fancied, but there is new equipment in the realm of gadgets. we are entering the years of the computer. now million - dollar machines are housed in computer centers and tended by programmers. it is too soon to be very dogmatic about how useful this type of automation may be, but historians are so far behind in their reporting and analysis that we must investigate to the best of our ability its potential as an instrument of historical retrieval and conceptual discovery. we are so frustrated for want of a break - through that no device should go untried. meanwhile, we must not forget that we can experiment with certain fresh concepts, new patterns of thought. individual scholars should be concerned with much greater spans of time. evolution is an extremely slow process. its slow - moving changes involve much more of adaptation than innovation. there are much less orderly process and much more haphazard confusion in human behavior. there is a greater variety of alternative action possible in even the simplest program set by determining forces. in fact, there are much less determinism and a higher frequency of accident in the processes of change. historians, fortunately, not only have these data, these instruments, and these concepts, but a growing number of scholars are using them. within the last few years there has been a veritable renaissance in the study of this principal element in the american self - governing culture, namely the power structure and its fluctuation. numerous studies encouraged by the social science research council and its committees, supported by foundation grants, are being carried out at the harvard center for the study of the history of liberty in america, at the university of michigan consortium, at california, at illinois, at rutgers, and at the university of pennsylvania, and elsewhere. these projects are much more comprehensive in type than the more narrowly defined political and constitutional history studies current at the beginning of the century. much attention is paid to the manifold influences and subtle character of the determinants of this basic behavior. research of this type is contributing much to our ability to answer the questions we are raising in 1966. while we enjoy advantages such as these", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5405806592607212, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.963294"}
{"text": "century. much attention is paid to the manifold influences and subtle character of the determinants of this basic behavior. research of this type is contributing much to our ability to answer the questions we are raising in 1966. while we enjoy advantages such as these to aid us in answering the questions we are now raising, we should, nevertheless, be aware that we are not doing all that we should to prepare the next generation to use such advantage in the quest. we may advisedly give more thought to the educational policies and programs of our graduate schools, particularly at a time when so many new such schools seem to be springing into being. more than a century ago we took over the ph. d. program from the german university system almost without thought and with little adaptation, and we have too long avoided its reconsideration. our current ph. d. training often falls between two stools. it might be a degree in course, such as a law school degree, or it might be an adventure in freedom, wherein, after an experience of discovery, the student presents his results for evaluation and judgment. the program that we usually follow, however, can well be a tertium quid. herein a certain number of requirements are set, exercises prescribed, and examinations administered. undue emphasis is placed on the learning process - - learning under observation, and surveillance if you will. there is too little opportunity to fashion concepts of the history of human behavior in the form of problems that must be formulated, analyzed, and understood. in these days of increasing enrollments in graduate schools, numbers seem to enforce a formalized program that can be administered almost by tabulation without very much individual attention. to the gifted this often means a degree that provides less than it should ; to a considerable number it may mean a degree more prestigious than they deserve. graduate faculties may well ask themselves if there should not be two degrees so that in one of them there may be real opportunity to develop more elements of sophisticated analysis, such as are suggested by these questions, while the other should concentrate upon methodology and practice both in teaching and research. also i think graduate faculties may well expand their thinking into the realms of postdoctoral facilities in universities. there should be more opportunities available to scholars who have been teaching for a while to come back to the university for a few weeks or for a term or two to study intensively new techniques and new findings and to engage in colloquia on current problems in historiography. here there would be new acquaintances and new ideas, new dialogues", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5230865518146303, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.965199"}
{"text": "his life can be, and i believe should be, one of growing capacity to discover, understand, and communicate satisfying analyses of human behavior, and not, as too often happens, a temptation to abdicate his most meaningful function. the historian should furthermore use his wisdom and his imagination to advance hypotheses, to project himself beyond his tested data and conclusions based thereon, and to establish advanced positions in the world of research, even at the risk of having to admit on occasion that he may be wrong. as in so much of prime significance for human existence, ingenuity, daring, and cultivated strength are major essentials. as we seek the answers to these questions of 1966, we as historians are dependent on no one for our philosophical instruments ; as we think in time we devise our own, and by their use we can experience the past, reconstructed and relived in our own consciousness. we owe it to ourselves, therefore, to use these instruments of our own invention in an original fashion, confident that thereby we can discover truth perhaps obscure to others. if we do this to the extent of which we are capable, we may provide the knowledge indispensable for the successful continuance of our culture. a half century ago channing asked his troubled questions in terms of the possibility of progress ; today we ask them in terms of the possibility of survival. if we are to answer these questions with any degree of success, we must recognize that we have an intellectual capacity of our own, not fully realized, which we can develop. to do so we must declare our philosophical independence and raise the standard of our own intellectual identity. roy f. nichols 1. edward channing, \" an historical retrospect, \" american historical review, xxvi ( jan. 1921 ), 202. [ back to text ] text scanning : jstor text proofing and correction : liz townsend 8 / 1 / 00 text encoding and annotation : robert townsend 1 / 15 / 01 version \u00a9 2001, american historical association", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5085856755463081, "token_count": 408, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:62357511-7f24-4087-a9ea-bf6177180075>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.967137"}
{"text": "johns hopkins medicine office of communications and public affairs media contact : joanna downer april 22, 2004 genome - wide screen reveals new tricks of old genes process shows how mounds of data can be effectively managed johns hopkins scientists have successfully used new techniques to search the yeast genome for genes that help keep copied chromosomes together, protecting the integrity of the organism ' s genetic material during cell division. by combining two genome - wide screens, the researchers were able to narrow down the dozens of genes identified by the first screen to just 17 that made both cut - offs - - a number small enough to be cost - and time - efficient to consider in some detail. their report appears in the april issue of molecular biology of the cell. \" data created from new genome - scanning techniques can be overwhelming. reading all there is to know about 50 genes to figure out what new knowledge may be lurking in the haystack is very difficult, \" says forrest spencer, ph. d., associate professor in hopkins ' mckusick - nathans institute of genetic medicine. \" but by overlapping information from two screens, we were able to figure out what mother nature was trying to tell us that wasn ' t too complicated for us to understand. \" while the researchers had hoped their screens would reveal new genes and their functions, they instead identified genes previously linked to two other aspects of shepherding genetic material during cell division. fifteen of the highlighted genes were already known to help ensure the accuracy of copied dna and two help move chromosomes to opposite ends of the dividing cell. but the researchers ' results give these \" old \" genes new jobs, associating them with cohesion, the little - understood process of keeping a chromosome and its copy together until the cell is ready to split in two. if the \" sister \" chromosomes aren ' t kept together, both copies could end up on one side of the dividing cell. another problem is that the copies could undergo extra rearrangements, risking loss of important genes. \" if there ' s no cohesion, the cell will die, \" says spencer. \" however, if the process sometimes works and sometimes doesn ' t, some cells survive but their genetic material gets scrambled. \" it ' s that sometimes - yes - sometimes - no problem that spencer and her team are trying to figure out, in part because it ' s interesting biology, but also because genetic instability plays such a big role in the development of cancer in humans. no one knows exactly at what point errors enter the genetic material and aren ' t fixed, but the intricacies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5485153012964709, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa6c6cdf-47cc-4795-959d-529c9459ad32>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.971956"}
{"text": "in part because it ' s interesting biology, but also because genetic instability plays such a big role in the development of cancer in humans. no one knows exactly at what point errors enter the genetic material and aren ' t fixed, but the intricacies of chromosomes ' manipulation during cell division seem a good place to start. postdoctoral fellow cheryl warren, ph. d., started the search by screening 5, 916 yeast genes - - all at once - - for ones needed for survival in the absence of a gene called ctf4, already known to be a critical component of cohesion. twenty - six genes popped out of this screen, a type known as \" synthetic lethal \" since the yeast survive the loss of either one, but not both, genes. however, the synthetic lethal effect of some, if not many, of the genes from this screen would be due to problems other than faulty cohesion, the researchers knew. \" we had to do something else to get a manageable starting point, \" says warren. so, using a technique she developed to identify whether a gene ' s loss causes the genetic material to become scrambled, warren tested those 26 genes to see which of them seemed most likely to contribute to genetic instability through their involvement in cohesion. in these experiments, markers were scattered throughout the yeast ' s genetic material so she could easily tell if pieces of the genome moved or went missing when a gene was knocked out. only 17 of the 26 identified genes caused genetic instability when missing from the yeast genome. fifteen of those genes are involved in double - checking whether newly formed strands of dna matched the cell ' s original genetic material and calling in \" repairmen \" as needed ( a process called the \" s - phase checkpoint \" ). the other two genes are part of the machinery previously known to help move the two sets of chromosomes to opposite sides of the dividing cell. \" by using both screens, we got a number that was small enough to follow - up on, and yet large enough to reveal a trend, \" says warren. \" this is the first evidence that proteins involved in checking the dna sequence are also involved in keeping sister chromosomes together, and it ' s a great starting point for understanding more. \" the research was funded by the national human genome research institute, the national institute for general medical sciences, and the national heart, lung, and blood institute, all components of the national institutes of health. authors on the report are warren, spencer, mark eckley, marina lee, joseph hanna, adam hughes, brian pe", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5346457332692016, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa6c6cdf-47cc-4795-959d-529c9459ad32>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:55.974667"}
{"text": "the student ' s eyes drift to the classroom window and the teacher ' s voice fades from consciousness. the daydream begins. it ' s a familiar scene, one we have likely both experienced as students and struggled against in our students as teachers. but daydreaming is not what it might seem. recent research in both psychology and neuroscience makes clear that daydreaming is an essential part of mental processing, reasoning and, yes, even learning. 1. daydreaming is the mind ' s natural state the most common view of the human mind assumes that our normal way of thinking consists of concentrated focus upon immediate tasks at hand. but researchers have found that this is not the case. daydreaming is now considered to be the normal state of our minds, with focus appearing as a break from the more common mind wandering. a recent study has found that our mind wanders forty seven percent of the time we are awake with very few activities not equally peppered with natural periods of daydreaming. another study has shown that the parts of the brain stimulated during daydreaming consist of the \" default network \" regions of the brain that are associated with most higher level mental activity. this suggests that we have evolved specifically to be a daydreaming species. it is even more telling that those who suffer injuries to the region of the brain in which daydreaming occurs suffer from a lack of spontaneous speech and thought. the fact that daydreaming is the natural state of the human brain suggests that those who take most naturally to daydreaming will best exhibit the skills necessary for successfully navigating the human world. far from representing a lack of discipline, daydreaming is a hallmark of a healthy and active human mind. 2. critical thinking and intelligence aside from the \" default network \", one of the main regions of brain used during daydreaming consists of the \" executive network \", the region of the brain associated with complex problem solving. before this was revealed, for example through the 2009 study at the university of british columbia, it was commonly thought that the \" executive network \" was only active during focused problem solving. as this study suggests, a healthy amount of daydreaming is connected to improved critical thinking capabilities, an invaluable characteristic in successful learners. it has also been shown that daydreaming is dramatically more present in those considered to be of superior intelligence when compared with learners of average intelligence. one study suggests that the improved integration of the default and executive", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5821787443026382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed50884a-3a17-4214-a1ca-f5d52d7173fe>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.010171"}
{"text": "##valuable characteristic in successful learners. it has also been shown that daydreaming is dramatically more present in those considered to be of superior intelligence when compared with learners of average intelligence. one study suggests that the improved integration of the default and executive networks developed through their continual exercise through daydreaming significantly contributes to the formation of increased intelligence. it ' s a truism that our \" dreams \", by which we usually mean our goals and desires, provide motivation in life. what is less recognized, however, is the central role played by the process of daydreaming in envisioning and imaginatively experiencing the lives we wish to lead and people we want to become. our goals and desires are what they are because we have spent time freely living through our daydreams what it would be like to achieve them. for these reasons, daydreaming in learners is related to higher levels of ambition and a deeper sense of motivation. freely imagining \" what you would do if... \" is far from idle. having envisioned scenarios and played out possible events gives us an increasing sense that we can handle them. in this way the imaginative anticipation that often occurs in daydreaming contributes as much to a robust sense of confidence as it does to a healthy motivation. think about it this way, daydreaming is a training ground for your mind where it plays through and sometimes struggles with scenarios it has not experienced or wants to react differently to in the future. though successful training certainly doesn ' t guarantee success during the real event, it does provide a mental preparedness and a firm sense that no matter what may occur we can deal with it. for this reason some of the most confident learners are also those with the healthiest daydreaming lives. 5. increased insight did you ever wonder what causes that moment of insight when something suddenly clicks or a solution becomes clear? the answer is a lot of hard work on the part of your brain that goes unnoticed. moments of insight, those sudden revelations that seem to come from nowhere, are long prepared for through the brain ' s ongoing hidden organizing and processing. daydreaming, as a mental state activating both the default and executive networks of the brain, plays an important role in that organizing and processing. what you may think is just your mind drifting is actually your mind actively forming connections between information, synthesizing what was previously only chaos, and preparing the ground for the moment when things suddenly fit into place. once we appreciate this we see that daydreami", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5320645928033443, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed50884a-3a17-4214-a1ca-f5d52d7173fe>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.012142"}
{"text": "may think is just your mind drifting is actually your mind actively forming connections between information, synthesizing what was previously only chaos, and preparing the ground for the moment when things suddenly fit into place. once we appreciate this we see that daydreaming is just as productive as spending an hour working on a difficult math problem. recent work has shown that spending less time on the problem and more time letting our mind wander could contribute to getting the answer faster. benjamin baird and jonathan schooler at the university of california at santa barbara have shown, as discussed in an article in the new yorker, that spending time daydreaming after first being given a task leads to more insightful responses to the task than focus and concentration do. in his book blink : the power of thinking without thinking, malcolm gladwell discusses the phenomenon of \" thin - slicing \", the mind ' s jumping to conclusions based on surprisingly little information. despite what we tend to assume, gladwell demonstrates that jumping to conclusions based on limited information is often statistically the most reliable way to arrive at the right decision. for example, cook county hospital changed the way it diagnoses heart attacks to focus on less information. here is how gladwell describes this part of the book on his website : \" they instructed their doctors to gather less information on their patients : they encouraged them to zero in on just a few critical pieces of information about patients suffering from chest pain - like blood pressure and the ecg - while ignoring everything else, like the patient ' s age and weight and medical history. and what happened? cook county is now one of the best places in the united states at diagnosing chest pain. \" the key point about thin - slicing is that its effectiveness depends upon two factors. knowledge, especially when derived from experience, and mental integration that allows for swift access to the knowledge and experience we have gained. if we return to our image of daydreaming as the training ground of the mind, the increased integration it imposes on knowledge and experience we have collected improves our ability to successfully jump to conclusions based on little information. it makes us more successful thin - slicers and improves our split - second decision making. 7. improved problem solving what is problem solving? from what we have already said we might suggest it is an effective use of the default and executive networks of the brain resulting in increased intelligence, critical thinking, insight and thin - slicing. the argument that the integration of default and executive networks results in improved problem solving is offered by the author of daydre", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5764481123220794, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed50884a-3a17-4214-a1ca-f5d52d7173fe>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.013242"}
{"text": "is an effective use of the default and executive networks of the brain resulting in increased intelligence, critical thinking, insight and thin - slicing. the argument that the integration of default and executive networks results in improved problem solving is offered by the author of daydreams at work : wake up your creative powers, amy fries, in an article at psychology today : \"... your mind - wandering capacity is like that computer program - it can get to solutions that your conscious mind just can ' t see. \" in general daydreaming makes us better thinkers. being better thinkers makes us better learners. the traditional view of daydreaming understands it as a form of escapism. we are unhappy or uninterested in where we are and so imagine we are somewhere else. it is important, this view assumes, to resist this escapist urge and instead cope with the world as it is. it turns out, however, that daydreaming is itself a central element of our mental coping mechanisms. as already mentioned, daydreaming provides the brain with the exercise course where it can secretly play out different solutions to problems. more than this, however, those precious daydreaming moments allow us the conscious rest necessary to face difficult tasks or situations with a fresh mind. yet, during these seeming moments of rest, the brain is still hard at work beneath the surface organizing potential responses without the generally awkward interference of conscious thought. researchers such as eric klinger have shown that children who weave an imaginative story around their play are likely to be happier at play and to play longer. it is easy to generalize this point to adults as well, the ability to tell ourselves imaginative stories about the world and our own lives through daydreaming makes even the tedious or downright painful parts of our life more enjoyable. in learning the ability to cope with challenging, frustrating or boring tasks is a key ingredient for success. 9. mental elasticity coping is a key element of mental elasticity, the ability to shift our thought and behavior smoothly in response to changing situations and information. daydreaming, as the practice ground for mental processing, greatly increases the mind ' s ability to smoothly shift in the face of unanticipated events and situations. so while daydreaming clearly contributes to organizing information and experience we have already learned, making the learned material more useful by improving our ability to apply it, it also enhances our response time in the face of the unexpected. recent research has shown that children with a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5362986081648803, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed50884a-3a17-4214-a1ca-f5d52d7173fe>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.015582"}
{"text": "five - minute break between each segment of work. after four such segments of work and breaks you take a longer break of fifteen minutes. this technique ' s surprising ability to increase productivity depends upon the mind ' s limited power of concentration with moments of daydreaming rest needed between periods of increased mental control. what it suggests is that teachers would do well, not only to appreciate the importance of daydreaming for successful learners, but even to organize lessons so as to actively encourage short breaks for daydreaming. 13. connection to class material learning is nearly impossible if students do not feel connected to the material they are learning. students have to care about what they learn to be the most successful learners. this connection to the material involves imaginatively playing with the material through which students rearrange and experiment while finding ways to connect it to their wider concerns, life, and fantasies. for this reason students who actively daydream, especially when they are encouraged to incorporate class material into their daydreams in whatever way they like, are much more successful learners. 14. increased empathy and emotional intelligence one of the most important skills for people in general, let alone learners, is what we might call the \" moral imagination \". the moral imagination is the ability to think oneself into another person ' s shoes, to imagine what it would be like to be them. this skill is necessary if one is to expand one ' s sense of sympathy and empathy, but it is also a key element in problem - solving and reading comprehension. if a student is to understand a text or solve a problem what is required is creatively putting themselves in the place of the characters in the text, or in the sphere of life that most naturally relates to the problem to be solved. for this reason emotional intelligence, the ability to have a varied and complex emotional life through engagement with and response to the emotions of others, is a central if unexpected element of all mental processing and learning. it is just this ability to imagine our way out of our own situation and into that of another that daydreaming develops and encourages. for this reason not only are daydreamers more empathetic and emotionally open people, they are also better at comprehending literary and historical texts. 15. improved self - knowledge since the time of socrates it has been thought that coming to know ourselves is both a major goal and the foundation of all truly successful learning. we can think about daydreaming as carrying out a dialogue with ourselves. in contrast, watching television or playing video", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.518079229127858, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed50884a-3a17-4214-a1ca-f5d52d7173fe>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.018808"}
{"text": "time of socrates it has been thought that coming to know ourselves is both a major goal and the foundation of all truly successful learning. we can think about daydreaming as carrying out a dialogue with ourselves. in contrast, watching television or playing video games primarily involves an external exploration or dialogue, one that can involve learning but doesn ' t often involve reflective self - discovery. if we are to be successful learners we need to have a robust sense of our interests, our goals and the talents or skills we wish to have. this intimately involves the imaginative self - exploration only a healthy daydreaming life can provide. clearing out distractions and allowing time for reflective thought is a great way to tap into your creativity. < a href = \" http : / / zenhabits. net / creative - habit / \" > being alone with your thoughts < / a > is oftentimes a prerequisite for the kind of outside - the - box that ' s necessary for artistic expression. although loneliness can be a contributing cause of depression, < a href = \" http : / / www. jstor. org / discover / 10. 2307 / 1131927? uid = 3739936 & uid = 2 & uid = 4 & uid = 3739256 & sid = 21101521304683 \" > studies have found < / a > that time spent in solitude can actually ward off depression in adolescents. a 1997 study found that although teens didn ' t describe solitude as a positive experience, many reported increased feelings of well - being afterwards. when you ' re away from people, technology, work and the myriad distractions of everyday life, you can finally take time to breathe and just be. use your alone time as a chance to clear out your cluttered mind and just get back in touch with yourself. it ' s tough to stop and take stock when you ' re constantly on the go and spending time with friends, family or classmates. taking a little \" me \" time gives you an opportunity to get away from distractions for long enough to reflect on your relationships and the course of your life so that you can determine what changes, if any, you may want to make. once you become more comfortable with the idea of being alone, doing activities like shopping, seeing a movie, or hiking by yourself can actually be enjoyable. you can do whatever < em > you < / em > want without having to adhere to anyone ' s preferences, schedule or expectations. you might discover", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5358598349066861, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed50884a-3a17-4214-a1ca-f5d52d7173fe>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.019781"}
{"text": "scholarship \u2014 a ph. d. or other doctoral degree that requires advanced work beyond the master \u2019 s level, including the preparation and defense of a dissertation based on original research, or the planning and execution of an original project demonstrating scholarly achievement ; schools could classify certain degrees that had historically been treated as first professional degrees as either \u201c professional practice \u201d doctoral degrees ( as in the case of medical degrees, for example ) or master \u2019 s degrees ( as in the case of advanced, nondoctoral degrees in theology ). professional practice \u2014 a doctoral degree conferred upon completion of a program providing the knowledge and skills for the recognition, credentialing, or licensing required for professional practice ; or other \u2014 a doctoral degree that does not meet the definition of the research / scholarship or professional practice doctorate. to ensure comparability with previous years, for 2007 \u2013 2008 and 2008 \u2013 2009 the humanities indicators counted as doctorates all of those degrees classified by postsecondary institutions as \u201c doctorate degree, \u201d \u201c doctorate degree \u2014 research / scholarship, \u201d or \u201c doctorate degree \u2014 other. \u201d the hi treated as \u201c master \u2019 s and professional degrees \u201d those degrees classified by schools as \u201c doctorate degree \u2014 professional practice, \u201d \u201c first professional degree, \u201d or \u201c master \u2019 s degree. \u201d for academic year 2010 \u2013 2011, nces eliminated the \u201c first professional degree \u201d category. the agency now requires schools to use the three - category system described above to classify all advanced degrees other than master \u2019 s degrees. back to content note on the data used to construct degree - related indicators the data that form the basis of these indicators are drawn from the u. s. department of education \u2019 s national center for education statistics \u2019 ( nces ) higher education general information system ( hegis ) and its successor, the integrated postsecondary educational data system ( ipeds ), through which institutions of higher learning report on the numbers and characteristics of students completing degree programs ( as well as a variety of other topics ; for more on this major data collection program, see http : / / nces. ed. gov / ipeds / ). the hegis / ipeds degree - completion data going back to 1966 have been made accessible to decision - makers, researchers, and the general public by the national science foundation ( nsf ) via its online data analysis tool webcaspar. the nsf has traditionally used the nces data to tabulate science and engineering degree awards as part of science and engineering indicators program, which since 1973 has issued a biennial", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5548985819447751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1aba2071-591c-49dc-af79-a8c01e960686>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.043727"}
{"text": "science foundation ( nsf ) via its online data analysis tool webcaspar. the nsf has traditionally used the nces data to tabulate science and engineering degree awards as part of science and engineering indicators program, which since 1973 has issued a biennial report designed to provide public and private policymakers with a broad base of quantitative information about the u. s. science, engineering, and technology enterprise. the nsf has developed a set of standardized disciplinary categories that can be used across the various data sources it relies upon to construct its indicators. because the nsf focuses on trends in science and engineering education, its disciplinary classification is most detailed in these areas. the utility of the nsf system for the purposes of the humanities indicators ( hi ) is limited. for example, the nsf scheme does not distinguish between the academic study of the arts, considered by the hi to be part of the humanities, and art performance. the hi thus cannot include in its tally those degrees conferred in the areas of musicology, art history, film studies, and drama history / criticism. moreover, while the hi considers such disciplines as archeology, women \u2019 s studies, gay and lesbian studies, and holocaust studies to be part of the humanities field, nsf categorizes them as social sciences. additionally, nsf places interdisciplinary degrees in areas such as general humanities and liberal studies in a broad \u201c other \u201d category that includes degrees for many disciplines that are not within the purview of the humanities as conceptualized by the hi. consequently, such interdisciplinary degrees, along with those mentioned above, cannot be captured in humanities degree counts from 1966 to 1986. for 1987 and later years ( 1995 and later for data on the race / ethnicity of degree recipients ), however, nsf also categorizes earned degrees according to the more detailed classification of instructional programs ( cip ), which permits a more precise count of humanities degrees ; that is, a count that includes degrees in all those programs that are part of academic disciplines included within the scope of the humanities for the purposes of the hi. ( for an inventory of the disciplines and activities treated as part of the humanities by the hi, see the statement on the scope of the \u201c humanities \u201d for purposes of the humanities indicators. ) the cip was first developed by nces in 1980 as a way to account for the tremendous variety of degree programs offered by american institutions of higher learning and has been revised three times since its introduction, most recently in 2009 ( this version is referred to as \u201c cip 2010 \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5351980746932234, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1aba2071-591c-49dc-af79-a8c01e960686>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.044960"}
{"text": "coded data are used. in the case of several of the degree - related indicators, the humanities are compared to certain other fields such as the sciences and engineering. the nature of these fields is specified in the statement on the scope of the \u201c humanities \u201d for purposes of the humanities indicators. these broad fields do not encompass all postsecondary programs. therefore, where fields are being compared in terms of their respective shares of all degrees, the percentages will not add up to 100 %. also, none of the graphs showing change over time in the share of degrees awarded to members of traditionally underrepresented ethnic / minority groups includes a data point for the academic year 1999, because the nces did not release data for that year. the degree counts presented as part of the hi do not include \u201c second majors \u201d because nces began collecting data about these degrees only in 2001. the hi deals separately with the issue of second majors in figure ii - 1c ( \u201c humanities bachelor ' s degrees earned as \u2018 second majors, \u2019 2001 \u2013 2010 \u201d ). data on the number of students completing minors are not collected as part of ipeds, but such information was compiled for selected humanities disciplines as part of the american academy of arts and sciences \u2013 sponsored humanities departmental survey ( hds ; see the hds final report, page 8, table 12 ). back to content", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5015143187043221, "token_count": 276, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1aba2071-591c-49dc-af79-a8c01e960686>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.046516"}
{"text": "professional computer community and adopted as the ieee - 696 computer bus standard. for all intents, the altair bus consists of the pins of the intel 8080 run out onto the backplane. no specific level of thought went into the design, which led to such disasters as shorting from various power lines of differing voltages being located next to each other. a further oddity was that the system included two unidirectional 8 - bit data buses, but only a single bidirectional 16 - bit address bus. a deal on power supplies led to the use of + 8v and + 18v, which had to be locally regulated on the cards to ttl ( + 5v ) or rs - 232 ( + 12v ) standard voltage levels. altair 8800b computer front panelthe altair shipped in a two - piece case. the backplane and power supply were mounted on a base plate, along with the front and rear of the box. the \" lid \" was shaped like a c, forming the top, left and right sides of the box. the front panel, which was inspired by the data general nova minicomputer, included a large number of toggle switches to feed binary data directly into the memory of the machine, and a number of red leds to read those values back out. programming the altair was an extremely tedious process where one toggled the switches to positions corresponding to an 8080 opcode, then used a special switch to enter the code into the machine ' s memory, and then repeated this step until all the opcodes of a presumably complete and correct program were in place. when the machine first shipped the switches and lights were the only interface, and all one could do with the machine was make programs to make the lights blink. nevertheless, many were sold in this form. roberts was already hard at work on extra cards, including a paper tape reader for storage, extra ram cards, and a rs - 232 interface to connect to a proper terminal. software main article : altair basic around this time roberts received a letter from a seattle company asking if he would be interested in buying its basic programming language for the machine. he called the company and reached a private home, where no one had heard of anything like basic. in fact the letter had been sent by bill gates and paul allen from the boston area, and they had no basic yet to offer. when they called roberts to follow up on the letter he expressed his interest, and the two started work on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.514187332637005, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:423926f1-622d-4d27-a6e7-55c9cb5c4430>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.079645"}
{"text": "principal investigator ( s ) : marx, gary t. summary : this study is part of the university of california ' s five - year study of anti - semitism in the united states. as a result of the outbreak of black rioting during the summer of 1964, it was decided to expand the proposed black subsample of the national sample to a larger black oversample in order to study the climate of opinion in the black american community. these black respondents were selected by drawing five samples : one general metropolitan sample and four urban samples from chicago, new... ( view full summary ) persistent url : http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 3886 / icpsr07002. v1 one or more data files in this study are set up in a non - standard format, such as card image format. users may need help converting these files before they can be used for analysis. these data are available only to users at icpsr member institutions. you will be asked to log in prior to downloading the data. this study was originally provided by icpsr. icpsr provides leadership and training in data access, curation, and methods of analysis for a diverse and expanding social science research community. data use tutorial ( introduction for new users )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5167637268903109, "token_count": 265, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c3f115bb-9e6a-4f2e-b061-8d33126bd134>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.083358"}
{"text": "all systems secure kettering researcher develops a new communications architecture and protocol for safety critical systems in automotive applications that will make driving more safe and less costly for car companies. when you slam on your brakes unexpectedly while driving, do you worry that your car may not stop? do you wonder if your airbag will actually deploy correctly, given the infrequency of its use, or if your door might spring open during a collision, exposing your body as your car careens out of control? as a nation with highways jammed with drivers, most of us don ' t realize what sort of technology goes into safety systems on the cars we drive, such as brakes, steering and stability. we know they are probably expensive but short of that, as long as the safety system works, most of us are happy. when we lease or purchase a new vehicle, we typically assume it is safe to drive, since it has passed federal and state regulations. but the work in developing the dependable technology that helps a car stop or glide safely and smoothly over rough terrain is complex, highly sophisticated and very expensive for automakers to incorporate into your vehicle. kettering university ' s juan pimentel of the electrical and computer engineering dept. is fully aware of how difficult it is to develop dependable systems in cars. dependability is an important concept that involves safety, reliability, availability and security. what makes his most recent research exciting is that his dependable, simple and cost - efficient system not only works well with traditional combustion engines, but also with hybrid vehicles and electric propulsion systems, which may one day replace the cars we drive today. over the past several years pimentel has worked in the field of controller area networks ( can ) to develop an architecture and protocol for highly dependable ( otherwise known as safety - critical ) systems in automobiles. by definition, controller area networks work in conjunction with other electronic systems inside cars for various operations, such as braking and steering. unfortunately, there are no dependable systems on the market that are simple and inexpensive. so pimentel went about researching and developing an architecture and protocol he calls flexcan, which is based on can protocol and is suitable for highly dependable systems. pimentel also integrated safecan into his system, which deals with error detection and fault management of buses and nodes used to communicate electronically with other system components inside a vehicle. what does all this techno mumbo jumbo mean? in simple terms, pimentel has developed a highly dependable system that is simpler and cheaper for automakers to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5244369588053073, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:64a2393b-7b3f-4351-99d1-1027d9e84333>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.410488"}
{"text": "of buses and nodes used to communicate electronically with other system components inside a vehicle. what does all this techno mumbo jumbo mean? in simple terms, pimentel has developed a highly dependable system that is simpler and cheaper for automakers to incorporate into their vehicle while sustaining the high quality of research necessary to create systems to protect drivers in case of emergencies. his work enhances the current can protocol used in the industry today, which is very different from what other companies and firms are currently doing. his architecture and protocol rely on commercially over the shelf ( cots ) can components available on the market. this is vastly different from other companies as they work in developing safety critical systems from scratch, which is costly and often times passed on to the automaker and thereby the consumer, due to the complexity involved in creating a system that works effectively. \" to make these systems work efficiently and effectively, one needs an approach that considers all aspects of development and usage to achieve dependability at various levels. \" for pimentel, the can protocol available in today ' s market still holds great potential and opportunity. \" i want to build on and enhance what ' s already available in terms of can systems, since the basic operation of these systems works well, \" he explained. \" but i am going about utilizing these components with a little different twist. in previous years, you had specialists who worked in various capacities for safety critical systems, but not all specialists knew what the other was doing. thus, they didn ' t have afull understanding of how these systems worked in conjunction with each other in the broad range of operation, for example, in automotive applications, or how their work in this field affected the work of other engineers. \" to address this trend, which has several pitfalls in pimentel ' s eyes, he approached the development of his system and protocol ( called flexcan and safecan ) from an interdisciplinary perspective, or what others might term a holistic approach. this method is new to safety critical systems development, one that utilizes pimentel ' s interdisciplinary training and experience. \" to make these systems work efficiently and effectively, one needs an approach that considers all aspects of development and usage to achieve dependability at various levels, \" he said. \" flexcan considers advances and component availability in the following fields : application domain, embedded systems, protocols and networks, safety and reliability, real - time systems and systems engineering. \" the development of flexcan began three years ago and is now at a stage that allows use of the system for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5580369020665401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:64a2393b-7b3f-4351-99d1-1027d9e84333>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.412297"}
{"text": "hyperactivity, also referred to as attention - deficit hyperactivity disorder or adhd ( a - d - h - d ), is a condition that occurs when excessive levels of impulsiveness, inattentiveness, and hyperactivity characterize a child ' s behavior. although children can be diagnosed as having attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity, most experts agree that inattention and hyperactivity generally go hand and hand. hyperactivity is far from rare, and it occurs in boys more often than in girls. the condition is usually first noticed by teachers, because the child ' s activity and restlessness tend to impair schoolwork. hyperactive children refuse to sit still, and often fidget or squirm in their seats during class. they ' re prone to outbursts of temper, find it difficult to follow instructions, and have trouble remembering their assignments. they typically disrupt class, are involved in fights, have a poor self - image, and have a hard time making friends. one unfortunate aspect of the condition is that parents and teachers sometimes blame the child ' s problems in school on lack of effort, and this only complicates matters. fortunately, hyperactive children generally respond extremely well to treatment, which may consist of counseling, special education programs, or medication. for more information, consult a local health care professional.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5063035487332125, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e55d72fb-21dc-41e8-9e36-284114ec3689>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.427394"}
{"text": "why we are the lasers... from our earliest beginnings in the nineteenth century when the lamp of knowledge was emblazoned on our college seal, to the one hundred and fifty years of torchlight parades, light has been a part of lasell ' s rich history. it is in this tradition of light, and the pursuit of knowledge and excellence, that our athletes bear the name lasers. lasers are by definition a source of intense energy. therefore, like a laser, our athletes are fast, focused and intense on the fields and courts of athletic endeavor. it all began with the light. legend has it that in the spring of 1851, a group of individuals gathered together and as the sun rose in the sky, illuminating bragdon hill, these individuals with a laser - like focus, made the decision to found a new school. as the founders, known as boomers, put shovels into the rocky new england soil, sparks flew and the flame of knowledge was ignited for a new generation of students. the lamp of knowledge was emblazoned into the college seal. early in the history of lasell college, the tradition of the torchlight parade took hold, with seniors marching through the campus, proudly holding high their burning torches, illuminating the academic path for future students as they passed on these symbols of light to the students who would succeed them... and the flame of knowledge continues to burn brightly here at lasell, where being \" ignorant of defeat \" is the way we live. with the intensity of a laser, lasell ' s growth and prominence has continued its boom for over 157 years, and in all that time, our torch has never dimmed - - our flame of knowledge has never stopped burning brightly - - and our seniors continue to pass the torch to those they leave behind, as through their actions and deeds they bring light to the world wherever they go. it is time to shine the light on the lasers. now is our boom - time. never before have we had more reason to hold high the lasell torch, lighting the way for the world to see. who will lead us? who will carry the torch the highest? who will bring the light, and guide the lasers to victory? who will take the burning intensity of the lasers and make it come alive? it will be our torchbearer... it will be our symbol of the light... it will be our spark to victory... it will be boomer! boomer will lead us ; boomer will light", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5191008035432569, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:67824045-fc24-4b67-aebd-53dd866fa94b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.467453"}
{"text": "fragmentation occurs when one cell in an embryo experiences a problem. in most situations, a cell with a problem simply dies. in embryos, however, these cells seem to break apart instead. often, dna - containing cell fragments will fuse with other cells in the embryo, transferring extra chromosomes to those cells. the researchers wanted to know whether they could use these odd behaviors to reliably distinguish a healthy embryo from a doomed one. they took 75 human embryos that had been frozen at the single - cell phase and cultured them in petri dishes for two days, taking a microscopic snapshot of each embryo every five minutes. [ see video of the developing embryos ] these snapshots were then strung together into time - lapse movies, which the researchers analyzed for the timing of various cell - division phases. of the 75 original cells, 53 survived four days, which represents the zygote stage of embryonic development. of those, 45 were usable for genetic analysis. about 75 percent, or 34 of the 45 cells surviving to the zygote stage, had the wrong number of chromosomes. the abnormal cells showed more variations in their cell - division cycles than normal cells, the researchers found. while normal cells all developed at similar paces, abnormal cells lagged behind or sped ahead in the divisions of the first, second and third cells. combining data about the abnormal timing with other signs that something has gone wrong ( such as fragmented dna and asymmetrical cell sizes within a developing embryo ) could reliably show which cells have the right number of chromosomes and which don ' t, the researchers report. the findings offer some insight into why early human development is so likely to go wrong, pera said. other animals don ' t have so many problems, she said. mice, for example, make mistakes in embryo development only about 1 percent of the time. researchers have long thought that perhaps humans have so many problems because women ' s eggs degrade with age, pera said. but in the current study, only 20 percent of the embryos showed these kind of errors. much more frequent were so - called mitotic errors, which occur later in development, after sperm and cell fuse and the embryo begins to divide. \" that so many errors are being made after the egg and the sperm come together, that appears to be kind of special to humans, \" pera said. a california - based biotech company has now licensed the embryo - watching technology and is going to begin testing it in fertility clinics, pera", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5159220075168285, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:acd351b2-b52c-4fa6-a724-acb7c5d82a29>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.528789"}
{"text": "volume 9, issue 2 tricks of the trade in and out download this issue learning about differential equations from their symmetries application of mathsym to analyzing an ordinary differential equation in the previous section we used a scaling symmetry to help understand the solutions of a pair of differential equations. in each case, the scaling symmetry was found by inspection. here i present the computation of the complete set of point symmetries for two additional differential equations. our third example is a nonlinear ordinary differential that we analyze using its two symmetries. the final example is the partial differential equation known as the cubic nonlinear schrodinger equation. example three is the ordinary differential equation that arises in the study of nonlinear water wave equations. i also show that we can use its two symmetries to begin to learn something about the structure of its solutions. mathsym returns a system of equations, the determining equations, whose solutions generate the symmetries of equation ( 8 ). internally, the mathsym package denotes all independent variables in an equation as and dependent variables as. this way it can be run on systems of equations with arbitrary numbers of independent and dependent variables without needing to know how to treat different variable names. furthermore, constants are represented as internally and printed as. with this notation, constants are treated correctly by mathematica ' s differentiation routine dt. mathsym ' s output is the following list of determining equations. with the output from mathsym we can continue our analysis of equation ( 8 ). first, we solve the determining equations : the functions and determine two symmetries that can be used to convert equation ( 8 ) into two integrals. the reader is directed to similar computations for the blasius boundary layer equation which appear on pages 118 - 120 of. we begin by considering the symmetry that occurs because of the term. setting and produces a transformation and. we next look for two quantities that do not change under this transformation. obvious choices are and. if we assume that is a function of and write the differential equation for that arises by insisting that satisfy equation ( 8 ), we find this is a standard reduction of order for autonomous equations that may be found in a sophomore differential equations text such as. this equation in and has a symmetry that is generated by the constant appearing in equations ( 9 ) and ( 10 ). from this symmetry we can derive new variables and and consider as a function of. in terms of and, equation ( 11 ) becomes we have now converted the problem of solving the original equation into", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6422557384245795, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:621b4b37-387c-4787-9931-0da8ab590a19>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.536880"}
{"text": "written by adam on mar 16, 2006 food dictionary : chop, mince, dice, grate to chop or not to chop, that is the question. whether ' tis mincing or dicing in the mind to chiffonade the basil to outrageous perfection. to grate, perchance to shred - aye, there ' s the rub. oh fair henckel ' s - - knife on my block. be all my ingredients remembered. epicurious and hamlet, bring us this latest batch of food words.... words.... words.... words that tell us how we are cutting our ingredients. do we chop, grate, mince, dice, or shred? chop : cutting food into small, bite - sized pieces mince : to cut food into very small pieces. note : minced food is smaller than chopped food dice : to cut food into tiny cubes grate : to reduce a large piece of food to small particles or thin shreds by rubbing it against a coarse, serrated surface, shred : to cut food into narrow strips by hand or by grater or food processer. interesting. so you can grate with a grater and you can also shred with a grater.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5017100688629024, "token_count": 259, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:57b72616-117b-4174-861a-1d61cba11798>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.543424"}
{"text": "added : 06 / 17 / 2009 this site is an animation of the light dependent ( oxygen generating ) reactions of photosynthesis. note that the mechanism depicted is for prokaryotes and differs somewhat from what occurs in eukaryotes. added : 06 / 17 / 2009 this site provides an excellent presentation on this difficult topic. in topic 1, students look at the components of chemiosmosis in the bacterium paracoccus denitrificans in which they step through animations of electron transport, proton gradient, and a added : 06 / 17 / 2009 this site is an excellent introduction to thermodynamics as it applies to living organisms. in topic 1, students make decisions for a paramecium living in a petri dish that will determine if it will have enough energy to survive and reproduce. students wi added : 06 / 17 / 2009 these learning materials address the dynamic processes of photosynthesis that are found in the chloroplast. they include the light reactions ( cyclic and non - cyclic of photosystems i & ii ) and the non - light limited reactions of the calvin cycle. structure of the chloroplast is included and the many images and flash movies are provided as downloadable files. added : 06 / 17 / 2009 this website covers cell biology all in animation. cell structure with descriptions of each part, dna structure, an animated overview of water chemistry, the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis are all presented in this website. you are also able to see cells broken apart and explained, molecules in structural form, and the ph scale describing acidic and basic. added : 06 / 17 / 2009 tutorials on energy conversions, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, proteins, dna, rna, dna replication, protein synthesis, and mutation. complete with illustrations and animations. added : 06 / 17 / 2009 this website includes interactive learning with animation, movies, and tutorial links. it is created to help in teaching and the learning of science. topics include basic chemistry, mitosis, meiosis, photosynthesis, and virology. added : 06 / 17 / 2009 interactive animated tutorial that demonstrates photosynthesis, develops understanding of the organelles and compounds at work, describes the light and dark reactions and photorespiration. added : 06 / 17 / 2009 these problem sets are part of the university of arizona biology project. they are located in the biochemistry section. each problem set gives a multiple choice question ; incorrect answers take student to a tutorial", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.577679570219287, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ec91c1f6-976e-4c5a-8602-67f0e629bdaf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.556767"}
{"text": "* ( under construction ) ninety five theses and the revolution that followed by thomas leckwold martin luther ' s ninety five theses on the power and efficacy of indulgences was nailed to the castle church in wittenberg, in now modern day germany, on october 31, 1517. this document was a protest that strongly criticized the practice of selling indulgences of the roman catholic church, known here after as the church. the document was a challenge to church authority that set forth events that permanently changed the religious, political, and social factors of central europe, and led to a series of wars using the pretext of faith, and the role of the church in the political structure of western europe. luther ' s document was not meant to be a call to revolution, but the social conditions, and economic factors, along with religious convictions did set in motion a revolution and subsequent conflicts in central europe. cairo \u2019 s fortress on the mountain by david w. tschanz cairo residents call it the qal ' at al - jabal, the fortress on the mountain, or just al - qal ' ah, the fortress. the rest of the world simply calls it \u201c the citadel. \u201d for nearly a millennium it has stood as a silent sentinel, residence, and symbol of power. standing on its battlements, and looking westwards provides a view of over 4500 years of architectural marvels from the mosque of sultan hasan, just below to the pyramids of giza across the nile. from atop this fortress the awesome sweep of history is a vivid reality. it is a view that must have given even the sultans who ruled from here, cause to reflect. member article : armenian warriors, japanese samurai by dr. armen ayvazyan armenian historiography contains considerable information about ancient and medieval armenian military ideology. in the works of fifth century historians pavstos buzand and movses khorenatzi, the commands and legacy of the armenian sparapets ( commanders in chief ) to their successors articulate in detail the obligations and responsibilities of armenian warriors. their norms of conduct share striking similarities with the system of values of the japanese samurai codified during the 16th to 18th centuries, as well as with later medieval west european chivalry of the eight to 14th \u201c fight and offer your life for the armenian world just as your brave forefathers did, consciously sacrificing their lives for this homeland \u2026 \u201d member article : byzantine military pragmatism vs. imperial prejudice :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5025150036303325, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6f23f9de-9029-4184-ad13-8f6bb0a8ab5c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.586369"}
{"text": "7. praxeological prediction praxeological knowledge makes it possible to predict with apodictic certainty the outcome of various modes of action. but, of course, such prediction can never imply anything regarding quantitative matters. quantitative problems are in the field of human action open [ p. 118 ] to no other elucidation than that by understanding. we can predict, as will be shown later, that? - - other things being equal? - - a fall in the demand for a will result in a drop in the price of a. but we cannot predict the extent of this drop. this question can be answered only by understanding. the fundamental deficiency implied in every quantitative approach to economic problems consists in the neglect of the fact that there are no constant relations between what are called economic dimensions. there is neither constancy nor continuity in the valuations and in the formation of exchange ratios between various commodities. every new datum brings about a reshuffling of the whole price structure. understanding, by trying to grasp what is going on in the minds of the men concerned, can approach the problem of forecasting future conditions. we may call its methods unsatisfactory and the positivists may arrogantly scorn it. but such arbitrary judgments must not and cannot obscure the fact that understanding is the only appropriate method of dealing with the uncertainty of future conditions. [ p. 119 ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6010932156057539, "token_count": 284, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f5ced0ba-8711-4a4b-ba7b-34f0380249eb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.609182"}
{"text": "lockheed \u2019 s missile and space division designed the yo - 3a as a nearly silent observation aircraft. the united states army used the plane to spot nighttime enemy activity and direct artillery fire during the war in vietnam. a downward - facing periscope equipped with night vision and infrared ( heat sensing ) capabilities allowed the aircraft \u2019 s forward observer to spot activity on the jungle floor, even in nearly complete darkness. the yo - 3a and it ' s prototype, the qt - 2 represent represented the first use of aerial stealth technology in combat. unlike the stealth aircraft we know today, the qt - 2 and yo - 3a were not designed to hide from radar, but to hide from human detection. the plane \u2019 s muffler - equipped engine drove a special slow propeller that eliminated the buzzing sound typical of propeller aircraft. this let the yo - 3a operate almost unheard by people on the ground. lockheed project manager, stanley hall described the aircraft \u2019 s noise as \u201c the gentle rushing sound of the ocean surf \u201d. the museum \u2019 s aircraft, 69 - 18005, was the sixth of just 11 aircraft constructed. it served in vietnam from 1970 \u2013 1972 before it was sold to an aviation school. the museum acquired the aircraft in 2010 from mr. bruce elliot of la connor, wa. the yo - 3a exhibit tells the story of this highly unique aircraft and looks at the sources of airplane noise and ongoing efforts to quiet them down.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5173500724510435, "token_count": 288, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3f7099c4-1ea6-4360-8909-7e25f2f81926>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.645494"}
{"text": "dietary carbs are currently regarded as the culprit for most modern human diseases including diabetes, cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative diseases. indeed, numerous studies demonstrate the association between over consumption of carbs and a high percentage of blood sugar problems, obesity and cognitive impairments among modern humans from all age groups. consequently, carb - bashing today is at an all - time high. many people develop carb phobia and low or no carb diets are now the darling of the media. so it seems, the two most popular dietary methods are currently carb or calorie restriction. most, if not all diets are based on either one or both methods. yet, in spite of the growing awareness of the hazards of over consumption of carbs and calories, the rate of weight gain, obesity and blood sugar related diseases is still accelerating. to make matters worse, people who follow extreme low calorie or low carb diets often face unpleasant symptoms including mental and physical fatigue, chronic cravings for carbs ( in particular sweets ), loss of libido and severe mood swings. bodybuilders, who try to slim down via low calorie low carb diets, often face similar adverse symptoms in addition to loss of muscle mass and strength. obviously, something must be wrong with the assumption that chronic carb and calorie restriction is the practical solution for most of modern disease. even though the idea of carb and calorie restriction may very well work theoretically, in practical terms ( in vivo ) it fails. the purpose of this article is to shed some light on the critical role of dietary carbs in human metabolism as well as to challenge the notion that carbs aren ' t essential for human survival. finally, conclusions are presented together with some practical methods as to how to take advantage of dietary carbs for reaching a desired metabolic potential to build lean tissue ( including muscles ), burn fat and increase energy production. maximum oxygenation is a biological term that describes maximum energy production from metabolic processes that require oxygen. active individuals, including athletes and bodybuilders, should note that maximum oxygenation is a principal key to maximum performance. the upcoming paragraph may be somewhat technical. nevertheless, understanding this topic could mean the difference between average and superior capability to build muscles and ignite energy. living organisms derive most of their energy from oxidation - reduction ( redox ) reactions, which involve the transfer of electrons to the respiratory chain complex ( an aerobic energy - yielding metabolic process", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5453187071782282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5caed47f-54d6-4e71-9d18-6f1bba4ee1bf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.678004"}
{"text": "between average and superior capability to build muscles and ignite energy. living organisms derive most of their energy from oxidation - reduction ( redox ) reactions, which involve the transfer of electrons to the respiratory chain complex ( an aerobic energy - yielding metabolic process that involves interaction between hydrogen protons and oxygen ). aerobic energy production requires oxygen and yields most of the energy needed for survival. in fact, the electron transfer system ( oxidative phosphorylation ) yields ten times more energy than the krebs cycle itself. dr. otto warburg, one of the world ' s foremost leading biochemists, won a nobel prize for his basic work with respiratory enzymes and cellular energy production. he discovered and characterized certain nucleotide compounds and proteins, which are necessary for the actions of the respiratory chain, which, as noted, yields most of the energy needed to maintain an optimum metabolic state. dr. warburg suggested that energy released in the oxidation of foodstuff may be conserved and transferred via a special mechanism for use in synthesis and growth. on the other hand, anaerobic respiration ( an energy yielding metabolic process that does not require oxygen ) may adversely catabolize and damage healthy tissues. dr. warburg and other researchers showed that there is indeed a relationship between anaerobic respiration, tissue destruction and cancer. dr. abram hoffer and dr. morton walker, in their book smart nutrition ( avery 1994 ), suggested that anaerobic respiration is the most primitive energy producing method compared to aerobic respiration which is a later development in the evolution of life from unicellular to multicellular organisms. it is likely that multicellular organisms did not develop until cells became aerobic. according to this theory, the switch back from aerobic to anaerobic respiration brings the cell back to a primitive condition that may cause uncontrolled cell division and a resultant catastrophic damage to the whole organism. as you ' re about to see, aerobic respiration clearly depends on dietary carb utilization and the production of substrates and enzymes that serve as energy molecules. all energy molecules are, in fact, made from nucleotides. most important, all nucleotide material, including all energy molecules, are derived from glucose that is then predominantly derived from dietary carbs. the essential role of carbs it is commonly assumed that carbs serve as fuel and nothing more. this assumption is wrong and quite misleading since it fails to recognize the main biological functions of carbs, which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5593860097041139, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5caed47f-54d6-4e71-9d18-6f1bba4ee1bf>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.679105"}
{"text": "sugar impact and effectively enhances overall detox. - take multivitamin and multimineral supplements as well as efas to facilitate optimum assimilation of all essential nutrients. a lack of even one essential nutrient may lead to severe metabolic impairment and compromise the ability of the body to utilize glucose and energy. b vitamins, in particular, are precursors to co - enzymes, which are vitally important for glucose and energy utilization. antioxidants are necessary for protection against oxidative free radicals and overall detox. note that active individuals, including bodybuilders and athletes, need to increase essential nutrients and antioxidant intake due to higher food consumption and increased oxygenation with their respective waste and toxin metabolites. dietary carbs should be regarded as a double edge sword. nonetheless, in times of so much confusion as to what to eat and how much, it ' s important to present another way of looking at food, including carbohydrate - rich foods. food should be regarded as a source of complete nourishment and as such, it should satisfy three requirements : - food should supply all essential and conditionally essential nutrients - food should be clean of chemical toxins. it should smell and taste well and be fully digestible. - food should supply an optimal amount of energy substrates ( including glucose ) to satisfy the body ' s metabolic needs. optimum means : the right amount needed - no less, no more! dietary carbs are a most viable source of conditionally essential glucose as well as fiber, minerals, oils and phytonutrients. carbs add unique taste, smell and aroma to food and are considered the cleanest and most digestible fuel. one should never dismiss the importance of smell, taste and overall satiety from food. hunger and satiety mark the presence of most powerful neuropeptides that aside from regulating feeding cycles, also regulate hormonal secretion, sleep - awake cycles, aggression and relaxation, regeneration of tissues ( growth ), overall energy expenditure and rate of fat burning. from that aspect, both sensation of hunger and satisfaction from food are necessary for maximum nourishment. food works as a source of nutrients and also as a neurocatalyst for other numerous critical metabolic functions that regulate the rate of growth, fat burning and energy production. chronically over restricting or eliminating dietary carbs from one ' s diet may lead to severe consequences including hormonal and neural impairments, stunted growth, sluggis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5202747432251961, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5caed47f-54d6-4e71-9d18-6f1bba4ee1bf>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.684968"}
{"text": "national alliance on mental illness page printed from http : / / www. nami. org / ( 800 ) 950 - nami ; firstname. lastname @ example. org using virtual reality to treat ptsd dr. robert mclay with some of the virtual reality equipment used for treatment. courtesy of johns hopkins university press by taylor poor, nami education program coordinator dr. robert n. mclay \u2019 s recent book, at war with ptsd : battling post traumatic stress disorder with virtual reality ( johns hopkins university press, 2012 ), offers a valuable lesson about treating people rather than diseases. after all, as the author says, \u201c doing mental health is not just about biology. \u201d posttraumatic stress disorder ( ptsd ) is a type of anxiety disorder associated with the direct or indirect experience of a traumatic event, and often involves memory disturbances, emotional detachment, hypervigilance ( abnormally increased arousal ) or insomnia. though soldiers have endured the psychological consequences of armed combat for millennia, ptsd has gained credence only recently as a biological disease with a potentially measurable impact on the brain, a disease that can occur at any age, following any type of traumatic experience, from assault or rape to war or a natural disaster. but the increase of ptsd \u2019 s validity as a clinical diagnosis does not protect service members and veterans from the shame of the stigma they face from comrades - in - arms \u2014 and from the civilian population once they return home. at war with ptsd : battling post traumatic stress disorder with virtual reality by robert n. mclay dr. mclay emphasizes the importance of looking at where patients are coming from before starting treatment, whether that \u2019 s the battlefield, a prison, or a home with domestic abuse. he draws from countless individual testimonies ( \u201c psychiatric fables \u201d ) to illustrate the diversity of patients who are looking for different solutions and who require different approaches. maybe the same basic treatment techniques will find success with both service members and non - service members experiencing ptsd, but for those service members, the idea that \u201c somebody else gets it \u201d is important ; it \u2019 s helpful to talk to a military psychiatrist rather than a civilian doctor. however, the distinction between combat ptsd and other types of ptsd isn \u2019 t necessarily clinical. dr. mclay explains that combat ptsd is typically a version of \u201c complex ptsd, \u201d involving multiple, compounded traumatic incidents ; unlike \u201c simple ptsd, \u201d which involves a single incident. however, the unique components of combat trauma", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5136036388924363, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7566d068-ecba-48f5-82b3-5baad7f408b5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.690937"}
{"text": "for disability benefits without a visible wound are unlikely to then seek treatment, and thus possibly lose those hard - won benefits. on the other hand, continuing advances in research and technology paint a brighter picture. dr. mclay has cautiously gained confidence in virtual reality treatments since his return to the u. s., but is \u201c convinced vr is not going to solve all our problems. \u201d other promising possibilities include : stellate ganglion block, or an anesthetic injection to a spinal nerve cluster that alleviates pain and some other ptsd symptoms ; transcranial magnetic stimulation ( tms ), which involves producing weak electric currents in the brain ; and \u201c third location \u201d, or staged, decompression, where instead of being transported straight back into civilian society, service members returning from duty can spend a period of time in a non - combat zone outside of their home country. all of these techniques serve to widen the array of treatment options that can be personalized to reflect an individual patient \u2019 s hopes and priorities. the reason dr. mclay \u2019 s book doesn \u2019 t feel like the typical treatise on a controversial mental health diagnosis is his unassuming tone. there is no pedagogy about symptomatology or the complexities of ptsd : he seems to be simply taking the reader along for the ride as he figures out the answers \u2014 or some possible answers, at least \u2014 to the very questions he \u2019 s just asked in the text. his final message, which he reiterates on the phone, is similarly simple : the only way to reduce stigma is \u201c to get the word out \u201d about mental illness, and particularly ptsd. with the help of accessible, informative and compelling books like at war with ptsd, that goal seems more reachable than ever.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5019078220193345, "token_count": 363, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7566d068-ecba-48f5-82b3-5baad7f408b5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.692730"}
{"text": "nami \u2019 s position ( summarized from the nami policy platform ) treatment, not punishment : nami believes that persons who have committed offenses due to states of mind or behavior caused by a brain disorder require treatment, not punishment. nami believes that a prison or jail is never an optimal therapeutic setting. nami believes that mental health systems have an obligation to develop and implement systems of appropriate care for individuals whose untreated brain disorders may cause them to engage in inappropriate or criminal behaviors. treatment while in correctional settings : nami believes that states and communities have legal and ethical obligations to provide people with brain disorders humane and effective treatment while in correctional settings. training and education : nami believes that education about brain disorders at all levels of judicial and legal systems is crucial to the appropriate disposition of cases involving offenders with brain disorders. judges, lawyers, police officers, correctional officers, parole and probation officers, law enforcement personnel, court officers, and emergency medical transport and service personnel should be required to complete at least 20 hours of training about these disorders. consumers and family members should be a part of this educational process. nami believes that, in the overwhelming majority of cases, dangerous or violent acts committed by persons with brain disorders are the result of neglect or inappropriate or inadequate treatment of their illness. nami supports the retention of the \" insanity defense \" and favors the two - prong test that includes the volitional as well as the cognitive standard. nami opposes the adoption of \" guilty but mentally ill \" statutes. nami supports systems that provide comprehensive, long - term care and supervision in hospitals and in the community to individuals found \" not guilty by reason of insanity, \" \" guilty except for insanity, or any other similar terminology used in state statutes pertaining to the insanity defense. parole and probation, transitional services : nami believes that states must adopt systems for assisting individuals with serious brain disorders who have served sentences and are eligible for release on parole with appropriate treatment and services to aid their transition back into the community. nami opposes the death penalty for persons with brain disorders. the \" criminalization \" trend is today worse than ever in 1992, nami and public citizen \u2019 s health research group released a report, entitled criminalizing the seriously mentally ill : the abuse of jails as mental hospitals, which revealed alarmingly high numbers of people with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and other severe mental illnesses incarcerated in jails across the country. most of these people had not committed major crimes, but either had been charged with misdemeanors or minor fe", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5211427016422936, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f046bac7-e9d1-4ba2-918b-e9ecd16db990>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.699154"}
{"text": "joined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : tue may 27, 2008 11 : 36 am post subject : assembly lines for nanotechnology. | 24 august 2007 rsc publishing - chemical technology nano production lines researchers in switzerland have built nanoscale cargo loading stations and shuttles, an important step towards assembly lines for nanotechnology. drawing of a nano conveyor belt biological assembly lines consist of kinesin proteins which carry cargo, like organelles or vesicles, and literally walk along microtubules. however, as far as man - made systems go, ' nothing comparable to a macroscopic assembly line exists at the nanoscale, ' according to viola vogel of the department of materials at the swiss federal institute of technology ( eth ) in zurich. ' imagine if you wanted to build a car by fabricating all of its components, putting them in a glass full of water and hoping that they would self - assemble spontaneously into the finished car. ' the challenge is to tune the interactions in the system so that the cargo remains stuck to the station when not needed, but can be picked up easily by the shuttle. as a test of principle, vogel and colleagues used gold nanoparticles coated in anti - biotin antibodies as cargo, and compared loading stations made of biotin - tipped dna with biotin - tipped polyethylene glycol. biotinylated microtubules, powered by kinesin motors, act as shuttles rather than conveyor belts, as they do in cells. vogel and team then tracked the fate of the gold nanoparticles with scanning electron microscopy. they found that the shuttles did indeed pick up the nanoparticles and that they held on to them, with a loss rate of about 28 % over 12 minutes. they also found that dna stations are more effective than polymer ones. ' future challenges will be to combine the main components of a transport system : pick - up of cargo from defined locations, guided transport, and controlled discharge of the load at the final destination, ' commented vogel. she went on to caution : ' the problems are always in the details of working through the engineering challenges of interfacing biological molecules with synthetic devices. ' story posted : 24th august 2007", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.58171686496884, "token_count": 453, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:21df35ea-b78d-400a-9ded-412d6c7d5521>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.703408"}
{"text": "materials science research rack heats up for valuable space station science have you ever wondered how we develop new materials or find out what properties we can change in existing materials to improve them? scientists and researchers at nasa are doing just that through materials science research using the materials science research rack ( msrr ) aboard the international space station materials science research is the applied study of the properties of matter and substances. this type of research in space benefits from the microgravity environment, and it allows researchers to isolate chemical and thermal properties of materials from the effects of gravity. the msrr is about the size of a large refrigerator and contains two furnace inserts that can heat materials to temperatures of 2, 500 degrees fahrenheit. cartridges are placed inside the furnace insert one at a time for processing. once a cartridge is in place, the experiment can be run from the ground. processed samples are returned to earth as soon as possible for evaluation and comparison of their properties to samples from similarly processed cartridges on the ground. researchers have used the rack to process 16 samples of different materials since the facility launched to the space station in 2009. in late 2011, there was a loss of communications between the msrr and the computer that controls it. the automatic safety procedures on the rack caused it to shut down as designed ; but, in doing so, it also caused the temperatures inside the furnace to exceed their normal limits. these higher temperatures caused some of the material inside the furnace to become bonded to the furnace itself. this required the station crew to clean the furnace and remove the materials. to prevent such an event from happening again, shawn reagan, manager of the msrr project at nasa ' s marshall space flight center in huntsville, ala., and his team worked with marshall engineers to design a software upgrade for the msrr. this update will prevent this scenario from occurring in the future, allowing the facility to begin processing samples again. \" the msrr has been a great tool in understanding how different materials like ceramics or metals react when heat is applied to them in space, \" said reagan. \" the original design of the software that controls the msrr called for it to shut down within 30 seconds of losing communications from the main computer that controls it. through our experience over the last several years on how the msrr operates, we were able to design a much more efficient software program that will allow the furnace to stay operating for up to three hours after losing communications. this will give researchers enough time to troubleshoot any problems and prevent any contamination of the furnace due to overheating", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5399610040769396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8bb4e031-180a-458d-b407-ee22d7c338e3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.708007"}
{"text": "were able to design a much more efficient software program that will allow the furnace to stay operating for up to three hours after losing communications. this will give researchers enough time to troubleshoot any problems and prevent any contamination of the furnace due to overheating of materials. \" getting the msrr back online is important because applied materials science is essential for the development of new, safer, stronger and more durable materials for use throughout everyday life. one of the goals of performing research in space is to gain a better understanding of the role of gravity in the microstructural development during solidification. one of the first experiments performed on the msrr melted and solidified an aluminum and silicon alloy. this type of processing typically is used for producing commercially important products such as high temperature turbine blades. the msrr was fired up on jan. 23 and began its work processing the first of 11 new samples that will be tested over the next several months. \" everything looks great and the first sample was processed successfully, \" said reagan. \" we are really proud of our team for working through these issues with the msrr and designing this software to make it work even better. this is what science is all about - - working through challenges and coming out of those with an even better product. \" nasa ' s marshall space flight center", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5464718465451828, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8bb4e031-180a-458d-b407-ee22d7c338e3>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.708567"}
{"text": "a park - specific geoscience book. the park ' s geology may be described in regional or state geology texts. parks and plates : the geology of our national parks, monuments & seashores. lillie, robert j., 2005. w. w. norton and company. 9 \" x 10. 75 \", paperback, 550 pages, full color throughout the spectacular geology in our national parks provides the answers to many questions about the earth. the answers can be appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that sculpt our landscape. parks and plates is a visual and scientific voyage of discovery! ordering from your national park cooperative associations ' bookstores helps to support programs in the parks. please visit the bookstore locator for park books and much more. st. croix national scenic riverway still has much to learn about the riverway and the species that inhabit it. park staff and researchers set up studies to establish baseline inventories and monitor population trends. inventories are a snapshot in time of a particular population. monitoring looks at those populations and track how they change over time. information about the park ' s research program is available on the park ' s research webpage. for information about permits that are required for conducting geologic research activities in national parks, see the permits information page. the nps maintains a searchable data base of research needs that have been identified by parks. a bibliography of geologic references is being prepared for each park through the geologic resources evaluation program ( gre ). please see the gre website for more information and contacts. nps geology and soils partnersassociation of american state geologists geological society of america natural resource conservation service - soils u. s. geological survey general information about the park ' s education and intrepretive programs is available on the park ' s education webpage. for resources and information on teaching geology using national park examples, see the students & teachers pages.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5118080202735669, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8e35b852-36a3-4ac1-96f2-2d5ca80b4088>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.776960"}
{"text": "even a material 10 billion times as strong as steel has a breaking point. it seems neutron stars may shatter under extreme forces, explaining puzzling x - ray flares. neutron stars are dense remnants of stars gone supernova, packing the mass of the sun into a sphere the size of a city. their cores may be fluid, but their outer surfaces are solid and extremely tough - making graphene, the strongest material on earth, look like tissue paper by comparison. these shells may shatter, though, in the final few seconds before a pair of neutron stars merges to form a black hole - a union thought to generate explosions known as short gamma - ray bursts. david tsang of the california institute of technology in pasadena and colleagues have calculated how the mutual gravitational pull of such stars will distort their shape, creating moving tidal bulges. as the stars spiral towards each other, orbiting ever faster, they squeeze and stretch each other ever faster too. a few seconds before the stars merge, the frequency of this squeezing and stretching matches the frequency at which one of the stars vibrates most easily. this creates a resonance that boosts the vibrations dramatically, causing the star ' s crust to crack in many places - just as a wine glass may shatter when a certain note is sung, the team says ( physical review letters, doi : 10. 1103 / physrevlett. 108. 011102 ). the star ' s gravity is too powerful to let the pieces fly away, but the sudden movement can disturb its magnetic field, accelerating electrons and leading to a powerful x - ray flare. that could explain observations by nasa ' s swift satellite in which a blast of x - rays preceded some short gamma - ray bursts by a few seconds. combining observations of x - ray flares with those of gravitational waves emitted by the stars as they spiral together could fix the exact frequency at which the shattering occurs, which would reveal more about the stars ' mysterious interiors, says tsang. if you would like to reuse any content from new scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. new scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. have your say only subscribers may leave comments on this article. please log in. only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5376779219737293, "token_count": 483, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dde9296d-febe-4cf0-8ed1-a0f99cdc6029>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.824713"}
{"text": "internet citizen science databases salamander study : this project has students collect data on the proximity of salamanders to a stream. during the field portion, students check under \" wood cookies \" for salamander locations. what are the abiotic conditions when salamanders are found further from the stream? explore our data to find out. ozone bio - monitoring study : ground - level ozone creates visible symptoms on sensitive plants that are exposed to this invisible air pollutant. students collect data on the percent of ozone damage covering leaves on plants growing in our monitoring garden. explore the data to find out what the symptom looks like, how quickly it progresses and how you might be able to monitor in your schoolyard. terrestrial invertebrate study : changes in climate can result in subtle shifts in phenology ( life cycle events such as when an insect emerges or when a plant blooms ). students collect data on insect orders found living in decaying leaves in our study plot. explore the data to find out if the appearance of certain insects is shifting over time. water quality study : all streams in the smokies originate in the park but even they are not pristine because of acid deposition and recreational activities in the park. compare data collected by students in the park with a stream near your schoolyard. how does the ph differ, which location gets the most stonefly larvae? lichen monitoring : lichens absorb nutrients from the air when they are wet which makes them sensitivie to acid deposition. data is collected on the perecentage of coverage of three different lichen growth forms on selected trees throughout great smoky mountains national park. are sensitive lichen growth forms being replaced by more tolerant groups? using the databases, students can compare changes over time and geography. hands on history : search photos, transcribed interviews and other first hand personal accounts of life in the region before great smoky mountains became a national park. there is also a database containing information from every cemetery and every gravestone located in the smokies. check out the teacher resource section for classroom activities. how to participate click any of the database links to explore our student citizen science research projects. are you doing a similar study in your own schoolyard? add your location to the hands on the land database to track your own research findings. just become a member of the hands on the land network of educators. - grade levels : - third grade - graduate level ( masters, phd ) - anthropology, aquatic studies, biodiversity, biology : animals, biology : plants, botany", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5228048383632098, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:837a3f45-f842-48a8-b409-b53804ae4774>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.866822"}
{"text": "university of southampton in the u. k., is internationally known for discovering the relationship between low birth weight and the lifetime risk for coronary heart disease and other medical disorders, which the british medical journal has named the barker hypothesis. he has published more than 200 papers and written or edited five books about the developmental origins of chronic disease. he was honored in 2005 with the prestigious danone international prize for nutrition for his pioneering research. the ohsu study published today proposes that breast cancer is initiated in the first trimester of a pregnancy by exposure of the embryo ' s developing breast tissue to the mother ' s circulating sex hormones. the primary mammary cord, which gives rise to milk - producing breast lobules, develops in the fetus at 10 weeks. the fetal breast is known to be stimulated by circulating hormones ; the intensity of the stimulation is such that half of all newborn babies have breast secretions. \" our findings support the hypothesis that wide round hips reflect high levels of sex hormone production at puberty, which persist after puberty and adversely affect breast development of the daughters in early gestation, \" the authors commented. they could only speculate, they said, on the exact nature of this adverse effect but pointed out : \" catechol estrogen, a metabolite or estradiol, is thought to cause chromosomal instability by breaking dna strands. high catechol estrogen concentrations in the maternal circulation could produce genetic instability in differentiating breast epithelial cells, which would make the breast vulnerable to cancer in later life. \" \" epidemiological findings of this kind aren ' t designed to define precise biological or molecular mechanisms, \" said grover bagby, m. d., deputy director of the ohsu cancer institute. \" however, for those of us involved in identifying the earliest molecular causes of cancer, these fascinating results define the types of questions we need to ask. this is a wake - up call telling us to pay attention to stem cell populations at the time of birth \u2026 a good deal earlier than we might have otherwise done. it is important to consider these cell populations because only by understanding the initial cause can we begin to develop rational strategies to prevent this very common cancer. \" the daughters who were the subjects of the study were all born during 1934 - 1944 at either helsinki university central hospital or city maternity hospital, the two maternity hospitals in finland ' s capital. the occurrence of breast cancer among them was ascertained from national registers of all hospital admissions and deaths in finland. three hundred of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5257976122618722, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84d18e58-0345-4dba-ac68-9c7adf04e995>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.883357"}
{"text": "1934 - 1944 at either helsinki university central hospital or city maternity hospital, the two maternity hospitals in finland ' s capital. the occurrence of breast cancer among them was ascertained from national registers of all hospital admissions and deaths in finland. three hundred of them had had breast cancer of whom 48 died from the disease. their mean age when they were diagnosed was 54. the findings shed new light on the link between breast cancer and nutrition. \" mothers whose daughters developed breast cancer were of similar height to the other mothers, \" barker and thornburg reported. \" this suggests that they had similar nutrition through childhood. our findings do not therefore indicate that good nutrition through childhood is linked to breast cancer in the next generation. but they do show that the pubertal growth spurt of girls, which reflects the level of nutrition, is strongly associated with the risk of breast cancer in their daughters. \" the authors of the journal article besides barker and thornburg, who is director of the ohsu heart research center and professor of cardiovascular medicine in the ohsu school of medicine, were clive osmond, senior scientist at the medical research council epidemiology resource center at the university of southampton ; eero kajantie and tom j. forsen, both of finland ' s national public health institute ; and johan g. eriksson, who holds positions at both the national public health institute as well as with the university of helsinki ' s department of public health. barker and osmond have collaborated with eriksson and his finnish colleagues for the past 12 years tracing some 20, 000 men and women in the helsinki birth cohort study. the american journal of human biology is published by wiley - liss, inc., a subsidiary of john wiley & sons, inc. the full text of the study, entitled \u201c a possible link between the pubertal growth of girls and breast cancer in their daughters, \u201d is available in \u201c early view \u201d at http : / / www3. interscience. wiley. com / cgi - bin / fulltext / 116327402 / pdfstart the link to the abstract is : http : / / www3. interscience. wiley. com / cgi - bin / abstract / 116327402 / abstract", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5058698175172048, "token_count": 456, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84d18e58-0345-4dba-ac68-9c7adf04e995>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.884206"}
{"text": "the r project for statistical computing is an open source language and programming environment that provides a wide variety of data manipulation, statistical analysis, and data visualization capabilities. r is a successor to the s software originally developed at bell laboratories. r is a gnu project and is freely available under the terms of the gnu general public license. the software runs on windows, mac os, and a wide variety of unix platforms. even for people who aren ' t expert statisticians, the power of r is alluring. working interactively or using an r script, with just a few lines of code a user can perform complex analyses of large data sets, produce graphics depicting the features and structure of the data, and perform statistical analyses that can quickly answer questions about the data. this article introduces r and demonstrates a small slice of its capabilities, using data from the stock market and real estate industry as input. i developed and ran the demonstrations in this article on a vision computers pc running debian linux ( sarge version, \" stable \" ). i installed r version 2. 1 using the standard debian advanced package tool ( apt ) utility. to run r interactively, open a terminal window, create a work directory, enter the directory, and execute r : figure 1. the r command window r ' s command language takes some getting used to, but knowing just a few commands provides enough knowledge to perform basic statistical analyses and generate plots for any data set that can be formatted into a one -, two -, or three - dimensional rectangular grid. r commands can be lengthy, because most functions have many optional settings parameters. so it ' s very convenient that the up and down arrow keys in the r command window recall previous command - line entries, which you can then edit. this lets you work toward your data analysis goal incrementally by modifying and extending previously entered command lines. a simple starting point is a vector or array of numbers. i downloaded historical standard and poor ' s ( s & p ) 500 stock index data and wrote a perl program to convert the data into a simple two - column table. figure 2 shows a snippet of the start of the file. figure 2. the sp500. txt file format read. table ( ) function reads an external file into an r data frame variable. to read the s & p 500 data file and make a simple plot of the close price over time, enter the following commands at the r prompt ( > dv < - read. table ( \". / sp500.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5462118903521637, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d3c20870-c351-40c4-83af-cb9968d6ca34>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.906785"}
{"text": "that approximates the geographical size and position of the nine ofheo regions. then, using a perl script, i created an input data set for r that assigns the price index for the region to each grid point. hence, the r input file consists of 51 x 30 = 1, 530 data points. for areas on the grid that are not part of the united states ( for example, the ocean ), the data values are na, which tells r not to display data for that position in the 3 - d plot. the r commands that produce an image representation of the house price data are : > dv < - read. table ( \". / ofheo5yr. gridfine \", header = false ) > z < - dv [, 1 ] > attr ( z, \" dim \" ) = c ( 51, 30 ) > image ( z, col = topo. colors ( 50 ), axes = false ) the first line reads the 1, 530 - point data file. the second line assigns the values read to variable z. next, the attr ( ) function alters the dimension ( \" dim \" ) attribute of the z variable to arrange its data in the form of a two - dimensional array with 51 rows, each containing 30 data values. finally, the image ( ) function generates an image of the z data, using 50 colors in the topo color scale to represent the varying z values. figure 8 shows the results. figure 8. the plot of five - year regional house price changes topo color scale assigns violet to low values, with blue, green, yellow, orange, and pink assigned to successively higher values. the image shows that the change in housing prices is not at all evenly distributed across the united states geographically. persp ( ) function provides another view of the same data : this code tells r to generate a 3 - d perspective image of the z data, viewing the image with no rotation ( theta = 0 ) and tilted 60 degrees from the horizontal ( phi = 60 ), with no box around the image, coloring the mesh yellow. figure 9 shows the plot. figure 9. the perspective plot of five - year regional house price changes perhaps more clearly, the perspective plot shows that the large increases in house prices in the past five years have occurred on the west coast and in the northeast, while the middle of the united states hasn ' t seen significant home price increases overall. this backs up alan greenspan ' s assertions that there is not a national housing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5153562030352802, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d3c20870-c351-40c4-83af-cb9968d6ca34>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.912798"}
{"text": "the world economy is being reshaped by new technologies, services, and trading relationships. much of this dynamism is fuelled by ambitious developing - world nation - states like brazil, india and south africa. as governments, businesses and regional blocs in the global south expand their horizons, they increasingly bypass rich northern states. but is this south - south cooperation any more progressive or less selfish than the more familiar and hegemonic north - south relationship? the idea of south - south cooperation started to influence the field of development studies in the late 1990s. it was fuelled by a growing realisation that poor nations might find appropriate, low - cost and sustainable solutions to their problems in other developing countries rather than in the rich north. it drew on clear examples of existing waste and alternative opportunity ; for example, if african farmers need boreholes to access water, it surely makes more sense to access indias huge pool of expertise than to send expensive european water engineers. the concept quickly spread from the seminar room to the policy chamber. by 1997, britains new department for international development ( dfid ) explicitly aimed under its first minister, clare short to withdraw from its aid programmes any requirement to use british service providers. the intention was to encourage recipient governments to spend the aid more effectively especially on solutions sourced from other developing nations. by the early 2000s, some forward - thinking developing nations themselves were incorporating this altruistic principle into their foreign policies. luis ignacio lula da silvas brazil is just beginning to make africa part of its wider effort to build the countrys global profile ; recently it granted fellow - lusophone mozambique a project to install and staff its own factory producing anti - retroviral hiv drugs, thus reducing its reliance on expensive imports. china and africa an even more potent example of south - south cooperation is the peoples republic of china. chinas presence in africa goes back centuries : archaeologists digging in the ruins of africas great medieval trading states at timbuktu and great zimbabwe have found fine porcelain and other evidence of a trading network that spanned half the world. after the prc was founded in 1949, the new state based its relations with the developing world on a defined doctrine, the five principles of peaceful coexistence ; it also used its own legacy of colonial aggression and experience of liberation to forge links with the african nation - states emerging from colonial rule. china in the 1960s lacked the resources of the cold - war superpowers, but still invested significant energies in support of independent africa. the prc, driven by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5020330526056586, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0cf1c4ac-c078-4872-b063-38459d65e7e6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.922848"}
{"text": "and experience of liberation to forge links with the african nation - states emerging from colonial rule. china in the 1960s lacked the resources of the cold - war superpowers, but still invested significant energies in support of independent africa. the prc, driven by perceived ideological, anti - imperialist affinities, dispatched chinese technicians to nominally leftist states to provide military training, modest economic aid and infrastructural monuments to socialist solidarity. the era of liberation wars in the 1970s saw china choose sides and patronise its favoured forces, as in angola. this interest receded in the 1980s as chinese development efforts were diverted inwards. but the post - tiananmen period gave earlier ideological bonds a fresh twist : the hostility of many african leaders to democratic pressures and ( especially ) western, hegemonic conceptions of human rights chimed with chinas own preconceptions. throughout the 1990s, china increased its aid to african governments and resumed its earlier rhetoric of mutual respect and concern for diversity a discourse that resounded strongly in a continent highly attuned to the perceived neo - colonial reflexes of the former ruling powers. in return, beijing received recognition of its sovereignty over taiwan, indifference to its human - rights abuses, and support in international organisations. in 2000, a new china - africa cooperation forum agreed a joint economic and social programme, one that lent a developmental and commercial slant to the five principles. china has subsequently been well in advance of the g8 by cancelling $ 10 billion of the debt it is owed by african states ; at the second sino - africa business conference in december 2003, china offered further debt relief to thirty - one african countries, as well as opening the prospect of zero - tariff trade. the tensions in what might be called chinas developmental evangelism in africa are evident. the ideological underpinnings retain some potency and the principle of non - interference in domestic politics persists. but as chinese commercial interests dominate the relationship, the strain of avoiding entanglement in ethically and politically complex questions increases. for china, insensitivity to human - rights abuses can be finessed as respecting cultural diversity, but this gets harder in a more open, regulated trading environment. rapid economic growth in china in the last decade, coupled with oil exploration and economic diversification in west - central africa, has created new links. more than 60 % of african timber exports are now destined for east asia ; 25 % of chinas oil supplies are now sourced in the gulf of guinea region. china - zimbabwe :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5147798395726918, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0cf1c4ac-c078-4872-b063-38459d65e7e6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.924009"}
{"text": "a tsunami is a series of waves most commonly caused by violent movement of the sea floor. in some ways, it resembles the ripples radiating outward from the spot where stone has been thrown into the water, but a tsunami can occur on an enormous scale. tsunamis are generated by any large, impulsive displacement of the sea bed level. the movement at the sea floor leading to tsunami can be produced by earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. most tsunamis, including almost all of those traveling across entire ocean basins with destructive force, are caused by submarine faulting associated with large earthquakes. these are produced when a block of the ocean floor is thrust upward, or suddenly drops, or when an inclined area of the seafloor is thrust upward or suddenly thrust sideways. in any event, a huge mass of water is displaced, producing tsunami. such fault movements are accompanied by earthquakes, which are sometimes referred to as \u201c tsunamigenic earthquakes \u201d. most tsunamigenic earthquakes take place at the great ocean trenches, where the tectonic plates that make up the earth \u2019 s surface collide and are forced under each other. when the plates move gradually or in small thrust, only small earthquakes are produced ; however, periodically in certain areas, the plates catch. the overall motion of the plates does not stop ; only the motion beneath the trench becomes hung up. such areas where the plates are hung up are known as \u201c seismic gaps \u201d for their lack of earthquakes. the forces in these gaps continue to build until finally they overcome the strength of the rocks holding back the plate motion. the built - up tension ( or comprehension ) is released in one large earthquake, instead of many smaller quakes, and these often generate large deadly tsunamis. if the sea floor movement is horizontal, a tsunami is not generated. earthquakes of magnitude larger than m 6. 5 are critical for tsunami generation. tsunamis produced by landslides : probably the second most common cause of tsunami is landslide. a tsunami may be generated by a landslide starting out above the sea level and then plunging into the sea, or by a landslide entirely occurring underwater. landslides occur when slopes or deposits of sediment become too steep and the material falls under the pull of gravity. once unstable conditions are present, slope failure can be caused by storms, earthquakes, rain, or merely continued deposit of material on the slope. certain environments are particularly susceptible to the production of landslide - generated earthquakes. river deltas and steep underwater slopes above sub - marine canyons, for instance, are likely sites for landslide - generated earthquakes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5395596859795249, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87a817df-e201-474d-b964-dcde3f8d1a17>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.938365"}
{"text": "determined by the physical size and shape of the basin. this sloshing is known as the seiche. the greater the length of the body, the longer the period of oscillation. the depth of the body also controls the period of oscillations, with greater water depths producing shorter periods. a tsunami wave may set off seiche and if the following tsunami wave arrives with the next natural oscillation of the seiche, water may even reach greater heights than it would have from the tsunami waves alone. much of the great height of tsunami waves in bays may be explained by this constructive combination of a seiche wave and a tsunami wave arriving simultaneously. once the water in the bay is set in motion, the resonance may further increase the size of the waves. the dying of the oscillations, or damping, occurs slowly as gravity gradually flattens the surface of the water and as friction turns the back and forth sloshing motion into turbulence. bodies of water with steep, rocky sides are often the most seiche - prone, but any bay or harbour that is connected to offshore waters can be perturbed to form seiche, as can shelf waters that are directly exposed to the open sea. the presence of a well developed fringing or barrier of coral reef off a shoreline also appears to have a strong effect on tsunami waves. a reef may serve to absorb a significant amount of the wave energy, reducing the height and intensity of the wave impact on the shoreline itself. the popular image of a tsunami wave approaching shore is that of a nearly vertical wall of water, similar to the front of a breaking wave in the surf. actually, most tsunamis probably don \u2019 t form such wave fronts ; the water surface instead is very close to the horizontal, and the surface itself moves up and down. however, under certain circumstances an arriving tsunami wave can develop an abrupt steep front that will move inland at high speeds. this phenomenon is known as a bore. in general, the way a bore is created is related to the velocity of the shallow water waves. as waves move into progressively shallower water, the wave in front will be traveling more slowly than the wave behind it. this phenomenon causes the waves to begin \u201c catching up \u201d with each other, decreasing their distance apart i. e. shrinking the wavelength. if the wavelength decreases, but the height does not, then waves must become steeper. furthermore, because the crest of each wave is in deeper water than the adjacent trough, the crest begins to overtake the trough", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5203399792805332, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87a817df-e201-474d-b964-dcde3f8d1a17>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.941566"}
{"text": "cycling terminology for the amgen tour of california riders : in professional cycling the racers are generally called riders as opposed to racers or cyclists. route map : the course or path the riders will take from start to finish. some stages will have laps where riders will repeat the same few blocks within the stage. stage 8 has 5 laps before the finish. stage profile : maps the ascents and descents along a stage. it is often fun for fans to see the riders on a climb where the rider ' s speed slows slightly ( or coming around a corner ). rolling neutral start : riders begin at a start line but do not begin racing until a few blocks or miles into the route ( the distance varies ). a neutral start is used if the start area conditions are narrow, crowded, or unsafe for race conditions. a neutral start is also sometimes used as a show of respect. stages 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 all have neutral starts this year. kom ( king of mountain ) : first rider to the top of a designated climb on the race route. riders receive points, the rider with the most points wins the king of the mountain ( kom ) ( climber ' s ) jersey. the jersey transfers each day to the rider with the most points overall. there may be more than one kom point in a stage, stage 4 has 6 koms. sprint : first rider to a designated sprint line on the race route. riders receive points, the rider with the most points wins the sprint ( green ) jersey. the jersey transfers each day to the rider with the most points overall. there may be more than one kom point in a stage, stage 2 has 3 sprints. leader : there will be a current leader out on course while the race is taking place, but the overall leader ( yellow jersey ) is the rider with the lowest ( fastest ) overall time for all stages. the winner of each day ' s stage is called the stage winner, not the leader. feed zone : a designated area on the route where team staff must pass out food bags ( musettes ) to the riders containing food. water may be handed to riders through team cars throughout the stage. breakaway : 1 to a few riders who are leading the race and ahead of the main peloton peloton : the main pack of riders chasing the lead breakaway. podium girls : a tradition in professional cycling to have 2 beautiful women present the awards to the riders at the finish of every stage. podium : each day the top three", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.514003361874411, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4f4d74e-8c91-45e0-9072-96c00f410d30>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.962091"}
{"text": "quarks are completely confined within protons and neutrons : a phenomenon that we do not completely understand. the artist ' s view below represents the two interlinked phenomena that drive confinement : the long - range correlations in the physical vacuum that surround the proton and excludes the color - field emanating from quarks and the extremely strong gluon - fields between the quarks. to make progress on confinement we need to separate these two effects and study each individually. one way to do this is to make a much larger system of quarks and gluons where the role of the vacuum at the surface of the larger system is much reduced. such a large system can be produced by compressing or heating nuclear matter so that the neutrons and protons begin to overlap. as the boundaries between each neutron and proton disappear, a large volume of a new state of matter should be formed - the quark gluon plasma ( qgp ). the strong interactions between quarks and gluons dominate the properties of the qgp, and because of the larger volume of the system, the influence of the correlated vacuum is much reduced. collisions between two heavy nuclei take place at relativistic heavy ion collider ( rhic ). our first results from phenix indicate that the plasma may be formed in these reactions. leading the evidence for the qgp is the reduced yield of particles at high transverse momenta ( pt ). these particles predominantly come from rare, high - momentum collisions between quarks and gluons ( partons ) that occur in the hot, early stage of the reaction. as high momentum partons travel through the forming plasma, they are predicted to lose a considerable fraction of their energy. outside the collision zone high - momentum partons fragment into hadrons, and any energy - loss in the plasma softens the hadronic spectrum, i. e. lowers the measured yield of hadrons at high - pt. the first high - pt spectra from au + au collisions measured by phenix at rhic were published in 2001 with the key observation that the high - pt spectra are softer in central than in peripheral collisions. because a central reaction would produce a larger volume of qgp, this result is consistent with the hard - scattered parton losing energy in a qgp. the overall caution remains that a heavy - ion reaction is a very complex, challenging environment. a strong case for the existence and properties of the qgp must rely on a broad range of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6760318182196545, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:995b15b9-4599-4630-b3ea-780e20ab3f77>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.973593"}
{"text": "sheet music - purpose and use sheet music can be used as a record of, a guide to, or a means to perform, a piece of music. although it does not take the place of the sound of a performed work, sheet music can be studied to create a performance and to elucidate aspects of the music that may not be obvious from mere listening. authoritative musical information about a piece can be gained by studying the written sketches and early versions of compositions that the composer might have retained, as well as the final autograph score and personal markings on proofs and printed scores. comprehending sheet music requires a special form of literacy : the ability to read musical notation. nevertheless, an ability to read or write music is not a requirement to compose music. many composers have been capable of producing music in printed form without the capacity themselves to read or write in musical notation \u2014 as long as an amanuensis of some sort is available. examples include the blind 18th - century composer john stanley and the 20th - century composers and lyricists lionel bart, irving berlin and paul mccartney. the skill of sight reading is the ability of a musician to perform an unfamiliar work of music upon viewing the sheet music for the first time. sight reading ability is expected of professional musicians and serious amateurs who play classical music and related forms. an even more refined skill is the ability to look at a new piece of music and hear most or all of the sounds ( melodies, harmonies, timbres, etc. ) in one ' s head without having to play the piece. with the exception of solo performances, where memorization is expected, classical musicians ordinarily have the sheet music at hand when performing. in jazz music, which is mostly improvised, sheet music \u2014 called a lead sheet in this context \u2014 is used to give basic indications of melodies, chord changes, and arrangements. handwritten or printed music is less important in other traditions of musical practice, however. although much popular music is published in notation of some sort, it is quite common for people to learn a piece by ear. this is also the case in most forms of western folk music, where songs and dances are passed down by oral \u2014 and aural \u2014 tradition. music of other cultures, both folk and classical, is often transmitted orally, though some non - western cultures developed their own forms of musical notation and sheet music as well. although sheet music is often thought of as being a platform for new music and an aid to composition ( i. e., the composer writes the music down )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5097438481891164, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0482eb3d-9bf0-4aa5-933e-578c2615ccdc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.977169"}
{"text": "the uncanny valley appears pretty frequently in these pages, at least in presentation \u2014 like the disembodied baby head above, for instance, or the wonderfully horrible telenoid. these robots and others represent the gulf in our robot affinity that gapes open when machines approach a certain level of human likeness. masahiro mori described this phenomenon 42 years ago, when he was a robotics professor at the tokyo institute of technology. his paper was largely unnoticed for decades, but more recently it has become a touchstone for robotics, especially as they become more lifelike. but the paper was never published in english in its entirety, for whatever reason. now here it is, in a new translation approved by mori and appearing in ieee spectrum. mori notes the eerie sensation that arises when we are tricked into thinking an artificial limb is real, and then realize it \u2019 s not \u2014 it \u201c becomes uncanny, \u201d and we lose our affinity for it. he expresses this phenomenon in a graph. \u201c i have noticed that, in climbing toward the goal of making robots appear human, our affinity for them increases until we come to a valley, which i call the uncanny valley, \u201d the new translation reads. he also charts our affinities and lack thereof for still and moving objects, noting that our affinity is pretty high for a stuffed animal or a humanoid robot. but movement is key to our affinity \u2014 a humanoid robot would not move like a human, so it would be incredibly creepy, he says. \u201c imagine a craftsman being awakened suddenly in the dead of night. he searches downstairs for something among a crowd of mannequins in his workshop. if the mannequins started to move, it would be like a horror story, \u201d he writes. a still corpse is also down in the valley. at the deepest point : zombies. five amazing, clean technologies that will set us free, in this month ' s energy - focused issue. also : how to build a better bomb detector, the robotic toys that are raising your children, a human catapult, the world ' s smallest arcade, and much more.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5248533708910862, "token_count": 426, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c801bdac-aa80-4e1f-b826-906d926e8444>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.981002"}
{"text": "\" green \" energy, it ' s all green... so it ' s clean! public power ' s \" green \" energy - why choose \" green \" energy? public power is now offering 100 % \" green \" energy. \" green \" programs are helping america become energy independent. public power offers 100 % green energy, whereas our standard rate provides only 20 % green energy. customers who enroll with our \" green \" energy program will receive a certificate from public power acknowledging their contribution to america ' s future. if you had a choice?... what is \" green \" energy? in the united states, most of our electricity is generated by pollution sources like coal - fired plants, which pollute our environment with millions of tons of carbon dioxide ( co2 ). people can now power their homes a cleaner way ; with \" green \" energy, 100 % of a home ' s monthly electric will be generated from alternative renewable energy sources that have a zero imprint on our environment. green energy is produced in a way that has less of a negative environmental impact than conventional sources such as the burning of fossil fuels. examples of green energy include solar, wind, geothermal and hydro. the use of green energy reduces negative impacts to the environment and decreases harmful greenhouse gas emissions. we all contribute to the release of harmful greenhouse gases ; the good news is that it ' s not too late to make a difference and reduce the harmful effects of common daily activities such as driving our cars, air travel, and cooling and heating our homes. a higher standard public power is promoting renewable portfolio standards ( rps ) in order to get an increased usage of renewable energy and the development of renewable products. an rps is a statewide benchmark for the percentage of electricity that must come from green, renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal. continued development of renewable resources is largely driven by the adoption of these standards. by purchasing our \" green \" energy product you would be helping promote renewable portfolio standards. public power is a proud supporter of rps with our commitment to offer up to 16 % renewable energy in all of our markets. how does \" green \" energy work? green energy is derived from naturally - occurring sources. this energy can be replenished as wind, solar, and hydroelelectric power. to help spread the sale of green energy, a system was established that separates green energy into separate parts. green energy is separated by : the electricity produced by a renewable generator and the renewable \" attributes \" of that generation. these", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.520436714086554, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:00904d06-f75d-4c78-9b64-df6de5b09f6c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.988853"}
{"text": "experimental fusion research pppl fusion research centers on the national spherical torus experiment ( nstx ), which is undergoing a $ 94 million upgrade that will make it the most powerful experimental fusion facility, or tokamak, of its type in the world when work is completed in 2014. experiments will test the ability of the upgraded spherical facility to maintain a high - performance plasma under conditions of extreme heat and power. results could strongly influence the design of future fusion reactors. the laboratory develops components and scientific data for iter, which represents the largest step to date toward the development of a commercial fusion reactor. iter, whose name is latin for \u201c the way, \u201d is being built in cadarache, france, by the european union, the united states, china, india, japan, korea and russia. the facility is designed to produce 500 million watts of fusion power for at least 400 seconds by the late 2020s to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion as a source of energy. pppl conducts research on the use of liquid lithium to help keep fusion reactions hot. the laboratory \u2019 s lithium tokamak experiment ( ltx ) is the world \u2019 s first experimental fusion facility to have liquid lithium covering all its walls to absorb plasma particles that escape from magnetic confinement. the shiny metal keeps the particles from re - entering the plasma as a cold gas, retains impurities that can cool the plasma and halt fusion reactions, and prevents damage to the plasma - facing walls. included in this research are experiments led by princeton university engineer bruce koel on the behavior of lithium and other wall materials.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.553533959658526, "token_count": 318, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:64d593c2-67d9-4e90-8ee9-cb440376d58c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:56.991885"}
{"text": "mathematics for the environment published january 18th 2011 by chapman and hall / crc \u2013 679 pages published january 18th 2011 by chapman and hall / crc \u2013 679 pages mathematics for the environment shows how to employ simple mathematical tools, such as arithmetic, to uncover fundamental conflicts between the logic of human civilization and the logic of nature. these tools can then be used to understand and effectively deal with economic, environmental, and social issues. with elementary mathematics, the book seeks answers to a host of real - life questions, including : a truly interdisciplinary, concrete study of mathematics, this classroom - tested text discusses the importance of certain mathematical principles and concepts, such as fuzzy logic, feedback, deductive systems, fractions, and logarithms, in various areas other than pure mathematics. it teaches students how to make informed choices using fundamental mathematical tools, encouraging them to find solutions to critical real - world problems. the book can be recommended to all those readers who are interested in applied mathematics as well as to those who do not think of themselves as mathematicians yet being interested in laws and relationships in which mathematics may be a helpful tool. \u2014 herbert s. buscher, zentralblatt math 1211 the book is heavily referenced \u2026 there are many detailed exercises designed to highlight how mathematics can be used to explain natural phenomena and human behavior and its consequences. \u2026 this book could serve as a text for courses in applied mathematics and a resource for study material in many other subject areas \u2026 \u2014 maa reviews, july 2011 mathematics is connected to everything else earth \u2019 s climate and some basic principles one of the greatest crimes of the 20th century edison \u2019 s algorithm : listening to nature \u2019 s feedback fuzzy logic, filters, the bigger picture principle consequences of the crime : suburbia \u2019 s topology a toxic consequence of the crime hubbert \u2019 s peak and the end of cheap oil resource wars : oil and water the co2 greenhouse law of svante arrhenius economic instability : ongoing causes necessary conditions for economic success the mathematical structure of ponzi schemes dishonest assessment of risk one reason why usury should again be illegal what is mathematics? more basics the definition of mathematics used in this book the logic of nature and the logic of civilization cycles and scales in nature and mathematics the art of estimating we all soak in a synthetic chemical soup thomas latimer \u2019 s unfortunate experience what \u2019 s in the synthetic chemical soup? synthetic flows and assumptions the flow of information about synthetic flows you cannot do just one thing : two examples mathematics : food, soil, water,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5386767432976002, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ac1fc31d-13b7-4e8c-9a11-da16e184052c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.007248"}
{"text": "in a synthetic chemical soup thomas latimer \u2019 s unfortunate experience what \u2019 s in the synthetic chemical soup? synthetic flows and assumptions the flow of information about synthetic flows you cannot do just one thing : two examples mathematics : food, soil, water, air, free speech the \" hour glass \" industrial agriculture machine industrial agriculture logic vs. the logic of life fast foods, few foods, and fossil fuels genetic engineering : one mathematical perspective toxic sludge is good for you! oceans : rising acidity and disappearing life stocks, flows and distributions of food my definition of food choices : central vs. diverse decision making mathematics and energy how much solar energy is there? solar energy is there, do we know how to get it? nuclear power : is it too cheap to meter? net primary productivity and ecological footprints npp, soil, biofuels, and the super grid the brower \u2013 cousteau model of the earth how heavily do we weigh upon the earth? mining and damming : massive rearrangements fish, forests, deserts, and soil : revisited the cousteau \u2013 brower earth model fuzzy logic, sharp logic, frames, and bigger pictures sharp ( aristotelian ) logic : a standard syllogism measuring truth values : fuzzy / measured logic definitions, assumptions and the frame of debate humans in denial \u2014 nature cannot be fooled \u2014 gravity exists the bigger picture principle the dunbar number the sustainability hypothesis : is it true? the dunbar number public relations, political power, and the organization of society political uses of fear confronting fear ( and apathy ) : organizing your community for self - preservation and sustainability math and nature : the nature of math one pattern viewed via geometry and numbers : mathese the square numbers of pythagoras the language of mathematics : mathese a general expression in mathese : a formula for odd numbers an important word in mathese : \u03c3 sentences in mathese : equations with \u03c3 and a dummy variable induction, deduction, mathematical research, and mathematical proofs what is a mathematical proof? what is a deductive system? originalidad es volver al origen axioms and atoms molecules and atoms ; the atomic number and the atomic mass number of an atom scaling and our first two axioms for numbers our first axiom for numbers number 1 : its definition, properties, uniqueness the definition of multiplicative inverse our second axiom for numbers if \u2026, then \u2026. our first proofs return to the problem : how many protons in one gram of protons? what is a mole?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6413201409388112, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ac1fc31d-13b7-4e8c-9a11-da16e184052c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.008297"}
{"text": "definition, properties, uniqueness the definition of multiplicative inverse our second axiom for numbers if \u2026, then \u2026. our first proofs return to the problem : how many protons in one gram of protons? what is a mole? scaling up from the atomic to the human scale five more axioms for numbers associativity, identity, and inverses for + commutativity of + and * what patterns can be deduced in our deductive system? playing the mathematics game rules for playing the mathematics game the usual rules for fractions are part of our deductive system can you tell the difference between true and false patterns? one of the oldest mathematical patterns a short story and some numberless mathematics relations defined as collections of ordered pairs transitive and reflexive relations relations that are functions a set of social rules for the warlpiri people the section rule the mother relation rules the marriage rules the father relation rules cultural contexts in which mathematics is done counting social security numbers among other things permutations : order matters there are n! permutations of n distinct objects counting connections : order does not matter equivalence relations and counting using equivalence relations to count combinations : order does not matter additional counting problems box models : population, money, recycling some population numbers counting people in the world a fundamental axiom of population ecology counting people in the united states basic mathematical patterns in population growth schwartz charts are box - flow models our first population model : simple boxes and flows three basic operations : addition, multiplication, and exponentiation defining logarithm functions computing formulas for doubling times logarithms to any base further study : more complicated models and chaos theory the world \u2019 s human population : one box box models : money, recycling, epidemics some obvious laws humans continue to ignore a linear multiplier effect : some mathematics of money multiplier effects arising from cycles : the mathematics of recycling a simple model of an influenza epidemic chance : health, surveillance, spies, and voting chance : health and news if you test hiv positive, are you infected? chance and the \" news surveillance, spies, snitches, loss of privacy, and life is someone watching you? why? living with a police escort? i \u2019 m not worried, i \u2019 ve done nothing wrong identity theft, encryption, torture, planespotting encryption mathematics and identity protection extraordinary rendition = kidnapping and torture planespotting : a self - organizing countermeasure the cia did not anticipate bigger pictures and the cia voting in the 21st century stealing elections is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6557349922991256, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ac1fc31d-13b7-4e8c-9a11-da16e184052c>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.009421"}
{"text": "encryption, torture, planespotting encryption mathematics and identity protection extraordinary rendition = kidnapping and torture planespotting : a self - organizing countermeasure the cia did not anticipate bigger pictures and the cia voting in the 21st century stealing elections is a time honored tradition a simple solution exists two modest proposals what exactly is economics? it takes the longest time to think of the simplest things a preview of two laws of nature three kinds of economists the human economy depends on nature \u2019 s flows of energy and entropy nature \u2019 s services and human wealth : important calculations how we treat each other : how we treat nature \u2014 the tragedy of the commons mathematical concepts and economics new mathematical patterns : self - organizing systems finding a niche : habits and habitats the concept of money financial wealth and real wealth is financial collapse possible now? follow the money are you paying more or less than your fair share of taxes? financial growth vs. fish growth fractional reserve banking : an amazing mathematical trick distributed vs. centralized control and decision making farms : to be run by few or by many? utilities : muni or investor - owned? linux vs. microsoft medicine for people or for profit or both? a little history an example of the need for fuzzy logic : the definition of poverty energy and thermodynamics energy and the first law of thermodynamics the first law of thermodynamics entropy and the second law of thermodynamics early statements of the second law of thermodynamics algebraic statement of the second law of thermodynamics so what is entropy and can we measure it? some applications of the second law of thermodynamics : power plants and hurricanes hiking up a mountain understanding entropy with a little mathematics the financial mathematics of loans, debts, and compound interest simple and compound interest : a review how much does a debt really cost you? buying on time and / or installment plans. amortization. the four important numbers : p, r, r, n examples of individual debt : rent - to - own, credit cards, and loans information flow in the 21st century investigative journalism requires cash thesis : the range of debate is too narrow now time series test and multiple source test measuring the range of debate distractions and illusions media literacy : censorship and propaganda filters and censors censorship : external and internal conclusion and epilog : where are the adults? martin walter is a professor in the department of mathematics at the university of colorado at boulder. dr. walter is a sloan, woodrow wilson, and national science foundation fellow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6310107425240097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ac1fc31d-13b7-4e8c-9a11-da16e184052c>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.010465"}
{"text": "right now, the accelerator is stopped for the annual maintenance shutdown. this is the opportunity to fix all problems that occurred during the past year both on the accelerator and the experiments. the detectors are opened and all accessible malfunctioning equipment is being repaired or replaced. in the 27 - km long lhc tunnel, surveyors are busy getting everything realigned to a high precision, while various repairs and maintenance operations are on their way. by early march, all magnets will have been cooled down again and prepared for operation. the experimentalists are not only working on their detectors but also improving all aspects of their software : the detector simulations, event reconstruction algorithms, particle identification schemes and analysis techniques are all being revised. by late march, the lhc will resume colliding protons with the goal of delivering about 16 inverse femtobarns of data, compared to 5 inverse femtobarns in 2011. this will enable the experiments to improve the precision of all measurements achieved so far, push all searches for new phenomena slightly further and explore areas not yet tackled. the hope is to discover particles associated with new physics revealing the existence of new phenomena. the cms and atlas physicists are looking for dozens of hypothetical particles, the higgs boson being the most publicized but only one of many. when protons collide in the lhc accelerator, the energy released materializes in the form of massive but unstable particles. this is a consequence of the well - known equation e = mc2, which simply states that energy ( represented by e ) and mass ( m ) are equivalent, each one can change into the other. the symbol c2 represents the speed of light squared and acts like a conversion factor. this is why in particle physics we measure particle masses in units of energy like gev ( giga electronvolt ) or tev ( tera electronvolt ). one electronvolt is the energy acquired by an electron through a potential difference of one volt. it is therefore easier to create lighter particles since less energy is required. over the past few decades, we have already observed the lighter particles countless times in various experiments. so we know fairly well how many events containing them we should observe. we can tell when new particles are created when we see more events of a certain topology than what we expect from those well - known phenomena, which we refer to as the background. we can claim that something additional and new is also occurring when we see an excess of events. of course, the bigger the excess, the easier", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6325960756291421, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f37ea100-b3b9-472e-bffa-c0ee6d515f58>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.016613"}
{"text": "certain topology than what we expect from those well - known phenomena, which we refer to as the background. we can claim that something additional and new is also occurring when we see an excess of events. of course, the bigger the excess, the easier it is to claim something new is happening. this is the reason why we accumulate so many events, each one being a snap - shots of the debris coming out of a proton - proton collisions. we want to be sure the excess cannot be due to some random fluctuation. some of the particles we are looking for are expected to have a mass in the order of a few hundred gev. this is the case for the higgs boson and we already saw possible signs of its presence last year. if the observed excess continues to grow as we collect more data in 2012, it will be enough to claim the higgs boson discovery beyond any doubt in 2012 or rule it out forever. other hypothetical particles may have masses as large as a few thousand gev or equivalently, a few tev. in 2011, the accelerator provided 7 tev of energy at the collision point. the more energy the accelerator has, the higher the reach in masses, just like one cannot buy a 7000 chf car with 5000 chf. so to create a pair of particles with a mass of 3. 5 tev ( or 3500 gev ), one needs to provide at least 7 tev to produce them. but since some of the energy is shared among many particles, the effective limit is lower than the accelerator energy. there are ongoing discussions right now to decide if the lhc will be operating at 8 tev this year instead of 7 tev as in 2011. the decision will be made in early february. if cern decides to operate at 8 tev, the chances of finding very heavy particles will slightly increase, thanks to the extra energy available. this will be the case for searches for particles like the w \u2019 or z \u2019, a heavier version of the well - known w and z bosons. for these, collecting more data in 2012 will probably not be enough to push the current limits much farther. we will need to wait until the lhc reaches full energy at 13 or 14 tev in 2015 to push these searches higher than in 2011 where limits have already been placed around 1 tev. for lhcb and alice, the main goal is not to find new particles. lhcb aims at making extremely precise measurements to see if there are any weak points in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6058914371521262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f37ea100-b3b9-472e-bffa-c0ee6d515f58>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.017585"}
{"text": "higher than in 2011 where limits have already been placed around 1 tev. for lhcb and alice, the main goal is not to find new particles. lhcb aims at making extremely precise measurements to see if there are any weak points in the current theoretical model, the standard model of particle physics. for this, more data will make a whole difference. already in 2011, they saw the first signs of cp - violation involving charm quarks and hope to confirm this observation. this measurement could shed light on why matter overtook antimatter as the universe expanded after the big bang when matter and antimatter must have been created in equal amounts. they will also investigate new techniques and new channels. meanwhile, alice has just started analyzing the 2011 data taken in november with lead ion collisions. the hope is to better understand how the quark - gluon plasma formed right after the big bang. this year, a special run involving collisions of protons and lead ions should bring a new twist in this investigation. exploring new corners, testing new ideas, improving the errors on all measurements and most likely the final answer on the higgs, that is what we are in with the lhc for in 2012. let \u2019 s hope that in 2012 the oriental dragon, symbol of perseverance and success, will see our efforts bear fruit. to be alerted of new postings, follow me on twitter : @ gagnonpauline or sign - up on this mailing list to receive and e - mail notification.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5808365749550793, "token_count": 306, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f37ea100-b3b9-472e-bffa-c0ee6d515f58>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.018173"}
{"text": "this paper provides observations of physical fitness testing in texas schools and physical education teachers ' insights about large - scale testing using the fitnessgram [ r ] assessment ( cooper institute, 2007 ) as mandated by texas senate bill 530. in the first study, undergraduate and graduate students who were trained to observe and assess student fitness testing in grades 3 through 12 provided observations. in the second study, physical education teachers responded to selected interview questions during a focus group discussion. from the observations and responses, specific themes emerged related to teachers knowledge and training about conducting fitness testing and managing data, students ' knowledge and motivation, support and resources far conducting fitness assessments, and complexity of the fitness situation. key words : behaviors, perceptions, physical education teachers physical fitness and physical activity levels in children and adolescents have long been a topic of interest, especially to physical educators, exercise scientists, health agencies, and private organizations dealing with sport and fitness ( safrit, 1990 ). knowledge that children and adolescents in the united states are more obese and possibly less physically fit than their counterparts in other developed nations has been highlighted for more than two decades ( see dinubile, 1993 ; freedson, cureton, & heath, 2000 ; seefeldt & vogel, 1989 ). a number of nationwide youth fitness school - based physical education programs have been developed over the past 50 years, during which time several reports critically examined the strengths and weaknesses of the fitness batteries used in the programs ( e. g., freedson et al., 2000 ; keating, 2003 ; safrit, 1990 ; safrit & wood, 1995 ). hence, examining physical education classes or fitness assessment protocols to improve the experiences of all those involved is not a new concept ( e. g., stewart, boyce, elliot, & block, 2005 ). the beneficial impact of fitness testing programs, components, and certain test items has met with some skepticism due to the increased number of overweight children and adolescents and overweight, inactive adults ( keating, 2003 ; u. s. department of health and human services [ usdhhs ], 2008 ). findings from a few studies suggested that high physical fitness during childhood and young adulthood is related to a healthy risk factor profile later in life ; however, youth physical activity levels do not necessarily influence cardiovascular disease in later life ( harris & cale, 2006 ; twisk, kemper, & van mechelen, 2002a, 2002b ). education, government, healthcare, and business institutions, as well as parents and families should share", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5235256116743192, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a0cbd68d-9e19-48d9-b602-53fac93ba61a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.023660"}
{"text": "cardiovascular disease in later life ( harris & cale, 2006 ; twisk, kemper, & van mechelen, 2002a, 2002b ). education, government, healthcare, and business institutions, as well as parents and families should share the responsibility for u. s. children ' s and adolescents ' health and fitness ( austin, fung, cohen - bearak, wardle, & cheung, 2006 ). positive attempts to make large - scale changes include legislation such as texas senate bill ( sb ) 19, requiring students in publicly funded elementary and middle schools to participate in physical activity ; sb 42, that schools implement a coordinated health program ; or sb 530, mandating fitness testing of grade 3 - 12 students ( e. g., kelder et al., 2009 ). however, there is limited information about the issues and barriers teachers and administrators face when making these changes ( e. g., green & thurston, 2002 ). by documenting testing errors and best practices during large - scale fitness testing, a comprehensive understanding may guide future endeavors to ensure accountability and success. thus, this paper reports on teachers ' experiences during the texas state - mandated physical fitness assessments conducted in the second year of implementation. through anecdotal reports, experiences, and observations from physical education teachers and trained college students who conducted the mandated fitness testing, we provide an understanding of the issues and barriers to conducting physical fitness assessments and maintaining annual statewide physical fitness data. this paper entails two separate studies, ( a ) the observations of undergraduate and graduate students trained to use the fitnessgram [ r ] / activitygram [ r ] assessment tools ( cooper institute, 2007 ) and ( b ) physical education teachers ' thoughts and opinions about the state - mandated fitness testing program and the fitnessgram / activitygram assessment tools. the themes and the concerns that emerged from these investigations are presented here to aid future large - scale fitness testing. study 1 : testing observations the research team included one graduate student and eight undergraduate students enrolled in the department of kinesiology, health promotion, and recreation at the university of north texas ( morrow, martin, & jackson, 2010 ). all were trained in fitnessgram test administration, which included reading the training manual, watching an accompanying dvd demonstration, completing the online certification, hands - on training at the cooper institute and the university of north texas, and practice testing at two local middle schools prior to beginning the study. in addition, team members were trained to use standardized testing forms that listed specific criteria for fitnessgram test items", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5124896739123903, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a0cbd68d-9e19-48d9-b602-53fac93ba61a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.024717"}
{"text": "hands - on training at the cooper institute and the university of north texas, and practice testing at two local middle schools prior to beginning the study. in addition, team members were trained to use standardized testing forms that listed specific criteria for fitnessgram test items ( e. g., 15 - m pacer [ progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run ], 20 - m pacer, curl - up, pull - up, etc. ). they also practiced observing and recording errors in the testing procedures. expertly trained testing teams of two to four people traveled to schools to either observe teachers administer the fitness test items twice within a 2 - week period or observe teachers administer the fitness test items and then within 2 weeks re - administer the same test items ( for additional information on the protocol see morrow, martin, & jackson, 2010 ). hence, at least two team members were present in each session to record observations of teacher - administered testing or to conduct the testing. they recorded daily observations journals and test results on the standardized fitnessgram testing forms. recruiting and scheduling schools schools were recruited through telephone, email, fliers, and in - person meetings with teachers and district physical education representatives. elementary school teachers showed the most interest in study participation and signed up quickly for the research. they were placed in one of two groups : the teacher - administered fitness group, or the teacher - administered followed by expert team - administered fitness group. many elementary school physical education teachers already incorporated fitness testing elements into their curriculum and devoted entire units to teaching the fitnessgram test battery ; these factors provided an ideal opportunity for them to schedule time to participate in the study. recruiting middle and high school teachers and their students was difficult due, in part, to the physical education and physical activity requirements defined in sb 530 ( morrow, martin, & jackson, 2010 ), which are different from those for elementary schools. the physical activity requirements for elementary school ( first through fifth grades ) are 30 min / day or 135 min / week ( 45 min three times per week ) or 225 min over 2 weeks ( 45 min three times the first week, and 45 min twice the second week ). only four of six semesters of physical education were required in middle school ( sixth through eighth grades ), and the high school physical education requirement was 1. 5 years. not all students were required to enroll in physical education at the middle and ' high school levels. at some schools, nonphysical education students were released from other classes to complete the mandated physical education fitness testing. conversely, other schools opted to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5037618651304125, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a0cbd68d-9e19-48d9-b602-53fac93ba61a>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.025851"}
{"text": "substance comparatively opaque to x - rays, which appears lighter on x - ray film and allows a body structure that does not normally contrast with its background to be seen clearly on the film. common contrast media include barium sulfate and iodized organic compounds. they are given by the route that introduces them into the structure to be examined \u2014 swallowed or as an enema for the digestive tract, inhaled for the respiratory tract, or injected for blood vessels and for organs and tissues they supply. serious reactions to contrast media are not infrequent. seealso diagnostic imaging. learn more about contrast medium with a free trial on britannica. com. iodine based contrast media such as urografin or omnipaque is used most commonly in radiology, due to its relatively harmless interaction with the body. it is primarily used to visualise vessels, but can also be used for tests of the urinary tract, uterus and fallopian tubes. | ionic | | diatrizoate ( hypaque 50 ) | | ionic monomer | | 300 | | 1550 | | high osmolar | | ionic | | metrizoate ( isopaque coronar 370 ) | | ionic | | 370 | | 2100 | | high osmolar | | ionic | | ioxaglate ( hexabrix ) | | ionic dimer | | 320 | | 580 | | low osmolar | | non - ionic | | iopamidol ( isovue 370 ) | | non - ionic monomer | | 370 | | 796 | | low osmolar | | non - ionic | | iohexol ( omnipaque 350 ) | | non - ionic | | 350 | | 884 | | low osmolar | | non - ionic | | ioxilan ( oxilan ) | | non - ionic | | low osmolar | | non - ionic | | iodixanol ( visipaque 320 ) | | non - ionic dimer | | 320 | | 290 | | iso osmolar | these often appear in the form of barium sulfate. barium is mainly used in the imaging of the digestion system. negative contrast always occurs in a gas, usually as one of the following : examples of the use of negative contrast medium are as follows : although rare, it is possible to be allergic to contrast media. reactions can range from minor to severe, in the worst case scenario,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5508515244959049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ca72e644-6526-4583-aaac-6f86491222c0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.070324"}
{"text": "one of the drawbacks investors and utilities have found with solar and wind power is that they are \u201c variable. \u201d simply put : they can \u2019 t generate electricity when the sun \u2019 s not shining or the wind isn \u2019 t blowing. that \u2019 s problematic because we \u2019 ve grown accustomed to getting energy whenever we want it. flick a switch and the lights should go on, regardless of whether it \u2019 s sunny or windy outside. in the past, utilities believed that they had to compensate for this variability by installing more traditional, fossil - fueled power plants. the more wind or solar power on the grid, the thinking went, the greater the need for backup generating facilities to be there when the wind or sun wasn \u2019 t. enter rmi \u2019 s energy & resources team. over the past year, senior consultant lena hansen has led a series of research projects to rethink the implications of wind and solar \u2019 s variability. in the process, she and her colleagues are re - evaluating the economics of putting more renewable energy on the grid. the key, according to hansen, is for utility managers to think of all their wind and solar installations as a portfolio. \u201c no person would invest in just one stock, \u201d says hansen. in the financial markets, most people forego the huge risks and potentially large gains of owning shares of one company for the reduced risk and smaller rates of return of owning shares in multiple companies, she explains. hansen argues that the same should go for utilities investing in wind and solar. \u201c by diversifying the portfolio of sites, you mitigate variability, \u201d she says. \u201c put another way, the wind blows differently in different locations. so spread out your resource to reduce total variability. \u201d the trick is to balance risks and rewards. very windy and very sunny sites produce more power than sites that are less windy or less sunny. but they also tend to be more variable. ultimately, explains hansen, utility managers have to make a tradeoff between variability and power output. however, by modeling a bunch of geographically spread - out sites, hansen and her colleagues hypothesized, utilities can start to make educated guesses about the optimal portfolio \u2014 one that maximizes power generation and minimizes variability. to test the hypothesis, hansen and former rmi fellow jonah levine compiled hundreds of tables of meteorological data for a one - year period, then set about looking for overlaps in the times when the wind is blowing. as it turned out, 2004 data were the most complete, enough to model what would happen at 63 sites across", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5050166027946755, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e16018f3-ce2c-4c2e-a4ea-2c5fb9b7ee69>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.085330"}
{"text": "of tables of meteorological data for a one - year period, then set about looking for overlaps in the times when the wind is blowing. as it turned out, 2004 data were the most complete, enough to model what would happen at 63 sites across the great plains. \u201c the basic idea, \u201d explains levine, \u201c was to look for a complementary effect. \u201d simulating wind sites over a large geographic area should have decreased variability in the whole system without adversely affecting power output. the results were promising. overall, hansen and levine noticed decreases in system variability for all the portfolios they studied. those findings spurred a second study, conducted earlier this year, that combined both wind and solar resources in one portfolio. the team \u2019 s hypothesis was that just as wind tends to blow differently in different places, the sun often shines when there is no wind. using data from the national renewable energy lab and levine \u2019 s study, hansen and ert fellow bryan palmintier simulated 43 wind and solar sites throughout the midwest. all 43 sites were within the midwest reliability organization \u2019 s ( mro ) area of responsibility regarding the grid. mro is one of nine north american electric reliability regions, comprising minnesota, north dakota, nebraska, as well as portions of montana, south dakota, iowa, wisconsin, the upper peninsula of michigan, and two canadian provinces. after running the numbers, they found that variability in the whole system went down by 55 percent compared to the average of all sites studied. surprisingly, those results bore out whether they looked at the entire study group, or as few as six optimally selected sites. \u201c if you look at the average wind or solar site alone, there \u2019 s a good amount of time each day that it \u2019 s not generating electricity, \u201d explains palmintier. \u201c but if you combine all the wind and solar sites together, you find that 90 percent of the time you can get seven megawatts out \u201d of facilities that at peak production might generate 100 megawatts. that increase in electric output may sound small, but palmintier contends that it \u2019 s substantial enough to get utilities to think differently about their investments, especially if paired with programs to help users better manage the times at which they draw power from the grid. to bolster these findings, the rmi team then expanded their analysis, first over a longer time period and then over a larger geographic area. for mro, hansen and her colleagues simulated what would happen if they took into account three years of data. the findings were essentially the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5097235838831011, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e16018f3-ce2c-4c2e-a4ea-2c5fb9b7ee69>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.086395"}
{"text": "##hrenheit. when the shivering and shaking stops, body temperature drops back to the minimal temperature. this type of hibernation is rare among mammals and scientists are still studying this unique physiological behavior. in denali, ground squirrels are active from late april to early october, but the sexes and age - classes show some differences in their annual activity patterns. adult males are usually the first to emerge from hibernation. they dig their way through the snow and stay relatively close to their burrows until the snow cover melts. breeding occurs in may and a single litter of 5 to 10 pups is born in june. the young develop rapidly and usually emerge from their burrows in mid - july. by late summer, young abandon their natal burrow and occupy a neighboring, empty burrow or excavate a new one. adults start hibernating as soon as they have enough body fat to survive the winter, often in late august when plenty of foods are still available. it is probably safer to enter hibernation early, even when foods are accessible, than to remain on the surface vulnerable to predators. youngsters, however, take much longer to find foods and put on body fat and they are often active until late september. this means that youngsters are more vulnerable to predation than adults. the diet of arctic ground squirrels is diverse and opportunistic. they eat many types of vegetation including the leaves, seeds, fruits, stems, flowers, and roots of many species of grasses, forbs, and woody plants. they also eat mushrooms and meat from freshly killed animals ( including ground squirrels ). because they are active only during the short subarctic summer, arctic ground squirrels must be efficient foragers. as summer progresses, they put on a tremendous amount of fat stores for the winter and often double their body weight by the time they enter hibernation in fall. the social behavior of arctic ground squirrels is complex. this species is highly territorial and squirrels may kill other squirrels over territorial disputes. however, other related females in the colony often care for orphaned youngsters. further, territorial behavior lessens during late summer, and male squirrels may move between colonies or establish colonies of their own. so many different predators eat arctic ground squirrels that adolph murie called them the \" staff of life \" in denali. they are one of the most important summer food sources for golden eagles, gyrfalcons, foxes, and grizzly bears.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5044346701919737, "token_count": 499, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d873cdc6-8d07-4cc3-bc37-832d9f00ff94>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.130611"}
{"text": "a collection of informative and interesting articles absolutely free - start sharing your knowledge today! home | submit articles | login online since year 2000 the images of back children in gwendolyn brook ' s poetry : a studyby : p. suresh kumar r. panneerselvam | category : education | submitted : 2012 - 04 - 13 08 : 18 : 42 in between, her poetic achievement is marked by gradual and progressive ascent. she became the first african american poet to win the pulitzer prize in 1950, membership of the academy if arts and letters un 1976, winning if two guggenheim awards, poet laureateship of illinois in 1968, the award by the national endowment for arts in 1989, jjeffrson lectureship by the national endowments of the humanities in 1994, the national medals of arts award in 1995, the \" first woman \" award from the federal government in 1999, and more than fifty honorary decorates from various colleges and universities. brools ' s creative output extends over a period of six decades. her poetry is distinctive not only in her handling of multiplicity of forms but also in her craftsmanship. she has committed herself to the ideals of social justice for her race and sex as well as ro the aesthetics of art. the issues of racism and an authentic identity have been the recurrent themes of african american writers. witnessing the growth of black literature by stages - form anger to defiance, to protest, to recognition, to search for identity, and to reconciliation, brooks wrote poetry that was at once potent, provocative, poignant, and starling, a poetry that resisted racism, asserted black consciousness, and upheld the black values, a poetry that instilled a new faith in self - reliance and dignity, and a poetry that can be a source of inspiration of succeeding generations writers. a study of brooks ' s poetry will be incomplete without a study of her poetry for children, who also encounter the same kind of racial discrimination which the adult balcks are subjected to in the racially prejudiced america. before 1967, brooks published only one volume of poetry ofr children : bronzeville boys and gorls ( 1956 ). the book consists of thirty - four poems, which are illustrated by ronnai solbert. all these poems portray the individual experiences of thirty - seven children, but brooks is objective and detached in her portrayal of these boys and girls. in poems written in couplets, the first line rhymes with the second, the third line rhymes with the foruth, and so on : i have a secret place", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5505926297313891, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0864e7ff-9646-4703-bb47-e6c7efea4da1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.145063"}
{"text": "children, but brooks is objective and detached in her portrayal of these boys and girls. in poems written in couplets, the first line rhymes with the second, the third line rhymes with the foruth, and so on : i have a secret place to go. not any one may know. and sometimes when the wind is rough i cannot get there fast enough brooks is sensitive to the prosodic features of language : the loudness in the road and laughs away from me. it laughs a lovely whiteness, and whitely whirs away, some other where, still white as milk or shirts. so beautiful it hurts. the compound image \" flitter - twitter \" defines the delicate motion of the snow. the onomatopoeic words \" sushes \" and \" hushes \" convey the power of the silent and quite snow to quell \" the loudness in the road. \" \" loudness \" suggests the traffic and noise, which stand in opposition to the silence of the world of nature. the irregular length of the lines suggests the irregular but the motion of the snow. further, brooks ' s poems for children cannot be categorized as nonsense verses. on the contrary, they are sensible verses. though they appeal to our imagination, the children in her poems do not live in a pastoral, romantic, or idealized world. they are always the poor black children living in the urban ghettos. they suffer poverty and entrapment. in gwendolyn brooks : poetry and the heroic voice, melhem argues that brooks \" acknowldges no cruel children but implies cruelty, the indifference that sanctions poverty and compels children to be prematurely involved in adult problems \" ( 95 ). brooks ' s description of the bleak experience of children is an compiled protest against the socioeconomic injustices that they encounter. in \" john, who is poor, \" brooks depicts the poverty of the black boy, john, who lives with his widowed mother. she request the children in the neighborhood to sympathize with him, and share their eatables with him : oh, little children, be good to john! - who lives so lone and alone. whose mamma must hurry to toil all day. whose papa is dead and done. give him a berry, boys, when you may, and girls, some mint when you can. ( 1 - 6 ) but the poet dies not know \" when his hunger will end, no yet when it began \" ( 7 - 8 ). brooks makes it clear that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.51728846983972, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0864e7ff-9646-4703-bb47-e6c7efea4da1>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.146045"}
{"text": "boys, when you may, and girls, some mint when you can. ( 1 - 6 ) but the poet dies not know \" when his hunger will end, no yet when it began \" ( 7 - 8 ). brooks makes it clear that racial oppression is the causes of the sufferings of the black children. but her criticism is not overt. further, she is objective in her description of their poverty, in keeping with the mood of the 1940s and1950s, she beloved that the whites would help the blacks solve their problems. but it took about eleven years, for her, from the year of her publication of bronzeville boys and girls ( 1956 ), to realize that the whites remained indifferent to the problems of the blacks. after 1967, brooks published three volumes of poetry for children : alones, the tiger who wore white gloves, and children coming home. in aloness ( 1971 ), a reflective poem of fifty - one lines, brooks projects a child ' s experience of solitude. the drawings by leroy foster present an appealing little black boy. the nine postures of the boy are indicative of this none different moods. unlike bronzeville boys and girls, which is written in quatrains and couplets with rhyme, aloneness is written in free verse without rhyme. it is written from the point of view of the black boy, who defines loneliness as the pain of being alone : \" loneliness means you want somebody. / you have not planned to stand somewhere with other people gone. / loneliness never has a brought color. perhaps it is gray \" 1 - 3 _ ). as the speaker is a child, the images are simple. the child imagines that the couloirs of loneliness are \" gray. \" the implied idea is the child ' s association of the color of loneliness with the4 black people ' s collective loneliness in the racially oppressive america. the child defines aloneness / solitude as the pleasure of beings alone : \" but aloneness is delicious \" ( 9 ). he compares aloneness with \" a red small apple \" ( 12 ). then he turns to the image of a pond. aloneness is \" like loving a pond in summer, \" a simile that graphs the child ' s experience of place and time ( 15 ). nowhere does the poem mention about racial discrimination. but the poem is educational in tone. brooks ' s aim is to develop a positive sense of identity among blacks. while aloneness is in free verse, the tiger who wore white gloves or what you are you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5396338536921625, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0864e7ff-9646-4703-bb47-e6c7efea4da1>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.147145"}
{"text": "does the poem mention about racial discrimination. but the poem is educational in tone. brooks ' s aim is to develop a positive sense of identity among blacks. while aloneness is in free verse, the tiger who wore white gloves or what you are you are is rhymed like \" bronzeville boys and girls. \" the poem is illustrated by the drawings of timothy jones. it is a beast fable. unlike aloneness, which is indirectly didactic, the tiger is directly didactic, offering strategies for survival. the title implies human folly. the tiger wears white gloves to be fashionable, but his companions ridicule his strange behavior. the theme is self - acceptance and pride : that tiger flock aqnd wisely wearing what ' s fiercr as the face. s not whitness and lace. ( 15 - 23 ) the \" tiger \" represents the black people. \" whiteness \" represents the spurious standards of beauty established by the whites. as a metaphor, \" gloves \" represents phenomena like the black people ' s return to hair - straightening, which, for brooks, means aping the white values. the idea is that black is that black people should develop their own attributes and esteem them. as a realist, brooks always portrays what the blacks experience in society. despite her commitment to black consciousness, she has not forgotten the continuous bleak experiences of the black - adults as well as children. the volume children coming home! 1991 ), brooks ' s children do not live in a romantic or an idealized world. they encounter social and economic injustices. in the prefatory poem, \" after school, \" brooks delineates the odds against children : * not all of the children * come home to cookies and coca. * one will be shot on his way home to warmth, wit and wisdom. [ t / o ] * one teacher mutters \" my god, they are gone, \" [ t / o ] * one is ripe to report ten people to the principal. [ t / o ] * one whispers \" the little black bastards. \" the poem attests to the simplicity of her poetry written after 1967. in this dramatic monologue, written in a child ' s voice, brooks has abandoned lyricism and rhyme, and \" deliberately abandoning the formal virtuosity that characterized her earlier work, brooks represents children ' s voices through a seemingly simple, declarative method... ( flynnn494 ). the image of the innocent child exposes the evils of the social practices", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5074171564101949, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0864e7ff-9646-4703-bb47-e6c7efea4da1>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.148528"}
{"text": "nostradamus [ public domain image ] nostradamus, the man who saw through time by lee mccann interest in nostradamus goes through cycles, usually coinciding with periods of uncertainty and conflict. at the beginning of world war ii people turned to nostradamus for clues as to how and when that conflict would be resolved, and to look for indications that somehow he had prophesized it. some used nostradamus for propaganda, or profit, or publicity. of course, this was also the case after the attacks of september 11th, 2001. this book, published in the early days of world war ii, is partially a biography of nostradamus, partially a historical novelization of incidents in his life, and an attempt to associate his predictions with historical and future events. mccann is at his best in the former parts of the book. he immerses us in the life and times of nostradamus. although many of the episodes are fictionalized, they make pleasant reading and appear to be historically accurate. the attempts to match notradamus ' predictions with historical events of the rennaissance are for the most part very well reasoned, and range from plausible to ' hmmm... '. the book concludes with a rather long section bearing on events of the twentieth century. this part feels tacked on, as if the publisher was eager to get a ' tie in ' to current events. mccann hypothesized that the war would continue until late in the forties, and would end because of the restoration of the french monarchy, specifically that a pretender to the throne would be crowned as henry the fifth. naturally, this falls far short of the mark, but it creates perspective for current and future attempts to make specific predictions based on the cryptic quatrains.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5538232481571417, "token_count": 371, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:eda4ecd9-7b70-4b63-828f-53ce530bd3d5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.278143"}
{"text": "july 17, 1998 july 15, 1998 : a unique levitation furnace that flew on the space shuttle in 1998 is being eyed for upgrades to fly on future shuttle and international space station missions. \" tempus on msl - 1 provided it was operationally reliable, \" said dr. ivan egry, the project scientist at the german space agency ( dlr ). \" i am really surprised at how much scientific data we are still squeezing out of it. \" egry spoke tuesday morning to the third biennial microgravity materials science conference sponsored by nasa. tempus - built by the dlr and used jointly by dlr and nasa - is the german acronym for containerless electromagnetic processing in weightlessness. that, simply put, is what tempus does. an electromagnetic coil inside the tempus facility positions metal samples with about 1 / 1, 000th the force needed on the ground to work against gravity and keep the samples from touching the container walls. a second coil pumps in radio wave energy - a bit like a microwave oven - to melt the sample. this approach is vital in a number of research areas because touching the container walls will instantly cool the sample and levitation on the ground often involve forces great enough to disturb the sample. scientist don ' t want either to happen when they are trying to make precise measurements of fundamental properties that can help them refine manufacturing processes on earth. tempus flew on the microgravity sciences laboratory - 1 mission in 1998, and on the second international microgravity laboratory ( iml - 2 ) in 1994. data are still being analyzed, but egry gave a preview tuesday, including benchmark data that will let scientists correct the surface tension measurements for one type of metal, and make the first - ever reliable viscosity measurements. \" many things were surprising, \" egry said when asked about the data from tempus. among them were the first experimental measurements of the electrical conductivity of cobalt - palladium in both its liquid and solid states. tempus demonstrated its value by making repeat measurements that matched very closely with one another. consistency is crucial when one is trying to establish basic physical properties. for example, one line of experiments involved cooling metals, such as zirconium, far below their normal freezing point and then recording the point where they froze, how much heat they gave off, and other details. the zirconium sample was put through 120 melt / freeze cycles. \" it ' s really amazing to see how", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.576716803467711, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:178c8b29-6f46-4fb6-84f2-35ff509c8136>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.299737"}
{"text": "far below their normal freezing point and then recording the point where they froze, how much heat they gave off, and other details. the zirconium sample was put through 120 melt / freeze cycles. \" it ' s really amazing to see how one undercooling cycle follows the other, \" egry said as he showed a graph showing precise repeatability in the data. all told, the msl - 1 mission hosted 22 experiments comprising 197 hours of test run and 437 melting cycles. spurred by this success, dlr is looking at adapting tempus to fly on spacelab, and to incorporate better sample handling and video capabilities, and a broader temperature range. dlr also is looking at an advanced tempus that would allow scientists to replace samples in orbit - so the furnace would not have to be brought back - and add other improvements to enhance the science. editor ' s note : the original news release, with images and related links, can be found at : http : / / science. msfc. nasa. gov / newhome / headlines / msad15jul98 _ 2. htm other social bookmarking and sharing tools : the above story is reprinted from materials provided by nasa / marshall space flight center - - space sciences laboratory. note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5353989771739163, "token_count": 297, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:178c8b29-6f46-4fb6-84f2-35ff509c8136>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.300302"}
{"text": "sep. 24, 2002 penn state engineers have optimized an energy harvesting circuit so that it transfers four times more electrical power out of vibration \u2013 the ordinary shakes and rattles generated by human motion or machine operation. using their laboratory prototype, which was developed from off - the - shelf parts, the penn state researchers can generate 50 milliwatts. although they haven ' t tried it, they believe the motion of a runner could be harnessed to generate enough power to run a portable electronic music device. by comparison, simple, un - optimized energy harvesting circuits, for example the type used to power leds on \" smart \" skis, can only generate a few milliwatts. the researchers say the new circuit offers an environmentally friendly alternative to disposable batteries for wearable electronic devices or for wireless communication systems. in addition, the circuit could be used in sensor and monitoring networks that manage environmental control in office buildings, robot control and guidance systems for automatic manufacturing, warehouse inventory ; integrated patient monitoring, diagnostics, drug administration in hospitals, interactive toys, smart home security systems, and interactive museums. the new circuit is described in a paper, \" adaptive piezoelectric energy harvesting circuit for wireless, remote power supply, \" published in the september issue of the journal, ieee transactions on power electronics. the authors are geffrey k. ottman, former penn state master ' s degree student ; dr. heath hofmann, assistant professor of electrical engineering ; archin c. bhatt, former penn state master ' s degree student ; and dr. george a. lesieutre, professor of aerospace engineering and associate director of the penn state center for acoustics and vibration. lesieutre explains that, like other energy harvesting circuits, the new penn state device depends on the fact that when vibrated so that they bend or flex, piezo - electric materials produce an alternating or ac current and voltage. this electrical power has to be converted to direct current or dc by a rectifier before it can be stored in a battery or used. hofmann adds that the magnitude of the piezoelectric material ' s vibration determines the magnitude of the voltage : \" since, in operation, the amount of vibrations can vary widely, some way must also be found to adaptively maximize power flow as well as convert it from ac to dc. \" using an analytical model, the team derived the theoretical optimal power flow from a rectified piezoelectric device and proposed a circuit that could achieve this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5844853775348202, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:368f9201-7223-4162-9196-e704781a2eb1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.303176"}
{"text": "dec. 17, 2009 in a pilot project that could help better manage the planet ' s strained natural resources, space - age technologies are helping a washington state community monitor its water availability. nasa satellites and sensors are providing the information needed to make more accurate river flow predictions on a daily basis. \" world leaders are struggling to protect natural resources for future generations, \" said jeff ward, a senior research scientist at the department of energy ' s pacific northwest national laboratory, which is managed by battelle. \" these tools help us sustainably use natural resources while balancing environmental, cultural and economic concerns. \" ward manages a project on behalf of battelle that is helping to better predict the flow of the dungeness river, near sequim, wash., with data collected by nasa instruments. the project started by creating a new model that predicts river flows in the river ' s surrounding valley. it then expanded to help other communities in kansas, maine, oregon and washington state better manage their water and land resources with similar technologies. the project - - called the north olympic peninsula solutions network - - is lead by the north olympic peninsula resource conservation & development council and supported by pnnl and others. lucien cox of nasa will present the project ' s results dec. 16 at the 2009 fall meeting of the american geophysical union in san francisco. the project will help regional natural resource managers assess the abundance - - or lack thereof - - of the dungeness river. the river model was developed to show how nasa technologies like satellites, sensors and computational models could be used to improve short - term stream flow predictions. the river model relies on snowpack and temperature data collected from satellites, as well as real - time snowpack and water data collected by various agencies. the new dungeness river model ' s calculations can tell what kind of flow to expect - - from a trickle to a deluge - - on a daily and monthly basis. before, resource managers primarily relied on either water levels physically measured at gauges or historical data to predict total expected water volume over two to six months. neither method provided flow predictions as frequently as the new model. having more precise river flow predictions is especially important along the dungeness river, where the towering olympic mountains create a drying rain shadow effect and steep slopes prevent above - ground water reservoirs. sequim receives just 15 inches of rain annually. water is so treasured that the agricultural city is home to a 114 - year - old festival that celebrates a historic irrigation system. \" improving the accuracy of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5060648542167548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce90c6fc-1c91-43ab-b0a3-e081dd2dc656>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.307105"}
{"text": "mar. 27, 2011 researchers from the instituto de astrofisica de canarias ( iac ) have discovered the existence of a black hole 5. 4 times greater in mass than that of our sun, located in the x - ray binary system xte j1859 + 226. the observations carried out from the gran telescopio canarias ( gtc ), managing to obtain the first spectroscopic data from this binary system to be published, have been determinant for the discovery. x - ray binaries are stellar systems composed by a compact object ( which may be a neutron star or a black hole ) and a ' normal ' star. the compact object sucks matter out of the star and adds it slowly to its own mass, through a spiral disc formed around it. this process of absorption is known as acretion. only 20 binary systems, out of an estimated population of around 5, 000 within our galaxy, are known to contain a black hole. xte j1859 + 226 is, in particular, a transient x - ray binary located in the vulpecula constellation. it was discovered by satellite rxte during an eruption registered in 1999. \" transient x - ray binaries are characterised for spending most of their life in a state of calmness, but occasionally entering eruption stages, during which the rhythm of acretion of matter toward the black hole is triggered, \" jesus corral santana explains, an astrophysicist from the iac, who led the work published in the monthly notices of the royal astronomical society ( mnras ). neutron stars as well as black holes are the remains left by a massive star after its death. most of the known neutron stars have a mass around 1. 4 times that of the sun, though in some cases, values up to over twice the mass of the sun have been measured. astronomers believe that when greater than tree times the solar mass, neutron stars are not stable, and end up collapsing and forming a black hole. for corral - santana, \" measuring the mass of compact objects is essential to determine what kind of object it may be. if it ' s greater than three times the solar mass, it can only be a black hole. we found that xte j1859 + 226 has a black hole more than 5. 4 times greater than the mass of the sun. it ' s the definitive confirmation of the existence of a black hole in this object. \" \" with this result we add a new piece to the study of the mass", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5657137453257175, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:95b03ccb-d91f-4a44-ad62-4dd16103bb5c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.312279"}
{"text": "a black hole more than 5. 4 times greater than the mass of the sun. it ' s the definitive confirmation of the existence of a black hole in this object. \" \" with this result we add a new piece to the study of the mass distribution of black holes. the shape of this distribution has very important implications for our knowledge about the death of massive stars, the formation of black holes, and the evolution of x - ray binary systems, \" the iac astrophysicist adds. twelve years of observation : measuring the visible and the invisible the astrophysicists ' team at iac hadn ' t lost track of the stellar object since it entered an eruption stage in 1999, when they started to set up observation campaigns to follow its evolution. the researchers have combined the photometric measures from the isaac newton telescope ( int ) and the william herschel telescope ( wht ) in year 2000, and those from the nordic optical telescope ( not ) in 2008, with the spectroscopy carried out with the gtc in 2010, the first one ever published about this particular object. \" due to the low brilliance of the system under observation, we needed 10 meter telescopes in able to obtain spectra. in this sense, having been able to make our observations from the gtc has been determinant, \" corral - santana emphasises. the measurements at the gtc were carried out with the osiris instrument, which may be used as a camera or as a spectrograph in the visible range. the spectrograph decomposes the light emitted by a star into its different frequencies and allows detecting lines corresponding to the different chemical elements present in its atmosphere. these lines adduce information about the physical properties of the star and its movement. the photometric measures allowed determining the orbital period of the binary ( 6. 6 hours ), while the spectroscopy data also provided information about the speed of the star ' s orbital movement around the black hole. the combination of both of these parameters proved to be vital to calculate the mass of the back hole. the gran telescopio canarias ( gtc ), located at the roque de los muchachos observatory ( in la palma, canary islands ), is the biggest optical - infrared telescope of the world, with a 10. 4 metre diameter mirror. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - j. m. corral - santana, j. casares, t. shahbaz, c. zurita, i. g. martinez - pais, p.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5323308110933395, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:95b03ccb-d91f-4a44-ad62-4dd16103bb5c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.313316"}
{"text": "aug. 15, 2011 scientists at the scripps research institute have devised a much easier technique for performing a chemical modification used widely in the synthesis of drugs and other products. known as \" trifluoromethylation, \" the modification adds a cf3 molecule to the original compound, often making it more stable - - and, for a drug, keeping it in the body longer. with the new technique, chemists can perform this feat using a relatively simple, safe, room - temperature procedure and can even select the site of the modification on the target compound. \" i ' ve been presenting this methodology at several pharma companies, and there ' s a lot of interest - - so much so that their chemists are starting to use it, \" said scripps research professor phil s. baran, senior author of the new study, scheduled for publication the week of august 15, 2011, in an advance online edition of the proceedings of the national academy of sciences. standard procedures for trifluoromethylation involve gases and associated hardware, high heat, metal catalysts, and oxidants. \" the procedures are often prohibitively complicated, and medicinal chemists often don ' t have the time or the resources to get into it, \" said baran. inspired by frequent consulting visits to pharmaceutical companies, baran and his lab began to look for simpler ways to perform trifluoromethylation. after running more than 500 different reaction setups on a test compound, they found just one that delivered significant quantities of the desired reaction product. it was a simple setup that used a reagent known as sodium trifluoromethanesulfinate, an inexpensive chemical that is stable at room temperature. chemists had long believed that this reagent was unsuitable for trifluoromethylating a broad class of molecules frequently found in drug compounds, and also that the reagent required the use of catalyzing metal salts. but in this initial screening, the reagent, known as langlois ' s reagent for its discoverer, the french chemist bernard r. langlois, seemed to work even without such constraints. baran and his team began collaborating with fellow scripps research chemistry professor donna blackmond and members of her laboratory to study how langlois ' s reagent works and to optimize its use, including the selection of trifluoromethylation sites on target compounds using certain solvents. with the optimized", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5061376059186875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b04d3a10-c95a-4807-8d47-3dc9820afa33>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.318501"}
{"text": "june 11, 2012 in a pair of related studies, scientists from the florida campus of the scripps research institute have identified several proteins that help regulate cells ' response to light - - and the development of night blindness, a rare disease that abolishes the ability to see in dim light. in the new studies, published recently in the journals proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( pnas ) and the journal of cell biology, scripps florida scientists were able to show that a family of proteins known as regulator of g protein signaling ( rgs ) proteins plays an essential role in vision in a dim - light environment. \" we were looking at the fundamental mechanisms that shape our light sensation, \" said kirill martemyanov, a scripps research associate professor who led the studies. \" in the process, we discovered a pair of molecules that are indispensible for our vision and possibly play critical roles in the brain. \" in the pnas study, martemyanov and his colleagues identified a pair of regulator proteins known as rgs7 and rgs11 that are present specifically in the main relay neurons of the retina called the on - bipolar cells. \" the on - bipolar cells provide an essential link between the retinal light detectors - - photoreceptors and the neurons that send visual information to the brain, \" explained martemyanov. \" stimulation with light excites these neurons by opening the channel that is normally kept shut by the g proteins in the dark. rgs7 and rgs11 facilitate the g protein inactivation, thus promoting the opening of the channel and allowing the on - bipolar cells to transmit the light signal. it really takes a combined effort of two rgs proteins to help the light overcome the barrier for propagating the excitation that makes our dim vision possible. \" in the journal of cell biology study, martemyanov and his colleagues unraveled another key aspect of the rgs7 / rgs11 regulatory response - - they identified a previously unknown pair of orphan g protein - coupled receptors ( gpcrs ) that interact with these rgs proteins and dictate their biological function. gpcrs are a large family of more than 700 proteins, which sit in the cell membrane and sense various molecules outside the cell, including odors, hormones, neurotransmitters, and light. after binding these molecules, gpcrs trigger the appropriate response inside the cell. however, for many gpcrs the activating molecules have not yet", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5503642147122498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1be802a6-5c4e-4b8d-bb4f-774975b4138c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.323357"}
{"text": "outside the cell, including odors, hormones, neurotransmitters, and light. after binding these molecules, gpcrs trigger the appropriate response inside the cell. however, for many gpcrs the activating molecules have not yet been identified and these are called \" orphan \" receptors. the martemyanov group has found that two orphan gpcrs - - gpr158 and gpr179 - - recruit rgs proteins and thus help serve as brakes for the conventional gpcr signaling rather than play an active signaling role. in the case of retinal on - bipolar cells, gpr179 is required for the correct localization of rgs7 and rgs11. their mistargeting in animal models lacking gpr179 or human patients with mutations in the gpr179 gene may account for their night blindness, according to the new study. intriguingly, in the brain gpr158 appears to play a similar role in localizing rgs proteins, but instead of contributing to vision, it helps rgs proteins regulate the m - opioid receptor, a gpcrs that mediates pleasurable and pain - killing effects of opioids. \" we are really in the very beginning of unraveling this new biology and understanding the role of discovered orphan gpr158 / 179 in regulation of neurotransmitter signaling in the brain and retina, \" martemyanov said. \" the hope is that better understanding of these new molecules will lead to the design of better treatments for addictive disorders, pain, and blindness. \" other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - y. cao, j. pahlberg, i. sarria, n. kamasawa, a. p. sampath, k. a. martemyanov. regulators of g protein signaling rgs7 and rgs11 determine the onset of the light response in on bipolar neurons. proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 2012 ; 109 ( 20 ) : 7905 doi : 10. 1073 / pnas. 1202332109 - c. orlandi, e. posokhova, i. masuho, t. a. ray, n. hasan, r. g. gregg, k. a. martemyanov. gpr158 / 179 regulate g protein signaling by controlling localization and activity of the rgs7 complexes. the journal of cell biology, 2012 ; 197 ( 6 ) : 711 doi :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5272527622933512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1be802a6-5c4e-4b8d-bb4f-774975b4138c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.324222"}
{"text": "7 when artists, anthropologists and neuroscientists gather at the brain unravelled in london through september 19, their creative efforts will range from paintings to performances to mixed - media works. in addition to the exhibition, which includes a children \u2019 s area, the event offers a daily program of film screenings, concerts, artist talks and lectures by renowned scientists. informed by the latest research, the speakers will delve into the relation between brains and minds, plumbing the deepest reaches of human experience : our consciousness. 9 charles darwin, in his 1871 book the descent of man, provoked his contemporaries by suggesting not only that our physical traits had evolved over time but also that our mental faculties had not always been as keen as they are today. at the conference evolution of brain, behaviour & intelligence in cambridge, england, international scientists will discuss advances made since darwin \u2019 s time, drawing on results from species as diverse as unicellular organisms and neandertals. darwin biographer james moore will deliver the keynote lecture. 12 in huntington \u2019 s disease, genetic mutations cause a protein known as huntingtin to become toxic to the brain, leading to movement disorders, problems swallowing and speaking, and eventually dementia and death. hundreds of researchers and clinicians will convene in vancouver at the 2009 congress on huntington \u2019 s disease to discuss advances in our understanding of the disorder as well as the latest results from experimental treatments. 24 will neuroscience transform national security? is a brain - dead person alive or dead? could new findings in brain science undermine moral and criminal responsibility? these are a few of the controversial questions that experts will take on at brain matters : new directions in neuroethics, a cross - disciplinary conference hosted by the novel tech ethics research team at dalhousie university. halifax, nova scotia 1 as many as half of us may suffer from a mental disorder at some point in our life. added to the burden of illness is the social stigma that people with mental health problems face. the scottish mental health arts and film festival, sweeping over the country until october 22, tries to raise positive awareness about these issues through a series of concerts, film screenings and theater performances. this will be the third year for the festival, which is the largest of its kind in the world. 8 ancient wisdom and modern neuroscience will collide at mind and life xix, a two - day conference presided over by the dalai lama himself. exploring the emerging intersections among their different fields, a panel of educators, scientists and contemplatives will discuss ways to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5529219712551665, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7d2414a3-c891-49ea-a666-ad9b7cf9ae1b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.327988"}
{"text": "simply sql is a practical step - by - step guide to writing sql. you \u2019 ll learn how to make the most of your data using best - practice sql code. rather than bore you with theory, it focuses on the practical use of sql with common databases and uses plenty of diagrams, easy - to - read text, and examples to help make learning sql easy and fun. sql is the language used by all major database systems today. sql has been around for about 30 years, but is enjoying a real renaissance in the 21st century, thanks to the tremendous success of database - driven web sites. whether your web site is written in php, asp, perl, coldfusion, or any other programming language, and no matter which database system you want to use \u2014 mysql, postgresql, sql server, db2, oracle, or any of the others \u2014 one fact is almost certain : if you want to have database - driven content, you \u2019 ll need to use sql. sql is a simple, high - level language with tremendous power. you can perform tasks with a few lines of sql that would take pages and pages of intricate coding to accomplish in a programming language. who should read this book? if you \u2019 re a web designer or developer looking for guidance in learning sql for your web projects, this book is for you. in the early days of the web, everyone was a web developer. nowadays, the field has matured to the point where many different disciplines exist. two broad categories emerged : - web designers are responsible for what web site visitors see. this includes the design, graphics, and layout of the site. it also includes designing the functionality of the site, how it works, with considerations for the usability of site features. if you \u2019 re a web designer, you can benefit from learning sql \u2014 at least at a rudimentary level \u2014 because it will help you design better user interactions. understanding how sql works means that you can make life simpler for the developers who will im plement your designs : by ensuring that the web site is organized in a way that not only serves the web site visitor, but also allows for simple sql and good database design. we \u2019 ll cover both sql and database design in this book. web developers are the primary audience for the book. using several simple web application examples, we \u2019 ll explore all aspects of sql and database design that are required by web developers to develop efficient and effective web pages. the sample applications in this book really are quite simple,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5134469677346937, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:657e1ad7-25ec-43a7-93f0-9f761427e7fb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.369472"}
{"text": "a field guide to supernova spectra both types exhibit a wide variety of subclasses. type ia is of no interest because these stars don ' t emit neutrinos. types ib and ic are thought to undergo core collapse like type ii supernovae and, therefore, should emit neutrinos. as maurice gavin explains in \" the revival of amateur spectroscopy \", low - resolution spectra of objects as faint as magnitude 13 or thereabouts are accessible to modest amateur equipment. ( a few superposed 20 - minute exposures with a 12 - inch telescope or so should produce an adequate image. ) but what will supernovae spectra look like especially shortly after the outburst begins as captured by small telescopes and low - resolution spectrographs? here ' s your field guide. to prepare it, we started with high - resolution, calibrated spectra supplied by alexei filippenko ( university of california, berkeley ). then, to simulate gavin ' s ccd results, we degraded the spectra to a resolution of 50 angstroms per pixel. finally, and with dramatic results, we changed the intensity along each spectrum to reflect variations in the unfiltered sensitivity of popular ccd chips the kaf - 0400 from kodak and the icx055bl from sony. thus, what you see here is what you will get! ( astrophotographers using panchromatic emulsions will record spectra that look much like the originals. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5271382806559892, "token_count": 300, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0144adaf-17ca-4b41-b201-32a6d62c4484>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.377259"}
{"text": "life cycle approach to child and adolescent health add to your conference / group add your comments : insert youtube videos inside your slideworld presentation copy and paste the video url from youtube, choose where to insert the video, and press \u201c submit \u201d. the video will play in your slideshow after sometime. enter youtube video url enter slide no where you want to insert youtube videos on dec 18, 2011 says : its valuable content & greatful if you please can you make mor concern in psychological problems for these age group on apr 15, 2009 says : normal growth and development of adolescence post a comment post comment on twitter post comment on slideworld subscribe to follow - up comments slideworld will not store your password. slideworld will maintain your privacy. subscribe to follow - up comments, favourited this 1 years ago. slide 1 : life cycle approach to child and adolescent health eva kudlova charles university of prague slide 2 : overview health is indivisible, requiring holistic approaches throughout the individual ' s life. healthy outcome at one point in the life - cycle, provides a positive determinant for health elsewhere in the cycle. the presentation describes main environmental and socio - cultural challenges for each of the stages of child and adolescent life. both, prevention of ill health and care for illnesses are important at all times but the balance between them shifts over time during the childhood and adolescence. main actions necessary to meet the child and adolescent needs are described as well. slide 3 : slide 4 : life course approach healthy outcome at one point in the life - cycle, provides a positive determinant for health elsewhere in the cycle. what happens in pregnancy and the very early stages of childhood will have a profound impact on child and adolescent development. growth and development of young children enhances the possibilities for development during the school age period and in adolescence. this will be carried through into adulthood and old age. health and development of the 0 - 19 age group links intimately, at both ends of the range, with reproductive health. health during childhood is in part determined by the health of the mother, in turn affected by factors such as the nutrition of adolescent girls and the avoidance of early pregnancy. these factors, in turn, are influenced by healthy growth and development in childhood. an investment early on will result in a lifetime of economic, social and personal benefits. both, prevention of ill health and care for illnesses are important at all times but the balance between them shifts over time during the childhood and adolescence in relation to in risks encountered during the particular life - stage", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5152782635074349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:053ac2f2-07a0-4593-aa57-a0e1655ab8e6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.400616"}
{"text": "social and gender norms all exert a considerable influence on lifestyle. over the past decades, many countries in the european region have experienced rapid socio - political change, economic hardship, increased insecurity, conflict and even war. the health - related behaviour of adolescents is a function of all these pressures. differences in the health experience of boys and girls are apparent in all countries due to : lower socioeconomic status of women in some settings, differences in biology, or to social behaviours and gender norms. slide 11 : nutrition a balanced diet that provides optimum nutrition, together with a clean water supply, are crucial to every stage of development from pre - conception through to later life. poor nutrition is associated with a reduced resistance to disease, impaired physical and psychological development, and infant morbidity and mortality. an inadequate diet can lead to deficiency disorders and / or contribute to civilization diseases. in recognition of the food ' s essential role in promoting and protecting health the european states endorsed the first action plan for food and nutrition policy. slide 12 : poverty poverty is a major determinant of health. inequities related to economic situation affect both physical and mental health. poor children grow up in less healthy environments and are more likely to suffer the effects of pollution. overcrowded housing is associated with a lack of safe areas for play. accidents and crime are more prevalent ; a poor diet and lack of physical activity are more likely. poverty places maternal and newborn health at risk and has a deleterious impact on mental health. relative poverty within countries may be even more important than absolute poverty. relative poverty is growing at a more rapid rate in europe and central asia than anywhere in the world. in some european countries as many as 26 % of children live in relative poverty. slide 13 : pregnancy a healthy start to life is essential. a woman \u2019 s health directly influences the health and development of her child. access to timely and responsive health services, including skilled birth attendants at the time of delivery, is essential. maternal mortality varies enormously across the european region, ranging from 6 per 100, 000 live births in switzerland to 41 per 100, 000 in some eastern countries. slide 14 : main risks of pregnancy slide 15 : main risks of pregnancy : unsafe abortions the starting point in the life - course of health and development is : every baby should be a wanted baby. unwanted pregnancies may lead to : unsafe abortions, child neglect, malnutrition, disease, and social problems. this implies effective contraceptive advice and availability as young people", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5131002473212225, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:053ac2f2-07a0-4593-aa57-a0e1655ab8e6>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.402973"}
{"text": "tanya lee stone \u2019 s search \u2014 for photos and facts \u2014 has led her in surprising and rewarding directions. \u201c to me, visual storytelling is as important as the text, \u201d stone has said, and that is certainly true of courage has no color : the true story of the triple nickles : america \u2019 s first black paratroopers ( candlewick, jan. 2013 ). through text and images the author paints a fascinating portrait of the african americans who trained as part of the 555th parachute infantry battalion under first sergeant walter morris. seventeen of those 20 men came from the all - black 92nd infantry division, whose roots could be traced back to the buffalo soldiers of the revolutionary and civil wars. the author spoke to curriculum connections about her research, and the triple nickles \u2019 extraordinary legacy. what attracted you to this topic? did it have any relationship to your work on almost astronauts : 13 women who dared to dream ( candlewick, 2009 )? these stories are related in that they are both about extraordinary people, relatively unknown individuals, whose work paved the way for others. change happens slowly \u2014 and it \u2019 s often due to individuals such as these. we owe them tribute. when you begin a nonfiction work, do you have a sense of where you \u2019 re going, or do you let the research guide you? the research did guide me, as did feedback from marc aronson and hilary van dusen, who said, as they did with almost astronauts, \u201c this story is too big for a picture book. \u201d i tend to think cinematically, so i \u2019 m looking at the story through the points - of - view of the triple nickles \u2019 and [ their leader, first sergeant ] walter morris. what are the margins that inform those perspectives? that helps me shape my boundaries. unfortunately, it took almost 10 years to write the book! you interviewed morris, as well as a number of the women represented in almost astronauts. it \u2019 s amazing to think that these events didn \u2019 t transpire that long ago. it wasn \u2019 t that long ago. i think we have come a long way \u2014 and have a really long way to go. that \u2019 s why it \u2019 s important to highlight these stories. we can be proud of our achievements \u2014 and have them motivate us to do a whole lot more. your notes on your work on the identities of the triple nickles who did not graduate, and how you resolved inconsistencies discovered in your research, were fascinating. that was so thrilling [ figuring out", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5045525902549806, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fa442fc8-619c-4d6d-b8df-ef6c855ed8d7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.416056"}
{"text": "a small news article from science has been taped above my desk for the last few years. i don \u2019 t remember who originally gave it to me, or why i even hung it up, but there it is, nestled between a couple xkcd cartoons. the article is titled \u201c the wine divide \u201d and it raises many questions about sustainability, inherent biases in conventional wisdom, and what the term \u201c local \u201d means in a global economy. and it \u2019 s about wine. the basic premise of the article is that, in general, the carbon - cost of shipping wine by freight ( as in, on a truck ) is greater than the cost of shipping by cargo ( as in, on a boat ). in wine, transportation outweighs all other aspects of production and distribution, so using the cost of transport, two scientists calculated the cost of buying wine from napa valley or bordeaux, france if you live in new york. shipping a 750 - milliliter bottle from bordeaux to new york city emits 1. 8 kilograms of carbon, whereas trucking one from the napa valley emits 2. 6 kg. they also calculated a napa - bordeaux line, which determines which region ( napa valley or bordeaux ) has the lower carbon cost for where you live. in a thorough review of the life cycle of a bottle of wine, colman and paster presented some surprising insights into the real cost of transportation. among the most counter - intuitive results is how dramatic the differences among ships, trains, trucks, and airplanes really are. this is scaled by the total amount of cargo shipped, so while the actual amount of fuel burned may be greater, the amount of goods transported is even larger. these data challenge the conventional assumption the local is better. for many goods, distance is significantly less important than the method of delivery, at least when looking at the cost of transportation. for someone living on the east coast of the united states, wine from bordeaux, france is more sustainable than the relatively closer wine from napa valley, california. tyler, colman, & paster, pablo ( 2009 ). red, white, and \u2018 green \u2019 : the cost of greenhouse gas emissions in the global wine trad journal of wine researc, 20 ( 1 ), 15 - 26", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.503240027486656, "token_count": 462, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d49c490-3cc8-439c-9278-090e4f035ea5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.425619"}
{"text": "sentiment is false on every subject. yet what a tyrant it is over us all, woman especially, whose very life is to please, whose highest ambition is to be approved. but once outrage this tyrant, place yourself beyond his jurisdiction, taste the joy of free thought and action, and how powerless is his rule over you! his sceptre lies broken at your feet ; his very babblings of condemnation are sweet music in your ears ; his darkening frown is sunshine to your heart, for they tell of your triumph and his discomfort. think you, women thus educated would long remain the weak, dependent beings we now find them? by no means. depend upon it, they would soon settie for themselves this whole question of woman ' s rights. as educated capitalists and skilled laborers, they would not be long in finding their true level in political and social life. ( 3 ) elizabeth cady stanton, speech ( 20th february, 1894 ) the point i wish plainly to bring before you on this occasion is the individuality of each human soul - our protestant idea, the right of individual conscience and judgment - our republican idea, individual citizenship. in discussing the rights of woman, we are to consider, first, what belongs to her as an individual, in a world other own, the arbiter other own destiny, an imaginary robinson crusoe with her woman friday on a solitary island. her rights under such circumstances are to use all her faculties for her own safety and happiness. secondly, if we consider her as a citizen, as a member of a great nation, she must have the same rights as all other members, according to the fundamental principles of our government. thirdly, viewed as a woman, an equal factor in civilization, her rights and duties are still the same - individual happiness and development. fourthly, it is only the incidental relations of life, such as mother, wife, sister, daughter, which may involve some special duties and training. in the usual discussion in regard to woman ' s sphere, such men as herbert spencer, frederick harrison and grant alien uniformly subordinate her rights and duties as an individual, as a citizen, as a woman, to the necessities of these incidental relations, some of which a large class of women never assume. in discussing the sphere of man we do not decide his rights as an individual, as a citizen, as a man, by his duties as a father, a husband, a brother or a son, some of which he may never undertake. moreover he would be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.507347898691382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:823dd093-6bc7-4d5e-9984-07a892621db2>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.547402"}
{"text": "unity & uniformity we often confuse unity with uniformity. in reality it is the spirit of unity which creates uniformity for the sake of its beauty and the protection it gives. throughout all ages both have existed : unity as the inner nature of every soul and the only purpose of life, and uniformity to help to fulfill that purpose. unity is the goal and uniformity the means to reach that goal, but often the means has obscured the purpose. all through the ages the different religions which have been given to man for his spiritual development with the sole idea of unity, have gradually become a kind of community or nationality. many people who belong to a church accept its dogmas, claim a certain name for their religion, and consider all other children of god as separate ; by doing so they lose the very seed of wisdom for whose development that religion was given. this error has existed from the beginning, so that instead of touching the true spirit, people have lost reality by seeking a false objective. religious differences have caused endless wars and disasters for the human race. the reason of this is that the spirit of unity has not been recognized, while undue regard has been paid to uniformity. in the present age, when the spirit of religion is at its lowest ebb and only the uniformity remains, divisions of classes and discords of all kinds spring up ; one party, one class against another, the spirit of rivalry, jealousy, and destruction everywhere. the effect of this has been to keep man away from the consciousness of god. very few indeed recognize him ; all humanity is labouring under a great unrest ; and yet man thinks he is progressing while all the time he only progresses towards still greater unrest. there can never be true progress when nations and kingdoms and peoples are divided ; for when the races are divided then subdivisions come, and classes and parties also become divided. the same spirit of destruction is at work all the time, and even families become separated. unity seems to be rooted out from the hearts of men. examples are not necessary ; those who will notice it can see this state of humanity, this condition of life, all over the world. when we seek a reason for this we find a right principle wrongly worked out. uniformity is not a fault, indeed it is a great virtue ; there is nothing wrong, for instance, in a uniform desire to help, to give service in time of need ; but when the god - ideal is removed then it remains as a body without a soul, a corpse, and in the end", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5297922902293652, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c99c8c4c-54f6-42f4-8b9e-88761afde77b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.648772"}
{"text": "virtue ; there is nothing wrong, for instance, in a uniform desire to help, to give service in time of need ; but when the god - ideal is removed then it remains as a body without a soul, a corpse, and in the end it decays and causes foulness. however alive and prosperous the world may seem, life belongs only to the living, and when the living being is forgotten it is like a light under a bushel. man becomes so absorbed in the pursuit of money that he becomes intoxicated and regardless of the harmony and happiness of others, and even of the harmony of his own being ; and then he causes destruction. we have only to think of the wars humanity has gone through, and of this latest horror, to see the truth. it all proves that progress is in the wrong direction, and that everywhere unity is lacking. the scriptures given to the jews, the muslims, parsis, hindus, buddhists, all have as their central truth the message of unity, but man has been so interested and absorbed in the poetry of these scriptures that he has forgotten their inner voice. if only we would recognize the inner voice, we would see that the different scriptures all contain words spoken by one and the same voice. some hear the voice, others only hear the words, just as in nature some see only the branches and others the roots of the tree ; but all these different scriptures and ways of worship and of contemplating god are given for one purpose : the realization of unity. in unity reside the happiness and illumination of man, and his guidance in life. we all know unity by name, but most of us think of it as uniformity. the vedanta for thousands of years in all its prayers and mantrams voiced this central theme : unity, the oneness of all. the qur ' an with all its warnings expresses in one essential sura the being of god : that not only in the unseen, but in all that is seen there is one underlying current ; and the bible says that we live and move and have our being in god. of all the millions of believers in god perhaps only one makes god a reality, and that is because the picture man makes of god is as limited as himself. the knowledge of god is beyond man ' s reason. man only perceives things he is capable of perceiving. he cannot raise his imagination above what he is used to, and he cannot reach beyond his imagination to where the being of god is. the secret of god is hidden in the knowledge", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.56507824347183, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c99c8c4c-54f6-42f4-8b9e-88761afde77b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.653186"}
{"text": ". man only perceives things he is capable of perceiving. he cannot raise his imagination above what he is used to, and he cannot reach beyond his imagination to where the being of god is. the secret of god is hidden in the knowledge of unity. man thinks, ' what can unity give me? can it bring me happiness? what is there in it? ' he can get the answer by observing and studying life more closely. see what an atmosphere the harmony of ten people can create ; the power of love and the influence created by ten people is much greater than that created by one. think then what would be the blessing for humanity if nations, races and communities were united! no doubt uniformity can teach the lesson of unity, but its purpose must not be for worldly gain ; then it is destructive. the wise in all ages have dived deep into life in order to attain unity in themselves, and in order to spread unity. in the life of the world every man has some complaint to make, he lacks something, he is troubled by something ; but this is only the external reason, the real truth is that he is not in unity with his own soul, for when there is disharmony in ourselves how can we spread harmony? when mind and body are at war the soul wants something else, and soul and mind are pulled by the body, or the body and mind by the soul ; and so there is disharmony. when a man is in harmony with himself, he is in harmony with all ; he produces harmony and gives harmony to all, he gives it out all the time. this is a question that can be answered by understanding our relationship with god. the innermost being of man is the real being of god ; man is always linked with god. if he could only realize it, it is by finding harmony in his own soul that he finds communion with god. all meditation and contemplation are taught with this purpose : to harmonize one ' s innermost being with god, so that he is seeing, hearing, thinking through us, and our being is a ray of his light ; in that way we are even closer to god than the fishes are to the ocean in which they have their being. it is mostly interest in worldly things that unites one man with another in order that they can make more profit. how great would be this power if man would unite in true brotherhood! as long as this teaching is hidden under a bushel the methods of uniformity cannot be beneficial", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.595447103855967, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c99c8c4c-54f6-42f4-8b9e-88761afde77b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.654528"}
{"text": "things that unites one man with another in order that they can make more profit. how great would be this power if man would unite in true brotherhood! as long as this teaching is hidden under a bushel the methods of uniformity cannot be beneficial ; they have no life. the world, in spite of any success it may seem to have today, is suffering from the wrong application of a right principle. true life cannot be ours until unity is achieved. it is the work of religion to promote the spirit of unity, in the knowledge and love of god to whom all devotion belongs. man often seeks for psychic, occult, and magnetic powers. this is not the purpose of religion ; these developments come of themselves. where there is life and love, there is magnetism ; love itself is the healing power and the remedy for all pain. all occult powers belong to the divine life, but man should live a natural life and realize the nature of god. the only studies which are worth accomplishing are those which lead to the realization of god, and of unity first with god and then with the self, and so with all. it is not necessary for us to be told that we have progressed ; we ourselves will know when our heart goes forward ; and by loving, forgiving, and serving, our whole life becomes one single vision of the sublime beauty of god.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5658033966270434, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c99c8c4c-54f6-42f4-8b9e-88761afde77b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.655110"}
{"text": "type of surgery last updated : 02 / 17 / 2009 pallidotomy improves the motor ability of patients, especially during \" off \" periods. studies show the procedure generally improves tremor, rigidity, and slowed movements by 25a\u20ac \u201c 60 %. dyskinesias typically improve by 75 % or more. improvements from unilateral... pallidotomy are primarily on the side opposite the surgery. balance does not improve, nor do non - motor symptoms such as drooling, constipation, and orthostatic hypotension ( lightheadness on standing ). pallidotomy is a procedure where a tiny electrical probe is placed in the globus pallidus ( one of the basal ganglia of the brain ), which is then heated to 80 degrees celsius for 60 s, to destroy a small area of brain cells. pallidotomy is used to treat dyskinesias in patients with parkinson ' s disease. on neurosurgery it is important to have new types of procedures, like stereotactic radiosurgery that is a newer type of focused radiation that has been used with some success for patients with metastatic brain tumors find a qualified specialist looking for a specialist? please enter your zip code.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5036292067268062, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8089b7fa-2290-403a-8888-03c403ff91a4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.657476"}
{"text": "imaging and radiology radiology is a branch of medicine that uses imaging technology to diagnose and treat disease. radiology may be divided into two different areas, diagnostic radiology and interventional radiology. the field of therapeutic radiology, which uses x - rays to treat cancer, is now called radiation oncology. doctors who specialize in radiology are called radiologists. interventional radiology ; diagnostic radiology ; x - ray imaging diagnostic radiology helps health care professionals see structures inside your body. using these images, the radiologist or other physicians can often : - diagnose the cause of your symptoms - monitor how well your body is responding to a treatment you are receiving for your disease or condition - screen for different illnesses, such as breast cancer or heart disease the most common types of diagnostic radiology include : - computed tomography ( ct ), also know as a cat scan ( computerized axial tomography ) - ct angiography - fluoroscopy with scanning, including upper gi and barium enema - magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) - magnetic resonance angiography ( mra ) - nuclear medicine, which includes such tests as a bone scan, thyroid scan, and thallium cardiac stress test - plain x - rays - positron emission tomography, also called pet imaging or a pet scan interventional radiology uses imaging to help guide the doctor when inserting catheters, wires, and other small instruments and tools into your body. doctors can use this technology to diagnose or treat conditions in almost any part of the body, instead of needing to directly look inside of your body through a scope ( camera ) or surgery. some of these conditions include cancers or tumors, blockages in your arteries and veins, fibroids in the uterus, back pain, gallstones and gallbladder problems, and thyroid disorders. the doctor will make no incision ( cut ) or only a very small one. you rarely need to stay in the hospital afterwards. most patients need either conscious sedation ( medicines to help you relax ) or spinal or epidural anesthesia. radiologists who perform these types of procedure receive 1 or 2 extra years of training after they have finished medical school and basic training in radiology. examples of interventional radiology procedures include : - angiography or angioplasty and stent placement - catheter embolization - vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty - needle biopsies of different organs, such as the lungs and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5065724119916448, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:efce444a-b757-4b58-815e-ec47502409cf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.661746"}
{"text": "learning aspect is embedded in what children do, \" santomero explained. \" the older character needs their help with a problem. \" the problems are relatively easy in the beginning of the show, she explained, with each one becoming a little bit harder. \" by the third clue, we are sitting in a big thinking chair and have brought preschoolers through a 30 - minute show remembering clues. \" alice wilder, ( ed. d. educational psychology, 1998 ), director of research and development for the show, agreed that the interactive nature of the show ' s design is key to learning. \" they watch it and participate in it and ' the knowledge for themselves, \" she explained. wilder was at teachers college working on her dissertation about the effectiveness of instructional programs for students with learning disabilities when santomero called and asked her to watch the pilot she had created with kessler and johnson. \" when angela called me and showed me the pilot, i cried, \" wilder said. \" i saw so many of the things we had learned in school. i could see them becoming a reality in the show they had created. \" santomero had other reasons for showing the pilot to wilder. \" in order to do 20 episodes, i needed someone who was completely smart, who could understand the kids and the show, and bridge the gap between research and production, \" she explained. \" so i told her, need someone just like you. ' \" wilder ' s background in working with producers and writers at children ' s television workshop enhanced her qualifications as a researcher for this project. wilder was also getting what she called \" great research experience \" at teachers college while working on her doctorate. she saw this as her opportunity to \" take what i was learning about kids and apply it to the medium of television. \" not only was it rare to have a research department as part of a production, but santomero came up with an idea to bring another unusual element to the show. \" we want kids to master the concepts, \" she said. \" one way of doing that is to air the same show every day for a week. \" according to what they were hearing from teachers, parents and grandparents, repetition is one of the most important strategies used in teaching children of this age group. \" it was something different, and it was scary to present it to nickelodeon, \" santomero confessed. \" but they are big on research and they understood the power of hearing from our audience to create programming strategy. with blue ' s clues, we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.501656631986679, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0ccc5f50-da61-4993-96d7-72a3054850b5>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.684201"}
{"text": "a full and active life supported by caring relationships can reduce the occurrence of challenging behaviors in people with intellectual and / or developmental disabilities1. however, if such behaviors occur, people with intellectual and / or developmental disabilities and those who support them must have access to positive behavioral supports that focus on improved quality of life as well as reductions in the behaviors. people with intellectual and / or developmental disabilities need supportive and caring relationships in order to develop full and active lives. historically, people with intellectual and / or developmental disabilities across the age span have frequently been subjected to aversive procedures ( i. e., electric shock, cold water sprays and deprivations like withholding food or visitation with friends and family ) that may cause physical pain, discomfort and / or psychological harm. children and adults with intellectual and / or developmental disabilities are frequently subjected to physical restraint, including the use of life - threatening prone restraint and seclusion for long periods of time. research indicates that aversive procedures such as deprivation, physical restraint and seclusion do not reduce challenging behaviors, and in fact can inhibit the development of appropriate skills and behaviors. these practices are dangerous, dehumanizing, result in a loss of dignity, and are unacceptable in a civilized society. research - based positive behavioral supports should be readily available in natural settings including the family home. families, caregivers, educators, direct support personnel, and other professionals and paraprofessionals should be provided with training and support in implementing effective positive behavioral interventions and supports in all environments. behavioral supports should be individually designed and positive, emphasize learning, offer choice and social integration, be culturally appropriate, and include modifying environments as needed. the arc and aaidd are opposed to all aversive procedures, such as electric shock, deprivation, seclusion and isolation. interventions must not withhold essential food and drink, cause physical and / or psychological pain or result in humiliation or discomfort. physical restraints should only be used as a last resort to eliminate the danger of physical injury to self or others. the following factors should be considered in developing a positive behavioral intervention plan : - the circumstances and environment in which the behavior occurred ; - the perspectives of the individual, his or her family and their social / cultural background and values ; - the contributing factors, such as physical or medical conditions, social and environmental influences ; - the completeness and accuracy of any data which has been collected about the behavior ; - the nature, extent, and frequency of the perceived challenging behavior ; and - the function of the behavior, especially what", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5106515307722455, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2024b89d-beba-4ebf-87ca-cffb12fb86d5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.693819"}
{"text": "christmas lights powered by poop research at uc denver proves viability of waste as energy source last updated : 879 days ago a small lighted christmas tree in a uc denver laboratory proves the practicality of a novel renewable energy source, and points to its enormous potential. jason ren, an assistant professor of civil engineering, calls it \" bug power \" referring to the millions of bacteria that help generate electricity from wastewater. the process creates two desirable byproducts. \" those bacteria are able to consume the waste and produce electricity as well as clean water, \" ren said. bacteria in the microbial fuel cells essentially eat the waste and give off electrons in the process. those electrons are then captured by a graphite brush. also, ren recently discovered that salt water could be turned to fresh water as a third, simultaneous function. \" electricity on one side, treating wastewater on the other side, while desalinating sea water in the middle, \" ren said, pointing to a small three - chambered reactor. \" i think it ' s pretty promising, \" said jae - do park, an assistant professor of electrical engineering. he is working to make the electricity functional. \" to harvest the energy from the fuel cell in the most efficient way, and at the same time to form that power from the fuel cell into a usable shape, \" park said. the glowing led lights on the laboratory christmas tree are proof that it ' s possible to turn poop into power using bacteria. the microbial fuel cell research is gaining attention and from high places. the environmental protection agency and the u. s. navy have both provided grants to help advance the technology and its applications.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5382431572034458, "token_count": 335, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:232a8cec-256a-4b73-9a10-0b38bd15f4a9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.711647"}
{"text": "; so christ both gives and receives the spirit in diverse respects. as god, he gives and sends the spirit. the spiration and breathing of the spirit is from him as well as from the father, but as man he received the spirit. and this is the reason of it : next under the father, son, and holy ghost, christ the mediator, was to be the spring and original of all comfort and good. therefore, christ ' s nature must not only be sanctified and ordained by the spirit ; but he must receive the spirit to enrich it, for whatsoever is wrought in the creature is by the spirit. whatsoever christ did as man, he did by the spirit. christ ' s human nature, therefore, must be sanctified, and have the spirit put upon it. god the father, the first person in trinity, and god the son, the second, they work not immediately, but by the holy ghost, the third person. therefore, whatsoever is wrought upon the creature, it comes from the holy ghost immediately. so christ received the holy ghost as sent from the father and the son. now as the holy spirit is from the father and the son, so he works from the father and the son. he sanctifies and purifieth, and does all from the father and the son, and knits us to the father and the son ; to the son first, and then to the father. therefore it is said, ' the grace of our lord jesus christ, the love of god the father, and the communion of the holy ghost, ' 2 cor. 13 : 14 ; because all the communion we have with god is by the holy ghost. all the communion that christ as man had with god was by the holy ghost ; and all the communion that god has with us, and we with god, is by the holy ghost : for the spirit is the bond of union between christ and us, and between god and us. god communicates himself to us by his spirit, and we communicate with god by his spirit. god does all in us by his spirit, and we do all back again to god by the spirit. because christ, as a head, as the second adam, was to be the root of all that are saved, as the first adam was the root of all that are damned, he was therefore to receive the spirit, and to have it put upon him in a more excellent and rich manner : for we must know that all things are first in christ,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.501837803179966, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5f99d7a8-061d-48c1-b811-0213f9e49923>", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.813043"}
{"text": "these are my skewness notes for s1 which explain the coefficient of skewness at the bottom. in a symmetrical distribution mean = median = mode and q2 \u2013 q1 = q3 \u2013 q2. a positive skew distribution has a tail to the positive side, mean > median > mode and q2 \u2013 q1 < q3 \u2013 q2. a negative skew distribution has a tail to the negative side, mean < median < mode and q2 \u2013 q1 > q3 \u2013 q2. skewness can be given quantity as well as direction by using ( 3 ( mean - median ) ) / ( standard deviation ). to compare the relative dispersion between data sets the coefficient of variation is used, it is given by v = 100\u03c3 / \u03bc = 100s / x and as a percentage. when data is skewed the median and the interquartile range are used as measures of location and dispersion as they are not affected by extreme values. the dispersion of a set of data is therefore measured by the quartile coefficient of variation which is given by qv = ( 50 ( q _ 3 - q _ 1 ) ) / q _ 2. x is mean of x and q _ 3 is the upper quartile mark, if the notation wasnt that clear last edited by abbii ; 18 - 04 - 2010 at 21 : 29. last edited by. acs. ; 18 - 04 - 2010 at 21 : 35. reason : decided to add latex", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5013948471174726, "token_count": 314, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e014a1d1-c260-4e09-aabf-34590ed2fb84>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.842019"}
{"text": "over 8, 000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a thinkquest competition. compete | faq | contact us troy : myth and reality the entry on troy describes one of the most fascinating episodes in the unclearly defined border line between legend and reality. for many years homer \u2019 s iliad was seen as a nice story of greek gods and heros, but nothing that bore any resemblance with reality. in the 19th century achaeologists started trying to find out if there was really any discernible background to the legend. especially heinrich schliemann was one of the best known characters to work on this topic, although frank calvert was the first one to research the legend \u2019 s location and excavated small parts of level vi of ancient troy, thus starting to prove that there was a real background. the photos show a lot of information that the researchers saw on their way in proving the real existence of troy. the user gets information on the legend and the archaeology of troy, a virtual walk into troy, a teacher \u2019 s section with a lot of links and activies, an interactive quiz and information about the team. the entry can be used in english as well as in german. 2001 achievement award juliegalesburg high school, galesburg, il, united states torstenmariengymnasium jever, friedeburg, germany danielmariengymnasium jever, jever, germany 19 & under martin maeckenmariengymnasium, jever, germany history & government > ancient civilizations & archaeology > ancient greece books & literature", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5081708042187473, "token_count": 320, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:85d83a51-a452-4b7b-916d-ebc0aa584d33>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.843904"}
{"text": "twenty - five days. that ' s how long it took dr. shinya yamanaka of kyoto university to undo more than 30 years of exquisitely programmed biology packed into a woman ' s cheek cell and just maybe change the world. in a procedure that some scientists thought could take decades to discover, yamanaka tricked the cheek cell into acting like an embryonic stem cell capable of dividing, developing and maturing into any of the body ' s more than 200 different cell types. and he wasn ' t alone : on the same day that he published his milestone in the journal cell, james thomson, a pioneering university of wisconsin molecular biologist, reported similar success in science. their papers cap a year of remarkable research, in which scientists have surged ahead of ethicists and politicians in finding ever more clever ways to generate stem cells. but where other breakthroughs relied on using cells from living embryos tiny bits of inchoate life, fraught with ethical issues the work by yamanaka and thomson sidesteps that abyss by nursing adult cells into a state in which their cellular destiny is yet to be fulfilled. no embryos, no eggs, no hand - wringing over where the cells come from and whether it is ethical to make them in the first place. stem cells generated by this method are ideal not just because they are free of political and moral baggage. they can also be coaxed into becoming any type of tissue, and then be transplanted back into the donor with little risk of rejection. still, these cells are far from ready for medical use. the viruses used to ferry the genes that manipulate the cells can introduce genetic mutations and cancer. and with myriad ways to reprogram a cell, sorting out the best ones will take time meaning that stem cells from embryos will remain useful ( and controversial ) for a while. both yamanaka and thomson admit that we still know too little about how the process works to exploit the method ' s full potential. nevertheless, their discovery has moved stem - cell research back to an embryonic state of its own in which anything, it seems, is possible.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5021316420796178, "token_count": 427, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0d1a1010-2e23-4fbf-bc78-2e57f0c5e5da>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.848721"}
{"text": "answer : even better! a lot of ag research stations have investigated the application of chemicals through irrigation systems. typically they find that fertigation provides the following advantages compared to ground application : question : what about chemicals other than fertilizers? answer : most of the above advantages extend to pesticide injection. in addition, researchers report : question : how does all this fit together with some of the newer irrigation technologies? answer : two technological advances offer us examples of the perfect fit between injectors and irrigation systems : low energy precision application ( lepa ) heads make pivots even more effective as application devices. lepa heads are usually arranged to deliver water beneath the crop foliage canopy. several lepa head designs have multiple operating modes including the capability to convert between down - spray and up - spray. this feature further improves the flexibility of chemical application by center pivots. sub - surface drip irrigation is a technology that couldn ' t exist without injectors. all crop nutrients are delivered directly to the plant roots through the irrigation lines while the search continues for new systemic pesticides that are well - suited for root uptake. chemicals must also be injected to keep irrigation lines free of slime that would plug the drip emitters. this article is reprinted from chemindustrial systems, inc. ; csi info / update # 8 oct 21, 1994", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5031679748603568, "token_count": 273, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1db88bea-2ba3-4a68-8b1d-bc7810323ce7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.861777"}
{"text": "\u201c redefining a word isn ' t always the same as giving it a new meaning. sometimes you ' re just trying to pare it down to the core concept that people missed the first time around. dictionary definitions of \" camera \" used to mention film and plates ; now they just refer to a photosensitive surface. but the meaning of \" camera \" isn ' t different ; it ' s just that now technology lets us see what its essence has been all along. \u201d \u2014 geoff nunberg on how dictionaries are even grappling with getting \u2018 marriage \u2019 right \u201c equality, \u201d \u201c prejudice, \u201d \u201c race \u201d itself \u2014 how can you have mid - nineteenth - century characters use words like those without anachronistically evoking the connotations they have for us? to many of lincoln \u2019 s contemporaries and even his allies, \u201c equality \u201d still evoked alarming echoes of the french revolution. to speak of \u201c race equality \u201d implied not just that people should all be treated alike, but that the races really were morally and intellectually equivalent. that was an extreme and dubious proposition to all but a few radical republicans, like thaddeus stevens. \u201d \u2014 geoff nunberg on how connotations have changed since the 19th century and how those connotations are alluded to in tony kushner \u2019 s screen adaptation of lincoln. ' occupy ' : geoff nunberg ' s 2011 word of the yeargeoff nunberg \u2018 occupy \u2019 : geoff nunberg \u2019 s 2011 word of the year ( via npr )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5782408373661226, "token_count": 313, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e506a5cd-1e16-4b58-9ecb-6e2a8516d7a4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.863280"}
{"text": "hb electrophoresis ; hgb electrophoresis ; electrophoresis - hemoglobin hemoglobin electrophoresis is a test that measures the different types of the oxygen - carrying protein ( hemoglobin ) in the blood. blood is typically drawn from a vein, usually from the inside of the elbow or the back of the hand. the site is cleaned with germ - killing medicine ( antiseptic ). the health care provider wraps an elastic band around the upper arm to apply pressure to the area and make the vein swell with blood. next, the health care provider gently inserts a needle into the vein. the blood collects into an airtight vial or tube attached to the needle. the elastic band is removed from your arm. once the blood has been collected, the needle is removed, and the puncture site is covered to stop any bleeding. in infants or young children, a sharp tool called a lancet may be used to puncture the skin and make it bleed. the blood collects into a small glass tube called a pipette, or onto a slide or test strip. a bandage may be placed over the area if there is any bleeding. no special preparation is necessary for this test. when the needle is inserted to draw blood, some people feel moderate pain, while others feel only a prick or stinging sensation. afterward, there may be some throbbing. you may have this test if your health care provider suspects that you have a disorder caused by abnormal forms of hemoglobin ( hemoglobinopathy ). many different types of hemoglobin ( hb ) exist. the most common ones are hba, hba2, hbf, hbs, hbc, hb h, and hb m. healthy adults only have significant levels of hba and hba2. some people may also have small amounts of hbf ( which is the main type of hemoglobin in an unborn baby ' s body ). certain diseases are associated with high hbf levels ( when hbf is more than 2 % of the total hemoglobin ). hbs is an abnormal form of hemoglobin associated with sickle cell anemia. in people with this condition, the red blood cells sometimes have a crescent or sickle shape. the cells easily break down, or can block small blood vessels. hbc is an abnormal form of hemoglobin associated with hemolytic anemia. the symptoms are much milder than they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5648960878771533, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:66098e88-e7ff-42b1-a9ca-8fb1ba91c648>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.887468"}
{"text": "cells sometimes have a crescent or sickle shape. the cells easily break down, or can block small blood vessels. hbc is an abnormal form of hemoglobin associated with hemolytic anemia. the symptoms are much milder than they are in sickle cell anemia. other, less common, abnormal hb molecules cause anemias. in adults, these hemoglobin molecules make up the following percentages of total hemoglobin : in infants and children, these hemoglobin molecules make up the following percentages of total hemoglobin : note : normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results. the examples above show the common measurements for results for these tests. some laboratories use different measurements or may test different specimens. the presence of significant levels of abnormal hemoglobins may indicate : there is very little risk involved with having your blood taken. veins and arteries vary in size from one patient to another and from one side of the body to the other. taking blood from some people may be more difficult than from others. other risks associated with having blood drawn are slight but may include : you may have false normal or abnormal results if you ' ve had a blood transfusion within the previous 12 weeks. nagel r. methemoglobinemias and unstable hemoglobins. in : goldman l, ausiello d, eds. cecil medicine. 23rd ed. philadelphia, pa : saunders elsevier ; 2007 : chap 168. steinberg m. sickle cell disease and associated hemoglobinopathies. in : goldman l, ausiello d, eds. cecil medicine. 23rd ed. philadelphia, pa : saunders elsevier ; 2007 : chap 167. \u00a9 2011 university of maryland medical center ( ummc ). all rights reserved. ummc is a member of the university of maryland medical system, 22 s. greene street, baltimore, md 21201. tdd : 1 - 800 - 735 - 2258 or 1. 866. 408. 6885", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.55986314269086, "token_count": 429, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:66098e88-e7ff-42b1-a9ca-8fb1ba91c648>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.888938"}
{"text": "supporting early childhood education : basf \u2019 s \u201c action on education \u201d campaign as part of the \u201c action on education \u201d campaign, basf aktiengesellschaft is supporting seven projects aimed at boosting early childhood education in daycare centers. the projects are being organized and carried out by organizations that operate daycare centers in ludwigshafen \u2013 the city of ludwigshafen and germany \u2019 s two main churches. ludwigshafen \u2019 s 89 daycare centers are taking part in the projects together. an academic research group will provide ongoing support and post - project evaluation for the projects, which are intended to be sustainable and to continue after the project phase is over. the projects address topics that are an integral part of the educational guidelines laid down for daycare centers by the state of rhineland - palatinate. 1. project \u201c language makes you strong! language bridge daycare centers \u201d language is the key to successful education and integration, which is why this project aims to improve the development of language skills among children from diverse social and cultural backgrounds. promoting language skills in small groups and in everyday classroom situations helps in the following way : using small groups, trained staff use games to systematically teach children with poor language skills a specific number of new words, e. g., \u201c clothes \u201d or \u201c parts of the body. \u201d to consolidate the new vocabulary, each topic is again dealt with in the entire group and in other ways ( for example, by naming the different items of clothes when getting dressed ). parents are children \u2019 s most important language partners. once a week, parents who come from other countries or families with educational problems go to the daycare center with their children. they learn in game form how to encourage the use of language using play and get tips on what to do at home. 2. project \u201c pure nature \u201d this project helps daycare centers to teach children about nature. the idea is to give children a wide variety of ways of learning about nature so that they develop a relationship with nature and the natural world, and experience and understand its relationship with other things. for this reason, an important part of the project is building natural play areas for the centers. examples include model outdoor play areas, such as building small hillocks, climbing opportunities or making little streams. 3. project \u201c from small to smart \u201d the aim of this project is to encourage children to be curious about scientific phenomena and to help them learn how to express and think about their experiences. age - appropriate, hands - on experiments help to encourage their interest in chemistry, math and physics", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5080426653184281, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:77113b78-4789-4e1c-a88f-d6ce924d17ab>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.900679"}
{"text": "smart \u201d the aim of this project is to encourage children to be curious about scientific phenomena and to help them learn how to express and think about their experiences. age - appropriate, hands - on experiments help to encourage their interest in chemistry, math and physics. specially equipped educational workshops in each of the participating daycare centers also encourage the children to learn more easily. in small groups, the children find out what happens, for example, when they mix paints, what substances dissolve in water or discover \u201c hidden \u201d air. using materials found in every household, the children are able to make surprising experiences. 4. storytelling workshop listening to stories from different cultures doesn \u2019 t just fascinate children, it also helps them to better understand their own and other cultures. this project uses storytelling as an educational tool : children learn to listen and become storytellers themselves, while at the same time coming face to face with stories from other cultures and traditions. 5. project \u201c from piccolo to picasso \u201d helping to develop creative skills in children is the aim of this project, which boosts the esthetic and artistic element of the centers \u2019 curriculum. children are given the opportunity \u2013 based on their teachers \u2019 suggestions \u2013 to express themselves using colors, shapes and experimental designs. artists are also invited to come and work with the children. all the participating centers have set up \u201c children \u2019 s studios \u201d \u2013 their size depends on the available space \u2013 where the children can draw, paint or make things. 6. project \u201c guaranty for quality \u201d this project introduces quality assurance into daycare centers with respect to processes, structures and results. staff at the centers are trained to monitor and improve the quality of their own work on an ongoing basis. every year, each center chooses specific areas from a list of defined, quality - relevant subjects that they want to focus on and implement, for example integrating parents into the work of the centers. 7. project \u201c observation and educational partnership \u201d this project intends to assist center staff in developing their observational skills : the idea is to be more aware of children \u2019 s individuality so that they can be given greater personal support. center staff are trained to systematically observe children \u2019 s development, their strengths and needs and to document these observations for each child. the training also teaches staff how to talk to parents with the aim of persuading them to work more closely with the centers in the interests of the children. back to top", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.536046387272396, "token_count": 488, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:77113b78-4789-4e1c-a88f-d6ce924d17ab>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.901843"}
{"text": "for nearly half - a - century, molecular biologists have sought to solve the mystery of how proteins are synthesized and the intricacies of ribosomes \u2014 the small particles in cells on which proteins are synthesized. two ucla molecular biologists propose a solution in the march 21 issue of the journal nature. the scientists \u2014 james a. lake, ucla professor of molecular, cell and developmental biology, and ucla graduate student anne b. simonson \u2014 show how the \u201c factory of life \u201d works. \u201c the ribosome is like a computer - driven protein factory that has been cloaked in secrecy, \u201d lake said. \u201c we knew the shape of the factory, and we could see the trucks going in, but we couldn \u2019 t peer beyond the factory gate. we knew the names of the employees, but we didn \u2019 t know what they did. now we have a hypothesis of how the employees move in and out of different rooms to get their work done, and even what they have for lunch. our hypothesis of how protein synthesis works may be refined, but we are confident that the central parts are correct. \u201c proteins are the workhorses of the cell, the molecules that make us what we are, and every protein in our body is made on a ribosome, \u201d lake said. \u201c ribosomes are central to life, and are in every living organism, from the smallest bacteria to humans. \u201d why is it important to understand how ribosomes make proteins? each of our cells has more than 100, 000 ribosomes, and solving what lake calls \u201c the puzzle of life \u201d requires a much greater understanding of the ribosome \u2019 s role in protein synthesis than the broad outlines scientists have had until now. in addition, the research could lead to new antibiotics, and insights into how genes are regulated, which could lead to new treatments for a variety of diseases, lake said. in molecular biology, translation is the process that turns genes into proteins \u2014 the \u201c molecules of life. \u201d scientists have not understood how this critical process works, but have known that it has three phases : initiation, elongation and termination, of which elongation is the key. a number of antibiotics work at the translation level. \u201c elongation is the heart of protein synthesis, \u201d lake said, the phase in which the ribosome adds amino acids, sometimes hundreds of them. in their nature paper, lake and simonson explain the molecular details of elongation, including the location and movement of more than 10, 000 atoms", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5314912858268023, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:202fe9b3-58d0-4a19-95d2-f1eaca04b982>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.908634"}
{"text": "lake said, the phase in which the ribosome adds amino acids, sometimes hundreds of them. in their nature paper, lake and simonson explain the molecular details of elongation, including the location and movement of more than 10, 000 atoms. in addition, they have located a novel binding site for transfer rna ( trna ) when it enters the ribosome. \u201c genes are being turned on and turned off, and transcribed and translated constantly in our cells, \u201d simonson said. \u201c learning the mechanisms of how this works is key. \u201d with the new knowledge, it may become possible to make modifications in parts of the translation process to suppress lethal mutations and design new proteins to counteract the defects that cause numerous diseases, lake said. if the ribosome is a factory, then the workers in the hard hats include trna and ef - tu, a ubiquitous protein molecule that is like a large motor transporting trnas and amino acids. simonson and lake have learned how they move and function. \u201c ef - tu moves to exactly where it needs to go to transport the trna to where it needs to be so the amino acids are close enough together to be added to the end of a growing protein chain, \u201d lake said. \u201c the structure led us. the ribosome \u2019 s structure was telling us, \u2018 it can \u2019 t move like that, it doesn \u2019 t fit there, you have to turn it this way. \u2019 all the times we would make mistakes, the ribosome would correct us. \u201d \u201c the most exciting moment for me occurred late one night when we saw the initial binding site for trna before it turns, \u201d simonson said. \u201c the structure of the ribosome dictated how it fit in. we looked at each other and said, \u2018 wow! that \u2019 s amazing. \u2019 \u201d the research, which involved sophisticated computer simulation, was federally funded by grants from the national science foundation, the national institutes of health, the department of energy and the astrobiology institute.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.521196020927214, "token_count": 410, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:202fe9b3-58d0-4a19-95d2-f1eaca04b982>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.909493"}
{"text": "the first census to report on how well people were housed was that of 1891, but the only statistics gathered were on the number of rooms and the number of people in each household. from 1951 onwards, more questions were asked about ' amenities ', meaning specific facilities that households either possessed or had shared access to. one interesting measure of progress is the change in the amenities covered by the census. in 1951, these were piped water, a cooking stove, a kitchen sink, a ' water closet ' meaning a flush toilet, and a ' fixed bath ', as distinct from a tin bath hung on the wall between uses. in 2001, the list of key amenities was shorter : central heating, and ' sole use of bath / shower and toilet '. differences in what information was recorded by each census complicate comparisons over time, and none of our three measures are entirely consistent. our detailed statistics are held in structures called ncubes, which you can think of as tables with one dimension, or with two... or with twenty. their dimensions are defined by the variables each ncube combines, and each variable is made up of categories. these ncubes are available at national level for this theme : | available ncubes | | period covered | | variables ( number of categories ) | total households | | 1931 to 2001 | | | housing density, redistricted | | 1931 to 2001 | | persons per room | housing amenity, redistricted | | 1951 to 2001 | | housing amenities, simplified", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5092341363888919, "token_count": 308, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e8744729-008d-44cb-a684-f374fbbff123>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.940653"}
{"text": "new from webteacher software and partners, googlemapbuilder. com an easy interface to turn any spreadsheet into a google map webteacher software now offers i teach computer classes for a living to corporate clients of all levels. after 2 years of teaching, i have learned a lot about communication between people of various levels of computer experience. this tutorial assumes that you have no prior programming experience, but that you have created your own html pages. if you find this tutorial helpful, please let me know ( it ' s my only reward ). also, links are graciously accepted. actually, the 2 languages have almost nothing in common except for the name. although java is technically an interpreted programming language, it is coded in a similar fashion to c + +, with separate header and class files, compiled together prior to execution. it is powerful enough to write major applications and insert them in a web page as a special object called an \" applet. \" java has been generating a lot of excitment because of its unique ability to run the same program on ibm, mac, and unix computers. java is not considered an easy - to - use language for non - programmers. what is object oriented programming? oop is a programming technique ( note : not a language structure - you don ' t even need an object - oriented language to program in an object - oriented fashion ) designed to simplify complicated programming concepts. in essence, object - oriented programming revolves around the idea of user - and system - defined chunks of data, and controlled means of accessing and modifying those chunks. object - oriented programming consists of objects, methods and properties. an object is basically a black box which stores some information. it may have a way for you to read that information and a way for you to write to, or change, that information. it may also have other less obvious ways of interacting with the information. some of the information in the object may actually be directly accessible ; other information may require you to use a method to access it - perhaps because the way the information is stored internally is of no use to you, or because only certain things can be written into that information space and the object needs to check that you ' re not going outside those limits. the directly accessible bits of information in the object are its properties. the difference between data accessed via properties and data accessed via methods is that with properties, you see exactly what you ' re doing to the object ; with methods, unless you created the object yourself, you just see", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5285768097271709, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7772f169-1fe0-4821-9f17-fc1a29f7ccbe>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.971245"}
{"text": "information in the object are its properties. the difference between data accessed via properties and data accessed via methods is that with properties, you see exactly what you ' re doing to the object ; with methods, unless you created the object yourself, you just see the effects of what you ' re doing. objects and properties your web page document is an object. any table, form, button, image, or link on your page is also an object. each object has certain properties ( information about the object ). for example, the background color of your document is written document. bgcolor. you would change the color of your page to red by writing the line : document. bgcolor = \" red \" the contents ( or value ) of a textbox named \" password \" in a form named \" entryform \" is document. entryform. password. value. most objects have a certain collection of things that they can do. different objects can do different things, just as a door can open and close, while a light can turn on and off. a new document is opened with the method document. open ( ) you can write \" hello world \" into a document by typing document. write ( \" hello world \" ). open ( ) and write ( ) are both methods of the object : document.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5187312612104074, "token_count": 265, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7772f169-1fe0-4821-9f17-fc1a29f7ccbe>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.972051"}
{"text": "shop men ' s categories layering for comfort and safety protection from bright light and uv radiation sunglasses protect the eyes from the sun ' s damaging uv radiation, and improve visibility and comfort on the water by reducing light intensity and filtering out glare. on the water, the combination of direct and reflected light is much brighter than on land. unfiltered glare, the light reflected off flat surfaces like water, windshields, bright white decks and sails, is so intense that it impairs vision ( a clear safety hazard ). glare causes squinting, fatigues the eyes, and can result in visual discomfort and headaches. glare is present even on hazy days. most sunglasses reduce light intensity by 80 - 90 percent with darkening gray, green, amber, or other colored lens. colored lenses alone are not enough protection for marine conditions. to filter out intense glare and prevent squinting, sunglasses for boating should be polarized. and they should be coated to block 99 - 100 percent of the damaging uva and uvb ( ultraviolet ) rays that can reduce visual acuity at night, and cause degenerative eye diseases like photokeratitis, snow blindness, cataracts, pterygium, and various forms of eye cancer. sunglasses should also be shatterproof to protect the eyes from injury in the event of sudden impact. when light rays reflect off a surface, the reflected rays concentrate in one plane and are said to be polarized. reflected glare is an example of polarized light. even on overcast days, the high \u2013 intensity light we call glare can be harsh and overwhelming to your eyes. it blinds you and masks what ' s behind it. squinting blocks out some of the light, but not the glare. ordinary sunglasses can reduce the total amount of light reaching your eyes but, like squinting, they don ' t eliminate the glare. a polarized lens filters out the glare by blocking all polarized light waves except those traveling in a specific orientation. a polarized lens blocks horizontally polarized light with a polarizing film of molecules running in parallel vertical chains sandwiched between two optical lenses. these vertical chains block horizontal light waves, allowing only vertical light waves to pass through. vertical light waves, commonly called \" ambient light, \" are scattered evenly and don ' t produce glare. you can tell if a lens is polarized by rotating the glasses ( or tilting your head when you are wearing them ). you will find that they reduce glare better in some positions than others. by blocking out only the polarized glare, the intensity of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.577653462845434, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a3ca95a-975c-41dc-a300-b1360434105c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.986524"}
{"text": "can tell if a lens is polarized by rotating the glasses ( or tilting your head when you are wearing them ). you will find that they reduce glare better in some positions than others. by blocking out only the polarized glare, the intensity of the light reaching your eyes is not reduced, so objects retain their definition and visual detail. this effect, combined with a tinted lens, makes it much easier to see and identify things both on and below the water like fish, buoys, skiers, wind zephyrs and underwater hazards. some manufacturers use polarized lenses to reduce glare on lcd instruments, fishfinders, etc. when viewed through sunglasses that are polarized differently than the instrument lens, no light is transmitted and the instrument face appears black. the only solution is to remove the glasses. visible light transmission and lens color lenses of different densities absorb different amounts of light. the amount of light passing through the lens is called visible light transmission, expressed as a percentage of total available light. for boating, visible light transmission should fall in the 15 - 30 percent range. on the brightest days, you want the lowest visible light transmission ( darkest ) lenses. lenses are available in a bunch of different colors, and lens color is more than a fashion or attitude question. the technology behind the colors : - gray : a neutral all - purpose color that reduces glare, provides good contrast and no color distortion. ideal for use on both water and land, especially for driving. - brown / amber : increases contrast in most light conditions. in addition to bright sun, amber offers excellent light management properties on cloudy or rainy days, and filters high - frequency near - uv light. good for general purpose, high contrast light situations. - purple / rose : heightens visual acuity and enhances color ( especially with objects against a blue or green background ). delivers brightest field of vision and is applicable for sight fishing, bass fishing, inshore fishing, sport shooting, extreme sports and skiing. - yellow : reduces the blue part of the spectrum. blue light causes a scattering type of glare known as \" blue haze. \" best color for snow. cuts through fog or haze, but has the worst distortion of colors. - green : offers enhanced visual acuity for specific light situations such as sight fishing, but is worn by many for everyday use. optically speaking, the flatter the lens, the less distortion. curved lenses refract, or bend, the light rays as they pass through, so light doesn ' t enter your eye in a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5321526217999741, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a3ca95a-975c-41dc-a300-b1360434105c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.987859"}
{"text": "but is worn by many for everyday use. optically speaking, the flatter the lens, the less distortion. curved lenses refract, or bend, the light rays as they pass through, so light doesn ' t enter your eye in a straight line. your eyes are forced to work overtime to process and correct the visual information, which may cause eye fatigue and headaches. this distortion can be eliminated with corrected prismatics ; check the label for distortion - free prismatics before purchasing curved sunglasses. lenses of good sunglasses are complex, and are constructed from several layers. the inside has an antireflective coating to reduce \" bounce - back \" on the inside of the lens and a water - repellant coating to shed water and make cleaning easy. an ultraviolet coating protects your eyes from uva and uvb radiation. lenses made of polycarbonate are extremely tough, yet lighter than glass, and can be made oversized to wrap around the face and block entry of light, wind and dirt from the sides, top and bottom. polycarbonate lenses are impact - resistant and shatterproof, an important safety feature, especially for sailors, who may be at risk of being struck in the face. they naturally block 100 percent of the sun ' s harmful uv rays. trivex and kaenon ' s similar proprietary sr - 91 have been available for about the past ten years, with uv - blocking and shatterproofness similar to polycarbonate, but they are stronger, clearer and lighter, with better chromatic distortion performance ( less distortion as you look away from the center of the lens ). sr - 91 has better scratch resistance than polycarbonate. optically ground glass lenses provide the best quality and vision and are more scratch resistant, but they are also heavier. a \" compromise \" lens material is cr - 39, a plastic polymer with optics superior to polycarbonate, but with similar impact resistance and the best scratch resistance of all plastic lenses. the best materials for boating sunglass frames are lightweight, flexible, durable materials such as nylon, propionate or acetate ( also called zyl ). metal frames may be stylish, but they will quickly corrode to a ghastly green in a saltwater environment. some manufacturers, such as costa del mar, use corrosion - resistant monel in their frames. frame hardware is made with either strong, maintenance - free pressed - in pin hinges, or with spring hinges for a snug, comfortable fit. frame hardware should be corrosion - proof. most", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.548475017583247, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a3ca95a-975c-41dc-a300-b1360434105c>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:57.988970"}
{"text": "same age group ( 0 \u2013 59 months ), allowing for the inclusion of a greater number of studies in the analysis. proportional mortality model a traditional approach to estimating cause - specific mortality is to model mortality rates. instead, we have decided to model proportional mortality as this is the measure of interest when assessing causes of death by country. moreover, as the who process for estimating causes of death is based on the estimation of under - 5 mortality level, followed by the allocation of the causes of under - 5 mortality, 6 proportional mortality is a more pertinent outcome that can be used in the completion of the estimation process. we employed a weighted regression model to assess the relationship between the observed proportion of deaths from diarrhoea and potential explanatory variables, in an approach similar to those previously used for estimating proportion of deaths from pneumonia. 6, 10, 17 covariates included in the final model were those available from the studies selected, so that the model could reflect the relationship more accurately than in the conventional approach of using national averages. the variables included were : under - 5 all - cause mortality and dummy variables for mid - year of study and for nine who subregions. 18 all - cause under - 5 mortality was obtained for the same ( or comparable ) site from which the proportional diarrhoea mortality information was derived, as follows : ( i ) directly abstracted or calculated from available data in the study ( 30 studies ) ; ( ii ) obtained from the authors when not possible to calculate from published data ( three studies ) ; ( iii ) obtained from dhs data ( 11 studies ) ; or ( iv ) obtained using a method similar to that used for the adjustment of age groups ( three studies ). as under - 5 mortality rates were reported in different measures ( rates, risks or ratios ) in the publications, we have transformed those provided as mortality rates ( 5m0 ) into a single metric \u2013 the probability ( risk ) of a child dying before reaching the age of 5 years ( 5q0 ). who subregions are defined on the basis of levels of child and adult mortality : a, very low child and very low adult mortality ; b, low child and low adult mortality ; c, low child and high adult mortality ; d, high child and high adult mortality ; e, high child and very high adult mortality. 18 the nine low - and middle - income subregions included in the model are : african region ( afr ) d and e ; region of the americas (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5157552434273653, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:57b2ce2e-581a-4206-bb66-a57ec445cef5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.032478"}
{"text": "where are we now? climate \" today \" before we move on to projections of future state of our planet ' s climate, let ' s take a few looks at the current state of earth ' s climate. these graphs show how carbon emissions, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and global average temperatures have changed in recent times. this image shows sea surface temperatures ( sst ) averaged over a whole year ( in this case, 2001 ). notice how temperatures range from freezing ( 0\u00b0 c or 32\u00b0 f ) near the poles to around 30\u00b0 c ( about 86\u00b0 f ) in the tropics. credits : image courtesy of plumbago via wikipedia, using data from the world ocean atlas 2001. here is earth ' s surface air temperature in recent times. this image shows average temperatures for the period from 1961 to 1990. credits : image courtesy of robert a. rhohde and the global warming art project. average global temperature 1940 - 2005 | all values are in comparison to 1940 - 1980 average ( green shading ). map at left shows 1995 - 2005 averages ( the orange shaded region on the graph above ). blue points and lines on the graph are annual values ; the red line is the 5 - year smoothed average. this map ( above ) shows recent changes in earth ' s surface air temperatures. the colors indicate the temperatures in the decade around 2000 as compared to average values from about 40 years earlier. specifically, the colors compare average temperatures during the years 1995 through 2004 versus the averages from 1940 through 1980. the global averge temperature increased about 0. 42\u00b0 c during this time. credits : map image courtesy of robert a. rohde and the global warming art project. graph is original artwork by windows to the universe staff ( randy russell ) using data from noaa. use the popup menu in the upper left corner of the interactive below to select a map to view. choices include contemporary global surface air temperature and sea surface temperature, changes in temperature by 2000, and four climate model projections for possible future climate in 2025 and 2095. compare maps side - by - side using the viewer below. shop windows to the universe science store! cool it! is the new card game from the union of concerned scientists that teaches kids about the choices we have when it comes to climate change \u2014 and how policy and technology decisions made today will matter. cool it! is available in our online store you might also be interested in : leaders from 192 nations of the world are trying to make an agreement about how to limit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5006131616836988, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6b4aa9b9-1d46-4bb5-b28c-db5733d68d6b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.109119"}
{"text": "it comes to climate change \u2014 and how policy and technology decisions made today will matter. cool it! is available in our online store you might also be interested in : leaders from 192 nations of the world are trying to make an agreement about how to limit emissions of heat - trapping greenhouse gases, mitigate climate change, and adapt to changing environmental conditions.... more climate in your place on the globe is called regional climate. it is the average weather pattern in a place over more than thirty years, including the variations in seasons. to describe the regional climate... more less than 1 % of the gases in earth ' s atmosphere are called greenhouse gases. even though they are not very abundant, these greenhouse gases have a major effect. carbon dioxide ( co2 ), water vapor ( h2o ),... more television weather forecasts in the space age routinely feature satellite views of cloud cover. cameras and other instruments on spacecraft provide many types of valuable data about earth ' s atmosphere... more predicting how our climate will change in the next century or beyond requires tools for assessing how planet responds to change. global climate models, which are run on some of the world ' s fastest supercomputers,... more the world ' s surface air temperature increased an average of 0. 6\u00b0 celsius ( 1. 1\u00b0f ) during the last century according to the intergovernmental panel on climate change ( ipcc ). this may not sound like very... more a factor that has an affect on climate is called a \u201c forcing. \u201d some forcings, like volcanic eruptions and changes in the amount of solar energy, are natural. others, like the addition of greenhouse gases... more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5424146182715148, "token_count": 352, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6b4aa9b9-1d46-4bb5-b28c-db5733d68d6b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.109993"}
{"text": "learn something new every day more info... by email dark energy is a very sparse, uniform negative pressure that permeates the entire observable universe. it accounts for 70 % of the mass / energy in the universe and is responsible for its accelerating rate of expansion. dark energy is unlike the energy we are familiar with because it is not concentrated locally, as is the case with stars and galaxies, manifestations of conventional matter and energy. there are many other important differences between conventional energy and dark energy, which physicists continue to investigate. the exact form or mechanism of operation of dark energy is unknown. in this respect, it is similar to its cousin, dark matter, which can only be observed by the influence it has on normal matter and energy. there are two major theories for the form of dark energy, although one is more prominent than the other. the first theory, quintessence, describes the dark energy as a fluctuating field that changes its intensity based on location. the second theory, that of a cosmological constant, describes dark energy as constant and uniform. it is this second theory that is believed by most physicists and forms the basis of the lambda - cdm model, the prevailing model of the structure of the cosmos. the negative pressure of the cosmological constant is thought to originate from vacuum fluctuations at extremely small scales in all space. so - called virtual particles are continuously created and destroyed in this vacuum, creating a quantum foam that itself has energy. the existence of dark energy has implications for the ultimate fate of the universe. if dark energy is an intrinsic property of space, as it looks to be, then it will continue to be exist indefinitely. if dark energy is the cause of the universe \u2019 s accelerating expansion, then it will also be the cause of reducing the average density of any parcel of space in the long run. as the universe grows more and more sparse, it will also grow more cold and hostile to life. therefore, dark energy can justifiably be blamed for bringing on the \u201c heat death \u201d of the universe. is europe using some type of dark energy device to power the earth?? my dad read it to me from a news paper. i just could not find anything about it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6237152247328352, "token_count": 455, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1fd0b34e-c59a-4cd0-aff5-813ea66ee1be>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.119687"}
{"text": "this item is in : food science > nestle functional foods and nutrition series > nestle nutrition workshop : pediatric programmicrobial host - interaction : tolerance versus allergy edited by p brandtzaeg, e isolauri and s l prescott nestle nutrition workshop series : pediatric program series no. 64 most indigenous microbes occur in the intestinal tract, and their interactions with the host are largely unknown. current understanding of host - microbe interactions links early microbial contact to the origin of disease, a theory that has its roots in the hygiene hypothesis. modern life style appears to deprive the infant of conditions that provide adequate anti - inflammatory or tolerogenic stimuli upon antigen encounter. thus, maturational signals from the environment and the diet are insufficient to adequately shape the immune system. microbial host - interaction deals with the relationship between the gut microbiota as well as altered pattern of early microbial contact and the origin of human disease. new aspects of the original hygiene hypothesis are discussed in relation to disorders spanning from allergy and autoimmunity to obesity. the results presented suggest that all these disorders may be linked to aberrant antigen absorption and immune responses associated with dysfunction of mucosal defense. researchers, clinicians and students interested in the interaction of the host with indigenous gut bacteria and the consequences for human health will find this publication of utmost interest. isbn 3 8055 9167 5 isbn - 13 : 978 3 8055 9167 6 272 pages 234 x 156mm hardback \u00a3165. 00 / us $ 280. 00 / \u20ac200. 00 usually dispatched within 1 \u2013 2 weeks titles which may also be of interest : milk and milk products in human nutrition drivers of innovation in pediatric nutrition importance of growth for health and development emerging societies - coexistence of childhood malnutrition and obesity a paradigm for commensalism : the role of a specific microbial polysaccharide in health and disease ; the hygiene hypothesis : do we still believe in it? \u2018 abc \u2019 of mucosal immunology ; innate and adaptive immune pathways to tolerance ; hitting the mucosal road in tolerance induction ; obesity \u2013 extending the hygiene hypothesis ; autoimmunity and diet ; eosinophilic esophagitis : example of an emerging allergic manifestation? microbial \u2013 host interactions in inflammatory bowel diseases and experimental colitis ; development and regulation of immune responses to food antigens in pre - and postnatal life ; novel approaches in treating food allergy using allergens", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5353391229460525, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cf44a906-5368-4c74-97b9-bf68aa127324>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.125024"}
{"text": "microsoft word styles are powerful tools included in all versions of word. if you are a new user, you may not know what styles are or how to apply them to format your documents. whether you own word 2007 or 2010, this article will help you understand the basics of microsoft word styles. it shows you how to find the predefined styles, and includes a tutorial that shows you how to change the style set and easily format your document by applying styles. it also briefly covers the topic of custom styles. a style is a definition that determines the document formatting options that are applied to characters or paragraphs. note : sometimes styles are referred to as tags. however, in microsoft word, styles is the correct term. how many times have you gone through a lengthy document and manually reformatted the same text over and over again to get it right? it can waste hours of your time and all of that clicking can give you a nasty case of carpal tunnel syndrome. using styles helps you use consistent formatting throughout your document. applying a style only takes a click or two so it is much faster than manually formatting block after block of text. styles can contain definitions for fonts, paragraph spacing, line height, hyphenation, tabs, page breaks, indentation, and more! as you can see from the list, styles can become quite complex. but don ' t worry, microsoft word contains many predefined styles. that means you can use them even if you don ' t know how to create your own styles from scratch. there are different ways to access the predefined microsoft word styles, but the easiest way in word 2007 or 2010 is to select one from the quick style gallery. quick styles were introduced in word 2007 and are located on the home tab. there are 11 style sets to choose from, 14 style sets in word 2010. each set can be altered by selecting different theme colors or fonts, resulting in thousands of unique styles available for document formatting. for the following tutorial, open word 2007 and start a new document. ( these instructions also work for microsoft word 2010. ) let ' s begin by entering some dummy text so you can see how changing the style set affects the document formatting. here is how to enter random text into a document : entering this code inserts three paragraphs of text into your document. now let ' s see how easy it is to change the look and feel of the document just by changing the style set. follow these steps", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5238360833721846, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dc6e7da2-3f72-478d-8eeb-1a4df2f7e602>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.128994"}
{"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - n. a device, such as a fuse or percussion cap, used to set off an explosive charge. - n. an explosive. century dictionary and cyclopedia - n. that which detonates ; it detonating preparation ; a percussion - cap. - n. a device used to detonate an explosive device etc. - n. rail transport, uk a small explosive device attached to the railhead to provide an audible warning when a train passes over it. gnu webster ' s 1913 - n. obsolete, obsolete an explosive whose action is practically instantaneous. - n. obsolete, obsolete something used to detonate a charge, as a detonating fuse. - n. obsolete, obsolete a case containing detonating powder, the explosion of which serves as a signal, as on railroads. - n. obsolete a gun fired by a percussion cap. - n. a mechanical or electrical explosive device or a small amount of explosive ; can be used to initiate the reaction of a disrupting explosive - detonate + - or ( wiktionary ) \u201c and interestingly, a similar detonator is connected to a massive nuclear device under the city of munich, set to ignite in eighty hours. \u201d \u201c besides, the detonator is not yet manufactured that will explode that charge. \u201d \u201c but suffice it to say that it is concentrated hydrogen peroxide mixed with flour, attached to a very crude detonator, which is, again, a very crude about four gallon plastic container. \u201d \u201c a \u201c nano detonator \u201d, that is, a detonator roughly smaller than an electron. \u201d \u201c you know, your cell phone now is called a detonator and simple things like gatorade apparently can be used as a component of a bomb that could take your plane down, so i think people are very weary and they want to know that we ' re doing things. \u201d \u201c and i would raise a concern about the fact that even though there were no detonators, the detonator is the easy part of the explosive. \u201d \u201c the detonator was a remote car starter purchased over the internet. \u201d \u201c american airlines spokesman tim smith called the detonator holder \" nothing threatening. \u201d \u201c in all of this cases, the detonator was a mishandled of the well perforator ( made in china ). \u201d \u201c the detonator is a rifle cartridge with a nail on the prime", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5444115833157099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3b0491ac-e79f-400f-9e37-a67317e7f578>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.137275"}
{"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - n. the income of a government from all sources appropriated for the payment of the public expenses. - n. yield from property or investment ; income. - n. all the income produced by a particular source. - n. a governmental department set up to collect public funds. century dictionary and cyclopedia - n. the annual rents, profits, interest, or issues of any kind of property, real or personal ; income. - n. the annual income of a state, derived from the taxation, customs, excise, or other sources, and appropriated to the payment of the national expenses. - n. return ; reward. - n. synonyms profit, etc. see income. - n. the income returned by an investment - n. the total income received from a given source - n. all income generated for some political entity ' s treasury by taxation and other means - n. accounting the total sales ; turnover. - n. accounting the net revenue, net sales. gnu webster ' s 1913 - n. that which returns, or comes back, from an investment ; the annual rents, profits, interest, or issues of any species of property, real or personal ; income. - n. hence, return ; reward. - n. the annual yield of taxes, excise, customs, duties, rents, etc., which a nation, state, or municipality collects and receives into the treasury for public use. - n. the entire amount of income before any deductions are made - n. government income due to taxation - recorded in english from 1433, \" income from property or possessions \", from middle french revenue, from old french \" a return \" ( modern french ' revenu ' ), the prop. feminine past participle of revenir ( \" come back \" ) ( = modern french ), from latin revenire ( \" to return, come back \" ), from re - ( \" back \" ) + venire ( \" to come \" ) ( wiktionary ) - middle english, from old french, from feminine past participle of revenir, to return, from latin revenire : re -, re - + venire, to come ; see gwa - in indo - european roots. ( american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition ) \u201c the comments seem to be suggesting why not tax capital if the reduction in revenue is made up by increased taxes on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.553650663580616, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ae3b7890-de6c-4923-aad4-edfa0ad8170a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.143608"}
{"text": "experts please comment and expand. heading, across - the - board..., emergency reserve, frontload, mopping - up, performance reserve, positive margin, negative margin, public finances, structural operat..., administrative ex..., management of eu... and 657 more... aams countries, access to communi..., access to informa..., accession criteria, accession negotia..., accession to an a..., accession to the..., accession to the..., acp countries, acp - ec committee..., acp - ec convention, acp - ec council and 1088 more... a combined list of 1. eu buzz - single words 2. eu buzz - collocations 3. eu buzz - the 100 most active absorption capacity, absorption rate, acceding country, accession candidate, accession countries, accession country, accession criteria, accession cycle, accession negotia..., accession partner..., accession priorities, accession treaty and 2650 more... some of the catchwords of several presidential debates ( obama - romney 2012 denver debate ' s transcript fully included ) additionality, audit trail, accounting standards, auditing standards, general audit obj..., a posteriori audit, a priori audit, above board, acceptable error..., access rights, accountability, accountable entities and 1283 more... use these and get promoted words from work basic prices, buying - in price, agricultural levies, agricultural prices, intervention / tr..., intervention stocks, intervention system, interprofessional..., area aid / payment, area - based subsidy, community financing, direct assistance and 217 more... all words of the lisbon treaty ( persons ' names, foreign and grammatical words have been eliminated, mwes have been split up into individual words. capitalization has been retained if r... 1. strictly eu terms with special european meaning used only in the eu 2. keywords central to the understanding of the eu ( people working for the eu are usually able to give thematic... words for currency the new favourite words of people on twitter. a script searches twitter for \" x is my new favorite word \" and adds it to this list. grabbable, retuiteando, leaving, fantastic, absolutely, kurwa, hella, ridic, underpass,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5175768406230145, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ae3b7890-de6c-4923-aad4-edfa0ad8170a>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.145598"}
{"text": "featuring winston shrout there are several forms of the latin term habeas corpus. in this dvd we are going to make its meaning simple and understandable. habeas corpus was a privilege guaranteed by the magna carta of 1215 ad. it is an extremely important legal instrument that safeguards individual freedom against arbitrary state action. in today \u2019 s world, we can appropriately use habeas in a number of situations. for a long time i have advocated that habeas should precede any suit, because its primary use is to determine whether or not there is even subject matter to discuss. keep in mind that many attorneys tend to \u201c rush to court \u201d without any established facts. since that is often the case, it is our responsibility to slow the process down so that we can ask some crucial questions. first of all, let \u2019 s see if there are any material facts upon which the suit is based. since we are going into admiralty law, let \u2019 s determine if there is in fact any valid, certified claim to talk about. let \u2019 s do a habeas corpus so that you, mr. attorney, can produce a certified claim. oops, you don \u2019 t have one? \u201c your honor, we have a rule 12b6 problem here \u2026 failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted. \u201d in other words, there is no subject matter jurisdiction here, because \u2026 there isn \u2019 t any subject matter. habeas corpus is a powerful tool that we explore in this dvd. this dvd is an important single topic that is based on information discussed at the recent los angeles event.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5019632776920833, "token_count": 329, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7d786a46-5602-4bba-a400-5440b55ad70f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.152680"}
{"text": "galaxy cluster takes it to the extreme marshall space flight center, huntsville, ala. chandra x - ray center, cambridge, mass. news release : 07 - 065 evidence for an awesome upheaval in a massive galaxy cluster was discovered in an image made by nasa ' s chandra x - ray observatory. the origin of a bright arc of ferociously hot gas extending over two million light years requires one of the most energetic events ever detected. the cluster of galaxies is filled with tenuous gas at 170 million degree celsius that is bound by the mass equivalent of a quadrillion, or 1, 000 trillion, suns. the temperature and mass make this cluster a giant among giants. \" the huge feature detected in the cluster, combined with the high temperature, points to an exceptionally dramatic event in the nearby universe, \" said ralph kraft of the harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics ( cfa ) in cambridge, mass., and leader of a team of astronomers involved in this research. \" while we \u2019 re not sure what caused it, we ' ve narrowed it down to a couple of exciting possibilities. \" the favored explanation for the bright x - ray arc is that two massive galaxy clusters are undergoing a collision at about 4 million miles per hour. shock waves generated by the violent encounter of the clusters ' hot gas clouds could produce a sharp change in pressure along the boundary where the collision is occurring, giving rise to the observed arc - shaped structure which resembles a titanic weather front. \" although this would be an extreme collision, one of the most powerful ever seen, we think this may be what is going on, \u201d said team member martin hardcastle, of the university of hertfordshire, united kingdom. a problem with the collision theory is that only one peak in the x - ray emission is seen, whereas two are expected. longer observations with chandra and the xmm - newton x - ray observatories should help determine how serious this problem is for the collision hypothesis. another possible explanation is that the disturbance was caused by an outburst generated by the infall of matter into a supermassive black hole located in a central galaxy. the black hole inhales much of the matter but expels some of it outward in a pair of high - speed jets, heating and pushing aside the surrounding gas. such events are known to occur in this cluster. the galaxy 3c438 in the central region of the cluster is known to be a powerful source of explosive activity, which is presumably due to a central supermassive black hole. but the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5312443007601088, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f7e616a3-eaf8-4fa7-aed6-f3e3866c05f4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.171251"}
{"text": "more information will come soon. welcome to the international youth climate policy working group we \u2019 ll be using this as our primary means of communication as we discuss and develop policy positions leading up to ( and beyond ) copenhagen! role of the youth climate policy group : 1. to discuss and keep up to date with policy developments in the international political realm. 2. to inform the rest of the international youth network of current policies and to make policy documents more accessible. 3. to draft policies and briefing documents to be used by the international youth network in our activities ( ie lobbying, outreach, education, media, etc ). for any questions please feel free to contact our coordinators. kyle gracey firstname. lastname @ example. org marcie smith email @ example. com the policy wg coordinates the overall policy activities and objectives of the youth. it oversees the activities of the policy affinity groups. it \u2019 s objectives are to track policy developments in the negotiations, summarize these for other youth to learn from, and inform actions and communications about policy developments. forest policy affinity group gemma tillack firstname. lastname @ example. org gemma can provide a description of our actions, but we have a side event on youth voices on redd organized for young and future generations day, as well as forest - specific actions on redd and lulucf policy principles, our guiding principles \u2013 international youth delegation \u2013 click here to access the poilyc page. youth envision a world with a safe and stable climate. in this world, unmitigated pollution of the shared atmosphere is no longer acceptable. developed countries have paid the full debt of their historical emissions burden on the climate by facilitating and financing necessary adaptation measures in developing countries. also financed by developed countries, global innovation has been harnessed, and effective renewable and energy efficient technologies have been developed and equitably distributed throughout the world. having addressed climate change through a strong global agreement, and free from the added pressure of a more dangerous climate, we are now able to turn our full attention to the world \u2019 s other pressing issues including food security, water & sanitation, health care, education and freedom. the lessons that we learned from climate change will allow us to work effectively on these issues. reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation ( redd ) land use, land use change and forestry global financial crisis youth involvement in cop emissions targets - cut the crap temperature increase due to global warming must be kept as far below 2\u00b0c as possible. in order to minimize the risk of climate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5202600333323795, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3e43e7c4-ea8b-49ec-9969-e2aafeb1a034>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.184780"}
{"text": "by gregory mcnamee talk about your worm \u2019 s - eye view of the world. from time to time, i am pleased in this column to announce the discovery of some hitherto unknown species, or the rediscovery of one thought to have disappeared. an international team of scientists has done this one better, announcing the discovery of an entirely new phylum comprising an ocean - dwelling flatworm called xenoturbella and its kin, collectively the acoelomorphs. interestingly, these creatures seem to be backward - evolving : their ancestors had gill slits and guts, but the current acoelomorphic configuration lacks them. as researcher maximilian telford of university college london puts it, \u201c we \u2019 ve got these very simple worms nested right in the middle of the complex animals. how did they end up so simple? they must have lost a lot of complexity. \u201d * * * if in the course of evolution you decided to lose your ears, you would have good reason. the world is a noisy place, thanks to ever - busy humans, and it \u2019 s getting noisier. in response, many species of animals are getting noisier themselves in an effort to be heard, a process, notes rose eveleth in scientific american, called the lombard effect. right whales and house finches, for their parts, are calling in at different frequencies to get around shipping and urban noise. as eveleth writes of animals in her provocative piece, \u201c many of them are doing the vocal equivalent of wandering around asking, \u2018 can you hear me now? \u2019 and increasingly, the answer is no. \u201d * * * gibbons make a fair amount of noise themselves \u2014 and perhaps that stands to reason, given that, next to the great apes, they \u2019 re our closest living relatives. that noise is more complex than you might think. indeed, report researchers from the german primate center in gottingen, the crested gibbons of southeast asia have distinctive regional accents. these accents suggest both familial typings, as well as the ancient migration of the species from a location to the north of their current range to points farther south. * * * a new phylum is discovered, but a current species declines. that, sadly, is the way of this noisy world. scottish scientists, reports the bbc \u2019 s highlands and islands service, are documenting the decline of the common scoter, a kind of duck, in the islands to the north of the country. the scientists are now studying the effects of climate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5000880916004082, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bfb3a64f-f9a8-41a6-a406-20c8e02d836b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.208455"}
{"text": "chronometric techniques \u2013 part ii most of the chronometric dating methods in use today are radiometric. that is to say, they are based on knowledge of the rate at which certain radioactive isotopes within dating samples decay or the rate of other cumulative changes in atoms resulting from radioactivity. isotopes are specific forms of elements. the various isotopes of the same element differ in terms of atomic mass but have the same atomic number. in other words, they differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei but have the same number of protons. the spontaneous decay of radioactive elements occurs at different rates, depending on the specific isotope. these rates are stated in terms of half - lives. one half - life is the amount of time required for \u00bd of the original atoms in a sample to decay. over the second half - life, \u00bd of the atoms remaining decay, which leaves \u00bc of the original quantity, and so on. in other words, the change in numbers of atoms follows a geometric scale as illustrated by the graph below. the red curve line shows the of atomic decay the decay of atomic nuclei provides us with a reliable clock that is unaffected by normal forces in nature. the rate will not be changed by intense heat, cold, pressure, or moisture. the most commonly used radiometric dating method is radiocarbon dating. it is also called carbon - 14 and c - 14 dating. this technique is used to date the remains of organic materials. dating samples are usually charcoal, wood, bone, or shell, but any tissue that was ever alive can be dated. radiocarbon dating is based on the fact that cosmic radiation from space constantly bombards our planet. as cosmic rays pass through the atmosphere, they occasionally collide with gas atoms resulting in the release of neutrons. when the nucleus of a nitrogen ( 14n ) atom in the atmosphere captures one of these neutrons, the atom subsequently changes into carbon - 14 ( 14c ) after the release of a proton. the carbon - 14 quickly bonds chemically with atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas. carbon - 14 is a rare, unstable form of carbon. only one in a trillion carbon atoms in the atmosphere is carbon - 14. the majority are carbon - 12 ( 98. 99 % ) and carbon - 13 ( 1. 1 % ). from a chemical standpoint, all of these isotopes of carbon behave exactly the same. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere drifts down to the earth ' s surface where much of it is taken in by green growing plants, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5388251812427362, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0e63bd67-645e-4c01-8ec7-e353f79e75fb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.239950"}
{"text": "age of a sample is determined by the number of decays recorded over a set period of time. older samples have less carbon - 14 remaining and, consequentially, less frequent decays. knowing the half - life of carbon - 14 allows the calculation of a sample ' s age. a radiocarbon sample being prepared for dating with the ams technique a relatively new variation of the radiocarbon dating method utilizes an accelerator mass spectrometer, which is a device usually used by physicists to measure the abundance of very rare radioactive isotopes. when used for dating, this ams method involves actually counting individual carbon - 14 atoms. this allows the dating of much older and smaller samples but at a far higher cost. although, organic materials as old as 100, 000 years potentially can be dated with ams, dates older than 60, 000 years are still rare. radiocarbon and tree - ring date comparisons made by hans suess provide needed data to make radiocarbon dates more reliable paleoanthropologists and archaeologists must always be aware of possible radiocarbon sample contamination that could result in inaccurate dates. such contamination can occur if a sample is exposed to carbon compounds in exhaust gasses produced by factories and motor vehicles burning fossil fuels such as coal or gasoline. the result is radiocarbon dates that are too old. this has been called the autobahn effect, named after the german high speed roadway system. archaeologists in that country first noted this source of contamination when samples found near the autobahn were dated. the effect of global burning of fossil fuels on radiocarbon dates was verified and calibrated by hans suess of the university of california, san diego when he radiocarbon dated bristlecone pine tree growth rings that were of known chronometric ages. subsequently, it is also called the suess effect. other kinds of sample contamination can cause carbon - 14 dates to be too young. this can occur if the sample is impregnated with tobacco smoke or oils from a careless researcher ' s hands. this is now well known and is easily avoided during excavation. still another potential source of error in radiocarbon dating that is adjusted for stems from the assumption that cosmic radiation enters our planet ' s atmosphere at a constant rate. in fact, the rate changes slightly through time, resulting in varying amounts of carbon - 14 being created. this has become known as the de vries effect because of its discovery by the dutch physicist hessel de vries. all of these potential sources of error in radiocarbon dating are now well understood and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5278237308559459, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0e63bd67-645e-4c01-8ec7-e353f79e75fb>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.242005"}
{"text": "in varying amounts of carbon - 14 being created. this has become known as the de vries effect because of its discovery by the dutch physicist hessel de vries. all of these potential sources of error in radiocarbon dating are now well understood and compensating corrections are made so that the dates are reliable. there are a number of other radiometric dating systems in use today that can provide dates for much older sites than those datable by radiocarbon dating. potassium - argon ( k - ar ) dating is one of them. it is based on the fact that potassium - 40 ( 40k ) decays into the gas argon - 40 ( 40ar ) and calcium - 40 ( 40ca ) at a known rate. the half - life of potassium - 40 is approximately 1. 25 billion years. measurement of the amount of argon - 40 in a sample is the basis for age determination. dating samples for this technique are geological strata of volcanic origin. while potassium is a very common element in the earth ' s crust, potassium - 40 is a relatively rare isotope of it. however, potassium - 40 is usually found in significant amounts in volcanic rock and ash. in addition, any argon that existed prior to the last time the rock was molten will have been driven off by the intense heat. as a result, all of the argon - 40 in a volcanic rock sample is assumed to date from that time. when a fossil is sandwiched between two such volcanic deposits, their potassium - argon dates provide a minimum and maximum age. in the example below, the bone must date to sometime between 1. 75 and 1. 5 million years ago. using the potassium - argon method to date volcanic ash strata above and below a bone sample in order to determine a minimum and a maximum age potassium - argon dates usually have comparatively large statistical plus or minus factors. they can be on the order of plus or minus 1 / 4 million years for a 2 million year old date. this is still acceptable because these dates help us narrow down the time range for a fossil. the use of additional dating methods at the same site allow us to refine it even more. note : the plus or minus number following radiometric dates is not an error factor. rather, it is a probability statement. for instance, a date of 100, 000 \u00b1 5, 000 years ago means that there is a high probability the date is in the range of 95, 000 and 105, 000 years ago and most likely is around 100, 000.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5319178212175136, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0e63bd67-645e-4c01-8ec7-e353f79e75fb>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.242970"}
{"text": "probability statement. for instance, a date of 100, 000 \u00b1 5, 000 years ago means that there is a high probability the date is in the range of 95, 000 and 105, 000 years ago and most likely is around 100, 000. radiometric dates, like all measurements in science, are close statistical approximations rather than absolutes. this will always be true due to the finite limits of measuring equipment. this does not mean that radiometric dates or any other scientific measurements are unreliable. potassium - argon dating has become a valuable tool for human fossil hunters, especially those working in east africa. theoretically it can be used for samples that date from the beginning of the earth ( 4. 54 billion years ) down to 100, 000 years ago or even more recently. paleoanthropologists use it mostly to date sites in the 1 to 5 million year old range. this is the critical time period during which humans evolved from their ape ancestors. a relatively new technique related to potassium - argon dating compares the ratios of argon - 40 to argon - 39 in volcanic rock. this provides more accurate dates for volcanic deposits and allows the use of smaller samples. fission track dating another radiometric method that is used for samples from early human sites is fission track dating. this is based on the fact that a number of crystalline or glass - like minerals, such as obsidian, mica, and zircon crystals, contain trace amounts of uranium - 238 ( 238u ), which is an unstable isotope. when atoms of uranium - 238 decay, there is a release of energy - charged alpha particles which burn narrow fission tracks, or damage trails, through the glassy material. these can be seen and counted with an optical microscope. fission tracks in obsidian as they would appear with an optical microscope the number of fission tracks is directly proportional to the amount of time since the glassy material cooled from a molten state. since the half - life of uranium - 238 is known to be approximately 4. 5 billion years, the chronometric age of a sample can be calculated. this dating method can be used with samples that are as young as a few decades to as old as the earth and beyond. however, paleoanthropologists rarely use it to date sites more than several million years old. with the exception of early historic human made glass artifacts, the fission track method is usually only employed to date geological strata. artifacts made out of obsidian and mica are not fission track dated because it would only tell us when the rocks cooled", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5287501275447595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0e63bd67-645e-4c01-8ec7-e353f79e75fb>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.244028"}
{"text": "years old. with the exception of early historic human made glass artifacts, the fission track method is usually only employed to date geological strata. artifacts made out of obsidian and mica are not fission track dated because it would only tell us when the rocks cooled from a molten state, not when they were made into artifacts by our early human ancestors. thermoluminescence ( tl ) dating is a radiometric method based on the fact that trace amounts of radioactive atoms, such as uranium and thorium, in some kinds of rock, soil, and clay produce constant low amounts of background ionizing radiation. the atoms of crystalline solids, such as pottery and rock, can be altered by this radiation. specifically, the electrons of quartz, feldspar, diamond, or calcite crystals can become displaced from their normal positions in atoms and trapped in imperfections in the crystal lattice of the rock or clay molecules. these energy charged electrons progressively accumulate over time. when a sample is heated to high temperatures in a laboratory, the trapped electrons are released and return to their normal positions in their atoms. this causes them to give off their stored energy in the form of light impulses ( photons ). this light is referred to as thermoluminescence ( literally \" heat light \" ). a similar effect can be brought about by stimulating the sample with infrared light. the intensity of thermoluminescence is directly related to the amount of accumulated changes produced by background radiation, which, in turn, varies with the age of the sample and the amount of trace radioactive elements it contains. a ground up placed in a heat is raised in an energy from the sample thermoluminescence release resulting from rapidly heating a crushed clay sample what is actually determined is the amount of elapsed time since the sample had previously been exposed to high temperatures. in the case of a pottery vessel, usually it is the time since it was fired in a kiln. for the clay or rock lining of a hearth or oven, it is the time since the last intense fire burned there. for burned flint, it is the time since it had been heated in a fire to improve its flaking qualities for stone tool making. the effective time range for tl dating is from a few decades back to about 300, 000 years, but it is most often used to date things from the last 100, 000 years. theoretically, this technique could date samples as old as the solar system if we could find them. however, the accuracy of tl dating is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5612382531721587, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0e63bd67-645e-4c01-8ec7-e353f79e75fb>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.244984"}
{"text": "300, 000 years, but it is most often used to date things from the last 100, 000 years. theoretically, this technique could date samples as old as the solar system if we could find them. however, the accuracy of tl dating is generally lower than most other radiometric techniques. electron spin resonance dating another relatively new radiometric dating method related to thermoluminescence is electron spin resonance ( esr ). it is also based on the fact that background radiation causes electrons to dislodge from their normal positions in atoms and become trapped in the crystalline lattice of the material. when odd numbers of electrons are separated, there is a measurable change in the magnetic field ( or spin ) of the atoms. since the magnetic field progressively changes with time in a predictable way as a result of this process, it provides another atomic clock, or calendar, that can be used for dating purposes. unlike thermoluminescence dating, however, the sample is not destroyed with the esr method. this allows samples to be dated more than once. esr is used mostly to date calcium carbonate in limestone, coral, fossil teeth, mollusks, and egg shells. it also can date quartz and flint. paleoanthropologists have used esr mostly to date samples from the last 300, 000 years. however, it potentially could be used for much older samples. comparison of the time ranges for dating methods whenever possible, paleoanthropologists collect as many dating samples from an ancient human occupation site as possible and employ a variety of chronometric dating methods. in this way, the confidence level of the dating is significantly increased. the methods that are used depend on the presumed age of the site from which they were excavated. for instance, if a site is believed to be over 100, 000 years old, dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating could not be used. however, potassium - argon, fission track, amino acid racemization, thermoluminescence, electron spin resonance, and paleomagnetic dating methods would be considered. effective time range of the major chronometric dating methods in addition to the likely time range, paleoanthropologists must select dating techniques based on the kinds of datable materials available. dendrochronology can only date tree - rings. any organic substances can be used for radiocarbon and amino acid racemization dating. calcium rich parts of animals such as coral, bones, teeth, mollusks, and egg shells can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5474885589523582, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0e63bd67-645e-4c01-8ec7-e353f79e75fb>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.246230"}
{"text": "discover the cosmos! each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. march 11, 1996 hubble telescope maps pluto credit : a. stern ( swri ), m. buie ( lowell observatory ), nasa, esa, explanation : no spacecraft from earth has yet explored pluto but astronomers have found ways of mapping its surface. a stunning map of this distant, diminutive planet, the first based on direct images, was revealed late last week in a hubble space telescope press release. above are two opposite hemisphere views of the computer constructed map of pluto ' s surface ( north is up ). the grid pattern is due to the computer technique used where each grid element is over 100 miles across. the map is based on hubble images made when pluto was a mere 3 billion miles distant. it shows strong brightness variations - confirming and substantially improving upon ground based observations. while the brightness variations may be due to surface features like craters and basins they are more likely caused by regions of nitrogen and methane frost. the frost regions should show \" seasonal \" changes which can be tracked in future hubble observations. yes, pluto is a planet even though it is only 2 / 3 the size of earth ' s moon! authors & editors : nasa technical rep. : sherri calvo. specific rights apply. a service of : lhea at nasa / gsfc", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5188312737865813, "token_count": 287, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1306aefb-876d-4d92-a95f-c2f1c536e26f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.248641"}
{"text": "[ updated ] the \u201c object \u201d that was found in bermuda waters yesterday [ aug 12 ] is a scientific glider used to collect marine data which was recently deployed by scientists from the bermuda institute of ocean sciences [ bios ]. the harbour radio duty officer said, \u201c bermuda radio can confirm that the suspected missile spotted on the crown of challenger bank is in fact a scientific glider used to collect marine data. the unit was recently deployed by scientists from bios in conjunction with woods hole oceanographic institution. \u201c the instrument stopped transmitting data around 48 hours ago and was considered lost. bios and woods hole are keen to recover the unit. any sighting of the glider should be reported to bermuda radio so that retrieval can be arranged, \u201d concluded the duty officer. the glider had caused great interest last night, with many people trying their hand and guessing what it might be. some people did guess correctly that it was a scientific object used by bios, while many others thought it may have been some form of missile / drone / torpedo / bomb. update 9. 15am : larry george from the woods hole oceanographic institution in massachusetts [ website ] confirmed that the object is a spray glider / autonomous underwater vehicle which is used to collect information about the ocean and is controlled remotely. the glider was deployed in bermuda waters on august 10th, and they lost all contact with it on august 11th, and assumed it was lost until they received a phone call late last night. the glider was deployed to record data such as fine ocean currents, with dr jong jin park and dr breck owens from woods hole the scientists in charge of the research. asked how many of these gliders are in our waters, mr george confirmed that this is the only one. he explained the glider was marked, however it was upside down in the water hence the marking was not visible. he also the fact the glider was upside down indicated that something had gone wrong with it. as of this writing the glider is still in the waters, but a team from bios is heading out this morning to try and recover it. - bios appoints interim director - ocean rendezvous rescues research project - bios research : impacts of ocean acidification - bios study : climate change, ocean bacteria - the search for bermuda \u2019 s deep water caves - bios scientist part of global ocean study articles that link to this one : - unidentified floating object in bermuda \u2019 s waters | bernews. com | august 13, 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5387739291732321, "token_count": 494, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7c5c6d0a-53be-43ba-91ea-44c403d35868>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.263179"}
{"text": "not stolen. these individuals may feel that they made the effort to gather information and make it available on their websites only to have it copied to other sites. are individuals justified in feeling that they have been taken advantage of, even if their websites are posted publicly? interpretation of what exactly \u201c republish \u201d means is widely disputed. one of the most authoritative explanations may be found in the 1991 supreme - court case of feist publications v. rural telephone service. this case involved rural telephone service suing feist publications for copyright infringement when feist copied telephone listings after rural denied feist \u2019 s request to license the information. while information has never been copyrightable under u. s. law, a collection of information, defined mostly in terms of creative arrangement or original ideas, can be copyrighted. the supreme court \u2019 s ruling in feist publications v. rural telephone service stated that \u201c information contained in rural \u2019 s phone directory was not copyrightable, and that therefore no infringement existed. \u201d justice o \u2019 conner focused on the need for information to have a \u201c creative \u201d element in order to be termed a \u201c collection \u201d ( 1 ). similarly, information, taken from publicly available websites should not be considered plagiarism or even theft if only the information ( numbers, statistics, etc. ) is reposted to new sites or used for other purposes. scraped websites also experience an increase in used bandwidth as a result of being scraped. some scrapes take place once, but many scrapes must be performed over and over to achieve the desired results. in such cases, the servers that host the pages being scraped inevitably experience an increased load. site owners may not wish to have the increased bandwidth, but more importantly, excessive page requests can cause a web server to function slowly or even fail. rarely, however, do most scrapes cause such strain on a server on their own. accessing a page through scraping is no different from visiting a page manually, except that scraping allows more pages to be visited over a shorter period. additionally, scrapes can be adjusted to run more slowly, so as to minimize the strain on the server. scraping is usually slowed when more than a few scraping sessions are being run against a single server at one time. interestingly, having one \u2019 s website scraped can have positive effects. of course the recipient of the scraped data is pleased to have desired data, but owners of scraped sites may also benefit. think of the case mentioned above in which home listings are scraped from a site. whether the information is repost", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5216136010171449, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc8c353-505a-4a8b-8317-5611b114fff7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.275156"}
{"text": "the sulfur particles scattered around the globe, deflected sunlight, and cooled earth by 0. 4 to 0. c. solar radiation management would recreate this effect by using balloons, aircraft or cannons to shoot tiny reflective particles like sulfates into the stratosphere to temporarily block sunlight. the 1992 panel on policy implications of greenhouse warming calculated that this strategy would cost just pennies per ton of carbon dioxide mitigated. it would also be fast - acting, capable of quickly reducing the impacts of heat stress on crops, resulting in increased productivity since carbon dioxide levels, which boost growth, would remain high. other solar radiation management ideas include the use of engineered nanoparticles, which could be constructed to ascend high into the atmosphere and keep their shiny side to the sun, and sunshades in space made of mirrors. solar radiation management would do nothing to address the root cause of global warming \u2014 carbon dioxide emissions \u2014 or ocean acidification caused by the sea \u2019 s absorption of excess carbon dioxide. and while stratospheric aerosols could theoretically produce cooling on a local or global level, they might also create regional problems by affecting rain and snowfall patterns and causing drought. according to caldeira, a year or two after mt. pinatubo, when aerosols dropped from the stratosphere, both the amazon river and the ganges had very low flows and droughts occurred. a 2010 study by etc ( erosion, technology and concentration ), an international group that opposes geoengineering, states that solar radiation management climate models show a risk of increased drought over africa, asia and the amazon jungle. putting sulfate particles into the stratosphere could also damage the ozone layer, lead to acid rain and increased ocean acidification, and interfere with solar cells, astronomy and satellites. in addition, solar radiation management techniques carry the risk of a rapid rise in temperature if the program were started then stopped, which would be more dangerous to life on earth than a gradual temperature rise. carbon dioxide removal strategies reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, or attempt to manipulate natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly. while they tackle the fundamental problem of carbon emissions, and address ocean acidification, they would require many years to fully take effect. carbon dioxide removal techniques include tree planting, creating biochar ( charcoal ) and burying it to increase carbon sequestration, carbon capture and storage, adding carbonate to the ocean to increase carbon dioxide uptake, and capturing carbon from the air. klaus lackner, director of the earth institute", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5281213997054183, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9a032602-f263-4c94-a03f-70763337421c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.286833"}
{"text": "formaldehyde is a type of chemical compound that is of essential use to many manufacturing sectors and other industries. when talking of formaldehyde, most people will be more familiar with one of its forms \u2013 formalin. formalin is a solution of formaldehyde that is famous for being used as an embalming fluid. formaldehyde is quite toxic and it is known to cause cancer and also other health disorders. formaldehyde is classified as one of the simplest forms of aldehydes, which are chemical compounds that possess a terminal carbonyl group. a carbonyl group is an atom grouping that has, within it, a carbon atom that is double bonded to an oxygen atom. hcho is the chemical formula for this chemical compound. the unique chemical formula of formaldehyde makes it a very versatile foundation or base for creating more complex aldehydes. formaldehyde, in its pure form, is a colorless and gaseous compound. it is also quite reactive. because of these properties, it is usually mixed in with other chemical compounds in order to create a more stable substance. formaldehyde has many industrial and manufacturing applications. it is an important ingredient in the manufacturing of glue, antiseptics, preservatives, resins, paints, embalming and film processing. formaldehyde is actually quite abundant in the atmosphere because it is one of the byproducts of combustion. it is also naturally formed through atmospheric reactions. it is actually a major element that makes up smog. frequent and high exposure to formaldehyde can lead to cancer, as well as respiratory problems. skin problems and inflammation of the mucus membrane are some of the short term effects of formaldehyde exposure.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5249484360887628, "token_count": 351, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:83ef5ac4-c6b7-4cc9-92d1-6d6bfe62082e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.295226"}
{"text": "as broadcast equipment becomes more sophisticated, especially in the digital domains, the speed at which information is transferred, processed, etc., through the equipment itself, becomes a very important factor. with computer processors that drive broadcast equipment today operating in the gigahertz range, what good does it do if the remainder of the infrastructure works considerably slower? superconductors will go a long way in resolving this issue. earlier this year, researchers led by dr. jun akimitsu of aoyama gakuin university in tokyo achieved a significant milestone when they announced that magnesium boride, a readily available metal compound known since the 1950s, has unexpectedly turned into the latest breakthrough in superconductors technology. magnesium boride is commonly used in some chemical reactions, but no one had ever tested its worth as a superconductor at low temperatures, where it demonstrates properties of moving electrons with virtually no resistance. after hearing about dr. akimitsu ' s discovery and working with the substance, dr. paul c. canfield, a professor of physics at iowa state university and a researcher at ames laboratory said : \u201c it ' s a fantastic discovery! we ' ve been able to do a lot of neat stuff with it in the past month. \u201d the material is very light and, from reports, is easier to work with as compared with the more complex superconducting materials such as the copper oxides, a so - called high - temperature superconductor. the more complex superconducting materials work at higher temperatures, but magnesium boride is comparatively inexpensive, selling for about $ 175 per 100 - gram bottle. dr. canfield said he and his colleagues at iowa state and ames laboratory have worked extensively investigating magnesium boride and have already fashioned superconducting wires by exposing fibers of boron to magnesium vapors. at present, though, the wires are short ; only couple of inches long, and brittle. dr. canfield said : \u201c it ' s not something you can curl around your finger. \u201d but then, who ' d want to curl it around their finger? magnesium boride, as a superconductor, is such only at temperatures up to minus 389 degrees, or about 29 degrees higher than any other simple metallic compound. although not the solution, it is being hailed as a significant step in that direction, so stay tuned. send questions and comments to : firstname. lastname @ example. org", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5809613554641279, "token_count": 494, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:684dbe98-d63e-4e04-9502-0a9fa69c212c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.298729"}
{"text": "slower but steady discharge. storage at higher - than - normal room temperatures will degrade internal resistance and accelerate self - discharge on any battery. a significant specification is the maintenance requirement. this typically refers to how often an equalizing or topping charge should be applied. in the case of nickel - based batteries, the maintenance requirement will include \u201c exercising \u201d the battery by running it down to its end - of - discharge voltage and then fully recharging to combat the infamous memory effect in nicd batteries. the c - rate is a measurement of the charge and discharge current of the battery. a discharge of 1c will equal the published current capacity of the battery. a battery rated at 500 mah ( milliamp hours ) will discharge at 1c to deliver that current for one hour. if discharged at 2c, the same battery should provide 1000 milliamps for a half hour. note that the measurement is made from maximum capacity to the end - of - discharge level, not to 0v. on nicds, for instance, the typical end - of - discharge level is 1v per cell. li - ions generally discharge to 3v. while there are many other battery specs, such as load current, cost - per - cycle, overcharge tolerance and cycle life, the specs mentioned above will form the basic stepping stones to a good battery - to - application match. let \u2019 s see how the various battery chemistries compare on these main specs. despite the emergence of new battery types, the nickel - cadmium or nicd batteries maintain a prominent place in powering professional camcorders, batt - lights and portable comm radios. this is due to their exceptional performance in high - current applications. nicds also accept fast charges quite well compared to the other battery chemistries. typical fast - charge time on nicd units is one hour, while nimh batteries will fast - charge in two to four hours and deliver about one - fourth the load current. cameras have shrunk while lenses and batteries have kept their size and weight, allowing each to balance the other. without rear - mount batteries, smaller cameras would be front - heavy, and on shoulder - mounted cameras, balance rather than weight is the critical factor. nicd batteries will self - discharge slightly faster than nimh and much faster than li - ion types. the big edge that the nimh and li - ion batteries have over nicd is in energy density. in applications that require a high power - to - weight ratio,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5115586091046125, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:17491b81-e5b3-497e-a74e-3dbb58b5134f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.304644"}
{"text": "slightly faster than nimh and much faster than li - ion types. the big edge that the nimh and li - ion batteries have over nicd is in energy density. in applications that require a high power - to - weight ratio, the li - ion is the king of these beasts, with a typical spec of 100wh / kg to 130wh / kg. by comparison, nimhs offer a power - to - weight ratio ranging from 60wh / kg to 120wh / kg, while nicds range from 45wh / kg to 80wh / kg. the achilles heel of nicd batteries is their maintenance requirement. they must be regularly exercised ( some harried shooters might say exorcised ) to avoid the formation of crystals inside the battery and the resulting tendency to discharge only as far as the minimum voltage level to which they have been frequently run. also, since cadmium is an environmentally toxic metal, nicd batteries are increasingly seen as a liability. some countries now severely limit their use due to disposal problems. memory or mismatch? frequently, what appears to be a memory effect may be a mismatch between the cutoff voltage level of the device and that of the battery. to get the full capacity of the battery, its end - of - discharge voltage must be higher than the cutoff voltage for the camcorder or other device being powered. a mismatch in these values will cause the device to quit while the battery still has power. mimicking the memory effect, this will cause a nickel - based battery to be repeatedly recharged before reaching its own end - of - discharge voltage and eventually develop a real memory. getting simpler again the latest \u201c smart \u201d batteries, chargers and cameras can communicate digitally. the battery can control the smart charger for the perfect charge cycle and the cameras can display all the needed power parameters right in the viewfinder. just when the mix of battery chemistries and their characteristics was becoming increasingly complex, the advent of digital communication between the central components promises to make things a good bit easier. bennett liles is a writer and tv production engineer in the atlanta area.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5134695821835672, "token_count": 440, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:17491b81-e5b3-497e-a74e-3dbb58b5134f>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.305609"}
{"text": "visual models of morphogenesis ( przemyslaw prusinkiewicz et al. ) grow more plants with algorithm - a population of 1000 ; [ think about local maximum - could be a problem for sparse samples across the set ] - some evaluation to score each individual / fitness function. s - kill the ones underscore certain threshold ; - the survivor breed offspring. how? - the likely hood of mutation m, say 3 % - crossover c, 5 % - parametric representation of the individuals. 0000 01110 | 0000 0011 - repopulate the died portion book an introduction to genetic algorithms ( complex adaptive systems ) brian scaz lecture outline of the basic genetic algorithm 1. [ start ] generate random population of n chromosomes 2. [ fitness ] evaluate the fitness of each chromosome 3. [ new population ] create a new population by repeating : a. [ selection ] select two parent chromosomes based on their fitness b. [ crossover ] with a crossover probability cross over the parents to form new offspring ( children ). if no crossover was performed, offspring is an exact copy of parents. c. [ mutation ] with a mutation probability mutate new offspring at each locus ( position in chromosome ). d. [ accepting ] place new offspring in a new population 4. [ replace ] use new generated population for a further run of algorithm 5. [ test ] if the end condition is satisfied, stop, and return the best solution in current population 6. [ loop ] go to step 2 \u201c evolving 3d morphology and behavior by competition \u201c - evolving morphology with control, i. e. body and brain - evolution at times involves more than competition with the environment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.521169535607682, "token_count": 339, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d3d5a318-4f32-4c0b-93c4-3ebe2fde9103>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.338266"}
{"text": "this case study was developed for a lower - division lecture class on \u201c world history 1400 - 1870 \u201d with the goal of creating an opportunity for students to \u201c discover \u201d gender. we used a central primary source, \u201c the history of mary prince, a west indian slave related by herself. \u201d 1 this first - person account was written by british abolitionists and disseminated through the london society for the abolition of slavery in 1831. we chose \u201c the history of mary prince \u201d because the types of labor that prince performed as a slave cover the three areas of slave work that we specifically ask students to explore : plantation work ; housework ; and work for other slaves. we departed from the traditional lecture format and pursued a pedagogical method known as \u201c problem - based learning \u201d ( pbl ). pbl takes a particular \u201c problem \u201d ( instead of the more conventional \u201c topic \u201d ) as its point of departure, and asks students to generate a collective \u201c solution \u201d by working in research teams. students develop the skills and acquire the content knowledge needed to solve the issue at hand. our pbl asked students to produce a mock \u201c script \u201d for a documentary film to be shown on hbo during women \u2019 s history month. the film explains how and why male and female slaves in the americas and / or africa come to have distinct ( or similar ) labor responsibilities within local economies and what impact such gender divisions of labor have on women \u2019 s and men \u2019 s experience of slavery. students were divided into collaborative teams and presented with a timetable for the completion of the task as well as guidelines for group work. the actual process included the following steps : brain - storming research questions and ranking the questions in order of importance ; dividing up the questions ; carrying out the research and reporting the findings back to the group ; reviewing all findings and generating larger arguments as a group ; and finally, writing up project reports and preparing an oral presentation. students were graded on the basis of their individual project component ( submitted in essay form ), their collaborative work ( such as intermittent electronic reports ), and their group participation ( including peer evaluation ). we provided students with a list of primary and secondary sources for their research and a set of questions to focus their efforts. 2 a. different types of work involved in producing an export commodity under this rubric we asked students to consider how and why labor for the production of an export commodity was distributed among men and women, female and male children and how authority was maintained at the work site. mary prince is mainly involved in making salt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5130456787538955, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5c4a733-0940-4e38-a664-3564dacea628>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.358699"}
{"text": ". she is reportedly most successful when she converts to christianity, marries, repents past sins, and seeks out an alliance with white abolitionists. beyond encouraging students to recognize this sequence as reflecting the moral agenda of white abolitionists, we also urge them to think about the differences between collective and more individualized forms of \u201c labor on one \u2019 s own behalf \u201d and to make explicit arguments about where they see work connected to \u201c resistance. \u201d our pbl exercise was an experiment, and we were very pleased with its results. although students at first expressed some skepticism about the place of collaborative work in a large lecture course, their presentations and papers indicated that we had won them over by the end of the term. many presentations involved dramatic enactments, multimedia displays or mock pitches to the hbo film board. we apparently struck a real chord with these students and inspired them to be creative. a sizeable group produced some of the best historical writing either one of us had ever seen in an undergraduate setting. their analysis was simply superb, and the presentation of the material highly imaginative. they had come to understand the meaning of gender as a \u201c category of historical analysis \u201d without us ever introducing the term. this was particularly gratifying. 1 \u201c the history of mary prince, a west indian slave, related by herself, \u201d in henry louis gates, jr., ed. six women \u2019 s slave narratives, ( oxford, 1988 ). full text available online as part of the \u201c documenting the american south \u201d project at the university of north carolina at chapel hill. 2 in order to explore these questions and prepare the final movie script, students read mary prince \u2019 s story alongside the following secondary sources. secondary historical literature allows students to generate answers. claire robertson and martin klein, for example, argue that american plantation slavery \u2019 s preference for employing men in agricultural labor represented a sharp reversal of many west african societies \u2019 custom of entrusting agriculture and marketing exclusively to women. hilary beckles and jacqueline jones contend in their work on life in the slave barracks that strict sexual divisions of labor were employed as a counter to white efforts to dehumanize slaves by treating men and women as interchangeable. beckles \u2019 work, which also has chapters on slave women obtaining freedom through their sexual relationships with men, is also of use in getting students to consider mary prince \u2019 s mention of her connection to \u201c captain abbot. \u201d to what extent did \u201c sex \u201d constitute a realm of work that ( largely ) slave women performed? could these relationships afford some women limited forms of bargaining power", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5070249149203507, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5c4a733-0940-4e38-a664-3564dacea628>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.508964"}
{"text": "\u2019 s very much a patchwork quilt, and no two circuits are the same. \u201d the first step in assessing the risk posed by rooftop solar is to gather more data. utilities up and down the state are beginning to install devices on distribution circuits that record information about how much power is flowing and in which direction. smart meters can serve a similar purpose. before they were implemented across california over the past few years, utilities had so little information about local circuits that they didn \u2019 t know a neighborhood had lost power until irate customers called to complain ; even then they couldn \u2019 t remotely pinpoint the source of the problem. now smart meters, although controversial among some privacy and health advocates, are one component of an evolving \u201c smart grid \u201d that can provide real - time data on the flow of electricity through local circuits. \u201c you need to have a good understanding of what \u2019 s happening before you take action, \u201d von meier says. once that \u2019 s accomplished, the next move toward ensuring reliability \u2014 the true gold standard for power within the industry \u2014 could be to install state - of - the - art voltage regulation devices on local circuits, which can smooth out the peaks and valleys resulting from intermittent sunshine feeding rooftop panels. such localized disruptions are nothing compared to the risk of remote solar and wind plants potentially triggering blackouts or brownouts due to unexpected fluctuations in output. \u201c what happens when 30 percent of our power comes from solar or wind, and a cloud goes over or it doesn \u2019 t blow? \u201d asks tim woodward, \u2019 82, managing director for nth power, a san francisco \u2013 based energy - technology venture capital firm. \u201c how do we deal with that? \u201d the most commonly prescribed solution is massive batteries that can store and distribute energy as needed, increasing the buffer between supply and demand. yet affordable, cost - effective batteries remain at least five to ten years away, says woodward. until we experience an actual grid failure or similar event triggered by renewables, he predicts, a market for the batteries is unlikely to materialize. in the near term, a complementary \u2014 and increasingly popular \u2014 approach is to focus on accommodating variability at the other end of the system : inside the homes and businesses where we actually consume the power. duncan callaway, an assistant professor of energy and resources, is a believer. he spends much of his time studying what \u2019 s known as demand response, or load flexibility, in which users adjust their demand according to supply. \u201c ultimately, all we care about is making power in equal power", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5014404215699075, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8224f4f0-9977-48eb-a4b8-32efdabd4d63>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.712403"}
{"text": "energy and resources, is a believer. he spends much of his time studying what \u2019 s known as demand response, or load flexibility, in which users adjust their demand according to supply. \u201c ultimately, all we care about is making power in equal power out, \u201d he says. \u201c if you can accomplish that by encouraging electricity consumption at different times, you can do it without having to build more storage infrastructure. \u201d manual demand response \u2014 where utilities phone their customers and ask them to please ease back on the air conditioning \u2014 has been around for decades, but the new wave is automated, continuous, and sufficiently seamless that most people won \u2019 t even notice. it works by sending wireless signals to smart appliances and other devices \u2014 again with the help of smart meters \u2014 about how much energy to use within a set of consumer - determined performance parameters that could potentially be programmed, like a thermostat or light timer. the aim isn \u2019 t just to use less energy, callaway says, but to use it at the right times. such a fine - toothed approach, which will require both technological advances and regulatory work to become feasible, would help the grid adapt to the uneven profile of renewables on an ongoing basis, as well as avoid outages during peak events. sometimes energy draw can even be nudged upward to account for renewables. in 2010, a storm caused a field of wind turbines in oregon \u2019 s columbia river gorge to nearly overwhelm the grid with power, prompting local agencies to pilot a new method of storing excess electricity : remotely cranking up the dial on special water and space heaters inside participating customers \u2019 homes. information is power successfully adopting both batteries and demand response will take an intimate understanding of how california \u2019 s grid functions on a real - time basis. that \u2019 s precisely the goal of a powerful new model out of uc berkeley, developed first for california by matthias fripp, m. s. \u2019 03, ph. d. \u2019 08, erg, while completing his dissertation and later expanded to all of western north america and then overseas by dan kammen and his students. kammen is the director of the renewable and appropriate energy laboratory, an erg and goldman school of public policy professor who was fripp \u2019 s faculty advisor. california \u2019 s energy commission and air resources board have already begun to employ the model to calculate carbon emissions caused by electricity generation, kammen says. but it can also be used to solve for both cost and reliability, especially in regard to the intermittent output of most renewable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5189280479342796, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8224f4f0-9977-48eb-a4b8-32efdabd4d63>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.713707"}
{"text": "i was reminded this morning of why twitter can be so useful \u2013 i usually check the latest # mathchat tweets and saw richard wade \u2019 s tweet with a link to the latest teach maths newsletter, on \u2018 ten great ideas \u2019. the first item includes this wonderful composite number tree by jeffrey ventrella \u2013 i \u2019 m looking forward to trying that with students after half term. i think it would make a great starter. students could work out themselves how the tree is being formed and comment on any patterns they notice. also included in the first newsletter item is the excellent primitives application by alec mceachran, i included this myself with some resources for looking at prime factors in an earlier post. it \u2019 s a small world! i see the second item is on craig barton \u2019 s web whizz video on teachmathematics. you can see all craig \u2019 s videos here on tes resources. on wolframalpha, if you query on a word you can see a word frequency history, see this on mathematics for example ( the history is based on a google books sample of one million books ). an opportunity for some cross curricular work perhaps? wolframalpha is still free to check working for as many queries as you want making it very useful for students but now step by step solutions are limited to three a day unless you sign up to wolframalpha pro, so choose your three carefully! the new style step by step solutions are clearly presented \u2013 see this integration by parts for example : ( see this page for wolframalpha examples showing the syntax for many different queries. i have added a couple of new slideshows for older students recently, on set theory & logic and differential equations ). finally, still on the subject of reading, i enjoyed andrew old \u2019 s post on \u2018 what ofsted say they want \u2019. just what is good teaching all about? this is so sensible! for uk teachers i hope you enjoyed half term last week or like me are looking forward to a week off this coming week!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5671675472199494, "token_count": 420, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:029b9074-5b0d-42bd-a466-d85be60c2578>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.719576"}
{"text": "economics model answers two introductory : 1. in a free market, the price and quantity at which goods are sold are where _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ equals _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. supply equals demand 2. suppose the price demand curve is p = $ 20 - q, where p is price and q is quantity. also suppose the price supply curve is p = $ 4 + q. at what price and quantity will the good be sold? the good is sold where supply equals demand. that means the supply p must equal the demand p, and the supply q must equal the demand q. this can be found by graphing the above two equations and seeing where they intersect, or by solving them by setting p to the same value in both : - p = $ 20 \u2212 q - p = $ 4 + q - 20 \u2212 q = 4 + q - 20 = 4 + 2q - 4 + 2q = 20 - 2q = 16 - q = 8 plugging this back into the first equation gives p : - p = $ 20 \u2212 q = $ 20 \u2212 8 = $ 12 checking our work, we plug this p and q into the second equation : - 12 = 4 + 8 = 12 answer : q = 8, p = $ 12 intermediate : 3. draw the supply and demand for air. in addition, draw the supply and demand for a good that costs $ 10000000000000000000000000 trillion dollars. the demand curve for air must be at a zero price, which is the x - axis ( p = 0 everywhere, although note that if the quantity of air ever approached zero then the demand price would sharply increase as people would pay to survive ). the supply curve for air must be at fixed quantity, and hence a vertical line. they must intersect at p = 0, q = amount of air in the atmosphere : note, however, that air is not a scarce good, and that is why its supply and demand curves are so unusual and nonsensical. the point where supply equals demand for an extremely expensive good must be at low quantity q. from there the supply curve would slope upwards, and the demand curve would slope downwards : ( thanks to kevin for both graphs above ) 4. suppose 1000 persons in a town each have the following weekly demands for gas, and the gas stations have the following weekly supplies : gallons demand price / gallon supply price / gallon 10 $ 2. 50 $. 50 20 $ 2 $.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5061661764135296, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c8d64087-cd17-402f-a502-305270c9d004>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.735657"}
{"text": ") 4. suppose 1000 persons in a town each have the following weekly demands for gas, and the gas stations have the following weekly supplies : gallons demand price / gallon supply price / gallon 10 $ 2. 50 $. 50 20 $ 2 $. 75 30 $ 1 $ 1 40 $. 75 $ 1. 50 ( a ) what is the price and overall quantity of gas sold each week? the price and quantity at which the good ( gas ) is sold is where supply equals demand. that means that the p for supply equals the p for demand, and the q for supply equals the q for demand. looking at the above table, where do both the p and q for supply equal the corresponding p and q for demand? that occurs on the third line above : q equals 30 for both supply and demand, and p equals $ 1 for both supply and demand. the answer is there : p = $ 1, q = 30. ( b ) suppose congress declares war and imposes a price control of $. 75 per gallon. at what price and overall quantity will gas sell each week? when price p is fixed by the government at $. 75, then what is the corresponding q supply and demand? looking at the table, the corresponding q in the supply column is 20 gallons, and the corresponding q in the demand column is 40 gallons. the lower number is what matters, because nothing can be bought unless it is both supplied and demanded. so the supply is 20 gallons and that is what is sold at $. 75 per gallon. that is 20 times 0. 75 = $ 15 per person, or $ 15, 000 for the whole town. some may try to buy and sell gas illegally at a higher price, as illegal markets often develop when there are price controls. 5. suppose the government limits the supply of toyota cars that can be imported in 2008 to a certain quota. what effect does this have on the supply curve, and on the equilibrium price? who is helped by this import quota, and who is hurt? be as specific as possible. import quotas cause the supply curve to shift upward, and for the equilibrium where supply meets demand to shift to less quantity at a greater price. the consumers are hurt by import quotas, and everyone pays more for the cars and some people who wanted the car at its lower, free market price, cannot buy it at the higher price. sellers of toyota cars are helped because they make bigger profits per car sold, although they cannot sell as many as before. 6. suppose you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5247524501830305, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c8d64087-cd17-402f-a502-305270c9d004>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.737073"}
{"text": "b2 : a mixture of 2 % biodiesel and 98 % petroleum diesel based on volume. b20 : a mixture of 20 % biodiesel and 80 % petroleum diesel based on volume. b100 : 100 % biodiesel, also known as \u201c neat \u201d biodiesel. biodiesel : a biodegradable transportation fuel for use in diesel engines that is produced through the transesterfication of organically - derived oils or fats. it may be used either as a replacement for or as a component of diesel fuel. carbon dioxide ( co2 ) : a colorless, odorless gas produced by respiration and combustion of carbon - containing fuels. plants use it as a food. e10 : a mixture of 10 % ethanol and 90 % gasoline based on volume. e85 : a mixture of 85 % ethanol and 15 % gasoline based on volume. ethanol ( ch3ch2oh ) : a colorless, flammable liquid produced by fermentation of sugars. used as a fuel oxygenate and found in alcoholic beverages. fermentation : a biochemical reaction that breaks down complex organic molecules ( such as carbohydrates ) into simpler materials ( such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and water ). bacteria or yeasts can ferment sugars to ethanol. glycerin ( c3h8o3 ) : a liquid by - product of biodiesel production. glycerin is used in the manufacture of dynamite, cosmetics, liquid soaps, inks and lubricants. hydrocarbon ( hc ) : an organic compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon. in vehicle emissions, these are usually vapors created from incomplete combustion or from vaporization of liquid gasoline. emissions of hydrocarbons contribute to ground level ozone. methyl - tertiary butyl ester ( mtbe ) : a fuel oxygenate made from petroleum. it does not biodegrade and can contaminate groundwater. nitrogen oxides ( nox ) : a product of photochemical reactions of nitric oxide in ambient air, and the major component of photochemical smog. oxygenate : a compound which contains oxygen in its molecular structure. ethanol and biodiesel act as oxygenates when they are blended with conventional fuels. oxygenated fuel improves combustion efficiency and reduces tailpipe emissions of co. ozone : a compound that is formed when oxygen and other compounds react in sunlight. in the upper atmosphere, ozone protects the earth from the sun ' s ultraviolet rays. though beneficial in the upper atmosphere,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5579403278266024, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:775fb6ea-8f45-4dc4-bb85-b879b77053ff>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.746641"}
{"text": "combustion efficiency and reduces tailpipe emissions of co. ozone : a compound that is formed when oxygen and other compounds react in sunlight. in the upper atmosphere, ozone protects the earth from the sun ' s ultraviolet rays. though beneficial in the upper atmosphere, at ground level, ozone is called photochemical smog, and is a respiratory irritant and considered a pollutant. particulates : a fine liquid or solid particle such as dust, smoke, fumes, or smog, found in air or emissions. petroleum : any petroleum - based substance comprising a complex blend of hydrocarbons derived from crude oil through the process of separation, conversion, upgrading, and finishing, including motor fuel, jet oil, lubricants, petroleum solvents, and used oil. sulfur : a natural part of petroleum diesel fuel that is reduced during refining due to an epa mandate. sulfur increases petroleum diesel ' s lubricity and therefore engine life. sulfur oxides and sulfides in exhaust emissions are major components of acid rain. transesterfication : a chemical process which reacts an alcohol with the triglycerides contained in vegetable oils and animal fats to produce biodiesel and glycerin. source : department of energy, national biodiesel board and renewable fuels association. information at your fingertips industry association web sites are primed with information on biodiesel and ethanol. visit the following sites to learn more on both topics, including locations on where to purchase biodiesel in your area :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5934674268316773, "token_count": 304, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:775fb6ea-8f45-4dc4-bb85-b879b77053ff>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.748497"}
{"text": "weeds that survive an initial herbicide application are often re - sprayed later in the season. however, according to university of illinois associate professor of weed science aaron hager, the likelihood of controlling larger, moisture - stressed weeds continues to decline. moreover, herbicides applied late in the season are more likely to persist long enough to injure sensitive rotational crops. nearly all herbicide labels ( soil - applied or post - emergence ) specify the interval between herbicide application and planting a rotational crop. some of these restrictions are based solely on time, while others take into account factors such as soil ph and the amount of precipitation received after herbicide application when determining interval length. \u201c soil moisture is often the most critical factor governing the efficacy and persistence of soil - residual herbicides, \u201d hager says. \u201c many herbicides are degraded in soil by the activity of soil microorganisms, and populations of these microorganisms can be greatly depressed when soil moisture is limited. \u201d dry soils can also enhance herbicide adsorption to soil colloids, thus rendering the herbicide unavailable for plant uptake and degradation by soil microbial populations. some herbicide rotational intervals are increased if a specified amount of precipitation is not received by a certain calendar date. the intervals are established to prevent herbicide residues from reaching levels that will adversely affect the rotational crop. respecting these intervals becomes particularly important with late - season herbicide applications and when soil moisture is limited. \u201c please keep in mind that the labels of almost all post - emergence soybean herbicides indicate a pre - harvest interval or a soybean developmental stage beyond which applications cannot be made, \u201d says hager. labels of some products may indicate both a developmental stage ( before soybean bloom, for example ) and a pre - harvest interval. preharvest intervals indicate the amount of time that must elapse between the herbicide application and crop harvest. failure to observe the preharvest interval may result in herbicide residue levels in the harvested portion of the crop in excess of established limits. moreover, labels on many postemergence soybean herbicides specify that foraging of, or grazing livestock on, treated soybean is not allowed.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5079419583816828, "token_count": 449, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:77a3edd3-8a4a-4935-ae4e-dab48536c202>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.753629"}
{"text": "as d. w. notes, the distinction made between \" bit - based \" and \" word - based \" stream ciphers in the source you cite is irrelevant to the end - user. for both kinds of stream ciphers ( as well as for block ciphers in streaming modes like ctr or ofb ), the manner in which the keystream is combined with the plaintext is always the same : bitwise xor, which operates at the bit level but is easily parallelized both in hardware and in software. in any case, the actual distinction they seem to be making is between lfsr - based stream ciphers, which sequentially output one bit per iteration, and ciphers such as rc4 ( and, presumably, block ciphers in streaming modes ) which generate their output bitstream in larger chunks. lfsr - based stream ciphers have generally been designed for direct hardware implementation, where they have the advantage of simplicity, but they ' ve traditionally suffered from poor performance in software ; whereas in hardware it ' s easy to shuffle single bits around and combine them using simple logic gates, typical cpus are designed for carrying out higher - level operations on chunks of 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bits in parallel. running a cipher that operates on single bits in software thus wastes most of the cpu ' s power, unless the algorithm can be reformulated to operate on many bits in parallel, something that many older lfsr - based cipher designs haven ' t been very well suited for. on the other hand, ciphers like rc4 were designed for software implementation from the beginning, and do very well there. ( although rc4 itself operates on 8 - bit bytes, which is arguably suboptimal for modern high - end cpus, its simplicity still keeps is competitive there. besides, there are still plenty of 8 - bit processors around in embedded devices and such. ) however, they often make use of features that are difficult and costly to implement in hardware, such as access to relatively large amounts of ram ( e. g. 258 bytes for rc4, accessed in an essentially random order ). in recent years, though, the trend in stream cipher design has been towards ciphers that blur these lines, being efficient to implement in both hardware and software. good examples can be found e. g. in the estream portfolio : the trivium cipher, for example, is fundamentally a \" bit - based \" shift register design, and can indeed be implemented as such if desired ; however", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6069416389492255, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2019195e-44d5-4ae2-81a1-e4e313a9bc24>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.759123"}
{"text": "linear regression using numpy a linear regression line is of the form w1x + w2 = y and it is the line that minimizes the sum of the squares of the distance from each data point to the line. so, given n pairs of data ( xi, yi ), the parameters that we are looking for are w1 and w2 which minimize the error and we can compute the parameter vector w = ( w1, w2 ) t as the least - squares solution of the following over - determined system let ' s use numpy to compute the regression line : from numpy import arange, array, ones, random, linalg from pylab import plot, show xi = arange ( 0, 9 ) a = array ( [ xi, ones ( 9 ) ] ) # linearly generated sequence y = [ 19, 20, 20. 5, 21. 5, 22, 23, 23, 25. 5, 24 ] w = linalg. lstsq ( a. t, y ) # obtaining the parameters # plotting the line line = w * xi + w # regression line plot ( xi, line, ' r - ', xi, y, ' o ' ) show ( ) we can see the result in the plot below. you can find more about data fitting using numpy in the following posts : ( note : opinions expressed in this article and its replies are the opinions of their respective authors and not those of dzone, inc. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5016089298054581, "token_count": 308, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:42bcf6b3-89b0-45d7-9585-610106db4a19>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.764467"}
{"text": "as religious people, we have a strong allegiance to certain moral and ethical principles, and our allegiance to those moral and ethical principles can be stronger than our allegiance to our nation. for example, as unitarian universalists we say that one of our ethical principles is that we affirm the inherent worth and dignity of all persons. we adopted that particular principle in 1985, but it has roots going back much further than that. that particular ethical principle can trace its roots back to the golden rule, a far older ethical principle that states that we shall do unto others as we would have them do unto us. unitarians and universalists got the golden rule from the ethical teachings of jesus of nazareth, who was reported to have told his followers a form of the golden rule some two thousand years ago. but jesus did not make up the golden rule ; he was restating an even older ethical precept that he got from his jewish upbringing. in the torah, those jewish books traditionally supposed to have been written by moses, in the book of leviticus, chapter 19, verse 18, it states : \u201c thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. \u201d the book of leviticus is at least two thousand five hundred years old, in its present form, though it is made up of even older material ; and surely the golden rule is among the older material in the book. suffice it to say that we are the inheritors of a religious tradition that has affirmed the ideal of this ethical precept for thousands of years. obviously, then, our ethical tradition can trace its roots back to well before the founding of the united states. in fact, some of us would say that our ethical principles transcend any one people or nation or moment in history. the golden rule has been worded differently at different times, and we further know that there are examples of ethical principles in other cultures that sound a good deal like our golden rule. all these are specific manifestations of a general transcendent principle ; as a religious people, we owe our allegiance to this transcendent, eternally true ethical principle ; and as a religious people, we owe a greater allegiance to this transcendent ethical principle than we do to the relatively short - lived american nation. our adherence to such transcendent ethical principles leads us to what i \u2019 m calling \u201c critical patriotism. \u201d we do owe patriotic feelings towards the united states ; but our patriotic feelings will never", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5067945826794489, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cea0e4c2-e291-4fed-bc6f-e505f57ca109>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.793253"}
{"text": "keith griffin begins with a macroeconomic overview. the statistics can only hint at the trauma inflicted on mongolia by the economic \" shock therapy \" that started in 1990 and was exacerbated by the dzuds ( winter storms ) that struck in 1999 / 2000 and 2000 / 2001. gdp dropped by over 20 % in the first four years before returning almost to where it had been by 2000 ; per - capita income fared much worse. the decade also saw increases in insecurity and inequality and a decrease in human capital. mark d. brenner considers different measures of poverty. officially around 30 % of the population were poor in 2000, but the figure rises to 50 % using more standard metrics and as high as 70 % with a basic capabilities analysis. he also looks at inequality, structural changes, and adaptive responses by the poor. he argues for more poverty assistance targeted at lower levels of government, at aimag, soum, and even bag levels. a second chapter by keith griffin describes how shock therapy induced urban - to - rural migration and increased the relative importance of the livestock sector, though at the same time decreasing its productivity in a kind of \" pastoral involution \". the removal of the negdel cooperatives that had managed pastures, combined with a mandated \" free - for - all \" commons, has created a range of problems ; griffin suggests leasing fees and pasture rights as a solution. takayoshi kusago surveys employment and productivity in different sectors, covering demographic and geographic variation and the informal sector. he recommends encouragement of small and medium sized industries in agriculture and manufacturing, improving credit for small businesses, public works schemes, decentralised incubation centres for micro - enterprises, and the rehabilitation of schools \u2014 backed by a social safety net and some kind of micro - insurance against accidents or illness. on environmental issues, amy ickowitz looks at the distribution of overgrazing and expands on griffin ' s analysis of problems with mandated \" open access \" to pasture. she suggests group land tenure rather than individual titles and fees for access to pasture, water and winter shelters, with the proceeds used to maintain and extend basic infrastructure. she also touches on deforestation, mining and urban pollution. two chapters by terry mckinley address governance issues. the first describes the outcomes and lessons of the six year national poverty alleviation programme started in 1994, which had some successes in building infrastructure in rural areas, but also had problems with positioning within the government. the second looks at the national development strategy and problems of coordination", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.510026470085152, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9459010a-2020-4ea9-acea-3bdf39f71d7f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.802273"}
{"text": "n. the set of things a person has to do in the future. one speaks of the next project to be attacked as having risen to the top of the stack. \" i ' m afraid i ' ve got real work to do, so this ' ll have to be pushed way down on my stack. \" \" i haven ' t done it yet because every time i pop my stack something new gets pushed. \" if you are interrupted several times in the middle of a conversation, \" my stack overflowed \" means \" i forget what we were talking about. \" the implication is that more items were pushed onto the stack than could be remembered, so the least recent items were lost. the usual physical example of a stack is to be found in a cafeteria : a pile of plates or trays sitting on a spring in a well, so that when you put one on the top they all sink down, and when you take one off the top the rest spring up a bit. see also push at mit, pdl used to be a more common synonym for stack in all these contexts, and this may still be true. everywhere else stack seems to be the preferred term. knuth ( \" the art of computer programming \", second edition, vol. 1, p. 236 ) says : many people who realized the importance of stacks and queues independently have given other names to these structures : stacks have been called push - down lists, reversion storages, cellars, nesting stores, piles, last - in - first - out ( \" lifo \" ) lists, and even yo - yo lists!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5900356397623323, "token_count": 326, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ae93db31-a206-4712-b5f5-08343c2a5cce>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.831463"}
{"text": "( noun ) middle english < old french < latin sententia \u2018 opinion, decision \u2019, equivalent to sent - ( base of sentire \u2018 to feel \u2019 ) + - entia - ence ; ( v. ) middle english : \u2018 to pass judgment, decide judicially \u2019 < old french sentencier, derivative of sentence a sentence is the largest grammatical unit in language. it communicates a complete thought \u2014 an assertion, question, command, or exclamation. in general, assertions and questions \u2014 the overwhelming majority of sentences \u2014 require a subject and a verb, put together in a way that can stand alone, resulting in what is called an independent clause ( see main clause ) : he kicked the ball is a sentence. after he kicked the ball is not a sentence ; instead it is a dependent clause ( see subordinate clause ). even though it has a subject and a verb, it needs to be connected to something in order to complete the assertion : after he kicked the ball, he fell down ; or he fell down after he kicked the ball. in the case of commands, the subject need not be written because \u201c you \u201d is understood : go home! means you go home! and exclamations clearly express excitement, alarm, anger, or the like with no need for either a subject or a verb : wow! gadzooks! ouch! in everyday speech we routinely use phrases or clauses that would not make a complete sentence \u2014 so - called sentence fragments \u2014 because the conversation or the circumstances make the meaning clear. for example, we might answer a question like \u201c where did you go? \u201d with \u201c to the store, \u201d or \u201c why can \u2019 t i stay out till midnight? \u201d with \u201c because i say so, \u201d or \u201c what are you doing? \u201d with \u201c trying to fix this toaster, \u201d instead of \u201c i went to the store, \u201d \u201c you can ' t stay out that late because i say so, \u201d or \u201c i am trying to fix this toaster. \u201d in written dialogue sentence fragments are perfectly acceptable. they would generally be regarded as sentences simply because they begin with a capital letter and end with a suitable punctuation mark. but they are not sentences in a strict grammatical sense. and as a rule, sentence fragments are frowned upon in formal or expository writing. they can be useful \u2014 indeed, powerful \u2014 but in such writing they are effective only if used sparingly, in order to achieve a deliberate special effect : we will not give", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.548469603623709, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:21804fae-cb0e-4c65-940a-16cd1e1b839d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.840505"}
{"text": ". european journal of human genetics, ( 8 september 2010 ) | doi : 10. 1038 / ejhg. 2010. 153 in the heartland of eurasia : the multilocus genetic landscape of central asian populations located in the eurasian heartland, central asia has played a major role in both the early spread of modern humans out of africa and the more recent settlements of differentiated populations across eurasia. a detailed knowledge of the peopling in this vast region would therefore greatly improve our understanding of range expansions, colonizations and recurrent migrations, including the impact of the historical expansion of eastern nomadic groups that occurred in central asia. however, despite its presumable importance, little is known about the level and the distribution of genetic variation in this region. we genotyped 26 indo - iranian - and turkic - speaking populations, belonging to six different ethnic groups, at 27 autosomal microsatellite loci. the analysis of genetic variation reveals that central asian diversity is mainly shaped by linguistic affiliation, with turkic - speaking populations forming a cluster more closely related to east - asian populations and indo - iranian speakers forming a cluster closer to western eurasians. the scattered position of uzbeks across turkic - and indo - iranian - speaking populations may reflect their origins from the union of different tribes. we propose that the complex genetic landscape of central asian populations results from the movements of eastern, turkic - speaking groups during historical times, into a long - lasting group of settled populations, which may be represented nowadays by tajiks and turkmen. contrary to what is generally thought, our results suggest that the recurrent expansions of eastern nomadic groups did not result in the complete replacement of local populations, but rather into partial admixture.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5221579491339896, "token_count": 351, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2f1adfde-fe9a-461e-b723-5634cd8a8e97>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.853333"}
{"text": "| oracle\u00ae fusion middleware concepts guide 11g release 1 ( 11. 1. 1 ) part number e10103 - 07 this chapter describes oracle fusion middleware. it includes the following sections : middleware is the software that connects software components or enterprise applications. middleware is the software layer that lies between the operating system and the applications on each side of a distributed computer network ( figure 1 - 1 ). typically, it supports complex, distributed business software applications. middleware is the infrastructure which facilitates creation of business applications, and provides core services like concurrency, transactions, threading, messaging, and the sca framework for service - oriented architecture ( soa ) applications. it also provides security and enables high availability functionality to your enterprise. middleware includes web servers, application servers, content management systems, and similar tools that support application development and delivery. it is especially integral to information technology based on extensible markup language ( xml ), simple object access protocol ( soap ), web services, soa, web 2. 0 infrastructure, and lightweight directory access protocol ( ldap ) m etc. figure 1 - 1 middleware architecture due to continued growth and use of network - based applications by businesses, middleware technologies are increasingly important. companies and organizations are now building enterprisewide information systems by integrating previously independent applications with new software developments. the integration process may involve legacy applications which may be used only with, or through a nonmodifiable interface. in some cases, rewriting the code for a legacy application may be cost - prohibitive. increasingly, information systems are composed of a collection of various specialized hardware devices interconnected by a network. each device performs a function that involves receipt of real time data and remote interaction with other devices of the system. some examples include computer networks, telecommunication systems, uninterrupted power supply units, and decentralized manufacturing units. interaction with the information system may span a wide range of performance. you can interact with internet applications through a variety of devices, whose characteristics and performance figures span an increasingly wide range. between a high performance personal computer, a smart telephone, and a personal digital assistant, the variations in bandwidth, local processing power, screen capacity, and the ability to display color pictures, are extremely large. hide the distributed nature of the application. an application represents a collection of interconnected parts that are operational and running in distributed locations, out of view. hide the heterogeneity of the enterprise. this includes the hardware components used, computer operating systems, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5592418682052132, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:49e300e9-e580-4fd3-a4c2-76322a584ccf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.872849"}
{"text": "nature of the application. an application represents a collection of interconnected parts that are operational and running in distributed locations, out of view. hide the heterogeneity of the enterprise. this includes the hardware components used, computer operating systems, and communication protocols. provide uniform, standard, high - level interfaces to the application developers and integrators, so that applications can be easily composed, reused, ported, and made to interoperate. supply a set of common services to perform various general purpose functions to avoid duplicating efforts, and to facilitate collaboration between applications. middleware makes application development easier, by providing common programming abstractions, by masking application heterogeneity and the distribution of the underlying hardware and operating systems, and by hiding low - level programming details. the function of middleware is to mediate interaction between the parts of an application, or between applications. therefore, considerations for architectural structure play a central role in middleware design. the architectural design encompasses the organization, overall structure, and communication patterns, both for applications and for the middleware itself. besides architectural aspects, the main problems of middleware design pertain to various aspects of distributed systems. any middleware system relies on a communication layer that allows its different pieces to interoperate. in addition, communication is a function provided by middleware itself to applications, in which the communicating entities may take on different roles such as client server or peer - to - peer. middleware allows different interaction modes ( synchronous invocations, asynchronous message passing, coordination through shared objects ) embodied in different patterns. therefore, middleware system design faces several challenges : middleware systems rely on interception and indirection mechanisms, which induce performance penalties. adaptable middleware introduces additional indirections, which make the situation even worse. as applications become more and more interconnected and interdependent, the number of objects, users, and devices tends to increase. this poses the problem of the scalability of the communication and object management algorithms, and increases the complexity of administration. the availability, reliability, concurrency, security, and performance of applications may also be an issue. widespread computing is a vision of the near future, in which an increasing number of devices embedded in various physical objects participate in a global information network. mobility and dynamic reconfiguration will be dominant features, requiring permanent adaptation of the applications. managing large applications that are heterogeneous, widely distributed, and in permanent evolution raises many questions, such as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5646956935831062, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:49e300e9-e580-4fd3-a4c2-76322a584ccf>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.873984"}
{"text": "participate in a global information network. mobility and dynamic reconfiguration will be dominant features, requiring permanent adaptation of the applications. managing large applications that are heterogeneous, widely distributed, and in permanent evolution raises many questions, such as consistent observation, security, trade - offs between autonomy and interdependence for the different subsystems, and definition and implementation of resource management policies. service - oriented architecture ( soa ) is an architectural style whose goal is to achieve loose coupling among diverse interacting software applications, enabling organizations to take advantage of existing investments in applications and systems. soa facilitates the development of modular business services that can be easily integrated and reused, thus creating a flexible and adaptable infrastructure. using a soa approach, an organization can focus more resources and budget on innovation and on delivering new business services. systems that can successfully use soa can minimize the disruption of planned or unplanned outages in an enterprise. some of the advantages of using soa are : reduction in development time and cost : soa services are easily reused and can be rapidly assembled into new, composite applications. lower maintenance cost : reusable services reduce the number and internal complexity of enterprise services. high - quality services : increased service reuse creates high - quality services through multiple testing cycles from different service consumers. lower integration costs : standardized services know how to work together, enabling disparate applications to quickly and easily connect. reduce risk : fewer, reusable services provide greater control over corporate and it governance policies, and reduce the overall compliance risk to an enterprise. how does soa achieve loose coupling among interacting software agents? it does so by employing two architectural constraints : a small set of simple and widespread interfaces to all participating software agents. only generic semantics are encoded at the interfaces. the interfaces are universally available for all providers and consumers. descriptive messages constrained by an extensible schema delivered through the interfaces. no, or only minimal, system activity is prescribed by messages. a schema limits the vocabulary and structure of messages. an extensible schema allows new versions of services to be introduced without breaking existing services. oracle fusion middleware offers solutions to and support for complex, distributed business software applications. it includes web servers, application servers, content management systems, and similar tools that support application development and delivery. oracle fusion middleware is a collection of standards - based software products that includes a range of tools and services : from a java enterprise edition 5 ( java ee ) compliant environment, and developer tools, to integration", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5374603732241748, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:49e300e9-e580-4fd3-a4c2-76322a584ccf>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.875309"}
{"text": "we form little groups of kids of approximately the same age. they gather up in different homes each day ( the days and hours are agreed before they start ). the objective is to play and learn at the same time with the help of one or two teachers. - educational proposal a group of kids gather up with a teacher and get to do activities like they would do in a kindergarten, but at home by learning through the act of playing. the idea is for them to get used to what they will be doing at the actual kindergarten, for them to have their first experiences with the materials and activities. we give a lot of importance on the forming of a social environment different from their family where they start to learn about sharing and other important activities. - ludic proposal a group of kids who already attend kindergarten are reunited with the objective of playing and socializing with other kids. the intention is to perform activities that they are already doing in the kindergarten in order to strengthen skills. learning is always the objective but without setting aside the act of playing. we form little groups of kids of an average age and reunite them in different homes of each of them, during vacations ( summer and winter ) with the objective of playing. there is always a teacher or two around. we count with special activities for indoors or outdoors, including games with water and without the necessity of a pool. we gather up kids of an average age and reunite them in different homes of each of them that rotate each day with the help of one or two teachers, weekly with the objective of playing or learning about a specific activity. - mobile circus and music the proposal is a fun world with colors, music, laughter and games ; a space for playing clown, acrobats or forming bands of music. they can dance, jump, sing, shout, and do acrobatics, juggling, play instruments and much other stuff. - mobile little chefs this is a fun way to learn about the kitchen, it includes : apron, ingredients, utensils, and didactic material for each participant. the kids take with them everything they prepared on material provided by us. - theater and music comedy workshop theater classes with a little bit of singing lessons for them to have fun acting among friends. - art workshop with an art teacher in charge they can express their artistic skills by drawing and painting. - mobile language workshop we organize little groups of kids of an average age and offer them the opportunity of stimulating their language skills in english and italian throughout the different games. - playing workshop \u2013 mother", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5464290685909058, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0d054c6e-86da-4113-86a2-2e0f44e2f740>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.894630"}
{"text": "books and documents as woodblock printing or handwriting on rice paper determines that their life cycle is very short, especially when the preservation condition is far from ideal. due to neglect, poverty and incapability in archival preservation of the native yi people, and ignorance and annihilation by zealous revolutionists, the size of the yi archives shrank dramatically in the middle and late 20th century. a recent preliminary investigation shows that only about 4, 000 volumes survive in the world. of the surviving yi archives, the largest public collection and most of private collections are preserved in yunnan, especially in the chuxiong autonomous prefecture of yi people. besides 1, 400 volumes in public collections formed since the 1980s, another 900 volumes are estimated to be held by private parties, especially by descendants of bimo families. however, in regards to both preservation and readiness for academic purpose, the yi archives in yunnan need the most urgent attention. there hasn ' t been any positive treatment applied to prevent the aging and mildew process, nor has any image conversion work been done, nor has any material been published before. our pilot investigation shows that only around 40 volumes in the public collection are mounted, and most books are even unaffordable to be stored in desirable spaces. written on perishable rice paper in fading mineral pigment, yi documents will be illegible in several years ' time if no preservative action is taken immediately. neglect resulting from poverty will lead to fatal disaster to the archives. in the proposed project, the two major tasks are : ( 1 ) a thorough registration of yi archival collections before they disappear silently, and ( 2 ) the digitisation and indexing of all available public and private archives. in the former, since the private collections are not as stable as the public, the project will pay extra attentions to the private collections, in order to keep an updated and complete record of the available yi archives. the institute of studies on yi culture, the owner of the largest yi archives in the world, has eagerly expressed the willingness to join the project. the bureau of cultural affairs is also providing access to small public collections of yi archives in wuding, shuangbai and other counties. relocation is not included in this stage, but will be pursued later by searching matching funds from the local government. this project has fully achieved its stated objectives : a thorough investigation of endangered yi archives in chuxiong, dali, kunming, yuxi and honghe was undertaken and a detailed field report and preliminary research completed. an interdisciplinary and multimedia", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5015181003248976, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a00fa825-6418-4304-87bb-0a44f64bd5ab>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.905041"}
{"text": "cables heat the soil to five degrees celsius above the ambient soil temperature ( a condition that is expected to occur around 2100 ) and a control condition in which cables are buried but not producing heat. in the first set of experiments, the scientists compared microbial respiration in the two groups and found lower rates of decomposition in the heated plots. this finding supported the idea that respiration decreases after a few years of warming, but didn \u2019 t explain whether the cause was substrate depletion in the warmer soils or adaptation by the microbes. in the next set of experiments, they added the simple sugar sucrose to both sets of soils to alleviate any food limitation for the microbes. they found that microbes from both conditions increased their respiration, but that the increase was greater in the unheated control soils than in the heated soils. \u201c that finding told us that substrate depletion played a role, \u201d bradford said, \u201c but it also told us that there were other factors involved. \u201d the researchers then measured microbial biomass and found that there were fewer microbes in the heated soils. to test whether thermal adaptation occurred, they measured respiration while keeping temperature constant. they found that respiration rates were indeed lower in the heated versus the control soils, even when adjusting for microbial biomass. wallenstein pointed out that the study is among the first to demonstrate that microbes, like many plants and animals, can adapt relatively quickly to changes in climate. \u201c this research presents a new challenge to scientists trying to predict effects of climate change on forest ecosystems because it shows that these soil microbial communities are very dynamic, \u201d wallenstein said. \u201c we cannot simply extrapolate from the short - term responses of soil microbes to climate change, since they may adapt over the longer - term. \u201d bradford notes that there is still much to be learned about how soil microbes respond to global warming. his team is currently working to understand whether the reduced microbial respiration in heated soils is caused by the adaptation of individual microbes, by shifts in species composition or a combination of the two factors. he warns against minimizing the role of soil microbes in global warming, even though his findings suggest that current models overstate their contribution. \u201c although our results suggest that the impact of soil microbes on global warming will be less than is currently predicted, \u201d bradford said, \u201c even a small change in atmospheric carbon is going to alter the way our world works and how our ecosystems function. \u201d the research was funded by the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.528366917049087, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dbd336d1-5dba-4cad-aae7-758f35131d59>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.914194"}
{"text": "in addition significant references to the mysteries in the chapters on \" witch beliefs \" and \" witch practices \". ) the following two passages from the first chapter of the meaning of witchcraft give some indication of the kind of hostility that gardner and \" his witches \" were up against : \" i am a member of the society for psychical research, and on the committee of the folklore society ; so i wanted to tell of my discovery. but i was met with a determined refusal. ' the age of persecution is not over, ' they told me ; ' give anyone half a chance and the fires will blaze up again. ' when i said to one of them, ' why do you keep all these things so secret still? there \u2019 s no persecution nowadays! ' i was told, ' oh, isn \u2019 t there? if people knew what i was, every time a child in the village was ill, or somebody \u2019 s chickens died, i should get the blame for it. witchcraft doesn \u2019 t pay for broken windows. ' \" i can remember as a boy reading in the papers of a woman being burned alive in southern ireland as a witch ; but i could not believe that there could be any persecution nowadays in england. so, against their better judgment, they agreed to let me write a little about the cult in the form of fictions, an historical novel where a witch says a little of what they believe and of how they were persecuted. this was published in 1949 under the title of high magic \u2019 s aid. \" in 1951 a very important event occurred. the government of the day passed the fraudulent mediums act, which repealed and replaced the last remaining witchcraft act, under which spiritualists used to be prosecuted in modern times. this act is, i believe, unique in legally recognising the existence of genuine mediumship and psychic powers. \" i thought that at last common sense and religious freedom had prevailed ; but even so, the passage of this act was highly obnoxious to certain religious bodies which had been preaching against spiritualism for years and trying to outlaw it as ' the work of satan, ' together with any other societies to which they objected, including freemasonry and, of course, witchcraft. \" about a year previously, this museum had been opened, and i had flattered myself that showing what witchcraft really is, an ancient religion, would arouse no hostility in any quarter. i was to find out in due course how wrong i was! \" any attempt to show witchcraft in anything even remotely resembling a favourable light", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5001411664474293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a87a1c6-1f46-4355-8ff0-d8b55ca5cd19>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.959598"}
{"text": "flattered myself that showing what witchcraft really is, an ancient religion, would arouse no hostility in any quarter. i was to find out in due course how wrong i was! \" any attempt to show witchcraft in anything even remotely resembling a favourable light, or to challenge the old representation of it as something uniformly evil and devilish, or even to present it as a legitimate object of study, can still arouse the most surprising reactions. the virtues of humanism, which charles saltman defined as ' sensitivity, intelligence and erudition, together with integrity, curiosity and tolerance, ' have still quite a long way to go in their struggle against the mentality which produced the malleus maleficarum. \" [ the meaning of witchcraft, pp. 11 - 12 ] \" the old horned god of the witches is not the satan of christianity, and no amount of theological argument will make him so. he is, in fact, the oldest deity known to man, and is depicted in the oldest representation of a divinity which has yet been found, namely the stone age painting in the innermost recess of the caverne des trois freres at ariege. he is the old phallic god of fertility who has come forth from the morning of the world, and who was already of immeasurable antiquity before egypt and babylon, let alone before the christian era. nor did he perish at the cry that great pan was dead. secretly through the centuries, hidden deeper and deeper as time went on, his worship and that of the naked moon goddess, his bride, the lady of mystery and magic and the forbidden joys, continued sometimes among the great ones of the land, sometimes in humble cottages, or on lonely heaths and in the depths of darkling woods, on summer nights when the moon rode high. it does so still. \" from time to time the public have been treated to various highly - coloured and highly unconvincing ' revelations ' in the popular press and elsewhere upon the subject of ' black magic ', ' satanism ', and similar matters, and occasionally these have been linked with witchcraft. let me state right away that i personally maintain an attitude of thorough - going scepticism towards these things, and that even if they do exist i do not consider them to have any relation to the survival of the witch cult. alleged ' confessions ', especially where witchcraft is mentioned, bear ample internal evidence of their own meretriciousness, in that they are obviously modelled upon sensational thrillers and reveal no", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5084341940278297, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a87a1c6-1f46-4355-8ff0-d8b55ca5cd19>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.960676"}
{"text": "them to have any relation to the survival of the witch cult. alleged ' confessions ', especially where witchcraft is mentioned, bear ample internal evidence of their own meretriciousness, in that they are obviously modelled upon sensational thrillers and reveal no knowledge whatever of genuine witch practices. \" [ the meaning of witchcraft, pp. 21 - 22 ] \" that there is no positive evil. \" rachel beauvoir - dominique is an oxford educated anthropologist who is chair of the department of anthropology and sociology at l ' universite d ' etat d ' haiti. she is also a highly respected priestess ( mambo ) in the haitian vodou religion. in september of 2009 ( fully 55 years after gerald gardner wrote witchcraft today ), beauvoir - dominique was interviewed in conjunction with an exhibit on vodou at the museum of world culture in gothenburg, sweden ( too see the interview, go here ). the first question asked of professor beauvoir - dominique was \" what is vodou? \" a perfectly reasonable question, to which the mambo gives a very informative answer. however, it does not take long for the other shoe to drop. the second question was \" are there any evil forces in vodou? \" to which professor beauvoir - dominique again gives a very educational answer, part of which is : \" vodou... is part of haitian culture, and in this culture we don ' t see that there is evil. we think that the word evil is constructed, it comes from other places, and is really not ours. the \" good \" and the \" bad \" are very christian notions, very manichean. we think more in terms of grays, of black becoming white, of white becoming black. of yin and yang. as in the figure of yin and yang - - there is a perpetual movement of things. and for us there is no evil. things become evil when they are seen through evil eyes. \" this chapter on \" the black mass \" is, in fact, the section of the meaning of witchcraft in which gardner introduces sallustius ' peri theon kai kosmou and pronounces it to be \" a general statement \" of the beliefs of wiccans ( as discussed in part one of this series ). the first portion of sallustius ' pagan manifesto that gardner quotes is the entirety of section xii : \" the origin of evil things ; and that there is no positive evil. \" \" the gods being good and making all things, how do evils exist in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5114120821727612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a87a1c6-1f46-4355-8ff0-d8b55ca5cd19>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.961709"}
{"text": "about the good, because it is not primary essence. and we see many things done by the gods to prevent it from making mistakes and to heal it when it has made them. arts and sciences, curses and prayers, sacrifices and initiations, laws and constitutions, judgments and punishments, all came into existence for the sake of preventing souls from sinning ; and when they are gone forth from the body, gods and spirits of purification cleanse them of their sins. \" [ on the gods and the cosmsos, sallustius, section xii : \" the origin of evil things ; and that there is no positive evil. \" ] \" the inner meaning of religious rituals. \" the section of sallustius that gardner turned to first requires little or no explanation. it is, in fact, one of the clearest explications of a pagan answer to the so - called \" problem of evil \". less clear, perhaps, are gardner ' s reasons for his next selection from sallustius, which deals with, as gardner styles it, \" the inner meaning of religious rituals. \" \" it is impious to suppose that the divine is affected for good or ill by human things. the gods are always good and always do good and never harm, being always in the same state and like themselves. the truth simply is that, when we are good, we are joined to the gods by our likeness ; when bad, we are separated from them by our unlikeness. and when we live according to virture we cling to the gods, and when we become evil we make the gods our enemies - - not because they are angered against us, but because our sins prevent the light of the gods from shining upon us, and put us in communion with spirits of punishment. and if by prayers and sacrifices we find forgiveness of sins, we do not appease or change the gods, but by what we do and by our turning toward the divine we heal our own badness and so enjoy again the goodness of the gods. to say that the gods turn away from evil is like saying that the sun hides himself from the blind. \" this solves the question about sacrifices and other rites performed to the gods. the divine itself is without needs, and the worship is paid for our own benefit. the providence of the gods reaches everywhere and needs only some congruity for its reception. all congruity comes about by representation and likeness ; for which reason the temples are made in representation of heaven, the altar of earth, the images", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.535896320646782, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a87a1c6-1f46-4355-8ff0-d8b55ca5cd19>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.964300"}
{"text": "benefit. the providence of the gods reaches everywhere and needs only some congruity for its reception. all congruity comes about by representation and likeness ; for which reason the temples are made in representation of heaven, the altar of earth, the images of life ( that is why they are made like living things ), the prayers of the element of though, the mystic letters of the unspeakable celestial forces, the herbs and stones of matter, and the sacrificial animals of the irrational life in us. \" from all these things the gods gain nothing ; what gain could there be to god? it is we who gain some communion with them. \" [ on the gods and the cosmsos, sallustius, section xiv ( partial ) : \" in what sense, though the gods never change, they are said to be made angry and appeased. \" and also section xv : \" why we give worship to the gods when they need nothing. \" ] the issue here is not merely the accusation that pagans do evil things, but rather that we worship evil things. this accusation goes back to the earliest days of christianity. among its clearest expressions is that found in the writings of augustine, and his city of god, against the pagans in particular. somewhat ironically, augustine wrote that work largely as a defense of christianity against the accusation, from pagans, that the christian prohibitions against the worship of the old gods had led to the downfall of rome ( some of the historical background to this is discussed in reflections on vergil and augustine. ) in book viii of his against the pagans, augustine asserts that the traditional gods worshipped at pagan festivals and in the urban pagan temples are \" rather malign demons than gods. \" furthermore, augustine employs a favorite christian trope that is still popular today with ronald hutton and his fanbase, in which it is claimed that the religion of ancient philosophers is somehow different from and unrelated to that of the pagan masses generally. ( by this logic the \" philosophy \" of augustine is equally unrelated the lowbrow christianity of the ignorant, unwashed masses who make up the vast bulk of the army of christ, thus making augustine no christian at all. but any such appeal to consistency is lost on the likes of hutton. ) and so augustine now focuses not on \" the fabulous, that is, the theatrical \" theology of the plebs, nor on the more staid \" civil, that is, the urban \" theology of the aristocratic priests and priestesses serving the deities of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5246849182101943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a87a1c6-1f46-4355-8ff0-d8b55ca5cd19>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.965747"}
{"text": "daemon eros as clever, philosophical and a sophist, had also imputed magical powers to eros : \" but why do we think that eros is a magician? because the whole power of magic consists in eros. the work of magic is the attraction of one thing by another because of a certain affinity of nature. but the parts of this world, like the parts of a single animal, all deriving from a single author, are joined to each other by the communion of a single nature. therefore just as the brain, lungs, heart, liver and the rest of the parts draw something from each other, and help each other, and sympathize with any one of them when it suffers, so the parts of this great animal [ the cosmos as a single living being ], that is, the bodies of the world, similarly joined together, borrow and lend natures to and from each other. from this common relationship is born a common love ; from love, a common attraction. and this is true magic.... [ t ] he works of magic are works of nature, but art is its handmaiden.... the ancients attributed this art to daemons, because the daemons understand what is the inter - relation of natural things, what is appropriate to each, and how the harmony of things, if lacking anywhere, can be restored.... they [ the ancients, such as socrates, zoroaster, apollonius of tyana, and porphyry ] seem to have become magicians through friendship of the daemons, just as the daemons are magicians through understanding the friendship of things themselves. and all nature, because of mutual love, is called a magician. \" [ de amore, marsilio ficino. this is specificaly from speech vi, using the translation by sears jane, p. 127 of the 1985 spring publications edition ] the take home message from augustine ' s polemics against plato, apuleius, and hermes is that the whole daemonic realm is, in reality, demonic in the sense of being purely evil. in other words, what plato portrayed as the liminal realm of the cosmos, situated above the human realm, whose purpose is to connect us with the gods, and which is responsible for the efficacy of both religious practices and magic arts ; that this is in fact an infernal realm populated with demons that are \" arrogant \" and \" deceiving \" who prey on those who seek \" divine refuge \" by \" fei", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5240335065926708, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a87a1c6-1f46-4355-8ff0-d8b55ca5cd19>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.967733"}
{"text": "is responsible for the efficacy of both religious practices and magic arts ; that this is in fact an infernal realm populated with demons that are \" arrogant \" and \" deceiving \" who prey on those who seek \" divine refuge \" by \" feigning divinity \". these demons are everywhere \" lying in wait for the deception of man! \" the christian view, then, is that ( 1 ) pagan religiosity is generally evil, ( 2 ) more specifically, the spiritual powers upon which pagans call are evil beings, and ( 3 ) the whole spiritual realm ( outside of the holy ghost and \" angels \" ) is filled with and characterized by malignant evil. it is in order to counter these dark ( and as perversely self - serving as they are self - revealing ) christian fantasies, which they sometimes try to hide behind the philosophical niceties of the so - called \" problem of evil \", that gardner invokes the words of sallustius on the subject of the \" the inner meaning of religious ritual. \" in essence, gardner wishes to categorically disprove any idea that the magical / religious practices of wiccans amount to calling upon evil forces. however, gardner chooses not to explicitly defend the liminal / daemonic aspects of platonic theology but to explicate pagan rituals in such terms as ( 1 ) being \" joined to the gods \", ( 2 ) having \" the light of the gods... shining upon us \", and ( 3 ) \" by turning toward the gods we heal our own badness and so enjoy again the goodness of the gods. \" all this and more comes about because \" the providence of the gods reaches everywhere and needs only some congruity for its reception. \" the fact is that sallustius provides no opportunity to more directly defend the intermediary spiritual realm, for, true to the title of the work, he sticks to \" the gods \" and \" the cosmos \". and it is unlikely, anyway, that gardner would have thought there could be anything to be gained by trying to convince the general public that wicca relies on daemons, but not on demons. and then there was also gardner ' s choice to ( dishonestly, as is now generally accepted ) deny the very real connections between his wicca and ceremonial magic ( where explicit references to daemons are easy to find ). but ( even though he avoids direct references to daemons ) it is quite clear that gerald gardner in 1959, just like practitioners of vodou", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5058703499098272, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a87a1c6-1f46-4355-8ff0-d8b55ca5cd19>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:58.968694"}
{"text": "a stored procedure is a subroutine available to applications that access a relational database system. a stored procedure ( sometimes called a proc, sproc, stopro, storedproc, sp or sp ) is actually stored in the database data dictionary. typical use for stored procedures include data validation ( integrated into the database ) or access control mechanisms. furthermore, stored procedures can consolidate and centralize logic that was originally implemented in applications. extensive or complex processing that requires execution of several sql statements is moved into stored procedures, and all applications call the procedures. one can use nested stored procedures by executing one stored procedure from within another. stored procedures are similar to user - defined functions ( udfs ). the major difference is that udfs can be used like any other expression within sql statements, whereas stored procedures must be invoked using the stored procedures may return result sets, i. e. the results of a select statement. such result sets can be processed using cursors, by other stored procedures, by associating a result set locator, or by applications. stored procedures may also contain declared variables for processing data and cursors that allow it to loop through multiple rows in a table. stored procedure flow control statements typically include case statements, and more. stored procedures can receive variables, return results or modify variables and return them, depending on how and where the variable is declared. the exact and correct implementation of stored procedures varies from one database system to another. most major database vendors support them in some form. depending on the database system, stored procedures can be implemented in a variety of programming languages, for example sql, java, c, or c + +. stored procedures written in non - sql programming languages may or may not execute sql statements themselves. the increasing adoption of stored procedures led to the introduction of procedural elements to the sql language in the sql : 1999 and sql : 2003 standards in the part sql / psm. that made sql an imperative programming language. most database systems offer proprietary and vendor - specific extensions, exceeding sql / psm. a standard specification for java stored procedures exists as well as sql / jrt. | database system | | implementation language | | db2 | | sql pl ( close to the sql / psm standard ) or java | | firebird | | psql ( fyracle also supports portions of oracle ' s pl / sql ) | | informix | | spl or java | | microsoft sql server | | transact - sql and various. net framework languages | |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.540149816133608, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9b63bdf0-49f6-4271-8748-cfc3c561c18e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.052370"}
{"text": "of business logic : stored procedures allow programmers to embed business logic as an api in the database, which can simplify data management and reduce the need to encode the logic elsewhere in client programs. this can result in a lesser likelihood of data corruption by faulty client programs. the database system can ensure data integrity and consistency with the help of stored procedures. delegation of access - rights : in many systems, stored procedures can be granted access rights to the database that users who execute those procedures do not directly have. some protection from sql injection attacks : stored procedures can be used to protect against injection attacks. stored procedure parameters will be treated as data even if an attacker inserts sql commands. also, some dbmss will check the parameter ' s type. a stored procedure that in turn generates dynamic sql using the input is however still vulnerable to sql injections unless proper precautions are taken. comparison with functions - a function is a subprogram written to perform certain computations - a scalar function returns only a single value ( or null ), whereas a table function returns a ( relational ) table comprising zero or more rows, each row with one or more columns. - functions must return a value ( using the returnkeyword ), but for stored procedures this is not compulsory. - stored procedures can use returnkeyword but without any value being passed. - functions could be used in selectstatements, provided they don \u2019 t do any data manipulation. however, procedures cannot be included in - a stored procedure can return multiple values using the outparameter or return no value at all. - a stored procedure can save the query compilation time. comparison with prepared statements prepared statements take an ordinary statement or query and parameterize it so that different literal values can be used at a later time. like stored procedures, they are stored on the server for efficiency and provide some protection from sql injection attacks. although simpler and more declarative, prepared statements are not ordinarily written to use procedural logic and cannot operate on variables. because of their simple interface and client - side implementations, prepared statements are more widely reusable between dbmss. - stored procedure languages are quite often vendor - specific. switching to another vendor ' s database most likely requires rewriting any existing stored procedures. - stored procedure languages from different vendors have different levels of sophistication. - for example, oracle ' s pl / sql has more language features and built - in features ( via packages such as dbms _ and utl _ and others ) than microsoft ' s t", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5017260294072263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9b63bdf0-49f6-4271-8748-cfc3c561c18e>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.054706"}
{"text": "rather than mounting each filesystem at a different place in the directory hierarchy, a union mount overlays the filesystems, creating a unified hierarchy. thus, any given directory ( or \" folder \" ) in the resulting filesystem may contain files and subdirectories from any or all of the underlying filesystems. generally one of the filesystems will be mounted read - write, while other filesystems are mounted read - only. union mounts are implemented by union filesystems such as unionfs and aufs, frequently used by live cds. they originated with plan 9 and its concept of union directories. - pendry, jan - simon ; marshall kirk mckusick ( december 1995 ). \" union mounts in 4. 4bsd - lite \". proceedings of the usenix technical conference on unix and advanced computing systems : 25 \u2013 33. retrieved 25 november 2007. - wright, charles p. ; jay dave, puja gupta, harikesavan krishnan, erez zadok, and mohammad nayyer zubair. \" versatility and unix semantics in a fan - out unification file system \". stony brook university technical report fsl - 04 - 01b. retrieved 25 november 2007. - aurora, valerie ; henson ( march 2009 ). \" unioning file systems : architecture, features, and design choices \". lwn. net. retrieved 21 december 2009. - aurora, valerie ; henson ( march 2009 ). \" union file systems : implementations, part i \". lwn. net. retrieved 21 december 2009. - aurora, valerie ; henson ( april 2009 ). \" unioning file systems : implementations, part 2 \". lwn. net. retrieved 21 december 2009. - blunck, jan ( may 2009 ). \" vfs based union mount ( v3 ) \". lwn. net. retrieved 21 december 2009. - about glusterfs. november 2009. retrieved 4 march 2013. | this computer storage \u2013 related article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.515577037510032, "token_count": 430, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3f80eb60-3079-4f17-b833-7932c89f3584>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.056625"}
{"text": "page : jardine naturalist ' s library bees. djvu / 32 availed ourselves of the information dispersed throughout a variety of publications, both ancient and modern, with such additions of our own, as have been acquired by the observation of bees for a period of thirty years. our prescribed limits have restricted us, in a great degree, to mere matters of fact, and prevented us often from illustrating our subject, as we might have done with advantage, by reference to the habits and instincts of other of the insect tribes. the same cause has operated as a bar to our indulging so frequently as our inclination would have led us, in those reflections which the wonders in animal economy are so well fitted to excite, and which lead so irresistibly to the conclusion that there is a wise and designing cause. we trust, however, that the facts detailed, will, of themselves, lead the mind of the intelligent reader to such reflections, and thus become the source of a purer gratification than would have been derived from the suggestions of others. - some of our readers may be inclined to question the propriety of having placed the queen - bee upon flowers, on which she is never seen, but it has, throughout our plates, been our endeavour to make them pictorial as avell as scientifically correct, the more necessary in a volume such as the present, where our materials are rather scanty, a loss, however, fully compensated by the extraordinary interest in the subject itself. - we have to acknowledge our special obligations to the treatises of m. feburier of paris, and of dr. bevan of south wales, author of \" the honey - bee. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5090480817840266, "token_count": 341, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:da09fb97-37dd-4788-a173-28d369833e16>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.070700"}
{"text": "madyantie, septirina ( 2007 ) pola kelekatan ibu dan anak pada keluarga banjar. other thesis, university of muhammadiyah malang. download ( 109kb ) | preview pastoral care from parent to child will lead attachment between children and parents. attachment is the emotional bond special is happening on a reciprocal basis between children with mothers who can memeberikan sense of security to the children so that children gain compliance need for closeness, warmth, security and comfort of the mother. in each area must have characteristics that differ in terms of parenting and bonding behavior patterns among children with parents. in banjar community family has a uniqueness in terms of child care. holding of this study aims to determine the form of viscosity ( attachment ) between mother and child in the family community banjar. the study was a descriptive qualitative research. subjects in this research is a child - children ages 1 to 3 years nurtured alone by her parents. she took the child with us he is 1 to 3 years at this age occurred separately anxiety ( separation anxiety ) between children with parents as objects lekatnya. researchers using non random \" purposive sampling \" to determine the study sample. collection methods data used were observation and interviews. observations made with participant observation, while the interviews were conducted in the mother or person parents and close relatives of the subject. results obtained from research is that the child has a secure attachment to the object that is the main bonding mother. it can be seen kelekatannya pattern that is now close to his mother, the child always kissing, hugging, holding and spoiled at his mother. children feel lost sense of security when left out the mother and child will get back a sense of security when the mother comes back near the child or any other attached object which can give a sense of security in children, like his father, uncle, aunt, grandmother, or grandfather. similarly, when children meet new people knew, the child will feel insecure so that children will find a sense of safe return, found only on the object lekatnya. characteristic banjar society that tends to closed does not affect the pattern of attachment between object and child bonding. stickiness ama n is influenced by the object adhesiveness is responsive and consistent on the needs and signals - signals given child. | item type : | | thesis ( other ) | | subjects : | | b philosophy. psychology. religion > bf psychology | | divisions : | | faculty of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5552231037247695, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b03e22e5-7771-4119-a577-6df513721cd9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.095726"}
{"text": "science : balls and ramps these resources explore basic concepts of science related to balls and ramps. learn about the characteristics and properties of balls and ramps, relationship between the physical properties of balls and their motion, and some of the factors that affect the way balls behave. includes lesson plans, experiments, and simulations. there are also links to ethemes resources on force and motion, and gravity. teachengineering : how high can a super ball bounce? students learn about elasticity for super balls ; includes : prerequisite knowledge, learning objectives, materials list, introduction, vocabulary, procedures, safety issues, troubleshooting tips, investigating questions, assessment, activity extensions, and activity scaling advice. pbs kids : balls and ramp this lesson introduces students to the concept of gravity ; includes materials needed and activity instructions. note : this site includes a discussion board ( message board, forum, etc ). in this experiment, students learn about factors such as temperature and construction that affect the height of a ball bouncing. basketball : a physicist party trick through these activities, students learn the relationship between energy of a basketball and how high it bounces. bbc : force and movement play an interactive game and observe the relationship between force, size of a car, and steepness of a ramp. note : the \" talk \" link leads to a discussion forum. bbc : forces in action observe how far the truck travels with changing the gradient. note : the \" talk \" link is a link to discussion forum. ramps 1 : let it roll in this lesson, students will explore and measure the rate of spherical objects rolling down a ramp. this experiment aims to help students understand things that affect the distance and speed of objects rolling from ramps. ethemes resource : physics : force and motion these sites cover the basic concepts of physics. learn about force, motion, and friction using interactive simulations where you can manipulate the variables. includes links to an ethemes on simple machines, magnets, and gravity. ethemes resource : physics : gravity these sites explain how the earth ' s gravity works. includes photographs, simulations, videos, hands - on activities, and online quizzes. included are ethemes resources on mass versus weight and force.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6071962881794614, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f91f7a48-0901-4a85-a050-4188ec805b64>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.112807"}
{"text": "teachers and educators of art, math and special challenges, but does not frustrate. too easy, not too hard - the versatile and elegant geometry of fractiles - 7 allows almost anyone to create endless varieties of imaginative and beautiful designs, ranging from simple to complex. with 192 magnetic tiles and a 12 \" x12 \" steel board, fractiles - 7 is perfect for focus groups. and unlike pattern blocks, these magnetic tiles stay put, an especially helpful feature for students with fine motor skill problems. video introduction to fractiles - 7 on youtube click here to view video facilitates an intuitive grasp of spatial relationships and invites deeper exploration. use of fractiles - 7 increases visual perceptual skills and visual analysis skills. dr. jerome rosner ' s guide for parents and teachers \" helping children overcome learning difficulties \", walker publishing company, 1993 : perceptual skills and visual analysis skills are critical to mastering arithmetic and mathematics. the child who does not appreciate spatial relationships ( whose visual analysis skills are deficient ) or who lacks the ability to use spatial analysis strategies will have to resort to keeping the ( math ) problem in memory in its entirety, then organizing it into a solvable problem - a very difficult task indeed. \" stated, satisfactory progress in arithmetic depends upon the adequate development of visual perceptual skills. if a child ' s visual analysis skills are not properly developed, learning difficulties are inevitable. arithmetic cannot be mastered a youngster begins to acquire better visual perceptual and analysis skills, she begins to exercise these skills in different situations. signs of progress scores on t. v. a. s. ( test of visual analysis and writing improvement. of a more orderly approach to day - to - day situations - such as better organizing of time and efforts, noticing of things that facilitate learning, and so on. rosner states that visual perceptual skills are strongly linked to learning to read and write. improving visual analysis skills enables students to respond better to instructional programs. course, fractiles - 7 does not take the place of lessons, but your students may become more teachable by playing regularly with fractiles - 7. and lesson plans and lesson plans are available in the adobe portable document format ( pdf ; size : 130 kb ), a printer - friendly format. you must have adobe reader installed on your computer to see and print the games and lesson plans. you can download the free adobe reader software here. included in the games and lesson plans are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5317903709978404, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:550cd18a-d13f-480f-b236-d25415d684fe>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.127394"}
{"text": "; size : 130 kb ), a printer - friendly format. you must have adobe reader installed on your computer to see and print the games and lesson plans. you can download the free adobe reader software here. included in the games and lesson plans are : your friend game plus stars game in your ideas and stories you successfully use fractiles in the classroom, if you have a story about how fractiles has fostered learning, if you have a reference to a book or magazine article that discusses subjects related to fractiles such as tessellations or seven - fold symmetry, please send us an email with your ideas or your story to : email @ example. com, and we ' ll post it as part of what this site offers. use fractiles in my classroom as an outlet for creativity. it is among the choices awaiting students who have earned ' free time. ' the responses have been very positive! the students are at ease with the format and welcome the chance to match the designs on the folder and / or stake out their own artistic territories. i have been delighted to observe two or more students working together in a cooperative manner! some of them would have loved to see their creations preserved for eternity in a museum! eventually they conceded the need to yield the board and the pieces to another student knowing that they ' ll have another go at it when they earn the time! \" - gene silver, teacher, kellogg middle school, portland, or first graders are learning about shapes in our math class and using fractiles - 7 is a complimentary activity which they thoroughly enjoy. it ' s so popular that we have a sign up for equal turns! \" - marilyn bowker, first grade teacher willett elementary school, davis, ca find my students are captivated by fractiles - 7. their sense of pride and accomplishment is immense when they show me what they have created. it makes them feel extra special about math. what a motivator! fractiles is a terrific training aide that disguises learning as fun. it is reasonable to predict that fractiles will remain a staple in my curriculum. \" - bob curry, elementary school teacher the learning adventure school, san diego, 8th grade students are fascinated with fractiles and enjoy making designs with them. fractiles is especially applicable because we are studying geometric shapes and their relationships. i know they will be useful for a long time. \" - juanita smith - nakao, 8th grade math teacher james", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5278955579236065, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:550cd18a-d13f-480f-b236-d25415d684fe>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.128306"}
{"text": "weather is what is happening in the atmosphere now, at any place on earth \u2019 s surface. it includes the temperature and whether it is wet and windy, or dry and calm. the sun provides the energy that drives earth \u2019 s weather. the sun heats the air in various parts of earth \u2019 s atmosphere by different amounts. masses of warm and cold air then move from place to place, creating winds. winds bring sunny, wet, or stormy conditions. people find out the type of weather to expect in a forecast. a weather forecast is a prediction of weather conditions over a particular area, either for a few days ( called a short - range forecast ), or for several weeks ( called a long - range forecast ). the people who study the weather and make weather forecasts are called meteorologists. weather forecasts help people to plan \u2014 what to wear, when to travel, or which products to stock in supermarkets. forecasts are especially important for farmers, builders, sailors, and anyone else who works outdoors. sometimes an accurate forecast may mean the difference between life and death. meteorologists receive information about air temperature, wind speeds, clouds, and rainfall from over 50, 000 weather stations worldwide \u2014 on land and on ships and buoys at sea. the data is fed into huge computers that produce charts and forecasts. these are used, with satellite images, to predict the weather.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5461178198087107, "token_count": 279, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d9fd49f9-92d2-499a-b0f4-fd69dafafd9f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.129656"}
{"text": "euan macleod essay published wednesday, 2 january 2002the history of australian painting places a significance on the artist ' s depiction of the figures place in the landscape. since the colonial period artists have battlembol for historical and contemporary contexts. image : ladder, 180 x 137cm ; oil on canvas ; 1998. to the colonial period it highlighted the pastoral and the romantic, which evolved with the heidelberg school where the figure and the landscape captured the unique, impressionist painting techniques and captured dual populist sentiments of the heroic figure in the bush ( tom roberts ) as well as the threat one faced of living or settling in the bush ( frederick mccubbin ). the perception of identity is amplified in the depiction of the figure in the landscape ; and it offers a real and idealised account of australia. this treatment of such an archetypal representation of australia has been explored by a number of artists in an attempt to temper a particular perspective that captures the australian spirit. the artists associated with the angry penguins movement ( including nolan, tucker, perceval and boyd ) attempted to forge a modern identity that was uniquely australian. once more the relationship between the landscape and figure and the images it produced became an integral component of this art movement. similarly contemporary australian artists are examining australian identity in physical, cultural, spiritual, conceptual and euan macleod confirms the historic temperament towards identity and a reflection of living in australia. macleod examines the metaphor of the figure in the landscape. macleod discusses how his work can be read on many levels and that he hesitates to give a specific explanation to any work. he identifies the symbolic properties of his work referring to the landscape as a psychological state of existence ; the figure articulates this personal investigation citing the figure as both personal and symbolic. his work offers a development of the depiction of the figure in the landscape ; and his reference to jungian psychology offers a separate critical alternative to the orthodoxy within this genre. macleod explains that through the plasticity of the paint he can come to a point to where there is a particular unity of feeling and aesthetic \" when it translates to, well either flesh or water or a surface, so that when you ' re looking at it you ' re not looking at beautiful paint, you ' re looking at matter - physicality. \" the handling of the paint is as important to the artist as the subject matter, and it is the competency and intuitive handling of the paint that give his work its very strength. getting convincing tonal variations in a composition, according to macleod is the most engaging quality", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5301480545340983, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ab9e216-5625-47b8-b183-efceffc2ff48>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.134734"}
{"text": "smart phone of the future : a chip in your head? cnn recently posted an amusing yet thought - provoking article envisioning the development of smart phones over the next 100 years. the story culminates with the collapse of civilization in less than a century ( from climate change ), and mobile communications being reduced to throwing message rocks at each other. that scenario might \u2019 ve made stanley kubrick proud, but the idea that most interests me is the authors \u2019 prediction that, in 75 years, a microchip could be inserted into our heads that will allow us to connect directly with others through our brains, as well as to the internet. while the writers are concerned about potential abuses from commercial advertisers, i can think of a few ways this technology would affect the public sector workplace. first, security identification badges would become obsolete. authentication for location access could be done with the brain microchip, and everyone would instantly know if another person was supposed to be there instead because his or her own chip would tell them so. of course, for this to take place, security would have to be top - notch to stop intruders from using chips made to mask identity. wow, that sounds like the plot to a great science fiction espionage thriller. you are welcome, 007. the behavior modification scenario the writers propose would be unlikely to occur, i think, because the chip probably would not be connected to that area of the brain. but if it were, network administrators could finally make sure their painstakingly crafted security protocols are actually followed by everyone! although the writers project that this development is 75 years away, i think it might come sooner. we already have the technology to make a chip small enough to perform all of the necessary functions. the areas we need to improve in are biological rejection suppression and our understanding of how the human brain works. i \u2019 m guessing that latter will probably be the problem that delays us having chips implanted in our heads. it \u2019 s all just guesswork at this point, of course, but if the writers are correct about a brain microchip \u2014 and wrong about the end of civilization \u2014 there would be practical uses for the technology. if nothing else, we could be assured that motorists at last would make only hands - free calls. posted by greg crowe on oct 12, 2012 at 1 : 25 pm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5415324328612408, "token_count": 475, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:152d80ef-971a-4948-8d53-c4d7156f39d1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.188719"}
{"text": "rather it denotes the confusion of their thoughts, being like branches of trees twisted and implicated ; thus upbraiding them with their inconstancy and fickleness ; what their two opinions were, may be learnt from the next clause : if the lord be god, follow him : but if baal, then follow him ; for there is but one god, one infinite, immense, and incomprehensible being ; one that is omnipotent, all sufficient, good, and perfect ; there cannot be more, and therefore but one to be followed, served, and worshipped : and the people answered him not a word : through conviction and confusion, his reasoning being unanswerable ; or not knowing which to choose at present ; or fearing they should be drawn into a snare, should they name any ; either incur the displeasure of the king, who was for baal, or of the prophet, who was for the lord, at whose word rain was withheld, and might be given, which they were desirous of. ( r ) \" transilietis super duos ramoe, malvenda ; vos transilientes super ambos ramos \", piscator. 22then said elijah unto the people, i, even i only, remain a prophet of the lord ; but baal ' s prophets are four hundred and fifty men. then said elijah unto the people, i, even i only remain a prophet of the lord,.... at least as he thought, all the rest being slain, as he supposed ; however there were none present but himself : but baal ' s prophets are four hundred and fifty men ; which were very great odds he had to contend with. 23let them therefore give us two bullocks ; and let them choose one bullock for themselves, and cut it in pieces, and lay it on wood, and put no fire under : and i will dress the other bullock, and lay it on wood, and put no fire under : let them therefore give us two bullocks,.... who, being so many, were better able to be at the expense of them, and having the king on their party too ; though perhaps no more is meant than that two bullocks should be brought thither, and presented before them : and let them choose one bullock for themselves ; which of the two they would, if they thought one was any ways preferable to the other, it was at their option to take it : and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5361549763649494, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a941470-611c-46cf-b80e-10ae389e975b>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.233865"}
{"text": "hp openvms systems documentation openvms debugger manual 4. 2. 2 ascii string types when displaying an ascii string value, the debugger encloses it within quotation marks ( \" ) or apostrophes ( ' ), depending on the language syntax. for example : to deposit a string value ( including a single character ) into a string variable, you must enclose the value in quotation marks ( \" ) or apostrophes ( ' ). for example : if the string has more ascii characters ( 1 byte each ) than can fit into the location denoted by the address expression, the debugger truncates the extra characters from the right and issues the following message : if the string has fewer characters, the debugger pads the remaining characters to the right of the string by inserting ascii space you can examine an entire array aggregate, a single indexed element, or a slice ( a range of elements ). however, you can deposit into only one element at a time. the following examples show typical operations with arrays. the following command displays the values of all the elements of the array variable arrx, a one - dimensional array of integers : the following command displays the value of element 4 of array arrx ( depending on the language, parentheses or brackets are used to denote indexed elements ) : the following command displays the values of all the elements in a slice of arrx. this slice consists of the range of elements from element 2 to element 5 : you can deposit a value to only a single array element at a time ( you cannot deposit to an array slice or an entire array aggregate with a single deposit command ). for example, the following command deposits the value 53 into element 2 of arrx : the following command displays the values of all the elements of array real _ array, a two - dimensional array of real numbers ( three per dimension ) : the debugger issues a diagnostic message if you try to deposit to an index value that is out of bounds. for example : in the previous example, the deposit operation was executed because the diagnostic message is of i level. this means that the value of some array element adjacent to ( 1, 3 ), possibly ( 2, 1 ) might have been affected by the out - of - bounds deposit operation. to deposit the same value to several components of an array, you can use a looping command such as for or repeat. for example, assign the value red", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5193129447860261, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fe413c4f-cc79-4a2f-9239-45852f745255>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.299723"}
{"text": "2, 1 ) might have been affected by the out - of - bounds deposit operation. to deposit the same value to several components of an array, you can use a looping command such as for or repeat. for example, assign the value red to elements 1 to 4 of the array color _ array : you can examine an entire record aggregate, a single record component, or several components. however, you can deposit into only one component at a time. the following examples show typical operations with records. the following command displays the values of all the components of the record variable part : the following command displays the value of component in _ stock of record part ( general syntax ) : the following command displays the value of the same record component using cobol syntax ( the language must be set to cobol ) : the following command displays the values of two components of record part : the following command deposits a value into record component in _ stock : 4. 2. 5 pointer ( access ) types you can examine the entity designated ( pointed to ) by a pointer variable and deposit a value into that entity. you can also examine a pointer variable. for example, the following pascal code declares a pointer variable a that designates a value of type real : the following command displays the value of the entity designated by the pointer variable a : in the following example, the value 3. 9 is deposited into the entity designated by a : when you specify the name of a pointer variable with the examine command, the debugger displays the memory address of the object it designates. for example : the debugger recognizes address expressions that are associated with instructions. this enables you to examine and deposit instructions using the same basic techniques as with variables. when debugging at the instruction level, you might find it convenient to first enter the following command. it sets the default step mode to stepping by instruction : there are other step modes that enable you to execute the program to specific kinds of instructions. you can also set breakpoints to interrupt execution at these instructions. if you specify an address expression that is associated with an instruction in an examine command ( for example, a line number ), the debugger displays the first instruction at that location. you can then use the period (. ), return key, and circumflex ( ^ ) to display the current, next, and previous instruction ( logical entity ), as described in section 4. 1. 8. for example, on alpha processors : line numbers, routine names, and labels are symbolic address expressions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5480547888472618, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fe413c4f-cc79-4a2f-9239-45852f745255>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.300728"}
{"text": "a laboratory and were returned and replaced in the original drill holes out of respect for the dead. the kola investigation found that belzec was \" one large a patchwork of mass graves. \" 3 they located and measured 33 mass graves which had a total volume of approximately 21, 300 cubic meters or approximately 752, 202 cubic feet. more information about these investigations is available at http : / / www. jewishgen. org / yizkor / belzec1 / bel150. html. the facts about mattogno \u2019 s claims claim 1 : the graves contain only a \" handful \" of unburned bodies. mattogno claims that of the 33 mass graves found by kola that only graves 3, 10 and 20 contain a shallow layer of unburned bodies at the very bottom. he concludes that the \" only legitimate conclusion one can draw \" is that there are \" only rare corpses here and there \" totaling \" at most several hundred corpses. \" 4 what mattogno does not tell the reader is : - grave 3 is 16 meters long by 15 meters wide by 5 meters deep ( about 52 feet by 50 feet by 16 feet. ) - grave 10 is 24 meters long by 18 meters wide by 5 meters deep ( about 78 feet by 59 feet by 16 feet. ) - grave 20 extends outside the current camp boundaries and so could not be completely measured. the part that could be measured is 26 meters long by 11 meters wide by 5 meters deep ( 85 feet by 36 feet by 16 feet ). it is absurd to believe that the germans would have dug such large, deep graves ( about the height of a two - story house ) with heavy excavating equipment and then laid only one or two layers of bodies on the very bottom of each before covering them up. - more dishonestly, mattogno fails to mention at all that graves 1, 4, 13, 25, 27, 28 and 32 also contain unburned remains. therefore, out of 10 graves that held whole human remains, mattogno only acknowledges 3 of them. however, even kola \u2019 s careful examination does not reveal exactly how many bodies might be in the mass graves because he took great care not to drill through layers of whole bodies if he could avoid it. for instance, in kola discontinued drilling in grave 4 when he hit a layer of whole human bodies. 5 therefore, in that grave we do not know how thick that layer was. recall that mapping the depth and volume of the graves was not ko", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5002767025991075, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a8cbba9d-50ae-4755-b5e5-ec13d217408e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.326187"}
{"text": "one of total loyalty and fidelity. the act of idolatry was an unforgivable breach of the covenant \u2014 much as adultery is generally perceived as a fundamental violation of the marital bond. moses, in persuading god to recant of his jealousy and anger, to give the faithless people another chance, is thus introducing a new concept : of a covenant that includes the possibility of even the most serious transgressions being forgiven ; of the knowledge that human beings are fallible, and that teshuvah and forgiveness are essential components of any economy of men living before a demanding god. the second, truly astonishing point is the role played by moses in all this. moshe rabbenu, \u201c the man of god, \u201d is not only the great teacher of israel, the channel through which they learn the divine torah, but also, as it were, one who teaches god himself. it is god who \u201c reveals his qualities of mercy \u201d at the cleft of the rock ; but without moses cajoling, arguing, persuading ( and note the numerous midrashim around this theme ), \u201c were it not for my servant moses who stood in the breach, \u201d all this would not have happened. it was moses who elicited this response and who, so to speak, pushed god himself to this new stage in his relation with israel \u2014 to give up his expectations of perfection from his covenanted people, and to understand that living within a covenant means, not rigid adherence to a set of laws, but a living relationship with real people, taking the bad with the good. ( again, the parallel to human relationships is obvious )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5179450721949483, "token_count": 334, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4c19472-691a-44c6-a55b-21fbb183475b>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.353529"}
{"text": "risk factors, such as electrical overloading. compounding the difficulty, tight deadlines and budgetary constraints prohibited numerous time - consuming and costly physical tests of system mock - ups. instead, work in designing and optimizing the performance of this first - ever system would have to be done early in the plane \u2019 s development \u2014 before any hardware was built and at the same time other aircraft system designs were underway. the solution : advanced predictive software messier - bugatti met these challenges with the imagine. lab ground loads software based on the amesim simulation platform, which the company had implemented on previous projects for predicting the behavior of complex multi - domain intelligent systems. engineers began by selecting and piecing together individual components and subsystems from among a library of pre - defined items : - hydraulic pressure drop, - hydraulic component design, - electromechanical, motors, and drives, - thermal resistance, - thermal hydraulics, and - thermal, hydraulics, and electrical basics. | local electrohydraulic generation system ( lehgs ) consists of a reservoir, left, with accumulator and other accessories, and an electric motor - driven pump, right. in addition to emergency braking on all 20 wheels of the a380, the power units also provide backup hydraulic power for the all - important nose wheel steering system. | unlike conventional system modeling languages that require computer programmers to write software, the overall system model is created graphically, and engineers are prompted to enter parameters where necessary. in this way, amesim software creates a multi - domain system model from the overall conceptual information of interconnected parts and subsystems. importantly, it does not require a full 3 - d geometry representation, so engineers can simulate and predict the behavior of intelligent systems long before detailed cad geometry becomes available. throughout this process, messier - bugatti system engineers took advantage of convenient access to imagine. lab ground loads software. the system \u2019 s flexible licensing arrangement enabled them to optimize the use of specific modules and libraries while lowering overall system simulation expenses. simulating complex behavior ground loads modeling and analysis capabilities allowed messier - bugatti to analyze behavior of hydraulic systems in terms of performance, stability, and robustness. engineers also used the model to study the thermal characteristics of hydraulic circuits and evaluate the need for heat exchangers. these results were then used to establish the sizing, output, and other component specifications for the entire hydraulic power unit, including its reservoir, pump, and accumulator. using ground loads, engineers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5838989729891944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cbaef119-7ed7-4b6f-86da-b8a6aa6a2e72>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.361983"}
{"text": "circuits and evaluate the need for heat exchangers. these results were then used to establish the sizing, output, and other component specifications for the entire hydraulic power unit, including its reservoir, pump, and accumulator. using ground loads, engineers could also explore alternate sets of parameters and scenarios. when developing a steering system, for example, various combinations of components and systems ( actuators, motors, valves, ecu, etc. ) could be compared from specification to validation, thus significantly improving the steering system quality. | signals from electronic control units ( ecu ) activate multiple small electricallydriven micro - pumps, each located close to the actuators they control. the micropumps provide 5000 psi of local hydraulic pressure over short runs of small - diameter, lightweight tubing for braking and steering \u2014 always available in an emergency. | with these predictive capabilities, messier - bugatti simulated the behavior of the electrohydraulic system for the a380, validated system power - generating performance, and engineers accurately sized components early in development. this significantly reduced dependency on numerous physical prototypes. \u201c messier - bugatti can use imagine. lab amesim to tune complex multiphysics systems without performing a large set of tests on bench, \u201d commented michael benmoussa, senior design engineer on the project. \u201c simulation enabled us to anticipate and reduce the inherent development risks of a new technology by incorporating an upstream validation regarding the technical choices, \u201d continued benmoussa. \u201c simulation results obtained in the early project stages using lms imagine. lab amesim were later confirmed on test benches with a very good accuracy. \u201d in this manner, ground loads can significantly reduce guesswork and free the engineering team to focus on innovation and r & d. \u201c messier - bugatti was able to predict systems and equipment performances \u2014 including critical new technologies \u2014 on the entire flight domain, \u201d commented benmoussa. \u201c the a380 enters into service with its nose wheel steering system control loop only tuned with lms imagine. lab amesim. tests were performed to confirm the good system performance. \u201d for more information on amesim and imagine. lab ground loads software from lms ltd., troy, mich., call ( 248 ) 952 - 5664, or visit www. lmsintl. com.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5646147997977817, "token_count": 476, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cbaef119-7ed7-4b6f-86da-b8a6aa6a2e72>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.362880"}
{"text": "ground sensors and airborne transponders that are interoperable with the original beacon system, but which achieve surveillance accuracy, capacity, and reliability that is adequate to support automatic safety warning functions for controllers and pilots. in the 1980s the faa developed an airborne collision avoidance system based on air - to - air surveillance of the same air traffic control transponders used for surveillance from the ground. today the use of this collision avoidance system is required on all air carrier aircraft operating in the united states and europe. the last part of the air traffic control system to benefit from radar surveillance was the airport runways and taxi - ways. radar surveillance to assure safety of aircraft on the airport surface is difficult because of reflections from the ground and from airport structures and service vehicles. although several generations of airport surface detection radars have been deployed since the 1990s, and surface surveillance performance has improved, reflections continue to cause unreliable tracking. as with other radar environments, surveillance quality on the airport surface can be improved by the use of transponders. unfortunately, the resolution of the beacon system used for airspace surveillance is inadequate to distinguish between closely spaced aircraft at airports. however, high - resolution surface surveillance can be achieved with multiple receivers on the airport surface that estimate transponder locations by comparing arrival times of replies from conventional transponders. systems that combine this \u201c multilateration \u201d technique with primary radar surveillance can now achieve surveillance accuracies and reliabilities that are good enough to input to automatic safety warning devices on the airport surface. related recommended reading the story of the invention of the klystron. < span id = \" fck _ dom _ range _ temp _ 1365634644485 _ 748 \" / > [ [ category : navigation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5003723488036877, "token_count": 349, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d2ccaf58-486b-4bfb-a51d-3c8f05a3acad>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.371412"}
{"text": "architectural educators use the scientific term \u201c critical mass \u201d to justify the necessity for design students to be present in the studio in order to gain momentum, share ideas, and learn from each other, while enjoying their camaraderie. further, it is believed that the physical presence may yield an esprit de corps, albeit in a pedagogy which values individualism. any of these educational objectives, however, such as communication, idea sharing and momentum, are within reach in the virtual environment. indeed, telecommunication technology oriented design environment actually enhances educator - student and student - student participation in getting to know each others \u2019 values and cultures. such cooperation across time and space, leads future designers to identify and solve problems in a truly global setting the computer savvy profile of today \u2019 s students suggests that cross - cultural and across - distance design education is an achievable aim and even may weaken the argument for the merits of physical presence in the studio. even in practice, for example, the use of building information modeling ( bim ) approach will likely to change how professionals cooperate through networking media in creatively linking, sharing, and integrating their design expertise with their other professional team members. recent developments in telecommunication technology virtually have eliminated the necessity for sharing the same physical space by the members of a studio or cooperating professionals on a project. professionals and students alike can easily work, debate, and share ideas even if they are many time - zones apart. in this paper, we concentrate on the implications of this technology upon design education, particularly on the studio component through a major global studio urban design project case study. it focuses on the pros and cons of global studios based on experiences in architectural education which is coming to focus as a variant in the studio typology both in traditional and in nascent on - line programs. | keywords : | | global studio, distant learning, educational cooperation, virtual design studio, architectural education, architectural design | associate professor, architecture, the university of oklahoma, norman, oklahoma, usa associate professor, college of architecture, the university of oklahoma, norman, oklahoma, usa there are currently no reviews of this product. write a review", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5649897444023737, "token_count": 440, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:df4a8513-544e-41d4-9f40-78253f473f90>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.375007"}
{"text": "concord expressa christian science study resource we know principle only through science. the prin \u2010 6ciple of christ is divine love, resistless life and truth. then the science of the principle must be christlike, or christian science. more than regal is the majesty 9of the meekness of the christ - principle ; and its might is the ever - flowing tides of truth that sweep the universe, create and govern it ; and its radiant stores of knowl \u2010 12edge are the mysteries of exhaustless being. seek ye these till you make their treasures yours. when a young man vainly boasted, \u201c i am wise, for i 15have conversed with many wise men, \u201d epictetus made answer, \u201c and i with many rich men, but i am not rich. \u201d the richest blessings are obtained by labor. a vessel 18full must be emptied before it can be refilled. lawyers may know too much of human law to have a clear per \u2010 ception of divine justice, and divines be too deeply read 21in scholastic theology to appreciate or to demonstrate christian charity. losing the comprehensive in the technical, the principle in its accessories, cause in effect, 24and faith in sight, we lose the science of christianity, \u2014 a predicament quite like that of the man who could not see london for its houses. 27 clouds parsimonious of rain, that swing in the sky with dumb thunderbolts, are seen and forgotten in the same hour ; while those with a mighty rush, which waken the 30stagnant waters and solicit every root and every leaf with the treasures of rain, ask no praising. remember, thou canst be brought into no condition, be it ever so severe, 150 150 : 1where love has not been before thee and where its tender lesson is not awaiting thee. therefore despair not nor 3murmur, for that which seeketh to save, to heal, and to deliver, will guide thee, if thou seekest this guidance. pliny gives the following description of the character of 6true greatness : \u201c doing what deserves to be written, and writing what deserves to be read ; and rendering the world happier and better for having lived in it. \u201d strive thou 9for the joy and crown of such a pilgrimage \u2014 the service of such a mission. a heart touched and hallowed by one chord of christian 12science, can accomplish the full scale ; but this heart must be honest and in earnest and never weary of struggling", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5452295533272535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a828d4a-118d-4b02-b76b-a9489b509a37>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.390405"}
{"text": "cameron, l. and rutland, a. and turner, rhiannon and holman - nicolas, rosie and powell, claire ( 2011 ) changing attitudes with a little imagination \u2019 : imagined contact effects on young children \u2019 s intergroup bias. anale de psychologia, 27 ( 3 ). pp. 708 - 717. issn 0212 - 9728. the current research tested a recent development in social psychology, namely \u2018 imagined contact \u2019, among young children ( n = 123, 5 to 10 years ). children imagined interacting with a physically disabled child, or did not take part in this activity ( the control group ). compared with the control group, children who engaged in \u2018 imagined contact \u2019 subsequently showed reduced inter - group bias in their general attitude and ratings of warmth and competence. imagined contact also led to more positive intended friendship behavior towards the disabled, but only among 5 \u2013 6 year olds. this provides partial support for our hypothesis that younger children, perhaps as a result of their lack of out - group experience, are more likely to benefit from imagined contact. implications for the development of attitudes towards the disabled, imagined contact theory and the development of classroom - based prejudice - reduction techniques based on imagined contact are discussed. | subjects : | | b philosophy. psychology. religion > bf psychology | | divisions : | | faculties > social sciences > school of psychology | | depositing user : | | lindsey cameron | | date deposited : | | 10 may 2011 11 : 03 | | last modified : | | 20 apr 2012 14 : 46 | | resource uri : | | http : / / kar. kent. ac. uk / id / eprint / 27770 ( the current uri for this page, for reference purposes ) | - depositors only ( login required ) :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5629465353442082, "token_count": 366, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6e477f53-d64d-4935-8681-b59275bcd191>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.400373"}
{"text": "hereditary hemochromatosis is a genetic disease that causes the body to absorb and store too much iron. the condition gets its name from \" hemo \" for blood and \" chroma \" for color, referring to the characteristic bronze skin tone that iron overload can cause. someone with hereditary hemochromatosis who has never taken an iron supplement could find out in later years that iron overload is causing serious health problems. iron is a trace mineral that plays a vital role in the body. every red blood cell contains iron in its hemoglobin, the pigment that carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. we get iron from our diet, and normally the body absorbs about 10 % of the iron found in foods. people with hemochromatosis absorb double that amount. once absorbed, the excess iron doesn ' t leave the body. instead, it ' s stored in synovium ( joints ) and major organs such as the liver, heart, brain, pancreas, and lungs. over many years, iron accumulates to toxic levels that can damage or even destroy an organ. the iron overload can cause many health problems, most frequently a form of diabetes that ' s often resistant to insulin treatment. because of this, hereditary hemochromatosis is sometimes called \" bronze diabetes. \" some people with the disease develop symptoms by age 20, although signs of the condition usually appear between ages 40 and 60, when iron in the body has reached damaging levels. women are less likely to develop symptoms of iron buildup than men, probably due to normal iron loss during menstruation. however, hereditary hemochromatosis should not be considered a disease of older people or men. iron buildup is often present and silently causing problems long before symptoms occur \u2014 in men, women, adolescents, and in rare cases, children. causes of hereditary hemochromatosis although many people have never heard of hereditary hemochromatosis, it is not rare and affects as many as 1 in every 200 people in the united states, according to the centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ). hereditary hemochromatosis is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation on a gene that regulates iron absorption \u2014 1 in every 8 to 10 people in the united states carries a single copy of this defective gene, called hfe. carriers don ' t necessarily have the condition themselves, but can pass the mutated gene on to their children. hereditary hemochromatosis is an autosomal recess", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5125836045077636, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5d509249-861d-40c7-947d-79d998480b23>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.421419"}
{"text": "most people play a sport for the thrill of having fun with others who share the same interest. but it ' s not always fun and games. there can be a ton of pressure in high school sports. a lot of the time it comes from the feeling that a parent or coach expects you to always win. but sometimes it comes from inside, too : some players are just really hard on themselves. and individual situations can add to the stress : maybe there ' s a recruiter from your no. 1 college scouting you on the sidelines. whatever the cause, the pressure to win can sometimes stress you to the point where you just don ' t know how to have fun anymore. how can stress affect sports performance? stress is a feeling that ' s created when we react to particular events. it ' s the body ' s way of rising to a challenge and preparing to meet a tough situation with focus, strength, stamina, and heightened alertness. a little stress or the right kind of positive stress can help keep you on your toes, ready to rise to a challenge. the events that provoke stress are called stressors, and they cover a whole range of situations \u2014 everything from outright danger to stepping up to take the foul shot that could win the game. stress can also be a response to change or anticipation of something that ' s about to happen \u2014 good or bad. people can feel stress over positive challenges, like making the varsity team, as well as negative ones. distress is a bad type of stress that arises when you must adapt to too many negative demands. suppose you had a fight with a close friend last night, you forgot your homework this morning, and you ' re playing in a tennis match this afternoon. you try to get psyched for the game but can ' t. you ' ve hit stress overload! continuous struggling with too much stress can exhaust your energy and drive. eustress is the good type of stress that stems from the challenge of taking part in something that you enjoy but have to work hard for. eustress pumps you up, providing a healthy spark for any task you undertake. when the stress of competition starts to get to you, try these techniques to help you relax : deep breathing : find a quiet place to sit down. inhale slowly through your nose, drawing air deep into your lungs. hold your breath for about 5 seconds, then release it slowly. repeat the exercise five times. muscle relaxation : contract ( flex ) a group of muscles tightly. keep them tensed for about 5 seconds,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5173466325618725, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:09ff7258-5277-44ab-a03a-4bcef102991d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.441273"}
{"text": ", however, go a bit beyond the confines of these two particular worksback to 1928, to the publication of a little - noticed manuscript by science - fiction writer h. g. wells, entitled the open conspiracy. in that work, wells called for the establishment of a \" world government \" which would supersede the nation - state as the primary form of human social and political existence. reading wells today, one gets the eerie feeling of a weird fascist experiment, wrapped in pseudo - scientific rhetoric, in which big brother controls one ' s every move. this \" utopian \" scheme, as wells himself dubbed it, probably had little hope of success, except under conditions of raw terror, where a frightened population might come to feel that only in the womb of such a \" world government \" would there be any security. with the dropping of the atomic bombs on hiroshima and nagasaki in august 1945, such a condition, it was felt by wells ' devotees, had been brought about. shortly after the dropping of the bomb in 1945, lord bertrand russell, a compatriot of wells in the \" world commonwealth \" project, wrote a short essay entitled \" the bomb and civilisation. \" in this work russell wrote : \" the prospect for the human race is sombre beyond all precedent.... either war or civilization must end, and if it is to be war that ends, there must be an international authority with the sole power to make the new bombs. all supplies of uranium must be placed under the control of the international authority, which shall have the right to safeguard the ore by armed forces. as soon as such an authority has been created, all existing atomic bombs, and all plants for their manufacture, must be handed over. and of course the international authority must have sufficient armed forces to protect whatever has been handed over to it. if this system were once established, the international authority would be irresistible, and wars would cease. at worst, there might be occasional brief revolts that would be easily quelled. \" the power of the united states in international affairs is, for the time being, immeasurably increased, \" russell continued. \" if america were more imperialistic there would be another possibility, less utopian and less desirable, but still preferable to the total obliteration of civilized life. it would be possible for americans to use their position of temporary superiority to insist upon disarmament, not only in germany and japan, but everywhere except in the united states, or at any rate in every country not prepared", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5538586002071368, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.490023"}
{"text": "contacts in italy and portugal, the japanese were also making their desires known through their representatives in moscow and in sweden, with representatives of the swedish royal family. the swedish reports were forwarded to the united states by herschel v. johnson, the u. s. ambassador in stockholm. reporting on april 6, 1945, johnson wrote that it was \" probable that very far - reaching conditions would be accepted by the japanese by way of negotiation, \" but that \" there is no doubt that unconditional surrender terms would be unacceptable to the japanese because it would mean dishonor. application of such terms would be fatal and lead to desperate action on the part of the people.... the emperor must not be touched, \" johnson wrote. the atom bomb project on april 25, 1945, secretary of war henry stimson and gen. leslie groves, the manager of the manhattan project, met at the white house to brief the president on the status of the atomic bomb. the bomb project had been initiated by president roosevelt on the basis of an appeal by albert einstein. einstein, aware of nazi work on developing such weapons, had been urged by leo szilard, a protege of bertrand russell, who played on einstein ' s fears, to write a letter to president roosevelt urging him to begin work on an atomic weapon. szilard, a hungarian physicist and a devotee of h. g. wells, had worked his way into einstein ' s confidence while still a young physicist in berlin. in 1928 szilard had read wells ' open conspiracy, and waxed enthusiastic. by 1929 he had travelled to london to meet with wells and to negotiate the rights to publish wells ' works in central europe. szilard himself worked on a scheme to realize wells ' vision of a \" world government \" controlled by a chosen \" scientific elite. \" in fact, so enamored was he of this idea that he developed his own plan for creating such an \" elite, \" which he called the bund, \" a closely knit group of people whose inner bond is pervaded by a religious and scientific spirit. \" although formulating this proto - fascist vision at an early age, szilard bandied such ideas about in different forms until his death. how the einstein letter led to the manhattan project, under general groves, is well known. by the time the new president, harry truman, was briefed on the manhattan project in april 1945, the bomb was almost ready for testing. the growing realization by truman of the power and capability of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5223611019833334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.495003"}
{"text": "project, under general groves, is well known. by the time the new president, harry truman, was briefed on the manhattan project in april 1945, the bomb was almost ready for testing. the growing realization by truman of the power and capability of the new weapon gave truman the means to accomplish the task for which he had been chosento dismantle roosevelt ' s entire post - war design. roosevelt had dealt with the mercurial russian leader, joseph stalin, in a rather straightforward and open manner. not that this was without its difficulties, given stalin ' s propensities and paranoia. nevertheless, by 1944 roosevelt felt that he had created a certain rapport with stalin and intended to work to bring wartime ally russia into the concert of european nations after the war. writing in may 1944 in the saturday evening post, forrest davis, a correspondent favored by roosevelt, wrote : \" mr. roosevelt is striving to bring the soviet union, which has fallen out with the european tradition, back into the family of nations, as a condition precedent to world organization. convinced that unless that reunion takes place, there can be no world association, nor assured hope of peace, the president ' s ' great design ' rests on two assumptions. first, he accepts the prevalent view that the soviet union will be able to organize effectively its manpower and resources in peace as well as war, thus becoming permanently a great power. he further assumes that the interests of a victorious russian state can be reconciled to those of the atlantic powers, china, and the small nations of europe and america. mr. roosevelt, gambling for stakes as enormous as any statesman ever played for, has been betting that the soviet union needs peace and is willing to pay for it by collaborating with the west. by no means unaware of the risks, he declines, nevertheless, to acknowledge them even to close associates. the white house is a delicate sounding board, reflecting everything that happens everywhere on the globe. it would be absurd to suppose that the president has not considered the implications of his russian policy in all angles and facets. the alternativea russia excluded, aggrieved and driven in on itself to prepare for the inevitable war of continentswas to him so much worse, that he saw himself with little choice. he chose, moreover, to prosecute his policy so sincerely that the russians, proverbially mistrustful, could have no ground for misgiving. \" the utopians ' plans for establishing their global dictatorship were, on the other hand, precisely geared to play into those", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.530216626152711, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.495939"}
{"text": "emperor, and facilitate a rapid japanese surrenderbefore the bomb could be used. more generally, grew realized that there was a substantial peace party in japan, and that the peace - feelers the allied intelligence forces were picking up, were for real. the position of the united states, he felt, should be supportive of that peace party, and immediately clarifying the role of the emperor in the peace terms was absolutely essential if peace were to be quickly achieved. many leading republicans were also calling for such a statement. on july 3, the new york times reported that the senate republican minority leader, wallace white, \" declared that the pacific war might end quickly if president truman would state, specifically, in the upper chamber, just what unconditional surrender means for the japanese. \" the war department ' s operations division advised on july 12, 1945 that \" the present stand of the war department is that japanese surrender is just possible and is attractive enough to the u. s. to justify us in making any concession which might be attractive to the japanese, so long as our realistic aims for peace in the pacific are not adversely affected. \" indeed, by this time the japanese peace - feelers were becoming a drumbeat. on july 12, as truman was travelling to potsdam aboard the presidential yacht, the augusta, emperor hirohito was declaring in a meeting of the supreme council for the direction of the war, that although war planning had to continue, it was also \" necessary to have a plan to close the war at once. \" a cable intercepted on july 12 from foreign minister togo to japanese ambassador sato in moscow, and given to truman aboard the augusta on his way to potsdam, stated : \" we are now secretly giving consideration to the termination of the war because of the pressing situation which confronts japan both at home and abroad. \" unlike the previous peace - feelers, these were very official and very high - level, even involving the leadership of the japanese army, the only real hold - outs for continued fighting. by the time of the potsdam meeting it was also known that japan was asking russia, with which it still had a neutrality treaty, to help it get out of the war. using the bomb ' diplomatically ' but truman, with an entirely different agenda, was not ready for peacenot yet at any rate. indeed, arriving at potsdam, the united states was already taking measures to delay russian entry into the war in the pacific. at yalta it had been agreed that russia would enter the pacific theater in exchange for several conditions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5066525214705097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.503090"}
{"text": ". \" after the plenary session of july 24, truman approached stalin as stalin was about to leave the conference, and mentioned to him casually \" that we had a new weapon of unusual destructive force. \" the poker - faced stalin simply commented, according to truman, that \" he was glad to hear it and hoped we would make ' good use of it against the japanese. ' \" judging from stalin ' s placid reaction, truman and churchill thought that stalin didn ' t really understand that truman had been referring to the atomic bomb. the wily soviet leader, however, knew a lot more than he was letting on. what his russian science advisers, like the great scientist vladimir vernadsky, were not able to tell him about the bomb, well - placed spies in the manhattan project were. marshal zhukov relates stalin ' s comments to his own people following this encounter with truman. \" stalin, in my presence, told molotov about his conversation with truman, \" zhukov wrote in his memoirs. \" ' they ' re raising the price, ' said molotov. stalin gave a laugh, ' let them. we ' ll have to have a talk with kurchatov today about speeding up our work. ' \" stalin was referring to the soviet bomb program, headed up by academician i. v. kurchatov. potsdam : preventing japan ' s surrender it was also at potsdam that churchill was informed of the successful test. british chief of staff field marshal sir alan brookesby wrote that churchill \" was completely carried away. it was no longer necessary for the russians to come into the japanese war ; the new explosive alone was sufficient to settle the matter. furthermore, we now had something in our hands which would redress the balance with the russians. \" by this time, the interim committee had decided that the bomb would be used, without warning, on a japanese war plant, preferably in the vicinity of an area in which many japanese workers were living, for maximum psychological effect. norris relates how groves wanted to target kyoto itself, the most important religious center for the japanese, but stimson, anxious that the japanese remain malleable enough after the war in order to serve in the post - war battle against the spread of communism in asia, rejected this proposal, assenting only to the targetting of hiroshima, nagasaki, niigata, and kokura. there was only one true dissenter to this decision of the committeeralph bard, navy secretary james forrestal ' s undersecretary", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5184857297694818, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.504955"}
{"text": "all his plans for using it to establish the \" world government. \" in late may 1945, szilard and fellow scientists harold urey and walter bartky met with jimmy byrnes. byrnes told them that general groves had informed him that russia had no uranium, and that therefore there was no fear of them developing atomic weapons. in reality, already in 1940, russian scientist vladimir vernadsky had appointed a committee to investigate the uranium resources of the soviet union. while they did discover uranium deposits in central asia, it would be the countries of eastern europe and soviet - occupied east germany which would provide the great bulk of the uranium for the soviet nuclear program. in a memorandum to byrnes, szilard underlined that it was the post - war organization of the atomic bomb threat which would be of utmost importance. in accordance with his wellsian program, he urged that there be established international controls on atomic research, with the direct involvement of the scientists in the decisions as to its use. byrnes found the idea rather ludicrous. \" he [ szilard ] felt that scientists, including himself, should discuss the matter with the cabinet, which i did not feel desirable. his general demeanor and his desire to participate in policymaking made an unfavorable impression on me. \" more significant opposition came from the military leadership of the country, most of whom were adamantly opposed to the use of the atomic bomb. alperovitz documents this resistance quite extensively in separate chapters dealing with the reaction from each of the uniformed services ; all regarded the bombing as militarily unnecessary. stimson himself, when in europe for the potsdam talks, saw fit to solicit the opinion of gen. dwight eisenhower, commander - in - chief of allied forces in europe. \" the incident took place in 1945 when secretary of war stimson, visiting my headquarters in germany, informed me that our government was preparing to drop an atomic bomb on japan, \" eisenhower would later write in his autobiography, mandate for change. \" i was one of those who felt that there were a number of cogent reasons to question the wisdom of such an act.... the secretary, upon giving me the news of the successful bomb test in new mexico, and of the plan for using it, asked for my reaction, apparently expecting a vigorous assent. during the recitation of the relevant facts, i had been conscious of a feeling of depression, and so i voiced to him my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5268405070329235, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.508048"}
{"text": "terms of the outrageous claims of the number of lives saved. \" i believe, with complete conviction, that the use of the atomic bomb saved hundreds of thousandsperhaps several millionsof lives, both american and japanese, \" compton wrote. this was, for them, not merely an attempt to justify their actions. \" if the propaganda against the use of the atomic bomb had been allowed to grow unchecked, \" conant wrote stimson, \" the strength of our military position by virtue of having the bomb would have been correspondingly weakened, and with the weakening would have come a decrease in the probabilities of an international agreement for the control of atomic energy. \" indeed this, and not the defeat of japan, had been the real wellsian purpose of the bomb project to begin with. the cold war begins the effect on russia of the hiroshima and nagasaki bombings was immediate. visiting moscow together with marshal zhukov a few days after the bombing of hiroshima, eisenhower, according to edgar snow, answered \" a private question privately, \" with the following remarks : \" i would have said, i was sure we could keep the peace with russia. now, i don ' t know. i had hoped the bomb wouldn ' t figure in this war. until now i would have said that we three, britain with her mighty fleet, america with the strongest air force, and russia with the strongest land force on the continent, we three could have guaranteed the peace of the world for a long, long time to come. but now, i don ' t know. people are frightened and disturbed all over. everyone feels insecure again. \" three policies emerged for dealing with the advent of the nuclear age. bertrand russell and his utopian co - thinkers demanded the united states get ready for preventive nuclear war against the soviet union, to enforce a u. s. - british nuclear monopoly. the policy of truman, and of wall street, was the \" baruch plan \" for world government enforcement of complete nuclear technological apartheid. among truman ' s circles there was still the illusion that the united states would remain sole proprietor of nuclear weapons for a long time to come. on oct. 8, 1946, truman was asked if the united states would keep control of all nuclear technological information. \" well, i don ' t think it would do any good to let them in on the know - how, \" truman said, \" because i don ' t think they could do it, anyway. \" truman ' s initial response to this was to attempt to use", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5334190207741656, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.512974"}
{"text": "don ' t think it would do any good to let them in on the know - how, \" truman said, \" because i don ' t think they could do it, anyway. \" truman ' s initial response to this was to attempt to use the forum of the united nations to impose top - down control on the nations of the world with regard to the research and development and the production of nuclear technology, and the top - down control of the nuclear materials themselvesone of the key elements in the groves post - war plans for nuclear weapons, as norris documents. truman appointed the aging financier bernard baruch, formerly head of the war production board during world war i, as the head of the u. s. delegation to the un atomic energy commission, assuring a hard line on the control issue. baruch ' s plan demanded \" swift and sure punishment \" of any nation which attempted independently to develop nuclear technology, and insisted that the veto power of the un security council be suspended entirely in matters of atomic control. bertrand russell was also delighted with the baruch plan, as the realization of his \" world government \" idea. and the soviet union ' s swift and complete rejection of the baruch plan in 1946, provided grist for russell ' s \" preventive war \" mill ; in 1949 george eliot published a book entitled if russia strikes, in which he called on the united states to present moscow with an ultimatum : cease research and production efforts on the atomic bomb and accept the baruch plan, or face an american attack that would \" raze the u. s. s. r. with an air atomic offensive. \" the \" preventive war \" scenario also won its adherents among some u. s. military layers, particularly those air forces officers who had bought into the supremacy of \" air power \" as the real war - winning capability. the head of the newly founded united states air force, gen. henry h. ( hap ) arnold, in a report to secretary of war stimson, asserted that the \" one defense against the atomic bomb \" was \" to hit it before it starts. \" in a speech at the boston navy yard on aug. 25, 1950, navy secretary francis matthews gave a speech which supported the utopians ' thesis. matthews said that the united states should consider \" instituting a war to compel cooperation for peace. \" many other leading figures in the truman administration supported matthews ' callincluding stuart symington, director of the national security resources board and former secretary of the air force", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5086340287666207, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.516695"}
{"text": "states should consider \" instituting a war to compel cooperation for peace. \" many other leading figures in the truman administration supported matthews ' callincluding stuart symington, director of the national security resources board and former secretary of the air force, and gen. albert wedemeyer, commander of the sixth army. by the time of the matthews ' speech, however, the soviets had eliminated the u. s. atomic monopoly on nuclear weapons, exploding a nuclear device on the steppes of kazakstan in august 1949. the proposals for \" preventive war \" would continue on and off for several years, but neither truman, nor much less eisenhowerwho effectively judoed the utopian gameplanwere ever prepared to go that far. the world now entered the era of mutual and assured destruction. eisenhower ' s atoms for peace from here on in, preventive war with the soviets would be viewed as more and more suicidal. the resulting ' ' balance of terror \" would now be used by the same utopians as the argument for bringing the world into the era of world government, including russell ' s attempt during the cuban missile crisis to bring the americans and the soviets into an \" arms control regime. \" the third post - war nuclear policy, however, and the initiative that promised to break through this controlled environment, was the \" atoms for peace \" program launched in 1953 by president eisenhower. envisioning international cooperation between states as the means of fostering their development by the peaceful uses of nuclear power, rather than the establishment of the institutional straitjacket of a world police regime, ike succeeded in engaging the soviet union in cooperation for development. in the course of that program, between 1956 and 1959, the united states concluded nuclear cooperation agreements with 40 different countries, with the soviet union providing nuclear power for the satellite countries of eastern europe. from 1956 to 1962, the atoms for peace program provided research reactors, nuclear training, and fissionable material to 26 states. later, in a similar peace - through - development initiative, president ronald reagan adopted lyndon larouche ' s technology - sharing concept for his strategic defense initiative ( sdi ) proposal. the utopians in the reagan administrationwho included such well - known figures in today ' s \" get saddam \" operation as richard perle, doug feith, and paul wolfowitzsucceeded in sabotaging that program, creating the basis for their \" comeback \" under george herbert walker bush. they are now intent on realizing the nightmare of the wellsian - russell", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5533069136548561, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.517726"}
{"text": "whose point of view? the journey of three generations ( literature link for the book whale journey ) in her 50 years, old gray has traveled a distance equal to traveling to the moon and home again. what ' s in store for her baby, about to make his first migration? whale journey by vivian french ( 1998, zero to ten limited ) is a fact - filled picture book and gripping tale about the life cycle of the gray whale. you ' ll want to \" journey \" through the book more than once as you join three generations of whales on their migration. for three scars, it may be the last of her journeys, bittersweet with memories and quite exhausting. for old gray, it ' s a middle journey, one of many more to come. she ' s been there and done that many times in her life. and for baby gray, this is a first. it ' s a time of wild excitement, challenging thrills, and unknown dangers. it ' s the same journey, yet different for each one making it. the journey of three generations provides rich opportunities for personal connections, science learning, and author ' s craft. begin with the point - of - view writing activity and expand with the extensions that follow. whatever the age of your students, you ' ll find something for everyone! try this! writing activity after reading the story, ask students to choose one of the whales in the story : three scars, old gray, or baby gray. tell them they will write a journal entry from that point of view. students may use events from the book or events they imagine will happen along the migratory journey. ( older students may wish to write a short story, essay, or memoir from their chosen character ' s point of view. ) then follow these steps in the writing process : - prewriting : for students who would benefit, encourage brainstorming with other writers who chose the same character. what is it like to be that whale? what are their fears, concerns, joys, satisfactions? what have they experienced to make them feel that way? what lies ahead for each? how do they view this migration? what memories do they have? other students may prefer freewriting or clustering to get their ideas and \" experiences \" flowing. - drafting : encourage students to freely write first drafts, leaving blanks to which they can return instead of spending time fleshing out details. have them review their drafts, then read them aloud to partners. a partner ' s questions and comments can help writers decide what to change", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5546336943699509, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:790caffd-cd32-4177-ac77-da114f892cb7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.526439"}
{"text": "i \u2019 ve been puzzling over a phenomenon lately that i \u2019 d like to talk a bit about. i want to put this out into the ether and get feedback from all of you. because i can \u2019 t make sense of this \u2014 and perhaps your superior brains can. with the rise in digital content, we \u2019 ve seen more and more examples of technology being created to enforce the law and / or a company \u2019 s terms of service for their product. and just because technology can do this, does it mean that we as a society should allow it? in the past, here \u2019 s how the law was enforced : - the law exists - as a member of a society, you are expected to know about the law - if you violate the law, in theory someone punishes you and here \u2019 s how the law is enforced now in some cases : - the law exists - technology is created to make it difficult or impossible for you to break the law - if you somehow manage to break through the technology and break the law, you are punished for breaching the system as well as breaking the law itself here \u2019 s a real - world example of technology - enforced laws to start the discussion. the saudi arabian government developed an rfid chip with a cyanide implant. these chips were implanted in known criminals ( supposedly terrorists ) and if their handlers or probation officers or whoever was watching them suspected that they were violating the law again, boom \u2013 cyanide in the blood \u2026 instant death. no trial, no due process, just a remotely activated death penalty. in the world of digital content we see this same practice but in a non - lethal incarnation. the utilization of internet filters in schools and libraries ( and on school - issued computers in kids \u2019 homes ) is intended as a way to mandatorily enforce laws against child pornography and the display of harmful and obscene materials in public. advocates for this technology sell it as a way to enforce these laws without human intervention. unfortunately, the technology doesn \u2019 t actually work very well, and about 30 % of sites that should be blocked aren \u2019 t and 30 % of sites that should be allowed get blocked erroneously. the intention is good, but the side effects are not worth the trade off \u2014 both access to legitimate information and the false sense of security the technology creates. some schools and libraries realize the inherent flaws in the technology and choose, instead, to do what we as a society have been doing for generations \u2014 trusting people to follow the law, and when they don \u2019 t we have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.54402317141046, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5b3f9e1e-41e4-4ad1-8725-a291c2812b7e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.532868"}
{"text": "of security the technology creates. some schools and libraries realize the inherent flaws in the technology and choose, instead, to do what we as a society have been doing for generations \u2014 trusting people to follow the law, and when they don \u2019 t we have policies in place for reprimands or punishments ( e. g. calling the cops on their asses ). another key example is the technology used in digital rights management, called \u201c digital restrictions management \u201d by its detractors, including yours truly. once again, the technology was created to enforce the applicable copyright law as well as the company - created terms of service for their products and content. and once again, the technology doesn \u2019 t actually work. why? digital rights management technology doesn \u2019 t work because it doesn \u2019 t do what the companies tell you it does : stop piracy. if copyrighted content was easy to get legally at a fair price in an easy to access format ( read : one not locked down with layers of drm software ), then more people would be willing to pay for it. why? convenience and safety. it \u2019 s why the music industry is selling drm - free mp3s and still making money. i \u2019 d rather give $ 7. 99 to a band and get a full, drm - free, legal copy of their album than try to find a complete, high quality, virus - free version on a torrent site. ultimately, these failed attempts to decrease piracy and ( in theory ) increase sales not only fail, but they drive even more users away. i strongly believe it is the current state of drm that drives people into the arms of the pirates \u2014 not greed, a lack of ethics, or pure evil. unless you count drm as pure evil, which i do. so \u2026 if the idea of the cyanide - laden rfid chip disturbs you, then ( following my logic, anyway ) the idea of internet filters and digital rights management should equally perturb you. and if you \u2019 re a librarian, then dammit \u2014 both internet filters and digital rights management should perturb you as a professional and you should do everything in your power to fight them both \u2014 in your own library and in the profession as a whole. fight, librarians! fight!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.565882646246935, "token_count": 461, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5b3f9e1e-41e4-4ad1-8725-a291c2812b7e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.533895"}
{"text": "in this section... pathologies detected by cardiac catheterization cardiac catheterization, as discussed earlier, involves the insertion of a catheter into the heart for the diagnosis of various diseases. cardiac catheterization is typically used for diagnosing the following pathologies. aortic dissection - cardiac catheterization is a method used in treating aortic dissection. the catheter called a stent is inserted and threaded to the location of the tear. the stent then provides as a channel for blood flow with minimal leakage. aortic aneurysm \u2013 as with aortic dissection, cardiac catheterization is a method of treatment. a stent is inserted and threaded to the location of the affected blood vessel. the stent provides a channel for blood flow without further damaging the widened blood vessel. congenital heart disease \u2013 cardiac catheterization is performed to measure oxygen levels and pressures within the heart chambers. cardiac catheterization may also be used as a way to treat conditions by closing holes to prevent mixing of the blood between chambers. aortic regurgitation - cardiac catheterization can be used as a diagnostic tool since it is a method of measuring blood pressure in the various chambers. atrial septal defects ( asd ) \u2013 cardiac catheterization has been used to evaluate this defect. this invasive procedure allows the analysis of the oxygen saturation in both right and left sides of the heart. cardiomyopathy \u2013 cardiac catheterization has been used to measure blood pressures in the various cardiac chambers to diagnose this condition. coronary heart disease \u2013 cardiac catheterization is used to inject dye to make the coronary arteries visible on x - rays, thereby showing where blockages are.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5193285416284024, "token_count": 371, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e4b18bde-d2ec-4439-897e-1cad731a7ece>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.535731"}
{"text": "t have emotions at all. an aspie with strong beliefs may feel that a person has moved on to a much better life. they may feel that grandma has finally been reunited with grandpa and that they will be happy as a result. in this case, they ' re empathising with the recently dead, not the recently bereaved. this doesn ' t make their reaction any less empathetic and it certainly doesn ' t make them a \" cold person \". it ' s the interpretation of others who misread the target of the emotion that is at fault. as people with asperger ' s syndrome pass through life they, like everyone else, acumulate a lot of \" social wisdom \". eventually they learn that their laughter, though well founded, has no place at a funeral and that the correct \" group feelings \" are of loss and sadness. the first time that these expressions kick in, they may be a little forced or fake. later as the aspie begins to get into a proper understanding of loss, usually because they suffer loss themselves and have an emotional state to relate to, those expressions become real and stronger. it ' s not usual to see an older person with asperger ' s syndrome overwhelmed by sadness at a funeral, even one for a distant relative. once those feelings of sadness are tapped into, it ' s difficult to let go and almost impossible to control the intensity of feeling. it ' s been said that people with asperger ' s syndrome often feel emotion more strongly than others. i ' d be inclined to agree with that. i used the funeral example above to show a progression from delayed and even wrong emotion to instantaneous \" empathy \". clearly it is possible for a person with asperger ' s syndrome to learn how another is feeling but they need a few key things to happen ; the situation must be clearly stated in the case of a funeral, it ' s easy to tell that one is occurring, hence a person with asperger ' s syndrome can easily tap into the feelings ( and rules ) for prior funerals. if the feelings of a neurotypical match those of a previous occurance, you need to let your aspie know. sad puppy - dog eyes aren ' t necessarily going to communicate what is needed. you need to \" use your words \". the target must be obvious in the funeral example, the target wasn ' t the deceased person, it was the grieving family. our aspie projected empathy towards the wrong target. usually in domestic situations", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5045270816221545, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6c957188-3fc5-4e4c-9f20-69729e9e36bf>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.552900"}
{"text": "write essays and perform pages of mathematics. these a great ideas but let us be a little looser in our interpretation. - reading is to communicate via unspoken language. you ' ll find that there are signs to be read all around us but only some of them have words. have your child interpret iconic signs as well as words. in fact, iconic signs are often an easier place to start. start with the basics such as ladies and gents toilets and then move up to less obvious ones like stop and give way. make sure that you child understands the meanings of these signs since reading without understanding meaning is pointless. when iconic signs are mastered, work on worded signs, street names for example. show your child how to reference street names in a directory or gps as you drive. reading is not just about books. - writing is a means of communication via written language. just as the first writings were pictographs, so too can your child ' s first written communication. have them draw things that they want such as food and drink. leave bottles and cans with labels about for them to copy - you ' ll find that they copy the words too. don ' t stress over legibility - i know plenty of doctors who can ' t write legibly today. don ' t stress over backward or transposed letters either. it is a pain and it is disconcerting when it continues for years but it ' s not necessarily a sign of dyslexia. be patient with your child ' s stresses and remember that low muscle tone which is common in children with aspergers syndrome, can make writing very uncomfortable. ultimately, if your child has too much difficulty forming letters, then give them alternatives such as touchpads or computers to type on. remember that writing isn ' t about letter formation, it ' s about getting ideas down onto paper in a form that others can understand. - the idea behind arithmetic is that your child should be able to conceptualise quantity and adjustments to it quantity. you ' ll find very little everyday life mathematics that involves multiplication and division most of the time it ' s simply addition and subtraction. fractions rarely make an appearance and many people can go through their entire post - school lives without raising numbers to powers or using algebra or calculus. for most of us, mathematics is all about determining how much change to expect when buying things so that you can tell if you can afford something and if you ' re being \" ripped off \". with that in mind, take your child on trips to the shops.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5098246851854402, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6c957188-3fc5-4e4c-9f20-69729e9e36bf>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.560611"}
{"text": "us, mathematics is all about determining how much change to expect when buying things so that you can tell if you can afford something and if you ' re being \" ripped off \". with that in mind, take your child on trips to the shops. give them small amounts of money and ask them to buy what they can. lolly shops with patient storekeepers are great for this exercise and it ' s this kind of maths that is far more important than pages of exercise problems. beyond the \" three rs \" after the three r ' s come social skills and the ability to form concepts. usually neither of these even warrant a grade at school but they ' re critical skills. social skills are far more critical than than grades, degrees and diplomas when it comes to getting a job - and they ' re even more important when it comes to keeping it. if your child isn ' t learning appropriate social skills at school, then get them involved in extracurricular activities. these can include sports, scouting, chess clubs, movie clubs - anything provided that there ' s a social aspect to it. the ability to generalise from concepts is critical too but for some reason, this isn ' t even a skill that is taught or acknowledged. it ' s simply expected to materialise from nowhere. unfortunately, it ' s not something that happens easily when a child has asperger ' s syndrome. in those cases, it needs to be taught explicitly. put away the report cards we ' d all like our children to get great marks and we ' d all like them to get student of the week or citizen of the term but the fact is that sometimes our child ' s differences work against them. lets not fall into the trap of comparing our child ' s metrics with those of other children. it gets in the way of real learning.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5153045596100698, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6c957188-3fc5-4e4c-9f20-69729e9e36bf>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.561277"}
{"text": "faces, vertices, and edges of cylinders, cones, and spheres date : 12 / 28 / 2003 at 17 : 21 : 33 from : cara subject : characteristics of polyhedra i need to know how many faces, vertices, and edges do cylinders, cones, and spheres have? logically i would say that a sphere has 1 face, 0 vertices and 0 edges. problem : a face is flat, sphere is not flat. secondly this does not satisfy euler ' s formula v - e + f = 2. i would say a cone has 2 faces, 1 edge, and 1 vertex. problem : while this does satisfy euler, it does not satisfy the definitions. date : 12 / 28 / 2003 at 20 : 41 : 45 from : doctor peterson subject : re : characteristics of polyhedra hi, cara. to start, take a look at this page : cone, cylinder edges? http : / / mathforum. org / library / drmath / sets / select / dm _ cone _ edge. html properly speaking, euler ' s formula does not apply to a surface, but to a network on a surface, which must meet certain criteria. the \" natural \" faces and edges for these surfaces, or those determined by applying the definitions used for polyhedra, do not meet these criteria. just taking the natural parts of a cone, as you say, it has one presumed vertex, the apex ; one edge, the circle at the base ; and two faces, one flat and one curved. ( i say \" presumed \" because the apex is not really a vertex in the usual sense of a place where two or more edges meet, but it is a point that stands out. ) this gives 1 - 1 + 2 = 2 so it does fit the formula ; but there is no reason it should, really, because it doesn ' t fit the requirements for the theorem, namely that the graph should be equivalent to a polyhedron. each face must be simply connected ( able to shrink to a disk, with no \" holes \" in it ), and likewise each edge must be like a segment ( not a circle ). one of our \" natural \" faces has a \" vertex \" in the middle of it, so it is not simply connected ; and the \" edge \" has no ends, so it doesn ' t fit either. these errors just happen to cancel one another out. as another example, take a cylinder, which in its natural state has no vertices, two \" edges \", and three", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5689812854175688, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b7a43f40-aa4a-4a8e-bff9-be77db0b79c6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.574982"}
{"text": "be artificial. on the other hand, the tradition is given fresh life in and through artists who magnify their talents without self - regard. nowhere else does literary tradition live. nowhere but in such artists can a living past be encountered. without them, ritual petrifies and folk art becomes sentimental or vulgar. we have inverted the title of eliot ' s essay because we want to express this modification of eliot ' s thesis. the inversion expands the usual connotations of the terms \" talent \" and \" tradition. \" it suggests that there is a strong sense in which talents are fully employed by individuals only when they do not regard them as their own ( or simply, do not regard them ), and that there is an equally strong sense in which tradition exists only in the form of individuals in whom it is reincarnated. we use this word rather than \" transmitted \" because it suggests that tradition is not merely transported intact by individuals along the passageway of time, but renewed and revitalized. eliot was thinking of the literary tradition in a way that comprehends the whole of that tradition, including the writing of philosophy, criticism, drama, social tracts, psychology, and history. what we have to say about the historian in this essay might be said ( with appropriate adjustment of detail ) about any practitioner of any literary art, and this is a point that needs to be kept firmly in mind if our thesis is to be intelligible. for our motivation in thinking about the subject is not accusatory. we would do ill to write of other people, present or past, as if their plight were not ours. indeed, we have keenly felt the moral hazards that beset historians in our own disciplines of philology and philosophy. the discipline that must be acquired in order to assimilate one ' s tradition is more than an accumulation of information. in the historian ' s case this discipline is a matter of care, in every sense of that word : carefulness in studying the random residue which past people have left of themselves and caring for them even though they are no longer with us. without careful discipline there can be no incarnation of tradition, and without incarnation there is no individuality. by defining the historian ' s discipline this way, we want to distinguish it from method. method can be mastered and misused. for some practicing historians ( philosophers, psychologists, and so forth ), this is just what happens ; their method is not simply the thoroughgoing care with which they set out a story of the past. instead it is an affect", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.519969289643393, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.613558"}
{"text": "ultimate historiographical concern, but the purity - of - heart / impurity axis. the question is not whether the historian, like other craftsmen, colors what he makes with his own personality, for inevitably he does. rather, the question is what sort of colors he gives it. does he discolor it by harboring self - seeking intentions? we have no disposition to pick on historians. philosophers are probably even more self - crippling, because the modes of philosophical thinking are more explicit, canonized, and coercive than the modes of historical thinking. for example, many philosophers assume that, except in its most extreme speculative reaches, contemporary logic defines not only the standard of one type of discourse among others, but the single type of discourse in which certain kinds of truths may be stated. historically, logic was no such standard ; instead, it was considered a branch of rhetoric \u2014 and that in fact is what it is. to speak with philosophical precision is to adopt a very narrow register of human speech in which much that human beings experience cannot be expressed or described. why would anyone speak so artificially? why would anyone be willing to censor his responses as a whole person in deference to narrow philosophical canons of expression? recent work in the rhetoric of scientific discourse suggests that at least some of the motives are self - assertion and professional legitimacy, and if there are others, we do not know them. so philosophers and historians alike make myths when they take themselves too seriously : when they promote themselves in their work. ( of course, this means not taking themselves seriously enough as individual human beings \u2014 trusting the canons of their discipline more than their own sensibility. ) believing that a disciplinary method is a mode of knowing rather than a heuristic device for arranging material for specific purposes may not be simply an error. it may be a sin. the historian or philosopher who uses his discipline self - promotionally finds immediate promise of exoneration in the view that the discipline can validate his work independently of his intentions. he clings to the idea that his social purposes are professionally irrelevant. by this means, he provides himself with an alibi if his conscience accuses him of seeking his own interest. how can he be accused of coloring his materials, he insists, when his constant aim is to rid them of coloration? preoccupation with technique and method fits plato ' s definition of sophistry and pinpoints the self - seeking in it : one sends out a highly controlled signal in order to elicit a highly manipulated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5198326828567654, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.617944"}
{"text": "is to rid them of coloration? preoccupation with technique and method fits plato ' s definition of sophistry and pinpoints the self - seeking in it : one sends out a highly controlled signal in order to elicit a highly manipulated response. one can sin in scholarship as anywhere else. it is wrong in writing to do anything but write what is in us to be written. understanding past people the problem of understanding people in the past, including their policies and institutions, is only a form of the problem of understanding people generally. by setting out certain features of our ability to understand our contemporaries, we may illuminate the claims we are making about historical knowledge. consider the following points : knowing about people is not knowing them ; that is, it is not understanding them. one cannot but withdraw from other human beings \u2014 and thus render them humanly unreal \u2014 if one concentrates on what properties they have, for that construes them as objects. nietzsche, heidegger, buber, polanyi, and levinas have all taught us this by numerous cogent insights. when we know a person, we know more than we can tell ; and supposing otherwise is a mode of pushing that person away. understanding people, as opposed to knowing about them, comes in the course of being with them unselfconsciously ; it is a residuum of living in a sharing, trusting, and caring community with them. hence to observe people in order to know about them rather than to respond unguardedly to them is to withdraw from the conditions which must obtain if they are to be understood. thus, acting as if one is an observing center rather than a person does not mean one is disinterested. such action is an apparent self - obliteration in the form of a perceptual and stylistic anonymity which is actually an intense preoccupation with guarding, vindicating, and advancing the self. it is an intense form of self - assertion. a historian can live with and understand past people only if he regards the accoutrements of his profession ( the habits, the jargon, the frame of reference, and so forth ) as inferior to, and less valuable than, himself as a man and any man as a man. only then can he enter with unselfconscious empathy into others ' situations. the historian as tradition incarnate contrast the self - seeking, depersonalizing writer of history with the guileless one.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5230385628665888, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.618874"}
{"text": "and any man as a man. only then can he enter with unselfconscious empathy into others ' situations. the historian as tradition incarnate contrast the self - seeking, depersonalizing writer of history with the guileless one. the former imposes generalizations and theories upon \" the data. \" the latter expresses patterns of selection in his work that go beyond what he can deliberately produce or even completely comprehend. these living patterns of selection taken together are an expression of what he is as one who by historical study has assimilated tradition through his language, in his interaction with his immediate forebears. this tradition then expresses itself in his unselfconscious writing and teaching. and therefore what he produces is right. it is not false to what he transforms. when he speaks or writes it is as if history is finding one expression of its accumulating truth in his responses to that part of the world which has preceded him. the self - serving historian, on the other hand, stylizes what he comprehends of the past and thwarts the flow of tradition through him. he is untrue to the living tradition that has enabled him to become both a person and a historian. if a historian accepts the gospel, he is adopted ; he gains a new ancestry ; a fresh heritage becomes active in him. his open, artless, and fresh way of seeing and speaking about the past will be a correlative, an expression, of the new person he has become. if purely motivated, he gives the history he has absorbed a spontaneous \u2014 that is, an unguarded and guileless \u2014 expression. that kind of expression is wisdom. on the other hand, the self - deceived historian performs something extraneous to the purpose of the history which had made him what he is, and he is thereby unfaithful to himself. and if he knows anything about the gospel, he is unfaithful to the lord. he does not produce wisdom. let us further contrast generalization and wisdom. generalizations are generally valid for general purposes ; they are not valid for specific purposes. we may induce a generalization from a number of specifics, but when we have done so we find that it does not completely apply to any of them. perhaps in natural science it could ( or could it? ), but historically it will not. any generalization to be valid has to be one arising totally from a total specific situation, not a generalization inductively arrived at over", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5683353866634988, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.619776"}
{"text": "of them. perhaps in natural science it could ( or could it? ), but historically it will not. any generalization to be valid has to be one arising totally from a total specific situation, not a generalization inductively arrived at over many instances. this is where the word \" wisdom \" comes in : we read history in order to gain the great historian ' s wisdom. in him we encounter a unique historical situation alive in a living, interfusing, and blending individual, the historian. and we discover in the nature of that unique totality something of the nature of all other unique totalities \u2014 something which cannot be expressed in any list of generalizations, however lengthy. that is why history is an art rather than a science ( we are assuming, we suspect incorrectly, that there are in fact sciences, the essence of which can be expressed in a theory, i. e., in an adequate and consistent set of generalizations ). it is why a fine history, like a baucis - and - philemon pitcher, is inexhaustible ( though not unfathomable ). there is no essential difference between the way in which herodotus and thucydides use their material and the way in which aeschylus and sophocles use theirs. the swedish philosopher, hans larsson, said in 1892 ( in spite of the shadow of herbert spencer ) that social scientists should not ignore the fact that literature has given them far more subtle exemplars of human behavior than they themselves describe. ( the converse is also true : when social scientists describe behavior well, they write literature ; adler is not literature but freud is, and that is the only reason why freud is worth more attention. ) the historian can be true to the history reposited within him only if he endeavors to give it the form that suits the whole of it, and not merely parts of it. in doing this, he is doing the same thing as someone who makes a poem. he should from this point of view recognize himself as an artist and realize that his totality of knowledge should be expressed through a totality of means. the historian who has a style that is true to him will produce history that is also true to him, and because it is true to him in this naive sense it will have truth in it. this is a patently different sense of \" truth \" than is current among many social scientists. it is predicated upon the view that contact with history is not contact with the past as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5768678430165192, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.620656"}
{"text": "to him in this naive sense it will have truth in it. this is a patently different sense of \" truth \" than is current among many social scientists. it is predicated upon the view that contact with history is not contact with the past as such but with the historian who embodies the tradition in his own unique way. the book he writes is only an aspect of what he has achieved in human terms and cannot be understood apart from that achievement. the historian whose style is true to him will be one in whom the tradition will have been truly incarnated ; style and what we are calling \" incarnation \" are but aspects of the same thing. and if the style is wrong, the history written will be wrong. there is no question of the style ' s varying independently of the \" facts \" \u2014 of the style ' s being wrong and the \" facts \" right or of the style being right and the \" facts \" wrong. to think otherwise is to have a befuddled \u2014 an objectivist \u2014 view of factuality. in the light of this personifying view of truth gibbon comes off as a great historian, for his style expresses himself. the same can be said of thucydides, herodotus, and livy ; it could not be said of those nineteenth - century historians who were eager to put rational order onto the material ; or of those twentieth - century historians who consider it imperative to order the material professionally and impersonally. there is never a more significant result of the study of history than the historian himself. historical uniqueness and moral universalizability these three things happen together if they happen at all : the author is self - forgetful, the historical situation is captured in its uniqueness, and \u2014 we have not mentioned this yet \u2014 the history written serves as an inexhaustible fund for moral lessons. yet it is not didactic in any ordinary sense of that term. only a history that in the first instance tried to abstract out the moral content of a past situation would in the second instance be compelled to try to reimpose it in the form of cautionary conclusions. a situation captured in its uniqueness has moral relevance because it is a whole situation like our own situation. we are free to see it in any of indefinitely many ways, including those most instructive for us. but when the historical situation is subsumed under a generalization, it is seen in just one way, and we can easily exclude ourselves from it. many similarities between that situation and our circumstance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5052258626304169, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.621680"}
{"text": "ways, including those most instructive for us. but when the historical situation is subsumed under a generalization, it is seen in just one way, and we can easily exclude ourselves from it. many similarities between that situation and our circumstance are artificially suppressed. ( this is one of the great lessons of nietzsche ' s doctrine that all events, including the propagation of ideas, have multiple genealogies. ) we let our preoccupation with discrete personal properties and comparisons become a pseudo - mosaic alternative to conscience. ( why aren ' t we led by everything we see to have a broken heart and contrite spirit? certainly it is not because we don ' t have ample cause. ) but letting the story tell itself in all of the completeness with which we spontaneously apprehend it is tantamount to a repudiation of this pseudo - mosaic context. the reader is left to face up to the whole of the matter \u2014 to be impressed by moral dimensions and standards inherent in the story, dimensions which even the author may not suspect are there. take the example of david. david is not just any oriental monarch. he has been chosen by the lord to be the leader of israel. he has shown himself obedient in every particular to the lord. he has not tried to hasten or evade the lord ' s plan for him ; he has not anticipated the time when he is to take over the kingdom ; he has left the shape and direction of his destiny to the lord. he spares saul ' s life more than once. he makes his way faultlessly to the throne. who else in history ever did that? only after he has achieved the throne does he fail, and the story of his failure, down to his last bloody deathbed utterance, is told in more detail than the story of his success. now to make the moral point of the story of david other than the way in which nathan did would be to hide that point. that is, to impose a superficial moral generalization on the story would be to rob it of its moral applicability to every reader \u2014 its moral universalizability. what nathan did was to set david a trap by presenting a parable, and david fell into the trap. the climax of david ' s life is nathan ' s statement : \" thou art the man. \" this climax is not set out in detail and the moral point is not put in a proposition : it could not be. we cannot even say that the story shows the moral point (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5227549676632504, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.622875"}
{"text": "life is nathan ' s statement : \" thou art the man. \" this climax is not set out in detail and the moral point is not put in a proposition : it could not be. we cannot even say that the story shows the moral point ( i. e., the punishment for adultery and murder ). that is too cut and dried and limited a characterization, for the punishment does not \" fit the crime \" : the crime ' s consequences are its punishment \u2014 to be an adulterer is the punishment for adultery. instead, the history ' s moral point pulsates throughout the whole of it, as through a parable, and cannot be abstracted from it. and we in our own individual and different ways \u2014 in ways apposite to our individual cases \u2014 draw the parable ' s conclusion \u2014 a conclusion which may well differ from what we may discover upon returning to the story later, after further experiences have altered us. we are allowed to experience david ' s life totally, to sense its emotive tides, to work out the ironical implications of the account. the inspired historian has produced, in a language of the whole man which uses all the devices of rhetoric ( including juxtaposition ), a better biography, a finer account, than any other anywhere. it is written for a spiritually educated and subtle people. it goes as far as history can go, which is to re - create the story of a past human being in the terms in which it is lived and valued, which is to say, in predominantly moral terms. the closest a self - deceiving historian can come to morality is this : \" there but for the grace of god go i. \" this effort at self - decontamination is not found in a historian who produces pure history, precisely because his acknowledgment of impurity has been for him a path to purity. the response of the guileless historian is therefore, \" lord, have mercy on me, there go i also. \" this is what the prophet nathan, speaking for the lord, meant when he said, \" thou art the man. \" and for us, in all of the pages of history, there is implicit in every line the unarticulated reminder : \" we are the men. \" thus does the response of the guileless historian place him in community with the past people he encounters in his work. he understands them as people. it is remarkable that only as we become more individual, rather than less, can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5028429218020691, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.623946"}
{"text": "the men. \" thus does the response of the guileless historian place him in community with the past people he encounters in his work. he understands them as people. it is remarkable that only as we become more individual, rather than less, can we live in community with one another. and conversely : only as we live in and through one another in our individual uniqueness \u2014 the historian taking past people to understand and they taking him to be understood by \u2014 is it possible for us to partake of each other ' s strengths and be individually richer for it. otherwise, our relation to one another is manipulative : we treat ourselves and each other as replicable \u2014 indeed, as artifacts which in our social interaction with one another we ourselves are continuously producing. for those of us who insulate ourselves from one another by using each other, even the present is a sort of past, cadaverized, an unbridgeable distance away ; whereas for the pure even the past is present, vivified and immediately felt. this is in the spirit not only of the gospel but of thinkers like heidegger, who have tried to clear away the intellectual debris from our modern mentality so that we might receive the revelation from god if only it were to come. what shall it profit a man? it cannot profit a person to try to be individualistic in his way of perceiving others ' situations or in his way of writing about them. it is as unprofitable as trying to be nonchalant or sincere. one who does not feel exigencies in his present situation is nonchalant ; one who tries to be nonchalant is tense. one who is concentrating wholly on something other than himself in what he is doing is sincere ; one who is trying to be sincere is concentrating on himself, no matter how hard he pretends he is not. taking thought to make ourselves or our work be some particular way or other is in principle self - defeating. another reason why it is profitless to try to be an individual is that taking thought to make ourselves is self - delimiting. taking thought for the morrow in any way at all means trying to conform to an anticipated pattern of self which in principle is too simple to be a self. the more we conform to that pattern, the more we make of ourselves not an individual but rather a replicable artifact \u2014 our own artifact. and the work we produce is also too simple to be the work of the self, for behind it was the motivation to produce that which will", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5377147458829489, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.625116"}
{"text": "pattern, the more we make of ourselves not an individual but rather a replicable artifact \u2014 our own artifact. and the work we produce is also too simple to be the work of the self, for behind it was the motivation to produce that which will reflect a character too simple to be a self. a third reason why we cannot by taking thought add a cubit to our stature as historians : by trying to conform ourselves to a replicable model of what a historian should be we block our own creativity. how? taking thought for the morrow means substituting an imagined tomorrow for the one that is really going to be there. and as we do not know the one that is really going to be there, we prepare ourselves for a number of hypothetical tomorrows that will never come. we do this instead of being ready, by merely being ourselves, for any tomorrow that will come. when we wake up in the morning, we don ' t readily pick up the thread of the day that awaits us, for we have determined in advance where it will be, and therefore we do not see where it really is. alas for benjamin franklin, planning his day at 5 : 00 a. m., how he will manipulate various philadelphians! he must compulsively and obsessively try to extrude many threads, to manipulate many clues to the labyrinth in order to convince himself that he is on the right track. and franklin ' s kind of planning for the future is simply the mirror image of the self - serving historian ' s planning for the past. the generalizations the historian has convinced himself are the right guidelines for interpreting history preclude him from discovering new patterns in the history he encounters ; he is only able to gather more details. here is a fourth reason why writing the kind of history we have suggested is not something a person could possibly set out to do : to try to get for ourselves in any fashion is to be anxious over the treasure we seek, and to be thus anxious is to forfeit the freedom and spontaneity or openness necessary for a total response to a total situation. that is a message of w. h. auden ' s poem, \" the bard. \" he was their servant \u2014 some say he was blind \u2014 and moved among their faces and their things ; their feeling gathered in him like a wind and sang : they cried \u2014 ' it is a god that sings ' \u2014 and worshipped him and set him up apart and made him vain till he mistook for song the little tremor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5222688675731294, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.626056"}
{"text": "before, he writes his words. he will draw his identity at a source different from the well of his peers ' opinions. we have been advocating what used to be called \" enthusiasm. \" contrary to what some would have us believe, enthusiasm has nothing to do with romanticism ; and if they think it historically has nothing to do with classicism, it is because they tend not to consider the classicists, like milton and dante, who were enthusiastic christians. we acknowledge that nothing could be more alien to the intellectualist ideal of calculated impersonality. it is true that this ideal seems not altogether unwarranted, for historical instances of enthusiasm have been justifiably attacked. there is this danger in enthusiasm, that impure people, like hitler, will yield to an impure spirit. our thesis in this paper is that by the same token, there is an equally horrifying danger in the repudiation of enthusiasm \u2014 namely, in the protection which some erect against novelty and spontaneity in themselves \u2014 a disguised form of demonism in which seizure by the holy spirit is precisely what is resisted. the one alternative to being possessed by some sort of devil is to yield to \u2014 voluntarily to let ourselves be taken over by \u2014 god ' s spirit. the depersonalizing \" wisdom \" of the age, like the so - called wisdom of ages generally, will when unmasked be seen to be only the self - protective smoke screen of a professional clique so fearful of self - revelation through their productions that they have yielded themselves up proudly to the demon of reasonableness. what was to be the value of the long looked forward to, long hoped for calm, the autumnal serenity and the wisdom of age? had they deceived us or deceived themselves, the quiet - voiced elders, bequeathing us merely a receipt for deceit? the serenity only a deliberate hebetude, the wisdom only the knowledge of dead secrets useless in the darkness into which they peered or from which they turned their eyes. there is, it seems to us, at best, only a limited value in the knowledge derived from experience. the knowledge imposes a pattern, and falsifies, for the pattern is new in every moment and every moment is a new and shocking valuation of all we have been. we are only undeceived of that which, deceiving, could no longer harm. in the middle, not only in the middle of the way but all the way, in a dark wood,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5035024083483672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a38562f4-b18b-45c6-a87d-438bf1f943bb>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.628750"}
{"text": "what is acceptance? from the dictionary it \u2019 s \u201c the act or process of accepting \u201d. makes sense. i had been raised without a father. he \u2019 s not dead, but he seems to be in a difficult place where he can no longer be with us. it \u2019 s sad. very sad. people may think why i still think of my father, why don \u2019 t i hate him for leaving us, why do i care, why? mainly because he \u2019 s my father. a female child needs her father \u2019 s comfort in difficult times, as per a male child needs his mother. it \u2019 s so hard to contain all the burden of not having someone to run to in times like these. one thing that i am proud of is that i never gave up on myself. i know it \u2019 s easy to say all this because i \u2019 m still young and all but one thing is certain, the world has placed me in a situation only i could handle and i know i can. i \u2019 ve dealt with different people, situations, emotions, all that the world could feed me at a very young age. as many people see me as a normal girl, i \u2019 m not. deep down i \u2019 m broken and i \u2019 m searching for a way to fix myself. how i handle things? there goes the acceptance. you have to accept everything that you cannot change, everything your hands are not capable of fixing, everything the world would be giving you. for a while you would cry, get angry, be furious, be regretful, but then you would find another way to remain with the happiness that you could still get. - learn from the past, this means learn from other people \u2019 s as well not just yours. this lead me to a very bright path today. - live in the present, because thinking about the past or the future won \u2019 t help. - forget the future, it \u2019 s never going to be a straight path towards your goals. - accept the unacceptable and let them live where you have a joyful life.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5117302355979194, "token_count": 415, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ebd050fb-a59b-4154-a9b6-dfb5e3e71664>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.633128"}
{"text": "circulating tumor cells can reveal genetic signature of dangerous lung cancers using a miniature laboratory - on - a - chip device, a team of investigators at the massachusetts general hospital, led by daniel haber, m. d., ph. d., and mehmet toner, ph. d., both members of the mit - harvard center for cancer nanotechnology excellence ( ccne ), has developed a method that detects and analyzes the genetic signature of rare tumor cells in the bloodstream. the results from this analysis allowed the researchers to identify those patients most likely to respond to a specific targeted treatment. this chip - based analysis also allowed the researchers to monitor genetic changes that occur during therapy. according to dr. haber, this chip opens up a new field of studying tumors in real time. \u201c when the device is ready for larger clinical trials, it should give us new options for measuring treatment response, defining prognostic and predictive measures, and studying the biology of blood - borne metastasis, which is the primary method by which cancer spreads and becomes lethal. \u201d dr. haber and his team published their results in the new england journal of medicine. circulating tumor cells ( ctcs ) are living solid - tumor cells found at extremely low levels in the bloodstream. until the development of the ctc - chip by the massachusetts institute of technology ( mit ) - harvard ccne team, it was not possible to get information from ctcs that would be useful for clinical decision - making. the current study was designed to determine whether the device could go beyond detecting ctcs to helping analyze the genetic mutations that can make a tumor sensitive to treatment with targeted therapy drugs. the researchers tested blood samples from patients with non - small - cell lung cancer ( nsclc ), the leading cause of cancer death in the united states. in 2004, cancer researchers had discovered that mutations in a protein called epidermal growth factor receptor ( egfr ) determine whether nsclc tumors respond to a group of drugs called tyrosine kinase inhibitors ( tkis ), which includes gefitinib ( iressa ) and erlotinib ( tarceva ). although the response of sensitive tumors to those drugs can be swift and dramatic, eventually many tumors become resistant to the drugs and resume growing. the ctc - chip was used to analyze blood samples from 27 patients \u2014 23 who had egfr mutations and 4 who did not \u2014 and ctcs were identified in samples from all patients. genetic analysis of ctcs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.501409713220966, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15d35381-6d1a-4fb9-882e-57203c169a2c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.660277"}
{"text": "the drugs and resume growing. the ctc - chip was used to analyze blood samples from 27 patients \u2014 23 who had egfr mutations and 4 who did not \u2014 and ctcs were identified in samples from all patients. genetic analysis of ctcs from mutation - positive tumors detected those mutations 92 percent of the time. in addition to the primary mutation that leads to initial tumor development and tki sensitivity, the ctc - chip also detected a secondary mutation associated with treatment resistance in some participants, including those whose tumors originally responded to treatment but later resumed growing. blood samples were taken at regular intervals during the course of treatment from four patients with mutation - positive tumors. in all of those patients, levels of ctcs dropped sharply after tki treatment began and began rising when tumors resumed growing. in one patient, adding additional chemotherapy caused ctc levels to drop again as the tumor continued shrinking. throughout the course of therapy, the tumors \u2019 genetic makeup continued to evolve. not only did the most common resistance mutation emerge in tumors where it was not initially present, but new activating mutations \u2014 the type that causes a tumor to develop in the first place \u2014 appeared in seven patients \u2019 tumors, indicating that these cancers are more genetically complex than expected and that continuing to monitor tumor genotype throughout the course of treatment may be crucial. \u201c if tumor genotypes don \u2019 t remain static during therapy, it \u2019 s essential to know exactly what you \u2019 re treating at the time you are treating it, \u201d says haber. \u201c biopsy samples taken at the time of diagnosis can never tell us about changes emerging during therapy or genotypic differences that may occur in different sites of the original tumor, but the ctc - chip offers the promise of noninvasive continuous monitoring. \u201d this work, which was supported in part by the national cancer institute \u2019 s alliance for nanotechnology in cancer, is detailed in the paper \u201c detection of mutations in egfr in circulating lung - cancer cells. \u201d an abstract of this paper is available through pubmed.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5149583715618253, "token_count": 412, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15d35381-6d1a-4fb9-882e-57203c169a2c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.661121"}
{"text": "new tool developed to trace brown fat, fight obesity london, july 19 ( ians ) scientists have enlisted a pioneering new tool which uses thermal imaging to spot brown fat - the body ' s good fat - to fight obesity. brown fat plays a vital role in quickly burning away the calories and produces 300 times more heat than any other tissue in the body. it means that the more of it we have, the less likely we are to store excess energy or food as harmful fat. michael symonds, professor of developmental physiology at the university of nottingham, who led the study, said : \" this completely non - invasive technique could play a crucial role in our fight against obesity, \" the journal of paediatrics reports. \" potentially, we could add a thermogenic index to food labels to show whether that product would increase or decrease heat production within brown fat. in other words, whether it would speed up or slow down the amount of calories we burn, \" added symonds, according to a nottingham statement. helen budge, clinical associate professor in neonatology at nottingham, who worked with symonds, said : \" babies have a larger amount of brown fat which they use up to keep warm soon after birth making our study ' s finding that this healthy fat can also generate heat in childhood and adolescence very exciting. \" read more : university grants commission ( ugc ) | guru nanak dev university | kumaon university nainital | gorakhpur university | agra university | ayurvedic university | bundelkhand university so | mds university ajmer dtso | madras university po | world university centre | pondicherry university | annamalai university | kannur university campus | calicut university | kochi university | jadavpur university | kolkata university | budge budge natun bazar s. o. | budge budge s. o. ( hsg - ii ) | vidyasagar university so 4th c v raman int ' l fellowship launched for research may 21, 2013 at 10 : 07 pm we will bring a new law to regulate fixing : jitendra singh may 21, 2013 at 10 : 00 pm court allows five day police custody for the ipl fixers may 21, 2013 at 9 : 58 pm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5338629592266437, "token_count": 460, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3f05cf18-6580-4c7b-8b9e-b286d9b11267>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.680788"}
{"text": "please use this identifier to cite or link to this item : http : / / hdl. handle. net / 1959. 13 / 916979 - the ' humped ' soil production function : eroding arnhem land, australia heimsath, arjun m. ; hancock, greg r. - the university of newcastle. faculty of science & information technology, school of environmental and life sciences - we report erosion rates and processes, determined from in situ - produced beryllium - 10 ( \u00b9\u2070be ) and aluminum - 26 ( \u00b2\u2076al ), across a soil - mantled landscape of arnhem land, northern australia. soil production rates peak under a soil thickness of about 35 cm and we observe no soil thicknesses between exposed bedrock and this thickness. these results thus quantify a well - defined \u2018 humped \u2019 soil - production function, in contrast to functions reported for other landscapes. we compare this function to a previously reported exponential decline of soil production rates with increasing soil thickness across the passive margin exposed in the bega valley, south - eastern australia, and found remarkable similarities in rates. the critical difference in this work was that the arnhem land landscapes were either bedrock or mantled with soils greater than about 35 cm deep, with peak soil production rates of about 20 m / ma under 35 \u2013 40 cm of soil, thus supporting previous theory and modeling results for a humped soil production function. we also show how coupling point - specific with catchment - averaged erosion rate measurements lead to a better understanding of landscape denudation. specifically, we report a nested sampling scheme where we quantify average erosion rates from the first - order, upland catchments to the main, sixth - order channel of tin camp creek. the low ( ~ 5 m / ma ) rates from the main channel sediments reflect contributions from the slowly eroding stony highlands, while the channels draining our study area reflect local soil production rates ( ~ 10 m / ma off the rocky ridge ; ~ 20 m / ma from the soil mantled regions ). quantifying such rates and processes help determine spatial variations of soil thickness as well as helping to predict the sustainability of the earth ' s soil resource under different erosional regimes. - earth surface processes and landforms vol. 34, issue 12, p. 1674 - 1684 - publisher link - john wiley & sons - resource type - journal article", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5518547916078922, "token_count": 489, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aaec1b94-9ba9-4b55-bc0f-d21d25032da1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.704620"}
{"text": "find a physician more on flu ( influenza ) more on flu ( influenza ) research and clinical trials more on flu ( influenza ) what is influenza ( flu )? influenza ( or flu ) is a highly contagious viral respiratory tract infection. an estimated 5 to 20 percent of the population in the us contract influenza each year. influenza is characterized by the abrupt onset of fever, muscle aches, sore throat, and a nonproductive cough. influenza can make people of any age ill. although most people are ill with influenza for only a few days, some have a much more serious illness and may need to be hospitalized. influenza can also lead to pneumonia and death. influenza viruses are divided into three types, designated as a, b, and c. - influenza types a and b are responsible for epidemics of respiratory illness that occur almost every winter and are often associated with increased rates for hospitalization and death. efforts to control the impact of influenza are focused on types a and b. - influenza type c usually causes either a very mild respiratory illness or no symptoms at all. it does not cause epidemics and does not have the severe public health impact that influenza types a and b do. influenza viruses continually mutate or change, which enables the virus to evade the immune system of its host. this makes people susceptible to influenza infection throughout their lives. the process works as follows : - a person infected with influenza virus develops antibody against that virus. - the virus mutates or changes. - the \" older \" antibody no longer recognizes the \" newer \" virus. - reinfection occurs. the older antibody can, however, provide partial protection against reinfection. currently, three different influenza viruses circulate worldwide : two type a viruses and one type b virus. immunizations given each year to protect against the flu contain the influenza virus strain from each type that is expected to cause the flu within that year. facts about the flu : although each flu season is different, approximately 5 to 20 percent of the population will get the flu each year. approximately 36, 000 of those who get the flu will die from it or from complications. what causes influenza? the influenza virus is generally passed from person to person by airborne transmission ( i. e., sneezing or coughing ). but, the virus can also live for a short time on objects - such as doorknobs, pens, pencils, keyboards, telephone receivers, and eating or drinking utensils. therefore, it may also be spread by touching something that has", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5221802240941783, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2d08fd6-0c0e-45ba-b14a-c4408bfc6132>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.718675"}
{"text": ", the virus can also live for a short time on objects - such as doorknobs, pens, pencils, keyboards, telephone receivers, and eating or drinking utensils. therefore, it may also be spread by touching something that has been handled by someone infected with the virus and then touching your own mouth, nose, or eyes. what are the symptoms of the flu? the following are the most common symptoms of the flu. however, each individual may experience symptoms differently. influenza is called a respiratory disease, but the whole body seems to suffer when a person is infected. people usually become acutely ill with several, or all, of the following symptoms : - high fever - clear nose - sneezing at times - cough, often becoming severe - severe aches and pains - fatigue for several weeks - sometimes a sore throat - extreme exhaustion fever and body aches usually last for three to five days, but cough and fatigue may last for two weeks or more. although nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may accompany the flu, these gastrointestinal symptoms are rarely prominent. \" stomach flu \" is an incorrect term sometimes used to describe gastrointestinal illnesses caused by other microorganisms. the symptoms of the flu may resemble other medical conditions. always consult your physician for a diagnosis. treatment for influenza : specific treatment for influenza will be determined by your physician based on : - your age, overall health, and medical history - extent and type of influenza, and severity of symptoms - your tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies - expectations for the course of the disease - your opinion or preference the goal of treatment for influenza is to help prevent or decrease the severity of symptoms. treatment may include : - medications to relieve aches and fever ( aspirin should not be given to children with fever without first consulting a physician ). the drug of choice for children is acetaminophen ( tylenol ). - medications for congestion and nasal discharge - bed rest and increased intake of fluids antiviral medications - when started within the first two days of treatment, they can reduce the duration of the disease but cannot cure it. four medications have been approved and include amantadine, rimantadine, zanamivir, and oseltamivir. some side effects may result from taking these medications, such as nervousness, lightheadedness, or nausea. individuals with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are cautioned about using zanamivir. viral resistance to these drugs may", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5026041433608577, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2d08fd6-0c0e-45ba-b14a-c4408bfc6132>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.719854"}
{"text": "the second place, it is almost as much opposed to the theory of natural selection as to that of special creation, that in reciprocal crosses the male element of one form should have been rendered utterly impotent on a second form, whilst at the same time the male element of this second form is enabled freely to fertilise the first form ; for this peculiar state of the reproductive system could hardly have been advantageous to either species. in considering the probability of natural selection having come into action, in rendering species mutually sterile, the greatest difficulty will be found to lie in the existence of many graduated steps from slightly lessened fertility to absolute sterility. it may be admitted that it would profit an incipient species, if it were rendered in some slight degree sterile when crossed with its parent form or with some other variety ; for thus fewer bastardised and deteriorated offspring would be produced to commingle their blood with the new species in process of formation. but he who will take the trouble to reflect on the steps by which this first degree of sterility could be increased through natural selection to that high degree which is common with so many species, and which is universal with species which have been differentiated to a generic or family rank, will find the subject extraordinarily complex. after mature reflection it seems to me that this could not have been effected through natural selection. take the case of any two species which, when crossed, produced few and sterile offspring ; now, what is there which could favour the survival of those individuals which happened to be endowed in a slightly higher degree with mutual infertility, and which thus approached by one small step towards absolute sterility? yet an advance of this kind, if the theory of natural selection be brought to bear, must have incessantly occurred with many species, for a multitude are mutually quite barren. with sterile neuter insects we have reason to believe that modifications in their structure and fertility have been slowly accumulated by natural selection, from an advantage having been thus indirectly given to the community to which they belonged over other communities of the same species ; but an individual animal not belonging to a social community, if rendered slightly sterile when crossed with some other variety, would not thus itself gain any advantage or indirectly give any advantage to the other individuals of the same variety, thus leading to their preservation. but it would be superfluous to discuss this question in detail ; for with plants we have conclusive evidence that the sterility of crossed species must be due to some principle, quite independent of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.54742652888785, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4540dd27-0634-4475-8fab-6880639fbba8>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.758767"}
{"text": "the same variety, thus leading to their preservation. but it would be superfluous to discuss this question in detail ; for with plants we have conclusive evidence that the sterility of crossed species must be due to some principle, quite independent of natural selection. both gartner and kolreuter have proved that in genera including numerous species, a series can be formed from species which when crossed yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of certain other species, for the germen swells. it is here manifestly impossible to select the more sterile individuals, which have already ceased to yield seeds ; so that this acme of sterility, when the germen alone is affected, cannot have been gained through selection ; and from the laws governing the various grades of sterility being so uniform throughout the animal and vegetable kingdoms, we may infer that the cause, whatever it may be, is the same or nearly the same in all cases. we will now look a little closer at the probable nature of the differences between species which induce sterility in first crosses and in hybrids. in the case of first crosses, the greater or less difficulty in effecting an union and in obtaining offspring apparently depends on several distinct causes. there must sometimes be a physical impossibility in the male element reaching the ovule, as would be the case with a plant having a pistil too long for the pollen - tubes to reach the ovarium. it has also been observed that when the pollen of one species is placed on the stigma of a distantly allied species, though the pollen - tubes protrude, they do not penetrate the stigmatic surface. again, the male element may reach the female element but be incapable of causing an embryo to be developed, as seems to have been the case with some of thuret \u2019 s experiments on fuci. no explanation can be given of these facts, any more than why certain trees cannot be grafted on others. lastly, an embryo may be developed, and then perish at an early period. this latter alternative has not been sufficiently attended to ; but i believe, from observations communicated to me by mr. hewitt, who has had great experience in hybridising pheasants and fowls, that the early death of the embryo is a very frequent cause of sterility in first crosses. mr. salter has recently given the results of an examination of about 500 eggs produced from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5321418205432207, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4540dd27-0634-4475-8fab-6880639fbba8>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.759931"}
{"text": "in hybridising pheasants and fowls, that the early death of the embryo is a very frequent cause of sterility in first crosses. mr. salter has recently given the results of an examination of about 500 eggs produced from various crosses between three species of gallus and their hybrids ; the majority of these eggs had been fertilised ; and in the majority of the fertilised eggs, the embryos had either been partially developed and had then perished, or had become nearly mature, but the young chickens had been unable to break through the shell. of the chickens which were born, more than four - fifths died within the first few days, or at latest weeks, \u201c without any obvious cause, apparently from mere inability to live ; \u201d so that from the 500 eggs only twelve chickens were reared. with plants, hybridised embryos probably often perish in a like manner ; at least it is known that hybrids raised from very distinct species are sometimes weak and dwarfed, and perish at an early age ; of which fact max wichura has recently given some striking cases with hybrid willows. it may be here worth noticing that in some cases of parthenogenesis, the embryos within the eggs of silk moths which had not been fertilised, pass through their early stages of development and then perish like the embryos produced by a cross between distinct species. until becoming acquainted with these facts, i was unwilling to believe in the frequent early death of hybrid embryos ; for hybrids, when once born, are generally healthy and long - lived, as we see in the case of the common mule. hybrids, however, are differently circumstanced before and after birth : when born and living in a country where their two parents live, they are generally placed under suitable conditions of life. but a hybrid partakes of only half of the nature and constitution of its mother ; it may therefore before birth, as long as it is nourished within its mother \u2019 s womb, or within the egg or seed produced by the mother, be exposed to conditions in some degree unsuitable, and consequently be liable to perish at an early period ; more especially as all very young beings are eminently sensitive to injurious or unnatural conditions of life. but after all, the cause more probably lies in some imperfection in the original act of impregnation, causing the embryo to be imperfectly developed, rather than in the conditions to which it is subsequently exposed. in regard to the ste", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5040180422718095, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4540dd27-0634-4475-8fab-6880639fbba8>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.760936"}
{"text": ". but after all, the cause more probably lies in some imperfection in the original act of impregnation, causing the embryo to be imperfectly developed, rather than in the conditions to which it is subsequently exposed. in regard to the sterility of hybrids, in which the sexual elements are imperfectly developed, the case is somewhat different. i have more than once alluded to a large body of facts showing that, when animals and plants are removed from their natural conditions, they are extremely liable to have their reproductive systems seriously affected. this, in fact, is the great bar to the domestication of animals. between the sterility thus superinduced and that of hybrids, there are many points of similarity. in both cases the sterility is independent of general health, and is often accompanied by excess of size or great luxuriance. in both cases the sterility occurs in various degrees ; in both, the male element is the most liable to be affected ; but sometimes the female more than the male. in both, the tendency goes to a certain extent with systematic affinity, for whole groups of animals and plants are rendered impotent by the same unnatural conditions ; and whole groups of species tend to produce sterile hybrids. on the other hand, one species in a group will sometimes resist great changes of conditions with unimpaired fertility ; and certain species in a group will produce unusually fertile hybrids. no one can tell, till he tries, whether any particular animal will breed under confinement, or any exotic plant seed freely under culture ; nor can he tell till he tries, whether any two species of a genus will produce more or less sterile hybrids. lastly, when organic beings are placed during several generations under conditions not natural to them, they are extremely liable to vary, which seems to be partly due to their reproductive systems having been specially affected, though in a lesser degree than when sterility ensues. so it is with hybrids, for their offspring in successive generations are eminently liable to vary, as every experimentalist has observed. thus we see that when organic beings are placed under new and unnatural conditions, and when hybrids are produced by the unnatural crossing of two species, the reproductive system, independently of the general state of health, is affected in a very similar manner. in the one case, the conditions of life have been disturbed, though often in so slight a degree as to be inappreciable by us ; in the other case, or that of hybrids, the external conditions have remained", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5301102585948347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4540dd27-0634-4475-8fab-6880639fbba8>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.761904"}
{"text": "very similar manner. in the one case, the conditions of life have been disturbed, though often in so slight a degree as to be inappreciable by us ; in the other case, or that of hybrids, the external conditions have remained the same, but the organisation has been disturbed by two distinct structures and constitutions, including of course the reproductive systems, having been blended into one. for it is scarcely possible that two organisations should be compounded into one, without some disturbance occurring in the development, or periodical action, or mutual relations of the different parts and organs one to another or to the conditions of life. when hybrids are able to breed inter se, they transmit to their offspring from generation to generation the same compounded organisation, and hence we need not be surprised that their sterility, though in some degree variable, does not diminish ; it is even apt to increase, this being generally the result, as before explained, of too close interbreeding. the above view of the sterility of hybrids being caused by two constitutions being compounded into one has been strongly maintained by max wichura. it must, however, be owned that we cannot understand, on the above or any other view, several facts with respect to the sterility of hybrids ; for instance, the unequal fertility of hybrids produced from reciprocal crosses ; or the increased sterility in those hybrids which occasionally and exceptionally resemble closely either pure parent. nor do i pretend that the foregoing remarks go to the root of the matter ; no explanation is offered why an organism, when placed under unnatural conditions, is rendered sterile. all that i have attempted to show is, that in two cases, in some respects allied, sterility is the common result, \u2014 in the one case from the conditions of life having been disturbed, in the other case from the organisation having been disturbed by two organisations being compounded into one. a similar parallelism holds good with an allied yet very different class of facts. it is an old and almost universal belief founded on a considerable body of evidence, which i have elsewhere given, that slight changes in the conditions of life are beneficial to all living things. we see this acted on by farmers and gardeners in their frequent exchanges of seed, tubers, & c., from one soil or climate to another, and back again. during the convalescence of animals, great benefit is derived from almost any change in their habits of life. again, both with plants and animals, there is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5610218772825483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4540dd27-0634-4475-8fab-6880639fbba8>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.762888"}
{"text": ", & c., from one soil or climate to another, and back again. during the convalescence of animals, great benefit is derived from almost any change in their habits of life. again, both with plants and animals, there is the clearest evidence that a cross between individuals of the same species, which differ to a certain extent, gives vigour and fertility to the offspring ; and that close interbreeding continued during several generations between the nearest relations, if these be kept under the same conditions of life, almost always leads to decreased size, weakness, or sterility. hence it seems that, on the one hand, slight changes in the conditions of life benefit all organic beings, and on the other hand, that slight crosses, that is crosses between the males and females of the same species, which have been subjected to slightly different conditions, or which have slightly varied, give vigour and fertility to the offspring. but, as we have seen, organic beings long habituated to certain uniform conditions under a state of nature, when subjected, as under confinement, to a considerable change in their conditions, very frequently are rendered more or less sterile ; and we know that a cross between two forms, that have become widely or specifically different, produce hybrids which are almost always in some degree sterile. i am fully persuaded that this double parallelism is by no means an accident or an illusion. he who is able to explain why the elephant and a multitude of other animals are incapable of breeding when kept under only partial confinement in their native country, will be able to explain the primary cause of hybrids being so generally sterile. he will at the same time be able to explain how it is that the races of some of our domesticated animals, which have often been subjected to new and not uniform conditions, are quite fertile together, although they are descended from distinct species, which would probably have been sterile if aboriginally crossed. the above two parallel series of facts seem to be connected together by some common but unknown bond, which is essentially related to the principle of life ; this principle, according to mr. herbert spencer, being that life depends on, or consists in, the incessant action and reaction of various forces, which, as throughout nature, are always tending towards an equilibrium ; and when this tendency is slightly disturbed by any change, the vital forces gain in power.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5389085412017149, "token_count": 481, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4540dd27-0634-4475-8fab-6880639fbba8>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.764184"}
{"text": ", may slow tumor growth by regulating enzymes that become overactive during cancer. the researchers injected cancer - prone mice with a carcinogen specific to cigarette smoke, and then gave them either a placebo or moderate doses of metformin. after 13 weeks, the lung tumors in metformin - fed mice were 38 % to 53 % smaller than those in the placebo - fed mice on average. more - potent, injected doses of metformin led to a 72 % tumor reduction. caveat : as with all animal studies, the findings might not apply to human subjects. the national cancer institute is planning a clinical trial to test metformin in people at highest risk of developing lung cancer. brain exercises : reading and other cognitive exercises compress late - life dementia into a shorter but more - rapid decline, according to a study in neurology. at the beginning of the study, 1, 157 dementia - free seniors reported how often they read newspapers, magazines and books ; listened to the radio ; watched television ; played games like cards or crosswords and visited museums. every three years, the researchers tested a subset of the participants for cognitive impairment, and followed those patients for another 5. 7 years on average. cognitive exercise appeared to delay dementia. every one - point increase on a five - point mental - activity scale corresponded to an average 52 % slower cognitive impairment at first. but the exercises appeared to have the opposite effect on subjects who had developed alzheimer ' s : for every one - point increase on the scale, cognitive skills declined 42 % more quickly. caveat : the researchers tested each participant fewer than four times on average, and the participants reported their cognitive exercises just once. migraine : researchers discovered the first common gene linked to migraine risk, according to their report in nature genetics. the researchers compared dna samples from 2, 731 migraine sufferers to 10, 747 otherwise similar subjects, examining more than 400, 000 dna sequences per participant. a variation in only one sequence, on the long arm of chromosome 8, appeared to have any effect on the debilitating condition. the researchers confirmed their initial findings by examining this sequence in another 3, 202 people with migraine and 40, 062 controls. overall, 24. 3 % of migraine sufferers and 20. 6 % of non - sufferers carried the variant \u2014 an 18 % higher rate for sufferers. the sequence ' s location, between two genes that help regulate the neurotransmitter glutamate, provides fresh clues for understanding", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5193745120446436, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a86c87e3-c213-4236-9c73-3cda264caf88>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.775202"}
{"text": "sin has a lot of moving parts. it features seven ancient figures, some of whom have instant name recognition ( jesus, paul, augustine ) and some of whom do not ( valentinus, marcion, justin, origen ). jesus and paul were both jews whose ideas about sin related in positive and creative ways to the sacrificial cult of jerusalem \u2019 s temple. marcion, valentinus and justin, all gentiles, shaped subsequent centuries of christian doctrine by arguing about how to read jewish scriptures ( which by 300 ce will become the \u2018 old testament \u2019 for some churches ), how to identify the god of the jewish bible ( is he the father of christ, or someone else? ), how to understand evil, and, thus, how to understand sin. origen and augustine, finally, were two towering geniuses of the early church. dealing with the same scriptural and doctrinal points of principle, they each framed huge, complex, and contrasting theologies. not only do their ideas of sin contrast dramatically : so too do their ideas about the universe, about humanity, and about god. learn more about sin : the early history of an idea at the princeton university press website. page 99 introduces these last two men, and sets up these contrasts. according to origen, all would be saved ; according to augustine, most were damned. according to origen, since god is just, he gave humanity free will so that a person could choose whether or not to sin. according to augustine, since god is just, he condemned all humanity to a broken will as part of the price of original sin. according to origen, even satan will at last be redeemed ; according to augustine, even babies, if unbaptized, go to hell. augustine is one of history \u2019 s winners. his views prevailed. in their secular refraction, they continue to affect even american public policy : according to augustine, since sex is a sinful act, its only morally admissible function is procreation. any other use of sex other than for procreation \u2013 as the expression of affection, say \u2013 is to be condemned. the current struggles over whether u. s. government funds can or should be used to provide americans with access to contraception is an early 21st - century spin - off of augustine \u2019 s early fifth - century arguments on the nature of sin.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5004654408061617, "token_count": 485, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:83b6ecf4-03c0-4490-953b-c924a973aa93>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.779551"}
{"text": "if you take a prescription or an over - the - counter drug, and you can answer yes to any of these other questions, then you may be experiencing a drug interaction or conflict that is having an negative affect on your health : - do you take more than one drug - prescription or over - the - counter? - do you take vitamins or other supplements? - do you ever drink grapefruit juice, eat licorice or chocolate? - do you enjoy a glass of wine, a bottle of beer or another alcoholic beverage? drug - to - drug, drug - to - supplement, drug - to - food and drug - to - alcohol conflicts and interactions may simply give you a bit of intestinal discomfort - or they may kill you. we hear too frequently in the news about a celebrity who has died because of conflicts from drugs, in particular. sometimes we hear them labeled as overdoses. but overdoses can result from a drug that was taken in its prescribed quantity, then its effect was altered by the presence of another substance like another drug or alcohol. michael jackson, heath ledger, anna nicole smith, and others are all considered to have died from drug interactions. here are some examples of drug conflicts and interactions that may surprise you. drug with other drug conflicts : if you take more than one drug, then your drugs may be getting in each other ' s way. the more different medications you take, the more chances there are of conflicts. according to the institute for safe medication practices, almost 40 % of americans take four or more different drugs. here are some examples of problems that can occur when two conflicting drugs are taken by the same patient : antihistimines, those usually over - the - counter drugs we take for runny noses, sneezing, congestion or watery eyes, can increase the depressive effects of many sedatives, tranquilizers, high blood - pressure medications or medicines for depression. in turn, that makes patients sleepier and more fatigued, which can be deadly to the patient or others if the patient tries to drive a car, operate heavy machinery or any other activity that requires concentration. antihistimines can also cause an increase in blood pressure or speed up the heart rate of patients who take blood pressure - reducing medications. acid reducers like prilosec ( omeprazole ), nexium or others known as drugs to treat gerd ( gastrointestinal esophageal reflux disease ) will interact with any drug that contains cimt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5028979268894836, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:51cae3b9-e26b-4aa0-aed9-03bc029aaf8e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.794491"}
{"text": ", meaning the drug will be absorbed and used by the body in a different way than it was intended to. this can increase, decrease or neutralize the effect of the drug. here are some examples : grapefruit juice can cause problems for people who take certain blood - pressure lowering medications or for those who take cyclosporin after an organ transplant. there may be dozens of other drugs that grapefruit juice affects, causing problems for those who drink it along with those drugs. ( learn more about avoiding these drug conflicts and interactions. ) chocolate - who can live without chocolate? some of us need to - because the drugs we take will become problematic if we eat chocolate, too. for example, anyone ( including children ) who takes a stimulant drug such as ritalin or a sedative - type drug like ambien must avoid any food that includes caffeine, including chocolate and coffee. chocolate can also cause problems for anyone who takes mao inhibitors for depression or parkinson ' s disease. mao inhibitors include drugs like nardil ( phenelzine ) or parnate ( tranylcypromine ). in fact, chocolate isn ' t the only food that needs to be avoided by those who take mao inhibitors. here is a list of foods to avoid, which include smoked, aged or pickled meat or fish, sauerkraut, aged cheeses, beef or chicken liver and red wines. licorice, another favorite, needs to be avoided by people who take certain blood - pressure lowering drugs like digitalis ( also called digoxin, digitoxin, cardoxin, digitek, lanoxicaps or lanoxin. ) with so many ways to negatively affect the drugs we take to improve our health, it makes sense to avoid those drug conflicts and interactions. whenever your provider gives you a new prescription for a drug, or if you decide to use an over - the - counter drug to address difficult symptoms, be sure you make yourself aware of the potential conflicts, then avoid them. from medline plus ( national library of medicine ) from the fda", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5372487378830572, "token_count": 428, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:51cae3b9-e26b-4aa0-aed9-03bc029aaf8e>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.796274"}
{"text": "may 04 2010 today we talked about hydrogen and how it can be used to power vehicles. of the forty - four free response questions on previous a. p. exams, none have addressed hydrogen power, so mr. willard said this would be \u201c good knowledge to have in our pockets. \u201d first we reviewed what we already knew about hydrogen. hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. despite this fact, there is almost none in the troposphere, and this is because hydrogen has a very low density and so it rises. additionally, hydrogen is very unstable, so it likes to bond with things ( i. e. with oxygen, thus water ). in a hydrogen - powered car, the traditional internal combustion engine is replaced with a fuel cell. here is a link to a video we watched in class about how a fuel cell works : how a fuel cell works : inside a hydrogen - powered car ( http : / / auto. howstuffworks. com / fuel - efficiency / alternative - fuels / dangerous - hydrogen - fuel1. htm ) as with every energy source, there are pros and cons. the pros to a hydrogen - powered car is that water is its only emission, it is a strategy for reducing fossil fuel use, and hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. on the flip side, the cons to a hydrogen - powered car are that we have to harvest the hydrogen or \u201c make it \u201d ( which requires energy input ), since this source of energy is new, the infrastructure for hydrogen power is not there, and that we can \u2019 t simply convert petro - gas stations to hydrogen gas stations. perhaps we can add on to our petro - gas stations, and if we harvest the hydrogen or \u201c make \u201d the hydrogen by generating energy from renewable resources such as wind or solar power, technically the energy is still clean. but if we generate the energy for hydrogen from a coal - based power plant, then we \u2019 re just moving the source, but the impact is still the same. hydrogen can be \u201c harvested \u201d or \u201c made \u201d from electrolysis ( splitting water ), from biomass, and from fuel. the u. s. government is currently funding research on hydrogen power in the state of california. hydrogen power is still very much in the research and development stage. hope this helped! below is a picture of a typical hydrogen fuel cell :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5594239771623866, "token_count": 486, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d2593b31-f83e-45c5-92d3-66550eb9883c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:43:59.800133"}
{"text": "the list has been arranged, as possible, in reverse chronological order. i should note that the contents have been lightly edited to reduce entry length ; almost all of these edits have removed references to recent sources in the outside literature which are not further identified. my apologies for this to the authors, but readers should of course consult the original sources to get the full picture, often extending well beyond wallace studies per se.... how is it that the memes of poetry remained a strong presence in the life of wallace but disappeared from the life of darwin even though both men were very much involved in scientific research that led both to the same revolutionary paradigm of natural selection? perhaps the answer to this question may be found in a famous clash between the two scientific titans. for as himmelfarb ( 1986 ) has remarked, ' wallace not only had the distinction of being the first darwinist ; he was also the first renegade darwinist '. and the issue on which wallace became a ' renegade ' was hardly trivial. whereas darwin believed that the science of evolution could completely account for the human species, wallace had his doubts. his ' little heresy ' as he called it was actually not so little, for he questioned whether the science of natural selection could account for ' the moral and higher intellectual nature of man '... - - bryce christensen, october 2012. changing english : studies in culture and education 18 ( 4 ) : 400.... the first author who expected mimicry by light was wallace ( 1878 ) himself, who erroneously supposed click beetles for firefly mimics. nevertheless, their light is different and they also appeared inedible too ( harvey 1956 ). cockroaches are fat and tasty, so the mimic is at the place. one mimicry by light ( aggressive, batesian - wallacian or peckhammian ) is actually known ( lloyd 1965, 1984 ) : predaceous fireflies photuris ( and also bicellychonia ) mimic the flash responses of females of other, up to five different ( lloyd 1983 ) species, attract males, and catch them, often during flight... - - peter vrsansky et al., september 2012. naturwissenschaften 99 ( 9 ) : 748.... background matching prey coloration and its adaptive features have been recognized by biologists for a long time. the related idea that prey animals can decrease their probability of being detected through behavioural features was already discussed by alfred russel wallace...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5043971375050031, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.129754"}
{"text": "... background matching prey coloration and its adaptive features have been recognized by biologists for a long time. the related idea that prey animals can decrease their probability of being detected through behavioural features was already discussed by alfred russel wallace.... it has been shown experimentally that background matching effectively reduces predation risk imposed by predators, for example, in fishes and birds. preference for backgrounds that reduce the risk of detection has thus been suggested to be an important and wide spread strategy among prey animals to decrease their predation risk. it is also a common assumption that prey animals have been selected to actively prefer visually matching backgrounds. however, considering the popularity of this idea, surprisingly few experimental studies testing it exist... - - karin kjernsmo & sami merilaita, august 2012. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 279 ( 1745 ) : 4192.... after planting doubts about sexual selection as the unique explanation, wallace ( 1868 ) associated sexual dichromatism with the nesting habits of birds in relation to the risk of nest predation. he considered that, assuming that ( i ) incubation attendance by either sex promotes cryptic plumage in open nesters, but ( ii ) not in cavity or domed nesters, ( iii ) conspicuous sexual monochromatism should be associated with cavity or domed nesting, and ( iv ) sexual dichromatism with conspicuous males and cryptic females should be related to open nesting ( table 1 ). wallace ( 1868 ) offered support for the two last predictions by listing 23 phylogenetically related groups of birds ( i. e. families or genera ) with conspicuous monochromatism nesting in cavities or domed nests and seven families with bright males and dull females with open nesting habits. wallace ( 1868, 1889 ) also predicted that because of the higher phylogenetic lability of plumage colour, changes in nesting habits would come first and be followed by changes in coloration. darwin ( 1871 ) disagreed with this view and forcefully argued that plumage coloration could select for changes in nesting habits while the opposite was less plausible. in nearly a century and a half elapsed since wallace first presented his theory on avian sexual dichromatism in relation to nesting habits, few attempts have been made to empirically check its validity despite the attention that sexual dichromatism as variable reflecting the strength of sexual selection in different bird species has received during the last decades ( see for instance, amundsen & parn, 2006 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5274490562852852, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.130760"}
{"text": "been made to empirically check its validity despite the attention that sexual dichromatism as variable reflecting the strength of sexual selection in different bird species has received during the last decades ( see for instance, amundsen & parn, 2006 ) and the huge increase in information on avian natural history and phylogeny... - - j. j. soler & j. moreno, may 2012. journal of evolutionary biology 25 ( 8 ) : 1615.... in this article, we tested some assumptions and predictions of wallace \u2019 s theory by analysing plumage conspicuousness and dichromatism, nesting habits and incubation attendance of european passerines as described in handbook of birds of the western palearctic ( hbwp ; cramp & perrins, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994a, b ). we have also corrected for phylogenetic relationships in all analyses as nesting habits, and to a lesser degree sexual dichromatism, may show a marked phylogenetic component as already argued by wallace ( 1889 ). according to the fundamental assumption of wallace that incubation attendance by either sex promotes cryptic plumage in open nesters, but not in cavity nesters, conspicuousness in either sex should be related to incubation attendance, nest type and their interaction ( prediction 1 ). moreover, the predictions by wallace that conspicuous sexual monochromatism should be associated with cavity or domed nesting, and sexual dichromatism with conspicuous males and cryptic females should be related to open nesting, were tested by relating degree of male and female conspicuousness to nest type and sexual dichromatism.... - - j. j. soler & j. moreno, may 2012. journal of evolutionary biology 25 ( 8 ) : 1615 - 1616.... the world ' s terrestrial zoogeographical regions were originally outlined by sclater ( 1858 ) and wallace ( 1876 ), primarily on the basis of vertebrates, because their distribution records were the most complete at the time. since then, the completeness of records has improved dramatically for both vertebrates and invertebrates, and although invertebrates represent a far greater proportion of total animal diversity, tetrapod vertebrates remain the best group for comparatively testing biogeographical hypotheses, with a comprehensive data set having become openly available online ( wwf 2010 ). specifically, where the world ' s biogeographical regions are concerned, it makes sense to test their accuracy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5193298712375853, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.131727"}
{"text": ". biological conservation 144 ( 11 ) : 2651.... wallace ' s line demarcates the most abrupt faunal transition in the world. to a seasoned naturalist like wallace, this unique juxtaposition of dramatically different faunas, first noted by muller ( 1846 ), was obvious, was anomalous, and begged explanation ; so it is perhaps no accident that biogeographic study effectively began in the iaa. the range limits of many terrestrial taxa are coincident with the eastern edge of the sunda shelf, and the taxonomic compositions of communities on either side are distinctly different. wallace advocated geological explanations for these biological differences. he suggested, for example, that bali and lombok were formerly widely separated and had only recently moved to their present positions < 40 km apart ; he also noted that faunal discontinuities were associated with deep straits ( wallace 1860 ). wallace first described the line in an 1858 letter to h. w. bates ( marchant 1916, p. 66 ) before he mapped the line ( wallace 1863 ) that was later given his name by huxley ( 1868 ) and expounded upon these observations in books on the iaa and biogeography in general ( e. g., wallace 1869 ). the veracity of wallace ' s observations was debated because the existence of such a stark faunal divide seemed improbable, and this spurred intense study of distribution patterns in the region ( e. g., weber 1902 )... \u2013 david j. lohman et al., august 2011. ecology, evolution, and systematics 42 : 208.... the processes governing the evolution of sexual dimorphism provided a foundation for sexual selection theory. two alternative processes, originally proposed by darwin and wallace, differ primarily in the timing of events creating the dimorphism. in the process advocated by darwin, a novel ornament arises in a single sex, with no temporal separation in the origin and sex - limitation of the novel trait. by contrast, wallace proposed a process where novel ornaments appear simultaneously in both sexes, but are then converted into sex - limited expression by natural selection acting against showy coloration in one sex. here, we investigate these alternative modes of sexual dimorphism evolution in a phylogenetic framework and demonstrate that both processes contribute to dimorphic wing patterns in the butterfly genera bicyclus and funonia... our analyses support both hypotheses advocated by darwin and wallace for the origin of sexual dimorphism", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5337425187006923, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.135923"}
{"text": "phylogenetic framework and demonstrate that both processes contribute to dimorphic wing patterns in the butterfly genera bicyclus and funonia... our analyses support both hypotheses advocated by darwin and wallace for the origin of sexual dimorphism : some sexually dimorphic ornaments arise concomitantly with sex - limited expression, while others arise in both sexes but are subsequently lost in one sex. thus both modes of evolution are applicable to the evolution of sexual dimorphism in butterflies... - - jeffrey c. oliver & antonia monteiro, 7 july 2011. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 278 ( 1714 ) : 1981, 1985.... wallace ( 1889 ) was the first to propose that cuckoo - hawk resemblance was a form of mimicry, which wyllie ( 1981 ) suggested might aid parasitic laying by frightening aggressive hosts away from the nest. in support of this idea, hawk - like plumage, with cryptic upperparts and pale, barred underparts, is more prevalent in parasitic than in nonparasitic cuckoos ( payne 1967 ) and most likely evolved after the evolution of brood parasitism ( kruger et al. 2007 )... \u2013 justin a. welbergen & nicholas b. davies, may - june 2011. behavioral ecology 22 ( 3 ) : 574.... while there were numerous previous philosophical treatises on the topic, stretching back to speculations about the origin of the universe in ancient times, scientific proposals are more recent. a well known one was biologist alfred russell wallace, who wrote in 1904 : \" such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required... in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man \". but that was before modern cosmology was established ; the idea of the expanding and evolving universe was yet to come... - - george ellis, 13 may 2011. general relativity and gravitation 43 ( 11 ) : 3213. this brings us back to the popp. et al. analysis of empetrum. their dating analysis shows quite convincingly that the relevant phylogenetic splits do not date to the jurassic - - not even close. instead, they probably happened in the pleistocene less than 1 mya. we can, therefore, immediately rule out ancient vicariance, but it is not quite as easy to choose between a darwin or a wallace migration scenario and the long -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5381213255366744, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.137003"}
{"text": "regions to its south. with almost no african fossil record to consult, scientists of the 19th and early 20th centuries could only speculate on the age or historical development of this continent ' s biogeography. in contrast, the last 100 years of paleontological exploration have provided a wealth of information that allows for an investigation into the developmental history of african endemism as a whole, and the ethiopian biogeography realm in particular. wallace ' s proposal of \" long epochs \" of isolating barriers can now be more precisely formulated and addressed... - - faysal bibi, february 2011. plos one 6 ( 2 ) : 1 - 10.... wallace noted the problem of incipient evolutionary stages. he argued that incipient and intermediate stages might have little selective survival advantage, as with a partially developed wing ; yet evolution progressed to new forms and greater complexity as if teleologically guided. wallace thus predicted the problem of \" irreducible complexity \" ( behe, 2004 ). a group composed of paleo - anthropologists and linguists similarly argued that the physical and cognitive articulations required for human speech are so sophisticated that it is difficult to imagine intermediary systems ( picq et al., 2008 ). they described as a neo - darwinian tautology the argument that if a human feature existed, then it must be adaptive, otherwise it would not have survived. this is a form of panglossian, overly - optimistic ), post - hoc reasoning... - - michael m. delmonte, january 2011. the international journal of healing and caring 11 ( 1 ).... the evolution of longer floral tubes forced the evolution of longer insect proboscides, which in turn forced the selection for even longer floral tubes. wallace ( 1867 ) noted that this positive feedback system would continue generating longer and longer traits until it is balanced by an opposing selective pressure. although he did not elaborate much on opposing selective pressures, wallace ( 1867 ) implied that proboscis and tube lengthening would only be advantageous to a point, after which increased length may become a liability ( e. g. harder 1983 ; kunte 2007 ). insects with excessively long proboscides may have difficulty maneuvering them and inserting them accurately into the narrow gullets of flowers ( e. g. harder 1983 )... - - allan g. ellis & bruce anderson, 2011. in sebastien patiny, ed., evolution of plant - pollinator", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5352931643737155, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.139519"}
{"text": "and inserting them accurately into the narrow gullets of flowers ( e. g. harder 1983 )... - - allan g. ellis & bruce anderson, 2011. in sebastien patiny, ed., evolution of plant - pollinator relationships ( cambridge university press ) : 237 - 262.... inspired by evolutionary computation, artificial life, multi - agent systems and social cognition, we develop a more realistic distribution of environments. the basic idea is straightforward : intelligence is the result of evolution through millions of generations interacting with other live beings. thus we define intelligence in this context, interacting with other agents of similar intelligence. we formalise the so - called darwin - wallace distribution for agents and environments. despite the many options and the many sources of uncomputability, we claim that, conceptually, the notion of darwin - wallace distribution is useful to re - visit previous definitions of intelligence. the next step is how this notion can be used for agi development and evaluation. we present a procedure which approximates a darwin - wallace distribution by using intelligence tests over environments such that ' certified ' systems are incorporated into the environments, so making them socially more complex... - - jose hernandez - orallo et al., 2011. ' on more realistic environment distributions for defining, evaluating and developing intelligence ' ( http : / / users. dsic. upv. es ) : 3. wallace ' s approach to cosmology shows how the consideration of the conditions necessary for the evolution of life is not wedded to any particular theory of star formation and development but must be used appropriately in any cosmology we pursue... - - john d. barrow, 2011. the book of universes : exploring the limits of the cosmos ( w. w. norton ).... the term used to describe this type of speciation is allopatry, as opposed to sympatry, where ancestral and descendant species coexist in the same environment ( or parapatry if they exist side by side, with a hybridisation zone in between ). if two populations having evolved separately come back in contact later on, the intermediate phenotype of their offspring could make them unfit for either environment, and this would then provide the selective pressure for the selection of additional reproductive barriers, in a process called reinforcement, and often referred to as ' the wallace effect '. indeed, the earliest promoter of the view that reinforcement could occur under the pressure of natural selection was undoubtedly alfred wallace, who disagreed with darwin ' s views", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5882657696930675, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.140935"}
{"text": "reproductive barriers, in a process called reinforcement, and often referred to as ' the wallace effect '. indeed, the earliest promoter of the view that reinforcement could occur under the pressure of natural selection was undoubtedly alfred wallace, who disagreed with darwin ' s views that reproductive isolation could not possibly result from natural selection : \" the sterility of first crosses and of their hybrid progeny has not been acquired through natural selection \" ( the origin, summary of hybridism chapter ). this point was a subject of written exchanges and arguments in private correspondence between the two around 1858 [ [ sic ] ], 10 years after their joint communication to the linnean society in july 1858, but wallace formally published his views only in 1889, some twenty year later, in chapter vii of his book called darwinism. on the subject of allopatry versus sympatry, i do take a very divergent view to that adopted by a majority of evolutionary biologists to this day. rather, i choose to follow wallace ' s path against darwin ' s in thinking that natural selection plays a major role in the reproductive isolation that defines species, and i shall actually venture some steps further than wallace, and will advocate in the following pages that natural selection can act on the very first stages of reproductive isolation, and not just on reinforcement after divergence has taken place... - - etienne joly, 25 november 2010. nature precedings : 3.... by the time he wrote island life, wallace ( 1881 ) knew of 21 species of philippine mammals, most of which are either widespread species or palawan endemics. thus, he had virtually no knowledge of the highly endemic mammal communities in the oceanic philippines. at the time, even less was known of amphibian and reptile diversity ( boulenger, 1894 ). thus, wallace ' s impression of the philippine fauna, and his biogeographic delineations of it, were taken from a very small, biased sample of the diversity... - - jacob a. esselstyn et al., november 2010. journal of biogeography 37 ( 11 ) : 2055.... with growing knowledge about species distributions, updated summary information on species richness, endemism and faunistic resemblance has been assembled and analysed within the classic wallace scheme ( chapin, 1923 ; smith, 1983 ; cole et al., 1994 ; newton & dale, 2001 ). furthermore, various refinements have been proposed, many of them addressing delineations of sub", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5318475683219969, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.142151"}
{"text": "albedo ) is now generally recognized as the dominant feedback factor. the net contributions of clouds and fog, although clearly important, are less obvious and are difficult to quantify... - - wolfgang h. berger, michael schulz & gerold wefer, october 2010. international journal of earth sciences 99, supplement 1 : 171 - 189. for wallace, the two processes of isolation in space and biological differentiation through time were inseparable, because one ( isolation ) led to the other ( speciation ). wallace ' s view of what constituted natural - - the dual criteria of biological and geological uniqueness - - has some important implications for how natural biogeographical units are identified. because wallace was the first to suggest a geological / historical component to the identification of natural biogeographical areas. i propose to name such entities wallacean biogeographical units... - - bernard michaux, september 2010. biological journal of the linnean society 101 : 193 - 212.... in my view there is a further step to take, and that is to confirm that areas of endemism are also wallacean biogeographical units. these are the fundamental units for further biogeographical analysis because they are natural entities, not human constructs. for example, ' sulawesi ' is an area of endemism, but not a wallacean biogeographical unit : it is a human geopolitical construct that has no biogeographical reality. any attempt to use the area ' sulawesi ' in biogeographical analysis is doomed to failure... - - bernard michaux, september 2010. biological journal of the linnean society 101 : 193 - 212.... roy davies has assembled a convincing case that darwin was much more cavalier with attribution, particularly with regard to wallace, than commonly thought and in several instances failed to cite or give adequate credit to his antecedents. he concludes that wallace has a stronger claim to the theory of evolution than commonly realized... - - david lloyd, julian wimpenny & alfred venables, september 2010. journal of biosciences 35 : 339 - 349. that wallace almost certainly solved the problem of divergence before darwin did is, perhaps, not surprising. wallace had much the greater experience in the field of biogeography, which was so fundamental to unravelling the relationships between species. but, even more importantly, he had the advantage that, unlike darwin, he", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5482812829106547, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.144920"}
{"text": "evolution of reproductive isolation barriers ( wallace, 1889 ; fisher, 1930 ; dobzhansky, 1937 ). this process is usually termed reinforcement, and as the name implies, it requires the pre - existence of some degree of reproductive isolation, which is then ' reinforced ' by the evolution of additional barriers. studies of reinforcement have focused overwhelmingly on premating barriers.... nevertheless, selection on postmating barriers is at least theoretically possible ( wallace, 1889 ; coyne, 1974 ). wallace argued that selection among demes could drive hybrid inviability by reducing the negative impact of low - quality hybrids ( wallace, 1889 )... - - e. turner, d. j. jacobson & j. w. taylor, august 2010. journal of evolutionary biology 23 ( 8 ) : 1642.... he spent years living on his own in amazonia and then in the malay archipelago, making detailed and sympathetic observations about local peoples, practices and cultures. in the latter context his travelling companion and research assistant for many years was a young malay man, ali. at their parting, in 1862, wallace commissioned a photograph of ali to carry home to england and included it in his 1905 autobiography. compare this to the erasure of non - white participation and assistance in other european explorers ' accounts of the time... - - kathleen bolling lowrey, august 2010. anthropology today 26 ( 4 ) : 18 - 21.... one must simply concede that during the 20th - century history of the discipline anthropologists have accumulated a huge wealth of data relating to question 3 for which no plausible explanation, general theory, or provisional hypothesis exists... and this is why, under present circumstances, i want to advocate for wallace - - a brilliant and unashamed crank - - as an ancestor - figure for contemporary anthropology. in wallace ' s articulation of the theory of evolution, he arrived at the same answers to questions 2 and 3, responding as follows : ( 1 ) common origin, endless divergence ; ( 2 ) co - operation ; ( 3 ) no... - - kathleen bolling lowrey, august 2010. anthropology today 26 ( 4 ) : 18 - 21. wallace quite rightly considered the lush complexity of human thought a serious mystery, one inexplicable within the necessity - driven framework of natural selection. as he put it, the human brain ' furnishes a surplusage of power - - of an instrument beyond the needs of its possessor '. this sounds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5067361039343428, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.147609"}
{"text": ", one inexplicable within the necessity - driven framework of natural selection. as he put it, the human brain ' furnishes a surplusage of power - - of an instrument beyond the needs of its possessor '. this sounds very much like levi - strauss ' s enchanting assertion that ' the universe is never charged with sufficient meaning [... ] the mind always has more meanings available than there are objects to which to relate them '... - - kathleen bolling lowrey, august 2010. anthropology today 26 ( 4 ) : 18 - 21. wallace ( 1890 ) suggested that the primary function of egg coloration was to provide crypsis to avoid predation, although the experimental evidence supporting this hypothesis has been equivocal. one possible reason for this is that the experimental protocols typically involve painting eggs and comparing predation rates on painted versus natural eggs. with but one exception, all the egg - predation experiments cited in their review use painted eggs... - - michael i. cherry & andrew g. gosler, august 2010. biological journal of the linnean society 100 : 753 - 762.... beatty et al. ( 2004 ) conducted another study, this time assessing the selection for mimicry using human predators and computer - generated prey. they found that when there are only 2 unprofitable prey types, selection for mimicry was weak. one reason for the results, they suggested, was that predators may not be sufficiently confused to generate selection for mimicry when just 2 different forms are involved. in an explanation for the evolution of conspicuous signals, wallace ( 1889, p. 255 ) suggested that \" not only do fewer individuals of each species need to be sacrificed in order that their enemies learn the lesson of their inedibility ( in cases of mimicry ), but they are more easily recognized at a distance and thus escape even pursuit. there is thus a kind of mimicry between closely allied species as well as between species of distinct genera, all tending to the same beneficial end. \" one explanation for beatty et al ' s findings is that mimicry reduces confusion in visually complex environments. it has also been argued, in a theoretical treatment, that the mere coexistence of visually distinctive aposematic species can be mutually beneficial ( turner and speed 1999 ). if predators that ingest members of one chemically defended species become risk averse with respect to further toxin ingestion, while their physiology copes with the toxins, it has been suggested", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5912573944853284, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.151322"}
{"text": "can be mutually beneficial ( turner and speed 1999 ). if predators that ingest members of one chemically defended species become risk averse with respect to further toxin ingestion, while their physiology copes with the toxins, it has been suggested that predators may heighten avoidance of species that could contain toxins, even in the absence of signal mimicry... \u2013 hannah m. rowland et al., july - august 2010. behavioral ecology 21 ( 4 ) : 851 - 852.... selection fundamentally acts on genes or individuals of distinct species. at the individual level, the success of a collection of interesting genes is mediated through the fitness of an individual phenotype. but what is the phenotype? what is a species? it may be worth remembering what alfred russel wallace, natural selection ' s co - discoverer, published as species definition : ' a species... is a group of living organisms, separated from all other such groups by a set of distinctive character ( istic ) s, having relations to the environment not identical with those of any other group of organisms, and having the power of continuously reproducing its like '. thus, it is the relation to the environment which is one of the features defining a species. the crucial role of many microbes in development demonstrates that environmental and genetic information interact... - - sebastian fraune & thoms c. g. bosch, july 2010. bioessays 32 ( 7 ) : 578.... darwin ( at least, in the first edition of the origin of species ) relied on selection as the main cause of evolutionary change, but saw that hybrid sterility could not be directly selected ; instead, he argued that it arises as a side - effect of divergence. in contrast, wallace ' s ( 1889 ) enthusiasm for selection led him to argue that not only could it strengthen prezygotic isolation, by what we now call reinforcement, but that group selection could even cause hybrid sterility. then, as now, ecological divergence that allows distinct species to live together in sympatry received less attention than reproductive isolation... - - n. h. barton, 12 june 2010. philosophical transactions of the royal society, series b, biological sciences 365 : 1825 - 1840.... in the present study, we use all known non - african charaxes species to explore the history of diversification in the oriental and australian region, especially the ' transitional ' wallacea. several", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5154725185642468, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.158353"}
{"text": "... - - murray p. cox et al., 22 may 2010. proceedings of the royal society, series b, biological sciences 277 : 1589 - 1596.... wallace was scandalized by darwin ' s sexual selection theory, considering it darwin ' s greatest error, because it appeared to admit a subjective factor into evolutionary theory, because it appeared to admit a subjective factor into elocutionary theory. indeed, it appeared to elevate aesthetic appreciation to the status of a significant factor in evolution. wallace ' s alternative theory to account for exaggerated display traits relied instead on explanations that invoked incidental physiological mechanisms in males and the need to suppress their effects in females, to avoid predation... wallace was of course wrong in his denial of the plausibility of sexual selection, although not completely wrong to doubt that aesthetic appreciation of combative prowess were the primary factors. it took a century to recognize that the theory needed to be based instead on asymmetries of parental investment in offspring care between the sexes. today, sexual selection theory is again considered an important adjunct to the theory of natural selection ; however, its reinstatement has not resuscitated the power of darwin ' s account of language origins... - - terrence w. deacon, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 9000 - 9006.... few scientists today accept wallace ' s creationism, teleology, or spiritualism. nonetheless it is appropriate to engage the profound puzzle he raised ; namely, why do humans have the ability to pursue abstract intellectual feats such as science, mathematics, philosophy, and law, given that opportunities to exercise these talents did not exist in the foraging lifestyle in which humans evolved and would not have parlayed themselves into advantages in survival and reproduction even if they did? i suggest that the puzzle can be resolved with two hypotheses. the first is that humans evolved to fill the \" cognitive niche, \" a mode of survival characterized by manipulating the environment through casual reasoning and social cooperation. the second is that the psychological faculties that evolved to prosper in the cognitive niche can be coopted to abstract domains by processes of metaphorical abstraction and productive combination, both vividly manifested in human language... - - steven pinker, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 8993.... toward the end of their", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5457721406911317, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.170236"}
{"text": "both vividly manifested in human language... - - steven pinker, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 8993.... toward the end of their lives, darwin and wallace became estranged. darwin argued that natural selection was sufficient to explain the origin of the existing biological world. wallace believed that natural selection alone was insufficient to explain the existence of complex structures such as the human brain. from the bioenergetic perspective, wallace ' s reservations were justified, as complexity can be generated only through the information - generating power of energy flow and the cumulative information storage capacity of nucleic acids. it took more than 3. 5 billion years for these systems to amass sufficient information to generate the human brain. thus the missing concept that wallace sought to explain the ascent of man is the interaction between energetics and information... - - douglas c. wallace, 11 may 2010. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 107, supplement 2 : 8952. wallace proposed to redefine darwinism in a way that excluded darwin ' s principle of sexual selection. the main result of the darwin - wallace controversy was that most darwinian biologists avoided the subject of sexual selection until at least the 1950 ' s, ronald fisher being a major exception. this controversy still deserves attention from modern evolutionary biologists, because the modern approach inherits from both darwin and wallace. the modern approach tends to present sexual selection as a special aspect of the theory of natural selection, although it also recognizes the big difficulties resulting from the inevitable interaction between these two natural processes of selection... - - jean gayon, february 2010. comptes rendus biologies 333 : 134 - 144.... early evolutionary theories of senescence ( wallace, ca. 1865 ; weismann, 1889 ) were group - selectionist in nature, proposing that individuals senesce and eventually die in order to make space and resources available for future generations composed of younger, more vigorous individuals. however, such arguments are circular because, if ageing is one of the reasons why individuals must be replaced, they presuppose that individuals must deteriorate over time. moreover, they fail to explain how a population of altruistically senescing individuals would not be subject to invasion by more slowly senescing or even non - senescing invaders. recent studies have placed group - selectionist arguments on a stronger theoretical foundation by emphasizing instances where sen", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.561670692490698, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.171988"}
{"text": "population of altruistically senescing individuals would not be subject to invasion by more slowly senescing or even non - senescing invaders. recent studies have placed group - selectionist arguments on a stronger theoretical foundation by emphasizing instances where senescence appears to be \" selected for its own sake \" as a result of kin - or group - level benefits including payoffs to close relatives, and reduced local extinction risk due to communicable diseases or chaotic population dynamics... - - robert a. laird & thomas n. sherratt, february 2010. biosystems 99 ( 2 ) : 130.... other questions, such as whether maternal emotions influence the fetus, have made a remarkable tour. alfred russel wallace was co - originator of the theory of evolution by natural selection written in 1859 by darwin. when wallace ( 1893c ) wrote the above quoted sentence in a letter entitled ' prenatal influences on character ' into nature, the belief that a mother ' s emotions could affect the child she carries was seen as resting on old wives ' tales. wallace ( 1893a, b ) was also publishing articles about the possibility of being able to study whether ' individually acquired characters are inherited '. lamarck had incorporated this idea in his theory of directed evolution ; it was seriously challenged in 1880 by weismann ' s theory, on which the modern understanding of genetic inheritance became based, and since the turn of the 20th century it became widely rejected by the scientific community. however, this old question that had originated in ancient time, with greek philosophers, recently got renewed interest with the discovery of epi - genetic variation between individuals and the finding that in some cases epigenetic variants can be inherited by the offspring, a biological inheritance that cannot be explained by changes in the dna - sequence itself... - - bea r. h. van den bergh, january / february 2010. infant and child development 19 ( 1 ) : 42. the wallace ( 1881 ) and briggs ( 1966 ) lineage age hypothesis suggests that there are low levels of endemism in the azores biota because the biota is of recent ( post - pleistocene ) origin. avila et al. ( 2008 ) challenged this hypothesis to explain at least mollusc diversity patterns by demonstrating that the endemic mollusc fauna of the azores was largely unaffected by pleistocene climatic oscillations and that the current endemic fauna is therefore not of post - pleistocene origin. evidence from phylogenetic relationships of azorean plant lineages suggests that the lineage age hypothesis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5078127078545464, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.173507"}
{"text": "endemic mollusc fauna of the azores was largely unaffected by pleistocene climatic oscillations and that the current endemic fauna is therefore not of post - pleistocene origin. evidence from phylogenetic relationships of azorean plant lineages suggests that the lineage age hypothesis similarly fails to explain the distinctive patterns of azorean endemic plant diversity... - - mark a. carine & hanno schaefer, january 2010. journal of biogeography 37 : 77 - 89.... although it is sometimes argued that aposematic signalling is fundamentally about raised distinctiveness rather than heightened conspicuousness, the two often amount to the same thing ( wallace 1889 ). if this is generally true, the association between conspicuousness and aposematism in the primary evolution of warning signals, in our view, is not problematic... - - thomas j. lee, nicola m. marples & michael p. speed, january 2010. animal behaviour 79 ( 1 ) : 70.... wallace ' s essay was remarkable for two reasons : first, it conveys a sophisticated understanding of the nature of selection among individuals belonging to a normal distribution of trait values. \" the flowers most completely fertilized by these moths being those which had the longest nectaries, there would in each generation be on the average an increase in the length of the nectaries, and also an average increase in the length of the proboscis of the moths, and this would be a necessary result from the fact that nature ever fluctuates about a mean, or that in every generation there would be flowers with longer and shorter nectaries, and moths with longer and shorter probosces than the average \" ( p. 476 ). second, wallace actually mentions xanthopan ( macrosila ) morganii, the species of moth that is now considered the most likely pollinator of a. sesquipedale. wallace was not aware of the long - tongued malagasy race of this hawkmoth, but he had measured a specimen of the african mainland form in the british museum and found that its tongue measured 7. 5 inches [ 18 centimeters ]. wallace ( 1867 ) wrote \" that such a moth exists in madagascar may be safely predicted ; and naturalists who visit that island should search for it with as much confidence as astronomers searched for the planet neptune, - - and they will be equally successful! \"... - - steven d. johnson & bruce anderson, 2010. evolution, education and outreach 3 ( 1 ) : 34", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.509739264838436, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.174640"}
{"text": "for it with as much confidence as astronomers searched for the planet neptune, - - and they will be equally successful! \"... - - steven d. johnson & bruce anderson, 2010. evolution, education and outreach 3 ( 1 ) : 34.... in the 1890s an english linguist, s. h. ray, pointed out that some of the languages of british new guinea and the solomon islands were not austronesian. a parallel discovery had already been made in the moluccas by in the 1850s by the naturalist a. r. wallace, when he collected vocabularies in these easternmost islands of the indo - malaysian archipelago. in a well - known book on his travels in this region wallace proposed a distinction between ' malay ' and ' papuan ' languages in the moluccas. following wallace ' s lead, ray applied the name ' papuan ' to the non - austronesian languages of melanesia, as a convenient catch - all. soon after, wilhelm schmidt observed that non - austronesian languages were present on the north coast of the new guinea mainland and in new britain. what was striking about the various small groups of papuan languages, was that, unlike the austronesian languages, there was no evidence of common origin. only in the last 50 years has the full extent of the diversity of the languages of near oceania become clear... - - jan lucassen, 2010. in migration history in world history : multidisciplinary approaches ( brill ) : 87 - 88.... any system seeking to utilize all the energy or resources for its own purposes is bound to be challenged by other systems. the consequence of these interactions between self - organizing systems is a continuous stream of new things, or in the case of humans, new thinking. this is diversity. bateson interpreted self - organizing systems as working together to sustain the existence of an evolving ecosystem. this approach has its roots in alfred russell wallace ' s work. wallace saw that the job of evolution was to maintain the constancy of something in his case, the entire ecosystem made up of all species and their environment - - a process rather like the cruise control system or constant velocity transmission ( cvt ) on a motor car. we can also think of it in terms our bodies ' ability to adapt to changes in the outside temperature, at least within a limited range. by shivering or perspiring, our body temperature remains more or less constant because we vary internal conditions in response to those changes in outside temperature..", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5244703729215052, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.175675"}
{"text": "our bodies ' ability to adapt to changes in the outside temperature, at least within a limited range. by shivering or perspiring, our body temperature remains more or less constant because we vary internal conditions in response to those changes in outside temperature... - - edward moulding, 2010. in 5s : a visual control system for the workplace ( authorhouse ) : 129.... indonesia, the world ' s largest archipelago, is a chain of more than 17, 000 islands that stretches between the continents of asia and australia... early explorers noticed morphological differences from east to west that were dramatic enough to lead alfred russell wallace to designate a human phenotypic boundary demarcating the transition between asian and melanesian features. relative to his more well - known biogeographic boundary, this line lies slightly east, running between the islands of sumbawa and flores ( wallace 1869... ). the languages of the region follow a similar pattern, with the majority belonging to the extensive austronesian language family but with more distantly related papuan languages occurring in the far eastern provinces, especially in areas where melanesian features predominate ( wallace 1869 ). to explain these patterns, the prehistory of this region has often been framed as the story of two major range expansions : the initial paleolithic colonization of sahul ~ 45 ka ago and the much later neolithic expansion of austronesian - speaking farmers ( 4 - 6 ka ago ) out of mainland asia or taiwan into indonesia and the pacific... - - tatiana m. karafet et al., 2010. molecular biology and evolution 27 ( 8 ) : 1833.... even within the technologist ' s definition of technology as dealing with mechanical artifacts alone, wallace ' s insight has major relevance. the subject matter of technology, according to the preface to history of technology, is \" how things are done or made \" ; and most students of technology, to my knowledge, agree with this. but the wallace insight leads to a different definition : the subject matter of technology would be \" how man does or makes. \" as to the meaning and end of technology, the same source, again presenting the general view, defines them as \" mastery of his ( man ' s ) natural environment. \" oh no, the wallace insight would say ( and in rather shocked tones ) : the purpose is to overcome man ' s own natural, i. e. animal, limitations. technology enables man, a land - bound biped, without gills", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.564502587255798, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.176673"}
{"text": ". \" oh no, the wallace insight would say ( and in rather shocked tones ) : the purpose is to overcome man ' s own natural, i. e. animal, limitations. technology enables man, a land - bound biped, without gills, fins, or wings, to be at home in the water or in the air. it enables an animal with very poor body insulation, that is, a subtropical animal, to live in all climate zones. it enables one of the weakest and slowest of the primates to add to his own strength that of elephant or ox, and to his own speed that of the horse. it enables him to push his life span from his \" natural \" twenty years or so to threescore years and ten ; it even enables him to forget that natural death is death from predators, disease, starvation, or accident, and to call death from natural causes that which has never been observed in wild animals : death from organic decay in old age... - - peter ferdinand drucker, 2010. technology, management, and society ( harvard business press ) : 41 - 42.... what i have called here the \" wallace insight, \" that is, the approach from human biology, thus leads to the conclusion that technology is not about things : tools, processes, and products. it is about work : the specifically human activity by means of which man pushes back the limitations of the iron biological law which condemns all other animals to devote all their time and energy to keeping themselves alive for the next day, if not for the next hour. the same conclusion would be reached, by the way, from any approach, for instance, from that of the anthropologist ' s \" culture, \" that does not mistake technology for a phenomenon of the physical universe. we might define technology as human action on physical objects or as a set of physical objects characterized by serving human purposes. either way the realm and subject matter of the study of technology would be human work... - - peter ferdinand drucker, 2010. technology, management, and society ( harvard business press ) : 42 - 43.... by contrast, alfred russell wallace, co - discoverer with darwin of the principle of natural selection, believed that count words were essential for numerical cognition, in particular arithmetic : \" if, now, we descend to those savage tribes who only count to three or five, and who find it impossible to comprehend the addition of two and three without having the objects actually before them, we feel that the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5663601812511941, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.178766"}
{"text": "cognition, in particular arithmetic : \" if, now, we descend to those savage tribes who only count to three or five, and who find it impossible to comprehend the addition of two and three without having the objects actually before them, we feel that the chasm between them and the good mathematician is so vast, that a thousand to one will probably not fully express it \" ( wallace, 1871, p. 339 ). the question of the role of language in arithmetic became the focus of recent experimental psychological studies in cultures with few number words, in particular the piraha and the munduruku, two cultures from the amazon forest with an extremely limited number vocabulary... - - helen de cruz, hansjorg neth & dirk schlimm, 2010. in benedikt lowe & thomas muller, eds., phimsamp : philosophy of mathematics : sociological aspects and mathematical practice ( college publications ) : 74.... moreover, alfred wallace, co - inventor of the theory of the evolution by natural selection, doubted that evolution could produce anything like states of consciousness. this problem was later labelled the \" explanatory gap \". individuals use different names for what it is that they are opposing to physical phenomena. huxley and romanes used \" consciousness \". some use \" sentience \"... many now refer to \" phenomenal consciousness \" ( pc ) in contrast with \" access consciousness \" ( ac ), or, in the terminology of chalmers, distinguish the so - called \" hard problem \" of consciousness from a ( relatively ) \" easy problem \". such formulations presuppose a dichotomy : a binary divide between things that do and things that do not have the problematic extra feature over and above their physical features... \u2013 stephane doncieux, 2010, in from animals to animats 11 : 11th international conference on simulation and adaptive behavior ( springer ). one possibility is that wallace was deliberately romanticizing his actual observations and experiences there. nancy stepan has noted that the popular success of the malay archipelago came from its fulfilment of contemporaneous readers ' expectations of what an account of the tropics should be, in contrast to his 1853 account of his travels in south america, travels on the amazon and rio negro, which was not only \" unromantic, \" but \" unheroic, \" and did not sell well... however, i would like to put forth another possibility : what if wallace ' s portrayal of the archipelago", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5863657736125445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.182283"}
{"text": "and rio negro, which was not only \" unromantic, \" but \" unheroic, \" and did not sell well... however, i would like to put forth another possibility : what if wallace ' s portrayal of the archipelago as paradise, and more specifically, his portrayal of interracial relations and \" uncivilized \" society as positively pre - lapsarian, resulted not from the impulse to romanticize, but rather, a stubborn fidelity to scientific accuracy?... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 : 28 - 41.... i will show how wallace arrived at his surprisingly favourable and anti - scientific \" assessments of the inhabitant races and communities of the malay archipelago by applying the principles of taxonomic classification to the human realm. given that wallace ' s primary employment in the malay archipelago was to collect specimens of flora and fauna and classify them according to the principles of the linnaean taxonomic classification system, his adoption of what i will term a \" taxonomic perspective \" in viewing the humans whom he encountered should hardly be surprising. using these same principles of taxonomic classification, wallace was able to achieve a perspective on the malay archipelago hitherto unachieved by authoritative accounts of the region, challenging the predominant scientific views of race held at the time and unsettling even his own views of the \" uncivilized \" races... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 : 28 - 41.... for wallace, feeling \" that savages were in some respects superior, would not have necessarily made it true. i would argue instead that his positive portrayals of human life in the archipelago had just as much scientific basis as his opening portrayals of the archipelago ' s natural environment as an otherworldly eden. if wallace ' s construction of a paradisiacal natural environment relied on his utilization of scientific precedent and natural selection theory, it was his application of taxonomic classification that enabled him to see the human individuals and communities of the archipelago as uniquely paradisiacal as well. wallace ' s taxonomic perspective enabled him to break away not only from dominant perceptions of the races as different stages on a single, linear scale of sociocultural evolution, but also from the social darwinist tendency of his day to view interracial relations as an inexorable struggle in which the white races would prevail... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5126469622300643, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.183297"}
{"text": "the social darwinist tendency of his day to view interracial relations as an inexorable struggle in which the white races would prevail... - - tiffany tsao, 2010. australasian journal of victorian studies 15 : 28 - 41.... cloete ' s poetry does not shy away from inter alia \" controversial scientific subjects \" in a number of poems, and he contemplates the origin of creation and the development of life on earth. the reader is led to consider cloete ' s views on creation and evolution. in this article the emphasis will be on the role of evolution in cloete ' s poetry and how he uses a well - known observation by one of the main exponents of evolution theory in one of his poems, \" toegedig aan alfred r. wallace \", to present a text that expresses wonderment at a natural phenomenon... - - johann lodewyk marais, desember 2009. tydskrif vir geeteswetenskappe 49 ( 4 ) : 548.... this paper is divided into three parts. in the first part i will outline the development of the reciprocal nature of biology and geology. surprisingly reciprocality had been proposed more than 50 years before wegener by the biogeographer alfred russel wallace, co - author of the theory of evolution by means of natural selection ( wallace, 1858 ). i will briefly outline wallace ' s biogeographic ideas as they pertain to reciprocality, before examining wegener ' s reconstruction hypothesis of the cretaceous polar region in more detail... - - b. michaux, december 2009. gondwana research 16 ( 3 - 4 ) : 656.... the female limitation of mimicry is usually explained by a combination of sex - dependent predation pressure and sexual selection : ( 1 ) female butterflies carry heavy egg - loads and are therefore aerodynamically constrained in their escape flights. thus, females are thought to be more vulnerable to predation and presumably gain a greater fitness advantage from batesian mimicry compared to males ( wallace 1865... ), and ( 2 ) wing colour patterns are assumed to be constrained by sexual selection to a much greater extent in males than in females. thus, male mimicry is selectively disfavoured when its natural selective advantage is overwhelmed by the sexual selective advantage of nonmimetic coloration that may be more successful during inter - or intrasexual encounters", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5582561174170926, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 26, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.184243"}
{"text": "russel wallace, the co - originator of the theory of evolution by natural selection, in his 1881 book island life. first, many islands are either volcanic in origin or have been completely under water at some point in their history. these islands emerge above the ocean surface as blank slates for colonization and subsequent evolutionary diversification, on which the development of ecological and evolutionary systems can be observed from their beginnings. each island represents a new opportunity for living forms to appear and proliferate. the first colonists, finding untapped resources and lacking the constraints of a resident biota, often diversify in novel directions. this evolutionary idiosyncrasy is enhanced by unbalanced colonization - - strong dispersal abilities are not evenly distributed across the ecological spectrum of continental biotas - - with the result that some ecological niches on islands are filled by diversification rather than colonization... - - jonathan b. losos & robert e. ricklefs, 12 february 2009. nature 457 ( 7231 ) : 830 - 831. wallace, who promoted strickland ' s methods, wrote that every systematic work should include diagrams, \" without which it is often impossible to tell whether two families follow each other because the author thinks them allied, or merely because the exigencies of a consecutive series compels him so to place them \". in essence, wallace claims that without diagrams the reader cannot know whether information is meaningful or is simply a product of the representational medium ' s limitations ; darwin capitalizes on this basic ambiguity within his diagram itself... - - heather brink - roby, winter 2009. victorian studies 51 : 247 - 273.... many questions are involved in wallace ' s line, but it represents a line of major faunal break between the oriental and the australian regions. according to sweet & pianka ( 2003 ), varanid species are diversified to the east of wallace ' s line while this side lacks carnivorous placental mammals. the diversity of varanid species and that of carnivorous mammals are virtually inverted to the west of wallace ' s line, a region that harbours nearly 20 mammalian carnivores and that lacks small varanid lizards. these observations suggest that the coexistence of mammalian carnivores and varanid lizards is limited because they are too similar as predators... - - marc auge & richard smith, january 2009. zoological journal of the linnean society 155 : 148 - 170. the little that we have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5399342761663228, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 30, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.188445"}
{"text": ": 372.... despite of their seemingly large number, aerosol particles are true trace constituents of the atmosphere, their mass fraction typically being below one part per billion and thereby much below that of any important gaseous climate agent. nevertheless they may have a profound influence on our climate. this perception is not at all new, only 20 years after aitken discovered the importance of aerosols as condensation nuclei, alfred r. wallace noted in 1898 : \" but in all densely - populated countries there is an enormous artificial production of dust.. this superabundance of dust... must almost certainly produce some effect on our climate ; and the particular effect it seems calculated to produce is the increase of cloud and fog, but not necessarily any increase of rain. \"... - - j. feichter & t. leisner, 2009. the european physical journal, special topics 176 ( 1 ) : 84.... non - exclusive hypotheses have traditionally been proposed to account for spectacular woodiness examples in the neo - flora of oceanic islands ( wallace, 1878... ). selection for successful pollination with large, long - lasting inflorescences, niche competition among initial colonizers, and promotion of the outbreeding ratio to overcome inbreeding depression may be related to echium longevity and woodiness. irrespective of the causes generating woodiness, the trait utility of this character is manifested by the large number of woody plant groups that rapidly evolved from herbaceous ancestors not only in macaronesia ( sonchus, isoplexis, aeonium group, pericallis ), but also in the hawaiian ( silversword alliance, schieda ), galapagos ( scallesia ), and juan fernandez ( dendroseris ) archipelagos... - - federico garcia - maroto, 2009. molecular phylogenetics and evoution 52 ( 3 ) : 572.... the current extinction crisis and the extent of anthropogenic alteration of natural habitats have reached alarming proportions... potential hindrances to global assessment of priority list candidates have been divided into eight categories : ( 1 ) the extreme heterogeneity of existing data ; ( 2 ) the restricted availability of relevant data and lack of information exchange between scientists and conservationists ; ( 3 ) the uncertainty in species number and taxonomic division of the given taxon ( linnean shortfall ) ; ( 4 ) the fragmentary knowledge of distributions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5288035294995932, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 32, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.190482"}
{"text": ") the restricted availability of relevant data and lack of information exchange between scientists and conservationists ; ( 3 ) the uncertainty in species number and taxonomic division of the given taxon ( linnean shortfall ) ; ( 4 ) the fragmentary knowledge of distributions ( wallacean shortfall ) ; ( 5 ) incomplete or erroneous red - listing across the entire distribution of a given taxon ; ( 6 ) the lack of homogenous and reliable population trend data ; ( 7 ) the lack of exhaustive information on observed and potential threats ; and finally ( 8 ) the incomplete general biological knowledge of a given taxon ( e. g., its reproduction biology, genetic diversity, dispersal parameters, etc. ). it has been demonstrated that linnean and wallacean shortfalls are among the most serious problems in modern conservation biology and biogeography, and that the majority of deficits in knowledge during any global conservation status assessment results from these two shortfalls... - - gregor kozlowski et al., 2009. biodiversity and conservation 18 ( 9 ) : 2308. it has long been recognized that thailand is subdivided into two zoogeographic subregions with the indochinese subregion to the north and sundaic subregion to the south with a transition zone in the isthmus of kra. distribution patterns corresponding to this division have been observed in a range of biota including rodents, insects, reptiles and plants. initially, wallace ( 1876 ) had placed the transition zone at 13 - 14\u00ban, whereas wells fixed the avifaunal transition zone at about 10\u00ba30 ' n, in the isthmus of kra. subsequently, hughes et al., based on forest birds, found a highly significant transition zone at 11 - 12\u00ban, in the north of the peninsula. the distribution patterns of the three species [ considered here ] were of considerable interest since they strongly support the existing concepts of a subregional division... - - pipat soisook et al., december 2008. acta chiropterologica 10 ( 2 ) : 238. the powerful effect of clinging on the emotional behavior of infant nonhuman primates had been known for many years. it was mentioned by van wagenen in her recommendations and in many other naturalistic accounts of primate infants. one of my favorite quotations is from alfred russel wallace, who describes an \" artificial mother \" of buffalo skin he devised for an orphan orangutan ( 1869 ). all of us associated with the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5171543925781599, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 33, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.191401"}
{"text": "other naturalistic accounts of primate infants. one of my favorite quotations is from alfred russel wallace, who describes an \" artificial mother \" of buffalo skin he devised for an orphan orangutan ( 1869 ). all of us associated with the nursery project were impressed by the strength of the infants ' emotional attachment to their cloths. when i suggested to harlow that we devise an experiment pitting our monkeys ' responses to the feeding station against their attachment to a claspable object, he urged me to proceed. accordingly, i designed an experiment around two mother surrogates that were the functional counterparts of the diaper and the feeding rack. these prototypes had the bodies of the final versions, although they lacked the famous distinctive faces, which were added later... - - william a. mason, december 2008. integrative psychological and behavioral science 42 ( 4 ) : 390 - 391.... wallace wrote that \" [ i ] n the equable equatorial zone there is no... struggle against climate. every form of vegetation has become alike adapted to its genial heat and ample moisture, which has probably changed little even throughout geological periods \". we now know that lowland tropical climates have changed substantially and relentlessly ever since species - rich forests resembling modern ones first occupied the lowland wet tropics in the mid - tertiary. although the notion of long - term constancy of tropical climates is now universally dismissed, wallace ' s view of tropical climates as benign lingers on, underlying the apparently widespread conviction that \" [ m ] any tropical species may well be able to withstand higher temperature [ s ] than those in which they currently exist. \"... - - robert k. colwell et al., 10 october 2008. science 322 ( 5899 ) : 259.... we must consider the possibility that hominids in general and humans in particular have partially escaped from classic darwinian selective control of some aspects of the genome, and that humans have even escaped the final stage of baldwinian genetic hard - wiring of long - standing species - specific learned behaviors. this might in turn help to explain the unusual degree of exaptation displayed by the human brain, presented as ' wallace ' s conundrum ' in box 6. the advantages of such novel changes are flexibility, plasticity, more rapidly developing population diversity and greater opportunities - - but the disadvantages are that genomes cannot recover what has been irrevocably lost, and cultural advantages can be sensitive to the whims", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5296908640642661, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 34, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.192564"}
{"text": "such novel changes are flexibility, plasticity, more rapidly developing population diversity and greater opportunities - - but the disadvantages are that genomes cannot recover what has been irrevocably lost, and cultural advantages can be sensitive to the whims of history and fate... - - ajit varki, daniel h. geschwind & evan e. eichler, october 2008. nature reviews genetics 9 ( 10 ) : 758. the importance of avian egg coloration for crypsis, once accepted as a general principle ( wallace 1890, cott 1940, von haartman 1957, harrison 1968 ), has recently been questioned because tests of this hypothesis have often failed to support a role for egg coloration in deterring predation. as a result, more recent work has emphasized the importance of nest crypsis as the primary mediator of clutch survival... - - david westmoreland, september 2008. journal of field ornithology 79 ( 3 ) : 263. evolved mimicry of hawks by parasitic cuckoos. wallace ( 1889 ) suggested that the resemblance was an example of protective mimicry, which might reduce attacks from hawks, noting that cuckoos were otherwise ' an exceedingly weak and defenceless group of birds '. prolonged periods of surveillance for host nests, sometimes from exposed perches, might make parasitic cuckoos especially vulnerable to hawk attack. in asia, drongo - cuckoos ( surniculus lugubris ) may likewise gain from protective mimicry of drongos dicrurus spp., which are extremely aggressive to larger birds, including birds of prey and crows ( wallace 1889 ). alternatively, hawk mimicry might influence host behaviour, either by frightening or luring hosts away to facilitate egg laying or by inducing mobbing to help the cuckoo locate host nests, which may be especially advantageous in open country with few secret vantage points... - - n. b. davies & j. a. welbergen, august 2008. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 275 ( 1644 ) : 1818.... it has been argued that ostriches lay white eggs because they are powerful enough to defend their nests ( wallace 1889 ). however, when nests are unattended, such big eggs are quite visible on the ground to both mammalian and avian predators. in our visibility study, a naturally white egg was seen first by the observer, suggesting that the brown eggs are better concealed. ostriches would therefore have derived a selective", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5241702311999425, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 35, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.195971"}
{"text": "observation it follows, wallace argued, that characteristic human abilities must be latent in primitive man, existing somehow as an unopened gift \u2014 the entryway to a world that primitive man himself does not possess and would not recognize. but the idea that a biological species might possess latent powers makes no sense in darwinian terms. it suggests the forbidden doctrine that evolutionary advantages were frontloaded, far away and long ago. it is in conflict with the darwinian principle that just as useful genes are selected for cultivation and advancement, useless genes are subject to negative selection pressure and must therefore drain away into the sands of time. wallace identified a frank conflict between his own theory and what seemed to him to be obvious facts about the solidity and unchangeability of human nature. that conflict persists ; it has not been resolved... - - david berlinski, april 2008. commentary 125 ( 4 ) : 35.... alfred russel wallace ( 1853 ) was perhaps the first naturalist to write about the white - water, clear - water, and black - water river types of the amazon basin and to relate the color of tributaries to the nature of their drainage basins. wallace astutely linked the sediment load of white - water tributaries to erosion in their steep andean headwaters, and identified clear - water rivers with the crystalline \" mountains of brazil \" ( the guyana and brazilian shields ). he knew that black - water rivers emerged from lowland sources, and he correctly attributed their dark coloring to leaching of \" decaying leaves, roots, and other vegetable matter \" ( wallace 1853 )... - - michael e. mcclain & robert j. nainan, april 2008. bioscience 58 ( 4 ) : 325. while he maintained that ' social heredity ' was consistent with the theory of evolution by natural selection, baldwin followed wallace in claiming that humans had evolved to such a degree of conscious intelligence that they had freed themselves from the pressures of natural selection, and surmounted instinctual constraints on behavior : ' intelligence and the social life which it makes possible so far control the acquisitions of life to limit the action of natural selection as a law of evolution. ' in this fashion baldwin defended human freedom against the hereditarian determinism of darwin ' s theory of evolution, by claiming that thought and will had emancipated humans from the constraints of natural selection... - - john d. greenwood, february 2008. history of the human sciences 21 ( 1 ) : 114. later behaviorists rejected the role", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5763496306429157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 37, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.200124"}
{"text": "by claiming that thought and will had emancipated humans from the constraints of natural selection... - - john d. greenwood, february 2008. history of the human sciences 21 ( 1 ) : 114. later behaviorists rejected the role of consciousness and purpose in human and animal psychology and behavior - - with the notable exception of edward c. tolman - - but continued to stress the critical role of plasticity and learning in adaptive behavior. they also depreciated the explanatory role of inherited instincts, which became the object of sustained critiques by behaviorist psychologists in the 1920s. like functional psychologists ( and wallace ), behaviorists came to believe that humans had developed ( through evolution by natural selection ) to such a degree that they could surmount the constraints of their biological inheritance, and exploit their intelligence to create a scientific psychology devoted to the further advancement and improvement of the human condition... - - john d. greenwood, february 2008. history of the human sciences 21 ( 1 ) : 118.... in other words, as wallace so clearly realized, human symbolic reasoning is not simply an extrapolation of this extended history, simply a little bit more of the same. it is, instead, something truly new and unpredicted by what went before \u2014 even by the increase in the mass of metabolically expensive brain tissue that seems to have independently characterized several lineages within the genus homo, though it was clearly dependent on this development. and while wallace was regrettably unable to profit from our modern perspective, today it is possible to see that the origin of modern human consciousness must have been an emergent event, whereby an entirely unanticipated level of complexity was achieved by a sheer chance coincidence of acquisitions... - - ian tattersall, 2008. comparative cognition & behavior reviews 3 : 111. researchers of animal coloration have noted the perplexing nature of egg pigmentation in open - nesting birds ( i. e., birds whose nests are not in cavities or enclosed by a dome ). one of the founders of the theory of natural selection wrote \" the colours of birds ' eggs have long been a difficulty on the theory of adaptive coloration, because, in so many cases it has not been easy to see what can be the use of the particular colours, which are often so bright and conspicuous that they seem intended to attract attention rather than to be concealed \" ( wallace 1890 ). wallace went on to argue that bird eggs are well camouflaged when viewed from below", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5058169493558576, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 38, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.201562"}
{"text": "can be the use of the particular colours, which are often so bright and conspicuous that they seem intended to attract attention rather than to be concealed \" ( wallace 1890 ). wallace went on to argue that bird eggs are well camouflaged when viewed from below via light penetrating the nest... - - david westmoreland & richard a. kiltie, november 2007. journal of avian biology 38 ( 6 ) : 686 - 687. alfred wallace, darwin ' s contemporary and rival, argued that when species hybridize, natural selection favors individuals who are more fussy about whom they mate with, which therefore increases female discrimination of males from different species. modern evolutionary genetics has questioned the importance of the \" wallace effect \" ( also known as \" reinforcement \" ) because genetic recombination between female discrimination and male trait genes would scramble combinations of loci that favor speciation. several solutions to this have been proposed, including close genetic linkage of such loci. a simpler possibility is sexual imprinting, which causes a female to prefer males that resemble her father... - - michael g. ritchie, 5 october 2007. science 318 : 54. while chamupati largely ignored darwin, whose views of hindu scriptures were hardly flattering, chamupati was attracted to the ideas of alfred russel wallace, codiscoverer of evolution. chamupati noted wallace ' s praise of the mind of the vedic hymn makers who, despite the \" very limited knowledge [ of nature ] at this early period,... could not have been in any way inferior to those of the best of our religious teachers and poets \u2014 to our miltons and our tennysons. \" for chamupati and other followers of dayananda, wallace was far more congenial than darwin, for, despite wallace ' s espousal of some of the most theologically challenging aspects of evolutionary theory, namely, random variation and natural selection, wallace made considerable exceptions. he insisted on some sort of \" spiritual influx \" to account for the origin of life as well as of mind and morality. accordingly, he was a much safer corroborator of vedic insights, at least in chamupati ' s views... - - c. mackenzie brown, september 2007. zygon 42 ( 3 ) : 718. using the theoretical framework of evolution by natural selection, wallace developed crawfurd ' s proposal that the two distinct aboriginal races were the malays and papuans. from his observations, wallace post", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5434282373263866, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 39, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.202489"}
{"text": "zygon 42 ( 3 ) : 718. using the theoretical framework of evolution by natural selection, wallace developed crawfurd ' s proposal that the two distinct aboriginal races were the malays and papuans. from his observations, wallace postulated an ethnological line dividing the malayan and polynesian races. the position of this line east of the famous line dividing the indo - malayan and austro - malayan bioregions demonstrated crawfurd ' s hypothesis that the civilized malays were pushing the savage papuans back from their natural border. wallace ' s ethnological line functioned to support his representation of two races as radically different from each other, not only in terms of physical characteristics but also in what wallace called ' moral characteristics ' ( 1869 : 588 )... - - daniel p. s. goh, september 2007. international journal of cultural studies 10 ( 3 ) : 328. darwin ' s originality and priority are, strictly speaking, separate questions. one can be original and yet fail to achieve priority if, for example, someone else comes forward first in print with the same theory without one ' s knowledge. such, in fact, is more or less the case with a. r. wallace. no one, least of all darwin, doubted that wallace arrived at his theory independently of darwin, but darwin was proven by history to have brought the theory into print \u2014 if not exactly publication \u2014 first. nevertheless, darwin often conflated the two issues in his private correspondence, referring to his originality and priority almost as if they were interchangeable ideas... - - curtis n. johnson, fall 2007. journal of the history of biology 40 ( 3 ) : 533. at a given latitude, the most striking feature of avian seasonality is the consistency with which the successive stages of reproduction, moult and migration take place each year \u2014 not only on a populational scale, but also within individuals. day - length \u2014 the most consistent sources of temporal information about the environment \u2014 was suggested to play a role in the scheduling of avian annual cycles, in particular of migration, as early as 1876 ( e. g. palmen 1876 ; wallace 1876 )... - - timothy coppack, 23 june 2007. journal of ornithology 148, suppl. 2 : s460. [ concerning the organization of a forest preserve ]... although wallace ' s proposal is controversial and raises environmental concerns, it is important to recognize that he was focused on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5247588653390308, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 40, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.203391"}
{"text": "ornithology 148, suppl. 2 : s460. [ concerning the organization of a forest preserve ]... although wallace ' s proposal is controversial and raises environmental concerns, it is important to recognize that he was focused on key ecological issues. he fought to preserve in an unsullied state the forests that had not been cleared. he also recognized that severe ecological destruction had been wrought on the state of nature. and in this, he contributed to a philosophy of ecological restoration by raising the issue of how we are to address anthropogenic environmental problems. in \" epping forest, \" wallace documented that environmental degradation had taken place, as profiteers and lords of manors had destroyed whole areas of the forest. he provided a reasoned discussion of the different temperate forests in the northern hemisphere and an argument that recognized how the species found in a particular location are, in part, influenced by the much longer, geological, and climate history of the earth. in this, wallace provided important insights and helped open a realm of debate... - - brett clark & richard york, june 2007. organization & environment 20 ( 2 ) : 231. wallace found fault with two aspects of domestication as a heuristic for understanding adaptation in nature. he argued first that the analogy was flawed : artificial selection requires an intelligent selector, whereas no such force acts in natural systems. additionally, he insisted that the selection itself was fundamentally different, leading to intrinsically different kinds of variation. domesticated species, he wrote, \" are abnormal, irregular, artificial ; they are subject to varieties which never occur and never can occur in a state of nature : their very existence depends altogether on human care ; so far are many of them removed from that just proportion of faculties, that true balance of organization, by means of which alone as an animal left to its own resources can preserve its existence and continue its race. \" both wallace ' s lines of argument find modern audiences, from those who see a fundamental difference between the conscious selection of humans and natural processes to those who argue that variation in domesticated species differs from that in nature... - - jeffrey ross - ibarra, peter l. morrell & brandon s. gaut, 15 may 2007. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 104, suppl. 1 : 8641 - 8642. the coloration of this genus of weevils is among the most astonishing visual effects displayed in nature. many animal species that are distasteful", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5255440894998036, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 41, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.204332"}
{"text": "sciences of the united states of america 104, suppl. 1 : 8641 - 8642. the coloration of this genus of weevils is among the most astonishing visual effects displayed in nature. many animal species that are distasteful to predators have evolved aposematism ( they have a distinctive, conspicuous coloration, which functions as a warning signal, advertising their inedibility to potential predators ). wallace notes in a passage on the genus pachyrrhynchus that many weevils have excessive hard integuments, which render them inedible to most birds, and our own dissections of this species confirm their extremely tough exoskeleton. it seems likely, therefore, that the stark coloration of this species is a form of aposematism. further evidence in support of this comes from the finding that a number of edible species, such as the longicorn beetles doliops curculionides and doliops geometrica and the cricket scepastus pachyrhynchoides mimic various pachyrrhynchus species weevils... - - victoria welch et al., 30 april 2007. physical review e 75 ( 4 ) : 7. several features of the results give some reassurance because they support plausible notions and other evidence that most nonsynonymous mutations and many nonsynonymous polymorphisms are deleterious. our analysis implies that some 19 of 20 new amino acid replacements are deleterious with an average fitness reduction on the order of five times the reciprocal of the effective population size. these estimates pertain only to the subset of nonsynonymous mutations whose effect are not so severe as to preclude their becoming polymorphic, but they support other evidence that selection against deleterious mutations plays in key role in shaping patterns of genetic variation in drosophila. likewise, we estimate that [ about ] 7 of 10 amino acid replacements that are polymorphic in samples are deleterious. one feature of our results that might animate some surprise is the high proportion of amino acid fixations between species that show positive selection, [ about ] 95 % in our data. this finding seems to reflect what wallace called the \" overwhelming odds against the less fit \"... - - stanley a. sawyer et al., 17 april 2007. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 104 ( 16 ) : 6509. given that phenomena strive for reality - - that is, to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5554215333613286, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 42, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.205315"}
{"text": "... - - stanley a. sawyer et al., 17 april 2007. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 104 ( 16 ) : 6509. given that phenomena strive for reality - - that is, to become distinct - - then there must by default be a process whereby constitutive elements are demarcated as ' included ' and, of course, an opposite process, whereby elements become the ' excluded '. according to [ charles ] fort : \" it is our expression that nothing can attempt to be, except by attempting to exclude something else : that that which is commonly called ' being ' is a state that is wrought more or less definitely proportionately to the appearance of positive difference between that which is included and that which is excluded. \" this process leaves a trace, however, in the sense that one cannot subsequently provide a full and comprehensive description of the thing in question. even darwin, fort argued, ' was never able to tell what he meant by a \" species \". ' echoing wallace ' s ( 1875 ) earlier concerns over the close - mindedness of modern science, fort argued that this body of knowledge was itself but one instance of localization, wherein an attempt is made to separate out those explanations which are deemed acceptable and proper from those that are not. the raw material of the world becomes organized and interpreted to fit into preconceived notions of how things should work. slowly but surely, this drive towards explanation causes a plethora of facts and events to emerge from this chaotic landscape, each of which is seen to form part of an overarching pattern. ' a theory feels its way through surrounding ignorance, ' he suggested, like ' a wagon train feels its way across a prairie. ' and yet, ' science relates to real knowledge no more than does the growth of a plant, or the organization of a department store, or the development of a nation : that all are assimilative, or organizing, or systematizing processes that represent different attempts to attain the positive state - - the state commonly called heaven, i suppose i mean '... - - deborah dixon, april 2007. cultural geographies 14 ( 2 ) : 193. the conspicuous displays that warn predators of defenses carried by potential prey have been of interest to evolutionary biologists from the time of wallace and darwin to the present day. although most studies implicitly assume that these \" aposematic \" warning signals simply indicate the presence of some repellent defense such as a toxin, it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6237243748040486, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 43, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.206281"}
{"text": "been of interest to evolutionary biologists from the time of wallace and darwin to the present day. although most studies implicitly assume that these \" aposematic \" warning signals simply indicate the presence of some repellent defense such as a toxin, it has been speculated that the intensity of the signal might reliably indicate the strength of defense so that, for example, the nastiest prey might \" shout loudest \" about their unprofitability. recent phylogenetic and empirical studies of dendrobatid frogs provide contradictory views, in one instance showing a positive correlation between toxin levels and conspicuousness, in another showing a breakdown of this relationship. in this paper we present an optimization model, which can potentially account for these divergent results... - - michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, march 2007. evolution 61 ( 3 ) : 623.... kantian philosophers do not have the exclusive right to transcendental arguments, which can be and are used by philosophers and scientists alike. for instance, physicists such as stephen hawking and roger penrose have invoked the anthropic principle, the weak version of which was anticipated by alfred russel wallace ( 1904, pp 256 - 257 ) : \" such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required... in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man. \" more recently, the biologists john bonner and richard lewontin have offered transcendental arguments for the modular organization of development as a requirement for evolvability... - - werner callebaut, march 2007. acta biotheoretica 55 ( 1 ) : 77 - 78. in his extensive monograph of the genus, talbot, building on the earlier work of wallace ( 1867 ), dixey ( 1894 ) and others, originally divided delias into twenty species - groups, according to differences in form of the androconia, male genitalia and, to a lesser extent, wing pattern. talbot noted, however, that the australian endemic d. aganippe, provisionally placed in the belisama group, ' seems somewhat isolated ' on structural grounds and is ' placed doubtfully in this group '. wallace ( 1867 : 349 ) similarly remarked that, ' it is difficult locate this common australian species ', and placed d. aganippe in the belladonna group... -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5524380910894297, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 44, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.207198"}
{"text": "and is ' placed doubtfully in this group '. wallace ( 1867 : 349 ) similarly remarked that, ' it is difficult locate this common australian species ', and placed d. aganippe in the belladonna group... - - michael f. braby & naomi e. pierce, january 2007. systematic entomology 32 ( 1 ) : 6.... in his notes, essays and correspondence from the field, wallace consistently emphasized species and genera, and separated these descriptions from his rarer and briefer discussions of individual organisms. the first passage above, from an 1857 article describing collecting in the aru islands, is typical : wallace provides an enthusiastic litany of species, families and genera. it is easy to miss his distinction at the end of the passage, between families, species and individuals, in terms of \" abundance. \" yet this too is characteristic of wallace ' s writings from the field. at a given locality, families contain more or fewer species, and species contain more or fewer individual organisms. wallace did not collapse or confuse these levels, but carefully distinguished between different sorts of abundance. in general, his natural history writing emphasized species, with clear distinctions between individual organisms and groups... - - melinda b. fagan, 2007. journal of the history of biology [ electronic file ]. the contrast in the two naturalists ' writings from the field thus has two aspects. first, wallace emphasized groups of organisms, while darwin described many details of individual organisms. second, wallace clearly distinguished between groups and individuals, while darwin was more ambiguous. both aspects can be explained by differences in natural history practice. wallace and darwin ' s contrasting habits and working routines in the field were shaped in turn by their different circumstances and motivations. the two naturalists went to the field with different training and social connections, different finances and responsibilities, and different theoretical interests... - - melinda b. fagan, 2007. journal of the history of biology [ electronic file ]. the use of soil animals as protein source in human nutrition is still widely represented in indigenous populations in most regions of the world and was first reported by wallace ( 1853, 1889 ) more than 100 years ago... - - t. decaens et al., november 2006. european journal of soil biology 42 ( suppl. 1 ) : s26.... knowledge about biodiversity remains inadequate and plagued by the so - called linnean and wallacean shortfalls ( lomolino, 2004 ; whittaker", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5023717039782496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 45, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.208209"}
{"text": "journal of soil biology 42 ( suppl. 1 ) : s26.... knowledge about biodiversity remains inadequate and plagued by the so - called linnean and wallacean shortfalls ( lomolino, 2004 ; whittaker et al., 2005 ; see also brown & lomolino, 1998 ). the first refers to the fact that most species living on earth were still not formally described, whereas the second is defined by the fact that, for the majority of taxa, geographical distributions are also poorly understood and contain many gaps. as recently pointed out by whittaker et al. ( 2005 ), these two shortfalls are scale dependent, both on evolutionary and on ecological dimensions. although work done since the 18th century allows us to make general predictions of broad - scale diversity gradients based on current climate effects ( see hawkins, 2004 and references therein ), we are far from a predictive theory capable of predicting species diversity based on complex environmental and historical factors acting at different scales in time and space... - - luis mauricio bini et al., september 2006. diversity and distributions 12 ( 5 ) : 475. here i present a critical review of the literature which, when combined with the results of some comparative analyses, suggests that just a few selective agents can explain much of the variation in egg appearance. ancestrally, bird eggs were probably white and immaculate. ancient diversification in nest location, and hence in the clutch ' s vulnerability to attack by predators, can explain basic differences between bird families in egg appearance. the ancestral white egg has been retained by species whose nests are safe from attack by predators, while those that have moved to a more vulnerable nest site are now more likely to lay brown eggs, covered in speckles, just as wallace hypothesized more than a century ago. even blue eggs might be cryptic in a subset of nests built in vegetation. it is possible that some species have subsequently turned these ancient adaptations to new functions, for example to signal female quality, to protect eggs from damaging solar radiation, or to add structural strength to shells when calcium is in short supply. the threat of predation, together with the use of varying nest sites, appears to have increased the diversity of egg colouring seen among species within families, and among clutches within species. brood parasites and their hosts have probably secondarily influenced the diversity of egg appearance. each drives the evolution of the other ' s egg colour and patterning, as hosts attempt to avoid exploitation by rejecting odd", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5288697239660636, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 46, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.209278"}
{"text": "within families, and among clutches within species. brood parasites and their hosts have probably secondarily influenced the diversity of egg appearance. each drives the evolution of the other ' s egg colour and patterning, as hosts attempt to avoid exploitation by rejecting odd - looking eggs from their nests, and parasites attempt to outwit their hosts by laying eggs that will escape detection... - - r. m. kilner, august 2006. biological reviews 81 ( 3 ) : 383. wallace ' s hypothesis for egg colouring is intuitively appealing because it can explain why so many bird eggs are white or speckled or some shade of brown in colour, and because it is consistent with observations that more cryptic offspring are less vulnerable to attack by predators. furthermore, lack ( 1958 ) found that a species ' nest site could explain some of the variation in egg patterning and colouring amongst the turdinae. he found that hole - nesters were more likely to lay white immaculate eggs, whereas about 80 % of birds whose nests were placed in exposed sites covered their eggs in red or brown speckling, which he interpreted as an adaptation for concealment. however, experimental evidence in support of wallace ' s hypothesis is rather mixed... - - r. m. kilner, august 2006, biological reviews 81 ( 3 ) : 385. why do organisms age and die? this question has long vexed biologists. alfred russel wallace first suggested that ageing and death might be adaptive ( weismann 1882, wallace 1889 ). in the 1860s wallace wrote \" natural selection... in many cases favours such races as die almost immediately after they have left successors. \" despite some early support, this adaptive view of ageing and death was soon dismissed, to such an extent that in the 1920s it was labelled a \" perverse extension of the theory of natural selection \" ( pearl 1922 ). this has remained the case since with almost all biological gerontologists believing that \" longevity determination is under genetic control only indirectly, \" and that \"... ageing is a product of evolutionary neglect, not evolutionary intent. \" today, there are three largely competing theories used to explain ageing ; mutation accumulation, antagonistic pleiotropy and disposable soma... - - calvin dytham & justin m. j. travis, june 2006. oikos 113 ( 3 ) : 531. when you ask beginning students why we age, they usually respond that physical decay culls", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5119252157732808, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 47, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.210312"}
{"text": "soma... - - calvin dytham & justin m. j. travis, june 2006. oikos 113 ( 3 ) : 531. when you ask beginning students why we age, they usually respond that physical decay culls the old to make way for the young, says evolutionary biologist ophelie ronce of the university of montpelier in france. that explanation carries a long pedigree \u2014 it dates back to alfred russel wallace the co - discoverer of natural selection \u2014 but most modern evolutionists spurn it... - - mitch leslie, 3 may 2006. science of aging knowledge environment 2006 no. 8 : nf12. during his collecting expedition in the rio negro and tributary rio uaupes basins ( 1850 to 1852 ), wallace collected and sketched a specimen that was most likely tetranematichthys wallacei. his pencil sketch of the specimen ( wallace, 2002 : fig. 122 ) clearly illustrated the elongate dorsal - fin spine, the ossified, curved maxillary barbels, the elongation of the anterior rays of the anal fin, and the overall form of the head and body characteristic of nuptial males of tetranematichthys ( note : the orientation of the fish in the illustration is such that the mandibular barbels are not apparent ). given that t. wallacei is the only species of the genus known to occur in the rio negro and rio uaupes basins, we identify wallace ' s specimen as that species... - - richard p. vari & carl j. ferraris, jr., may 2006. copeia 2006 ( 2 ) : 176.... it was not just that science was monoparadigmatic ; its monoculturalism extended beyond the surveillance of the gaze to the fact that the creation of the object had to deny the subjective self and its knowledge. in relating to the other, modern western science either eliminated, assimilated, ghettoized or museumized them. science had no place for defeated knowledges ; the idea of an alternative science arose as a charter to challenge the current politics of knowledge. it was that great dissenting scientist alfred wallace who formulated the problem long before thomas kuhn. in his wonderful century ( wallace, 1898 ), a portrait of the achievements of 19th - century science, wallace begins with a celebration of western science and then observes that a science at its moment of dominance tends to be coercive and to ignore competing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5451232921455114, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 48, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.211174"}
{"text": "in his wonderful century ( wallace, 1898 ), a portrait of the achievements of 19th - century science, wallace begins with a celebration of western science and then observes that a science at its moment of dominance tends to be coercive and to ignore competing theories and hypotheses. wallace believed that the success of science made it ethically and cognitively imperative for the scientist to invent and explore alternatives... - - shiv visvanathan, march - may 2006. theory, culture & society 23 ( 2 - 3 ) : 166. wallace ' s field practices fit best into the survey tradition, which flourished during the shift from the 19th - century armchair to intensive ethnographic fieldwork in the early 20th century... both survey and intensive ethnography were attempts to shift knowledge production into the field. long before researchers gave field ethnography rather than armchair theorizing the highest prestige, wallace was developing a greater role for regional survey work... - - jeremy vetter, march 2006. journal of the history of biology 39 ( 1 ) : 98. for more than a century, a debate has raged as to whether death constitutes an intentional ontogenetic program, the so - called wallace - weismann hypothesis, or the passive result of an inexorable accumulation of defects. by accounting for benefits to kin, the former assertion becomes more plausible. the inability to identify definable discreet mechanistic pathways for programmed death has provided a major source for criticism of this theory. although evolutionary dynamics and pluralism may both contribute to the darwinian value of phenoptosis, intuitive appeal persists in the notion of an oligarchy of functional hubs underpinning the many proximate mechanisms of phenoptosis. indeed, given its processes ' central roles in apoptosis, the mitochondrion may represent an ideal candidate to serve as one such hub on the level of the organelle. the induction of cellular damage by reactive oxygen species has been noted to be a mechanism of self - termination that encompasses all scales of biology. however, we believe that identification of hubs that operate on the level of systems as opposed to that of subcellular components may afford greater potential utility for modification and correction. endocrine pathways, particularly those involving reproduction and circadian rhythms, have already been implicated in this regard... - - anthony j. yun, patrick y. lee & john doux, 2006. medical hypotheses 67 ( 5 ) : 1082. whe", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5685364854679766, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 49, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.212301"}
{"text": "involving reproduction and circadian rhythms, have already been implicated in this regard... - - anthony j. yun, patrick y. lee & john doux, 2006. medical hypotheses 67 ( 5 ) : 1082. whewell ( 1853 ) was the first to propose that the solar system has a habitable region comparable to the modern conception of the chz [ circumstellar habitable zone ]. he termed it the \" temperate zone. \" in an impressive treatise for the period, wallace ( 1903 ) enumerated several planetary habitability factors, including obliquity, mass, distance from the sun, atmospheric composition, and proportion of water to land... - - guillermo gonzalez, december 2005. origins of life and evolution of biospheres 35 ( 6 ) : 556.... in this paper, we describe individual - based evolutionary model of aposematism and defense in spiny and poisonous species. we show that with spines, aposematism is easy to explain by a route in which predator biases are not out of sequence. thus, aposematism evolves in our simulations if predators : ( 1 ) can recognize spines as dangerous ( because they are common in prey populations anyway ), ( 2 ) can use conspicuous markings to better notice and evaluate the significance of spines ( resulting in cautious handling ), and ( 3 ) can use conspicuousness as a cue for distinctiveness such that animals with colourful spines are less easily confused with nonspiny edible prey ( as wallace,, originally suggested for the general function of aposematism )... - - michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, december 2005. evolution 59 ( 12 ) : 2501.... in the past, applying the logic of adaptationism to such central and seemingly unique human capacities has often triggered strong resistance. wallace himself, although the co - creator of natural selection theory, considered self - consciousness as too complex to be one of its outcomes ( wallace, 1889 ). note that his main argument was that the sense of self seemed to constitute a radical departure from other forms of phenomenal awareness. but this argument itself relied on the assumption that there is an integral self - system. given that assumption, it seems indeed difficult to consider the self as the result of a slow, incremental process of natural selection, each step of which is conducive to better reproductive potential. it is by contrast more tractable to evaluate the potential evolutionary background of separate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5517383899041752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 50, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.213300"}
{"text": "indeed difficult to consider the self as the result of a slow, incremental process of natural selection, each step of which is conducive to better reproductive potential. it is by contrast more tractable to evaluate the potential evolutionary background of separate self - relevant systems... - - pascal boyer, philip robbins & anthony i. jack, december 2005. consciousness and cognition 14 ( 4 ) : 653. as is often the case in evolutionary ecology, mathematical models have outpaced empirical data and the theoretical basis of the wallace effect has been established in more than 100 mathematical models. supporting field data are less common, however, and are rarely unambiguous. part of the problem is in not knowing the origin of the supposedly split populations : the only way properly to test the basis for sympatric speciation would be to experimentally manipulate a population, but the timescales of speciation are too long for such a study to observe incipient speciation within the lifespan of a single research project... - - jeff ollerton, 3 august 2005. heredity 95 : 181. in between mill and edgeworth, the classical economists ' notion of sympathy was attacked, and was largely overcome. the co - discover of the law of natural selection, a. r. wallace, had argued in 1864 that the doctrine of natural selection did not apply to humans because of ethical concerns generated by human sympathy. our morals do not allow us to let the infirm perish ( wallace, 1864, clxii ). in response, the co - founder ( with francis galton ) of eugenics, w. r. greg, insisted that if sympathy blocked the ' salutary ' effects of the survival of the fittest, such sentiments should be suppressed. so, when the ' law ' of ' natural selection ' failed for humans - - because of sympathy and ethics - - the eugenic thinkers who so influence post - classical economics proposed to rid humanity of sympathy. - - sandra j. peart & david m. levy, august 2005. canadian journal of economics 38 ( 3 ) : 950. another english socialist of a very different temper, alfred russel wallace, co - founder of the theory of natural selection, took a different tack. the humane wallace was a reformer but also a stout defender of darwinian inheritance. so, although he believed that english society was increasingly dysgenic, wallace rejected compulsory eugenics as elitist and barbarous. wallace proposed that eugenic ends could be realized by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5321944083045028, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 51, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.215672"}
{"text": "had subsequent proponents... - - emma e. goldberg et al., june 2005. american naturalist 165 ( 6 ) : 628. the conditions under which aposematism, the conspicuous coloration of unpalatable or otherwise defended prey, could evolve have long been a topic of speculation ( wallace 1867 ; poulton 1890 ). a perceived roadblock to the initial establishment of rare, aposematic mutants is the intense predation to which they would be subjected by naive predators. conspicuous prey, albeit defended, are much more likely to be seen by predators, and if predators are unaware of their defence ( and do not show neophobia ), then such prey are more likely to be attacked on encounter. this means that rare conspicuous mutants of defended prey should, on average, be attacked more frequently than their cryptic conspecifics. a possible solution to this problem, first suggested by fisher ( 1930 ), is that gregariousness could facilitate the evolution of distastefulness ( and hence aposematism ). thus, if prey are warningly coloured and aggregated, then an attack on one individual by a naive predator could lead to subsequent avoidance of others in the group, often relatives, that share the same trait ( this proposal was the initial inspiration for hamilton ' s ( 1963 ) theory of kin selection )... - - christopher d. beatty, roderick s. bain & thomas n. sherratt, 23 may 2005. animal behaviour 70 : 199. the darwinian theory and wallace ' s original theory can be formalized in terms of what is called today the carrying capacity of the environment, usually denoted by k ; in wallace ' s words, this is the level at which \" the population must have reached its limits, and have become stationary. \" suppose that the carrying capacity of the parental form on its own is k, and that the carrying capacities of the parental form and the advantageous variation when they coexist are k1 and k2 respectively. under darwin ' s theory k1z0, whereas k2 is equal to or perhaps slightly greater than k, so that the parental form eventually becomes extinct even in a constant environment. under wallace ' s theory both carrying capacities are greater than zero, with k1! k2, so that both forms can coexist ; if the environment deteriorates, both carrying capacities decrease, and if the deterioration is severe k1 becomes 0, so that the parental form becomes extinct. when the environment recovers, the carrying capacities return to their", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.546747519393022, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 53, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.217991"}
{"text": "both forms can coexist ; if the environment deteriorates, both carrying capacities decrease, and if the deterioration is severe k1 becomes 0, so that the parental form becomes extinct. when the environment recovers, the carrying capacities return to their original values so that both types can again coexist... - - michael bulmer, 22 may 2005. notes & records of the royal society 59 ( 2 ) : 130. it was wallace ( 1855 ) who was the first to recognize the correlation between geographic distribution and evolutionary relationship. wallace ( 1855 ) in fact described how a process akin to what is now called vicariance might have produced modern faunal differences in the galapagos islands if these now distinct islands were once joined. in effect, wallace ( 1855 ) was arguing that one way the geological world impinges on the biological world is through the mechanism we now refer to as allopatric speciation. if speciation is allopatric, species can disperse over geographic barriers ( that have geological or climatic causes ) and become isolated, or geological or climatic changes can cause populations of species to become isolated from one another by creating barriers within formerly continuous ranges ; the latter is termed vicariance. in either case, the isolated populations diverge and eventually speciate... - - bruce s. lieberman, 11 april 2005. palaeogeography, palaeocimatology, palaeoecology 219 : 25. although these definitions vary, the common emphasis is on the provision of a more stimulating environment. historically alfred russel wallace may have been one of the first individuals to provide enrichment to captive animals ( wallace 1869 ). upon receipt of an orphan orangutan in his camp, he fashioned an artificial mother from a buffalo skin that appeared to comfort the animal, served as a surrogate mother, and thereby enriched the animal ' s environment. shortly afterward, wallace received another animal in camp, a cynomolgus monkey, and the two animals were successfully paired. thus wallace ' s earliest attempts at enriching the animal ' s environment included the provision of both inanimate and animate exemplars of enrichment... - - james l. weed & james m. raber, march 2005. ilar journal 46 ( 2 ) : 118. a. r. wallace originally invented the concept now known as aposematism to describe prey that combine warning displays with secondary defences ( wallace 1867, 1889 ). more than a century later, the evolution of aposematism remains a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.51978501084918, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 54, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.219009"}
{"text": "118. a. r. wallace originally invented the concept now known as aposematism to describe prey that combine warning displays with secondary defences ( wallace 1867, 1889 ). more than a century later, the evolution of aposematism remains a remarkably fertile and controversial area of research. warning displays are still of interest to researchers, in part, because the proximate mechanisms by which they operate tell us much about predator behaviour and predator - prey coevolution. as originally envisaged by wallace ( 1867 ) and poulton ( 1890 ), warning displays function to enhance discrimination, to accelerate learning and perhaps slow down forgetting... - - michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, 21 february 2005. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 272 : 431.... aposematic displays remain the focus of considerable attention because, for many researchers, their initial origins contain at least two important evolutionary paradoxes. first, it is generally assumed that before the first aposematic traits evolved, prey were both highly cryptic and had effective secondary defences. if secondary defences are costly ( and they often are ), then their presence in prey already highly protected by crypsis is paradoxical : why pay for repellent secondary defences if your enemy rarely finds you? second, there is a better - known paradox of warning signals, which also emerges from commonly held assumptions about initial conditions. ever since the seminal theoretical model of harvey et al. ( 1982 ), it is widely taken that aposematic mutants must emerge from defended cryptic species. when this is the case, new aposematic forms suffer combined and highly effective barriers to survival because of their rarity and their conspicuousness... - - michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, 21 february 2005. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 272 : 431.... as wallace originally envisaged, warning displays might be conspicuous so as to be \" very distinct from the protective tints of the defenceless animals allied to them \" ( wallace 1889, p. 232 ). hence a good reason that aposematism may evolve initially is to prevent confusion with undefended prey. on its own, behavioural conspicuousness itself may not be a sufficiently reliable signal of non - profitability to function as an aposematic display. as we found... prey can evolve some heightened levels of behavioural conspicuousness even when they do not evolve adaptive secondary defences. hence,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5236973357624245, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 55, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.220026"}
{"text": "may not be a sufficiently reliable signal of non - profitability to function as an aposematic display. as we found... prey can evolve some heightened levels of behavioural conspicuousness even when they do not evolve adaptive secondary defences. hence, some additional discriminative cue may be necessary for defended prey to minimize erroneous attacks by educated predators... - - michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, 21 february 2005. proceedings of the royal society of london, series b, biological sciences 272 : 436. the language faculty is one component of what the co - founder of modern evolutionary theory, alfred russel wallace, called \" man ' s intellectual and moral nature \" : the human capacities for creative imagination, language and symbolism generally, mathematics, interpretation and recording of natural phenomena, intricate social practices, and the like, a complex of capacities that seem to have crystallized fairly recently, perhaps a little over 50, 000 years ago, among a small breeding group of which we are all descendants - - a complex that sets humans apart rather sharply from other animals, including other hominids, judging by traces they have left in the archaeological record. the nature of the \" human capacity, \" as some researchers now call it, remains a considerable mystery. it was one element of a famous disagreement between the two founders of the theory of evolution, with wallace holding, contrary to darwin, that evolution of these faculties cannot be accounted for in terms of variation and natural selection alone, but requires \" some other influence, law, or agency, \" some principle of nature alongside gravitation, cohesion, and other forces without which the material universe could not exist. although the issues are framed differently today within the core biological sciences, they have not disappeared... - - noam chomsky, winter 2005. linguistic inquiry 36 ( 1 ) : 3.... rohde ( 1978, 1992 ) expanded earlier suggestions that high - energy levels may increase speciation rates ( wallace, 1878 ). relationships between speciation / extinction rates and energy may arise directly through the influence of solar energy on mutation rates, and most literature on the diversification rate mechanism focuses on this relationship. alternatively, both solar and productive energy availability may influence speciation / extinction rates indirectly through variables such as body size and reproductive rates... - - karl l. evans, philip h. warren & kevin j. gaston, february 2005. biological reviews 80 ( 1 ) : 14.... adaptationism is usually traced back to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5149024604056541, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 56, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.221029"}
{"text": "variables such as body size and reproductive rates... - - karl l. evans, philip h. warren & kevin j. gaston, february 2005. biological reviews 80 ( 1 ) : 14.... adaptationism is usually traced back to alfred r. wallace, one of the two great biological revolutionaries, who was also one of the forefathers of modern astrobiology with his intriguing and remarkably prescient 1903 book man ' s place in the universe. this view is the scientific foundation of schroeder ' s solution to fermi ' s paradox. intelligence is an adaptive trait, like any other. adaptive traits are bound to disappear once the environment changes sufficiently for any selective advantage which existed previously to disappear. in the long run, the intelligence is bound to disappear, as its selective advantage is temporally limited by ever - changing physical and ecological conditions... - - milan m. cirkovic, january - february 2005. journal of the british interplanetary society ( jbis ) 58 ( 1 - 2 ) : 65. the first report of a tool - using parrot in the wild was in 1869, by wallace ( 2000 ). he described a black palm cockatoo ( probosciger aterrimus ) in new guinea using a piece of leaf as a wedge while feeding from kanary nuts ( canarium commune ). according to the author, after starting to groove the nut with its lower mandible, the bird held it in its foot and bit off a piece of leaf. this was retained in the deep notch of the upper mandible while the bird started to seize the nut once again, fixing the edge of the lower mandible in the notch and braking off a piece of shell by a powerful nip. wallace suggested that the nut was prevented from slipping by the elastic tissue of the leaf ( wallace 2000 )... - - andressa borsari & eduardo b. ottoni, january 2005. animal cognition 8 ( 1 ) : 48.... the wakatobi marine national park includes all coral reefs, islands, and communities within its boundaries and is centered around the main islands in the wakatobi archipelago. the area is considered \" a geological and biological anomaly \" and is located at a zone of transition between the two distinct faunas associated with the asian and australian continents. wallace ( 1869 ) postulated that the islands of sulawesi had been isolated far longer than the surrounding islands, giving evolution a much greater opportunity to shape a unique fauna... - - benjamin", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5295066073968597, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 57, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.221929"}
{"text": "two distinct faunas associated with the asian and australian continents. wallace ( 1869 ) postulated that the islands of sulawesi had been isolated far longer than the surrounding islands, giving evolution a much greater opportunity to shape a unique fauna... - - benjamin p. horton et al., january 2005. journal of foraminiferal research 35 ( 1 ) : 4. wallace ' s rhetorical world was as remote from darwin ' s as their social worlds - - they wrote up their theories differently. although a colonial infrastructure made much of wallace ' s fieldwork possible, the solitary english collector, living alongside natives and dependent on their knowledge and skills, eschewed the rich imperial language in which darwin depicted evolving life. wallace thought spatially and described his theories in ways appropriate to the welsh mapmaking enterprise from which he first learned about native habitats. he wrote with artless clarity. one searches in vain for conquering colonial imagery in his major theoretical essays between 1855 and 1864. here \" organic beings \" are continually \" peopling \" the earth and making it a \" theatre of life. \" new species evolve under changed \" physical conditions \" in \" an unbroken and harmonious system. \" the faunas of \" neighboring countries \" testify to their geological past, showing that new species were \" gradually introduced \" as the regions became isolated. the arrival of \" chance immigrants \" is often followed by \" natural extinction and renewal of species, \" and those organisms with \" greater powers of dispersion \" and \" a greater plasticity of organization \" have \" extended themselves \" over continents. the \" regular and unceasing extinction of species, and their replacement by allied forms \" is an \" established fact, \" contingent in every case on the quantity and quality of available food... - - james moore, 2005. in david n. livingstone & charles w. j. withers, eds., geography and revolution ( university of chicago press ) : 121 - 122. in the malay archipelago, wallace ' s most popular and widely read book, the only \" empire \" is austrian, \" imperial \" is a common species name, and only the dutch, the portuguese, and ants have \" colonies. \" \" aborigines \" are always human, \" natives \" are established residents ( also marsupials in the moluccas and flowers in the himalayas ), and people wage \" war, \" \" conquer, \" and \" exterminate \" one another ( also the flying opossum ). \" competition \" too is a human", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.51639388249843, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 58, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.222870"}
{"text": "evolutionary convergence, is more likely to involve planarians, myriapods, fishes, snakes, and other groups with relatively simple body forms... third, among vertebrates, snake mimicry is unusually widespread because of ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), and because venomous species can severely injure or kill predators... fourth, the origin of noxious attributes can markedly increase diversity within a clade beyond that encompassed by unpalatable species ; dangerous models thereby make otherwise \" unprotected niches \" possible for harmless relatives, and even for lifestyles not used by the models themselves... - - harry w. greene & roy mcdiarmid, 2005. in maureen donnelly et al., eds., ecology and evolution in the tropics : a herpetological perspective ( university of chicago press ) : 205 - 206. proposed originally by a. r. wallace in the mid 19th century ( wallace 1852 ), the riverine barrier hypothesis states that major amazonian rivers significantly reduce or prevent gene flow between populations inhabiting opposite river banks, hence promoting speciation. in a phylogeographic framework, the main prediction of the riverine barrier hypothesis is that sister intraspecific clades and species will exist across major rivers rather than within major amazonian interfluves ; furthermore, phylogeographic and population genetics data can distinguish between primary divergence across rivers ( predicted by the riverine barrier hypothesis ) versus secondary contact along rivers between nonsister taxa that diversified elsewhere. a second prediction of the riverine barrier hypothesis comes from the observation that the upper reaches of all major amazonian rivers are narrower than the lower reaches ; therefore, a gradual reduction of the \" river - barrier effect \" is expected to take place from the lower to the upper part of the river ' s course... - - alexandre aleixo, june 2004. evolution 58 ( 6 ) : 1303.... the possibility that at least some instances of similarity among distasteful species may have evolved through selection to deceive predators has been frequently raised. even before the publication of the theory of mullerian mimicry, wallace ( 1871 ) proposed that \" distasteful secretion is not produced alike by all members of the family and that where it is deficient, protective imitation comes into play \"... - - thomas n. sherratt, michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, may 2004. journal of theoretical biology 228 : 217 - 218. alfred russel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5064940311787944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 60, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.225006"}
{"text": "it is deficient, protective imitation comes into play \"... - - thomas n. sherratt, michael p. speed & graeme d. ruxton, may 2004. journal of theoretical biology 228 : 217 - 218. alfred russel wallace was the first to suggest that aging and death might be evolved traits. in the 1860s, he suggested that individuals are programmed to die so that they do not compete with their offspring. his idea had some early support, notably from the influential german biologist august weismann, but by the 1920s it had been dismissed as a \" perverse extension of the theory of natural selection \". by the middle of the last century, the focus of evolutionary theory on senescence had shifted to other theories such as mutation accumulation and antagonistic prejotropy... recent discoveries in nematodes, insects, and mammals of genes that, when mutated, increase life span, have increased interest in the evolution of aging. in this article, i show that within a spatially structured population, programmed death does evolve and suggest that it is time to reconsider the \" perverse \" theories of wallace and weismann... - - justin travis, april 2004. journal of gerontology a : biological sciences 59 ( 4 ) : 301. conspicuous and simple color patterns ( often red, yellow, or white in combination with black ) are common among animals that are distasteful, noxious, or otherwise potentially dangerous to their predators (... wallace, 1867 ). the common view is that conspicuousness has evolved because it constitutes a strong visual signal that is easy for receiving predators to detect, learn, and associate with unpalatability. however, conspicuous coloration may provide protection against predators even if the prey lacks chemical or structural defense mechanisms, because coloration may elicit spontaneous avoidance behaviors in naive predators. it has been suggested that bilateral asymmetry also may play a role in communication, but this has been studied primarily within the context of mate choice... - - anders forsman & joakim herrstrom, january - february 2004. behavioral ecology 15 ( 1 ) : 141. although we have many species from most of the major species groups and subgroups related to d. melanogaster in our analysis, speciation patterns for independent species groups and subgroups need to be examined with a number of genes to generalize these inferences. nevertheless, if the observed correspondence between the time of species divergences and paleoclimate changes is true, it supports", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.539273169329167, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 61, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.225950"}
{"text": ". in david rothenburg & wandee j. pryor, eds., writing the future : progress and evolution ( mit press ) : 3 - 4. steven pinker ( how the mind works ) and daniel dennett ( darwin ' s dangerous idea ) speak for mainstream evolutionary theory when they insist that the mind was built up incrementally by way of small, selective advantages in the same way as a bird ' s wing. they see the growth of intelligence as wholly a matter of problem solving and toolmaking - - practical talents to which natural selection easily applies. they simply ignore wallace ' s dilemma, offering no reason why the mind should ever have developed beyond simple counting, toolmaking, and enough verbal ability to coordinate a hunting expedition... - - theodore roszak, 2004. in david rothenburg & wandee j. pryor, eds., writing the future : progress and evolution ( mit press ) : 5. one could argue that males can survive better by being smaller and more cryptic than females. the importance of predation to the evolution of sexual dimorphism was first stressed by wallace ( 1889 ), who suggested that crypsis in females is favoured because bright colours potentially attract nest predators. recent comparative studies, such as that undertaken by martin & badyaev ( 1996 ), seem to confirm this point. in tinamous, reversed sexual roles and predation risks incurred by incubating males may explain why they are less colourful than their conspecific females. small size and cryptic coloration are probably complementary strategies to avoid predators... - - p. l. tubaro & s. bertelli, november 2003. biological journal of the linnean society 80 ( 3 ) : 526. to understand why small monitor species have radiated so dramatically through australia, new guinea, and their adjacent islands, but not elsewhere, we examined the possible role of wallace ' s line... in contrast to its influence on the mammals, wallace ' s line is not a barrier to monitors - - or is it? that depends on the adult size of the species... large monitor species ( in which adults are greater than four feet long ) are just as diverse on lands east of wallace ' s line as they are to the west, or for that matter in mainland asia and africa. small monitor species, however, occur only to the east of the line... - - samuel s. sweet & eric r. pianka, november 2003. natural history 112 ( 9 ) : 44. it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5182147224946877, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 63, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.227931"}
{"text": "matter in mainland asia and africa. small monitor species, however, occur only to the east of the line... - - samuel s. sweet & eric r. pianka, november 2003. natural history 112 ( 9 ) : 44. it has long been recognized that prey that possess significant defenses against predators tend to be conspicuous in some way ( wallace 1867 ; darwin 1871 ; poulton 1890 ). the contemporary explanation for this phenomenon, termed \" aposematism \" ( poulton 1890 ), is that there is \" something special \" about the educational properties of conspicuous traits as a signal of defense. for example, it has been repeatedly shown that predators learn to avoid unpalatable prey more quickly when they are conspicuous than when they are cryptic. this theory for the evolution of aposematism is plausible, but there is an important caveat. whatever the underlying cause of aposematism, it is likely that predators would evolve an enhanced psychological predisposition to learn to avoid conspicuous prey precisely because such prey tend to be defended... - - thomas n. sherratt & christopher d. beatty, october 2003. the american naturalist 162 ( 4 ) : 377. ' the darwinian theory is wrong because random variations tend to worsen performance '. thus wrote fred hoyle in his famous book ' the intelligent universe '. hoyle pointed out three important things in this book. first, that the idea of natural selection had been around for several decades before darwin wrote the origin. secondly, that it was wallace ' s clear letter of 1858 that really clarified darwin ' s mind on the matter. thirdly, and more important, natural selection as conceived by darwin and wallace just won ' t work mathematically. the odds are stacked hugely against random change producing even one new protein... - - anthony k. campbell, july 2003. astrophysics and space science 285 ( 2 ) : 571. with respect to the theory of sexual selection, darwin ( 1859, 1872 ) developed this novel concept but did not describe the function of this behaviour ( for instance, the role of the male peacock ' s tale ). as dawkins has pointed out, it was wallace who speculated that a male with brightly coloured tail feathers is showing that he is a high - quality individual. subsequent studies have shown that this idea is supported by experimental evidence. hence, with respect to the second mode of selection in nature, wallace developed the concept originally proposed by darwin ( 1859, 1872 ) and did draw the correct conclusions... -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5505439768370406, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 64, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.228962"}
{"text": ". subsequent studies have shown that this idea is supported by experimental evidence. hence, with respect to the second mode of selection in nature, wallace developed the concept originally proposed by darwin ( 1859, 1872 ) and did draw the correct conclusions... - - u. kutschera, 1 may 2003. theory in biosciences 122 ( 4 ) : 357 - 358. why do we believe wallace when he writes about evolution yet ignore him when he turns to spiritualism? part of the reason is the context in which we receive his writings today. spiritualism is now out of fashion, hoaxes have been exposed, and there is no longer a social context for the idea of spiritualism. the experiments, while repeatable in wallace ' s day, are no longer repeatable, and thus they fail one of the hallmarks of the scientific method. but they were repeatable then! when one reads wallace ' s works, one is struck by how he acted with complete warrant in exploring spiritualism scientifically. as kuhn has demonstrated, wallace was operating under the social constructs of his day... - - steven l. peck, march 2003. zygon 38 ( 1 ) : 11. as we shall show, the concept of the diorama emerged from the construction of biogeographical zones. moreover, the concept of biogeographical zones not only triggered the vision of the diorama as its \" musee imaginaire \" but, from the very beginning, theorizing on biogeographical zones was captured by visual means such as maps and illustrations. these images had a strong impact on the emergence of dioramic displays by providing two - dimensional forerunners for what were later implemented as three - dimensional museum installations. as we show in this paper, the new mode of illustration introduced by wallace in 1876 formed a crucial influence. in the geographical distribution of animals wallace elected to illustrate different biogeographical zones by the simultaneous display of animals from different taxa against an ecologically appropriate background. by and large, each animal was itself in some way unique to its zone and could potentially have been used as a surrogate for the zone... - - julia voss & sahotra sarkar, february 2003. philosophy & geography 6 ( 1 ) : 61. wallace insisted that none of these suggestions went to the heart of the problem. none of these people had suggested anything more than some ' force ' - - but force is a cause of motion, not a cause of organization. there must", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5905906890175766, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 65, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.231249"}
{"text": ") : 61. wallace insisted that none of these suggestions went to the heart of the problem. none of these people had suggested anything more than some ' force ' - - but force is a cause of motion, not a cause of organization. there must be something more than merely a force. there must be some agency that guides and coordinates the process which builds up that infinitely complex machine, the living organism. wallace thought of the cell as being not only self - repairing, but also self - renewing, self - multiplying, self - adapting to its ever - changing environment, so as to be, potentially, everlasting... - - roger steer, 2003. in his letter to an influential atheist ( authentic lifestyle ) : 27. the co - inventor of evolutionary theory, alfred russel wallace, was aware of the significance of darwin ' s views. in his book, darwinism, ( originally published in 1890 ) wallace took pains to distance himself from darwin on the question of human capacities. he pointed to the mistake that someone might make by conjecturing that all geological changes are due to factors such as flooding, volcanic activity, the action of the wind and the sun, and so on while overlooking the special contribution made by glaciation. glaciation is an important cause of change, but is radically different from the other causes of geological change. by analogy, wallace argues, \" because man ' s physical structure has been developed from an animal form by natural selection, it does not necessarily follow that his mental nature... has been developed by the same causes only ( wallace 1897 : xx ). \" our mental capacities and our morality, wallace suggests, may be due to something quite different from natural selection... - - andrew brennan, 2003. worldviews 7 ( 3 ) : 276 - 277. in the second edition of primitive culture, tylor ' s doubts about psychic phenomena were suppressed and spiritualism roundly denounced as a survival of animistic beliefs ( tylor 1873 ). yet, even the formulations used in primitive culture betray an ambivalence within its scheme of mental evolution that seems fundamental to contemporary scientific politics. tylor felt forced to class modern spiritualism with \" primitive \" animism - - the kind of arbitrary classification that wallace was up against in his critique of primitive culture and in his earliest writings on botany. but tylor also had to acknowledge that spiritualism was not just a survival but an extraordinary revival of animism. he even went as far as to recognize", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5520535545653413, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 66, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.233572"}
{"text": "wallace was up against in his critique of primitive culture and in his earliest writings on botany. but tylor also had to acknowledge that spiritualism was not just a survival but an extraordinary revival of animism. he even went as far as to recognize the anomalous status of spiritualism within his progressionist scheme, because the former \" is a truly remarkable case of degeneration \" ( 1873 ), the possibility of which primitive culture was originally intended to argue out of existence... - - peter pels, 2003. in birgit meyer & peter pels, eds., magic and modernity : interfaces of revolution and concealment ( stanford univ. press ) : 258.... in miracles and modern spiritualism, the argument about perception was developed after wallace denounced the theoretical fallacy of assuming that because spiritualist phenomena ran counter to our knowledge of the laws of nature, they cannot exist. he argued that the physical phenomena that occur during a seance, can only be explained by presuming invisible intelligences, which was only \" another and more striking illustration than any we have yet received of how small a portion of the great cosmos our senses give us cognisance \" ( 1874 ). he compared the force exerted by these intelligences with light, heat, electricity, and magnetism ( ala \" modes of motion \" of a space - filling \" ether \" ) to show how these \" diffuse and subtle \" forms of matter can act upon \" ponderable bodies \" and become known to us only by their effects. the fact that we do not know this higher sense is no argument, wallace wrote, because likewise the \" faculty of vision \" would be \" inconceivable \" to a race of blind men. \" it is possible and even probably that there may be modes of sensation as superior to all ours as is sight to that of touch and hearing \" ( 1874 ). the subject of divination, in particular, allowed wallace to elaborate on this? the clairvoyance that is at the basis of divination led him to suppose a \" new sense \" that amounts to \" a kind of rudimentary perception, which can only get at the truth by degrees. \"... - - peter pels, 2003. in birgit meyer & peter pels, eds., magic and modernity : interfaces of revolution and concealment ( stanford univ. press ) : 262.... the lesson seems to be : if you think hard about species origins", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5405345104371437, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 67, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.234730"}
{"text": "in birgit meyer & peter pels, eds., magic and modernity : interfaces of revolution and concealment ( stanford univ. press ) : 262.... the lesson seems to be : if you think hard about species origins, then it does not matter how you travel, you will reach the theory of natural selection in the end. on closer inspection, however, the wallace case offers at least a few openings to those sceptical about the independence of the theory from its history. one move would be to deny that wallace did, in fact, ' co - discover ' the theory of natural selection. rather, he came up with a theory quite different from darwin ' s, and darwin ' s overreaction in 1858 has misled historians ever since... - - gregory radick, 2003. in jonathan hodge & gregory radick, eds., the cambridge companion to darwin ( cambridge univ. press ) : 150. three features of wallace ' s account of the evolution of human mind and morals stand out. first, he conceived the selective environment to be other proto - human groups - - which would have an accelerating effect on the evolutionary process, since social environments would rapidly change through responsive competition. second, he proposed that selection worked on the group, rather than the individual - - which allowed him to explain the rise of altruistic behaviour, that is, behaviour perhaps harmful to the individual but beneficial to the group. in his original essay on the transmutation of species ( 1858 ), wallace conceived of the struggle for existence as occurring among varieties instead of individuals. he continued to think in such group terms when considering the evolution of moral behaviour. finally, in a note to the published version of his talk to the anthropological society, he mentioned that he was inspired to develop his thesis by reading herbert spencer ' s social statics. spencer ' s own early brand of socialism had pulled wallace to his side. in social statics, ( 1851 ), spencer had envisioned a gradual and continual adjustment of human beings to the requirements of civil society, with individuals accommodating themselves to the needs of their fellows, so that eventually a classless society would emerge in which the greatest happiness for the greatest number would be realised. spencer assumed that the inheritance of useful habits would be the means by which such evolutionary progress would occur, while wallace believed natural selection to be the agent of that progress... - - robert j. richards, 2003. in jonathan hodge & gregory radick, eds., the cambridge companion", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5595626674498131, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 68, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.235681"}
{"text": "would be the means by which such evolutionary progress would occur, while wallace believed natural selection to be the agent of that progress... - - robert j. richards, 2003. in jonathan hodge & gregory radick, eds., the cambridge companion to darwin ( cambridge univ. press ) : 102 - 103. on the basis of personal experiments and reliable reports from other scientists, wallace concluded that the universe is populated with a hierarchy of spirit beings, some of whom are in contact with the human population on earth, usually through mediums. according to wallace, the spirit beings lower in the hierarchy, acting through mediums, were responsible for a variety of paranormal phenomena, including clairvoyance, miraculous healings, communications from the dead, apparitions, materializations of physical objects, levitations, etc. more powerful spirit beings may have played a role in the process of evolution, guiding it in certain directions... - - michael a. cremo, 2003. in his human devolution : a vedic alternative to darwin ' s theory. ( bhaktivedanta book publishing inc. ) : 102.... hume appealed to uniform human experience in his refutation of miracles. for example, hume observed \" it is a miracle that a dead man should come to life ; because that has never been observed in any age of any country \" wallace noted two flaws in this argument. first, the appeal to uniform human experience, granting the truly uniform nature of the experience, insures that no really new fact could ever be established. second, wallace questioned the veracity of hume ' s version of uniform human experience. \" reputed miracles abound in all periods of history, \" wrote wallace ( 1896, p. 8 ). and they continued up to the present, thus nullifying hume ' s assumption... - - michael a. cremo, 2003. in his human devolution : a vedic alternative to darwin ' s theory. ( bhaktivedanta book publishing inc. ) : 116.... the space - filling ether of nineteenth century physics is no longer with us. but there are modern scientific concepts that would allow wallace ' s basic system to operate. according to deterministic chaos theorists, immeasurably small random perturbances of matter can rapidly propagate into large - scale effects that are not easily predictable. scientists sometimes give the example of a caribbean butterfly that by its wings sets off motions of air molecules. these movements might eventually ampli", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5684921586204139, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 69, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.236793"}
{"text": "small random perturbances of matter can rapidly propagate into large - scale effects that are not easily predictable. scientists sometimes give the example of a caribbean butterfly that by its wings sets off motions of air molecules. these movements might eventually amplify to steer a hurricane from open sea into the american coast. if the butterfly had flapped its wings slightly differently, the hurricane might not have hit land. according to this idea, wallace ' s spirit beings might make infinitesimal adjustments on the subatomic level that would quickly propagate into observable spiritualist effects. one might also propose that they are somehow capable of manipulating the curvature of einstein ' s space - time continuum. they could thus produce gravitational effects, for gravity is said to be the result of curvature in the continuum. or one might propose that the spirit beings induce slight changes in the quantum mechanical vacuum, which in some ways resembles an ether. of course, this approach is limiting, and rather than straining to find ways to explain spiritualist phenomena in conformity with currently accepted physical laws, it may make more sense to come up with a new theoretical system that more naturally incorporates both the normal and paranormal phenomena... - - michael a. cremo, 2003. in his human devolution : a vedic alternative to darwin ' s theory. ( bhaktivedanta book publishing inc. ) : 128.... wallace favored the latter course, but his system has certain puzzling features. although a dualist, he does not appear to accept the existence of individual conscious entities before their earthly embodiment. according to wallace, there is an original spiritual mind from which matter is generated. individual spiritual minds, associated with spiritual bodies ( souls ), are only developed from and in material bodies, as they come into existence ( wallace 1885 ; in smith 1991, p. 100 ). after death, the individual minds, as above stated, go to \" the first grade of spirit life, \" where they experience progress or the lack of it based on their earthly habits. but if individual spirit souls can exist after earthly embodiment, why not before? and why is there any need at all for earthly embodiment, which is not an altogether pleasant experience? why not skip that and go directly to the highest grade of spiritual life?... - - michael a. cremo, 2003. in his human devolution : a vedic alternative to darwin ' s theory. ( bhaktivedanta book publishing inc. ) :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6143402645240131, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 70, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.237752"}
{"text": "to the highest grade of spiritual life?... - - michael a. cremo, 2003. in his human devolution : a vedic alternative to darwin ' s theory. ( bhaktivedanta book publishing inc. ) : 129.... here is another problem with wallace ' s system. in his works, wallace details reports of varied spiritualistic phenomena, such as levitation, apparitions, and clairvoyance, from his own time and throughout history. but he ignores reports of transmigration of souls, which occur widely in almost all times and places. the reports of transmigration are just as credible as any other category of evidence he considers. the existence of this phenomena requires, however, certain modifications in wallace ' s system. at death, souls would pass not necessarily into the first phase of spiritual existence but perhaps into new material bodies. according to religious systems that incorporate transmigration, such as the vedic system, some souls, because of their strong attachment to their last embodiment, do not attain new material bodies, but remain for some time as ghosts. this actually fits in quite well with the observations of wallace and other spiritualists, who found that the spirits they contacted often desired to communicate with living friends and relatives... - - michael a. cremo, 2003. in his human devolution : a vedic alternative to darwin ' s theory. ( bhaktivedanta book publishing inc. ) : 129. instead of unthinkingly placing english society at the top of the evolutionary tree, he argued that the evolutionary process had gone awry. in wallace ' s hands evolutionary theory ceased to act as a rationalization of what was and became a promise of what could be. the key here was to hold up so - called savage societies as occasionally more civilized and more advanced than the west. thus towards the end of his popular travel book the malay archipelago ( 1869 ), wallace favourably contrasted primitive morality with the ' social barbarism ' of victorian england. if a savage society could attain a higher level of morality, then something must have disturbed england ' s evolutionary progression. the villain was laissez - faire individualism. human evolution - - the development of man ' s moral and intellectual faculties - - depended upon the extent to which man was exempted from an individualist, physical struggle. yet victorian society celebrated individualism... - - david a. stack, 2003. in his the first darwinian left : socialism and darwinism", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5248514774859767, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 71, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.238696"}
{"text": "- - depended upon the extent to which man was exempted from an individualist, physical struggle. yet victorian society celebrated individualism... - - david a. stack, 2003. in his the first darwinian left : socialism and darwinism 1859 - 1914 ( new clarion press ) : 28. historians of science have raised the suggestion that wallace ' s version of natural selection was not quite so darwinian as darwin himself believed. wallace persistently used the word ' variety ' as the level of entity at which natural selection acts. you heard an example in the long passage i have just read out. and some have suggested that wallace, unlike darwin who clearly saw selection as choosing among individuals, was proposing what modern theorists rightly denigrate as ' group selection '. this would be true if, by ' varieties ', wallace meant geographically separated groups or races of individuals. at first i wondered about this myself. but i believe a careful reading of wallace ' s paper rules it out. i think that by ' variety ' wallace meant what we would nowadays call ' genetic type ', even what a modern writer might mean by a gene. i think that, to wallace in this paper, variety meant not local race of eagles, for example, but ' that set of individual eagles whose talons were hereditarily sharper than usual. '... - - richard dawkins, october 2002. the linnean 18 ( 4 ) : 20.... modern wallaceans accept that peacocks ' tails and similar bright organs are advertisements to females. but they want the males to be advertising genuine quality. a male with bright coloured tail feathers is showing that he is a high quality male... the late w. d. hamilton, of oxford university, was a prime example of a wallacean in this sense. he believed that sexually selected ornaments were badges of good health, selected for their capacity to advertise the health of a male - - bad health as well as good. one way to express hamilton ' s wallacean idea is to say that selection favours females who become skilled veterinary diagnosticians. at the same time, selection favours males who make it easy for them by, in effect, growing the equivalent of conspicuous thermometers and blood - pressure metres. the long tail of a bird of paradise, for hamilton, is an adaptation to make it easy for females to diagnose the male ' s health, good or bad. an example of a good general diagnostic is a suscept", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5641328671399635, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 72, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.239579"}
{"text": "pressure metres. the long tail of a bird of paradise, for hamilton, is an adaptation to make it easy for females to diagnose the male ' s health, good or bad. an example of a good general diagnostic is a susceptibility to diarrhoea. a long dirty tail is a give - away of ill - health. a long clean tail is the opposite. the longer the tail, the more unmistakeable the badge of health, whether good health or poor... - - richard dawkins, october 2002. the linnean 18 ( 4 ) : 22 - 23.... a significant positive correlation between the proportion of range area above 100 m and total range size for each species is used to suggest that past sea - level rises may explain smaller range sizes in low - lying regions and that riverine barriers have been important in shaping the current distribution of c. cleonus group species... unfortunately, it is not clear exactly how important rivers have been or continue to be in the current distribution of c. cleonus group species because some of the central and lower amazonian material is historical and the label data probably generalized ; in such cases, uncertainty remains as to which bank specimens were really collected from, especially with the possibility of subsequent shifts in river course. having said this, several lines of evidence do suggest that rivers have been influential in shaping the current distributions of c. cleonus group species... - - jason p. w. hall & donald j. harvey, july 2002. evolution 56 ( 7 ) : 1489, 1493 - 1494. some cosmologists, including alfred russel wallace, freeman dyson and paul davies, have formed the opinion that, in the words of fred hoyle, \" the universe is a put - up job \". they are expressing their marvel that the values of its constants and the forms of its laws are just those which allow such phenomena as the formation of planets, complex chemistry, life and intelligence. some of them - - including paul davies - - go further than this. they argue that the laws of the universe were somehow legislated with purpose so that planets, chemistry and life could develop... wallace, hoyle, dyson and others have made the point that even slight changes in some values of fundamental or cosmological constants, or even in the laws of physics themselves, would imply a universe in which life as we know it would not exist. here are a few examples :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.563825645795011, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 73, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.240454"}
{"text": "have made the point that even slight changes in some values of fundamental or cosmological constants, or even in the laws of physics themselves, would imply a universe in which life as we know it would not exist. here are a few examples : if the universe were much less dense, then stars and planets might not form. if the universe were much more dense, then it would have stopped expanding and contracted back into a hot big crunch long ago, possibly before any supernovae had had time to generate the elements needed for life. what if the laws of physics were different? if the strong nuclear force were much weaker than it is, then the electrostatic repulsion between protons would prevent the formation of large nuclei - - hydrogen might be the only element. if gravity were different, or if the geometry of space - time were different, then stars might not form or planets might not have stable orbits... - - joe wolfe, http : / / www. phys. unsw. edu. au / ~ jw / danish. html ( accessed 3 march 2002 ). the check that ' human nature ' placed upon hopes of social improvement is illustrated by malthusianism. this was popularly conceived of as an argument about the limits human nature - - in particular the impulse to procreation - - placed upon progress. thus the transformation sought by owen in social relations was predicated upon the malleability and educability of the individual. human nature can be improved beyond the limits set by present - day social relations, and education and environmental reform both play a role in this. did these ideas influence wallace ' s views on nature? in one important respect they did. wallace ' s views on instinct and its role in animal and human behaviour are different from those of darwin and contradict much of what passed for darwinian psychology after the publication of the origin. when wallace talks about instinct in nature, whilst not denying its existence, he tends to discount the role of preformed, inherited behaviour and to talk up the notion of learning. moreover, he returns throughout his life to the same proposition : the role of instinctive behaviour is small, that of learning relatively greater... - - greta jones, march 2002. british journal for the history of science 35 ( 1 ) : 81.... wallace saw many instances of mismatch between existing faculties and the environment. the natural world, like the social, was a site of dissonance between wants and the environment. the wants were relatively fixed points -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5741161435684028, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 74, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.241342"}
{"text": ") : 81.... wallace saw many instances of mismatch between existing faculties and the environment. the natural world, like the social, was a site of dissonance between wants and the environment. the wants were relatively fixed points - - the need for food and so on - - but the behavioural responses to these were malleable. he noted a species of bird which in africa and india ' eat only insects ' whilst those in south america ' in great measure live upon fruits which they capture on the wing as they do insects. there is no difference in their structure but being in different countries surrounded by different circumstances they are led to adopt different habits '. in downgrading instinct wallace introduced the idea there was always space for change, a potential for specialization or variability in behaviour even among individuals from the same species. nature was not filled up with all that was possible for its full exploitation. the potential spaces in it were not necessarily occupied nor all the forms of behaviour found in natural organisms perfectly matched to their environment. wallace constantly repeated this. in the case of the anatomy of birds wants and habits were limited by their structure, not structure by wants and habits, but even with the same structure behaviour differed. there is always room for modification and change. this contributes to the unsettled and evolving natural world... - - greta jones, march 2002. british journal for the history of science 35 ( 1 ) : 83.... the difference in approach between darwin ' s and wallace ' s views on population is discernible in their respective contributions to the linnean society in 1858. darwin introduces malthus almost immediately and proceeds to litter his text with phrases and analogies from the essay on population. for darwin, nature at war is ' the doctrine of malthus applied in most cases with tenfold force '. along with the struggle for mates introduced in his closing paragraphs, death is a major selective factor and death is the consequence of this ' enormous multiplying power '. in contrast wallace begins with the question of varieties and the instability of species. he does not mention malthus in his paper but he does quickly turn to the ' struggle for existence ' and to population. however, in wallace ' s hands the force of population increase loses that all - encompassing ontological character it displays in darwin ' s first public exegesis of his theory. malthus is certainly present in wallace ' s paper but it is malthus read by an owenite... - - greta jones, march 2002.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5517038705242613, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 75, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.242604"}
{"text": "encompassing ontological character it displays in darwin ' s first public exegesis of his theory. malthus is certainly present in wallace ' s paper but it is malthus read by an owenite... - - greta jones, march 2002. british journal for the history of science 35 ( 1 ) : 93. selection in favour of individuals that resemble the background has been invoked as the probable cause of cryptic coloration in prey species for over a century and there have been numerous demonstrations that predators preferentially feed on more conspicuous prey items. our study is, however, the only work other than endler ' s research on colour - pattern selection in guppies that has shown significant directional selection by predators over multiple successive prey generations when compared with a non - select control... - - alan b. bond & alan c. kamil, february 2002. nature 415 ( 6872 ) : 612. the evolutionism of darwin ( 1859 ) and wallace ( 1875 ) is radically different from all previous lines of thought in that it uses the notion of contingency applied to living beings. francois jacob writing about this issue stated : \" with the theory of evolution, as with statistical thermodynamics, the notion of contingency became established in the very heart of nature. since newton ( 1934 ), physics had been based on a rigid determinism, which extended to all sciences. evolutionary theory and statistical thermodynamics completely transformed the way of looking at nature, mainly because they brought together and gave the same status of related and measurable quantities to order and chance - - two concepts which until then had been incompatible. \"... - - bernardo dubvrovsky, january 2002. progress in neuro - psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry 26 ( 1 ) : 2. the theories he worked out during and after his travels in the east indies dwelled essentially on spatial relationships, the reason to consider wallace as being, fundamentally, a geographer. consequently, geographical information was instrumental for wallace both for his biogeographical as well as evolutionary contributions to biology. in several seminal papers and books he developed innovations in the historical reconstructions of faunas and, thus, implemented zoological geography as a biological discipline within the framework of evolutionary theory. it is, as smith correctly stated, usually little appreciated how strongly natural processes are constrained by the necessity of having to take place in a three - dimensional space, and wallace ' s skill at spatial analysis is best illustrated by his contribution to the biogeography of the aus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5829219804683846, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 76, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.243582"}
{"text": "smith correctly stated, usually little appreciated how strongly natural processes are constrained by the necessity of having to take place in a three - dimensional space, and wallace ' s skill at spatial analysis is best illustrated by his contribution to the biogeography of the australasian region... - - matthias glaubrecht, 2002. verhandlungen zur geschichte und theorie der biologie 9 ( 2 ) : 265. from darwin ' s publication of origin of species until wallace ' s publication of his autobiography in 1905, wallace was perhaps the most influential critic of the idea that the bright coloration of animals could be the outcome of female mate choice. wallace saw no reason to invoke what to him was an unsubstantiated assumption that females of non - human animals were capable of and inclined to discriminate among males based on the quality of their ornaments ( wallace 1878, 1889 ). instead, wallace searched for explanations of colorful plumage that would allow such traits to be understood as utilitarian, not ornamental and extravagant. in his studies of bird coloration, wallace did not focus exclusively or even primarily on gaudy plumages. rather wallace focused much of his research on the subtle differences among species and individuals in explicitly non - ornamental traits like the buff, brown, gray, and green plumage of birds ( wallace 1878, 1889 )... - - geoffrey e. hill, 2002. in his a red bird in a brown bag : the function and evolution of colorful plumage in the house finch ( oxford university press ) : 7.... far more convincingly than darwin, wallace showed how most plumage coloration supported the theory of evolution by natural selection. most species, most of the time, are colored in ways that appear to enhance their survival and fecundity. wallace provided an explanation for sexual dichromatism and drab female plumage that stands today as a triumph of the power of the comparative method in addressing evolutionary questions. through his knowledge of the nesting biology of birds, wallace showed that species with exposed nests in which the female alone incubates almost invariably have drab female plumage whether the male is colorful or not. retesting and confirmation of this idea have only lately occurred. wallace also was the first to set forth the idea that colorful plumage functions as a signal of species recognition. this became the most widespread explanation for colorful plumage for over seventy years, and it remains a too - often - ignored hypothesis in modern treatments of plumage coloration. wallace also foreshadowed the now popular and well -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5452205880036186, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 77, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.244782"}
{"text": "as a signal of species recognition. this became the most widespread explanation for colorful plumage for over seventy years, and it remains a too - often - ignored hypothesis in modern treatments of plumage coloration. wallace also foreshadowed the now popular and well - supported idea that ornamental plumage could serve as a reliable signal of condition in his discussions of vital energy ( wallace 1878, 1889 )... - - geoffrey e. hill, 2002. in his a red bird in a brown bag : the function and evolution of colorful plumage in the house finch ( oxford university press ) : 10. wallace never seems to have suffered from the abstract doctrine of philosophical necessity. charting his intellectual progress toward science, he notes that robert owen provided his introduction to \" advanced views. \" owen ' s \" fundamental principle, on which all his teaching and all his practice were founded, was that the character of every individual is formed for and not by himself, first by heredity... and second by environment. \" here, as with martineau, mill, galton, and darwin, philosophy intersects moral vocation, for this view requires restructuring the moral and legal system, which is based on the view that \" all men could be good if they liked. \" in a determinist system, people cannot be \" deterred from future aggression \" unless the conditions in which they develop are changed. hence owen ' s \" successful \" new lanark. for wallace, implicitly, the vocation of science and, one might hazard, the nature of his theory, grow from this insight into hereditary and environmental determinism... - - george levine, 2002. in his dying to know : scientific epistemology and narrative in victorian england ( university of chicago press ) : 110.... while wallace defers to chance in amusing ways and exhibits a darwinian modesty in relation to his career, he sees a pattern of happy accident that implies something other than mere material causation. for himself, he can argue that : \" many of the conditions and circumstances that constitute our environment, though at the time they may seem unfortunate or even unjust, yet are often more truly beneficial than those which we should consider more favourable. sometimes they only aid in the formation of character ; sometimes they also lead to action which gives scope for the use of what might have been dormant or unused faculties ( as, i think has occurred in my own case ). \" but often, he says, those circumstances are not favorable, and if they consistently lead to bad consequences, \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5392238483027227, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 78, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.245709"}
{"text": "gives scope for the use of what might have been dormant or unused faculties ( as, i think has occurred in my own case ). \" but often, he says, those circumstances are not favorable, and if they consistently lead to bad consequences, \" the system of society \" is at fault. wallace ' s willingness to accept inconsistency, to refuse the totalizations of a system making, marks his autobiography and his scientific life, and surely was consistent with - - either as cause or effect - - his own strong leanings toward socialism... - - george levine, 2002. in his dying to know : scientific epistemology and narrative in victorian england ( university of chicago press ) : 111. abstract : an annotated facsimile of those pages of alfred russel wallace ' s notebook recording his consignments from the malay archipelago to his london agent, samuel stevens, is provided. records of individual consignments are linked with the stages of wallace ' s and charles allen ' s itineraries to which they relate and are amplified from data provided by wallace elsewhere ; wherever possible, dates and places of the despatch of consignments and of the dates of their receipt in london are noted ; and the dates of material becoming available for study are established, chiefly from british museum accessions registers. it is intended that this should provide readier access to scattered collection data and should in particular assist in determining what specimens may properly be regarded as types or syntypes of the many taxa described by numerous contemporary authors from wallace ' s material... - - daniel b. baker, december 2001. zoologische mededelingen 75 ( 16 - 25 ) : 251. it was precisely this latter characteristic, and the way in which wallace ' s radical positions intertwined - - his faith that some kind of willpower or spirit, lying outside or beyond natural selection, was responsible for moral evolution in the human species ; his rejection of the more crude, social darwinian deductions from biological theory ; and his attack on the wastage of nature caused by rampant industrialism - - that make him a valuable exponent of both the potentialities and the limitations of evolutionism as a philosophy. i am particularly interested here, of course, in wallace as a tropicalist, especially the concern he articulated for the despoliation of tropical nature, a theme that emerged in his mature consideration of his tropical experiences and which, though connected to the new evolutionary outlook, was not a necessary outcome of it (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5344198315307793, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 79, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.246696"}
{"text": "and for the measurement of genetic distinctiveness, the area has become even more interesting for biogeographers... - - w. r. erdelen, 2001. in ian metcalfe et al., eds., faunal and floral migrations and evolution in se asia - australia ( a. a. balkema publishers ) : 129.... there was undeniably an ' individualist ' accent to wallace ' s program of interventionist egalitarianism. wallace was not a collectivist. his socialism was never an attraction to a great and organising state. \" socialism \" was to wallace ' the use by everyone of his faculties for the common good, and the voluntary organisation of labour for the equal benefit of all ' ( wallace, 1905 ). the use of the word ' voluntary ' in his definition of socialism is surely significant. under wallace ' s socialism industry would be run by enterprises composed of capital - owning workers. land nationalisation would not amount to a system of state farms or agricultural collectives. rather, the state would be the sole owner of land, and would rent out its land to a throng of individual tenants... - - william coleman, 2001. in john laurent & john nightingale, eds., darwinism and evolutionary economics ( edward elgar ) : 42.... the previous sections have used the case of alfred russel wallace to scrutinise the proposition that natural selection was a projection onto nature of a political economy apologetic for a dominant class interest. this proposition is just one manifestation of a general and familiar vision of science... alfred wallace ' s scientific achievement, we have argued, makes for a jarring disconfirmation of this theory. rather than seeking to inscribe norms justifying the dominance of one class, one race, one genera, wallace sought to overturn such conventional dominance : of the wealthy, of the white race and ( we may add here ) of men. and, rather than being ' organically connected ' to science ' s ruling elite, few could be less connected than wallace to the elite and its social formations... - - william coleman, 2001. in john laurent & john nightingale, eds., darwinism and evolutionary economics ( edward elgar ) : 44. our results find that wallace ' s line is supported by the data he collected in the field and suggest that wallace ' s line does indeed demarcate a major faunal break. these results are in keeping with modern geological evidence on the origins", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5569001295698173, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 81, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.249978"}
{"text": "species diversity that is vastly disproportionate to its geographic area. numerous hypotheses have been proposed to account for this, tending to emphasize aspects of the maintenance or origins of the megadiversity. the oldest such hypothesis has its roots in the works of alfred russel wallace, who observed that the ranges of some closely related neotropical vertebrate species ( primates, birds ) abut at major rivers. indeed, wallace defined distinct areas within south america, bounded by major amazonian rivers like the negro, madeira, and amazon, which differed in species composition of communities. these and similar observations have prompted the suggestion that lowland amazonian rivers, of which there are many, may function as effective barriers to the dispersal of organisms. this may have a variety of consequences for patterns of species diversity on the amazonian landscape. first, major amazonian rivers may have played a significant role in species generation by impeding gene flow between populations with the eventual evolution of sister species on opposite banks. second the expansion of species from their centers of origin may be halted by the presence of large watercourses ; therefore, they may be restricted to only one bank. finally, compared with a species distributed across landscapes without barriers, the probability of subsequent recolonization of a species that has gone locally extinct on one bank will be lower because immigration from the opposite bank is less likely... all of these factors might be expected to accentuate differences in species composition of opposite - bank communities... - - claude gascon et al., 5 december 2000. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 97 ( 25 ) : 13672. whether the great rivers of amazonia have something to do with species origins or are simply biogeographic sutures, the biotas of opposite banks ought to differ if the riverine barrier hypothesis is correct. characteristically, in wallace ' s monkey paper, he not only presented his data on primate distributions in relation to major rivers in the amazon basin, but also suggested a testable, quantitative hypothesis : that the composition of species assemblages would differ in relation to the width of the river, the difference thus increasing from headwaters toward the mouth... - - robert k. colwell, 5 december 2000. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 97 ( 25 ) : 13470. the part that natural selection plays in the origin of species has long been debated. it is easy to see that if two populations are kept", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5033790072667752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 83, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.252148"}
{"text": "2000. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 97 ( 25 ) : 13470. the part that natural selection plays in the origin of species has long been debated. it is easy to see that if two populations are kept separate - - by mountains or ocean, for example - - they will eventually become so different that they can no longer interbreed successfully. their differences may have evolved by natural selection, but their reproductive isolation is merely a side effect of changes that emerged for other reasons. this view seems unsatisfactory to those who emphasize the positive aspect of selection in evolution. both alfred russel wallace and theodosius dobzhansky argued that natural selection would reinforce reproductive barriers between diverging populations. there has been little evidence, however, that selection has in fact contributed directly to the formation of new species ( speciation ) in this way. reports by higgie et al. and hendry et al., on pages 519 and 516 of this issue, provide examples from fruit fly and sockeye salmon populations showing that selection can produce the kind of isolation that separates species in the wild, and moreover, that it can do so within a very short time ( a dozen or so generations )... - - nick barton, 20 october 2000. science 290 ( 5491 ) : 462. what is less explicable is why the differences between wallace and darwin over the origin of distributional patterns have been confounded. apart from a single chapter in the origin of species, darwin wrote little on biogeography, yet his views on the efficacy of dispersal dominated biogeographical theory until relatively recently. i think the answer lies in wallace being too far ahead of his time. i have often wondered what wallace would have thought about modern geological evidence concerning the origin of indonesia, and i am convinced it would have given him the key to understanding the distributional patterns he described in malay archipelago. the problem, of course, was that this evidence was not available until a century later. given the lack of credible alternative explanations and the pressure from darwin to conform to accepted ideas, wallace was unable to develop his own theory fully. over time his original thoughts were lost and his name became associated with darwin ' s idea of dispersal. a reappraisal of wallace ' s work on its own terms seems long overdue and would be a fitting millennial tribute to an outstanding scientist... - - b. michaux, january 2000. journal of biogeography 27 (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5293422458746342, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 84, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.253130"}
{"text": "rivers, ( ii ) levels of genetic differentiation between populations on opposite river banks increases with increasing river width and flow rate and ( iii ) taxa of the upland terra firme forest show higher levels of differentiation across rivers than taxa of the seasonally flooded varzea forests found adjacent to the river. this last prediction assumes that the strength of the barrier to gene flow is greater for exclusively terra firme species because it consists of both the river itself plus the varzea forests of both river banks... - - s. c. lougheed et al., september 1999. proceedings of the royal society of london b 266 : 1829.... the \" pan - selectionist \" view that variation is potentially available in all directions from any given phyletic starting - point, and that selection determines which subset of variants prevails. the alternative is the \" developmental constraint \" view that many of the gaps we observe between different morphologies do not arise from the non - adaptiveness of the absent forms but rather from the difficulty of making them through an ontogenetic process. the pan - selectionist view can be traced back to wallace ( 1870 ), who considered variation to be omnipresent and available in all phenotypic directions imaginable, apparently without even a quantitative bias in any direction. he refers to \" universal variability - - small in amount but in every direction \", and mayo ( 1983 ) boldly states that \" the major constraint on natural selection as an agent of change is natural selection as a stabilizing force \", apparently relegating any kind of developmental constraint to a minor role at best... - - wallace arthur & malcolm farrow, june 1999. journal of theoretical biology 200 : 183 - 184. under wallace ' s scheme, the event that concerns romanes - - the initiation of the speciation process - - already has taken place. wallace deals with events subsequent to the process of reproductive isolation. the idea that the infertility he notes might relate to what romanes proposed does not occur to wallace. in a separate section of his book he describes physiological selection as \" another form of infertility, \" and then proceeds to attack the theory... - - donald r. forsdyke, spring 1999. queen ' s quarterly 106 ( 1 ) : 121. wallace ' s first essay on the origin of the colour sense was published simultaneously with, but independently of, gladstone ' s paper. he had presented a possible evolutionary route for animal colour vision, starting with perception", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.580513081564227, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 86, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.255168"}
{"text": "s quarterly 106 ( 1 ) : 121. wallace ' s first essay on the origin of the colour sense was published simultaneously with, but independently of, gladstone ' s paper. he had presented a possible evolutionary route for animal colour vision, starting with perception of degrees of brightness, ending with perception of colours according to wave length. in his view, green and blue would have been the first colours to which the eye became specially adapted, in accord with their universal presence in foliage and sky, as well as their soothing influence. reds, yellows and violets would follow, as present in small amounts, offering great contrast, and useful to animals hunting for food and mates. this essay was revised and republished a year later, with specific response to gladstone ( and through him, to magnus and geiger ). ' these curious facts ' wrote wallace, with regard to gladstone ' s homeric data, ' can not, however, be held to prove so recent an origin for colour - sensations as they would at first sight appear to do '. he pictured brightly coloured structures as having evolved in response to an already present and well - developed ability of animals, especially birds, to see colour, long before the arrival of man. wallace concluded that ' man ' s perception of colour in the time of homer was little if any inferior to what it is now... owing to a variety of causes, no precise nomenclature of colours had become established... - - elizabeth henry bellmer, 1 january 1999. annals of science 56 ( 1 ) : 38. as the new century ripened and imperialist rivalries increased, wallace became convinced that a vast civilizational crisis was at hand and that the very survival of the human species demanded the rapid overthrow of capitalism. a few months before his death in 1913, he wrote ( the revolt of democracy ), \" there must be no further compromise, no mere talking. to allow the present state of things to continue is a crime against humanity. \" how ironic to recall his warnings today when billionaire arsonists have set almost the entirety of wallace ' s malay archipelago ablaze with their greed... - - mike davis, march 1998. capitalism, nature, socialism 9 ( 1 ) : 77. wallace ' s major contribution to the literature of reform is his corrosive criticism of nineteenth - century society, through which he offered a human vision of social reformation. he advocated recognizing racial equality, nationalizing land, giving women equal opportunity for education and employment, decreasing military expenditure, and saving the environment. his friend james", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5347844333359602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 87, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.256199"}
{"text": "are sexually dimorphic in plumage throughout the year. also, it has not yet been proven that maintaining a colourful and bright plumage is costly, nor that it is a handicap for survival... - - concha mateos & juan carranza, november 1997. animal behaviour 54 ( 5 ) : 1211. the approach taken by gregorius for modelling and analyzing the population genetic basis of wallace ' s theory of speciation will be extended to allow analysis of the opposite case, where speciation is prevented by the reinforcement of genetic coherence. in this approach, a mutant gene modifies the current mating preferences without implying any advantage or disadvantage in fitness ( including mating success ). the latter assumption is indispensable in order to avoid confusion of the secondary effects of mating systems on fitness with their primary recombinational effects. it also reduces the analytical problems resulting from having to disentangle effects of fitness and mating preference on the evolution of mating behaviour... - - wilfried steiner & hans - rolf gregorius, november 1997. biosystems 43 ( 2 ) : 139. in 1881 wallace took the lead. he formed the land nationalization society on his own lines, with himself as president. in land nationalization ( 1882 ) he laid out his program. the state was to assume title to all land. to meet a conservative debating ploy, he would compensate present landowners. however, he ingeniously minimized the amount in a manner that tells us he knew the nuts and bolts of his subject. compensation was to be an annuity limited to the duration of lives in being. it was to be based only on the net income actually being derived from the land before nationalization - - i. e. not from the highest and best use, and not from future higher uses. all men and women ( wallace, like mill, was also a feminist ) could bid to lease parcels from the state for actual use. in the socio - biological terms in which he thought, this would consummate the natural relation of man to nature. it would also let men alternate between industry and agriculture as wallace, a loving gardener, himself did. wallace ' s land nationalization was individualist, not collectivist. individual lessees were to have secure tenure, and tenant - rights to improvements. rents to the state would be used, not to engross the state, but to obviate taxes. these rents would be based on the assessed \" inherent value \" of land, dependent only on natural and social conditions.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5427984757253489, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 89, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.258292"}
{"text": "- rights to improvements. rents to the state would be used, not to engross the state, but to obviate taxes. these rents would be based on the assessed \" inherent value \" of land, dependent only on natural and social conditions. as a surveyor and a biogeographer, wallace readily distinguished \" inherent value \" from man ' s improvements to land, which he saw as transitory. tax assessors in most american states and other former english colonies distinguish land and improvements routinely today, and many did then, too, although in england itself the concept was somewhat novel... - - mason gaffney, october 1997. american journal of economics & sociology 56 ( 4 : ) : 613. wallace, on the other hand, explained evolution not in terms of competitive struggles between species and the environment, but in terms of the governor that regulates the speed of a steam engine by maintaining constancy in the angular velocity of a flywheel. as bateson puts it, building on wallace ' s idea, the job of evolution is to maintain the constancy of something - - specifically, the survival of the entire system comprised of all species and the environment. darwin, according to bateson, focused on the wrong subject - - the individual species - - when in fact the real subject of evolution is the species plus environment. in fact, the species and the environment co - evolve, to use a term that is popular among management writers today. moreover, if you add the remarkable findings reached in the past thirty years by biologist lynn margulis, this process of co - evolution sustains the total system through cooperative symbiotic relationships, not competitive knock - outs... - - h. thomas johnson, 11 october 1997. keynote presentation, the deming institute fall 1997 meeting, washington, d. c. perhaps the effect of wallace ' s line most relevant to us is its possible role in a decisive step of human evolution. paleontologists tend to stress africa as the cradle of humanity, to view cro - magnon europe as the site where late ice age human culture flowered, and to neglect australia as a remote outpost occupied by supposedly primitive aborigines. human behavior took a great leap forward sometime between 100, 000 years ago, where there were still no signs of art or complex tools anywhere in the world, and the period around 40, 000 to 30, 000 years ago, when great art and complex tools began to abound in europe. paleontologists usually assume that this development began among", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5340707797155888, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 90, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.259336"}
{"text": "still no signs of art or complex tools anywhere in the world, and the period around 40, 000 to 30, 000 years ago, when great art and complex tools began to abound in europe. paleontologists usually assume that this development began among humans in africa or the mideast, then spread to europe and finally ( in diluted form ) to our poorer cousins in aboriginal australia. but anatomically modern humans appeared in australia before they did in europe - - probably by 60, 000 years ago and possibly even earlier. to reach australia, the protohumans who had reached asia from africa around one million years ago ( as attested by the famous java man fossils ) had to cross a dozen straits separating australia from asia.... each next strait would have been a stimulus to improve our nascent watercraft technology ; each new island, a stimulus to adapt to a new environment and to invent new technologies ; each island ' s untapped rich resources, the basis for a new human population explosion... - - jared m. diamond, august 1997. discover 18 ( 8 ) : 83. wallace ' s writings of this period make free use of the contrast between ' savage ' and ' civilized ', he talks often of ' higher ' and ' lower ' races, and was clearly committed to a notion of long - run progressive change in organic evolution and in human history. yet there is no easy or simple mapping of the higher and lower, civilized and savage onto the progressive evolutionary narrative. social, moral and intellectual progress are differentiated from one another, and lack of harmony between them can be catastrophic in its consequences. the hierarchical ordering ' higher ' and ' lower ' is sometimes used by wallace to refer to inherited differences between peoples, but is also sometimes used to denote levels of civilization, and to do so in ways which do not carry any obvious value connotation. the word ' civilization ' carries a negative as often as a positive valuation in wallace ' s writing. whilst the civilized nations remain in a state of social and moral ' barbarism ', uncivilized savages approach a ' perfect social state '... - - ted benton, spring 1997. studies in travel writing no. 1 : 109 - 110.... it is here that we encounter the central intellectual and moral tension in wallace ' s thought, a tension which was to bring about a growing gulf between his and darwin ' s views on human origins and nature and which may, indeed, go some way towards explaining wallace ' s later involvement", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5201065720379351, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 91, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.260348"}
{"text": "the central intellectual and moral tension in wallace ' s thought, a tension which was to bring about a growing gulf between his and darwin ' s views on human origins and nature and which may, indeed, go some way towards explaining wallace ' s later involvement in spiritualist activities. wallace ' s radical political philosophy and his capacity to admire and respect the achievements, customs and social solidarity of the indigenous peoples of the amazon and the malay archipelago were increasingly at odds with his version of evolutionary naturalism... - - ted benton, spring 1997. studies in travel writing no. 1 : 110. it is not just darwin ' s opponents who regard the analogy as evidence against the causal efficacy of selection. a. r. wallace, the co - discoverer of natural selection, addresses the analogy in his opening comments of the darwin - wallace paper of 1858. \" one of the strongest arguments which have been adduced to prove the original and permanent distinctness of species is, that varieties produced in a state of domesticity are more or less unstable, and often have a tendency, if left to themselves, to return to the normal form of the parent species ; and this instability is considered to be a distinctive peculiarity of all varieties. \" for wallace, modification by artificial selection is limited and temporary, and therefore causally inefficacious in the production of new species. if natural and artificial selection were truly similar, then the analogy suggests that natural selection is incapable of forming new species. consequently, wallace argues against the analogy by emphasizing the differences between domestic breeding and nature. \" it will be observed that this argument rests entirely on the assumption, that varieties occurring in a state of nature are in all respects analogous to or even identical with those of domestic animals... but it is the object of the present paper to show that this assumption is altogether false \" ( emphasis added ). wallace ' s vow to argue against the analogy is inexplicable unless he has embraced the view that artificial selection is inefficacious in the formation of new species. surely darwin was aware of wallace ' s views, expressed so forcefully in the darwin - wallace paper, as he wrote the origin... - - richard a. richards, march 1997. studies in history and philosophy of science 28 ( 1 ) : 76 - 77.... darwin recognized some important distinction between domestic and natural varieties, and happily agrees with wallace on the distinction. wallace, in the preface to his darwinism, likewise emphasizes his agreement with darwin, describing his views as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5702549893259772, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 92, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.261343"}
{"text": ") : 76 - 77.... darwin recognized some important distinction between domestic and natural varieties, and happily agrees with wallace on the distinction. wallace, in the preface to his darwinism, likewise emphasizes his agreement with darwin, describing his views as complementary. \" i have endeavoured, by means of a series of diagrams, to exhibit to the eye the actual variations as they are found to exist in a sufficient number of species... it will be found that, throughout the work, i have frequently to appeal to these diagrams and the facts they illustrate, just as darwin was accustomed to appeal to the facts of variation among dogs and pigeons \" ( emphasis added ). wallace certainly seems to regard himself as doing something very similar to what darwin is doing. that would be surprising if he had thought darwin to be making an analogical argument - - given his earlier rejection of the argument. wallace argues against the analogical argument by emphasizing the negative analogy between domestic breeding and nature. unlike natural selection, artificial selection does not maintain fitness. consequently, domestic varieties are unfit. wallace makes this point in the 1858 darwin - wallace paper... - - richard a. richards, march 1997. studies in history and philosophy of science 28 ( 1 ) : 81. one reference point, however, must be marked if wallace ' s future path - - to the malthusian moment and beyond - - is to be mapped. he embarked on a scientific career less a naturalist than a surveyor, less a biologist than a biogeographer, less an evolutionist than an ethnographer. for seven formative years his job had been prescriptive economic geography. parish upon parish, field upon field, he had set limits to human livelihoods, marking boundaries, drawing lines. in later years he would become an exemplary naturalist, but always boundaries and borders, habits and habitats, concerned him. once he even likened the \" system of nature \" to a \" dissected map, \" the pieces of which could be assembled in a \" mosaic. \" the picture is of a crowded tithe map, where field presses on field, niche upon niche, until \" all gaps have been filled \". such was a surveyor ' s view of evolution... - - james moore, 1997. in bernard lightman, ed., victorian science in context ( university of chicago press ) : 304. to validate his inclusion of plants formerly excluded from bedded - out gardens, robinson turned to the writings of the late nineteenth - century naturalist alfred russel wallace. wallace", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5426099554367841, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 93, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.262343"}
{"text": "ed., victorian science in context ( university of chicago press ) : 304. to validate his inclusion of plants formerly excluded from bedded - out gardens, robinson turned to the writings of the late nineteenth - century naturalist alfred russel wallace. wallace collaborated with darwin on his theory of evolution and published his own contribution to the theory of natural selection in 1870. robinson was intrigued by wallace ' s 1869 account of his extensive travels in the amazon region and the malay archipelago, especially wallace ' s statement that \" during the twelve years spent amidst tropical vegetation, i have nothing comparable to the effect produced on our landscapes by gorse, broom, heather, wild hyacinths, hawthorn, and buttercups. \" wallace ' s nationalistic preference for english scenery reportedly led robinson to plant such flowers as asters and heather, formerly considered too coarse for fashionable gardens... - - anne l. helmreich, 1997, in nature and ideology ; natural garden design in the twentieth century ( dumbarton oaks research library and collection ). the principles regarding relations between organisms and their environment set forth by wallace clearly informed robinson ' s gardening practices. in an early essay, \" on the law which has regulated the introduction of new species, \" wallace first developed his theory governing the distribution of organisms. his fourth stipulation - - that \" in countries of a similar climate, but separated by a wide sea of lofty mountains, the families, genera, and species of the one are often represented by closely allied families, genera and species peculiar to the other \" - - underlies robinson ' s theory that plants from climates similar to england ' s could be naturalized in the wild garden... - - anne l. helmreich, 1997, in nature and ideology ; natural garden design in the twentieth century ( dumbarton oaks research library and collection ). it is evident that conrad read and assimilated wallace ' s observations of the malay natural environment. wallace as anthropologist seems to have had an equivalent influence. in terms of religious practices, wallace describes how ' the old juragan repeated some prayers ' just before one of his more successful voyages ; on the patna voyage, the leading arab recites a prayer in similar fashion as they cast off. in the rescue, lingard ' s dead lacar is ' wrapped up decently in a white sheet, according to mohammedan usage ', in a way highly reminiscent of wallace ' s response to the death of one of his malay men : ' as my men were all mohammedans, i let", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5404994321266747, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 94, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.265935"}
{"text": "in selfings, whereas their continental sisters as well as the herbaceous island inhabitant e. bonnetii were preferentially inbreeding... - - uta - regina bohle, hartmut h. hilger & william f. martin, october 1996. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 93 ( 21 ) : 11744.... if outbreeding is the primary selective factor in island colonization, pollination pressure will subsequently favor rare, large, conspicuous inflorescences among outbreeders and, as a consequence, select perennial ( and therefore woody ) habits capable of producing them, in agreement with wallace ' s salient arguments. under this view, diversity of contemporary woody echium forms reflects a multiplicity of selectable developmental pathways toward longevity, rather than selection for specifically environment - adapted variants of such woody perennial habits as schematically depicted in fig. 3. in other words, insular woodiness in echium might simply betray \" survival of the founders, \" and many differences between perennial woody habits could be nonadaptive... - - uta - regina bohle, hartmut h. hilger & william f. martin, october 1996. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 93 ( 21 ) : 11744 - 11745. alfred russel wallace foreshadowed much of the current thinking on adaptive mate choice. to wallace colour was merely a correlate of ' vigour ', by which he implied health. a female should choose a mate adaptively by picking the most vigorous male, and it would just so happen that he would also be the most colourful. we too found colour to correlate with a variable, plasma proteins, that may be indicative of vigour. in addition, female kestrels in our colony in mate choice experiments have consistently preferred males with high display rates ( vigour? ), irrespective of the degree of genetic relatedness or experimentally induced parasite infection... - - gary r. bortolotti et al., september 1996. proceedings of the royal society of london b 263 : 1175.... the hypothesis that sexual dichromatism was nonfunctional and incidental to inherent ' physiological ' differences between the sexes was proposed by alfred russel wallace. wallace ( 1895 ) recognized that whereas males of many birds are more brightly coloured than their mates, the degree of dimorphism varied", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5324771633023462, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 96, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.268059"}
{"text": "##functional and incidental to inherent ' physiological ' differences between the sexes was proposed by alfred russel wallace. wallace ( 1895 ) recognized that whereas males of many birds are more brightly coloured than their mates, the degree of dimorphism varied greatly, with the most common case being for males ' to have the same general hue as the females, but deeper and more intensified '. although it may be difficult to discount the role of sexual selection for extreme cases, such as house finches, the common, subtle patterns of colour variation between the sexes may be more difficult to explain except as non - functional consequences of other biochemical processes. if such processes are fundamental to avian physiology, it may explain why sexual dichromatism is so common in birds, and why reds, yellows and oranges are so pervasive... - - gary r. bortolotti et al., september 1996. proceedings of the royal society of london b 263 : 1175. a final argument, \" an additional argument dependent on the theory of evolution, \" was added to the 1904 edition of wallace ' s book. especially interesting because wallace was so closely involved with the evolution arguments of his day, it is independent of the three connected scientific arguments and may be seen as another aspect leading to the same conclusion. wallace argued that since humanity is the result of a long chain of modifications in organic life, since these modifications occur only under certain circumstances, and since the chances of the same conditions and modifications occurring elsewhere in the universe were very small, the chances of beings in human form existing on other planets was very small. moreover, since no other animal on earth, despite the great variety of diversity of forms, approaches the intelligent or moral nature of humanity, wallace concluded that intelligence in any other form was also highly improbable... - - steven j. dick, 1996. in his the biological universe : the twentieth - century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science ( cambridge university press ) : 48 - 49.... in conjunction with barrow and tipler ' s use of the anthropic principle, at the end of the century one could therefore choose from the full spectrum of possibilities in the context of the extra - terrestrial life debate : a positive argument, a negative argument, and the extraterrestrially neutral argument from design. but it is remarkable that just when anthropocentrism seemed irretrievably banished from the repertoire of reputable worldviews,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5460665931398612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 97, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.269244"}
{"text": "positive argument, a negative argument, and the extraterrestrially neutral argument from design. but it is remarkable that just when anthropocentrism seemed irretrievably banished from the repertoire of reputable worldviews, it returned in a more sophisticated but remarkably similar form to that of a. r. wallace, who in arguing against the plurality of worlds at the beginning of the century concluded that \" the supreme end and purpose of this vast universe was the production and development of the living soul in the perishable body of man. \"... - - steven j. dick, 1996. in his the biological universe : the twentieth - century extraterrestrial life debate and the limits of science ( cambridge university press ) : 535.... male - male competition was obvious to those who watched animals behaving in the field, and it coincided with the victorian notion of how animals should behave, thus never becoming controversial. female choice, on the other hand, was far from obvious in the field, and darwin ' s contemporary, a. r. wallace ( 1891 ), in particular, was unconvinced by it. he felt that the power of discrimination by females was too weak to distinguish subtle differences between males, and he also doubted whether female choice could be sufficiently constant over time to select for male attributes. as geddes and thompson ( 1889 ) put it, consistency of female taste was \" scarcely verifiable in human experience. \" female choice continued to be contentious until relatively recently, and although there is now abundant evidence that females often choose their partners, the way that female choice has evolved still remains a controversial area of sexual selection theory... - - t. r. birkhead, 1996. current topics in developmental biology 33 : 104. the colors of the amazon brought wallace to investigate the sediment and substrata. he found the \" almost perfect flatness \" of the amazon valley its single most striking geological fact. no mountains or even slightly elevated plateaus rise from the plain until you reach the abrupt peaks of the andes. wallace ' s impression was that \" here we see the last stage of a process that has been going on, during the whole period of the elevation of the andes \" - - the gradual filling in of what was once the granite bottom of the sea with sediment brought down by rivers from the andes mountains... - - jonathan maslow, 1996. in his footsteps in the jungle : adventures in the scientific exploration of the american trop", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5323760723078617, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 98, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.270295"}
{"text": "filling in of what was once the granite bottom of the sea with sediment brought down by rivers from the andes mountains... - - jonathan maslow, 1996. in his footsteps in the jungle : adventures in the scientific exploration of the american tropics ( ivan r. dee ) : 99 - 100. in 1873, alfred russel wallace posed a fundamental, and as yet unresolved, biogeographic puzzle : why should the tropics contain a disproportionately large amount of the earth ' s biodiversity? wallace ( 1873 ) suggested that the explanation for latitudinal variation of the diversity of plant species was directly related to climate. wallace ( 1873 ) wrote \" as we approach towards regions of polar cold and desert aridity the variety of groups and species [ of plants ] regularly diminishes ; more and more are unable to sustain the extreme climatical conditions \". however, in the case of animal distributions, wallace ( 1873 ) believed that climatic change associated with glaciation was responsible for the impoverishment of the temperate faunas. in modern terms, wallace proposed an ' equilibrium ' hypothesis for vegetation, and an ' historical ' hypothesis for faunal patterns. in the latter half of this century, these two schools of thought have diverged and undergone substantial specialisation, although no consensus has emerged... - - d. m. j. s. bowman, 1996. australian journal of botany 44 ( 5 ) : 571. borrowing a line from samuel taylor coleridge ' s \" rime of the ancient mariner, \" there is \" nor any drop to drink \" anywhere today on the surface of mars. not so clear is whether there has ever been water, water everywhere. as was first demonstrated by alfred wallace ( who concurrently with, but independently of, charles darwin proposed the idea of evolution by natural selection ), the lifetime for liquid water under present martian atmospheric conditions is measured in minutes. the former existence of martian rivers or seas would then imply that the planet had a warmer, more earth - like climate in its geologic past. interest in martian water also stems from the fact that we, like that famous canal enthusiast percival lowell, cannot envision any form of life existing without it. the red planet appears lifeless now, but evidence for a warmer, wetter planet in the past might make a search for martian fossils plausible... - - harry y. mcsween jr., december 1995. sky & telescope 90 ( 6 ) : 18.... the nature of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5038740430116283, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 99, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.271288"}
{"text": "a warmer, wetter planet in the past might make a search for martian fossils plausible... - - harry y. mcsween jr., december 1995. sky & telescope 90 ( 6 ) : 18.... the nature of information conveyed by secondary sexual traits in mate selection has been hotly debated. darwin ( 1871 ) believed that mate choice was solely based on arbitrarily chosen features that were aesthetically appealing to the members of opposite sex, although such chosen features did not confer any survival advantage to the animal. wallace ( 1889 ), on the other hand, argued that natural selection would not allow the selection of merely ornamental features \" unless the most ornamental always coincide with the ' fittest ' in every other respect \". the modern interpretation of the utilitarian view of wallace, or the so - called good gene hypothesis, has commonly been invoked to explain human mate selection. briefly, it is proposed that women, as a rule, can assess the \" mate quality \" of a man by attending to his resources or high status because these are usually achieved through competition with other members of the social and economical hierarchy... - - devendra singh & robert k. young, november 1995. ethology and sociobiology 16 ( 6 ) : 483 - 484. the theory of sexual selection by female choice, on the other hand, was greeted with interest mixed with skepticism ( wallace 1889 ; huxley 1938 ). wallace fully accepted intermale sexual selection but had serious doubts about the efficacy of female - choice sexual selection. his doubt concerned the adequacy of the proposed mechanism. can female choice exert a selective pressure that is consistent and strong enough to produce secondary sexual characters of adornment and display in males? the status of sexual selection by female choice is still unsettled. modern studies have confirmed the process for some types of male characters, but legitimate questions remain as regards other types of male characters... - - verne grant, october - november - december 1995. biologisches zentralblatt 114 ( 4 ) : 320. wallace presented a very clear interbreeding species definition, then immediately dismissed it in his treatise on speciation of the papilionidae of indonesia. ' species are merely those strongly marked races or local forms which, when in contact, do not intermix, and when inhabiting distinct areas are incapable of producing a fertile hybrid offspring. but as the test of hybridity cannot be applied in one case in ten thousand, and even if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5184418824858514, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 100, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.272243"}
{"text": "or local forms which, when in contact, do not intermix, and when inhabiting distinct areas are incapable of producing a fertile hybrid offspring. but as the test of hybridity cannot be applied in one case in ten thousand, and even if it could be applied, would prove nothing, since it is founded on an assumption of the very question to be decided... it will be evident that we have no means whatever of distinguishing so - called \" true species \" from the several modes of [ subspecies ] variation here pointed out, and into which they so often pass by an insensible gradation '. wallace is first saying that it is practically impossible to make all the necessary crosses to test genetic compatibility. second, since theories of speciation involve a reduction in ability or tendency to interbreed, species cannot themselves be defined by interbreeding without confusing cause and effect... - - james mallet, july 1995. trends in ecology & evolution 10 ( 7 ) : 295. the adaptive significance of cryptic female coloration in birds is an old and hotly debated issue in animal behavior, being a source of great disagreement between a. r. wallace and c. darwin, the co - founders of natural selection theory... darwin ( 1871 ) believed that dull female coloration was a non - adaptive consequence of sex - limited inheritance. wallace ( 1889 ) proposed the hypothesis that cryptic female coloration functions to reduce predation risk at the nest. wallace ' s evidence included the observation that in many cavity - nesting species females are brightly colored, and males are more cryptic than females in species with sex role reversal. however, these results are also consistent with sexual selection theory. field tests of the nest predation hypothesis are rare, perhaps because extensive color variation among females within a sexually dimorphic species is uncommon... - - bridget j. stutchbury & joan s. howlett, may 1995. the condor 97 ( 2 ) : 559. aging is notoriously hard to explain in evolutionary terms. an early insight is due to alfred russel wallace, the co - founder of evolutionary theory. the gist of his argument is contained in the following quotation ( wallace, 1865 ) : \" when one or more individuals have provided a sufficient number of successors, they themselves - - as consumers of nourishment in a constantly increasing degree - - are an injury to those successors. natural selection therefore weeds them out. \" in the following it will be shown that this basic idea allows one to arrive at a quantitative prediction of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5379717344835551, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 101, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.273465"}
{"text": "- as consumers of nourishment in a constantly increasing degree - - are an injury to those successors. natural selection therefore weeds them out. \" in the following it will be shown that this basic idea allows one to arrive at a quantitative prediction of species - specific aging. it also enables a qualitatively correct prediction of sex - specific differential aging in two species. the slower aging of human females becomes understandable in evolutionary terms... - - reimara rossler, peter e. kloeden & otto e. rossler, may 1995. biosystems 36 ( 3 ) : 179. in frank tipler ' s newly published book ( 1994 ), the physics of immortality : modern cosmology, god and the resurrection of the dead, for example, the author claims \" modern physics requires the god principle. \" by this tipler means that the universe is structured in such a way that the laws of nature must give rise to intelligent life ; and once formed, the resurrection of all intelligence - - immortality - - is inevitable. \" science now tells us, \" tipler concludes, \" how to go to heaven. \" while tipler ' s science is modern, his argument is not. it is wallace ' s argument for the necessity of a higher intelligence clothed in modern physics... - - michael shermer, december 1994. skeptic 3 ( 1 ) : 70.... with the primary evidence missing in this historical mystery, we can only speculate on what really happened at down. the extreme interpretation of a conspiratorial cover - up is not supported by the evidence. if darwin were going to rig ( or allow to be rigged ) the editorial presentation of the papers to award him priority ; or worse, plagiarize from wallace certain needed ideas ( such as the divergence of species, as brooks suggests ), why announce the arrival of wallace ' s essay and submit it for publication in the first place? why not either just take what was needed, or, if wallace ' s essay added nothing new to the theory, just destroy the essay and letter and blame the loss on an inefficient postal service, or the mishandling of his mail at down, or whatever? if one is going to accuse darwin of such devious finagling as delicate arrangements or plagiarization, then would not the same guileful and scheming personality think of complete elimination of wallace ' s essay as a successful strategy?... - - michael she", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5715161678842994, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 102, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.275212"}
{"text": "of such devious finagling as delicate arrangements or plagiarization, then would not the same guileful and scheming personality think of complete elimination of wallace ' s essay as a successful strategy?... - - michael shermer, march 1995. skeptic 3 ( 2 ) : 83 - 84. several alternative explanations exist for the occurrence of symmetrical signals and symmetry preferences in nature. it has been suggested that some morphological symmetries arise inevitably from developmental processes. however, as wallace ( 1889 ) observed, the symmetrical body markings of wild animals are often lost or degraded in their domesticated descendants. this suggests that certain symmetries are not inescapable consequences of development, but are maintained by other selection pressures in nature... - - magnus enquist & anthony arak, 10 november 1994. nature 372 : 172. the naturalists ' concept of species as distinct reproductive units was carried over into the post - darwin period. it was stated by wallace ( 1889 ), eimer ( 1889 ), and others. i will present wallace ' s characterization of species in a paraphrased form. a species is an assemblage of individuals which : ( 1 ) are modified in structure, form, and constitution so as to be adapted to their particular conditions of life ; ( 2 ) are differentiated from other allied assemblages ; ( 3 ) reproduce their like : and ( 4 ) usually breed together ( wallace, 1889 ). some students of species in the early post - darwin period began to characterize species, not only as reproductive units, but as units of interbreeding. we see this in wallace ' s fourth point above : species are individuals \" which usually breed together \" ( wallace, 1889 ). according to poulton ( 1903 ) a species is \" an interbreeding community \". karl jordan ( 1905 ) stated that the individuals of a species occur together in an area and form an interbreeding community ( \" eine paarungsgemeinschaft \" ). wallace ' s first point listed above puts adaptation into the set of characteristics of species. this was an innovation at the time and one which did not become generally accepted until much later... - - verne grant, october - november - december 1994. biologisches zentralblatt 113 ( 4 ) : 406. in their recent tree article, polak and trivers say that the study of symmetry and its fluctuations in biology was largely restricted to morphology and systematics until 1953.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5666856170403833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 103, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.276894"}
{"text": "december 1994. biologisches zentralblatt 113 ( 4 ) : 406. in their recent tree article, polak and trivers say that the study of symmetry and its fluctuations in biology was largely restricted to morphology and systematics until 1953. however, in 1889 a. r. wallace remarked that coloration patterns of wild animals are more symmetrical than those of their domesticated descendants ; he thought that symmetry would help specific recognition. in one respect wallace ' s observation seems paradoxical. domestic animals have less need to be cryptic than their wild counterparts, but, at least for humans, the presence of symmetry is a major failing of camouflage. symmetrical patterning gives away animals that are otherwise superbly concealed. the few cryptic animals that are asymmetrically patterned maybe the exceptions that prove this rule, one example is the wryneck ( jynx torquilla ), an unusual woodpecker... - - d. osorio, september 1994. trends in ecology & evolution 9 ( 9 ) : 346.... the riverine barrier hypothesis was first advanced by alfred russel wallace in 1849, when he argued that primate distributions were affected by river barriers and showed that the basin was divisible into four major geographic areas bounded by the amazon, negro, and madeira rivers. this hypothesis, although not mutually exclusive from others, has received recent attention and support. ayres ( 1986 ) and ayres and clutton - brock ( 1992 ) have confirmed wallace ' s original observation by documenting the correlation between the degree of private community similarity on opposite banks of amazonian rivers and river width, or flow rate. additionally, capparella has shown that the degree of genetic divergence among samples of understory bird species is related to river width. one explicit expectation of the riverine barrier hypothesis is that increasing divergence should relate positively to river size ( width, flow rate, etc. ). hence, differentiation should increase along both sides of a green river, from its headwaters to the mouth, as the barrier widens and the potential for cross - river gene flow diminishes. however, the expectation for any given taxon is likely to be complicated by the dynamic nature of floodplain rivers, because populations have the potential for passive transfer from one side to the other by river - bend cutoffs, or oxbow lake formation, through time... consequently expectations of the potential force of riverine barriers are likely to vary among taxa that occur in the river floodplain ( the seasonal flooded forest,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.554145265883561, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 104, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.277876"}
{"text": "the other by river - bend cutoffs, or oxbow lake formation, through time... consequently expectations of the potential force of riverine barriers are likely to vary among taxa that occur in the river floodplain ( the seasonal flooded forest, or \" varzea \" of the amazon basin ) as opposed to those that are limited to upland, nonflooded forest, or terra firme. the pattern and degree of divergence may also depend on other ecological characteristics... - - james l. patton et al., august 1994. evolution 48 ( 4 ) : 1314.... the argument has been made that aesthetic criteria in general are secondary and essentially in the service of a more fundamental process. thus, wallace has disputed darwin ' s claim that female choices of maters reflect strictly aesthetic tastes, that is, beauty for beauty ' s sake ( wallace, 1889, 1892 ). rather, wallace insisted that beauty is likely to be associated with good health and vigor, which are deemed the primary bases for choice. the theoretical advantage that accrues to wallace ' s position is that sexual and natural selection are parsimoniously working in unison. within the classical darwinian perspective, female choice of the most flamboyantly adorned or colored male can imply choice of a mate vulnerable to predators and likely to produce offspring with similar vulnerabilities. none of this is intended to imply that either darwin or wallace is right or wrong. after the passage of more than a century, the issue is still under debate, although new experimental studies testing predictions from the two theories offer hope of an eventual resolution of the issue... - - nathan kogan, spring 1994. social research 61 ( 1 ) : 143.... in short, there are on every hand the most striking and conclusive evidences that the production and consumption of wealth have increased with even greater rapidity than the increase of population, and that, if any class obtains less, it is solely because of the greater inequality of distribution. what [ henry ] george had done with this argument, helfand argues, was to establish an economic equivalent of wallace ' s theory that the human brain changed the nature of the evolutionary process by its ability to create tools and alter the environment. george had argued that labor is the source of wealth, on grounds that \" the richest countries are not those where nature is the most prolific ; but those where labor is the most efficient. \"... - - lamar b. jones, april 1994. american", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5195632131132686, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 105, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.278874"}
{"text": ", wallace concluded that these warm climes had been the cradle of human evolution... - - nancy j. christie, 1994. in roy macleod & philip j. rehbock, eds., darwin ' s laboratory : evolutionary theory and natural history in the pacific ( university of hawai ' i press ) : 445. wallace is less well known for his lifelong insistence on the necessity for precise species distribution maps than he is for his much - disputed line. detailed knowledge of species distribution was the basis for wallace ' s efforts to formulate a general scheme of faunal regions. in one image, wallace ' s map redefined and unified the various notions of biological regions current in the first half of the nineteenth century, embodied the evolutionary history of the diverse biota of the east indian archipelago, and participated in a genre of visual representation extending into the contemporary culture... jane r. camerini, december 1993. isis 84 ( 4 ) : 727. fisher ( 1920 ) explains that the \" essential difference \" between plans such as those of wallace and his own \" is that between redeemability and irredeemability. \" but is there really an essential difference between always being able to \" redeem \" a gold certificate for a possibly varying quantity of gold, on the one hand, and always being able to purchase with irredeemable money a given quantity of gold at a possibly varying market price, on the other? so as an outsider to economics, wallace was free from the attachment to gold and thus advocated a stabilization policy that was more in the spirit of the quantity theory. he was also explicit about what fisher ( in his definite - reserve system ) left unspecified ; namely, the role of the treasury in injecting or withdrawing quantities of money from circulation. here was a true anticipator of the chicago school of the 1930s... - - don patinkin, summer 1993. economic quarterly 79 ( 3 ) : 18. the second story is that the thin martian atmosphere is but a remnant of a once much thicker atmosphere, most of which long ago escaped to space [ cf., wallace, 1907 ]. other things being equal, because it is smaller, escape is easier from mars than from earth or venus. several escape mechanisms have been suggested, including some that could be operative today. a possibly important example of the latter is the nonthermal escape of nitrogen. hydrodynamic escape and impact erosion of the atmosphere ( a. k. a. atmospheric cratering ) are two potentially much", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5480887567372759, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 107, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.280972"}
{"text": ", including some that could be operative today. a possibly important example of the latter is the nonthermal escape of nitrogen. hydrodynamic escape and impact erosion of the atmosphere ( a. k. a. atmospheric cratering ) are two potentially much more effective escape mechanisms that should have been operative early... - - kevin j. zahnle, 25 june 1993. journal of geophysical research e 98 ( 6 ) : 10, 889.... the value of living organisms as an intellectual resource is another compelling reason for preserving biotic diversity. it provides the materials that allow us to understand the living world, whatever our reasons for doing so. extinction is depriving us of much of the crucial evidence. among the measures that wallace advocated was the establishment of a system of strategically located forest reserves where a representative sample of the biota could be preserved and studied by naturalists... - - michael t. ghiselin, spring 1993. pacific discovery 46 ( 2 ) : 23. selection for genetic isolation has been called the wallace effect by grant, in honor of a. r. wallace who first suggested it ( wallace 1889 ). control of a species ' altitudinal boundary by a pathogen - environment interaction may provide an appropriate arena for the wallace effect. the scenario for speciation suggested above begins with a very unlikely event : establishment of a new disease - resistant population outside the normal habitat of the parent species. though unlikely, such speciation across a \" pathological barrier \" requires no changes of climate, elevation of mountain chains, or other large scale phenomena. it suggests that the potential for the establishment of peripheral isolates in new ecological settings may exist at the margin of a great many species. this scenario is similar to the concept of the \" upstart species \" of harper or of new species \" budding off ' from older species... - - william burger, december 1992. biotropica 24 ( 4 ) : 569. for both monochromatic and polychromatic species, pelage pigmentation would be helpful for identifying conspecifics, especially at distances where odor and vocalizations would be unreliable cues. in polychromatic species it would also narrow the range of choices within a herd when looking for the mother, particularly when her head cannot be seen clearly. alfred russel wallace recognized the significance of body pigmentation when he wrote in 1889, under the subject of \" colour as a means of recognition \" : \" if we consider the habits and life - histories of those", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5455368836983803, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 108, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.283307"}
{"text": "when her head cannot be seen clearly. alfred russel wallace recognized the significance of body pigmentation when he wrote in 1889, under the subject of \" colour as a means of recognition \" : \" if we consider the habits and life - histories of those animals which are more or less gregarious, comprising a large proportion of the herbivora,... we shall see that a means of ready recognition of its own kind, at a distance or during rapid motion, in dusk of twilight or in partial cover, must be of the greatest advantage and often lead to the preservation of life. \" within a colour category, the young would have to rely on other cues, be they visual, auditory, or olfactory. for example, the length of pelage was one of the cues eliminated in this study by cutting the does ' hair, because in a previous study i noticed that the offspring of long - haired females tended to solicit females with long hair like that of their mothers. although cues present in the head are probably important for individual recognition, at a distance the fine detail of facial characteristics might not be as discernable as markings on parts of the body with more surface area. the specific visual cues used for recognition should depend on the characteristics of the group or species, the habitat in which the species is found, and the perceptual capabilities of the developing individuals... - - carlos r. ruiz - miranda, november 1992. behaviour 123 ( 1 - 2 ) : 136 - 137. for paley, the epiglottis could not evolve in this manner ; hence, some form of causality other than change origin is called for. paley ' s answer was \" an intelligent and designing creator. \" soon other thinkers followed paley ' s lead concerning the impact of the argument from perfection. in one of the most amazing shifts in the history of ideas, alfred russel wallace ( 1823 - 1913 ) employed what may be considered an indirect use of the argument from perfection on an a fortiori basis against the very theory of natural selection that he had founded with charles darwin... - - john t. baldwin, april 1992. harvard theological review 85 ( 1 ) : 112.... on the one hand, motivated by the biological evidence discussed, but restricting themselves to a one - dimensional model of world reality, goldschmidt and gould ( themselves standing outside the argument from perfection tradition ) of necessity turn for an alternative model of origins to a refined concept of the \" hopeful monster \" theory wholly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.540886653451891, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 109, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.284264"}
{"text": "but restricting themselves to a one - dimensional model of world reality, goldschmidt and gould ( themselves standing outside the argument from perfection tradition ) of necessity turn for an alternative model of origins to a refined concept of the \" hopeful monster \" theory wholly explainable by empirical principles within a materialistic framework. on the other hand, paley, wallace, mivart, bergson, taylor, kenny, plantinga, and polkinghorne, prompted by similar biological evidence but remaining open to a wider model of reality ( one that can include a trans - empirical dimension ) and to a dynamic relationship between god and the world, conclude that the evidence points more convincingly to some kind of originating causality that in the final analysis lies beyond the reach of \" methodological naturalism. \"... - - john t. baldwin, april 1992. harvard theological review 85 ( 1 ) : 119. alfred russel wallace developed a theory of evolution by natural selection at the same time that charles darwin did. he applied his theory to one of the earliest scenarios of human evolution. he related the split between the first human beings and the apes to the habitats in which they lived. wallace proposed that hominids, our bipedally walking ancestors, arose on the great plains and high plateaus of eurasia, isolated there by shrinking forests. his deduction was based on the fact that apes today live in dense forested areas. wallace thought, therefore, that bipedally striding humans must have evolved in open, flat areas. darwin disagreed on the geography, believing that a tropical environment with abundant fruit was our ancestral hominids ' environment. he preferred an african origin for the human lineage. the chimpanzee and gorilla, he pointed out, were both african and the closest living primate relatives to humans... - - noel t. boaz, march 1992. earth 1 ( 2 ) : 37. these findings show that wallace ' s hypothesis can be verified for a broad category of population genetic models and that, therefore, the wallace effect indeed deserves a central position in speciation theory. by outlining the effects of gametic phase imbalance, the findings also point at the forces which could possibly set up barriers to speciation : asymmetric gene flow between parapatric populations, and asymmetric cross - incompatibility in both parapatric and sympatric ( sub - ) populations. asymmetry in cross - incompatibility describes the situation where in one population the rejection of cross - mating", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5798966863654763, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 110, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.285268"}
{"text": ", and asymmetric cross - incompatibility in both parapatric and sympatric ( sub - ) populations. asymmetry in cross - incompatibility describes the situation where in one population the rejection of cross - matings is markedly stronger than in the other population. however, whether these conditions actually suffice to inhibit speciation must be proven in each special case... - - hans - rolf gregorius, february 1992. journal of theoretical biology 154 ( 3 ) : 397.... wallace ' s narrative eye, like darwin ' s, allows him to transcend time through visual analogy, but it is the european model of cultural progress rather than biological history that flashes before the reader. the narrative motion of the european mind searching backward through its own memory is obscured, and the narrative motion of the tropical landscape advancing into the european landscape is foregrounded. wallace ' s representation suggests than in looking at the trees he is not simply experiencing perceptual confusion ; he is perceiving future forms in present ones. the link between trees and pillars, between tropical and european, is thus seen as a historical inevitability rather than an optical illusion or perceptual accident. where darwin ' s illusions increase formal variety, however, wallace ' s limit it. rather than a single form blossoming into multiple analogous forms, wallace ' s eye perceives several different species in terms of a single european form. the distinction between darwin ' s and wallace ' s representational strategies roughly correlates to the differences in their evolutionary theories. darwin believed in random competitive evolution while wallace believed in adaptive, environmental evolution... - - james krasner, 1992. in his the entangled eye : visual perception and the representation of nature in post - darwinian narrative ( oxford university press ) : 114.... in wallace ' s nature all selection is purposeful and relatively precise ; nature tends toward utility, and clears way all forms that are not useful. james ' s theory of vision can be seen as the perceptual corollary to wallace ' s evolutionary theory. the jamesian mind, like wallace ' s evolutionary nature, establishes a formal standard that must be met, and all those forms that fail to meet that standard are eliminated ; in wallace ' s nature they die off, in james ' s vision they go unperceived. it is therefore appropriate that wallace should use a jamesian representational model. where darwin portrays visual forms mutating and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5682462703003854, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 111, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.286293"}
{"text": "standard are eliminated ; in wallace ' s nature they die off, in james ' s vision they go unperceived. it is therefore appropriate that wallace should use a jamesian representational model. where darwin portrays visual forms mutating and multiplying as they compete for space in the reader ' s perceptual field, wallace portrays the selection of forms according to an imageable standard of reference. moreover, because this formal standard is european, the forms of nature are selected according to the standard of reference of european experience - - the viewer perceives trees as pillars, and those trees that look less like pillars are ignored. wallace ' s representation of evolution thus involves the reader in a more and more familiar world... - - james krasner, 1992. in his the entangled eye : visual perception and the representation of nature in post - darwinian narrative ( oxford university press ) : 115. until just before 1880 wallace had firmly believed \" that vaccination was a scientific procedure, and that jenner was one of the great benefactors of mankind. \" as a young man he had voluntarily undergone vaccination and subsequent revaccination, just before leaving for south america on a naturalistic trip. he had never questioned the effectiveness of the operation until reading several anti - vaccination texts and meeting william tebb, the 1870 successor of john and richard gibbs as leader of the anti - vaccination league and founder of the anti - vaccination society of america. convinced by tebb ' s arguments, wallace joined him in the battle for the new cause. aware of his ignorance on medical matters, wallace always based his arguments on statistic figures rather than on strictly sanitary aspects. harry clements, his biographer, writes : \" no one was apparently able seriously to challenge him on the figures. \"... - - giacomo scarpelli, 1992. nuncius ( italy ) 7 ( 1 ) : 115 - 116.... these moral principles were also applied to another field of study, that of the so - called \" psychical research \" which caught wallace ' s interest very early, in fact earlier than we might possibly think. spiritism, in wallace ' s mind, had a eudaemonist socratic meaning : ghosts were seen as moral and spiritual guides to man. wallace then developed the idea of man as center of a pre - ordained universe, in which the pain which man is subject to being the most sensitive creature, and the evil which he must fight since he is capable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.564581394723332, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 112, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.287276"}
{"text": "as moral and spiritual guides to man. wallace then developed the idea of man as center of a pre - ordained universe, in which the pain which man is subject to being the most sensitive creature, and the evil which he must fight since he is capable of discerning, are seen as necessary steps towards the completion of moral rather than organic developments, necessary to enter into a superior spiritual sphere. we can now truly understand this sentence : \" the whole purpose, the only raison d ' etre of the world [... ] was the development of human spirit in association with the human body \"... this conception of a pre - existing order and a synchronicity can explain the logic which backed wallace ' s opinions and attitudes... - - giacomo scarpelli, 1992. nuncius ( italy ) 7 ( 1 ) : 120 - 121.... wallace... brought forth an alternative explanation which involved totally different powers. man has the faculty of artificially selecting vegetable and animal species ; similarly a higher intelligence could have controlled and directed natural selection in the human development process, in a particular and highly ethical aim... effectively, wallace, induced by the moral ideal earlier mentioned, was trying to find a solution that would not clash with his vision of harmonia naturae and undermine the theory of natural selection with whatsoever extension or correction. his was not a denial of the theory but, paradoxically, the result of his excessively rigourous attitude. wallace, the hyperselectivist, preferred to involve a superior intellect, in other words a deus ex machina, rather than admit that his primary theory might possibly have been less absolute... - - giacomo scarpelli, 1992. nuncius ( italy ) 7 ( 1 ) : 126.... wallace was driven in his crusade by ethical and social issues, as well as the intention of preventing the disruption of the biological balance. this was altogether a kind of civil protest aimed towards a general reform of society, freed from imposition. wallace believed that an improvement of the population ' s economic conditions would have resulted in higher hygienic standards and a richer diet, and consequently, in a decreased spread of diseases, smallpox included. he also envisaged the creation of a ministry of health employing teams of doctors. these purposes, which seem so obvious today, were in his time little less than revolutionary. it can be said that wallace foresaw the creation of national health service... - - giacomo scarpel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5657551915179861, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 113, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.288270"}
{"text": "a ministry of health employing teams of doctors. these purposes, which seem so obvious today, were in his time little less than revolutionary. it can be said that wallace foresaw the creation of national health service... - - giacomo scarpelli, 1992. nuncius ( italy ) 7 ( 1 ) : 128. man ' s place in the universe. a. r. wallace ( mcclure, phillips, new york, 1903 ). a famous coauthor of darwin ' s discovery anticipated in the last chapter of his book almost all versions of modern ap [ the anthropic principle ]... - - yuri v. balashov, december 1991. american journal of physics 59 ( 12 ) : 1072. wallace did not try to explain distribution patterns by invoking the occurrence of unique events but rather by recourse to general principles. for wallace that general principle was geological change. there are numerous passages in wallace ( 1880 ) that confirm his appreciation of the importance of geological change in understanding distribution patterns in indonesia. his discussion of the faunal relationship between the malay peninsula and the islands of borneo, sumatra, and java is detailed and provides a clear statement of his position. having noted the overall similarity of this area ' s flora and fauna to that of india, he continued on the greater similarity of the mammals and birds of borneo and sumatra than those of borneo and java, and on the high degree of endemism of the javan fauna... - - b. michaux, september 1991. australian systematic botany 4 ( 1 ) : 26.... although this is a rather brief summary of the distribution patterns that wallace recognised in indonesia, it does, i believe, accurately reflect the major patterns he observed. his interpretations of these patterns, based as they were on an incomplete understanding of the dynamic nature of the earth ' s surface, are only really of historical interest. wallace ' s attempt to understand distributional patterns in terms of geological change was doomed from the start because neither he nor anyone else at the time realised that land could move laterally as well as vertically... - - b. michaux, september 1991. australian systematic botany 4 ( 1 ) : 27. discrimination involves recognition in the signal receiver that a stimulus, or configuration of stimuli, belongs to some discrete category. the importance of design for discriminability has been recognized since wallace ( 1867 ) suggested that distasteful insect larvae '... required some distinctive mark, something by which they may", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5472029254293452, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 114, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.289351"}
{"text": "or configuration of stimuli, belongs to some discrete category. the importance of design for discriminability has been recognized since wallace ( 1867 ) suggested that distasteful insect larvae '... required some distinctive mark, something by which they may be contrasted with and separated from the agreeable larvae, in order that they might be freed from the attacks of birds ' and that ' brilliant colouration would be such a distinction as was required '. warning colours and patterns should therefore look different from those of the prey for which predators normally hunt... - - tim guilford & marian stamp dawkins, july 1991. animal behaviour 42 ( 1 ) : 5. successive generations of evolutionary biologists, beginning with august weismann and alfred r. wallace, have refined our understanding of the evolution of senescence to the point where we now have pretty good reason to believe that in a species like our own aging occurs because natural selection places higher priority on turning out progeny to carry our genes forward than on keeping individuals going ; in effect, late survival is sacrificed for reproduction. extending through a more diverse range of reproductive patterns, the burgeoning discipline of evolutionary life - history theory provides us with the intellectual framework to approach questions like why some species get only a single shot at reproduction ( semelparity ) while other get more ( iteroparity ) and why species differ in their longevities... - - caleb e. finch, 28 june 1991. science 252 ( 5014 ) : 1864.... in wallace there was support for the nationalization of land and for the economic emancipation of women. the latter reform he actually justified in evolutionary terms, thereby giving rise to a form of social wallaceism. his point was that women were currently prevented, by their social and economic disadvantages, from fully exercising their selective role in the choice of mate. although he sometimes felt that darwin attached too great an importance to sexual selection in the mechanics of evolution, wallace was nevertheless convinced that female emancipation could only benefit posterity... - - john hedley brooke, 1991. in his science and religion ; some historical perspectives ( cambridge university press ) : 294 - 295.... the sheer improbability of the emergence of man deeply impressed alfred russel wallace. contingency had piled upon contingency with each critical stage in evolutionary divergence. in a book written late in life, man ' s place in the universe ( 1903 ), he turned the argument against physicists and astronomers who were scouring", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5665803283856544, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 115, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.290328"}
{"text": "contingency had piled upon contingency with each critical stage in evolutionary divergence. in a book written late in life, man ' s place in the universe ( 1903 ), he turned the argument against physicists and astronomers who were scouring the heavens for planets having a physical environment comparable with that of the earth and on which intelligent life might be presumed to have evolved. properly understood, wallace argued, the theory of evolution told against such a possibility - - certainly against the emergence of intelligence akin to human. however close the physico - chemical environment to that on earth, it was inconceivable that the evolutionary process on other worlds could have followed the same nuanced path as on earth. one minor deviation at an early stage and the whole process would take an entirely different course... - - john hedley brooke, 1991. in his science and religion ; some historical perspectives ( cambridge university press ) : 315. wallace ' s scientific case rested on his conclusion that the human brain, including that of the most primitive peoples, was more powerful than was necessary for survival. for a large part of his early life wallace had lived among primitive peoples in south america and southeast asia, an experience that convinced him that these people, simple as they have appeared in mind and action, were equal in intelligence to europeans. as the modern anthropologist loren eiseley remarked, wallace displayed \" scarcely a trace of the racial superiority so frequently manifested in nineteenth - century scientific circles, \" in which were included darwin and thomas huxley. if human beings possessed brain capacities beyond what was needed for survival, wallace reasoned, then how could natural selection bring about its evolution? where was the \" survival value \" of that capacity if that capacity was not fully used? after all, natural selection improved an organ only through its adaptation to the pressure of environment. in the case of the human brain, however, the capacity was greater than human beings really required or that the pressure of environment could account for. wallace logically concluded on those grounds that \" some higher intelligence directed the process by which the human race was developed. \"... - - carl n. degler, 1991. in his in search of human nature ; the decline and revival of darwinism in american social thought ( oxford university press ) : 60.... it will be recalled that darwin could find no useful value in the physical ( racial ) differences among human groups. thus he could not account for those differences through the operation of natural selection. he did, however, accept the common", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5156935574041581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 116, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.291355"}
{"text": "60.... it will be recalled that darwin could find no useful value in the physical ( racial ) differences among human groups. thus he could not account for those differences through the operation of natural selection. he did, however, accept the common anthropological view of the time that the differences in levels of culture or civilization which occurred among the diverse peoples of the world derived from differences in their biological capacities. some cultures were higher than others because the people in those societies were biologically superior. that was the opening in his theory of human evolution through which racism entered. it was that opening which wallace closed with his conception of the intellectual equality and therefore the equal cultural capacity of all peoples. as things turned out, wallace looked to other ways and matters in his effort to make evolution less competitive and threatening. he did not develop any further his assertion of the mental equality of all peoples, or at least few took notice of its relevance. yet that was the precise argument, elaborated and tirelessly defended, that undermined in time the concept of racism in america. its elaboration and defense underpinned the concept of culture, an idea that in the twentieth century became not only an alternative to a racial explanation for human behavioral differences but also a central concept in social science... - - carl n. degler, 1991. in his in search of human nature ; the decline and revival of darwinism in american social thought ( oxford university press ) : 61.... wallace ' s supernatural explanation gained few followers among social scientists in the second half of the twentieth century, but his assertion of the special, indeed unique, nature of man, because of his brain, continued to influence many, directly or indirectly. the eminent modern american anthropologist loren eiseley, for example was among them. his sympathetic response to wallace reflects the views of many other american social scientists today. eiseley did not doubt that wallace has a better understanding of the roots of human nature than darwin. in his book darwin ' s century, eiseley contrasted darwin ' s conception with that of wallace. \" the mind of man, by indetermination, by the power of choice and cultural communication, \" he wrote, \" is on the verge of escape from the blind control of that deterministic world with which the darwinists had unconsciously shackled man. the inborn characteristics laid upon him by the biological extremists have crumbled away, \" he was relieved to report. in eiseley ' s judgement, wallace stood out among evolution", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5438985889878631, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 117, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.292413"}
{"text": "the darwinists had unconsciously shackled man. the inborn characteristics laid upon him by the biological extremists have crumbled away, \" he was relieved to report. in eiseley ' s judgement, wallace stood out among evolutionists of his own time because he recognized even then that human beings had escaped from biological evolution. \" wallace saw and saw correctly, that with the rise of man the evolution of parts was to a marked degree outmoded, that mind was now the arbiter of human destiny. \"... - - carl n. degler, 1991. in his in search of human nature ; the decline and revival of darwinism in american social thought ( oxford university press ) : 330. wallace ( 1865 ) hypothesized that sex - limited mimicry, in which palatable females are the only sex to mimic unpalatable butterflies, arises because females fly more slowly than males and hence are more vulnerable to predation. our results from the within - lineage analyses are in agreement with wallace ' s hypothesis. evolutionarily, palatable males have larger thoraces, maximizing flight muscle, and smaller abdomens, minimizing load on the wings, probably to maximize flight speed ; whereas females have retained large abdomens, probably to maximize egg load. counter - selection for fecundity may operate against faster flight speeds, and females may be reproductively constrained to evolve alternative means of avoiding predation, such as mimicry. if females fly more slowly, they may be predisposed to fly like an unpalatable model... - - robert srygley & peng chai, 11 october 1990. oecologia 84 ( 4 ) : 498.... there simply weren ' t any lists of darwinian tenets that would have been accepted by all the leading darwinians and rejected by all the main non - darwinians in the first decade or so following the publication of the origin. both the darwinians charles lyell and asa gray and the non - darwinians the duke of argyll and st. george mivart, for example, thought that natural selection must be supplemented by some sort of \" directing force \" in order to account for the relevant phenomena, while darwin consistently denied the need for such an additional mechanism ( argyll 1877 ; gray 1884 ; mivart 1871 ). conversely, neither the darwinians alfred russel wallace and charles lyell nor the non - darwinians st. george mivart and william whewell", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5363389695670502, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 118, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.293362"}
{"text": "for such an additional mechanism ( argyll 1877 ; gray 1884 ; mivart 1871 ). conversely, neither the darwinians alfred russel wallace and charles lyell nor the non - darwinians st. george mivart and william whewell thought that human beings could be included under the same explanatory scheme ( whatever this might be ) that was used to account for the history and behavior of \" lower \" animals, while darwin maintained that they could... - - doren recker, september 1990. philosophy of science 57 ( 3 ) : 463. the efforts to denigrate darwin serve only to conceal the real differences between the two naturalists ' approach to transmutation. careful reading of wallace ' s paper reveals that in several important respects his theory failed to duplicate the essence of darwin ' s thinking. wallace had no interest in artificial selection and refused to treat it as analogous to the natural process even in later years. his mechanism did not even address the basic question of how selection acts on individual differences to change a population, because he was interested in how one well - marked variety ( what we now call a subspecies ) could replace others. once it is recognized that in writing of natural selection acting on varieties wallace was thinking of subspecies rather than individual variations, it can be seen that his paper does not contain a description of what darwin saw as the basic mechanism of change. wallace simply assumed that species split into varieties - - he did not seek to explain how this all - important first step occurs. it has also been suggested that wallace failed to appreciate the full power of selection because he treated the varieties as struggling against nature, not struggling against each other... - - peter j. bowler, 1990. in his charles darwin ; the man and his influence ( basil blackwell ) : 113.... wallace ' s darwinism of 1889 provided a clear and comprehensive survey of the theory and of the relevant areas of biology. except in the case of the origin of the human mind, wallace was an extreme selectionist ; unlike darwin, he would have nothing to do with any other mechanism of evolution. this position soon became known as ' neo - darwinism ' to distinguish it from the more flexible form of the theory which darwin himself had advocated and which had gained support precisely because it allowed selection to be relegated to the status of a secondary mechanism... - - peter j. bowler, 1990. in his charles darwin ; the man and his influence ( basil blackwell ) : 210. the good parent process is a mechanism", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.564264357873669, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 119, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.294464"}
{"text": "because it allowed selection to be relegated to the status of a secondary mechanism... - - peter j. bowler, 1990. in his charles darwin ; the man and his influence ( basil blackwell ) : 210. the good parent process is a mechanism for the evolution of epigamic traits that is distinct from the fisherian process and the good genes process. in the good parent process, direct selection on females to discriminate among males on the basis of male parental quality leads to the evolution of a trait that provides female with honest ( accurate and precise ) information regarding the non - heritable component of parental quality in a potential mate. wallace ( 1891, 1901 ) recognized the potential of such a mechanism, but he had no way to consider rigorously the effects of inheritance. the good parent process is also different from darwinian sexual selection ( darwin 1871 ), because females are not necessarily attracted by a good parent trait. a trait that evolves via the good parent process only enhances the attractiveness of high - quality males... - - guy a. hoelzer, december 1989. animal behaviour 38 ( 6 ) : 1075. since wallace ( 1889 ), a number of authors have argued that isolating barriers could be positively selected for their isolating property to prevent the formation of hybrids and to actively promote divergence and speciation. however, being a second order effect, the selective forces are likely to be weak, and, as levin points out, in practice it is going to be very difficult to distinguish this effect from other forms of competition and selection... - - mark r. macnair, february 1989. genome 31 ( 1 ) : 204 - 205. wallace, on the other hand, insisted on the validity of the \" uniform and consistent testimony of our senses \". it is complete fallacy, so he argued, that only propositions could be demonstrated and phenomena could not be. \" the direct testimony of the educated senses guided by reason was of higher validity than any complex results of reason alone. \" according to wallace, testimony was trustworthy if the witness was in full possession of the senses and in agreement with the reports of other witnesses. was it really true, asked wallace rhetorically, that a member of the house of peers like lord lyndsay - - who had recently converted to spiritualism - - \" can not be trusted as a faithful witness? \" if the witness were insane or deluded, wallace argued, they would also be unable to use carpenter ' s mathematical reasoning..", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5169246067748918, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 120, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.295568"}
{"text": "nothing at all when being devoured. \" he goes further to assert ( very strongly ) that \" birds, mice, squirrels, and the like, do not get limbs broken by falls, as we do, \" and that, in sum, \" whatever pain exists is not long - continued \" ( wallace 1911, 404 - 405 )... - - david oates, december 1988. zygon 23 ( 4 ) : 445. darwin ' s response is, on the face of it, rather puzzling. why did he not protest wallace ' s assertion that selection works principally through the elimination of unfavorable variants? historians generally agree that the acknowledgment of selection as a negative force - - removing inferior variants and thus maintaining the \" type \" - - long predated darwin. in this perspective, darwin ' s achievement lay in his recognition that selection was \" a creative process and not merely a sieve. \" but there is no evidence that his dissents from wallace ' s essentially negative view. perhaps historians ' radical distinction between natural selection as a creative force and as executioner of the unfit - - that is, as \" nature ' s broom \" - - was not recognized by darwin... - - diane b. paul, fall 1988. journal of the history of biology 21 ( 3 ) : 417 - 418. the great american interchange was first recognized by wallace ( 1876 ), but it has taken another hundred years of intense paleontological study by ameghino, matthew, scott, patterson, simpson, webb, and others to clarify patterns of dispersal. it is only during the last decade, moreover, that greater precision in dating the sediments containing interchange taxa has provided a firm time frame for various aspects of the event. it is now possible to assess the interchange in detail, and to analyze the tempo and mode of dispersal and the rates of extinction and origination in successive faunas through time. as a result, the great american interchange represents the best - documented example in the fossil record of the intermingling of two long - separated continental faunas... - - larry g. marshall, july - august 1988. american scientist 76 ( 4 ) : 380.... \" i should be extremely glad now to publish a sketch of general views in about a dozen pages or so ; but i cannot persuade myself that i can do so honourably. wallace says nothing about publication, and i enclose his letter. but as i had not intended to publish any sketch", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5321067989772013, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 122, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.297536"}
{"text": "a sketch of general views in about a dozen pages or so ; but i cannot persuade myself that i can do so honourably. wallace says nothing about publication, and i enclose his letter. but as i had not intended to publish any sketch, can i do so honourably, because wallace has sent me an outline of his doctrine? i would far rather burn my whole book, than that he or any other man should think that i had behaved in a paltry spirit. do you not think his having sent me this sketch ties my hands? i do not in least believe that that [ sic ] he originated his views from anything which i wrote to him \" [ darwin ' s words ]... - - barbara g. beddall, spring 1988. journal of the history of biology 21 ( 1 ) : 52.... in the narrow focus espoused both by the participants in the events leading up to and including the \" joint papers, \" and by their successors, priority in this case has been treated as a \" single event, \" a zero - sum game with winners and losers, an occasion when \" editorial manipulation \" and \" delicate arrangements \" could be invoked. but, as seen above, the matter is far more complex than this approach would indicate. it requires a broader perspective in which the enormous contributions made by both darwin and wallace can be recognized. in game theory this would be a non - zero - sum game, where both darwin and wallace benefited from the work of the other, thus becoming codiscoverers of the theory of evolution by means of natural selection. if this interpretation of the events is rejected, the status of the matter reverts to a zero - sum game, which brings back with it not only its winners and losers, but also the problems of \" editorial manipulation \" and \" delicate arrangements, \" as posed by kohn and nelson... - - barbara g. beddall, spring 1988. journal of the history of biology 21 ( 1 ) : 62. strangely enough, it was a. r. wallace, not darwin, who suggested an explicit associative hypothesis integrating learning theory with natural selection. in a paper entitled \" on the origin of food aversion paradigms, \" garcia and hankins present the case for a darwin - wallace conditioning theory initiated in 1866 and experimentally verified by 1887. their theory was actively generating research 2 decades before pavlov began his studies in classical conditioning, and 3 decades before thorndike presented his thesis on instrumental", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5871485294243557, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 123, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.299503"}
{"text": "the case for a darwin - wallace conditioning theory initiated in 1866 and experimentally verified by 1887. their theory was actively generating research 2 decades before pavlov began his studies in classical conditioning, and 3 decades before thorndike presented his thesis on instrumental conditioning. this pioneer effort culminated in today ' s research area, narrowly labeled \" conditioned taste aversion. \" more broadly considered, this paradigm is representative of homeostatic conditioning which tolman ( 1949 ) called \" cathexis \" ; when responding to survival needs, organisms come to cherish one particular type of food and drink, or one given type of mate, and to abhor others... - - robert c. bolles & michael d. beecher, eds., 1988. in their evolution and learning ( lawrence erlbaum associates ) : 29.... wallace had traveled widely in south america and the south pacific as a naturalist and collector of exotic specimens. his observations of native peoples had convinced him that the intellectual and moral faculties required by the aboriginal way of life were not markedly different from those needed by mammals generally to survive in their respective ecological situations. yet aborigines brought to england and educated there had the capacity to acquire the behavioral sophistication of modern europeans. thus, aborigines had moral and intellectual capacities far exceeding the immediate requirements of the environments in which they had evolved. therefore the intellectual capacities of primitive man, and by implication modern man, could not be the result of natural selection... - - robert c. bolles & michael d. beecher, 1988. in their evolution and learning ( lawrence erlbaum associates ) : 41. the adaptive nature of warning, or ' aposematic ' colour patterns seemed clear a century ago ( wallace, 1867, 1878 ; poulton, 1890 ), but recently it has been debated whether ' individual ' natural selection may explain their initial evolution. fisher ( 1930 ) had earlier suggested a similar problem with the evolution of unpalatability. previous explanations depend purely on selection to explain the evolution of warning colours. here we propose that drift, combined with natural selection, may also be important... - - james mallet & michael c. singer, december 1987. biological journal of the linnean society 32 ( 4 ) : 338.... although mimicry strongly suggests that colour patterns are used as warning signals, there is only anecdotal evidence that warning colours are easier to learn than non - warning colours. traditionally, it has been", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5451486333807307, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 124, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.300667"}
{"text": "' s progress and poverty ( 1879 ), although wallace had less regard for the market. both saw man as needing land. their mutual disapproval of parnellism brought them together, and both submerged methodological differences to further their common concept. wallace gave him a platform when george toured britain. wallace cast george as a theorist who confirmed wallace ' s inductive argument, perhaps underrating george ' s journalistic background. for many years single tax and land nationalization were closely linked by friend and foe... - - mason gaffney, 1987. in john eatwell, murray milgate & peter newman, eds., the new palgraves : a dictionary of economics ( macmillan ), volume 4 : 850. according to both spencer and wallace, a natural principle of evolution inexorably led to the moral perfection of man. wallace, of course, had a different principle in mind than spencer ' s device of adaptation through the inherited effects of habit. he nonetheless believed that the principle of natural selection would add further support to spencer ' s primary vision, the view that man ' s moral character was not only a goal of evolution, but also a chief means of progress toward the perfection of human nature... - - robert j. richards, 1987. in his darwin and the emergence of evolutionary theories of mind and behavior ( university of chicago press ) : 165 - 166.... evolutionary theory, as darwin himself admitted in the origin, remained mute concerning how life and consciousness first arose in the universe ; it could only account for subsequent transformations. just so, wallace now proclaimed, natural selection brought no clear perception of the origins of specifically human intellect and moral feeling. he was persuaded that these distinctive capacities must have originated under the influence of higher powers, intelligences who shepherded the progressive development of mind through the ages... - - robert j. richards, 1987. in his darwin and the emergence of evolutionary theories of mind and behavior ( university of chicago press ) : 178.... contemporary primitives and our ancestors thus had latent mental qualities that could not be explained by natural selection, which demanded that selected traits confer immediate advantage, not simply promise it. wallace ' s contacts with the spirit world convinced him that higher intelligences rather than natural selection controlled human evolution. wallace forthrightly claimed that a conversion to spiritualism proximately caused his rejection of natural selection as an adequate principle to explain human evolution ; and virtually all historians have taken him at his word. but we need not. for after", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5157266503609566, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 126, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.304039"}
{"text": "evolution. wallace forthrightly claimed that a conversion to spiritualism proximately caused his rejection of natural selection as an adequate principle to explain human evolution ; and virtually all historians have taken him at his word. but we need not. for after all, wallace might well have chosen to regard natural selection as the disposing instrument of higher spiritual powers and to have held survival of the fittest as a secondary cause... - - robert j. richards, 1987. in his darwin and the emergence of evolutionary theories of mind and behavior ( university of chicago press ) : 181.... huxley tarried only a short while over wallace ' s demur about natural selection in the case of man. he derived from wallace ' s own writings about savage life descriptions of the extraordinary mental feats such life actually required - - knowledge of a vast territory, reading signs of game or enemies, discovery of properties of plants and habits of animals, and so forth. \" in complexity and difficulty, \" huxley estimated, \" the intellectual labour of a ' good hunter or warrior ' considerably exceeds that of an ordinary englishman. \" wallace had simply miscalculated the brain power the savage actually needed for survival ; thus neither primitive man nor modern native likely had in excess what could be delivered by natural selection or augmented by entering into civilized life. on the question of the moral sense, huxley could \" find nothing in mr. wallace ' s reasonings which has not already been met by mr. mill, mr. spencer, or mr. darwin. \"... - - robert j. richards, 1987. in his darwin and the emergence of evolutionary theories of mind and behavior ( university of chicago press ) : 227. and in the growth of biological thought ernst mayr comments : \" in his letter, wallace said that if darwin thought his paper sufficiently novel and interesting, he should send it to lyell and, presumably, submit it for publication ( the original wallace letter is no longer in existence ). \" but it is clear that wallace did not ask darwin to arrange for publication. unfortunately, as mayr notes, the letter that accompanied wallace ' 1s paper is lost. however, we have darwin ' s word for it that there was no such instruction. on the same day that wallace ' s paper arrived, darwin wrote an anguished letter to lyell, in which he refers to wallace ' s \" ms, which he does not say he wishes me to publish \". then, a week later, he wrote to l", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5079159954883006, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 127, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.305039"}
{"text": "( he died in 1913 ). had his fellow - frss borne this in mind, they might have been less puzzled by his left - wing politics, his anti - vaccinationism and his plebeian - type spiritualism. a recent historian has plausibly treated him as an import into the later nineteenth century from the 1840s, and we might also see him as an import into prestigious scientific circles from the world of self - taught scientists. his particular route to eminence involved much specimen - hunting but no diploma - hunting, much jungle - fever but no exam - fever... - - logie barrow, 1986. in his independent spirits ; spiritualism and english plebeians, 1850 - 1910 ( routledge & kegan paul ) : 153.... darwin and wallace defended a programme of theoretical research by appeal to the superior coherence and fecundity of their programme. the appeal to superior coherence took place on two levels. at a substantive level they argued that their programme promised the discovery of relevantly similar natural forces for the explanation of relevantly similar natural phenomena. at an epistemic level they claimed coherence in their use of biogeographical and geological evidence and coherence in the application of the epistemic desideratum of scrutability. as wallace had suggested, the appeal to coherence at substantive and epistemic levels is justified by the overall aim of science to construe its subject matter as maximally accessible to investigation and as maximally decidable by acceptable argument. the appeal to superior fecundity can also be justified as instrumental to the achievement of these aims... - - scott a. kleiner, december 1985. british journal for the philosophy of science 36 ( 4 ) : 391. the allopatric model of speciation proposes that populations diverge genetically during a period of isolation either by drift, differential selection or different responses to similar selection pressures. when the barrier to dispersal is removed, this divergence may have led to premating reproductive isolation, post - mating isolation or both. only if there is complete assortative mating, hybrid inviability or hybrid infertility will the two new taxa be able to coexist without exchanging genes and only if there is at least some premating reproductive isolation will they be able to invade on another ' s territory. otherwise a hybrid zone is expected to form. premating isolation may evolve, or be strengthened, in the hybrid zone because het", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5466226328693203, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 129, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.306947"}
{"text": "genes and only if there is at least some premating reproductive isolation will they be able to invade on another ' s territory. otherwise a hybrid zone is expected to form. premating isolation may evolve, or be strengthened, in the hybrid zone because heterogametic matings produce unfit offspring - - as first proposed by wallace ( 1889 ) and subsequently incorporated into speciation theory by dobzhansky ( 1940 ). however, this ' reinforcement ' of premating isolating mechanisms is a contentious idea... - - r. k. butlin & g. m. hewitt, november 1985. biological journal of the linnean society 26 ( 3 ) : 269 - 270. in contrast, alfred russel wallace ( 1864 ), the co - discoverer of natural selection, stressed that group selection ( i. e. selection not between individuals, but between groups ) played an important role, at least among human beings. describing the process of human evolution, he wrote : \" in proportion as physical characteristics become of less importance, mental and moral qualities will have increasing importance to the well - being of a race. capacity for acting in concern for the protection of food and shelter ; sympathy, which leads all in turn to assist each other ; the sense of right, which checks depredation upon our fellows... are all qualities that from earliest appearance must have been for the benefit of each community, and would therefore have become objects of natural selection. \"... - - umberto melotti, summer 1985. the mankind quarterly 25 ( 4 ) : 324. this is not meant to demean darwin. in addition to his genius, darwin was a warm, liberal man for his times : opposed to slavery, in favor of electoral reform, and concerned for the oppressed. but he was, in some areas, of his times and not very far ahead of them. for many scientists of the day, the existent native peoples were virtual \" missing links. \" it was only through work in wallace ' s tradition that \" the negro ' s skull is no longer placed on the lecturer ' s table between that of the gorilla and the caucasian \". at the time, wallace ' s belief in the ultimate intellectual potential of native peoples must have seemed bizarre beyond reason... - - stephen e. glickman, 1985 / 1992. in sigmund koch & david e. leary, eds., a century of psychology as science ( american psychological association ) : 750.... less than a year later he wrote the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5337110420430943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 130, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.307859"}
{"text": "stephen e. glickman, 1985 / 1992. in sigmund koch & david e. leary, eds., a century of psychology as science ( american psychological association ) : 750.... less than a year later he wrote the first of two papers that together presented, in brief but complete form, a theory of evolution by natural selection. while the second paper, written three years later, postulated natural selection in variable populations as the mechanism by which species originated, the first paper ( wallace 1855 ) analyzed the significance of extinction within evolving lineages in producing all of the known patterns of organic distribution in time and space. it must be emphasized that this paper was the first published statement to appreciate the importance of the extinction of intermediates in a species lineage in creating the oft - observed gaps in taxonomic affinities, as well as those in distribution in both space and time. this meant that the observed placement of organisms in the regions of the globe was not the result of supernatural forces and divine objectives, but of the natural phenomena of extinction and species transmutation ( or evolution. )... - - john l. brooks, 1985. earth sciences history 4 ( 2 ) : 115. in his discussion of the debate between darwin and wallace, mayr has claimed, \" they used the term ' sterility ' where we would use the term ' isolating mechanisms '. \" if this were the case, then darwin advocated the incidental origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms, wallace their origin by natural selection. grant has gone on to suggest that it would be \" fitting and desirable \" to call the selective origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms the \" wallace effect \". there can be no question that some late nineteenth - century naturalists did use the word \" sterility \" where evolutionists now use \" reproductive isolation mechanisms \". but i would argue that in their debate darwin and wallace meant what we do by \" sterility \". the distinction wallace drew in point 6 of his 1 march 1868 letter between \" disinclination to cross - unions \" and \" sterility \" certainly supports his view. consequently wallace was not proposing the selective origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms in general, but rather the selective origin of the particular post - mating mechanisms of cross - and hybrid sterility. since, according to current theory, these forms of sterility are precisely the types of reproductive isolation that cannot be produced by selection, the darwin - wallace debate provides little historical justification for the term \" wallace effect \". the present view on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5870109811744887, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 131, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.308861"}
{"text": "diamond, april 1982. the auk 99 ( 2 ) : 193.... spencer, wrote wallace, was misconceiving natural selection. it does not work by favouring ' any special bone, or muscle, or limb... but by the selection of the capacities or qualities. ' by ' capacities or qualities ' wallace meant things like strength or speed. wallace maintained that artificial selection works in the same way. the breeder selects for qualities such as quickness, not for particular variations of bones. ' the two modes of selection are thus strictly analogous and strictly comparable. ' he further insisted that natural selection is not limited by the supply of variation because ' as a matter of fact, there is a sufficiency of useful variation always present in each succeeding generation to increase any required life - preserving quality, all theoretical objections to the contrary notwithstanding. ' artificial selection is not the ' point after point ' improvement of organs ; both modes of selection transform structures as a whole, by selecting for a capacity. each step in the selection of a capacity would produce an improvement so romanes ' and spencer ' s criticism would not apply... - - mark ridley, march 1982. british journal for the history of science 15 ( 1 ) : 61. careful consideration of both theories shows quite readily their differences in emphasis. darwin was theorizing as to why males were brightly coloured. all wallace ( 1891 ) could offer that pertained directly to this point was the vitalistic argument that male colour was due to \" great vigour and health and generally higher vitality \". wallace in his theory of bird ' s nests, had a perfectly reasonable hypothesis as to why females are dull - - not the same question darwin was trying to answer... - - r. b. aiken, 1982. quaestiones entomologicae 18 ( 1 - 4 ) : 8.... but what of wallace? he was not as involved in the question of aesthetic taste of females as he was in the question of animal colouration. interestingly enough, criticisms from wallace focused on ambiguity in the argument about female aesthetic sense. the process by which female choice was effected was not made clear. most discussion revolved around the issue of whether females were exercising some conscious choice or were being excited by and yielding to a male. was it selecting or succumbing? darwin ( 1871 ) originally thought it was selection. he states : \" no doubt this implies powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5559073418503637, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 135, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.313328"}
{"text": "or were being excited by and yielding to a male. was it selecting or succumbing? darwin ( 1871 ) originally thought it was selection. he states : \" no doubt this implies powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female... \" wallace ( 1891, 1901 ) objected to this notion of conscious choice, returning again and again to the admonition that female choice could not be shown in nature. wallace stated that while female birds may be excited by a display of decorative plumage, there was no reason to suppose that this conferred a mating advantage. it is difficult to understand wallace ' s reasoning in the light of his own ideas. he stated that colour and ornament are concomitant with vigour and general health and that it is the most healthy, persistent males that will mate. differences between darwin and wallace seem to be a matter of mechanism rather than basic principles... - - r. b. aiken, 1982. quaestiones entomologicae 18 ( 1 - 4 ) : 10. to wallace, victorian scientists ' failure to consider the implications their work held for moral behavior indicated severely misplaced priorities. in spiritualism ' s demonstration of the reality of the soul, he himself found a basis for belief in moral as well as material evolution. scientists ' refusal to address so important a matter, wallace believed, revealed an amoral materialism and, as such, outright dereliction of scientific duty... - - john j. cerullo, 1982. in his the secularization of the soul ; psychical research in modern britain ( institute for the study of human issues ) : 28. wallace states his thesis with extraordinary clarity : \" there is a general principle in nature which will cause many varieties to survive the parent species, and to give rise to successive variations, departing further and further from the original type. the language in which this observation is presented is rather typological ; wallace ' s conclusion, however, clearly contradicts lyell ' s claim that \" varieties have strict limits, and can never vary more than a small amount away from the original type. \" the most important aspect of wallace ' s analysis is that he carefully stayed away from the quagmire of the morphological controversy on species and varieties but based his conclusion on a rather strictly ecological argument. he concluded that population size of a species is not at all determined by fertility but by natural checks on potential population increase. an enormous number of animals must die each year to keep the number constant", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5673308527562688, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 136, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.315013"}
{"text": "varieties but based his conclusion on a rather strictly ecological argument. he concluded that population size of a species is not at all determined by fertility but by natural checks on potential population increase. an enormous number of animals must die each year to keep the number constant, and \" those that die must be the weakest - - the very young, the aged, and the diseased - - while those that prolong their existence can only be the most perfect in health and vigour - - those who are best able to obtain food regularly and avoid their numerous enemies. \"... - - ernst mayr, 1982. in his the growth of biological thought : diversity, evolution, and inheritance ( the belknap press of harvard university press ) : 495. wallace couched his new argument about evolution and man in 1869 not in terms of spiritualism, in which he was unable to interest seriously the majority of his fellow evolutionists, but in terms of utility. he used the essential principle of evolution to deny the evolution of man. to recapitulate, natural selection is a theory of usefulness - - traits are selected in individuals because they confer some use to the individual in the struggle for survival. wallace rejected sexual selection in the name of this principle. but applying now the same principle to man, wallace argued that many of the traits characteristic of man were in fact of no use when they first arose, and therefore could not have been developed by natural selection... - - nancy stepan, 1982. in her the idea of race in science : great britain 1800 - 1960 ( archon books ) : 71. interestingly, issues like these must have been a preoccupation of alfred russel wallace a century ago. wallace, the coauthor of the theory of evolution, reneged on the theory in excluding man from his rightful place on the evolutionary tree. he did so because he could not reconcile ( see especially wallace 1891 ) the incredible capacity for humans to process information ( as evidenced by the accomplishments of a learned man of society in victorian times ) with the fact that such capacity went largely unused throughout the entire period of human evolution ( extrapolation based on his observations of \" primitive \" peoples in what is today eastern indonesia. ) wallace ' s dilemma has never been completely resolved... - - david f. lancy & andrew j. strathern, december 1981. american anthropologist 83 ( 4 ) : 790. lowell ' s books about life on mars provoked alfred r. wallace, with darwin the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5132072740646647, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 137, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.317490"}
{"text": "completely resolved... - - david f. lancy & andrew j. strathern, december 1981. american anthropologist 83 ( 4 ) : 790. lowell ' s books about life on mars provoked alfred r. wallace, with darwin the discoverer of the theory of evolution by natural selection, into analysing the likelihood of the evolution of an intelligent species elsewhere in the universe. he concluded that it was essentially zero, and thus we are alone in the universe. his arguments are worth repeating in detail, because although published in 1905 they are exactly the same as those given by modern evolutionists such as dobzhansky, simpson, and mayr. thus the biological arguments against the evolution of intelligence have not changed in 75 years. the great evolutionists have always been united against eti. the biologists who have supported eti have generally been biologists with the viewpoint of a physicist, and lacking the historical sense of the evolutionist. such men often err in questions about evolutionary biology ; in particular they err about questions concerning the probability of the evolution of a species with specified properties, as the recent recombinant dna debate shows... - - frank j. tipler, june 1981. quarterly journal of the royal astronomical society 22 ( 2 ) : 140. wallace does not show a concern for darwin ' s problem with the ' swamping effect ', i. e., the dilution and loss of variants from crossing back into the unvaried population. accordingly we don ' t find in wallace ' s writings darwin ' s attempt to explain speciation by isolation. possibly wallace concluded swamping could be ignored because by observation permanent varieties / species exist in nature. thus he might have concluded backcrossing is in fact not significant in nature. also, as he viewed the line between species as something other than a barrier preventing intermixing, he would not have felt the need to explain how such barriers are effective. another consideration that subsequently supports wallace ' s attitude is implicit in his approach to the theory of natural selection. unlike darwin, wallace used the knowledge of domestic animals against the claim that species are permanent and not to support evolution, as did darwin. in domestic animals, natural selection tends to favor reversion to original unvaried forms... - - scott a. kleiner, april 1981. synthese 47 ( 1 ) : 146 - 147.... to consider now the main problem of concern to darwin and wallace, the origin problem, not only is there lacking a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5397015864987866, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 138, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.318746"}
{"text": ".. - - scott a. kleiner, april 1981. synthese 47 ( 1 ) : 146 - 147.... to consider now the main problem of concern to darwin and wallace, the origin problem, not only is there lacking a decision procedure for determining whether the goal state is reached, but also, as we have argued above, the goal state for why - questions cannot be fully described in advance without actually answering the question. although darwin cannot and does not specify in advance the kind of explanatory mechanism he is seeking he is able to say what kind of causal process he does not want, viz., the agent - - teleological process of the creationist theories. his goal state can be described only in terms of a few desiderata, viz., a theory consisting of universal laws applicable to all organisms including humans and bringing together a wide variety of previously unconnected facts, and one in which the process of evolution is \" gradual \" in the sense that it is in conformity with lyellian uniformitarianism applied to living organisms. specifically, all large evolutionary changes are to be explained in terms of persistant small incremental changes occurring over a long time, and the law governing these changes are the same throughout geological time even though varying local conditions may produce happenings in the past that are not presently occurring or rather sudden and calamitous effects on local biota... - - scott a. kleiner, april 1981. synthese 47 ( 1 ) : 154. a key process in speciation among sexual organisms is the evolution of reproductive isolation. there are essentially two views on the origin of isolating mechanisms... the first view, championed by darwin ( 1872 ), holds that isolating mechanisms originate as an incidental by - product of genetic divergence in geographically isolated populations. the second view, argued by wallace ( 1889 ), holds that isolating mechanisms are established by means of natural selection in zones of overlap between incipient species... the contemporary view, which holds that premating reproductive barriers ( often behavioral ) are built up by natural selection in areas of sympatry in order to supercede postmating barriers that arose allopatrically, has come to be known as the wallace effect. the plausibility of the wallace effect has been demonstrated by knight et al. ( 1956 ) and by kessler ( 1966 ), who showed that artificial selection could be successful in enhancing premating reproductive isolation in drosophila. in light of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5768439670550911, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 139, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.319702"}
{"text": "the plausibility of the wallace effect has been demonstrated by knight et al. ( 1956 ) and by kessler ( 1966 ), who showed that artificial selection could be successful in enhancing premating reproductive isolation in drosophila. in light of the important role of the wallace effect in modern speciation theory, it is surprising that the phenomenon has not been studied quantitatively... - - stanley sawyer & daniel hartl, april 1981. theoretical population biology 19 ( 2 ) : 261 - 262. some zoologists, like raven in 1935, considered the validity of wallace ' s line on the basis of the proportion of mammals that had crossed the line going east compared with those that had not and came to the conclusion that wallace ' s line marked a boundary which was the eastern limit of the great majority of east indian mammals, like rhinoceroses and elephants. others made their assessment on the proportion of western and eastern elements to be found on each island in wallacea. thus, rensch in 1935, following mertens ( 1934 ), calculated that 88 per cent of the butterflies were of western origin which was a similar proportion to that found on lombok and more than twice as high as for the kai islands. following the same line of argument for austral - malayan birds, ernst mayr calculated that 67. 6 per cent of the passerines were from the west and decided that ' there is no doubt, celebes must be included with the oriental region ' ( mayr, 1944 )... - - wilma george, 1981. in t. c. whitmore, ed., wallace ' s line and plate tectonics ( oxford university press ) : 5. the notion that islands are somehow different stems from the concerns of naturalists. the observations by darwin and others that the existence of islands permitted the development of significant variations in plant and animal life formed an important part of the intellectual underpinning of theories of evolution. thus wallace, in his study of island life ( 1880 ), points out that ' some of the most remarkable and interesting facts in the distribution and affinities of organic forms are presented by islands in relation to each other and to the surrounding continents '. he refers to ' the unexpected relations or singular anomalies which are so often found to characterize the fauna and flora of islands '. more recently, there has been a growing interest in the total ecological balance of islands ( already hinted at in wallace ' s work )... - - percy selwyn, december 1980", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5190213890565798, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 140, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.320631"}
{"text": "often found to characterize the fauna and flora of islands '. more recently, there has been a growing interest in the total ecological balance of islands ( already hinted at in wallace ' s work )... - - percy selwyn, december 1980. world development 8 ( 12 ) : 945.... it is interesting to note that in this disagreement there are faint echoes of the other matter which separated darwin and wallace at this time : sexual selection through female choice. darwin wanted to argue that the beauty of, say, the peacock as opposed to the peahen, is a function of the females choosing beautiful males. wallace argued that the difference is essentially a function of the females being more drab than the males, this drabness coming through the female ' s need for camouflage from predators as they incubate their eggs and care for their young. in arguing this way, wallace was certainly not invoking group selection. however, unlike darwin, who was emphasizing the individual nature of selection by seeing the main competition ( at this point ) as coming from within the species, wallace was deemphasizing competition within the group by seeing the threat coming from without... - - michael ruse, november 1980. annals of science 37 ( 6 ) : 625.... let us offer solace to the opponents of human sociobiology. if one uncomfortable with a rather extreme individual selectionism, particularly as applied to man, and if one yet wants historical precedent to legitimize one ' s yearnings, then no less than the sociobiologists can one find the most respectable of intellectual ancestors. one may not be able to claim one of the fathers of evolutionism, but one can claim the other : alfred russel wallace. he was a group selectionist, and moreover he was not prepared to see man treated on a par with other organisms. i certainly do not want to pretend that today ' s biologists would find convincing the details of wallace ' s doubts about the all - sufficiency of individual selection, or that those who criticize human sociobiology grind the same metaphysical axe as did wallace ( although interestingly, politically wallace was fairly left - wing, as are many of today ' s critics ). but, given wallace ' s conclusions, it does seem true to say that the critics of human sociobiology are no less part of the evolutionary tradition than those they criticize!... - - michael ruse, november 1980. annals of science 37 ( 6 ) : 630.... this letter.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5435234305130185, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 141, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.321503"}
{"text": "to say that the critics of human sociobiology are no less part of the evolutionary tradition than those they criticize!... - - michael ruse, november 1980. annals of science 37 ( 6 ) : 630.... this letter... reveals in clearer outline the professional relationship between spruce and wallace and their mutual but competitive interests in the palmae : their meeting in the amazon, the discovery that they had made similar collections in this important family, spruce ' s offer to collaborate on the book and wallace ' s subsequent refusal. it appears that spruce was discouraged on learning that wallace had discovered and intended to name and describe the same palms, primarily those along the rio negro, that he had studied. he writes of \" relaxing \" his study of the palms, in view of the fact that wallace would return to england and publish his results before spruce left south america. clearly, in this instance, spruce felt botanically somewhat overshadowed by wallace, whom he considered a distinguished zoologist and friend... - - michael j. balick, september 1980. botanical museum leaflets 28 ( 3 ) : 265. a major misconception about this debate has become fairly widespread. according to this misconception, darwin was for sexual selection, while wallace was against it and for natural selection instead. it is true that from 1876 on, wallace gave up sexual selection - - he rejected female choice completely and interpreted male combat as just a form of natural selection. but the debate between darwin and wallace took place in 1867 and 1868, with a brief resumption in 1871 after publication of the descent of man. during this earlier period, wallace fully accepted female choice and male choice, at least in birds. wherever darwin invoked female choice or male choice in birds, wallace invoked it too. in other words, darwin and wallace agreed that, in birds, sexual selection was the cause of the coloration of the more brilliantly colored sex. thus the debate did not come down to all sexual selection on one side and all natural selection on the other. the disagreement with respect to birds centered on the cause of the coloration of the less conspicuous sex... - - malcolm jay kottler, june 1980. proceedings of the american philosophical society 124 ( 3 ) : 203 - 204.... the basic reason for their divergence was darwin ' s belief that, although the most common form of inheritance was equal inheritance by both sexes, variations first appearing in one sex were fairly often sex - limited in inheritance from the first. thus female choice alone, in conjunction", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5052395231797888, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 142, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.322576"}
{"text": "for their divergence was darwin ' s belief that, although the most common form of inheritance was equal inheritance by both sexes, variations first appearing in one sex were fairly often sex - limited in inheritance from the first. thus female choice alone, in conjunction with sex - limited inheritance from the first of the variations sexually selected in the male, would produce a conspicuous male and an inconspicuous female ; in such cases, natural selection for the sake of protection of the sex in greater danger was unnecessary... - - malcolm jay kottler, june 1980. proceedings of the american philosophical society 124 ( 3 ) : 204. i cannot analyze wallace ' s psyche and will not comment on his deeper motives for hewing to the unbridgeable gap between human intellect and the behavior of mere animals. but i can assess the logic of his argument and recognize that the traditional account is not only incorrect, but precisely backward. wallace did not abandon natural selection at the human threshold. rather, it was his peculiarly rigid view of natural selection that led him, quite consistently, to reject it for the human mind. his position never varied - - natural selection is the only cause of major evolutionary change. his two major debates with darwin - - sexual selection and the origin of human intellect - - represent the same argument, not an inconsistent wallace championing selection in one case and running from it in the other... - - stephen jay gould, january 1980. natural history 89 ( 1 ) : 35 - 36.... wallace ' s anthropology closely paralleled his interest in natural ecology. he asked very similar questions about the peoples he encountered to those he asked about other organic forms. these were questions on how well a region could support a population ; what were the natural checks on its expansion ; the relationship between subsistence and size of population. his other preoccupation was with the geographical distribution of peoples. he put much greater emphasis than darwin upon the role of geographical isolation in the evolution of species and varieties. similarly he attributed many of the human racial differences in the malay area to geographical isolation. wallace was also interested in the effect on human evolution of that other major plank of natural ecology - - migration. he spent some time in the classification of the languages of the malay region partly for the clues they might reveal about the migration patterns of the peoples in the area... - - greta jones, 1980. in her social darwinism and english thought ; the interaction between biological and social theory ( humanities press ) : 26 - 27. [ william ] james", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5123338918748546, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 143, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.323856"}
{"text": "reveal about the migration patterns of the peoples in the area... - - greta jones, 1980. in her social darwinism and english thought ; the interaction between biological and social theory ( humanities press ) : 26 - 27. [ william ] james first anticipated some of his mature opinions on race and nationality in an 1865 review of a. r. wallace ' s article, \" the origins of the human race. \" agreeing with wallace, james held that the races of humanity developed from a common ancestor through natural selection. race differentiation antedated all but the most rudimentary forms of social organization. but soon every race evolved more elaborate social systems. natural selection then became more complicated. the environment supported whichever groups acted together ; each group protected whichever individuals it valued. such social selection allowed physically weak people to survive and reproduce so long as they served community ideals. survival of the weak checked physical evolution. further progress then had to be mental and moral... - - larry c. miller, fall 1979. american quarterly 31 ( 4 ) : 539. a widely held generalization about tropical tree species is that most occur at very low adult densities and are of relatively uniform dispersion, such that adult individuals of the tree species are thinly and evenly distributed in space. if true, this generalization has potentially profound consequences for the reproductive biology, population structure, and evolution of tropical tree species. in this article the adequacy of this generalization is judged with respect to a particular tropical forest, a large tract of which has been mapped in detail. the origins of this generalization can be traced back at least to wallace... - - stephen p. hubbell, 30 march 1979. science 203 ( 4387 ) : 1299. this distinction reflected a general tendency of spencer and his contemporaries to distinguish higher and lower stages in all development : barbarism and civilization, status and contract, militarism and industrialism. in this instance, he also joined the controversy that developed in the late sixties between darwin and a. russel wallace as to whether natural selection altered bodily structure at all stages of evolution. darwin believed it did. wallace maintained that, with the attainment of a certain level of intelligence, mental changes superceded physical ones. spencer preferred the thrust of wallace ' s view. he himself had earlier identified the importance of cerebral development among the races of man. but he rejected wallace ' s view that such cerebral development within societies resulted from the natural selection of spontaneous variations in the brain..", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5411845831306897, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 144, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.324844"}
{"text": "the thrust of wallace ' s view. he himself had earlier identified the importance of cerebral development among the races of man. but he rejected wallace ' s view that such cerebral development within societies resulted from the natural selection of spontaneous variations in the brain... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 47.... fiske ' s philosophy was inherently conservative in that he stressed the slowness of change, which he neither wanted nor urged. however, the context was also usually religious. his system would bring no religious revolution, no attacks on existing churches, he assured readers in the conclusion of the cosmic philosophy. in the one section in which he discussed social evolution - - published earlier in the north american review under the title \" from brute to man \" - - fiske differed little from the speculations of a. r. wallace, whose work he described as \" one of the most brilliant contributions ever yet made to the doctrine of evolution. \" like wallace, he believed that natural selection ceased operating on bodily factors with the appearance of the human brain. \" and hence in the future as in the recent past, \" he told readers of the north american review, \" the dominant fact in the career of humanity is not physical modification but civilization. \"... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 65.... darwinism upset such happy assumptions. throughout his career [ henry ] george harbored suspicion of the theory, a suspicion that colored his thought no less than carey ' s and bowen ' s. in progress and poverty he attempted to evade the issue. how men had originated was not his concern : \" all we know of him is as man. \" but his hostility was plain. during the 1880s he mellowed somewhat, comforted by the views of the british biologist a. r. wallace ( who early preached the \" limits of evolution as applied to man, \" and who also befriended george during his english crusade ), and of st. george mivart, a leading christian evolutionist who, more firmly than wallace, denied that natural selection has shaped human faculties. by the 1890s george could manage grudging acceptance... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5214926808258132, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 145, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.325813"}
{"text": "selection has shaped human faculties. by the 1890s george could manage grudging acceptance... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 120.... his view of \" mental and moral progress \" ( which sociologists would later call cultural evolution ) also led to the conclusion \" that the higher - - the more intellectual and moral - - must displace the lower and degraded races. \" but his process was again not analogous to struggle and selection in nature. certain that improvement would come, wallace would not attribute it to survival of the fittest. following a popular usage of the day, he equated such survival with the success of \" the mediocre, if not the low, both as regards morality and intelligence. \" rather, as with mind itself, mysterious forces were at work. the \" glorious qualities \" of men were the \" surest proof \" of \" higher existences than ourselves. \" the goal was not racial imperialism but the brotherhood of man : \" a single nearly homogeneous race, no individual of which will be inferior to the noblest specimens of existing humanity. \"... - - robert c. bannister, 1979. in his social darwinism : science and myth in anglo - american social thought ( temple university press ) : 185 - 186. but, of course, it does matter who starts the trend. if it had been wallace instead of darwin, we would have had a very different theory of evolution today. the whole cybernetics movement might have occurred 100 years earlier as a result of wallace ' s comparison between the steam engine with a governor and the process of natural selection... - - gregory bateson, 1979. in his mind and nature : a necessary unity ( e. p. dutton ) : 43.... it was alfred russel wallace who remarked in 1866 that the principle of natural selection is like that of the steam engine with a governor. i shall assume that this is indeed so and that both the process of individual learning and the process of population shift under natural selection can exhibit the pathologies of all cybernetic circuits : excessive oscillation and runaway. in sum, i shall assume that evolutionary change and somatic change ( including learning and thought ) are fundamentally similar, that both are stochastic in nature, although surely the ideas ( injunctions, descriptive propositions, and so on ) on which each process works are of totally different", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5306601077783841, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 146, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.326711"}
{"text": "evolutionary change and somatic change ( including learning and thought ) are fundamentally similar, that both are stochastic in nature, although surely the ideas ( injunctions, descriptive propositions, and so on ) on which each process works are of totally different logical typing from the typing of ideas in the other process... - - gregory bateson, 1979. in his mind and nature : a necessary unity ( e. p. dutton ) : 148.... [ w. r. ] greg represented those who saw competitive individualism as the logical outcome of the operation in society of the law of natural selection ; for him, naturalism in sociology was equivalent to the hobbesian vision of a continual ' war of all against all '. but equally, wallace was representative of a considerable number of people who claimed that man was unique in nature precisely because of his ability to transcend this state of affairs ; by stressing the biological advantages of intelligent cooperation, he attempted to reconcile darwinian principles with a very different moral and political vision. thus, the dispute involved a fundamental conflict of ideologies, even though it was fought out almost wholly within a naturalistic framework. this conflict was to be a recurrent feature of wallace ' s thought ; and indeed it is still with us today in ' sociobiological ' discussions of the legitimacy of the theory of ' group selection. '... - - john r. durant, 1979. british journal for the history of science 12 ( 40 ) : 45. wallace, who unfortunately never wrote a book on the subject, probed deeper into the nature of man than any of the circle immediately around darwin. because in the end science has so thoroughly accepted them, we have not only forgotten their source but also forgotten how heretical some of his views were at the time they were uttered. first wallace postulated an erect, small - brained bipedal stage of human development, followed by a second phase in which the human brain and cranium assumed their present size and form. only with the present - day discovery of the australopithecine man - apes is the early stage beginning to be documented. second, he quickly saw that the complete fossil history of man might well be prolonged far beyond pleistocene times, and that the big - brained men of the upper pleistocene, who were at that time troubling the evolutionists, need not be regarded as an effective argument against the reality of the human transformation. rather, the scientists must cease confusing living races with grades or levels", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5570248326826819, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 147, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.327616"}
{"text": "- brained men of the upper pleistocene, who were at that time troubling the evolutionists, need not be regarded as an effective argument against the reality of the human transformation. rather, the scientists must cease confusing living races with grades or levels on the evolutionary scale of the past - - something which was at that time exceedingly common... - - loren eiseley, 1979. in his darwin and the mysterious mr. x ; new light on the evolutionists ( e. p. dutton ) : 197. wallace and many later biogeographers have proposed that tropical areas support more species than temperate zones simply because they have not been glaciated and are thus ecologically older. although evidence is very scant, under this interpretation the observed high tropical diversity is a result of long - term undisturbed speciation. if so, the latitudinal trend in species numbers is partially attributable to a strictly geographic factor ( latitude )... - - joseph j. schall & eric r. pianka, 25 august 1978. science 201 ( 4357 ) : 681. it is likely, for instance, that wilde would have sympathized with grant allen ' s and a. r. wallace ' s eugenic plans. allen argued in his essays for free love as part of a eugenic proposal which encouraged women to choose for child - bearing purposes temporary mates from among the finest, healthiest, and most intelligent men. wallace, in an essay which appeared in the fortnightly review, four months before \" the soul of man under socialism, \" also outlined a nonauthoritarian socialist scheme for human improvement through sexual selection. stating that education could not lead to permanent cultural improvement, wallace suggested that once removed from economic competition, and totally free to choose a mate, women would be attracted to men who embodied what victorians called \" the higher qualities, \" and the cumulative hereditary impact of that sexual selection would therefore improve the culture of the race. in february 1891, when wilde published \" the soul of man under socialism, \" in the fortnightly review, he argued that marriage and family should be abolished in favor of a freer and more beautiful love relationship between man and woman. his suggestion can be understood as one of his proposals for a socialist utopia and, indeed, as his contribution to the debate among socialists and cultural critics over the eugenic role of sexual selection in cultural improvement... - - michael s. helfand & philip e. smith ii,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5325177449585357, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 148, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.328522"}
{"text": "his proposals for a socialist utopia and, indeed, as his contribution to the debate among socialists and cultural critics over the eugenic role of sexual selection in cultural improvement... - - michael s. helfand & philip e. smith ii, summer 1978. texas studies in literature and language 20 ( 2 ) : 211. must fantasy inevitably accompany speculation on the plurality of worlds? fortunately not, for even the history of the question contains a few indications of sober deliberation. in this respect, two nineteenth - century dissenters on plurality, william whewell and alfred russel wallace, stand out as the first post - copernican thinkers to rein in imagination by proposing sensible rules for thinking about such a provocative but thorny issue. when whewell ' s of the plurality of worlds was published in 1853, it challenged what had become, since the sixteenth century, a traditional belief in the existence of life elsewhere. fifty years later, alfred russel wallace, co - discoverer of the theory of natural selection and later percival lowell ' s most tenacious opponent, extended the dissenting tradition by writing the first study that successfully synthesized biological and astronomical perspectives on life in a plurality of worlds... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 82 - 83.... however unkind it became, most criticism of man ' s place in the universe was kept within the confines of the dissenters ' strictures on reasoning. there was a gratifying irony in this, for while most of wallace ' s peers found fault with the book, they unwittingly based their comments on the rules which whewell and wallace considered necessary for careful speculation on plurality. for instance, h. h. turner, the savilian professor of astronomy at oxford, captured the thrust of the many unfavorable reviews of man ' s place when he insisted that the universe is probably not bounded in the sense of having an edge ; that even if it were, there would be no center ; and that even if the sun were at the center, such a position would not be uniquely stable. like other critics, turner was able to seize on the flaws in the argument of life beyond the solar system and thus ignore the strengths of wallace ' s overall position - - the banishment of theology when considerations of probability were at stake, the introduction of an explicitly evolutionary perspective, and the low likelihood of life within the solar system. wallace had created a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5517710586213636, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 149, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.329604"}
{"text": "system and thus ignore the strengths of wallace ' s overall position - - the banishment of theology when considerations of probability were at stake, the introduction of an explicitly evolutionary perspective, and the low likelihood of life within the solar system. wallace had created a grand and only somewhat flawed synthesis, although few people remarked on this... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 92 - 93.... and what about the climate itself? lowell had claimed that although mars receives only half the earth ' s heat, the absence of an atmosphere would actually mean that the sun ' s radiation would have a more direct effect on it than on the earth. wallace was appalled that a respected scientist could be responsible for such an hypothesis. the opposite would have to be the case, as wallace showed : because of its lack of sufficient atmosphere, mars must retain heat more poorly than the earth. there would also have to be greater variations in temperature between the ground and the air a few feet above it, and wallace pointed out that these would impede the development of advanced organisms... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 95.... since both the dissenters and their \" majoritarian \" opponents were moved by extra - scientific convictions, could it be said that the two traditions were methodologically indistinguishable? certainly not. precisely because they were dissenters, whewell and wallace had been forced to articulate their position with a degree of care that no pluralist had ever shown. because they were inspired by different and unusual convictions about man ' s status, the dissenters had to take the scientific road to plurality ; for their case would not otherwise have been heard. in this way, discussion of the possibility of life in other worlds was transformed ; for in later years, the metaphysical context of the debate would fall away, leaving a core of scientifically grounded speculation for which whewell and wallace had prepared the way... - - william c. heffernan, january - march 1978. journal of the history of ideas 39 ( 1 ) : 100. the idea of surplusage seems most directly traceable to alfred russel wallace ( 1870 ). his belief that savages possessed brains far in excess of their requirements was the germinal idea of surplusage ; consider, he would argue, that civilized humans use the same brain as that of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.531241677624734, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 150, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.330665"}
{"text": "traceable to alfred russel wallace ( 1870 ). his belief that savages possessed brains far in excess of their requirements was the germinal idea of surplusage ; consider, he would argue, that civilized humans use the same brain as that of savages to accomplish higher mental feats such as mathematical reasoning, a kind of reasoning never required of our primitive ancestors. if the potential for higher mental processes appeared before it was evolutionarily adaptive, what caused its presence? this is the dilemma posed by the notion of surplusage. as naive as the arguments about savages might seem today, surplusage remains an interesting consideration for psychologists studying animal intelligence in the laboratory... - - robert boice, june 1977. bulletin of the psychonomic society 9 ( 6 ) : 452. crolls ' work played a critical role in the biologists ' attempts to obviate the threats posed to evolutionary theory by kelvin ' s argument for a shortened history of the earth. but croll ' s ideas had an even broader significance for wallace : they functioned as a catalyst for his magisterial formulation of zoogeography. the explanatory potential of glacial theory with respect to the question of the migration and distribution of animals and plants was considerably enhanced by croll ' s speculations, and wallace was alert to their implications for his work on geographical distribution... - - martin fichman, spring 1977. journal of the history of biology 10 ( 1 ) : 60 - 61.... wallace and huxley disagreed about how humans evolved because they had different perceptions of non - western people and the working class. those perceptions were informed by different social experiences. wallace ' s was an unusual experience in the nineteenth century, and it led him to an interpretation of human development with which modern anthropologists generally agree, that the artifice of culture informs our perceptions. how our opinions and experiences can remain unaffected or uninvolved in a holistic theory like human evolution remains a mystery. yet that is the working assumption of most scientists and bureaucrats of science... - - michael s. helfand, winter 1977. victorian studies, 20 ( 2 ) : 176 - 177. a. r. wallace ' s hypothesis that visual stimuli provided by the insect become a conditioned signal for predatory animals through association with its noxious taste was formulated 24 years before i. p. pavlov was elected professor of pharmacology at the military medical academy of st. petersburg. several years later, pavlov was to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5571410145186506, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 151, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.332321"}
{"text": "signal for predatory animals through association with its noxious taste was formulated 24 years before i. p. pavlov was elected professor of pharmacology at the military medical academy of st. petersburg. several years later, pavlov was to begin his studies there on \" psychic \" reflexes, employing visual and auditory stimuli to signal the taste of acid or meat powder in the mouth of dogs. poulton ' s summary of two decades of comparative animal research upon the positive effects of satisfying foods and the negative effects of annoying tastes was presented eleven years before e. l. thorndike ' s ( 1897 ) doctoral thesis on animal intelligence and the law of effect. pavlov and thorndike went on to investigate conditioned responses more rigorously, and ultimately their students operationally defined a series of methodological \" laws \"... - - john garcia & walter g. hankins, 1977. in lewis m. barker et al., eds., learning mechanisms in food selection ( baylor university press ) : 6.... i want to suggest that the first step in any study of his contribution must be a careful analysis of how he actually presented his idea in the 1858 paper, concentrating especially on the kind of variation that was the basis of natural selection. strangely enough, such a detailed analysis is provided neither by beddall nor mckinney, both of whom simply assume that what wallace eventually discovered was a straightforward equivalent of the darwinian theory. this assumption is common to most general accounts of the history of evolutionism, and was shared by darwin himself. but there are good reasons for suggesting that wallace ' s initial concept of selection differed considerably from darwin ' s, or at least was expressed in very different terms... - - peter j. bowler, january 1976. journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 31 ( 1 ) : 18.... it was only at a later stage in his thought - - after he had discovered the principle of divergence - - that darwin actually came to realize that varieties would at some stage have to compete with one another. the essence of wallace ' s mechanism was for darwin a secondary insight gained some time after he had worked out the primary mechanism of selection acting on individual differences. furthermore, when darwin discussed varieties coming into conflict, he pictured this as a geographical effect caused by one form ' s invading and conquering the territory of the other. wallace on the other hand, simply wrote of species splitting into varieties as though this occurred across the whole geographical range, with members", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5775238060943363, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 152, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.333830"}
{"text": "conflict, he pictured this as a geographical effect caused by one form ' s invading and conquering the territory of the other. wallace on the other hand, simply wrote of species splitting into varieties as though this occurred across the whole geographical range, with members of each variety in face - to - face conflict at all points. wallace ' s failure to appreciate the role of geographical factors in the formation of varieties again suggests that he may not at first have recognized natural selection as the agency that created the varieties out of individual differences. or, if he did recognize the action of natural selection on individual differences, he had certainly failed to work out its full implications for his own theory of selection acting among the varieties... - - peter j. bowler, january 1976. journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 31 ( 1 ) : 22 - 23.... it is clear that in the later stages of his career wallace was fully aware of the importance of individual variation to selection. he was able to exploit both modes of representation employed by darwin, using especially the range concept to make a notable contribution to the measurement of variation among wild populations. but all of this occurred after he had read the origin of species, with its clear descriptions of darwin ' s primary conception of selection ' s acting on the individual differences first to form varieties and then species. his own first paper on natural selection had side - stepped this level of the mechanism and developed a theory of competition among the varieties after they had been formed. this was a valid darwinian mechanism, but one which to darwin himself represented a second level of selection which utilized the varieties formed from the selection of individual variations. it may be that from the beginning wallace also recognized the primary action of selection upon individual differences, and simply preferred to describe the mechanism acting at the second level because he was more familiar with what he called permanent varieties. but even if this were so, there are certain points in the 1858 paper which suggest that he had at least failed to work out the consequences of the first level of selection for his own theory... - - peter j. bowler, january 1976. journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 31 ( 1 ) : 28. at one point wallace reasoned logically and with telling effect that even if martians existed they could not have the high intelligence with which lowell credited them. for the \" canals \" they were supposed to have built in many instances ran for thousands of miles across arid deserts and beneath clear cloudless skies, thus \" losing enormously from evaporation,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5472962103718602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 153, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.335009"}
{"text": "not have the high intelligence with which lowell credited them. for the \" canals \" they were supposed to have built in many instances ran for thousands of miles across arid deserts and beneath clear cloudless skies, thus \" losing enormously from evaporation, if we assume them to contain water. the mere attempt to use open canals for irrigation purposes would argue ignorance and stupidity. long before half of them were completed, their failure to be of any use would have led any rational being to cease constructing them. \"... - - william graves hoyt, 1976. in his lowell and mars ( university of arizona press ) : 215. many suggestions have been formulated over the years to explain the evolution of vertebrate color vision. most have dealt with possible modifications of photoreceptors and neuronal layers of the retina ( see especially edridge - green, 1920 ; ladd - franklin, 1929 ; willmer, 1949 ; pickford, 1951 ) and have hardly considered function. only wallace ( 1891, p. 411 ) and walls ( 1942, p. 463 ) appear to have seriously asked the question, \" why color vision? \" each suggested that color detection originated to provide for the strongest contrast and, therefore, to enhance the visibility of objects against the background. we believe that this simple and prescient suggestion is correct... - - w. n. mcfarland & f. w. munz, october 1975. vision research 15 : 1071.... a major aim of vestiges is to show that as good newtonians we much accept a biological evolutionary theory. wallace, i think, whilst rejecting as inadequate chambers ' own evolutionary theory, entirely accepted chambers ' research programme, to find the biological analogue of newtonian astronomy. thus i would suggest that wallace like darwin, may have reacted favourably to malthus ' ideas because he could then start to see his way towards a biological equivalent of newtonian astronomy. hence, i think that darwin and wallace quite possibly started from similar philosophical positions, although i have no reason to believe that they drew on exactly the same immediate sources for the philosophies... - - michael ruse, june 1975. studies in history and philosophy of science 6 ( 2 ) : 172 - 173.... by combining what he considered to be the reliable features of both the calculations, the more recent date for the ice age and a consequently accelerated rate of species change, wallace arrived at a figure of 24 million years for the time since the beginning of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5284903738681623, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 154, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.336013"}
{"text": ".. by combining what he considered to be the reliable features of both the calculations, the more recent date for the ice age and a consequently accelerated rate of species change, wallace arrived at a figure of 24 million years for the time since the beginning of the cambrian. this estimate, he concluded happily, would fit easily within kelvin ' s limits and still leave a period three times as long for the slow operation of natural selection during the precambrian. wallace was not finished, however, for it was in the application of croll ' s hypothesis to biology that he showed the true measure of his ingenuity. neither he nor darwin had ever completely escaped from the lamarckian dependence upon environment as a causal factor in species change. and now he saw in the radical changes of climate a mechanism whereby the continuously \" altered physical conditions would induce variation. \" furthermore, in alternating from one hemisphere to the other, the successive cycles of glaciation would stimulate a constant migration of plant and animal types, thus continually bringing allied species into competition and accelerating the process of extinction... - - joe d. burchfield, september 1974. isis 65 ( 228 ) : 317.... as early as 1876, the naturalist and zoogeographer alfred wallace noted that \" we live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all of the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared. \" he remarked especially on the \" sudden dying out of so many large mammalia, not in only one place but over half the land surface of the globe \" ( wallace 1876 ). at the end of the pleistocene in north america, there was a loss of 33 genera of large mammals ( > 50 kg ), while only 13 genera had become extinct in the preceding 1 or 2 million years. smaller mammals ( < 50 kg ) were not similarly affected, nor were marine mammals, which we might also expect to show high extinction rates if the cause were environmental catastrophes. wallace ( 1911 ) observed that these sudden extinctions were not correlated with major environmental changes, such as those responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs, but seemed to coincide with the arrival, on different continents at different times, of stone age man... - - richard s. miller & daniel b. botkin, march - april 1974. american scientist 62 ( 2 ) : 172. this concept of the separation of the human personality from the human body meant that wallace considered man and the relation of science to man in a context wholly different from that of the advocates", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5176821186066487, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 155, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.337017"}
{"text": ", march - april 1974. american scientist 62 ( 2 ) : 172. this concept of the separation of the human personality from the human body meant that wallace considered man and the relation of science to man in a context wholly different from that of the advocates of scientific naturalism. as william irvine once described the evolution of huxley ' s mind, \" he became interested in man as a physical mechanism, as an anthropoid ape, as a social unit and a citizen, as a delicate machine for the discovery of scientific truth, but never to any appreciable extent in man as a personality and a human being. \" wallace ' s development was exactly the reverse. he was originally interested in the physical mechanism of man for the sake of the moral personality encased therein. he studied the anthropoid ape because it resembled man. he wrote on social questions in the hope that society might be so organized as to allow the moral faculties to flourish. throughout his long and varied scientific career, wallace was primarily concerned with what koestler has dubbed \" the ghost in the machine \" rather than with the machine itself... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 82.... in the london anthropological society address of march 1864, wallace continued to discuss, though in a very different kind of forum, matters that had weighted upon his mind for over twenty years. he brought into the professional scientific sphere the scientific concepts and goals that he had learned in the provincial mechanics institutes. the address was his single most important comment on man and contained the latent seeds for all his later departures from scientific naturalism. the american evolutionist john fiske recalled that the address \" seemed to open up an entirely new world of speculation. \" such speculation was indeed new to men who had known little or nothing of \" physical puritanism \" or the \" belated rationalism \" of the working - class culture in which wallace had come to maturity. for wallace the paper was simply a continuation of his earlier thought... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 83 - 84.... spiritualism furnished wallace with a scientific explanation for the development of man ' s moral nature and brought man ' s total being under the rule of rational cosmic law. in a curious manner, the theory of spiritual", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.570461573839424, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 156, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.337950"}
{"text": ") : 83 - 84.... spiritualism furnished wallace with a scientific explanation for the development of man ' s moral nature and brought man ' s total being under the rule of rational cosmic law. in a curious manner, the theory of spiritualism provided a law for the moral world analogous to that provided by natural selection for the organic world. natural selection removed the necessity for an arbitrary and interfering god of special creation. spiritualism banished the arbitrary god of predestination and replaced him with a uniform law of individual moral progress and of personal moral responsibility... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 88.... \" consistency, \" the tract by robert dale owen, robert owen ' s son, particularly interested wallace. the younger owen, who himself also later converted to spiritualism, argued that the doctrine of predestination led to immoral living because it rendered one ' s eternal reward a matter of chance rather than a function of the virtue of one ' s life. concurring in these arguments, wallace moved very quietly and painlessly from faith to skepticism. his loss of faith grew directly out of a situation succinctly described by a writer later in the century : \" god, and immortality, and the bible have been so taught as to make scepticism the only refuge for morality to flee to. \" wallace later identified this rational skepticism with agnosticism. his skepticism, however, more nearly resembled deism. he did not deny the possibility of religious knowledge or of pure religion but rather the validity and morality of the christian religion. most important, wallace and the owenites did not dismiss the moral significance of the questions that christianity had addressed. the questions of religion remained valid even if the christian answers were false. the owenite criticism of christianity made wallace, as well as genuine owenites, highly susceptible to a rational religion, such as spiritualism, that was based on empirical evidence and that emphasized social cooperation and benevolent individualism... - - frank m. turner, 1974. in his between science and religion ; the reaction to scientific naturalism in late victorian england ( yale university press ) : 89 - 90. the notion that man ' s first language was primarily gestural, carried on with hand and arm signals rather than vocal sounds, has been supported by a distinguished line of scholars : condillac ( 1746 ), tylor ( 1868, 1871 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5250535717171844, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 157, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.339024"}
{"text": "notion that man ' s first language was primarily gestural, carried on with hand and arm signals rather than vocal sounds, has been supported by a distinguished line of scholars : condillac ( 1746 ), tylor ( 1868, 1871 ), morgan ( 1877 ), wallace ( 1881, 1895 ), romanes ( 1888 ), wundt ( 1912 ), paget ( 1944, 1963 ), and johannesson ( 1949, 1950 ). the gestural theory seems to be the most attractive of the many glottogonic hypotheses advanced so far, and receives support from recent studies of chimpanzees and other primates, such as gardner and gardner ( 1969, 1971 ), premack ( 1970a, b, 1971 ), and menzel ( 1971 ), as well as from other sources. the fact that this evidence was unavailable to earlier proponents of the gestural theory explains some of the weaknesses in its former formulations... - - gordon w. hewes, february - april 1973. current anthropology 14 ( 1 - 2 ) : 5. alfred russel wallace was the co - founder of the theory of natural selection and one of its most tenacious defenders. it is therefore of great interest that wallace emphatically opposed a demarcation between ethical and scientific ideas and that he also resisted the breakdown of the common intellectual milieu with his own unified world - view. he endeavoured to combine notions of value with his scientific theory of evolution, particularly in relation to man. british biologists in the first half of the nineteenth century characteristically analysed their data in terms of the teleological framework of natural theology. evolutionary theory supposedly demolished this framework. nevertheless, wallace incorporated a fundamental teleology into all his theories. he considered that he had thereby reconciled the tensions of scientific and ethical demands in his contribution to the evolutionary debate on man ' s place in nature... - - roger smith, december 1972. british journal for the history of science 6 ( 22 ) : 177 - 178.... wallace traced the ' action of some unknown higher law ' in the evolution of man and also in the origin of consciousness. as he commented, ' no physiologist or philosopher has yet ventured to propound an intelligible theory of how sensation may possibly be a product of organization ; while many have declared the passage from matter to mind to be inconceivable '. while other biologists tended to avoid this question, wallace believed in a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5599987532934998, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 158, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.339978"}
{"text": "carries the proclamation of a prophet ' s faith... - - john l. brooks, december 1972. transactions of the connecticut academy of arts and sciences 44 : 45. \" what think you of wallace ' s paper in the ann. n. hist.? good! upon the whole! but how about such forms as the giraffe, which has typical representatives in the siwalik tertiary deposits? or the true elk ( = moose )? can we suppose a lost series of gradations connecting these general with the deer type, & ramifying off to them paulatim [ gradually ]? wallace has, i think, put the matter well ; and according to his theory, the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species \" [ quotation from edward blyth letter to darwin ]... - - barbara g. beddall, spring 1972. journal of the history of biology 5 ( 1 ) : 155. wallace, in fact, proposed the first cybernetic model. nowadays cybernetics deals with much more complex systems of the general kind ; and we know that when we talk about the processes of civilization, or evaluate human behavior, human organization, or any biological system, we are concerned with self - corrective systems. basically these systems are always conservative of something. as in the engine with a governor, the fuel supply is changed to conserve - - to keep constant - - the speed of the flywheel, so always in such systems changes occur to conserve the truth of some descriptive statement, some component of the status quo. wallace saw the matter correctly, and natural selection acts primarily to keep the species unvarying ; but it may act at higher levels to keep constant that complex variable which we call \" survival. \"... - - gregory bateson, 1972. in his steps to an ecology of mind ( chandler publishing company ) : 435. the importance of larval dispersal was already recognized by alfred russel wallace in his work on the geographical distribution of animals ( 1876 ). wallace knew that the univalve and bivalve mollusca have free - swimming larval stages and recognized that \" they thus have a powerful means of dispersal, and are carried by tides and currents so as ultimately to spread over every shore and shoal that offers conditions favorable for development. \"... - - rudolf s. scheltema, april 1971. biological bulletin 140 : 285.... darwin ( 1859 ) and later evolutionists ( especially muller 1940, 1942 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5462406902681796, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 160, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.341979"}
{"text": "shoal that offers conditions favorable for development. \"... - - rudolf s. scheltema, april 1971. biological bulletin 140 : 285.... darwin ( 1859 ) and later evolutionists ( especially muller 1940, 1942 ) proposed that reproductive isolating mechanisms develop as by - products of divergent evolution and are purely incidental features of adaptive differentiation which confer no advantage to populations at the time they develop. conversely, wallace ( 1889 ), fisher ( 1930 ), and dobzhansky ( 1941, 1951 ) contended that isolating mechanisms could arise from selection against hybrids and hybridizers. selection for reproductive isolation in areas of sympatry would reinforce previously existing barriers and thereby reduce gametic wastage, hybridization, and disruptive gene flow. grant ( 1966 ) has suggested the term \" wallace effect \" for this process... - - donald a. levin, november - december 1970. the american naturalist 104 ( 940 ) : 571. the basic answer to the question - - \" why does man occupy this worldwide and universally dominant niche? \" - - also given by wallace, is that by the use of his greatly superior mind, man has continually modified the environment to meet his needs, so that \" he would cease to be influenced by natural selection in his physical form and structure. \" as dobzhansky ( 1962, 1967 ) has pointed out, this statement is an exaggeration. nevertheless, the general conclusion of wallace, that in early man the action of natural selection was largely transferred from the bodily structure to the mind, is still valid... - - george ledyard stebbins, march - april 1970. the american naturalist 104 ( 936 ) : 112. the next questioner said the lecturer had termed mr. [ henry ] george a poet. he then called attention to the fact that mr. george advocated nationalisation of the land as a remedy for poverty, and asked how it was that mr. a. wallace, an able man, came to the same conclusion. professor marshall said that mr. wallace ' s proposal was much more reasonable than that of mr. george. he did not call mr. george a poet because he said erroneous things. he was a poet because he was poetic, and he was not a man of science because he said erroneous things [ report on a lecture by alfred marshall ]... - - ronald h. coase, april 1969. journal of law and economics 12 ( 1 ) :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5352571405134696, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 161, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.342931"}
{"text": "poetic, and he was not a man of science because he said erroneous things [ report on a lecture by alfred marshall ]... - - ronald h. coase, april 1969. journal of law and economics 12 ( 1 ) : 199.... we next come to mr. wallace ' s plan. it proposed that the inherent value of the soil should become the property of the state, but that the buildings and other improvements on it should remain private property. he would give to the landowner an annuity equal to that part of the rent which corresponds to its present inherent value, for his life and the life of any descendants born in his lifetime, or in failure of such, for the life of anyone nominated by the landlord. he calls this full compensation, but of course it is only partial compensation ; the state would confiscate, independently of any rise in its inherent value, the reversion of this inherent value some years hence. if we put the probable duration of the lives at forty years, this is equal to an immediate confiscation of 30 per cent of the inherent value, if we take interest at 3 per cent, or a confiscation of 20 percent if we take interest at 4 per cent. the question whether this is just or not must be looked at straight in the face [ from the words of alfred marshall ]... - - ronald h. coase, april 1969. journal of law and economics 12 ( 1 ) : 206.... the principle may be extended to the generalization that a proportionately small percentage of any fauna will be fit as invaders, since any intervening barrier, however slight, will act as a kind of \" filter \" to at least some of them. simpson has developed and supplemented this argument, demonstrating that wallace ' s interpretation was essentially correct. the precise differences in approach between darwin and wallace need some additional study, but it would seem that darwin tended to concentrate on the effects of different dispersal mechanisms on patterns of distribution, wallace more on the influence of barriers in restricting faunas conceived of as units. thus, wallace was more orientated toward historical explanation for classes of phenomena, darwin toward reasoning from the effects of the properties of individuals upon the overall pattern of distribution... - - michael t. ghiselin, 1969. in his the triumph of the darwinian method ( university of california press ) : 41.... darwin and wallace merit particular respect for having developed the theory of natural selection through a process of \" retroduction", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5246470320255002, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 162, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.343947"}
{"text": "t. ghiselin, 1969. in his the triumph of the darwinian method ( university of california press ) : 41.... darwin and wallace merit particular respect for having developed the theory of natural selection through a process of \" retroduction \" : that is, they were aware of a phenomenon, and successfully sought out an explanation in superficially unconnected processes. the method through which this insight was obtained would seem to have been orderly and rational... - - michael t. ghiselin, 1969. in his the triumph of the darwinian method ( university of california press ) : 77. in a modification of the quinarian system of william sharpe macleay, swainson divided the earth into five regions according to what he believed to be the five major races of mankind ; animal groups were likewise divided into fives. the divisions were mathematical, the reasons not only unknown but unknowable. but wallace questioned swainson from the first, noting that \" there appears not to be the slightest reason for believing a priori that all groups of animals are divided into the same number of types of forms or divisions \"... - - barbara g. beddall, september 1968. journal of the history of biology 1 ( 2 ) : 270.... lamarck had interpreted them in his own light, believing them to be the result of \" the permanent disuse of an organ, arising from a change of habits, [ which caused ] a gradual shrinkage of ultimately the disappearance and even extinction of that organ. \" wallace, like chambers, thought that rudimentary organs showed relationships, but he misinterpreted them, confusing vestigial with nascent organs. he did, however, ask the right question : \" if each species has been created independently, and without any necessary relations with pre - existing species, what do these rudiments, these apparent imperfections mean? \"... - - barbara g. beddall, september 1968. journal of the history of biology 1 ( 2 ) : 280.... the argument from design was teleological, presuming that a contrivance existed in accordance with a preconceived plan. adaptation between structure and function was recognized, but it was thought that a structure was provided simply because a function required it. wallace wondered, however, how an animal could have necessities before it came into existence? and how could it \" continue to exist unless its structure enabled it to obtain food?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5501312246440573, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 163, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.344863"}
{"text": "was thought that a structure was provided simply because a function required it. wallace wondered, however, how an animal could have necessities before it came into existence? and how could it \" continue to exist unless its structure enabled it to obtain food? he thought that the arguments brought forward as proofs of design were absurd ; not only were they insulting to the intelligence of a supreme being, but they also placed narrow limits on his power... barbara g. beddall, september 1968. journal of the history of biology 1 ( 2 ) : 282.... looking back, it is interesting that wallace, in 1880, thought that enough information was already at hand to make further expeditions and collecting redundant. what was needed, he said, was intensive study of selected islands, and since britain owned most of the world ' s islands, the government should post naturalists on some of them to make such studies. wallace ' s suggestion was good, though naturally nothing came of it, but his major premise was wrong. we still need to know a great deal more than we do about the species that make up island biotas, not merely for the sake of naming and cataloguing them, but because knowledge of the identities, relationships, distribution, behavior, and ecological roles and requirements of the species is essential for understanding both the evolution of the island biotas and the evolution and functioning of the island ecosystems... - - theodore h. hubbell, may 1968. proceedings of the national academy of sciences. 60 ( 1 ) : 22. the hypothesis of a secondary and supplementary process of selection for reproductive isolation, considered as an advantageous situation in its own right for the species concerned, was advanced in the early period of evolutionary biology by wallace ( 1889 ), who tried unsuccessfully to convince darwin. it seems fitting and desirable to designate the process of selection for reproductive isolation as the wallace effect. the wallace hypothesis was proposed again in the modern period by fisher ( 1930 ), dobzhansky ( 1941 ; 1951 ), and huxley ( 1943 ). the subject has been reviewed recently by mayr ( 1963 ) and grant ( 1963 ). it is argued that the individuals of two sympatric species populations which produce inviable or sterile hybrids will contribute fewer offspring to future generations than will sister individuals in the same parental populations which do not hybridize. consequently the genetic factors determining some block or aversion to hybridization will tend to increase in frequency within each species over the course of generations. this process of selection is expected", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5357789374208916, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 164, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.345818"}
{"text": "than will sister individuals in the same parental populations which do not hybridize. consequently the genetic factors determining some block or aversion to hybridization will tend to increase in frequency within each species over the course of generations. this process of selection is expected to lead to a reinforcement of the reproductive isolation which had developed as a by - product of divergence... - - verne grant, march - april 1966. american naturalist 100 ( 911 ) : 99. species of animals living on islands may have morphological characteristics not possessed by their mainland counterparts, a fact which was recognized by wallace ( 1881 ). he remarked that in the celebes : \" nearly thirty species of butterflies, belonging to three different families, have a common modification in the shape of their wings by which they can be distinguished at a glance from their allies in any other island or country whatever, and all these are larger than the representative forms inhabiting most of the adjacent islands. \"... - - p. r. grant, september 1965. evolution 19 : 355. wallace was one of the first to suggest that birds might build their nests on the basis of their previous experience. although it now seems that nest building in birds is not solely a function of memory, the extent to which experience plays a role has not been determined... - - theodore d. sargent, january 1965. the auk 82 ( 1 ) : 48. wallace ( 1889 ), after summarizing the findings of bates and muller, proposed an extension of mullerian mimicry whereby several members of the same unpalatable genus look alike in the same locality ( e. g., 4 or 5 heliconius having a yellow - banded forewing and radiating red stripes on the hindwing. ) this really is somewhat different from muller ' s case of convergence of widely unrelated species. modern speciation theory predicts that closely related species when sympatric will diverge in appearance, habits, and season due to rigorous selection for the two main speciation sequelae : anti - hybridization mechanisms and niche diversification ( anti - competition ). wallace ' s mullerian extension explains an important deviant. he also suggested the possibility of a still different sort of mimicry, in which a scarce edible species can mingle with and closely resemble an abundant edible species and thus gain some freedom from predation... - - charles l. remington, 1963. in proceedings of the xvi international congress of zoology ( the congress ), volume 4 : 148. the general patterns of the distribution", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5284942399590875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 165, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.347883"}
{"text": "resemble an abundant edible species and thus gain some freedom from predation... - - charles l. remington, 1963. in proceedings of the xvi international congress of zoology ( the congress ), volume 4 : 148. the general patterns of the distribution of mollusks in the pacific, particularly those of the terrestrial forms, aroused attention because of the difficulties involved in transporting such forms to small and widely scattered islands. suggested dispersal agents have included land connections, drifting vegetation, typhoons and migratory birds. the use of islands as stepping stones, including those now buried beneath the sea, was suggested by wallace in 1881. in wallace ' s time there was little geological evidence to support the idea of submerged islands. as late as 1950 it was pointed out that complete proof for island distribution was \" hopelessly buried in the geological past. \"... - - harry s. ladd, 1960. american journal of science 258 - a : 140. the occurrence of a number of river - like channels running across the group and dividing it into islands is beyond doubt the most remarkable geomorphic phenomenon of the aru islands. numerous branch channels are also encountered. there are several theories concerning the genesis of these channels. wallace ( 1857, 1869 ) tried to explain them as the remainders of the pleistocene lower courses of new guinea rivers preserved here by subsequent uparching of the aru region, whereas elsewhere the river courses gradually disappeared during the transgression of the shelf associated with the postglacial rise in sea level... - - herman verstappen, summer 1959. american journal of science 257 ( 7 ) : 493. the difficulty inherent in attempting to rid biology of normative concepts incapable of definition in purely biological terms became even more evident when darwin and others tried to find a substitute for the term natural selection. asa gray and alfred russel wallace objected to the expression because it seemed to imply an intelligent agent selecting according to pre - established standards... - - john c. greene, 1959. in his the death of adam ( iowa state university press ) : 300. alfred russel wallace had lived for many years in tropical regions, first in the amazon basin and later in the east indies, where he had been especially impressed by the phenomena of animal distribution. he thus had a broader and more direct and intimate acquaintance with the subject than any other naturalist traveller of his century. he was continually at work on this subject from 1860 until 1876, the date of publication of his two volumes on the geographical distribution of animals. he somewhat modestly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5053961400040523, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 166, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.351581"}
{"text": "and more direct and intimate acquaintance with the subject than any other naturalist traveller of his century. he was continually at work on this subject from 1860 until 1876, the date of publication of his two volumes on the geographical distribution of animals. he somewhat modestly refers to this work as an extension and amplification of the two chapters on the subject in the origin of species, comparing it with darwin ' s own two - volume expansion of the chapters on animals and plants under domestication. the two principal sections of wallace ' s work on contrasted as \" zoological geography, \" a descriptive discussion of the land animals of the different zoogeographic regions, and \" geographical zoology, \" a review of the distribution of vertebrates and certain invertebrates, group by group. whatever their fate in a reclassification of regions and subregions, wallace ' s scheme and nomenclature are the ones that appear most widely in zoological literature... - - karl patterson schmidt, december 1954. the quarterly review of biology 29 ( 4 ) : 323. after dr j. rae, the most notable contribution to the gesture theory came from charles darwin ' s rival, dr alfred russel wallace, who in 1895 pointed out, in fortnightly review, that, in english speech, it is common to produce words by an appropriate gesture of the tongue, lips or jaw, so as ' to bring sense and sound into unison '. thus, in up, the jaw makes an upward movement, while in down, the jaw moves down. continuing consonants, such as f, l, m, n, etc., symbolize continuing motions, such as fly, run, swim, move. on the other hand, words for abrupt motions end with a stopped consonant - - e. g., b, d, g, k, p, t, in stop, hop, pat, stab, kick, etc. dr wallace considered it in the highest degree probable that the pantomimic use of the various parts of the mouth constitute ' a fundamental principle which has always been at work, both in the origin and in the successive modifications of human speech '. dr wallace did not recognize dickens ' observation of hand and mouth as exemplified by sam weller ; but he was, i believe, the first to point out that the pantomimic principle may be still active in man ' s unconscious development of his spoken language, and that modern languages may be just as gestural as the older ones... - - r. a. s. paget, 1951", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5398325663726349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 167, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.352817"}
{"text": "pantomimic principle may be still active in man ' s unconscious development of his spoken language, and that modern languages may be just as gestural as the older ones... - - r. a. s. paget, 1951. science news ( england ) 20 : 87. \" he [ conrad ] loved old memoirs and travels - - and i think wallace ' s malay archipelago was his favorite bedside book. \" again mr. curle wrote that conrad read the malay archipelago \" over and over again... it was his favorite bedside companion. he had an intense admiration for those pioneer explorers - - ' profoundly inspired men ' as he called them - - who have left us a record of their work ; and of wallace, above all, he never ceased to speak in terms of enthusiasm. even in conversation he would amplify some remark by observing, ' wallace says so - and - so, ' and the malay archipelago had been his intimate friend for many years. \" [ comments by richard curle ]... - - florence clemens, july 1939. south atlantic quarterly 38 : 305. though born and bred in england, no snobbishness had ever touched him, he felt that the peasant ' s life, being richer in experience, was more interesting than the lord ' s. yet he was of the finest courtesy, kindness and generosity ; he loved to relieve any want or alleviate any misery ; he said once : \" the sole value of riches is the joy of giving. \" i knew him for more than a quarter of a century and can recall no fault in him - - no flaw even. his temper was as patient and quiet and fair as his mind, and his health was almost perfect even in extreme age. in writing thus of him, i feel as if i were ladling out treacle to my readers ; but i can ' t help it ; i can ' t go outside the truth. looking back, i ' m inclined to think he was the wisest and best man i ' ve ever known. fortunately this word may be added, i ' ve met dozens of bad men who were incomparably more interesting... - - frank harris, 1920. in his contemporary portraits ( third series ) ( published by the author ) : 105.... the illustrious names of myers, sidgwick, gurney, wallace, crookes, zoellner and many other prominent men, are associated with the rebirth and the rehabilitation of the ancient belief in spirits. even if the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5097708015522773, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "chunk_index": 168, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.354125"}
{"text": "from identifying osama bin laden to proving someone guilty of rape or murder, dna analysis has become an essential scientific tool for police and criminal justice. unique genetic markers could play a crucial role in the trial of ex - imf chief dominique strauss - kahn, accused of sexually assaulting a hotel maid in new york. various media reports, citing sources close to the investigation, have said that dna from strauss - kahn - - believed to be traces of semen - - was found on the shirt of the 32 - year - old woman, who has alleged that the french political heavyweight tried to rape her in his hotel suite on may 14. \" the dna technique, the nuclear dna, is the one and only technique, if properly conducted, that has an extraordinarily high odds against a misidentification, \" said university of arizona professor of chemistry and geoscience bonner denton. \" it ' s very close to 100 percent... it ' s a much better technique than many other forensic identification techniques, even finger prints. \" thanks to dna analysis and other tests, us officials were able to say they were certain bin laden was dead, with just a one in 11. 8 quadrillion chance of mistaken identity. cia specialists first compared photographs of the al - qaeda leader ' s corpse to photographs of bin laden and then reviewed a dna sample against a \" comprehensive profile \" derived from some of his many family members. as a result, an intelligence official said there was no doubt that a team of us navy seals that raided a compound in pakistan on may 1 had killed the al - qaeda founder. denton was part of a national research council team that wrote a key report about dna analysis in 2009 for the us congress. \" nuclear dna analysis has been subjected to more scrutiny than any other forensic discipline, with extensive experimentation and validation performed prior to its use in investigations, \" the report said. it concluded that the us medical - legal system needed to be revamped because forensics labs were backlogged and understaffed. more than half of the first 250 people released from prison thanks to a dna test exonerating them had been initially found guilty based on erroneous medical analysis. dna analysis entered the us criminal system in 1987 when a serial rapist in florida became the first person whose guilt was proven using the technique. federal authorities, including the us military and all 50 states, now archive dna samples. the fbi has developed the powerful combined dna index system ( codis ), which catalogs millions of samples. every monday", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.513398340751173, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cc06db44-5bc0-4abc-8368-d26e37cf0cf4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.369149"}
{"text": "traditionally if scientists wanted to look at something small they would put a sample under a microscope but now researchers have managed to shrink the microscope itself to the size of a single human cell. an interdisciplinary research team, funded by the biotechnology and biological science research council ( bbsrc ) and the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc ) have developed optical biochips no larger than a single cell that could lead to faster development of new drugs and quicker medical tests. the research team moved away from the idea that a microscope is something you have to look through to create optical biochips onto which scientists can place biological samples. special fluorescent chemicals are then used together with tiny light emitting lasers to allow the scientists to analyse the cells or targets within the cells. researchers can use this capability to examine cellular conditions for certain diseases or to develop new treatments by studying the way cells react to a drug. the biochips also raise the possibility of a micro - laboratory, the size of a credit card, which would be able to perform medical diagnostics, improving patient treatment by reducing the number of hospital visits needed for tests. the initial research has led to the creation of a spin - out company, biostatus ltd, supported by a bbsrc small business research initiative grant. biostatus has developed the research to refine the fluorescent probe technology and also to make the analysis of biological samples more sophisticated. professor paul smith, the research group leader, said, \" our research and the outcomes from the spin - out company could help to revolutionise how we examine biological samples. our next step will be to develop simple, small diagnostic devices. future generations may be able to use these as the basis for hand - held systems that will be able to perform diagnostic functions in the field that currently require a laboratory test. \" professor julia goodfellow, chief executive of bbsrc, said, \" the success of the research into biochips and the development of the science through the spin - out company shows how cutting edge research in the biosciences can meet real world challenges. bochips have the potential to make a real difference in medical diagnostics and drug development. \" the research is being carried out at the wales college of medicine and involves researchers at cardiff university, university of bangor, the gray cancer institute in london and collaboration with the university of warwick and laboratories in the united states. source : biotechnology and biological sciences research council explore further : allosaurus fed more like a falcon than a crocodile, new study finds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5715568683510391, "token_count": 507, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9589c28b-2538-4b91-9003-b9d62163e8ab>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.385271"}
{"text": "june is cataract awareness month. did you know that cataracts are the leading cause of vision loss among adults 55 and older? in fact, more than half the people over age 65 have some degree of cataract development. a cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye, the part of the eye that focuses light and produces clear images. inside of the eye, the lens is contained in a sealed bag or capsule. as old cells die they become trapped within the capsule. over time, more cells die and accumulate causing the lens to cloud, making images look blurred or fuzzy. ( eye america. org ) cataracts are caused by the breakdown of proteins within the clear lens of the eye that cause it to become cloudy and difficult to see through, effecting vision. some of this protein breakdown is associated with oxidative stress. it is believed that the majority of oxidative stress is generated in the eye via photochemical reactions caused by exposure to sunlight although oxidative stress can be caused by neuronal dysfunction in certain conditions. antioxidants fight free radicals and reactive oxygen species by neutralizing them and thus causing them to lose the ability to cause oxidative stress. antioxidants can be found in many different foods. some examples are blueberries, raspberries and olive oil. the regular intake of these foods can be beneficial to your health and can combat oxidative stress. however, science is finding that more concentrated doses of antioxidants can be even more beneficial in combating eye disease than diet alone. the use of antioxidant supplementation may protect the eye from oxidative - stress induced damage and disease. hydroxytyrosol, a powerful antioxidant derived from olive byproducts, has a chemoprotective effect on retinal cells, the type of cell that is damaged by the progression of macular degeneration and possibly other eye diseases. pinnaclife \u2019 s supplement olivamine essential, is a blend of antioxidants, and if used in association with a healthy lifestyle can help to reduce the effects eye disease. our supplements are available at most hy - vee locations. start your journey towards good health today!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5495808727077024, "token_count": 460, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:63980197-2e57-4e31-98e8-cf30f68cd6e8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.389360"}
{"text": "sequences of numbers can have limits. for example, the sequence 1, 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,... has the limit 0 and the sequence 0, 1 / 2, 2 / 3, 3 / 4, 4 / 5,... has the limit 1. but not all number sequences behave so nicely. for example, the sequence 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 2 / 3, 1 / 4, 3 / 4, 1 / 5, 4 / 5,... keeps jumping up and down, rather than getting closer and closer to one particular number. we can, however, discern some sort of limiting behaviour as we move along the sequence : the numbers never become larger than 1 or smaller than 0. and what ' s more, moving far enough along the sequence, you can find numbers that get as close as you like to both 1 and 0. so both 0 and 1 have some right to be considered limits of the sequence \u2014 and indeed they are : 1 is the limit superior and 0 is the limit inferior, so - called for obvious reasons. but can you define these limits superior and inferior for a general sequence, for example the one shown in the picture? here \u2019 s how to do it for the limit superior. first look at the whole sequence and find its least upper bound : that \u2019 s the smallest number that \u2019 s bigger than all the numbers in the sequence. then chop off the first number in the sequence, and again find the least upper bound for the new sequence. this might be smaller than the previous least upper bound ( if that was equal to ), but not bigger. then chop off the first two numbers and again find the least upper bound. keep going, chopping off the first three, four, five, etc numbers, to get a sequence of least upper bounds ( indicated by the red curve in the picture ). in this sequence every number is either equal to or smaller than the number before. the limit superior is defined to be the limit of these least upper bounds. it always exists : since the sequence of least upper bounds is either constant or decreasing, it will either approach minus infinity or some other finite limit. the limit superior could also be equal to plus infinity, if there are numbers in the sequence that get arbitrarily large. the limit inferior is defined in a similar way, only that you look at the sequence of greatest lower bounds and then take the limit of that. you can read more about the limits inferior and superior in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5389498977187495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:50a0f930-4294-406e-939b-83ec24b275fd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.397147"}
{"text": "welcome stephen tremp with an awesome summary of what ' s at stake as we explore further into space... enjoy : | dr carl sagan ( 1934 - 1996 ) | \" the surface of the earth is the shore of the cosmic ocean. from it we have learned most of what we know. recently, we have waded a little out to sea, enough to dampen our toes or, at most, wet our ankles. the water seems inviting. the ocean calls. \u201d \u2014 dr. carl sagan space. the final frontier. we remember this line from star trek, set in the 23rd century under the \u201c united federation of planets. \u201d the key word here is united. we have to ask, will space offer the possibility of mankind living together peaceably? or is bloodshed inevitable as we explore and colonize our solar system as we did here on earth? currently, there are at least fourteen agencies with a stake in space exploration and possible exploitation. nasa : the national aeronautics and space administration ( nasa ) is the agency of the united states responsible for the nation ' s civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. mission statement : pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research. | international space station | esa : the european space agency is europe \u2019 s gateway to space. its mission : shape the development of europe \u2019 s space capability and deliver benefits to the citizens of europe and the world. russia and china ( the only other two countries besides the u. s. to independently send men into space ), japan, iran, israel, india, mexico. korea, indoneisia, pakistan, and vietnam all have space agencies with a range of capabilities from astronaut training, to satellite operations, to sounding rockets ( designed to take measurements and perform scientific research during sub - orbital flight ), and recoverable biological sounding rockets. then there is the military, private sector, and educational institutions that have a growing stake in space exploration. with the space shuttle program mothballed, many are calling for a government and private sector partnership in space exploration. the gop candidates have also jumped on this topic. it \u2019 s already begun : the international space station ( iss ) is an artificial low - earth orbiting satellite and the ninth space station to be inhabited. the iss has hosted a rotating international crew since november 2000. crew members from around the world use the iss as a research laboratory and conduct experiments in biology, physics, astronomy and other fields. it \u2019 s also used to test spacecraft systems and equipment for future use", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5471424635503817, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:05e85e3b-5916-4e4d-9301-291b8f56953a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.413509"}
{"text": "has hosted a rotating international crew since november 2000. crew members from around the world use the iss as a research laboratory and conduct experiments in biology, physics, astronomy and other fields. it \u2019 s also used to test spacecraft systems and equipment for future use to missions to the moon and mars. ready or not, here we go! what \u2019 s next : human and robotic explorations of the moon, mars, and near earth asteroids. mining asteroids, planetoids, and spent comets could provide raw minerals such as iron, nickel, and titanium to help construct space stations right there in space. pretty cool, huhn? resources like water and oxygen could help sustain life. and water and hydrogen could be extracted for rocket fuel. perhaps, platinum and cobalt could be returned for earth for profit. both governments and private industry will be involved in this potentially lucrative business. question : should we set up residence in space or on planets and moons? will space exploration provide social, intellectual, and economic benefits to everyone, or is this another black hole for our hard - earned tax dollars. thanks hilary for hosting me on my grand opening blog tour. and thanks everyone for stopping by and saying hello! please visit me at my blog for more information on my novels breakthrough and the recently released opening! breakthrough and opening can be downloaded at : kindle for $ 1. 99 smashwords for $ 1. 99 image credits : nasa congratulations stephen on completing the second book of your trilogy - a wonderful achievement ; i highly recommend your first book breakthrough and cannot wait to find out how the good, bad and the ugly develop in this sequel... space is an interesting ' arena ' - and as each year passes we seem to learn more - it is fascinating and i ' m delighted to have some subject matter on my blog - space does inspire people. stephen writes about science, space exploration - his interests, while interspersing with articles about publishing, self - publishing and useful tips and tricks he has found - there ' s a great deal of interaction and knowledge exchange over at his blog : stephen tremp - author... so please visit and join him along his trilogy journey. stephen ' s grand opening tour continues : upcoming dates - february 14 rachna chhabria rachna \u2019 s scriptorium february 15 melissa bradley melissa \u2019 s imaginarium february 17 lydia kang the word is my oyster positive letters inspirational stories", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5026801368287392, "token_count": 483, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:05e85e3b-5916-4e4d-9301-291b8f56953a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.418571"}
{"text": "1. iron deficiency anemia : prevention, assessment and control \u2014 report of a joint who / unicef / unu consultation. geneva, switzerland : world health organization ; 1998. world health organization / united nations children \u2019 s fund / united nations university. 2. brotanek jm, halterman j, auinger p, flores g, weitzman m. iron deficiency, prolonged bottle - feeding, and racial / ethnic disparities in young children. arch pediatr adolesc med. 2005 ; 159 ( 11 ) : 1038 \u2013 1042. [ pubmed ] 3. grantham - mcgregor s, ani c. a review of studies on the effect of iron deficiency on cognitive development in children. j nutr. 2001 ; 131 ( 2s \u2013 2 ) : 649s \u2013 668s. [ pubmed ] 4. lozoff b, georgieff mk. iron deficiency and brain development. semin pediatr neurol. 2006 ; 13 ( 3 ) : 158 \u2013 165. [ pubmed ] 5. lozoff b, beard j, connor j, barbara f, georgieff m, schallert t. long - lasting neural and behavioral effects of iron deficiency in infancy. nutr rev. 2006 ; 64 ( 5 pt 2 ) : s34 \u2013 s43. [ pmc free article ] [ pubmed ] 6. stoltzfus rj, mullany l, black re. iron deficiency anaemia. in : ezzati m, lopez ad, rodgers a, editors. comparative quantification of health risks : global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. geneva, switzerland : world health organization ; 2004. pp. 2141 \u2013 2165. 7. lozoff b, wolf aw, urrutia jj, viteri fe. abnormal behavior and low developmental test scores in iron - deficient anemic infants. j dev behav pediatr. 1985 ; 6 ( 2 ) : 69 \u2013 75. [ pubmed ] 8. lozoff b, de andraca i, castillo m, smith j, walter t, pino p. behavioral and developmental effects of preventing iron - deficiency anemia in healthy full - term infants [ published correction appears in pediatrics. 2004 ; 113 ( 6 ) : 1853 ] pediatrics. 2003 ; 112 ( 4 ) : 846, 854. [ pubmed ] 10. lozoff b, clark km, jing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5104009810312808, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0af22b9a-ebde-4e58-bdc1-f4f92762eab5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.439599"}
{"text": ". norwood. 18. colombo j, mitchell dw. individual differences in early visual attention : fixation time and information processing. in : colombo j, fagen j, editors. individual differences in infancy : reliability, stability, prediction. hillsdale, nj : lawrence erlbaum ; 1990. pp. 193 \u2013 227. 19. colombo j, mitchell dw, coldren jt, freeseman lj. individual differences in infant visual attention : are short lookers faster processors or feature processors? child dev. 1991 ; 62 ( 6 ) : 1247 \u2013 1257. [ pubmed ] 20. jacobson sw, jacobson jl, o \u2019 neill jm, padgett rj, frankowski jj, bihun jt. visual expectation and dimensions of infant information processing. child dev. 1992 ; 63 ( 3 ) : 711 \u2013 724. [ pubmed ] 21. diamond a. development of the ability to use recall to guide action, as indicated by infants \u2019 performance on ab. child dev. 1985 ; 56 ( 4 ) : 868 \u2013 883. [ pubmed ] 22. wachs td. relation of infants \u2019 performance on piaget scales between twelve and twenty - four months and their stanford - binet performance at thirty - one months. child dev. 1975 ; 46 : 929 \u2013 935. 23. uzgiris c, hunt jm. assessment in infancy : ordinal scales of psychological development. urbana, il : university of illinois press ; 1975. 24. diedrich fj, thelen e, smith lb, corbetta d. motor memory is a factor in infant perseverative errors. dev sci. 2000 ; 3 ( 4 ) : 479 \u2013 494. 25. mccune - nicholic l. toward symbolic functioning : structure of early pretend games and potential parallels with language. child dev. 1981 ; 52 ( 3 ) : 785 \u2013 797. 26. belsky j, garduque l, hrncir e. assessing performance, competence, and executive capacity in infant play : relations to home environment and security of attachment. dev psychol. 1984 ; 20 ( 3 ) : 406 \u2013 417. 27. jacobson jl, jacobson sw, sokol rj, martier ss, ager jw, kaplan - estrin mg. teratogenic effects of alcohol on infant development. alcohol clin exp res. 1993 ; 17 ( 1 ) : 174 \u2013", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5305511675896099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0af22b9a-ebde-4e58-bdc1-f4f92762eab5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.442005"}
{"text": "\u2013 946. [ pubmed ] 39. clogg cc, petkova e, shihadeh es. statistical methods for analyzing collapsibility in regression models. j educ stat. 1992 ; 17 ( 1 ) : 51 \u2013 74. 40. mackinnon dp, lockwood cm, hoffman jm, west sg, sheets v. a comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. psychol methods. 2002 ; 7 ( 1 ) : 83 \u2013 104. [ pmc free article ] [ pubmed ] 41. mcclelland gh, judd cm. statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. psychol bull. 1993 ; 114 ( 2 ) : 376 \u2013 390. [ pubmed ] 42. lozoff b, klein nk, nelson ec, mcclish dk, manuel m, chacon me. behavior of infants with iron - deficiency anemia. child dev. 1998 ; 69 ( 1 ) : 24 \u2013 36. [ pubmed ] 43. coe cl, lubach gr, schneider ml. neuromotor and socio - emotional behavior in the young monkey are presaged by prenatal conditions. in : lewis m, ramsey d, editors. stress and soothing. hillsdale, nj : lawrence erlbaum ; 1999. pp. 19 \u2013 38. 44. golub ms, hogrefe ce, widaman kf, capitanio jp. iron deficiency anemia and affective response in rhesus monkey infants. dev psychobiol. 2009 ; 51 ( 1 ) : 47 \u2013 59. [ pmc free article ] [ pubmed ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5351853612358206, "token_count": 335, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0af22b9a-ebde-4e58-bdc1-f4f92762eab5>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.443499"}
{"text": "in contrast to animals and lower plants such as mosses and ferns, sperm cells of flowering plants ( angiosperms ) are immobile and require transportation to the female gametes via the vegetative pollen tube cell to achieve double fertilization. the path of the pollen tube towards the female gametophyte ( embryo sac ) has been intensively studied in many intra - and interspecific crossing experiments with the aim of increasing the gene pool of crop plants for greater yield, improved biotic and abiotic stress resistance, and for introducing new agronomic traits. many attempts to hybridize different species or genotypes failed due to the difficulty for the pollen tubes in reaching the female gametophyte. detailed studies showed that these processes are controlled by various self - incompatible ( intraspecific ) and cross - incompatible ( interspecific ) hybridization mechanisms. understanding the molecular mechanisms of crossing barriers is therefore of great interest in plant reproduction, evolution and breeding research. in particular, pre - zygotic hybridization barriers related to pollen tube germination, growth, guidance and sperm delivery, which are considered the major hybridization controls in nature and thus also contribute to species isolation and speciation, have been intensively investigated. despite this general interest, surprisingly little is known about these processes in the most important agronomic plant family, the gramineae, poaceae or grasses. small polymorphic proteins and their receptors, degradation of sterility locus proteins and general compounds such as calcium, \u03b3 - aminobutyric acid or nitric oxide have been shown to be involved in progamic pollen germination, adhesion, tube growth and guidance, as well as sperm release. most advances have been made in the brassicaceae, papaveraceae, linderniaceae and solanaceae families including their well - understood self - incompatibility ( si ) systems. grass species evolved similar mechanisms to control the penetration and growth of self - pollen to promote intraspecific outcrossing and to prevent fertilization by alien sperm cells. however, in the poaceae, the underlying molecular mechanisms are still largely unknown. we propose to develop maize ( zea mays ) as a model to investigate the above - described processes to understand the associated intra - and interspecific crossing barriers in grasses. many genetic, cellular and biotechnological tools including the completion of a reference genome ( inbred line b73 ) have been established in the last decade and many more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5175723219787272, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4f172805-873c-47d3-bf85-15bd888fb441>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.446603"}
{"text": "by : yusuf kaba imhotep, the moundbuilder the concept of what a man is continues to be greatly debated. these days the dominant idea of men are, bread winners, head of household, dogs, enemies, or mates, to name a few. the question oft - times remains, \u201c what are the qualities that truly define a man? \u201d our ancient cultures have dealt with this question in rites of passage programs and ceremonies. rites of passage is a system or ceremony that recognizes transition from one stage of life to the next. comprised within this process is the knowledge needed to successfully function at that next level of life. a man was not recognized as such until successful completion of that community \u2019 s rites of passage. today, the entire world suffers because of the absence of this process. men today remain inadequate or unable to fulfill their proper places because they have not yet accessed the proper tools. the proof is in the results. statistics show that men suffering from a variety of health issues including heart disease, cancer, depression, aids, diabetes, and suicide. these conditions are worst in urban communities and among people of color. it is also clear that the concepts of father and husband are not seen in the best light. there is little respect for fathers and the divorce rate is constantly increasing. men have lost the idea of self - respect. this falls very short of men being, \u201c the crown of creation. \u201d there is no question in the mind of rationally thinking people that a rites of passage program is essential right now. we have poorly developed children because of underdeveloped men. we have fractured homes because of broken men. our entire society and world suffers because of the state of our men. a properly constructed rites of passages program develops men into their very best selves. it is a place of repair for the extensive damage done. it both builds and instills the qualities that produce the best examples of fatherhood, husband, and community elder. a rites of passage program provides a place for men to benefit from the wisdom of those who have dealt with challenges men face. men need to learn what to eat, how to eat, and what to store in their homes. men also learn the value of a good woman and how to treat her well. men must learn how to care for and nurture himself. men can benefit from wisdom on how to express themselves in the best way. it is also where men must learn how to mine the buried treasures out of themselves and most importantly, have fun doing it. i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5444242915717282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7b0c5fd0-3851-4ad0-899d-276eb2cccdc7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.452208"}
{"text": "| course | | course title | | credit hours | | cis 235 | | managing and troubleshooting pcs | | ( 3 - 0 ) 3 cr. hrs. | personal computer servicing and support will be covered within the following topics : physical and electrical concepts of motherboards, power supplies, bios and expansion buses ; definitions and uses of microprocessors ( cpus ), memory system resources and input / output devices ; data storage devices and interfaces ; cables, connectors and ports ; basic networking fundamentals ; operating system fundamentals ; and dos. ( a requirement that must be completed before taking this course. ) - windows experience highly recommended. upon successful completion of the course, the student should be able to : - explain the physical concepts of a motherboard in a personal computer. - explain the electrical properties found in the motherboard of a personal computer. - examine the electrical properties of the power supply. - explore the computer bios. - explain the types of microprocessors. - explain input / output devices. - explain data storage devices. - explain basic networking fundamentals. - examine operating system fundamentals. note : this course may not be offered every semester. please check the cis section of the current course schedule for availability.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5313938849897141, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3cf06009-a22e-47db-a4e4-dbb8dfddf8e0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.491673"}
{"text": "in the case of residential lighting, new types of light bulbs, compact fluorescent lights or cfls, are becoming popular. wikipedia says the following about cfls. a compact fluorescent lamp ( cfl ), also called compact fluorescent light, energy - saving light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent lamp ; some types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps. the lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp. compared to general - service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, cfls use one - fifth to one - third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. a cfl has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp ' s lifetime. like all fluorescent lamps, cfls contain mercury, which complicates their disposal. in many countries, governments have established recycling schemes for cfls and glass generally. cfls radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps. improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived colour of the light emitted by cfls, such that some sources rate the best \" soft white \" cfls as subjectively similar in colour to standard incandescent lamps. because cfls consume significantly less power than traditional tungsten bulbs, they are one of the primary devices suggested by government and industry for reducing our dependance on fossil fuels. we have been assured that the amount of mercury in cfl bulbs and the amount of radiation given off by those bulbs is low enough that we can ignore those factors. however, scientists are learning that cfls may be more harmful to us that we suspected. i am listing light bulbs as a disaster, because the use of the bulbs is so widespread over the earth. here are links to scientific research about light bulbs and mercury pollution. in a new analysis of thousands of u. s. women of childbearing age, brown university researchers found that most exceeded the median blood level for two or more of three environmental pollutants that could harm brain development of fetuses and babies : lead, mercury, and polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ). attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( adhd ) affects approximately ten percent of children worldwide, yet its causes are not well understood. now, a study led by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5580608103592207, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:072f89c7-dfb9-439f-baf5-96d373ad7ed1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.497858"}
{"text": ", and polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ). attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( adhd ) affects approximately ten percent of children worldwide, yet its causes are not well understood. now, a study led by susan korrick, md, mph, of brigham and women ' s hospital ( bwh ), and sharon sagiv, phd, mph, of boston university school of public health, and published in the online version of the archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine on october 8, 2012, links low - level prenatal mercury exposure with a greater risk of adhd - related behaviors. but leds do have a dark side. a study published in late 2010 in the journal environmental science and technology found that leds contain lead, arsenic and a dozen other potentially dangerous substances. leds are touted as the next generation of lighting, \u201d says oladele ogunseitan, one of the researchers behind the study and chair of the university of california ( uc ) - irvine \u2019 s department of population health & disease prevention. \u201c but as we try to find better products that do not deplete energy resources or contribute to global warming, we have to be vigilant [ about ] toxicity hazards \u2026. \u201d the researchers, led by miriam rafailovich, phd, professor of materials science and engineering and the director of the garcia center for polymers at engineered interfaces at stony brook, conducted similar research to a european study on light sensitivity. stony brook researchers collected cfl bulbs purchased from different locations across suffolk and nassau counties, and then measured the amount of uv emissions and the integrity of each bulb ' s phosphor coatings. results revealed significant levels of uvc and uva, which appeared to originate from cracks in the phosphor coatings, present in all cfl bulbs studied.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5421915692586488, "token_count": 374, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:072f89c7-dfb9-439f-baf5-96d373ad7ed1>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.498602"}
{"text": "nisbet, r. m. and gurney, william ( 1982 ) modelling fluctuating populations. john wiley and sons limited, chichester. isbn 9781930665903full text not available in this repository. modelling fluctuating populations, originally published in 1982, is a classic textbook because primarily, this book takes a distinctive approach to population dynamics, by emphasizing from the earliest chapters that all populations fluctuate continuously. traditional themes in theoretical ecology such as equilibrium and population stability are linked to analyses of the response of a population to environmental fluctuations and to extinction probabilities. thus, the book ' s approach confronts head - on one common criticism of simple ecological models - the mismatch between the mathematical mechanisms studied and the questions of top ecological concern. secondly, the book demonstrates the power of techniques based on linear mathematics. | keywords : | | population dynamics, linear mathematics, fluctuating populations, probabilities. mathematical statistics | | subjects : | | science > mathematics > probabilities. mathematical statistics | | department : | | faculty of science > mathematics and statistics | | depositing user : | | pure administrator | | date deposited : | | 18 oct 2012 11 : 59 | | last modified : | | 18 oct 2012 16 : 59 | actions ( login required )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5865202077388045, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5f6b3e40-78bf-4c7e-8c6c-dd334be948a1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.570223"}
{"text": "what is sustainable agriculture? agriculture has changed dramatically, especially since the end of world war ii. food and fiber productivity soared due to new technologies, mechanization, increased chemical use, specialization and government policies that favored maximizing production. these changes allowed fewer farmers with reduced labor demands to produce the majority of the food and fiber in the u. s. although these changes have had many positive effects and reduced many risks in farming, there have also been significant costs. prominent among these are topsoil depletion, groundwater contamination, the decline of family farms, continued neglect of the living and working conditions for farm laborers, increasing costs of production, and the disintegration of economic and social conditions in rural communities. a growing movement has emerged during the past two decades to question the role of the agricultural establishment in promoting practices that contribute to these social problems. today this movement for sustainable agriculture is garnering increasing support and acceptance within mainstream agriculture. not only does sustainable agriculture address many environmental and social concerns, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for growers, laborers, consumers, policymakers and many others in the entire food system. this paper is an effort to identify the ideas, practices and policies that constitute our concept of sustainable agriculture. we do so for two reasons : 1 ) to clarify the research agenda and priorities of our program, and 2 ) to suggest to others practical steps that may be appropriate for them in moving toward sustainable agriculture. because the concept of sustainable agriculture is still evolving, we intend the paper not as a definitive or final statement, but as an invitation to continue the dialogue. sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals - - environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. a variety of philosophies, policies and practices have contributed to these goals. people in many different capacities, from farmers to consumers, have shared this vision and contributed to it. despite the diversity of people and perspectives, the following themes commonly weave through definitions of sustainable agriculture. sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. therefore, stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime importance. stewardship of human resources includes consideration of social responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future. stewardship of land and natural resources involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for the long term. a systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. the system", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5455068374669133, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f935f0db-afc7-4423-9a4e-b059e912ef3b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.591988"}
{"text": "the needs of rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future. stewardship of land and natural resources involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for the long term. a systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. the system is envisioned in its broadest sense, from the individual farm, to the local ecosystem, and to communities affected by this farming system both locally and globally. an emphasis on the system allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. a systems approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our environment. a systems approach also implies interdisciplinary efforts in research and education. this requires not only the input of researchers from various disciplines, but also farmers, farmworkers, consumers, policymakers and others. making the transition to sustainable agriculture is a process. for farmers, the transition to sustainable agriculture normally requires a series of small, realistic steps. family economics and personal goals influence how fast or how far participants can go in the transition. it is important to realize that each small decision can make a difference and contribute to advancing the entire system further on the \" sustainable agriculture continuum. \" the key to moving forward is the will to take the next step. finally, it is important to point out that reaching toward the goal of sustainable agriculture is the responsibility of all participants in the system, including farmers, laborers, policymakers, researchers, retailers, and consumers. each group has its own part to play, its own unique contribution to make to strengthen the sustainable agriculture community. the remainder of this document considers specific strategies for realizing these broad themes or goals. the strategies are grouped according to three separate though related areas of concern : farming and natural resources, plant and animal production practices, and the economic, social and political context. they represent a range of potential ideas for individuals committed to interpreting the vision of sustainable agriculture within their own circumstances. water. when the production of food and fiber degrades the natural resource base, the ability of future generations to produce and flourish decreases. the decline of ancient civilizations in mesopotamia, the mediterranean region, pre - columbian southwest u. s. and central america is believed to have been strongly influenced by natural resource degradation from non - sustainable farming and forestry practices. water is the principal resource that has helped agriculture and society to prosper, and it has been a major limiting factor when mismanaged. water supply and use. in california, an extensive water storage and transfer system has been established which has", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5182886548227941, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f935f0db-afc7-4423-9a4e-b059e912ef3b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.593252"}
{"text": "diversion of water. the plant diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas should be maintained in order to support a diversity of wildlife. this diversity will enhance natural ecosystems and could aid in agricultural pest management. energy. modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non - renewable energy sources, especially petroleum. the continued use of these energy sources cannot be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic. however, a sudden cutoff in energy supply would be equally disruptive. in sustainable agricultural systems, there is reduced reliance on non - renewable energy sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the extent that is economically feasible. air. many agricultural activities affect air quality. these include smoke from agricultural burning ; dust from tillage, traffic and harvest ; pesticide drift from spraying ; and nitrous oxide emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizer. options to improve air quality include incorporating crop residue into the soil, using appropriate levels of tillage, and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial grasses to reduce dust. soil. soil erosion continues to be a serious threat to our continued ability to produce adequate food. numerous practices have been developed to keep soil in place, which include reducing or eliminating tillage, managing irrigation to reduce runoff, and keeping the soil covered with plants or mulch. enhancement of soil quality is discussed in the next section. sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. specific strategies must take into account topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and the individual grower ' s goals. despite the site - specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several general principles can be applied to help growers select appropriate management practices : - selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions on the farm ; - diversification of crops ( including livestock ) and cultural practices to enhance the biological and economic stability of the farm ; - management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality ; - efficient and humane use of inputs ; and - consideration of farmers ' goals and lifestyle choices. selection of site, species and variety. preventive strategies, adopted early, can reduce inputs and help establish a sustainable production system. when possible, pest - resistant crops should be selected which are tolerant of existing soil or site conditions. when site selection is an option, factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history, and location ( e. g. climate, topography ) should be taken into account before planting. diversity. diversified farms are usually more economically and ecological", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5156311769576956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f935f0db-afc7-4423-9a4e-b059e912ef3b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.595555"}
{"text": "conditions. when site selection is an option, factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history, and location ( e. g. climate, topography ) should be taken into account before planting. diversity. diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically resilient. while monoculture farming has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of management, the loss of the crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and / or seriously disrupt the stability of a community dependent on that crop. by growing a variety of crops, farmers spread economic risk and are less susceptible to the radical price fluctuations associated with changes in supply and demand. properly managed, diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. for example, in annual cropping systems, crop rotation can be used to suppress weeds, pathogens and insect pests. also, cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the agroecosystem by holding soil and nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture with mowed or standing dead mulches, and by increasing the water infiltration rate and soil water holding capacity. cover crops in orchards and vineyards can buffer the system against pest infestations by increasing beneficial arthropod populations and can therefore reduce the need for chemical inputs. using a variety of cover crops is also important in order to protect against the failure of a particular species to grow and to attract and sustain a wide range of beneficial arthropods. optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the same farming operation. this was the common practice for centuries until the mid - 1900s when technology, government policy and economics compelled farms to become more specialized. mixed crop and livestock operations have several advantages. first, growing row crops only on more level land and pasture or forages on steeper slopes will reduce soil erosion. second, pasture and forage crops in rotation enhance soil quality and reduce erosion ; livestock manure, in turn, contributes to soil fertility. third, livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop residue that in \" plant only \" systems would have been considered crop failures. finally, feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems. this can help cushion farmers against trade and price fluctuations and, in conjunction with cropping operations, make more efficient use of farm labor. soil management. a common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a \" healthy \" soil is a key component of sustainability ; that is, a healthy soil will produce healthy crop plants that have optimum vigor and are less susceptible to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5152412110749427, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f935f0db-afc7-4423-9a4e-b059e912ef3b>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.596674"}
{"text": "use of farm labor. soil management. a common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a \" healthy \" soil is a key component of sustainability ; that is, a healthy soil will produce healthy crop plants that have optimum vigor and are less susceptible to pests. while many crops have key pests that attack even the healthiest of plants, proper soil, water and nutrient management can help prevent some pest problems brought on by crop stress or nutrient imbalance. furthermore, crop management systems that impair soil quality often result in greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides, and / or energy for tillage to maintain yields. in sustainable systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and living medium that must be protected and nurtured to ensure its long - term productivity and stability. methods to protect and enhance the productivity of the soil include using cover crops, compost and / or manures, reducing tillage, avoiding traffic on wet soils, and maintaining soil cover with plants and / or mulches. conditions in most california soils ( warm, irrigated, and tilled ) do not favor the buildup of organic matter. regular additions of organic matter or the use of cover crops can increase soil aggregate stability, soil tilth, and diversity of soil microbial life. efficient use of inputs. many inputs and practices used by conventional farmers are also used in sustainable agriculture. sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable, and on - farm inputs. equally important are the environmental, social, and economic impacts of a particular strategy. converting to sustainable practices does not mean simple input substitution. frequently, it substitutes enhanced management and scientific knowledge for conventional inputs, especially chemical inputs that harm the environment on farms and in rural communities. the goal is to develop efficient, biological systems which do not need high levels of material inputs. growers frequently ask if synthetic chemicals are appropriate in a sustainable farming system. sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least energy intensive, and yet maintain productivity and profitability. preventive strategies and other alternatives should be employed before using chemical inputs from any source. however, there may be situations where the use of synthetic chemicals would be more \" sustainable \" than a strictly nonchemical approach or an approach using toxic \" organic \" chemicals. for example, one grape grower switched from tillage to a few applications of a broad spectrum contact herbicide in the vine row. this approach may use less energy and may compact the soil less than numerous passes with a cultivator or mower. consideration of farmer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5218551536151234, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f935f0db-afc7-4423-9a4e-b059e912ef3b>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.598965"}
{"text": "should be avoided. however, small scale loss of vegetative cover around water or feed troughs may be tolerated if surrounding vegetative cover is adequate. confined livestock production. animal health and waste management are key issues in confined livestock operations. the moral and ethical debate taking place today regarding animal welfare is particularly intense for confined livestock production systems. the issues raised in this debate need to be addressed. confinement livestock production is increasingly a source of surface and ground water pollutants, particularly where there are large numbers of animals per unit area. expensive waste management facilities are now a necessary cost of confined production systems. waste is a problem of almost all operations and must be managed with respect to both the environment and the quality of life in nearby communities. livestock production systems that disperse stock in pastures so the wastes are not concentrated and do not overwhelm natural nutrient cycling processes have become a subject of renewed interest. in addition to strategies for preserving natural resources and changing production practices, sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to changing public policies, economic institutions, and social values. strategies for change must take into account the complex, reciprocal and ever - changing relationship between agricultural production and the broader society. the \" food system \" extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers, researchers, input suppliers, farmworkers, unions, farm advisors, processors, retailers, consumers, and policymakers. relationships among these actors shift over time as new technologies spawn economic, social and political changes. a wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more sustainable food system. these will range from specific and concentrated efforts to alter specific policies or practices, to the longer - term tasks of reforming key institutions, rethinking economic priorities, and challenging widely - held social values. areas of concern where change is most needed include the following : food and agricultural policy. existing federal, state and local government policies often impede the goals of sustainable agriculture. new policies are needed to simultaneously promote environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. for example, commodity and price support programs could be restructured to allow farmers to realize the full benefits of the productivity gains made possible through alternative practices. tax and credit policies could be modified to encourage a diverse and decentralized system of family farms rather than corporate concentration and absentee ownership. government and land grant university research policies could be modified to emphasize the development of sustainable alternatives. marketing orders and cosmetic standards could be amended to encourage reduced pesticide use. coalitions must be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.506935661823898, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f935f0db-afc7-4423-9a4e-b059e912ef3b>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.602385"}
{"text": "by carl weese light, natural or artificial, indoors or out, is constantly variable. we notice the warm, reddish light of sunrise and sunset, but there are subtle variations all the time. we generally don \u2019 t notice the color of ambient light because our eye / mind perceptual system adapts, much as it adapts to changes in light intensity. for example, from outdoors on a dark day, the windows of a house will look yellow if there are tungsten lights inside. the observer standing outside is adapted to the color of daylight and sees the yellow color of the interior light, but if we enter the house we adapt almost immediately. from inside, the room light seems normal while the view out a window can look bright blue. concentrate on what you see through the window, and the color will quickly look right again. the yellow / amber light from a standard light bulb has a lower color temperature than daylight. why is it referred to as temperature? a black body radiator ( think of an iron bar or fireplace poker ) gives off energy in the form of light when it is heated. first it glows ruby red. when it is heated to a temperature of 3200 kelvin, it gives off light the same color as a typical studio photoflood, so the studio lamp is said to have a color temperature of 3200 kelvin and that \u2019 s the calibration for a typical tungsten color film. sunlight is the color given off by a black body radiator heated to 5000 \u2013 5500k so that \u2019 s the color temperature daylight film is calibrated for. the color temperature of overcast sky is in the range of 5800 to 7000k, while open shade under a clear blue sky can hit 9000 \u2013 12000k. that ' s why a \" warming filter \" is needed to keep pictures in shade from looking bright blue on slide film. at the other end, low wattage light bulbs in a living room lamp can be way down around 2000k and candlelight is lower still. these light sources, like the heated iron bar, produce a continuous spectrum of light. the lower temperatures make warmer, redder light, and the higher temperatures produce cooler, bluer, light. fluorescent tubes, sodium - vapor lamps, and other forms of high efficiency energy - saving lighting usually produce a discontinuous spectrum. this means that while the light from a \u201c daylight \u201d fluorescent looks somewhat similar to real daylight, it is deficient in specific wavelengths, mostly in the magenta area", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6057756496821818, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4775524a-2083-4589-a680-0a9ac78cbb34>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.684228"}
{"text": "forms of high efficiency energy - saving lighting usually produce a discontinuous spectrum. this means that while the light from a \u201c daylight \u201d fluorescent looks somewhat similar to real daylight, it is deficient in specific wavelengths, mostly in the magenta area. our eyes don \u2019 t adapt to this deficiency as well as to different temperatures of a continuous spectrum, which is why these light sources often look unpleasant and unnatural to us. color film without correction records fluorescent light with a strong green cast and sodium - vapor with an even more obnoxious green / brown palette. photographic recording media \u2014 film, or digital sensors \u2014 do not have our ability to adapt to the color of ambient light. that \u2019 s why color transparency film has always been made in both daylight and tungsten versions. color negative films can be adjusted with filtration when they are printed in order to compensate for different color temperature light sources with a high degree of success. magenta filtration over the camera lens does a good job of taking out the green cast transparency film registers from magenta - deficient fluorescents, though the filter costs a stop or more in light transmission. sophisticated color meters like the minolta unit introduced in the 1980s gave two readings of incident light \u2014 color temperature in degrees kelvin, and a second reading on \u201c the green / magenta axis \u201d of a theoretical color wheel. after reading the light and consulting a filter chart, a combination of a warming or cooling filter with a green or magenta one would closely match the light to the film and so provide the most accurate color possible. basically, with the right filters, the ambient light would be converted to the nominal 5000\u00b0 of daylight film, or 3200\u00b0 of tungsten film. this was a lot of work, and expensive too. the meter with additional flash - reading head cost over $ 1, 000 and a workable set of fragile gel filters cost hundreds more. but it allowed for accurate color recording of subjects either in studio or out on location. now, with digital capture, the problem is still there, but we can deal with it in software. the sensor can \u2019 t change its sensitivity to match different sources of ambient light, but the software that interprets the sensor data either to make in - camera jpegs or to develop raw files on the computer can adapt. not only is it much easier than the old days, but no filters are required and you don \u2019 t have to buy a color meter. with raw files, you can get accurate color simply by shooting a reference exposure", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5276109710226802, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4775524a-2083-4589-a680-0a9ac78cbb34>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.685619"}
{"text": "marriage emerged as the most popular institution throughout history primarily because it was an effective arrangement to improve the care and upbringing of children. marriage is not necessary to have children, but it has been of enormous importance in the rearing of children. birds and other non - human species do not have \u201c marriage \u201d, but both parents are often involved in raising their offspring. with the sharp declines in birth rates since 1970 in western and other rich countries, including much larger fractions of adults who do not have any children, both men and women have significantly increased their ages at marriage, and sharply raised their propensities to divorce. in 1950, a typical woman and man married at ages 20. 3 and 22. 8, respectively, whereas now the typical marital ages are 26. 0 and 27. 7, respectively. these changes in age at marriage are related to reduced demand for many children, increased college education of both men and women but especially of women, much greater labor force participation of married and divorced women, and the narrowing of the gender gap in earnings. there are several reasons to be concerned about the below population replacement fertility levels in all of europe and about half the world \u2019 s population, including china and japan. low fertility makes it much harder to finance retirement benefits, medical care for the aged, and other entitlements that rely on taxing working age populations to pay for the support of older persons. low birth rates in richer countries also induce increased migration of young workers from poorer countries with large families to provide the unskilled and other young workers that every society needs. low birth rates lead to sex - selected abortions in societies with a strong preference for having at least one son, as in china and parts of india. below replacement fertility eventually causes populations to decline ( aside from migration ), which has unknown consequences for economic growth and other macro economic and social developments. as important as these topics are, i will not discuss them further since our subject today is low marriage rates and high propensities to divorce, which raise distinct issues from the effects of low fertility. the most important economic and social concerns due to low marriage rates are the effects on rearing of children. these effects are not due to lower marriage rates alone, but rather to the close connection between these low rates and high divorce rates, and to the greater propensity of women to have children without being married, or without living with the fathers of their children. although many single mothers do an absolutely wonderful job in raising their children, common sense and most academic findings suggest that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5007976190587735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8845f0c1-08c6-4003-9d0a-3e27b0db890d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.785654"}
{"text": "empowering women to participate fully in economic life across all sectors is essential to build stronger economies, achieve internationally agreed goals for development and sustainability, and improve the quality of life for women, men, families and communities. the private sector is a key partner in efforts to advance gender equality and empower women. current research demonstrating that gender diversity helps business perform better signals that self - interest and common interest can come together. yet, ensuring the inclusion of women \u2019 s talents, skills and energies \u2014 from executive offices to the factory floor and the supply chain \u2014 requires intentional actions and deliberate policies. the women ' s empowerment principles offer practical guidance to business and the private sector on how to empower women in the workplace, marketplace and community. developed through a partnership between un women and the united nations global compact, the principles are designed to support companies in reviewing existing policies and practices \u2014 or establishing new ones \u2014 to realize women \u2019 s empowerment. in brief, the principles are : subtitled equality means business, the principles emphasize the business case for corporate action to promote gender equality and women \u2019 s empowerment and are informed by real - life business practices and input gathered from across the globe. they also reflect the interests of governments and civil society and serve to support interactions among stakeholders, as achieving gender equality requires the participation of all actors at all levels. introduced on international women \u2019 s day 2010, the women \u2019 s empowerment principles are adapted from the calvert women \u2019 s principles\u00ae. the calvert women \u2019 s principles were originally developed in partnership with unifem ( now un women ) and launched in 2004 as the first global corporate code of conduct focused exclusively on empowering, advancing and investing in women worldwide.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5003105674417225, "token_count": 337, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aed7de6b-bb9a-4740-983a-46aeedbb86ab>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:00.859540"}
{"text": "with where good ideas come from, steven johnson pairs the insight of his bestselling everything bad is good for you and the dazzling erudition of the ghost map and the invention of air to address an urgent and universal question : what sparks the flash of brilliance? how does groundbreaking innovation happen? answering in his infectious, culturally omnivorous style, using his fluency in fields from neurobiology to popular culture, johnson provides the complete, exciting, and encouraging story of how we generate the ideas that push our careers, our lives, our society, and our culture forward. beginning with charles darwin ' s first encounter with the teeming ecosystem of the coral reef and drawing connections to the intellectual hyperproductivity of modern megacities and to the instant success of youtube, johnson shows us that the question we need to ask is, what kind of environment fosters the development of good ideas? his answers are never less than revelatory, convincing, and inspiring as johnson identifies the seven key principles to the genesis of such ideas, and traces them across time and disciplines. most exhilarating is johnson ' s conclusion that with today ' s tools and environment, radical innovation is extraordinarily accessible to those who know how to cultivate it. where good ideas come from is essential reading for anyone who wants to know how to come up with tomorrow ' s great ideas.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.558409374859622, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5e463e41-4988-46de-b766-b8f1e4b6593c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.063466"}
{"text": "in this post we take our next step with the mathematical models, and it begins to show different kinds of results. to this point we have been looking at the bible ' s four gospels : matthew, mark, luke, and john. to expand our horizons a little, the next document i ' d like to consider is paul ' s letter to the romans. it is an early letter within the christian church, it has been vital in the formation of protestant christianity. in modern times the question has become more pointed : did paul stay with the direction laid out by jesus, or was paul responsible for a change of course? i will not presume to answer that question here, but i will point out some promising pieces of objective information that come to light with this kind of mathematical review. to compare this letter to a gospel, then, i chose the gospel of luke. since luke was a companion of paul ' s, i thought it could be a productive place to begin. the short version of the results shared word estimate ( 13 / 52 ) = 25 % shared emphasis estimate : 27 % much different than gospel - to - gospel comparisons for the first time, all of the matching methods show less than a 50 % match - - and here the match is significantly less than 50 %. while the gospels consistently had a shared emphasis estimate higher than 50 %, paul ' s letter to the romans matches luke at roughly half that level. there are several kinds of differences that are immediately seen. we will start at the top of the list with the most common word. the gospels all had the same word as the most common word : jesus. the letter to the romans has a different most - common word : god. in fact, \" jesus \" doesn ' t appear until # 8 on the list in romans. however, \" christ \" appears higher on the list than \" jesus \". what do we make of the fact that \" jesus \" is the common way to speak of jesus in the gospels, but \" christ \" is more common in paul ' s letter to the romans? the word \" christ \" does not appear on the common - words list of any of the four biblical gospels. to be sure, even if the word \" christ \" is not prominent in the gospels, still the idea that jesus is the christ is well - known from the gospels. they all make a point to explain that jesus is the christ, and to demonstrate it. in the gospels, the time when peter identifies jesus as the christ is portrayed as a key teaching, and so is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5469472795279862, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:815cc499-d6e9-47fd-a622-23bded231cb8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.220156"}
{"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( n ) present, nowadays ( the period of time that is happening now ; any continuous stretch of time including the moment of speech ) \" that is enough for the present \" ; \" he lives in the present with no thought of tomorrow \" - s : ( n ) present ( something presented as a gift ) \" his tie was a present from his wife \" - s : ( n ) present, present tense ( a verb tense that expresses actions or states at the time of speaking ) - s : ( v ) show, demo, exhibit, present, demonstrate ( give an exhibition of to an interested audience ) \" she shows her dogs frequently \" ; \" we will demo the new software in washington \" - s : ( v ) present, represent, lay out ( bring forward and present to the mind ) \" we presented the arguments to him \" ; \" we cannot represent this knowledge to our formal reason \" - s : ( v ) stage, present, represent ( perform ( a play ), especially on a stage ) \" we are going to stage ` othello ' \" - s : ( v ) present, submit ( hand over formally ) - s : ( v ) present, pose ( introduce ) \" this poses an interesting question \" - s : ( v ) award, present ( give, especially as an honor or reward ) \" bestow honors and prizes at graduation \" - s : ( v ) give, gift, present ( give as a present ; make a gift of ) \" what will you give her for her birthday? \" - s : ( v ) deliver, present ( deliver ( a speech, oration, or idea ) ) \" the commencement speaker presented a forceful speech that impressed the students \" - s : ( v ) introduce, present, acquaint ( cause to come to know personally ) \" permit me to acquaint you with my son \" ; \" introduce the new neighbors to the community \" - s : ( v ) portray, present ( represent abstractly, for example in a painting, drawing, or sculpture ) \" the father is portrayed as a good - looking man in this painting \" - s : ( v ) confront, face, present ( present somebody with something, usually to accuse or criticize ) \" we confronted him with the evidence \" ; \" he was faced with all the evidence", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6192321463171222, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6b4e81c9-90ae-44f2-8395-b4bdc6154540>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.252678"}
{"text": "emily cox and henry rathvon provide the second sunday acrostic puzzles every second week. if you think that \u2019 s all they do, you need to read my interview with them from last year. this weekend we are treated to one of their cryptic crosswords. i try to be careful writing about these puzzles because i \u2019 d rather not give too much away. feel free to comment on any clues or answers, or to ask any questions, and we can let the conversation happen that way. if you \u2019 re new to these cryptic shenanigans, it might be instructive to consider the first two clues, and then you \u2019 re on your own. 1 across is \u201c from stem to stern, tossed in the sound ( 10 ). \u201d the parenthetical number at the end tells us the number of letters in the answer. the trick to these puzzles is realizing that, for most clues, there are two parts that each point to the same answer. often is it difficult to separate those parts, so you have to be on your toes. it looks as if this one might mean \u201c from stem to stern \u201d and there is a word meaning tossed inside another one meaning sound. that \u2019 s a perfectly logical parsing of the clue. it \u2019 s also wrong. sound here means \u201c sounds like, \u201d so we \u2019 re looking for a single word meaning \u201c from stem to stern \u201d that sounds like a word or phrase meaning \u201c tossed. \u201d throughout fits that description. reread the explanation here if it doesn \u2019 t make sense right away. the clue at 6 across reads \u201c exchange hands, from right to left ( 4 ). \u201d in this case, the answer is swap. it means exchange. what has swap to do with \u201c hands from right to left \u201d? follow the directions in the clue to find out. cryptics are an acquired taste, but once you get over the hump, they \u2019 re great fun. they often benefit from solving with a friend, who might be able to look at the clues at a different angle when you \u2019 re stuck.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5492000286457523, "token_count": 422, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2f69596-5687-49bf-9ec9-4da59cafa5d8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.262799"}
{"text": "the montgomery bus boycott looms as a formative turning point of the twentieth century : harbinger of the african american freedom movement, which in turn inspired movements for freedom around the globe ; springboard for the leadership of martin luther king jr. in civil rights, human rights and peacemaking ; launching pad for the worldwide era of upheaval known as the \u201c sixties \u201d. the bus boycott stands for all times as one of humankind \u2019 s supreme democrtatic moments, a monumental struggle to actualize the american dream of freedom, equality and constitutionalism. the nonviolent uprising of 1955 and 1956 represented a new founding of american democracy that pushed the nation a quantum leap closer to keeping faith with parchment principles. - - - from the daybreak of freedom if any single event touched off the activist phase of the civil rights movement, it was the montgomery bus boycott of 1955 - 56. triggered by the refusal of a black seamstress, mrs. rosa parks, to take her place at the back of a city bus when the driver demanded it, this grass - roots movement led by the young martin luther king lasted for just over a year, from 1955 to late in the next year. for the first time since the depression, political initiative shifted from washington back into the country itself, in this case the courts, schools, lunch counters, courthouses, streets and jails of the south. - - - from the experience of politics", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.525364151787025, "token_count": 290, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:697d27b1-00a5-4fc0-9f66-995ef5e16fac>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.266491"}
{"text": "space station has to wait for its scientific destiny the international space station will now have to wait for delivery of first science facility - the us laboratory ' destiny ' - after the launch of space shuttle atlantis was cancelled this week. the us $ 1. 4 billion destiny is a laboratory module enabling experiments in the near - zero gravity of space. the module will end up with 24 payload racks supporting facilities for research in biotechnology, fluid physics, combustion and life sciences. in microgravity - also called weightlessness - fluids no longer convect or flow because one part is lighter or heavier than the other. these conditions allow materials scientists to investigate the fundamental properties that control how materials form and behave. the module is 8. 5 metre long and 4. 3 metre in diameter and consists of three cylindrical sections and two endcones with hatches that will be mated to other station components. it has an exterior covered by a debris shiled blanket made of a material similar to that used in bulletproof vests on earth. the current space station crew have passed their 73rd day in space and will live onboard for about 120 days before being replaced by another team of one russian commander and two americans. the iss, which is a joint project of the us, russia, europe, japan and canada orbits the earth every 90 minutes at an altitude of 370 kilometers. it is scheduled for completion in 2006 and will have as much pressurised space as a 747 jumbo jet.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5241256923301765, "token_count": 293, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:59f7d0b4-70c0-424b-8f5d-26503ea1f3a9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.298306"}
{"text": "plan for an unmanned mission to earth ' s core first, split the ground open with cataclysmic force, then fill it with the world ' s entire supply of molten iron carrying a small communication probe - and the resulting 3, 000 kilometre journey to earth ' s core should take about a week, according to a u. s. planetary physicist. \" we would learn a lot more about the nature of earth and how it works - the generation of the magnetic field, the origin of some kinds of volcanoes, the heat sources inside earth, the stuff earth is made of - in short, all the basic questions, \" he told abc science online. in his paper, stevenson argues that \" planetary missions have enhanced our understanding of the solar system and how planets work, but no comparable exploratory effort has been directed towards the earth ' s interior \". \" space probes have so far reached a distance of about 6, 000 million kilometres, but subterranean probes ( drill holes ) have descended only some 10 kilometres into the earth, \" he writes in his article. the main barrier to travelling to the core is the dense matter of the earth ' s mantle. the energy required to penetrate the mantle by melting is about a thousand million times the energy needed for space travel, per unit distance travelled. stevenson ' s scheme relies on principles observed in ' magma fracturing ' - where molten rock migrates through the earth ' s interior. he proposes pouring 100 million tonnes of molten iron alloy into a crack of about 300 metres deep in the earth ' s surface. this massive volume of iron, containing a small communication probe, would work its way down to the earth ' s core, along the crack, which would open up by the force of gravity and close up behind itself. the crack would open downwards at 5 metres per second, giving a mission timescale of \" around a week \". such ' earth dives ' have not been tried before on any scale, nor is the technology yet available. \" no, we can ' t do it now, \" said stevenson. \" but the basic scientific principles are understood. the same answer applied to the atomic bomb in 1940. \" the initial crack would require a force equivalent to several mega tonnes of tnt, an earthquake of magnitude 7 on the richter scale, or a nuclear device \" with a capability within the range of those currently stockpiled \". the amount of iron needed could be as much as the amount produced world - wide in a week. heat would be maintained through the release of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5297267468048433, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e3d8cbe1-af62-4fab-911a-d7705b5c0ea2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.304626"}
{"text": "richter scale, or a nuclear device \" with a capability within the range of those currently stockpiled \". the amount of iron needed could be as much as the amount produced world - wide in a week. heat would be maintained through the release of gravitational energy and the partial melting of silicate rock walls. \" but of course, the mantle is hot anyway, \" said stevenson, \" so once you get below the first 100 kilometres, there are alloys that would never freeze in equilibrium with the mantle. \" he said the probe would penetrate the outer core but the solid inner core of the earth would probably stop it from going any further. the grapefruit - sized probe embedded in the molten iron would contain instruments to measure temperature, conductivity, and chemical composition. it would rely on encoded sound waves to beam data to the surface, as the earth ' s interior does not transmit electromagnetic radiation. one of the existing laser interferometer gravitational - wave observatories ( ligo ), used to detect tiny amounts of gravitational radiation from space, could be reconfigured to read the acoustic frequencies from the probe burrowing beneath. \" my paper is an idea, not a blueprint! \" stevenson told abc science online. \" but the physical process involved - with melt moving through the outermost 100 kilometres of earth - is something the earth does every day. \" \" this proposal is modest compared with the space program, and may seem unrealistic only because little effort has been devoted to it, \" he concludes in nature. \" the time has come for action. \" click here to listen to a follow - up of this story broadcast on the science show, abc radio national.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5446938768206456, "token_count": 342, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e3d8cbe1-af62-4fab-911a-d7705b5c0ea2>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.305858"}
{"text": "lichen love space scientist have found the most complex organism to date that can survive direct exposure to space : lichen. the european space agency ( esa ), which sponsored the research, says the findings bolster the possibility that life was transferred between planets. researchers from spain flew samples of lichen, which are made of algal cells in a mat of fungus, on the outside of a russian capsule that spent two weeks in orbit. the organisms survived the high levels of ultraviolet radiation, as well as the vacuum and extreme temperatures of space. dr rosa de la torre, from spain ' s national institute for aerospace technology in madrid, says post - flight analysis shows the lichens not only survived, but still had the ability to photosynthesise upon their return. images taken by electron microscopes showed no cell damage. \" [ the experiment shows ] for the first time that complex organisms integrated by the association of seaweed and fungi, are able to resist the conditions of space without showing apparent damage, \" says professor leopoldo sancho, with complutense university of madrid. sealed in a capsule two species of lichen, rhizocarpon geographicum and xanthoria elegans, were sealed in a capsule and launched on russian soyuz rocket on 31 may 2005. upon reaching orbit, the lid of the container holding the lichen was opened, exposing the samples to the space environment for 14. 5 days. the lid was then closed to protect the samples while the capsule returned to earth. \" the lichens are probably some of the most resilient organisms that you can find, \" says astrobiologist professor charles cockell, with the uk ' s open university, who is familiar with the madrid team ' s work. lichens have a mineral coating that apparently shields the organisms from the ultraviolet radiation of space, says dr rene demets, who oversaw the project for the esa. on earth, lichens are typically found on the surfaces of rocks and survive extreme conditions, such as high on mountaintops. previous studies have shown that simple organisms such as bacteria can survive in space and possibly even on the surface of mars. other organisms, such as plant seeds, have not fared as well. \" they could resist the absolute emptiness and the extreme temperatures, but not the radiation, \" sancho says. follow - up ground and flight studies are planned for september 2007 to determine how long lichens might survive in space, and if they could survive re - entry forces if, for example, they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5173893671311982, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4d05952d-e1e3-4e24-b34a-454e5e481960>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.312038"}
{"text": "receive weekly summaries of top business books, lessons in leadership, and inspiration, for free. the opposable mind published by harvard business press think of a rubik \u2019 s cube. those who can complete one ( i. e. put all the coloured tiles where they belong ) will tell you that one of the keys to accomplishment is keeping all the other tiles in mind while focusing on completing a certain placement. it \u2019 s not simply a matter of completing one side to the exclusion of the others, but rather the process of building one side while maintaining or building the others as well. author / professor roger martin explains this process to be \u201c integrative thinking \u201d ; the ability to face constructively the tension of opposing ideas and, instead of choosing one at the expense of the other, generate a creative resolution of the tension in the form of a new idea that contains elements of the opposing ideas but is superior to each. silly example? maybe. and yet people fall back onto \u201c either - or \u201d choices all the time. consider the story of izzy sharp \u2013 a hotelier interested in creating a new type of guest experience. he was told there were only two ways to run hotels : 1 ) small and intimate, but lacking enough guest rooms to support amenities like gyms, pools or business centres or, 2 ) large, fully equipped hotels that, due to their size, were run with cold and impersonal service. sharp refused to accept the two existent models, choosing instead to take the best of each and create something entirely new \u2013 a hotel chain built around the exact desires ( both spoken and unspoken ) of his ideal clientele ; huge capacity, yet with a complete and personalized catering to the guests \u2019 individual needs. the hugely successful four seasons was the result. the opposable mind teaches that leaders \u2013 true innovators \u2013 have the remarkable ability to hold two contradictory thoughts in their minds at one time, and then work through the unique strengths and challenges of each to create an even better, third option. in the opposable mind, martin examines the topic brilliantly and, perhaps most important to our conversation, teaches how you can develop a more opposable mind yourself. your rubik \u2019 s lens \u201c integrative thinking shows us a way past the binary limits of either - or. it shows us that there \u2019 s a way to integrate the advantages of one solution without cancelling out the advantages of an alternative solution. integrative thinking affords us, in the words of the poet wallace stevens, \u2018", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5378530758977059, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0f7ff776-2bf1-4e5a-814f-46bbe850780b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.336389"}
{"text": "of either - or. it shows us that there \u2019 s a way to integrate the advantages of one solution without cancelling out the advantages of an alternative solution. integrative thinking affords us, in the words of the poet wallace stevens, \u2018 the choice not between, but of. \u201d the opposable mind, page 9 the human mind is a wonderful thing. from early in our childhood development, our minds begin to categorize and filter information vital to our survival. through education and experience, we start to qualify objects, people and events as \u201c safe \u201d or \u201c dangerous \u201d, \u201c beneficial \u201d or \u201c detrimental \u201d. we do this for our own safety and survival, and we do it unconsciously as we grow. while the function of this process is strictly to keep us safe from physical harm, it actually begins to shape the way we see the world \u2013 a lens through which we experience reality, if you will. virtually as soon as we are conscious of our actions, none of us are capable of seeing the world completely objectively, as we all see reality through the tint of our own upbringing. integrative thinking is about testing and expanding our own \u201c lens \u201d ( or \u201c reality - model \u201d, as martin calls it ) by comparing and contrasting it with the lenses of the people around us, constantly seeking new, better alternatives to all. it \u2019 s about having a certain level of expectation as to what a solution could look like and refusing to lower that expectation simply because the ideal solution doesn \u2019 t yet exist. according to martin, there are six beliefs or \u201c stances \u201d that are possessed by leaders who practice integrative thinking : belief # 1 : the current solutions or models for a situation are simply the best solutions or models created to date, and not the absolute best solution available. belief # 2 : conflicting solutions or models are not to be feared or resisted, but rather to be learned from, adding to the available data for study and creation of a new, superior model. belief # 3 : better solutions are available, they are just yet to be discovered. belief # 4 : they are personally capable of creating or leading the creation of that better model from abstraction to reality. belief # 5 : \u201c messiness \u201d or complexity of options and components is actually a good thing, as it assures no details ( or fewer, at any rate ) are being missed in the creation of an ideal solution. belief # 6 : patience is needed to create the better model. the opposable mind, page 111", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5952182682296285, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0f7ff776-2bf1-4e5a-814f-46bbe850780b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.338336"}
{"text": "a good thing, as it assures no details ( or fewer, at any rate ) are being missed in the creation of an ideal solution. belief # 6 : patience is needed to create the better model. the opposable mind, page 111 - 3 it is martin \u2019 s belief that we can expand our own capacity for integrative thinking through constant experience and reflection. learn from picasso \u201c the great ones utilize their experiences to build and deepen their mastery while maintaining and expressing their originality. average leaders do one or the other. \u201d the opposable mind, page 185 even those who don \u2019 t have an intimate knowledge of the art world probably recognize the name pablo picasso. renowned as one of the fathers of modern art, and the uncontested creator of the cubism painting style, picasso is remembered for his originality. and yet, as martin reminds us, picasso has often times attributed his pioneering skill to his deep roots in traditional forms of painting. it was his mastery of the dominant styles of his time that allowed him the opportunity and insight to see where things could be effectively adapted and changed. true innovators overcame the weaknesses of existing models because they have become intimately familiar with them first, before they were able to create lasting change. the old admonishment for want - to - be - authors \u2013 \u201c write what you know \u201d \u2013 comes from the same lesson ; you need to know something to the level of mastery before you can start to inject effective originality. izzy sharpe, as case in point, created and ran two successful hotels ( one of each existent model ) before he had the insight and skill to create the successful third. if you want to see change in the world, immerse yourself in the existing models first, so you can clearly identify the points that need changing. \u201c integrative thinkers don \u2019 t mind the mess. in fact, they welcome it, because the mess assures them that they haven \u2019 t edited out features that necessary to the contemplation of the problem as a whole. they welcome complexity because they know the best answers arise from complexity. \u201d the opposable mind, page 41 simple options breed simple results. typical results. pre - planned results. if you want to create a new, better model \u2013 one that considers more aspects of true reality ( and not just your own lens ), you need to be willing to consider more details than those who came before you. you need to go looking for more \u201c salient factors \u201d, as martin calls", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5806409631303138, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0f7ff776-2bf1-4e5a-814f-46bbe850780b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.340196"}
{"text": "\u2013 one that considers more aspects of true reality ( and not just your own lens ), you need to be willing to consider more details than those who came before you. you need to go looking for more \u201c salient factors \u201d, as martin calls them \u2013 more potential pieces of the better picture. do you know all the details of what it is you want to change? issy sharp interviewed hundreds of his guests, at both hotels, to better learn what they really wanted. not only that, he studied all aspects of the hotel experience \u2013 from amenities to the check in / check out process, staff feedback and needs, and beyond. he didn \u2019 t build the new, four seasons model to represent his version of a better hotel, he instead collected more data on what a better hotel would look like. he went beyond his own reality - model. while having both mastery and originality play key roles in successfully creating a new model, collecting a wide amount of data, and being willing to sift through that data \u2013 patiently and with purpose \u2013 are also key factors to success. the opposable mind is a groundbreaking book on a topic that, in this age of information overload, will play an ever increasingly crucial role in the lives of leaders. to avoid overload, it can be so tempting to specialize, to simplify, focusing on a small part of the whole as we attempt to improve or \u201c fix \u201d. while simplification certainly makes decisions easier, it hardly ever makes them better. martin \u2019 s message, in a nutshell, is this : next time you find yourself with an either - or decision to make, take a step back, take a breath, and see if you can \u2019 t find an \u201c and \u201d that surpasses both. life \u2019 s a puzzle. focus on the big picture.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5138104418356194, "token_count": 370, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0f7ff776-2bf1-4e5a-814f-46bbe850780b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.341797"}
{"text": "all my japanese language budo books are in my office, so a fuller reply will have to wait till i go and check, but i can answer your question to some extent now. ' ik - ka - jo ' simply means ' first item ', or ' first point '. in the glossary referred to by ubaldo, it is given as the first technique in daito - ryu, but the japanese characters are not given. one possibility is \u2030 oz\u0111. as someone else said, the ' kyo ' of ' ik - kyo ' means ' teaching ' or ' religion '. when applied to aikido techniques, the meaning becomes somewhat artificial, but ' first teaching ' seems a reasonable translation. it should be understood that the founder of aikido did not use any names for techniques. these were coined by the students in order to remember what they had been taught. it is plausible that ikkyo was preferred to ikkajo by members of the aikikai. there is also a logical progression from 1 - kyo to 4 - kyo in the sense that the four forms can be done successively in one movement ( from elbow, to base of thumb, to base of wrist, to nerve point in wrist ). p a goldsbury", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5255698926444531, "token_count": 257, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0e4f9fef-b732-495e-aaa3-0722892af7cf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.356815"}
{"text": "wind turbine installations have grown significantly in the last decade as a result of the quest for alternative energy sources. for the past 10 years, worldwide total installed capacity has grown at nearly 28 percent annually. the global wind energy council expects total installed capacity to continue to grow at almost 21 percent annually, leading to over 400 gw by the end of 2014. wind turbines represent an exciting opportunity for clean power production. courtesy tuv nord e. v. most wind turbine power production comes from large machines, in the 2 mw to 3 mw range for land - based units. the turbines are huge, with blade lengths approximately 50 meters. as a result of the sheer size, engineering simulation is both important and challenging. full - scale physical testing is difficult, time consuming and expensive. at the same time, the cost of getting it wrong is prohibitive. ansys tools uniquely offer an optimal combination of high fidelity and breadth, empowering product designers to improve virtually every aspect of wind turbine design. wind turbine design involves the interaction of a range of physical phenomena and market demands : - the aerodynamics comprise changing wind direction and speed, making it necessary for designers to understand the flow at the turbine installation and blade boundary scales as well as effects from the unsteady rotor \u2013 tower interaction. - rotors must be light, strong and flexible, which indicates the use of advanced engineered materials. - shaft and gearbox loads are high, yet operators demand dependability and low, predictable maintenance costs. - the industry calls for high electric generator efficiency, even for low wind speeds. the electrical control system must safely manage operation of the turbine \u2019 s overall operating conditions. - all mechanical components must be strong to meet reliability and durability targets. at the same time, components must be light weight \u2014 as they are usually mounted 100 meters above ground. - nearby communities and governments demand low noise and minimal environmental impact. while large industrial wind turbine units provide much of today \u2019 s installed capacity, the application of smaller units is growing at fast pace. these machines provide personal and distributed power generation, sometimes in remote areas. the engineering challenges \u2014 and benefits of using the broad technology offering from ansys \u2014 are the same as for large industrial installations.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5046153524167674, "token_count": 445, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:984b2148-9b2c-46d6-af81-b28d2699ba12>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.379527"}
{"text": "teaching with documents : alexander graham bell ' s patent for the telephone and thomas edison ' s patent for the electric lamp in 1876 americans held a centennial exhibition in philadelphia to celebrate the nation ' s birth 100 years earlier. it was the first world ' s fair to be held in the united states, and it announced for all to see that the nation had come of age as an industrial power. over 8 million americans attended, many traveling the railways that now spanned the continent. of all the exhibition buildings, machinery hall drew the most admiration and wonder. its displays were powered by the world ' s largest steam engine. inside, inventions by two of america ' s greatest inventors were on display. alexander graham bell exhibited the first telephone, and thomas alva edison presented the automatic telegraph, one of more than 1, 000 inventions he would patent in his lifetime. together their inventions changed american life in ways that still affect us today. alexander graham bell alexander graham bell ( 1847 - 1922 ) was born in scotland and moved to boston in 1872 to open a school for teachers of the deaf. he became a u. s. citizen in 1882. his early experiments included ways to improve and use telegraphy. the telegraph conveyed messages through a system of electrical sounds that, when decoded, could be translated into words. it was dependent on skilled technicians and never became a home appliance. rather, it required you to go to a telegraph office to send or receive a message, or perhaps a messenger did this for you. bell sought something revolutionary : to transmit not only the sound of the human voice, but audible words. with the telephone, bell wrote in 1878, \" it is possible to connect every man ' s house, office or factory with a central station, so as to give him direct communication with his neighbors. \" thomas edison ( 1847 - 1931 ) was born in ohio and grew up in michigan. his formal education lasted at most four years, in part because his teachers complained that he asked too many questions. by age 12 he was a newsboy and candy seller on the railways. working as a telegraph operator gave him some of his early lessons in the uses of electricity. among edison ' s many patents were ones for totally new inventions as well as those that dramatically improved the inventions of others. these included patents for the electric motor, motion picture projector, storage battery, dictaphone, duplicating machine, typewriter, and phonograph ( his most original ). but his most far - reaching achievement was his patent for improving the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5273348806201099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bfff4cf1-2157-4cf1-bc94-a978b263b1ec>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.411191"}
{"text": "patents for the electric motor, motion picture projector, storage battery, dictaphone, duplicating machine, typewriter, and phonograph ( his most original ). but his most far - reaching achievement was his patent for improving the incandescent lightbulb. before the invention of the electric lightbulb, homes were lit by candle, kerosene - oil lamp, or gaslight. all flickered, were fire hazards, and emitted smoke and heat. other inventors of the day were experimenting with a glass globe that, if emptied of air, could contain a light that would not burn out. but no one could find a suitable filament, or wire. the filament creates light when an electric current passes through it, but it must neither burn out quickly nor melt. edison solved this problem by using carbonized cotton. the growth of the corporation a vision such as bell ' s could not become a reality without enormous sources of capital ( money ) to mass - produce telephones, lay cables, and establish switchboards. likewise the incandescent light was of little use until houses could be linked by electric wires to powerful generators. until the industrial revolution, a shop owner did not need to raise great sums of money to invest in expensive machinery. he probably made his goods by hand and sold them directly to the customer. he therefore did not need to advertise his goods far and wide. a business was usually the responsibility of one person, a proprietor, who hired others and accepted total financial responsibility if the venture went under. partnerships were able to raise greater capital because two or more people pooled their money. but if their partnership failed, all the partners were personally liable ; any assets they owned could be seized to pay their debts. the civil war gave impetus to many new industries on a scale never before seen in america. what was needed was a new way to fund them. the corporation solved the problem. corporations are legal entities chartered by state governments. to establish a corporation, money is raised from many investors. each investor then owns shares of the company, represented by the stock certificates the corporation issues to its shareholders. if the company earns a profit, the corporation will divide its profit with its investors and pay dividends. ( the greater the number of shares you own, the greater your dividend. ) the value of the corporation ' s stock will go up. but if the corporation fails, each investor will only lose what he or she invested. when the u. s. government granted edison", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5238993794123118, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bfff4cf1-2157-4cf1-bc94-a978b263b1ec>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.413052"}
{"text": "in 1999, a task force consisting of research and policy - oriented slps, people who stutter, and an epidemiologist ( ken st. louis, bobbie lubker, scott yaruss, jaan pill, and charles diggs, respectively ) convened to develop the first prototype of a questionnaire to measure attitudes toward stuttering. known as the public opinion survey of human attributes ( posha - e ), it is handled like public opinion polls from a national polling organization, with respondents selected at random. participants first answer baseline questions before filling out a demographic survey. finally, they respond to follow up questions. here are examples of the most recent experimental version of the posha - e. it asks the respondents their overall impression of a person who is in one of nine categories : \" left handed, mentally ill, obese, addicted to alcohol, has a stuttering disorder, is multilingual, has epilepsy, has hiv / aids, or uses a wheelchair. \" the respondents give their impression of the person, ranging from very negative, somewhat negative, neutral, somewhat positive, or very positive, to not sure. then the questionnaire asks the respondent, \" i would want to be a person who \" fits in one of those nine categories. finally, the respondent answers follow - up questions on up to three of the listed categories. for example, \" people who stutter ( or are obese, or multilingual ) are nervous or excitable ; are dangerous to others ; can raise a family. \" the respondents indicate whether they agree, disagree, or are not sure. these survey questions have been asked of more than 1, 200 adult respondents in 27 nonprobability ( nonrandom ) pilot study samples in 11 countries ( brazil, bulgaria, cameroon, canada, denmark, nepal, nicaragua, macedonia, south africa, turkey, and the u. s. ). respondents completed questionnaires in either english or one of six other languages ( bulgarian, macedonian, portuguese, turkish, french, and spanish ). since 1999, the team has undergone changes and the posha - e has been revised three times. one major change in the last version is that attributes of \" old, \" \" intelligent, \" and \" good talker \" were replaced by \" epilepsy, \" \" hiv / aids, \" and \" alcohol addiction. \" also, \" overweight \" was changed to \" obese. \" the research initiative using the results of the posha - e is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.509270893841371, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2ec4d0cc-d33f-4c7f-bf6b-37dcf32890d1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.429702"}
{"text": "inadvertently translated as \" to increase a family. \" to reduce these problems, ipatha guidelines will mandate a \" back translation \" from a foreign language to english by another translator, unfamiliar with the study and the original translation, so that the eventual translated versions are as accurate as possible. ) fourth, it is designed specifically to measure many of the responses that might be expected to change after public information campaigns designed to \" improve attitudes \" have been undertaken. for example, one series of questions asks where respondents have acquired their information. even if attitudes may not have changed, it is likely that public awareness campaigns will result in different profiles of perceived knowledge acquisition. fifth, consideration of the instrument ' s eventual recommended scheme for use must allow for probability sampling that is accurate but reasonably inexpensive for stakeholders. importantly, the posha - e is still in its developmental phase. it is not yet a user - friendly instrument, but we are making progress. for example, the response format has been progressively simplified in the three versions from an original 0 - 100 quasi - continuous scale, to a 1 - 9 equal - appearing interval scale, and finally to the above illustrated categorical \" yes, \" \" no, \" or \" unsure \" response mode ( with a 1 - 5 scale for a few items ). this modification has progressively reduced respondent completion time and errors as well as data coding time and errors ; both were achieved without appreciable loss in sensitivity to subtle differences in the attitudes of the nonprobability pilot samples studied. also, as is the case with most standardized instruments, the posha - e contains many more items than the eventual version will. forthcoming item analysis will identify those questions that are most discriminating and useful. after consideration of information available from pilot studies, redundant items will be eliminated. also, confusing and ambiguous items will be eliminated or modified. the intent is to have a questionnaire that can be completed by most respondents in 10 minutes or less. the next step is to carry out the difficult task of field - testing the near - final version of the posha - e with representative samples. like political polling, this component is necessary to improve accurate representation of the attitudes of any target sampling area. a number of plans under evaluation, but one that may be the most cost efficient for stakeholders, could involve a public school - based sampling plan as follows. a probability ( i. e., random ) sampling scheme would be used to select public schools as the units from which random samples of children and, ultimately, progressively less random samples of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5278012921348896, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2ec4d0cc-d33f-4c7f-bf6b-37dcf32890d1>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.432787"}
{"text": ", could involve a public school - based sampling plan as follows. a probability ( i. e., random ) sampling scheme would be used to select public schools as the units from which random samples of children and, ultimately, progressively less random samples of parents, grandparents, and other adults would be generated as prospective respondents. all children in selected classrooms would be potential survey respondents. so, too, would one of their parents or guardians, one of their grandparents, and one of their adult neighbors. probability sampling would determine school and classroom selection, but adults would be recruited by parents of children in these classrooms. we hope that one outcome of the ipatha initiative will be a data archive into which results from new studies may be added and against which results from isolated samples may be compared. finally, in concert with other stakeholders around the world, we plan to develop strategies designed to reduce stigma and to measure their effectiveness. sample pilot results in the process of gathering pilot data, a large amount of questionnaire data has been amassed from more than 1, 200 adults. we have attempted not to be distracted from our primary purpose of instrument development. accordingly, we have inspected the comparative data for trends showing consistent versus variable results that might suggest the best items for eventual inclusion and elimination. following are some illustrations of what the pilot data have shown that is relevant to slps and to those interested in international comparisons ( knudsen et al., 2004 ; st. louis et al., in press ; st. louis et al., 2004 ). the table below provides selected demographic information from nine samples, ranging in size from 14 to 188 respondents. the first two ( columns 2 and 3 ) compare probability samples of slps holding specialty recognition in fluency disorders with a sample of slps nationwide. it was thought that board - recognized specialists in fluency disorders might provide a \" gold standard \" for public attitudes toward stuttering. these are compared with a nonprobability sample of students from the mid - atlantic region of the u. s. ( column 3 ). all three of these samples responded to the most recent version of the posha - e. the other nonprobability samples were from six different countries, with those in denmark ( column 5 ), south africa ( column 6 ), and nepal ( column 7 ) being administered in english and those in the remaining three countries administered in respondents ' native language : brazilian portuguese ( column 8 ), bulgarian ( column 9 ), and turkish ( column 10 ), respectively. these groups responded to either the first", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5304235575035627, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2ec4d0cc-d33f-4c7f-bf6b-37dcf32890d1>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.433818"}
{"text": "column 7 ) being administered in english and those in the remaining three countries administered in respondents ' native language : brazilian portuguese ( column 8 ), bulgarian ( column 9 ), and turkish ( column 10 ), respectively. these groups responded to either the first version ( drawing a vertical line on a horizontal scale marked on either end and the middle, with scores later converted to numbers from 0 to 100 ) or the second version ( circling a number from 1 - 9 or a \"? \" for \" i don ' t know. \" ). the table illustrates that the percentage of females to males, age, educational level, religion, and marital status varied widely across the nine samples. preliminary results indicate that multilingual, as well as intelligent and good talkers in the earlier versions of the posha, are regarded as desirable characteristics. left handed - as predicted - is neutral. old ( in earlier versions ) is neutral to somewhat undesirable. the remaining attributes, wheelchair use, obesity or overweight, mental illness, alcohol addiction, epilepsy, hiv / aids, and stuttering, are all regarded as conditions that respondents would not want to have or be. the only significant exception was that specialists in fluency disorders were less likely to rate stuttering as something they would not want to have. respondents in the six countries, responding in english as a second language or in their native language showed similarity overall to profiles of adults in the u. s., but showed some interesting variations. for example, stuttering was the lowest item scored for the turkish respondents while brazilian and bulgarian adults both scored mental illness lowest. data collected also confirm the well - known public confusion about the cause of stuttering. the data from specialists and generalist slps reveal general agreement for a genetic causal component and less certainty about psychological or learning components. among the lay public, only the danes believed that psychological etiology was not the strongest causal component ; neither did they believe stuttering is learned. by contrast, all the other lay groups rated psychological etiology the strongest. among all groups except fluency specialists, a disturbing minority regarded stuttering as an act of god, especially in south africa, nepal, and turkey. the fact that ghosts, demons, or spirits as causal agents for stuttering was not completely rejected - even by all slps in the u. s. - suggests that stigmatizing beliefs still occur. by contrast, most to nearly all respondents believe that people who stutter can lead normal lives, though least so in nepal. while most respondent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5155876650092701, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2ec4d0cc-d33f-4c7f-bf6b-37dcf32890d1>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.434795"}
{"text": "significance and use this test method is designed to measure the permeability to air of a small sample of rock. by extrapolation, this test method also determines an equivalent of the liquid permeability. this parameter is used to calculate the flow through rock of fluids subjected to a pressure differential. note 1 \u2014 notwithstanding the statements on precision and bias contained in this test method, the measures of precision of this test method is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing them, and on the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. agencies that meet the criteria of practice d 3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing. users of this test method are cautioned that compliance with practice d 3740 does not in itself assure reliable testing. reliable testing depends on many factors ; practice d 3740 provides a means for evaluating some of those factors. 1. 1 this test method covers the determination of the coefficient of specific permeability for the flow of air through rocks. the procedure establishes representative values of the coefficient of permeability of rocks or well - indurated soils. 1. 2 this test method is limited to permeability values greater than 0. 9869 pm2 ( 1. 0 picodarcy ), and is limited to rocks free of oil or unctuous matter. 1. 3 the values stated in si units are to be regarded as the standard. the values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to inch - pound units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard. 1. 4 this standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. it is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. 2. referenced documents ( purchase separately ) the documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard. d653 terminology relating to soil, rock, and contained fluids d3740 practice for minimum requirements for agencies engaged in testing and / or inspection of soil and rock as used in engineering design and construction american petroleum institute standard flow and flow rate ; permeability ; airflow performance ; coefficient of permeability ; flow and flow rate - - soil / rock / related materials ; liquids ; permeability - - soil / rock ; pressure testing - - rock ; reciprocal mean pressure ; rock materials / properties / analysis ; ics number code 93. 020 ( earth works. excavations. foundation construction. underground", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5558478517361547, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c45ec6a6-e6f7-4957-9adf-c58d51969ae5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.441405"}
{"text": "\" fugitive methane \" released during shale gas drilling could accelerate climate change. robert howarth, an ecologist and evolutionary biologist, and anthony ingraffea, a civil and environmental engineer, reported that fracked wells leak 40 to 60 percent more methane than conventional natural gas wells. when water with its chemical load is forced down a well to break the shale, it flows back up and is stored in large ponds or tanks. but volumes of methane also flow back up the well at the same time and are released into the atmosphere before they can be captured for use. this giant belch of \" fugitive methane \" can be seen in infrared videos taken at well sites. halliburton is the world ' s largest provider of hydraulic fracturing. who would have guessed. wait, aren ' t they in the private war contractor business. it seems they ' ve expanded to waging war on us water supplies. according to michael shellenberger, president of the breakthrough institute in california, we can thank us government policy for fracking. government policy encouraged the new exploration for gas and should get much of the credit for the resulting reduction in emissions. \u201c the gas boom is largely from shale, which is the result of a concerted government push, and tax credits, starting in the 70 \u2019 s, both of which are policies,... of course, he thinks fracking ' s good because it allows natural gas to replace coal. breakthrough institute apparently is \" luke - warmist \". essentially \" don ' t worry, be happy about our economic system \". \u201c luke - warmists \u201d may be defined as those who appear to accept the body of climate science but interpret it in a way that is least threatening : emphasising uncertainties, playing down dangers, and advocating a slow and cautious response. the effect of luke - warmers \u2019 contributions has been to sow doubt in the public mind about the credibility of the scientific warnings and the need to respond, just as exxon - funded think tanks have.... emphasize the \u201c inherent unknowability \u201d and \u201c systematic doubt \u201d in the body of scientific knowledge. they express misgivings about the desirability of investments in renewable energy, referring to their \u201c chilling history \u201d and \u201c serious financial and social consequences \u201d, a theme pursued by the breakthrough institute and more recently taken upby tea party republicans. here we get to the conservative heart of the luke - warmist position. for them the prevailing economic system is sacred, and any change must work around it. \u201c growth is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5271869411332402, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d92e6831-32be-4ca9-b34d-cb0fdfd4b5cc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.457591"}
{"text": "h. l. mencken ( 18801956 ). the american language. 1921. by jefferson. charles ledyard norton has devoted a whole book to their etymology and meaning ; 27 the number is far too large for a list of them to be attempted here. but a few characteristic specimens may be recalled, for example, the simple agglutinates : omnibus - bill, banner - state, favorite - son, anxious - bench, gag - rule, executive - session, mass - meeting, office - seeker and straight - ticket ; the humorous metaphors : pork - barrel, pie - counter, wire - puller, land - slide, carpet - bagger, lame - duck and on the fence ; the old words put to new uses : plank, pull, platform, machine, precinct, slate, primary, floater, repeater, bolter, stalwart, filibuster, regular and fences ; the new coinages : gerrymander, heeler, buncombe, roorback, mugwump and to bulldoze ; the new derivatives : abolitionist, candidacy, boss - rule, per - diem, to lobby and boodler ; and the almost innumerable verbs and verb - phrases : to knife, to split a ticket, to go up salt river, to bolt, to eat crow, to boodle, to divvy, to grab and to run. an english candidate never runs ; he stands. to run, according to thornton, was already used in america in 1789 ; it was universal by 1820. platform came in at the same time. machine was first applied to a political organization by aaron burr. the use of mugwump is commonly thought to have originated in the blaine campaign of 1884, but it really goes back to the 30s. anxious - bench ( or anxious - seat ) at first designated only the place occupied by the penitent at revivals, but was used in its present political sense in congress so early as 1842. banner - state appears in niles register for december 5, 1840. favorite - son appears in an ode addressed to washington on his visit to ports - mouth, n. h., in 1789, but it did not acquire its present ironical sense until it was applied to martin van buren. thornton has traced bolter to 1812, filibuster to 1863, roorback to 1844, and split - ticket to 1842. regularity was an issue in tammany hall in 1822. 28 there were primaries in new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5445997691239703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:de06b80a-c02b-400d-91a0-a0b9cc6ad350>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.467614"}
{"text": "? when on march 26 the supreme court hears oral arguments about whether california \u2019 s ban on same - sex marriages violates the constitutional right to \u201c equal protection of the laws, \u201d these arguments will invoke the intersection of law and social science. the court should tread cautiously, if at all, on this dark and bloody ground. the obama administration says california \u2019 s law expresses \u201c prejudice \u201d that is \u201c impermissible. \u201d but same - sex marriage is a matter about which intelligent people reasonably disagree, partly because so little is known about its consequences. when a federal judge asked the lawyer defending california \u2019 s ban what harm same - sex marriage would do to the state \u2019 s interests in \u201c the procreation purpose \u201d of heterosexual marriage, the lawyer said, \u201c i don \u2019 t know. \u201d this was mistakenly portrayed as a damaging admission. both sides should acknowledge that, so far, no one can know. a brief submitted to the u. s. supreme court concerning the california case by conservative professors leon kass and harvey mansfield and the institute for marriage and public policy warns that \u201c the social and behavioral sciences have a long history of being shaped and driven by politics and ideology. \u201d and research about, for example, the stability of same - sex marriages or child rearing by same - sex couples is \u201c radically inconclusive \u201d because these are recent phenomena and they provide a small sample from which to conclude that these innovations will be benign. unlike the physical sciences, the social sciences can rarely settle questions using \u201c controlled and replicable experiments. \u201d today \u201c there neither are nor could possibly be any scientifically valid studies from which to predict the effects of a family structure that is so new and so rare. \u201d hence there can be no \u201c scientific basis for constitutionalizing same - sex marriage. \u201d the brief does not argue against same - sex marriage as social policy, other than by counseling caution about altering foundational social institutions when guidance from social science is as yet impossible. the brief is a pre - emptive refutation of inappropriate invocations of spurious social science by supporters of same - sex marriage. for example, a district court cited dr. michael lamb, a specialist in child development, asserting that the \u201c gender of a child \u2019 s parent is not a factor in a child \u2019 s adjustment \u201d and that \u201c having both a male and female parent does not increase the likelihood that a child will be well - adjusted. \u201d the conservatives \u2019 brief notes that, testifying in the trial court, lamb \u201c had conceded that his own", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5239368685090917, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:be53b962-65e7-461c-a289-268f4d0bd40b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.471705"}
{"text": "\u2019 s adjustment \u201d and that \u201c having both a male and female parent does not increase the likelihood that a child will be well - adjusted. \u201d the conservatives \u2019 brief notes that, testifying in the trial court, lamb \u201c had conceded that his own published research concluded that growing up without fathers had significant negative effects on boys \u201d and that considerable research indicates \u201c that traditional opposite - sex biological parents appear in general to produce better outcomes for their children than other family structures do. \u201d the brief is replete with examples of misleading argumentation using data not drawn from studies satisfying \u201c the scientific standard of comparing large random samples with appropriate control samples. \u201d the late sen. daniel patrick moynihan, a distinguished social scientist, said the \u201c pronounced \u201d liberal orientation of the social sciences is \u201c well established \u201d and explainable : \u201c social scientists are frequently caught up in the politics which their work necessarily involves \u201d because social science \u201c attracts persons whose interests are in shaping the future. \u201d this helps explain why \u201c brandeis briefs \u201d have shaped american law. before joining the supreme court, louis brandeis defended constitutional challenges to progressive legislation by using briefs stressing social science data, or what purported to be such, rather than legal arguments. he advanced his political agenda by bald assertions inexcusable even given the limited scientific knowledge of the time. for example, in his 1908 defense of an oregon law restricting the number of hours women could work, he said \u201c there is more water \u201d in women \u2019 s than in men \u2019 s blood and women \u2019 s knees are constructed differently. since moynihan wrote the above in 1979, the politicization of the social sciences has become even more pronounced, particularly in matters of \u201c lifestyle liberalism. \u201d hence the need for judicial wariness about social science that purports to prove propositions - - e. g., that same - sex marriage is, or is not, harmful to children or society - - for which there cannot yet be decisive evidence. if california \u2019 s law is judged by legal reasoning, rather than by social science ostensibly proving that the state has no compelling interest served by banning same - sex marriage, the law may still be overturned on equal protection grounds. but such a victory for gay rights, grounded on constitutional values, and hence cast in the vocabulary of natural rights philosophy, would at least be more stable than one resting uneasily on the shiftable sand of premature social science conclusions. george will \u2019 s email address is firstname. lastname @ example. org. washington post", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.518983393254498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:be53b962-65e7-461c-a289-268f4d0bd40b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.472828"}
{"text": "research on the nature, diagnosis, and treatment of obesity and diabetes the purpose of this study is to determine whether the level of foxa2 expression in fat tissue is a biomarker of insulin resistance. to test this hypothesis, we will perform euglycemic - hyperinsulinemic clamps in normal and obese human subjects to calculate insulin sensitivity, and see if insulin sensitivity correlates with the foxa2 expression in subcutaneous fat. the investigators at rockefeller university hospital are engaged in research on the nature, diagnosis and treatment of obesity and diabetes. the investigators are trying to find out why insulin, a blood sugar lowering hormone that is released by the pancreas following a meal, does not work effectively in individuals with obesity or type 2 diabetes. the investigators have recently discovered a protein in fat cells of obese mice that helps fat cells to take up and break down sugar from the blood. this protein ( called foxa2 ) also prevents the generation of more fat cells. foxa2 is only present in obese mice, but absent from fat stores of lean animals. insulin can stimulate the production of foxa2 in fat cells. furthermore, the levels of foxa2 protein correlate with the degree of blood insulin levels. in this study, we are would like to determine whether foxa2 is also produced in fat cells of humans, and if its level correlates with the degree of obesity and insulin resistance. observational model : cohort, time perspective : prospective rockefeller university hospital results ( where available ) - source : http : / / clinicaltrials. gov / show / nct00229268 - information obtained from clinicaltrials. gov on july 15, 2010 medical and biotech [ mesh ] definitions a syndrome with excessively high insulin levels in the blood. it may cause hypoglycemia. etiology of hyperinsulinism varies, including hypersecretion of a beta cell tumor ( insulinoma ) ; autoantibodies against insulin ( insulin antibodies ) ; defective insulin receptor ( insulin resistance ) ; or overuse of exogenous insulin or hypoglycemic agents. diminished effectiveness of insulin in lowering blood sugar levels : requiring the use of 200 units or more of insulin per day to prevent hyperglycemia or ketosis. it can be caused by the presence of insulin antibodies or the abnormalities in insulin receptors ( receptor, insulin ) on target cell surfaces. it is often associated with obesity ; diabetic ketoacidosis ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5188512055754849, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7ee2f87c-e447-4439-8218-fc931216cf19>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.536677"}
{"text": "the amino - acid sequence ( or primary structure ) of a protein predisposes it towards its native conformation or conformations. it will fold spontaneously during or after synthesis. while these macromolecules may be regarded as \" folding themselves \", the mechanism depends equally on the characteristics of the cytosol, including the nature of the primary solvent ( water or lipid ), macromolecular crowding, the concentration of salts, the temperature, and molecular chaperones. subscribe in a reader most folded proteins have a hydrophobic core in which side chain packing stabilizes the folded state, and charged or polar side chains on the solvent - exposed surface where they interact with surrounding water molecules. it is generally accepted that minimizing the number of hydrophobic side - chains exposed to water is the principal driving force behind the folding process, although a recent theory has been proposed which reassesses the contributions made by hydrogen bonding the strengths of hydrogen bonds in a protein vary, i. e. they are dependent on their microenvironment, thus h - bonds enveloped in a hydrophobic core contribute more than h - bonds exposed to the aqueous environment to the stability of the native state. the process of folding in vivo often begins co - translationally, so that the n - terminus of the protein begins to fold while the c - terminal portion of the protein is still being synthesized by the ribosome. specialized proteins called chaperones assist in the folding of other proteins. a well studied example is the bacterial groel system, which assists in the folding of globular proteins. in eukaryotic organisms chaperones are known as heat shock proteins. although most globular proteins are able to assume their native state unassisted, chaperone - assisted folding is often necessary in the crowded intracellular environment to prevent aggregation ; chaperones are also used to prevent misfolding and aggregation which may occur as a consequence of exposure to heat or other changes in the cellular environment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5771982396023981, "token_count": 410, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:12126776-a149-4e0f-8ff9-22952df2e1dd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.539979"}
{"text": "so last time, tetra was being enlightened by mc - kun about definitions. this actually arises from mc - kun using prime numbers as a motivating example. primes are megas important in mathematics and even more important today. the entire branch of mathematics called number theory is all about studying the properties of prime numbers. they \u2019 re so useful that we \u2019 ve done stuff like extend the notion of prime elements to algebraic structures called rings or apply analytic techniques to learn more about them, but we \u2019 ll stick with elementary number theory for now. now, for hundreds of years, we \u2019 d been studying number theory only because it \u2019 s cool and mathematicians love prime numbers. last time, i mentioned some examples of math preceding useful applications. well, number theory is a really good example of that, because in the 70s, we found a use for it, which is its main use today, in cryptography. there have been some new techniques using some algebra as well, but for the most part, modern cryptography relies on the hardness of factoring primes. neat! okay, so we \u2019 re back to the original question that mc - kun tries to get tetra to answer, which is, what is a prime number? definition. an integer $ p $ is prime if and only if $ p \\ geq 2 $ and the only positive divisors of $ p $ are 1 and itself. mc - kun explains that the motivation for excluding 1 from the definition of a prime number is because we want to be able to say that we can write every number as a unique product of prime numbers. this is very useful, because now we know we can break down every number like this and we can tell them apart because they \u2019 re guaranteed to have a unique representation. this is called unique prime factorization. theorem. let $ a > 0 $ be an integer. then we can write $ a = p _ 1p _ 2 \\ cdots p _ k $ for some primes $ p _ 1, \\ dots, p _ k $. this representation is unique up to changing the order of terms. we can show this by induction on $ a $. we \u2019 ve got $ a = 2 $ so that \u2019 s pretty obvious. so let \u2019 s say that every integer $ k \\ lt a $ can be decomposed like this and suppose we can \u2019 t decompose $ a $ into prime numbers, assuming $ a $ itself isn \u2019 t already a prime since it would just be its own", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6272333426176913, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:64fa679e-b305-4951-86ba-269d9887820f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.545205"}
{"text": "that every integer $ k \\ lt a $ can be decomposed like this and suppose we can \u2019 t decompose $ a $ into prime numbers, assuming $ a $ itself isn \u2019 t already a prime since it would just be its own prime decomposition. then we can factor $ a = cd $ for some integers $ c $ and $ d $. but both $ c $ and $ d $ are less than $ a $, which means they can be written as a product of primes, so we just split them up into their primes and multiply them all together to get $ a $. tada. as a sort of side note, i mentioned before that primes are so useful that we wanted to be able to extend the idea of prime elements into rings. well, it turns out for certain rings, it isn \u2019 t necessarily true that numbers will always have a unique representation when decomposed into primes. this is something that comes up in algebraic number theory, which is named so because it involves algebraic structures and techniques. this was invented while we were trying to figure out if fermat \u2019 s last theorem was actually true ( which needed this and other fun mathematical inventions from the last century that implies that fermat was full of shit when he said he had a proof ). so at the end of the chapter, after tetra gets her chair kicked over by the megane math girl, we \u2019 re treated to a note that acts as a sort of coda to the chapter that mentions that there are infinitely many primes. how do we know this? suppose that there are only finitely many primes. then we can just list all of the prime numbers, like on wikipedia or something. so we \u2019 ve got our list of primes $ p _ 1, p _ 2, \\ dots, p _ k $. so let \u2019 s make a number like $ n = 1 + p _ 1 \\ cdots p _ k $. well, that number is just a regular old number, so we can break it down into its prime factors. we already know all the primes, so it has to be divisible by one of them, let \u2019 s say $ p _ i $. now we want to consider the greatest common divisor of the two numbers, which is just the largest number that divides both of them. we \u2019 ll denote this by $ \\ gcd ( a, b ) $. so since $ p _ i $ is a factor of $", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5178006316762479, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:64fa679e-b305-4951-86ba-269d9887820f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.546077"}
{"text": "common divisor of the two numbers, which is just the largest number that divides both of them. we \u2019 ll denote this by $ \\ gcd ( a, b ) $. so since $ p _ i $ is a factor of $ n $, we \u2019 ve got $ \\ gcd ( n, p _ i ) = p _ i $. but then that gives us $ p _ i = \\ gcd ( n, p _ i ) = \\ gcd ( p _ i, 1 ) = 1 $ by a lemma that says that for $ a = qb + r $, we have $ \\ gcd ( a, b ) = \\ gcd ( b, r ) $. this means that we have $ p _ i = 1 $, which is a contradiction, since 1 isn \u2019 t a prime number, and so i guess there are actually infinitely many primes. so the nice thing is that we won \u2019 t run out of prime numbers anytime soon, which is very useful because as we get more and more computing power, we \u2019 ll have to increase the size of the keys we use in our cryptosystems. luckily, because factoring is so hard, we don \u2019 t need to increase that size very much before we \u2019 re safe for a while. or at least until we develop practical quantum computers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.615281217662784, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:64fa679e-b305-4951-86ba-269d9887820f>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.547466"}
{"text": "table of contents there are times when a generic ( in the sense of general as opposed to template - based programming ) type is needed : variables that are truly variable, accommodating values of many other more specific types rather than c + + ' s normal strict and static types. we can distinguish three basic kinds of generic type : converting types that can hold one of a number of possible value types, e. g. int and string, and freely convert between them, for instance interpreting 5 as \" 5 \" or vice - versa. such types are common in scripting and other interpreted languages. boost : : lexical _ cast supports such conversion functionality. discriminated types that contain values of different types but do not attempt conversion between them, i. e. 5 is held strictly as an int and is not implicitly convertible either to \" 5 \" or to 5. 0. their indifference to interpretation but awareness of type effectively makes them safe, generic containers of single values, with no scope for surprises from ambiguous conversions. indiscriminate types that can refer to anything but are oblivious to the actual underlying type, entrusting all forms of access and interpretation to the programmer. this niche is dominated by void *, which offers plenty of scope for surprising, undefined behavior. the boost : : any class ( based on the class of the same name described in \" valued conversions \" by kevlin henney, c + + report 12 ( 7 ), july / august 2000 ) is a variant value type based on the second category. it supports copying of any value type and safe checked extraction of that value strictly against its type. a similar design, offering more appropriate operators, can be used for a generalized function adaptor, any _ function, a generalized iterator adaptor, any _ iterator, and other object types that need uniform runtime treatment but support only compile - time template parameter conformance. | last revised : march 15, 2003 at 23 : 12 : 35 gmt |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5294866245247141, "token_count": 407, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:34ea8624-ad51-4e8f-8439-519cf0cc5d77>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.554223"}
{"text": "leds are commonly used in all kinds of applications. the tiny red and green indication lights found here and there on electronic equipment such as tvs and computers are leds. they are very efficient in converting an electric current directly into light, but their use was limited by technical constraints preventing the creation of colors other than red and green. in the 1990s, led color display was made possible by the development of blue leds, and we are now witnessing rapid growth in led applications. the outdoor displays you see on the sides of buildings and other locations on city streets use leds. they are also employed in the optical scanning units of color copying machines and image scanners. mechanism by which light exposure produces an electric current to understand leds, let ' s first take a look at the mechanism by which light exposure produces an electric current, such as in solar batteries. semiconductors, a term you probably hear daily, are a key component of electric circuits, including computers, and they are commonly made from silicon. semiconductors either use \" n - type \" silicon, in which there are extra electrons, or \" p - type \" silicon, in which there are missing electrons that form \" electron holes \" or simply \" holes. \" combining these two types of silicon produces a \" pn junction diode. \" when the pn junction is exposed to light, the p - type silicon becomes an anode and the n - type silicon a cathode. attaching electrodes to either side and then connecting them to an external electrical conductor produces a current. this is also the principle behind solar batteries. what do you suppose goes on inside a pn junction diode? when silicon is exposed to light such as that from the sun, electrons and electron holes are produced therein. connecting the p - type silicon and n - type silicon to an external electrical conductor causes electrons in the electron - rich n - type silicon to move to the p - type silicon and the electron holes in the hole - rich p - type silicon to move to the n - type silicon. this in turn causes the excess electrons to flow out over the electrical conductor from the electrode attached to the n - type silicon and head towards the electrode on the p - type silicon, thereby generating an electric current. the flow of an electric current is defined as heading in the opposite direction of the flow of electrons, thus we get an electric current in which the p - type silicon is an anode and the n - type silicon a cathode. mechanism by which application of a current produces", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5710918532479169, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5b328f78-51eb-4863-9128-c6b167353bad>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.604358"}
{"text": "is defined as heading in the opposite direction of the flow of electrons, thus we get an electric current in which the p - type silicon is an anode and the n - type silicon a cathode. mechanism by which application of a current produces light since exposing a pn junction diode to light produces an electric current just like a solar battery, the reverse should also hold true, i. e. applying an external electric current in the opposite direction should cause light to emit from the pn junction. this phenomenon does in fact occur. making the n - type silicon the cathode and the p - type silicon the anode produces light. this is known as a light - emitting diode ( led ). however, light emission from such rudimentary leds is inefficient, making them ill suited for practical applications. only after creating pn junctions using semiconductor materials made of the compounds gallium arsenide, gallium phosphide, and gallium arsenide phosphide did leds become practical. semiconductor lasers also use pn junctions the semiconductor laser is another technology that uses pn junctions. creating a pn junction within a semiconductor brings about \" population inversion \" by means of the electrons that flow into n - type silicon and the electron holes in p - type silicon. by skillfully placing two perpendicular mirrors with cleavage planes of semiconductor crystal on either end of the pn junction, we can intensify light by making it bounce back and forth between the planes, thus producing a laser beam comprising light with uniform phase and direction. such semiconductor lasers are also called laser diodes. these devices are only about 300 micrometers square and 80 micrometers thick. laser diodes using gallium arsenide phosphide, which emit a laser beam with a wavelength of 700 nanometers, are being mass produced for use in compact disc ( cd ) players and laser beam printers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6176091276733948, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5b328f78-51eb-4863-9128-c6b167353bad>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.605549"}
{"text": "hydraulic fracking is a process of injecting proprietary chemicals into the ground in order to fracture rock and release natural gas. many parts of north carolina, mostly outside the catawba basin, are considered to have good potential for \" fracking \" to release natural gas deposits. overview of fracking - hydraulic fracturing, also known as hydrofracking ( or \" fracking \" ), is a process of extracting natural gas in gas shale deposits by drilling horizontally. - the process of fracking involves injecting ( with high pressure ) sand, hundreds of chemicals and millions of gallons of water into a well. - the pressure fractures the shale and props open fissures that enable natural gas to flow more freely out of the well. - for a quick visual presentation of how this happens watch the video to the left or click here for an interactive demonstration. potential problems from fracking fracking has the potential to pollute the air, groundwater, and surface waters. potential devestating impacts include : - pollution of surface waters ( from drilling fluids and other wastes that are brought to the surface in the drilling process ) ; - groundwater contamination ( from bad well construction and the fracking process ) ; - air pollution ( from the wells and related truck traffic ) ; - strain on water supplies ( fracking requires large quantities of water ) ; - hazardous material spills ( fracking fluids and fracking wastes ) ; - heavy truck traffic ; - and disruption of local economies. reports on fracking and its wastewater disposal have caused some distressing problems in other states : a duke university study in dimock, pa found that some residents \u2019 water wells exploded or their water could be lit on fire. - the epa scientifically linked fracking as the cause of water contamination in pavillion, wyoming. the following videos contain additional information about fracking : - for our library of information about hydraulic fracking, click here - for information about other issues, click here - for even more information, go to :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5251552162119404, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:425cba29-2e3c-42be-b976-7e1fabc75cc6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.607737"}
{"text": "building responsibly for future generations. sustainable building design. discover how respecting nature, preserving resources and building habitats with sensitivity to the world around us is actually good business. certainteed building science supports sustainable design in an effort to minimize the negative impact humans have on our natural surroundings, materials, and resources. it also ensures consistent high performance over the full lifecycle of the building. the overall objective of sustainability is to provide for the needs of the present without detracting from the needs of the future. sustainable building projects should result in an optimal balance of cost, environmental, societal, and human benefits, while meeting the mission and function of the intended facility. the sustainable building portion of the certainteed website is a robust resource covering the roots of sustainable design as well as the latest understandings in high performance products and solutions that deliver sustainability over the full lifecycle of the building. certainteed supports the leed ( leadership in energy and environmental design ) and nahb national green building standard. our resources provide information and insight into how to design and build with the standards and sustainability in mind. our goal is to provide the science and material solutions you need to reduce the consumption of non - renewable resources and energy, minimize waste, conserve water, and create productive, healthy environments for the future. get more information on how certainteed is sustainable by visiting the certainteed building responsibly sitelette. building science home", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5317767447631061, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd4efef7-3d67-46f8-a4c5-f23e6f641402>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.632536"}
{"text": "dose comparison of amino acids on growth in premature neonates malnutrition is a common problem in the neonatal intensive care unit. recent studies indicate that prematurely born neonates commonly develop a severe nutritional deficit during the first weeks after birth, referred to as extrauterine growth restriction. despite an increase in growth during the second month of hospitalization, many neonates are ultimately discharged home having grown inadequately. the early nutritional deficit affects weight gain as well as growth in length and head circumference. growth measurements such as weight, length, and head circumference, however, are macroscopic measures of nutritional status and underestimate the physiologic consequences of prolonged nutritional deprivation. energy and micronutrient deficiencies alter growth at a cellular and tissue level before macroscopic measures are altered. in the brain, for instance, energy is required for cell division and neuronal growth, glial cell function, and myelination. energy deprivation may consequently alter neuronal function and growth, resulting in adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. immunocompetence also appears to be sensitive to the untoward effects of energy and nutritional deficiency. malnourished neonates often exhibit immune deficiencies related to inadequate protein intake that compound an already immature immune system. such immunodeficiency results in susceptibility to infectious agents that creates substantial morbidity and mortality to the course of intensive care for premature infants. a recent study suggests that postnatal malnutrition and growth restriction are inevitable if current recommended dietary intakes are followed. multicenter studies show that variation in dietary intake accounts for 45 % of the variation in growth. hence, efforts have focused on determining whether nutritional deficiency and the observed growth restriction of premature infants can be prevented through the use of more optimal nutritional intake. in addition, inadequate protein support may be a primary cause for growth failure. based on animal studies showing high in utero amino acid flux observed during the latter phase of gestation, thureen et al have suggested the use of higher doses of amino acid supplementation in order to minimize growth restriction and improve outcomes of premature infants. however there are no large human trials that demonstrate that this approach promotes better growth or that it is safe. while small doses of amino acids may be inadequate to promote normal growth, high doses may lead to elevated serum amino acid levels and increase the occurrence of toxicity. through the implementation of a multicenter, randomized trial and tandem mass spectrometry, the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5032356305725325, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:94e1ae3f-c8e3-46be-9f01-09dcfe6667f4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.656348"}
{"text": "1. the unit of frequency. 4. ( zoology ) lacking a tail or taillike appendage. 12. piece of solid food for dipping in a liquid. 15. resinlike substance secreted by certain lac insects. 16. ornamental objects of no great value. 17. any of various primates with short tails or no tail at all. 18. to make a mistake or be incorrect. 19. third month of the revolutionary calendar ( november and december ). 20. god of the earth. 21. ( anatomy ) of or relating to the fauces. 23. ( norse mythology ) one of the aesir known for his beauty and skill with bow and skis. 24. type genus of the phocidae. 26. the jewish rite of circumcision performed on a male child on the eighth day of his life. 27. a state in new england. 29. become imbued. 31. a state in east central united states. 32. port city of denmark in eastern jutland. 36. a white soft metallic element that tarnishes readily. 37. a soft white precious univalent metallic element having the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal. 39. a rare silvery ( usually trivalent ) metallic element. 41. an island republic on nauru island. 42. a family of birds of the suborder oscines. 46. a ballplayer who is batting. 48. an informal term for a father. 49. the seventh month of the moslem calendar. 51. any of various young herrings ( other than brislings ) canned as sardines in norway. 52. jordan ' s port. 54. a city in northwestern turkey. 55. small cubes with 1 to 6 spots on the faces. 56. fallow deer. 60. a hard brittle blue - white multivalent metallic element. 61. a loloish language. 62. a fraudulent business scheme. 64. indonesian statesman who obtained the independence of indonesia from the netherlands in 1949 and served as president until ousted by suharto in a coup d ' etat ( 1901 - 1970 ). 69. ( akkadian ) god of wisdom. 71. small terrestrial lizard of warm regions of the old world. 74. title for a civil or military leader ( especially in turkey ). 75. ( used especially of glances ) directed to one side with or as if with doubt or suspicion or envy. 78. toward the mouth or oral region. 79. an advanced law", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6064828405489157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a8ab0e21-8c4e-4095-a8bd-3ba4e9d3162f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.671921"}
{"text": "title for a civil or military leader ( especially in turkey ). 75. ( used especially of glances ) directed to one side with or as if with doubt or suspicion or envy. 78. toward the mouth or oral region. 79. an advanced law degree. 80. a man who serves as a sailor. 81. portuguese explorer who in 1488 was the first european to get round the cape of good hope ( thus establishing a sea route from the atlantic to asia ) ( 1450 - 1500 ). 82. perennial herb of east india to polynesia and australia cultivated for its large edible root yielding otaheite arrowroot starch. 83. a deciduous tree of the family ulmaceae that grows in the southeastern united states. 84. a river in north central switzerland that runs northeast into the rhine. 1. a musical notation written on a staff indicating the pitch of the notes following it. 2. ( obstetrics ) the number of live - born children a woman has delivered. 3. protective garment worn by surgeons during operations. 4. a vaguely specified concern. 5. a town in southeastern new mexico on the pecos river near the mexican border. 6. american prizefighter who won the world heavyweight championship three times ( born in 1942 ). 7. a member of the finno - ugric - speaking people living in eastern european russia. 8. method or manner of conduct in relation to others. 9. fleshy and usually brightly colored cover of some seeds that develops from the ovule stalk and partially or entirely envelopes the seed. 10. any of various dark heavy viscid substances obtained as a residue. 11. five - toed pachyderm. 12. powdery starch from certain sago palms. 13. an organization of countries formed in 1961 to agree on a common policy for the sale of petroleum. 14. having nine hinged bands of bony plates. 22. united states physician who specialized in diseases of the intestines. 25. cause to suffer. 28. the syllable naming the fourth ( subdominant ) note of the diatonic scale in solmization. 30. united states writer of poems and plays about racial conflict ( born in 1934 ). 33. containing or characterized by a great deal of water vapor. 34. a family of ural - altaic languages. 35. break apart or in two, using violence. 38. united states film actress ( born in sweden ) known for her reclusiveness ( 1905 - 1990 ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.512245999789506, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a8ab0e21-8c4e-4095-a8bd-3ba4e9d3162f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.672982"}
{"text": "water vapor. 34. a family of ural - altaic languages. 35. break apart or in two, using violence. 38. united states film actress ( born in sweden ) known for her reclusiveness ( 1905 - 1990 ). 40. lower in esteem. 43. mild yellow dutch cheese made in balls. 44. an agency of the united nations affiliated with the world bank. 45. at or near the beginning of a period of time or course of events or before the usual or expected time. 47. a loose sleeveless outer garment made from aba cloth. 50. cut into long thin strips. 53. a small cake leavened with yeast. 57. used at the dining table. 58. aircraft landing in bad weather in which the pilot is talked down by ground control using precision approach radar. 59. an asian temple. 63. a dark region of considerable extent on the surface of the moon. 65. large sweet juicy hybrid between tangerine and grapefruit having a thick wrinkled skin. 66. god of love and erotic desire. 67. an inclined surface or roadway that moves traffic from one level to another. 68. long green edible beaked pods of the okra plant. 70. type genus of the aceraceae. 72. a flat - bottomed volcanic crater that was formed by an explosion. 73. an edge tool used to cut and shape wood. 76. belonging to or on behalf of a specified person ( especially yourself ). 77. a period marked by distinctive character or reckoned from a fixed point or event.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.554249029819898, "token_count": 316, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a8ab0e21-8c4e-4095-a8bd-3ba4e9d3162f>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.673531"}
{"text": "while it can ' t change such opinions overnight, aerovironment is looking to slowly warm people to wind power by providing direct solutions to the frequent criticisms. and in the process, it hopes to transform the face of modern cities around the world. aerovironment produces building - mounted turbines, smaller than those typically seen on wind farms. by mounting the turbine structure to the tops of buildings, the benefits are twofold. first, the cost in resources of building a pole to support the turbine is eliminated. secondly, the turbines can be elevated much higher, exposing them to stronger winds. the nearly silent turbines snap onto the parapet of urban structures, forming a design that aerovironment calls \u2018 architectural wind \u2019. the rows of turbines not only catch cross currents, but also the frequent currents that develop up the side of buildings. the result is a 30 percent increase in energy production and even better, a great savings in hassle, in that the turbines are quick to snap in. while the system is extremely well designed and efficient, many will be drawn to its style. the system ' s curvy design looks more like a modern art sculpture than a cutting edge alternative energy design. this in turn adds to the urban appeal. part of the structure even serves another utilitarian use - - the large metal plate over the turbine acts as a bird shield, in an effort to minimize avian casualties. aerovironment describes their product stating, \" architectural wind is designed to install easily onto the building parapet, operating in plain sight as an attractive complement to the building \u2019 s architecture. additionally, based on its proprietary system design, architectural wind turbines rotate at low wind speeds, resulting in a form of \u2018 kinetic architecture \u2019 that communicates clearly the generation of clean energy. working alone or in tandem with other renewable energy technologies, architectural wind is designed to offer an attractive roi and cost per kw of installed capacity. \" a module weighs 200 lbs, allowing relatively easy installation, but also ensuring that it won ' t blow away. they measure 4 feet tall by 4 feet wide. installations start at 6 kw of power production and can be scaled up to produce much more. almost any rooftop is suitable to the nonintrusive installation. the product is in development, but the company hopes to mass produce the new turbines on a large scale, making them relatively affordable, and ensuring the systems turn a profit in energy costs. while wind farms leave some with little to be excited about, aerovironment ' s new approach seems an intriguing fit to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5308535856147225, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:23fc2447-071c-4084-9420-202e2ed850ca>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.686227"}
{"text": "may 24, 2012 currently, there are increasing suggestions that the lower levels of governments should issue joint bonds in cooperation with the central government. in spain, so - called \u201c hispanobonos \u201d have been discussed for quite some time. representatives of some \u2013 mainly fiscally weaker \u2013 german federal states have lately suggested so - called \u201c deutschlandbonds \u201d. what is the main idea behind them? the two concepts have two elements in common : on the one hand, the lower levels of government of the federation ( germany : lander, spain : regions ) are to be jointly liable for their debt ( i. e. : jointly issued bonds ). on the other, the superior government level ( germany : federal government, spain : central government ) would additionally cover this liability with explicit guarantees or even issue the total volumes of the bonds themselves. on the basis of this concept, deutschlandbonds must therefore not be mixed up with joint lander bonds ( jumbos ) : here, a number of federal states join forces and issue a joint bond with liability on a pro rata basis and one federal state functioning as paying agent. the arguments put forward are ultimately based on the consideration that the central government may usually borrow money at lower costs ( interest rates ) in the capital market : the credit standing of central government is better, and the marketability should increase due to higher market liquidity. it is foreseeable that the explicit credit guarantee on bonds of subordinate levels of government would also reduce the risk premium on these bonds required by investors. an interest saving for subordinate levels of government and ultimately also the entire government thus seems possible. the motivation for such joint borrowing in the examples available varies, however : while in germany individual federal states are promoting the idea, central government is the decisive driver in spain. it hopes to get better control of the budgets of subordinate levels of government, as central bank borrowing is to be linked with conditions for the regions and more influence of the central government on the budget policy of the regions. the idea of \u201c deutschlandbonds \u201d and \u201c hispanobonos \u201d is often compared with the concept of eurobonds. however, this comparison holds true only at first sight. euroland is not a fiscal federation ( yet ). there is no superior political governance level which by analogy to the central government could interfere in the policy and budgetary sovereignty of the euroland countries. this is not changed by the latest bills from the european commission ( \u201c two pack \u201d ), which allow closer scrutiny but no direct interference, though.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5232028451941984, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4f3de52b-3a18-4680-9b87-ee5648250f2e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.692260"}
{"text": "analogy to the central government could interfere in the policy and budgetary sovereignty of the euroland countries. this is not changed by the latest bills from the european commission ( \u201c two pack \u201d ), which allow closer scrutiny but no direct interference, though. irrespective of this, it cannot be ruled out that advocates of euro bonds disregard this specification and interpret \u201c deutschlandbonds \u201d as a precedent in their interest. how is the suggestion of joint bonds and especially \u201c deutschlandbonds \u201d to be assessed? indeed there is a lot to suggest that a pool would make possible higher issue volumes. germany \u2019 s lander and spain \u2019 s regions would probably no longer have to contend with liquidity premiums ( currently up to 100 bp for the german federal states and several hundred basis points in spain ). at the same time, ( remaining or new ) bonds without assumptions of liability would only be traded at a premium. in an environment where investors show a risk - averse attitude such a market segmentation could have the effect that bonds with assumed liability could crowd out other bonds. this would have the side effect that the possibility for subordinate levels of government to borrow on their own would be severely restricted. the influence of the central government would be increased successfully \u2013 but the budgetary autonomy of the subordinate government level would be reduced. especially this restriction would call into question the legal admissability of lander borrowing in germany. for this reason, at best a voluntary participation in the model would be a solution. due to the mentioned crowding - out effect of fiscally weaker federal states, this would automatically have the consequence that federal states under market pressure as a result of weak economic governance would have no alternative but to choose the \u201c deutschlandbond \u201c model. their financial independence would be reduced. a low level of interest rates for central government cannot be taken for granted, though. an explicit liability does not necessarily bring more certainty from the investor point of view. a bailout of lower levels of government \u2013 especially in germany \u2013 was often implicitly assumed by investors, with the consequence of quite low yield premiums. structural problems as the reason for the debt of lower levels of government would not be solved via an assumption of liability, however : the key to the solution of structural budget problems at lower government levels would probably be the potential conditionality which could be set in the framework of an explicit assumption of liability by the central government. but it is not as simple as that : the argument that the central government, securing the financing of the lander, controls the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5355019044016267, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4f3de52b-3a18-4680-9b87-ee5648250f2e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.693359"}
{"text": "probably be the potential conditionality which could be set in the framework of an explicit assumption of liability by the central government. but it is not as simple as that : the argument that the central government, securing the financing of the lander, controls the landers \u2019 finances is not totally convincing. in the federal system, superior and lower levels of government are interdependent not only in the field of fiscal policy. they depend on each other in other fields as well ; for example when a central government bill requires the support of the bundesrat. this could result in horsetrading and dampens the optimism that the greater scope for central government control will also be perceived and exercised. the german bundesrat provides a clear demonstration of the conflicts between the central government and lower levels of government that does not stop at party boundaries. irrespective of this, there are funding options for the lander and the spanish regions besides the capital market. they may also borrow via loans of their landesbanks or financial institutions. currently, loans ( still ) account for roughly 50 % of the borrowing of the lander. this compares to roughly 55 % in spain. these arguments suggest that \u201c deutschlandbonds \u201d and \u201c hispanobonos \u201d are not a lasting solution to the problem of ballooning debt for sub - national levels of government but \u2013 depending on their structure \u2013 may even have a negative effect on budget discipline. for the more reliable the joint liability system, the fewer the incentives that the lower level of government has to economise. at least in this respect, the german lander and the spanish regions are more european than quite a few people would like. \u00a9 copyright 2013. deutsche bank ag, db research, d - 60262 frankfurt am main, germany. all rights reserved. when quoting please cite \u201c deutsche bank research \u201d. the above information does not constitute the provision of investment, legal or tax advice. any views expressed reflect the current views of the author, which do not necessarily correspond to the opinions of deutsche bank ag or its affiliates. opinions expressed may change without notice. opinions expressed may differ from views set out in other documents, including research, published by deutsche bank. the above information is provided for informational purposes only and without any obligation, whether contractual or otherwise. no warranty or representation is made as to the correctness, completeness and accuracy of the information given or the assessments made. in germany this information is approved and / or communicated by deutsche bank ag frankfurt, authorised by bundesanstal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.51300177882848, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4f3de52b-3a18-4680-9b87-ee5648250f2e>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.694435"}
{"text": "there are no facts, only interpretations. - frederich nietzsche when the allegation lacks substance or reality, nothing is required in response. \u2013 commission of national inquiry ( coni ) by azra naseem the idea that an objective truth can exist independent of political power is a myth dating back to plato. on the contrary, truth and political power are intricately woven together \u2014 one cannot exist without the other. instead of an \u2018 objective truth \u2019, what becomes accepted as \u2018 reality \u2019 is based on what those in power are willing to include as \u2018 true \u2019 and what they exclude as \u2018 false \u2019 in what they say and do about a given issue. while such power / truth relations are normally hidden from surface observations and casual scrutiny, the report of the commission of national inquiry, maldives is a document that blatantly demonstrates how \u2018 truth \u2019 is produced in this manner and how the truth so constructed is used to exercise power and control over society. it is coni \u2019 s conclusion that there was \u201c no coup, no duress, no mutiny \u201d in the maldives on 7 february 2012. to arrive at this \u2018 truth \u2019, the coni report excludes all information it regards as false and includes only what it deems true according to preconceived notions and beliefs. \u201c when the allegation lacks substance or reality \u201d, it states, \u201c nothing is required in response. \u201d how coni decided what \u2018 lacks substance or reality \u2019 and, therefore, can be dismissed as not worthy of a response, is not explained. it is an arbitrary measurement, composed and set up by the commission according to a standard that itself decided on, and which it decided not to make public. some statements contained in the report, however, do provide an indication as to the criteria used by coni to decide which of the 293 witnesses it interviewed were telling the truth, and which of them were judged as simply repeating \u2018 hearsay \u2019 or enthusiastically relaying fantasies of a confused mind susceptible to suggestion. take, for example, the following statement : just as a question has no evidential value unless the person answering accepts or adopts the fact contained in the question, allegations have no evidential value just because someone has articulated them repeatedly. what does this confused and confusing statement mean? if a question is being asked in order to establish the facts of an event, why then does the question itself contain a fact that the answer must first accept for it to be considered valid? is coni saying that a decision was made from the very beginning to exclude", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5393335435504694, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ebc7f90c-8f72-4d69-b0bf-a097058cf8c6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.728950"}
{"text": "##i claims it to be. it is a \u2018 truth \u2019 that coni constructed by excluding what it arbitrarily deemed irrelevant and / or false, and including what it, in the same manner, deemed relevant and factual. given the relations between political power and truth \u2014 a truth cannot be accepted as such until those in power validate it through their words and actions \u2014 those who refuse to believe coni \u2019 s version of the truth are automatically labelled \u2018 delusional \u2019, \u2018 mad \u2019, or \u2018 fantasists. \u2019 the coni report did not heal any rifts, it did not answer the questions that mattered, it did not provide the maldivian people with the information they need to see the \u2018 truth \u2019 on their own. instead, it constructed an official version of events that everyone must accept as the truth or be themselves regarded as false. - the review also highlights how much evidence regarding the mutiny of a group of police and military personnel on 7 february \u2014 without which the change of government would not have been made possible \u2014 is missing from the coni report. given the importance of their role in the ending of the country \u2019 s first democratic government, and the increasingly powerful role that they have assumed in the maldivian society since, coni \u2019 s investigation into the police and military roles deserves a separate analysis. this will be published shortly as part of this series.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5073989148781783, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ebc7f90c-8f72-4d69-b0bf-a097058cf8c6>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.738331"}
{"text": "networked together, allowing them to share sensor information between them. if an enemy target enters the field the mines will determine which one has the best possible intercept solution ; this mine will activate its micro impulse drive at the appropriate moment and track in on the target, detonating its warhead at the moment of closest approach. the type 19 mine operates in a similar manner but the mines are fitted with a small warp engine to allow them to engage targets using warp drive. at this level the mine is essentially a photon torpedo capable of lying dormant for long periods. the most recent development in federation mine technology is the model developed by an engineering team on deep space nine under chief miles o ' brien. barely a metre in diameter this is one of the smallest mines in use by the federation. 5 it contains a photonic charge equal to several hundred grenades rather than a matter / antimatter charge, along with a micro impulse system and sensor system capable of scanning out to a radius of two thousand kilometres. the limited range and destructive capability is more than offset by the use of both a cloaking device and a replicator system on the mines ; when a target is detected the mines swarm it, overwhelming the defences. once the target is destroyed the mines in that area can replicate replacements to quickly bring the field back up to strength. this type of minefield is exceptionally difficult to clear ; the use of a cloaking system on the mines means that an enemy can never be sure that every mine has been destroyed in a weapons barrage. should only a handful survive to destroy another target, hundreds or even thousands more mines are quickly replicated and the field can be back up to full strength within hours. such a minefield was deployed at the bajoran wormhole to block access by dominion forces, triggering the federation - dominion war. 5 the dominion forces which captured ds9 at the outbreak of the war struggled several months to disable the minefield without success before finally managing it just before the station was retaken by allied forces. 6", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5511407050756613, "token_count": 406, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:89b2acd2-f979-4b75-a217-6d9da1b737eb>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.753694"}
{"text": "since 2000, the folks at realtime embedded have concentrated on helping companies develop embedded systems used in advanced products. their four primary focus areas are fpga, linux, virtual hardware, and multicore processing systems. realtime embedded is involved in customer and financed research projects, in house and on site, spanning a wide range of industries. many of you may have already read my blog called how to design an fpga from scratch, which i started to write 2006 and which max maxfield wrote about in ee times for the first time in 2007. my latest blog describes the work i have performed at realtime embedded over the course of the past year. in this blog, i investigate four soft - core processors and use the same setup as in my first blog called \u201c learning by doing. \u201d this means that each soft processor will be implemented in an fpga and the whole design process will be documented. click here to visit my blog. why use soft - core processors? when designing an embedded system in a fpga, we will most likely need some form of \u201c controller \u201d in our system. this controller can be a simple microcontroller or a fully - fledged microprocessor running the linux operating system. but before we make this decision, let \u2019 s first consider the various options that are available to us. one solution is to use an off - the - shelf ( ots ) microprocessor mounted on the board and connecting to the fpga using a standard bus like amba. in fact, this still appears to be the most commonly - used solution. there are times, however, where an ots processor - based approach will not meet our requirements. an example would be an application that requires peripheral functionality that is not available in a discrete solution, or where board real estate is limited. another option is to embed a \u201c hard \u201d processor core on the chip. a hard processor core has dedicated silicon area on the fpga. this allows it to operate with a core frequency similar to that of a discrete microprocessor. examples of hard processor cores used in fpgas are the powerpc used in virtex - 4 / 5 and the arm cortex - a9 dual - core mcu used in the new zynq - 7000 all programmable soc from xilinx unfortunately, a hard processor core does not provide the ability to adjust it to better meet the needs of the application, nor does it allow for the flexibility of adding a processor to an existing fpga", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5015899884730318, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b1f4679c-565b-47f3-a6bb-fc668e105cee>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.795218"}
{"text": "tim turner, the reliability center business development manager at the college of nanoscale science and engineering ( cnse ), albany, ny, blogs about the potential of resistive memory and the reliability challenges the must be overcome. resistive memory, rram or memristors is a hot topic right now. rram has the potential for single digit nano parameters ( speed as fast as 1 ns, area per bit as small as 5 square nm ) and is non - volatile. the technology is based on the formation of a small conductive filament inside an insulator. the filament is formed the first time using a high voltage. after that, set or reset transformation ( conductive to non - conductive or visa versa ) is accomplished by moving one or a few atoms an atomic scale distance. this can be done with a low voltage ( less than a volt ). this small movement gives a repeatable set or reset that can withstand many cycles. conduction in the filament appears to be due to oxygen vacancies existing in a percolation path through the insulator. a small electric field in the reverse direction causes the migration of these oxygen vacancies in a mechanism similar to electromigration of al or cu atoms in a metal line. momentum exchange between electrons and the vacancies appears to be the driving force. the vacancies do not have to move far to open the small filament. an oxygen vacancy moves an atomic scale distance and the tiny filament opens, allowing an insulator to exist between points in the filament. forcing a forward voltage can move the oxygen vacancy back into the area where the filament is conductive. this small movement can give a 100x change in the conduction through the dielectric. this is the state change that can be interpreted as the digital signal stored on the memory cell. the material set used for rram is cmos compatible. rram cells have been made out of cu / hfox, al / alox / pt, tin / alox / pt or even al / alox / cnt ( carbon nano tubes ). most of the work reported to date has been on arrays where the cell is similar to a dram, using one transistor and one capacitor. the rram cell starts with a capacitor, then forms the filament in the capacitor dielectric. the advantage this technology has is the smaller size of the capacitor. there is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5524298180113966, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d89151c5-4217-4547-bdb2-0cac4f8e31dd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.821832"}
{"text": "scaled. originally, this was thought to be just the larger impact of a single trap on a smaller area gate, but realov and shepard showed that shorter l transistors show a greater noise than longer transistors with the same total area ( below 40nm ). thus, this is a problem that will increase as the technology is scaled. there is also a chance that rtn will be generated by the movement of oxygen vacancies in the filament itself. degraeve et. al. reported a highly voltage sensitive disturb in the reset state. their rram cell could withstand 100 thousand disturb pulses ( 100ns ) at - 0. 5 volts, but at - 0. 6 volts the cell could only withstand a little over 100 pulses. they also showed that the sensitivity to disturb could be reduced significantly by balancing and optimizing the set and reset pulses. | figure 2 : disturb in reset state | optimization of the set and reset pulses also has a strong impact on the set / reset cycling endurance of the cell. degraeve was able to show up to 10 g set / reset pulses after optimization. wu et. al showed the impact of scaling on a cross - point array. according to their model, scaling the technology from 22nm to 5 nm resulted in an increase for the parasitic word and bit line resistance from under 10 ohms to almost 100, 000 ohms as the lines width and thickness are reduced. adding to the significance of this is the variation in resistance between the closest cell in the array and the furthest call in the array. this variation could be over 4 orders of magnitude while the difference between the set and reset resistance is only 2 orders of magnitude. this issue could restrict the size of sub arrays, compromising the potential area savings using this technology. as the metal lines are scaled to obtain higher memory densities, the filament that generates the conduction in the cell does not scale. that means the set and reset pulse currents remain about the same as the array is scaled. this results in an electromigration issue in the scaled metal lines. | figure 3 : oxygen vacancy filament determines set or reset state of rram memory cell | rram is certainly an appealing technology with its ability to scale the cell to tiny dimensions, good speed, cmos compatible material set and the possibility of mounting the technology above a logic array. unfortunately, the devil is in the details and the list of advantages is balanced by a list of problems that must be overcome before this technology", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5071848753029417, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d89151c5-4217-4547-bdb2-0cac4f8e31dd>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.824328"}
{"text": "tiny dimensions, good speed, cmos compatible material set and the possibility of mounting the technology above a logic array. unfortunately, the devil is in the details and the list of advantages is balanced by a list of problems that must be overcome before this technology can carve out a space as a memory solution. 1 ] jihan capulong, benjamin briggs, seann bishop, michael hovish, richard matyi, nathaniel cady, college of nanoscale science and engineering, \u201c effect of crystallinity on endurance and switching behavior of hfox based resistive memory devices \u201d, proceedings of the international integrated reliability workshop 2012 2 ] yi wu, jiale liang, shimeng yu, ximeng guan and h. s. philip wong, stanford university, \u201c resistive switching random access memory \u2013 materials, device, interconnects and scaling considerations \u201d, proceedings of the international integrated reliability workshop, 2012 3 ] nirmal ramaswamy, micron, \u201c challenges in engineering rram technology for high density applications \u201d, proceedings of the international integrated reliability workshop, 2012 4 ] k. k. hong, p. k ko, chemming hu and yiu cheng, random telegraph noise of deep sub - micrometer mosfets, 1990 ieee 1741 - 3106 / 90 / 0200 - 0090 http : / / www. eecs. berkeley. edu / ~ hu / publications / hu _ papers / hu _ jnl / huc _ jnl _ 167. pdf 5 ] simeon realov and kenneth l. shepard, \u201c random telegraph noise in 45nm cmos : analysis using an on - chip test and measurement system, iedm10 - 624, 978 - 1 - 4244 - 7419 - 6 / 10 / $ 26. 00 \u00a92010 ieee, http : / / bioee. ee. columbia. edu / downloads / 2010 / s28p02. pdf 6 ] r. degraeve, a. fantini, s. clima, b. guvoreanu, l. goux, y. y. chen, d. j. wouters, ph. rousset, g. s. kar, g. pourtois, s. cosemans, j. a. kittl, g. groeseneken, m. jurczak, l. altimime, imec, \u201c reliability of low current filamentary hfo2 rram discussed in the framework of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5257962387448007, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d89151c5-4217-4547-bdb2-0cac4f8e31dd>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.825154"}
{"text": "offshore wind projects off the coast of england and wales. the third step, changing attitudes and behaviour is fundamental and is at different stages in globally. designing a national electricity system to export renewable energy requires a fundamental shift in approach. an inter - agency and leadership focus is required to procure and fund renewable energy projects to facilitate exports or national retrofitting initiatives. utilising state lands, assets, marine waters and entities in a centralised and co - ordinated manner is central to achieving this. labelling product energy consumption and emissions standards informs customers and allows them to make a decision based on this information thus changing behaviour. manufacturers and retailers have become increasingly sensitive to the energy consumed and emissions produced, resulting in changes to operational procedures. lastly, innovation is a consequence of the three previous steps. in 2010, $ 243 billion was invested in the clean energy sector, 30 % higher than 2009. this trajectory is expected to continue upwards. investment levels in innovation in the cleantech sector are at their highest levels ever. energy security and environmental protection are the two major global issues facing every country in the world, irrespective of location, culture and size. funds, venture capitalists and companies around the world have responded to this, investing and helping to build companies in this sector, with a rapid rise in innovation as a consequence. private capital and the private sector as a whole are ready and waiting. an appropriate regulatory environment, a highly co - ordinated government - led plan and full support from policy - makers will unleash this capital and generate significant growth across the island. achieving the triple benefits of economic development, energy security and emission reductions are entirely achievable with the right focus, plan and leadership. tel : + 353 87 6777 665 tags : energy security", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5330061496712039, "token_count": 362, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9079da17-132c-48fa-85dc-d01291f4deef>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.837494"}
{"text": "a holocaust glossary anschluss, \" joining together, \" annexation. on march 12, 1938, hitler annexed austria to germany antisemitism, systematic prejudice against jews. notice the absence of a hyphen ( - ) ; there has never been any such thing as \" semitism. \" the term \" antisemitism \" is, properly one word. aryan, in the nazi ideology, the pure, superior germanic ( nordic, caucasian ) race. auschwitz, the city of auschwitz, poland, located in southwestern poland, was the site of one of the largest of the nazi extermination camps. the camp was expanded in august, 1942. camp ii was named auschwitz - birkenau. babi yar, a deep ravine outsize the ukrainian city of kiev, on the dnieper river where the einsatzgruppen killed and buried 34, 000 jews in one or two days ( september 29 - 30, 1941 ). belzek, death camp located in the lublin district of poland. more than 600, 000 jews were gassed at belzek between 1941 and 1943. blitzkrieg, \" lightning war, \" used to describe the speed, efficiency and intensity of germany ' s military attack against their opponents. buchenwald, concentration camp established in 1937 between frankfurt and leipzig in germany. while it was not a major extermination center, it was equipped with gas chambers and crematoria. more than 100, 000 prisoners died there. bund, a socialist movement among jews in the pale of settlement in western russia in the late 1800 ' s. the bundists supported jewish linguistic and political autonomy. their nationalism was cultural rather than territorial and, thus, they were at odds with much of the zionist movement. capo, jews who worked inside the death camps. their tasks including transporting victims of gassing to the ovens, cleaning the gas chambers of human excrement and blood, removal of gold from the teeth of the victims, shaving the heads of those going to the gas chambers. chelmo, generally thought to be the first of the six death camps in poland to become operational. at the beginning, the camp was under the direction of ss major, christian wirth, formerly administrative head of the euthanasie programme. located in the wartheland. between december 1941 and fall 1942 and again from may until august 1944 gassings by means of carbon monoxide from motor exhaust gas took place. altogether more than 150, 000 jews as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5410998265175619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a769167a-e1a9-435f-a055-9e80f6111435>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.845524"}
{"text": "euthanasie programme. located in the wartheland. between december 1941 and fall 1942 and again from may until august 1944 gassings by means of carbon monoxide from motor exhaust gas took place. altogether more than 150, 000 jews as well as 5000 gypsies died at chelmo. concentration camp, any internment camp for holding \" enemies of the third reich. \" the construction of concentration camps began almost immediately after hitler gained power in germany. there were several kinds : labor camps, prison camps and death camps. dachau, a concentration camp located in upper bavaria, northeast of munich. in 1942 a gas chamber was established at in connection with the medical experiments of the chief company commander of ss dr. rascher also a few experimental gassings were undertaken. death camps, or killing centers, a concentration camp the distinct purpose of which was the extermination of its inmates. almost all of the german death camps were located in poland : auschwitz - birkenau, belzek, chelmo, madjanek, sobibor, treblinka. death marches, at the end of the war when it became obvious that the german army was trapped between the soviets to the east and the advancing allied troops from the west, the nazis, in an attempt to prevent the liberation of camp inmates, forced them to march westward. thousands died in these marches. deportation, the removal of people from their areas of residency for purposes of resettlement elsewhere. with regard to the jews of europe, deportation meant removal either to a ghetto or a concentration camp in preparation for yet another removal to an extermination center. einsatzgruppen, mobile killing units ( \" task groups \" ) under the command of reinhard heydrich which accompanied german troops when they invaded russia. their task was to dispose of, liquidate, undesirables who posed a threat to the reich. final solution, euphemism for the extermination of european jewry. fuhrerprinzip, see \" leadership principle. \" general government the nazi - ruled state in central and eastern poland. headed by governor hans frank. genocide, the systematic annihilation of a whole people or nation. german military rank provided by richard breitman in the architect of genocide : himmler and the final solution. new york : alfred a. knopf, 1991 gestapo, the german internal security police - secret police. the gestapo was organized in 1933 to protect the regime from political opposition. under him", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5315074281842457, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a769167a-e1a9-435f-a055-9e80f6111435>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.846504"}
{"text": "the architect of genocide : himmler and the final solution. new york : alfred a. knopf, 1991 gestapo, the german internal security police - secret police. the gestapo was organized in 1933 to protect the regime from political opposition. under himmler ' s command after 1936. ghetto, a yiddish word referring to a walled section of a city in which jews were required to live during the middle ages. the concept was revived by the nazi regime as part of the final solution to the jewish question. holocaust, a hebrew word ( olah ) meaning \" burnt offering. in the septuagint version ( translated hebrew bible into greek during the reign of ptolemy ii, 3rd century b. c. ), the word, olah, is consistently translated by the greek word, holokauston, \" an offering consumed by fire. \" juden, the german word for jew. judenrat, jewish community authority, appointed by the nazis for administration within the ghetto. kristallnacht, \" night of broken glass, \" november 9, 1938, pogrom against german jews, jewish businesses and synagogues orchestrated by the gestapo in retaliation for the assassination of a minor german embassy official in paris by a 17 year - old jewish youth named herchel grynzspan. 7, 500 businesses and 101 synagogues were destroyed, almost 100 jews were killed and several thousand were arrested and sent to concentration camps. the beginning of the holocaust. leadership principle, ger. fuhrerprinzip, the ideological and administrative principle established by hitler early in his rise to power of one vital party controlled by one, and only one, leader to whom all subjects owed absolute and unquestioning obedience. lebensraum, one of hitler ' s motivations for invading poland and, later, the soviet union, was to acquire lebensraum, or additional \" living space, \" to be colonized by german people. madagascar plan, in 1940, before the invasion of the soviet union, the nazis seriously considered moving all jews under their authority to the island of madagascar, a french possession off the east coast of africa. majdanek, located in the lublin district, general government of poland. the concentration camp existing since september 1941 turned into an extermination camp when between april 1942 and november 1943 mass shootings took place to which 24, 000 jews fell victim. in october 1942 also two, later three gas chambers were built. in the beginning the killings in these were done by means of carbon", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.537189198276324, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a769167a-e1a9-435f-a055-9e80f6111435>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.848734"}
{"text": "charge of the death camps. shoah, a hebrew word meaning \" desolation. \" shoah has come to be the preferred term for the holocaust by jewish scholars who feel that \" holocaust \" has lost much of its significance through overuse. sobibor, located in the lublin district, general government where at least 200, 000 jews were murdered through carbon monoxide gas. third reich, nazi germany from the end of the weimar republic to the end of world war ii. treblinka, located in the warschau district of the general government in eastern poland. from the end of july, 1942 on, treblinka had three gas chambers and at the beginning of september, 1942, installed ten larger gas chambers. up to the dissolution of the camp in november 1943 altogether 700, 000 jews were killed there by carbon monoxide. vichy, france, after the nazis conquered france, a puppet government was set up here. wannsee ( conference, a conference held on january 20, 1942 beside lake wannsee in berlin. at this conference it was decided and made official nazi policy that the total annihilation of european jews was the only rational means of a \" final solution \" to the jewish question. yad vashem, a museum in jerusalem dedicated to the memory of holocaust victims. the name of the museum is taken from an old testament passage in isaiah : \" i will build for them a name and a memorial. \" ( isiah 56 : 5 ). zionism, the fervent desire of jews of the diaspora to return to their ancestral homeland of palestine. this ideal is at least 2, 500 years old, dating to the babylonian captivity. its first statement is found in psalm 137 : 1, \" by the waters of babylon, there we sat down and wept as we remembered zion. \" political zionism which emerged in the 19th century and ultimately resulted in the creation of the modern state of israel in 1948 is an outgrowth of spiritual zionism. zyklon b, hydrogen cyanide, a poisonous gas originally developed as a fumigation agent to remove pesticides. in october, 1941, it was used experimentally on soviet prisoners of war. the success of these experiments had devastating consequences for millions of jews who were gassed in the nazi death camps. return to about the holocaust", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5486391229830269, "token_count": 472, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a769167a-e1a9-435f-a055-9e80f6111435>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.850857"}
{"text": "example : \u201c the little boy was carrying on : shouting and kicking all day long \u201d 6. come across a - to seem to have a particular quality or character : to make a particular impression. example : \u201c julia came across as a bit bossy \u201d b - to be expressed to someone. example : \u201c i tried to sound happy but it came across as over - excited \u201d c - to meet or find ( something or someone ) by chance. example : \u201c luis was leaving the fruit shop and he came across tom, what a coincidence \u201d 7. come up with a - to get or think of ( something that is needed or wanted ). example : \u201c we finally came up with a solution to the problem! \u201d 8. fall apart ( oh, listen to the song \" emotions \" by bee gees & samantha sang ) a - to break into parts in usually a sudden and unexpected way, example : \u201c my cake fell apart when i tried to cut it \u201d b - to become unable to live in a normal way because you are experiencing a lot of confusion or emotional pain example : \u201c after the divorce, she fell apart \u201d 9. get along a - to be or remain friendly example : \u201c we \u2019 re not together anymore, but we get along great \u201d b - to make progress while doing something. example : \u201c how are you getting along at playing the guitar? \u201d c - to leave a place example : \u201c it was lovely to see you, but my friend has to get along, she has class \u201d d - to become old. example : \u201c her grandma is getting along ; she \u2019 s almost 99 \u2033 10. get away a - to go away from a place. example : \u201c i can0t wait to get away from the city \u201d b - to avoid being caught : to escape example : \u201c the thieves managed to get away in a stolen car \u201d c - to not be criticized or punished for ( something ). example : \u201c yvonne is always lying, i can \u2019 t understand how she gets away with it \u201d to be continued", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5560687929042885, "token_count": 414, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5179126f-d498-4d28-8db2-dcaa0d64c5b6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.855214"}
{"text": "title text : i tell my children ' it ' s not whether you win or lose, it ' s how you play the game. ' i ' m trying to take the edge off their competitive drive to ensure that i can always beat them. this comic is a reference to ibm ' s computer watson that beat humans at jeopardy. the ibm team created a computer that could formulate a response to a jeopardy - style question. in case you are not familiar, jeopardy is a game played where the contestants are given the answer to a question, and must devise the question. a question might be \" the united states joined this war in 1941 \" to which the contestant must answer \" what is world war ii? \". when going up against two jeopardy champions, watson was able to beat them both. megan chimes in that we are \" pretty awesome at teaching \" which is very true. humans are the best ( on this planet ) at teaching other things to do a set of tasks. we train dogs, cats, lizards, birds, other people, and now we are getting quite good at getting a computer, a simple machine completely of our own design, to mimic our own thought patterns and make decisions similar to what we would make. the title text makes fun of teaching our children values by suggesting we are just trying to hold on to our ability to beat them in something. - [ cueball sits at a computer ; megan stands behind him. ] - cueball : wow \u2014 researchers taught a computer to beat the world ' s best humans at yet another task. does our species have anything left to be proud of? - megan : well, it sounds like we ' re pretty awesome at teaching. - cueball : huh? what good is that?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5765679962741903, "token_count": 352, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:338aaff7-5048-45d0-9778-1841c32854f8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.867405"}
{"text": "the finance project is one of more than 100 organizations and thought leaders featured in expanding minds and opportunities : leveraging the power of afterschool and summer learning for student success, edited by terry k. peterson, ph. d., this first of its kind compendium of studies, reports and commentaries provides seminal resources for policy makers, program leadership, practitioners, researchers and stakeholders. the value of partnerships in afterschool and summer learning : a national case study of 21st century community learning centers by shawn stelow griffin and laura martinez provides concrete evidence of the important role partnerships play in leveraging cash and in - kind resources to sustain 21st cclc wisconsin, vermont, florida and oregon. expanding minds and opportunities is now available online at www. expandinglearning. org / expandingminds and through amazon. com. dc education adequacy study overview the finance project ( tfp ), in september 2012, the district of columbia government contracted with the finance project ( tfp ) to undertake a rigorous study of the costs of providing an \" adequate \" pre - k through 12 education to students in dc ' s traditional public schools and public charter schools. over a 12 - month period, the finance project, in partnership with augenblick, palaich and associates ( apa ), a denver - based education research firm, will : 1. develop a data - driven estimate of the cost of an \" adequate \" pre - k through 12 education in the district of columbia ; 2. recommend changes to the structure and level of foundation funding in the uniform per student funding formula ( upsff ), as well as the weightings for students with special learning needs that require services which entail additional costs ; 3. recommend changes to the way in which capital investments, maintenance, utilities and custodial services for school buildings and facilities are financed and managed ; and 4. develop guidance for updating the study ' s basic elements on a continuing periodic basis. using a blend of professional judgment panel and successful schools study methods for analyzing the costs of an adequate education, the tfp / apa study team will examine the cost of resources required for public schools and public charter schools to meet dc academic standards, including the common core state standards, once they are implemented. for more information, please read an overview of the study at : www. financeproject. org / publications / summarydceducation adequacystudy. pdf. for more information about the study, please contact cara patrick at firstname. lastname @ example", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5279575038059757, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2c756c0d-2acc-41b3-8986-f70bc07cea1c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.909805"}
{"text": "an overview of the study at : www. financeproject. org / publications / summarydceducation adequacystudy. pdf. for more information about the study, please contact cara patrick at firstname. lastname @ example. org.. this brief aims to help policymakers, community leaders, private investors, and other stakeholders understand what is known about the opportunities and conditions for success in designing and implementing incentive - based financing strategies to take innovative evidence - based social solutions to scale. it describes the design and implementation of three broad types of innovative financing strategies that make funding contingent on specific benchmarks for success. the brief also includes examples of how state and local leaders are designing and implementing these financing strategies to respond to demands for improved outcomes. it offers considerations for stakeholders to address when determining whether, and how, these strategies could work for a community or state seeking to link funding to achievable outcomes.. this fiscal mapping study helps hawaiian state leaders identify the public and private funding sources available to support programs and services for at - risk hawaiian youth, ages 13 - 24. the study also evaluates hawaii ' s effectiveness at using funding to sustain the seventy - two state administered programs for at - risk youth in fiscal year 2011. network of independent charter schools the network of independent charter schools is designed to support teachers, administrators and trustees develop best practices and collaborate with one another and to help independent \" mom and pop \" charter schools succeed. funded by the u. s. department of education, it delivers a comprehensive and integrated array of services and resources - - free of charge - - to help improve the capacity of teachers, administrators and trustees at independent charter schools. the finance project helps develop content for the network of independent charter schools website in the areas of charter school management, financing and governance. online hotline blog. the following fiscal mapping tool will help leaders identify funding resources in their communities to help build a stable base of support for their work.. a first of its kind, this guide helps state and local officials, leaders of community - based and national organizations, school leaders, and private investors find funding to strengthen and sustain grade - level reading programs and services for children from birth through third grade. it identifies more than 100 federal funding sources that can be used to address the root causes of failing to read, to help fund remediation strategies, and to build cohesive infrastructure and systems necessary to effectively train and guide professionals. it also offers users \u201c best bet \u201d funding sources, on - the - ground examples and allows users", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5109729684018667, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2c756c0d-2acc-41b3-8986-f70bc07cea1c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.910872"}
{"text": "aerobic exercise requires the body to utilize oxygen to create energy. with anaerobic exercise, the body creates energy without extra oxygen \u2014 your body relies on its natural chemicals to create energy. learn the benefits of each, after the break! benefits of aerobic activity when you are engaged in aerobic activities ( walking, running, swimming, canoeing ), you breathe heavier and use more oxygen. when this happens, your heart beats faster, and your blood flow increases, which means the oxygen going to and from your muscles increases as well. your capillaries are what bring the oxygen to your muscles and take away the waste ( carbon dioxide, lactic acid ), essentially \u201c cleaning \u201d your muscles. also through this process, you help build up your immune system and rid your body of toxins, which will help you ward off illnesses. aerobic activity three to five times a week will help strengthen your heart and help it pump blood more efficiently and help it get to and from your muscles more efficiently and effectively. aerobic exercise is a key component in losing weight and keeping it off and reducing heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes \u2014 just to name a few. your body also releases endorphins, which are a natural painkiller and \" mood enhancer. \" the release of endorphins helps reduce anxiety and stress, helps you sleep better, and can also help ward off depression. so get movin '! benefits of anaerobic activity anaerobic means \" without oxygen, \" and strength training is the most effective method of anaerobic exercise. loss of lean muscle mass can begin in your early 20s if you ' re not careful. when you lose lean muscle mass, your metabolism slows down, your strength weakens, and your \" functional fitness \" can decrease, which can lead to you getting hurt while engaging in everyday activities like taking the stairs. but guess what? you can also gain the muscle back! introduce strength training. it helps rebuild that muscle mass, strengthen not only your muscles but also your bones, increase your metabolism, and lower your body fat. the more lean muscle mass you have, the higher your metabolism, which means the more calories you burn ( when you are resting and when you \u2019 re working out! ) strength training at least twice a week also helps prevent cardiovascular disease, obesity, arthritis, lower - back pain, and type 2 diabetes. \" strength training \" is often an intimidating term, but it doesn \u2019 t necessarily translate into \" heavy lifting.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5057238353109157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6685bba9-7946-4432-ac87-36223e2dd86b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.913615"}
{"text": "in the 20th century, this would have been a job for james bond. the mission : infiltrate the highly advanced, securely guarded enemy headquarters where scientists in the clutches of an evil master are secretly building a weapon that can destroy the world. then render that weapon harmless and escape undetected. but in the 21st century, bond doesn ' t get the call. instead, the job is handled by a suave and very sophisticated secret computer worm, a jumble of code called stuxnet, which in the last year has not only crippled iran ' s nuclear program but has caused a major rethinking of computer security around the globe. intelligence agencies, computer security companies and the nuclear industry have been trying to analyze the worm since it was discovered in june by a belarus - based company that was doing business in iran. and what they ' ve all found, says sean mcgurk, the homeland security department ' s acting director of national cyber security and communications integration, is a \u201c game changer. \u201d the construction of the worm was so advanced, it was \u201c like the arrival of an f - 35 into a world war i battlefield, \u201d says ralph langner, the computer expert who was the first to sound the alarm about stuxnet. others have called it the first \u201c weaponized \u201d computer virus. simply put, stuxnet is an incredibly advanced, undetectable computer worm that took years to construct and was designed to jump from computer to computer until it found the specific, protected control system that it aimed to destroy : iran \u2019 s nuclear enrichment program. the target was seemingly impenetrable ; for security reasons, it lay several stories underground and was not connected to the world wide web. and that meant stuxnet had to act as sort of a computer cruise missile : as it made its passage through a set of unconnected computers, it had to grow and adapt to security measures and other changes until it reached one that could bring it into the nuclear facility. when it ultimately found its target, it would have to secretly manipulate it until it was so compromised it ceased normal functions. and finally, after the job was done, the worm would have to destroy itself without leaving a trace. that is what we are learning happened at iran ' s nuclear facilities - - both at natanz, which houses the centrifuge arrays used for processing uranium into nuclear fuel, and, to a lesser extent, at bushehr, iran ' s nuclear power plant. at natanz, for almost 17 months, stu", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5579287480429387, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:df04f521-4a8c-4593-b43b-d5e1f4433ea0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.935107"}
{"text": "natanz, which houses the centrifuge arrays used for processing uranium into nuclear fuel, and, to a lesser extent, at bushehr, iran ' s nuclear power plant. at natanz, for almost 17 months, stuxnet quietly worked its way into the system and targeted a specific component - - the frequency converters made by the german equipment manufacturer siemens that regulated the speed of the spinning centrifuges used to create nuclear fuel. the worm then took control of the speed at which the centrifuges spun, making them turn so fast in a quick burst that they would be damaged but not destroyed. and at the same time, the worm masked that change in speed from being discovered at the centrifuges ' control panel. at bushehr, meanwhile, a second secret set of codes, which langner called \u201c digital warheads, \u201d targeted the russian - built power plant ' s massive steam turbine. here ' s how it worked, according to experts who have examined the worm : - - the nuclear facility in iran runs an \u201c air gap \u201d security system, meaning it has no connections to the web, making it secure from outside penetration. stuxnet was designed and sent into the area around iran ' s natanz nuclear power plant - - just how may never be known - - to infect a number of computers on the assumption that someone working in the plant would take work home on a flash drive, acquire the worm and then bring it back to the plant. - - once the worm was inside the plant, the next step was to get the computer system there to trust it and allow it into the system. that was accomplished because the worm contained a \u201c digital certificate \u201d stolen from jmicron, a large company in an industrial park in taiwan. ( when the worm was later discovered it quickly replaced the original digital certificate with another certificate, also stolen from another company, realtek, a few doors down in the same industrial park in taiwan. ) - - once allowed entry, the worm contained four \u201c zero day \u201d elements in its first target, the windows 7 operating system that controlled the overall operation of the plant. zero day elements are rare and extremely valuable vulnerabilities in a computer system that can be exploited only once. two of the vulnerabilities were known, but the other two had never been discovered. experts say no hacker would waste zero days in that manner. - - after penetrating the windows operating system, the code then targeted the siemens operating system that controlled", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5579304246063002, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:df04f521-4a8c-4593-b43b-d5e1f4433ea0>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.935999"}
{"text": "two of the vulnerabilities were known, but the other two had never been discovered. experts say no hacker would waste zero days in that manner. - - after penetrating the windows operating system, the code then targeted the siemens operating system that controlled the plant. once that was in its grip it then took over the \u201c frequency converters \u201d that ran the centrifuges. to do that it used specifications from the manufacturers of the converters. one was vacon, a finnish company, and the other fararo paya, an iranian company. what surprises experts at this step is that the iranian company was so secret that not even the iaea knew about it. - - the worm also knew that the complex control system that ran the centrifuges was built by siemens, the german manufacturer, and - - remarkably - - how that system worked as well and how to mask its activities from it. - - masking itself from the plant ' s security and other systems, the worm then ordered the centrifuges to rotate extremely fast, and then to slow down precipitously. this damaged the converter, the centrifuges and the bearings, and it corrupted the uranium in the tubes. it also left iranian nuclear engineers wondering what was wrong, as computer checks showed no malfunctions in the operating system. estimates are that this went on for more than a year, leaving the iranian program in chaos. and as it did, the worm grew and adapted throughout the system. as new worms entered the system, they would meet and adapt and become increasingly sophisticated. during this time the worms reported back to two mysterious servers that had to be run by intelligence agencies, one in denmark and one in malaysia. the servers monitored the worms as they infiltrated natanz. efforts to find those servers since then have yielded no results. this went on until june of last year, when a belarusan company working on the iranian power plant in beshehr discovered it in one of its machines. it quickly put out a notice on a web network monitored by computer security experts around the world. ordinarily these experts would immediately begin tracing the worm and dissecting it, looking for clues about its origin and other details. but that didn \u2019 t happen, because within minutes all the alert sites came under attack and were inoperative for 24 hours. \u201c i had to use e - mail to send notices but i couldn \u2019 t reach everyone. whoever made the worm had a full day to eliminate all traces of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5345269966946663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:df04f521-4a8c-4593-b43b-d5e1f4433ea0>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.936870"}
{"text": "scientists at the nuclear facilities. experts say that natanz and bushehr could not have escaped the worm if it was in their engineers \u2019 computers. \u201c we brought it into our lab to study it and even with precautions it spread everywhere at incredible speed, \u201d byres said. \u201c the worm was designed not to destroy the plants but to make them ineffective. by changing the rotation speeds, the bearings quickly wear out and the equipment has to be replaced and repaired. the speed changes also impact the quality of the uranium processed in the centrifuges creating technical problems that make the plant ineffective, \u201d he explained. in other words the worm was designed to allow the iranian program to continue but never succeed, and never to know why. one additional impact that can be attributed to the worm, according to david albright of the institute for science and international studies, is that \u201c the lives of the scientists working in the facility have become a living hell because of counter - intelligence agents brought into the plant \u201d to battle the breach. ironically, even after its discovery, the worm has succeeded in slowing down iran ' s reputed effort to build an atomic weapon. and langer says that the efforts by the iranians to cleanse stuxnet from their system \u201c will probably take another year to complete, \u201d and during that time the plant will not be able to function anywhere normally. but as the extent of the worm \u2019 s capabilities is being understood, its genius and complexity has created another perplexing question : who did it? speculation on the worm \u2019 s origin initially focused on hackers or even companies trying to disrupt competitors. but as engineers tore apart the virus they learned not only the depth of the code, its complex targeting mechanism, ( despite infecting more than 100, 000 computers it has only done damage at natanz, ) the enormous amount of work that went into it \u2014 microsoft estimated that it consumed 10, 000 man days of labor - - and about what the worm knew, the clues narrowed the number of players that have the capabilities to create it to a handful. \u201c this is what nation - states build, if their only other option would be to go to war, \u201d joseph wouk, an israeli security expert wrote. byres is more certain. \u201c it is a military weapon, \u201d he said. and much of what the worm \u201c knew \u201d could only have come from a consortium of western intelligence agencies, experts who have examined the code now believe. originally, all eyes turned toward israel \u2019 s intelligence agencies. engineers examining", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5285177937733241, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:df04f521-4a8c-4593-b43b-d5e1f4433ea0>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.938835"}
{"text": "weapon, \u201d he said. and much of what the worm \u201c knew \u201d could only have come from a consortium of western intelligence agencies, experts who have examined the code now believe. originally, all eyes turned toward israel \u2019 s intelligence agencies. engineers examining the worm found \u201c clues \u201d that hinted at israel \u2019 s involvement. in one case they found the word \u201c myrtus \u201d embedded in the code and argued that it was a reference to esther, the biblical figure who saved the ancient jewish state from the persians. but computer experts say \" myrtus \" is more likely a common reference to \u201c my rtus, \u201d or remote terminal units. langer argues that no single western intelligence agency had the skills to pull this off alone. the most likely answer, he says, is that a consortium of intelligence agencies worked together to build the cyber bomb. and he says the most likely confederates are the united states, because it has the technical skills to make the virus, germany, because reverse - engineering siemen \u2019 s product would have taken years without it, and russia, because of its familiarity with both the iranian nuclear plant and siemen \u2019 s systems. there is one clue that was left in the code that may tell us all we need to know. embedded in different section of the code is another common computer language reference, but this one is misspelled. instead of saying \u201c deadfoot, \u201d a term stolen from pilots meaning a failed engine, this one reads \u201c deadfoo7. \u201d yes, oo7 has returned - - as a computer worm. stuxnet. shaken, not stirred.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5402065630797441, "token_count": 327, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:df04f521-4a8c-4593-b43b-d5e1f4433ea0>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.939455"}
{"text": "rocky mountain research station publications rmrs online publication - journal articles, external publications, and special reports trace gas and particle emissions from domestic and industrial biofuel use and garbage burning in central mexico christian, t. j. ; yokelson, r. j. ; cardenas, b. ; molina, l. t. ; engling, g. ; hsu, s. - c. 2010. trace gas and particle emissions from domestic and industrial biofuel use and garbage burning in central mexico. atmospheric chemistry and physics. 10 : 565 - 584. in central mexico during the spring of 2007 we measured the initial emissions of 12 gases and the aerosol speciation for elemental and organic carbon ( ec, oc ), anhydrosugars, cl -, no - 3, and 20 metals from 10 cooking fires, four garbage fires, three brick making kilns, three charcoal making kilns, and two crop residue fires. global biofuel use has been estimated at over 2600 tg / y. with several simple case studies we show that cooking fires can be a major, or the major, source of several gases and fine particles in developing countries. insulated cook stoves with chimneys were earlier shown to reduce indoor air pollution and the fuel use per cooking task. we confirm that they also reduce the emissions of voc pollutants per mass of fuel burned by about half. we did not detect hcn emissions from cooking fires in mexico or africa. thus, if regional source attribution is based on hcn emissions typical for other types of biomass burning ( bb ), then biofuel use and total bb will be underestimated in much of the developing world. this is also significant because cooking fires are not detected from space. keywords : trace gas, particle emissions, biofuel, mexico about pdfs : for best results, do not open the pdf in your web browser. right - click on the pdf link to download the pdf file directly to your computer. click here for more pdf help. pdf file size : 440 k title : rmrs other publications : trace gas and particle emissions from domestic and industrial biofuel use and garbage burning in central mexico electronic publish date : march 23, 2010 last update : march 23, 2010 rmrs publications | order a publication | contact us", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.513273150095598, "token_count": 475, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e3039dd6-cf8e-49e2-bcf5-f48e90cc8fe1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.944900"}
{"text": "the activities in the gaps related to area of assitive technologies are focused on the development of software ( applications ) and hardware ( devices and gadgets ) which could be useful for assisting teachers related to special education. in order to get our objectives we have the valuable advise of several specialized centers as : if you are interested in our work or you want to collaborate with us, please, contact with luis hernandez gomez in our research group we have been developing an educational application called \" aprendiendo \" ( \" learning \" in spanish ). this application was implemented with the advising of colegio publico de educacion especial infanta elena de madrid and thanks to the work of several students through their master thesis projects. currently we are preparing different researches and evaluations about this application. our objective is find out the benefits that \" aprendiendo \" could have in the learning process of the children. for knowing more detaisl about this project you could read this article ( in spanish ) \" aprendiendo \u201d : uso de la tecnologia de agentes conversacionales personificados en el ambito de la educacion especial which was presented in the simposio nacional de tecnologias de la informacion y las comunicaciones en la educacion in 2007. if you are interested in and you don ' t know spanish, please, contact with us. - building of push buttons ( in spanish ) : - push button and connection box : pdf - how to build a switchboard pdf", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5258343743997895, "token_count": 318, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e937da3e-043e-4691-b881-5154d8a837e5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.961264"}
{"text": "systems, \u201c single - use \u201d may not mean intended for disposal after a single run. \u201c we like to call it \u2018 single - use, batch - dedicated, \u2019 or \u2018 single - batch, \u2019 \u201d explained makowiecki. \u201c prepacked does not mean single - use, \u201d emphasized paul lynch, production manager for life technologies ' prepacked poros\u00ae chromatography resins. the main advantage of prepacked columns is time savings, as they are ready to be dropped into a process without the need for validation. \u201c they save about 80 % of the set - up time, \u201d lynch said, as well as the associated overhead of personnel needed to pack and validate the column. at the june conference in san francisco, richard garretson, business development manager at life technologies, led a workshop in which he described the advantages of the company \u2019 s gopure\u2122 columns prepacked with poros chromatography resins. garretson compared prepacked columns to disposable membrane absorbers, which can be used in place of anion exchange chromatography, for flow - through polishing of monoclonal antibody preparations to remove dna, viruses, and host - cell proteins. the high mass transfer capability of the poros prepacked resin allows for high flow rates, short bed lengths, and small column sizes. \u201c the resin has the same sort of mass transfer profile as a membrane absorber, \u201d said garretson. once users have selected the ideal column bed length for the separation they want to achieve, they can then increase or decrease the diameter of the column as desired for scale - up or scale - down, garretson explained. in contrast, scale - down \u2014 for process modeling, process characterization, and viral clearance studies, for example \u2014 is \u201c problematic with filters, \u201d he added, due to more limited availability of membrane sizes. in terms of single - use capability, the prepacked chromatography resin, like a traditional self - packed column, can be re - used multiple times or replaced after a single use. it would typically be used for a single production campaign. in contrast, a functionalized filter is a consummable product intended to be disposed of after one use. producing relatively small drug batches or material for toxicology studies or clinical trials can mean switching product streams, and thus chromatography columns, more frequently. in this scenario, the use of prepacked columns can save time and money, contend", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5063181484135201, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:162eb292-7baa-4ef7-8b9f-269a6b04a725>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.974190"}
{"text": "the 3d scientific graph control is capable of producing a wide variety of charts. these include surfaces ( wireframe, solid, shaded solid, contoured solid, and pixel ), 3d bar ( wireframe, solid, and shaded solid ), 3d scatter ( points, lines, points + lines, and area layers producing a waterfall chart ), and 3d object ( via a polygon data interface in wireframe, solid, and shaded solid styles ). the property polymode is used to control which type of image you need to produce. all types support rotation and viewing height adjustment. there is also an automatic rotation feature which will animate the rotation of an image. there are two shading algorithms, one shades to white and the other shades to the objects color. 3d surface charts can have a bottom or top 2d contour included in the image. this contour can be in lines or colors. see showcontour. within the demo, see example 400 which shows how to create a simple 3d wireframe. 3d surface charts are produced from xdata, ydata, and zdata. generally, x - data and z - data are equally spaced but this is not mandatory. once you supply this data, the component will construct a list of polygons which will produce a surface plot of the data. the process of creating 3d charts is further discussed in chapter 4 as well as in the included example code. within the demo, see example 402. the 3d bar chart is generally used to show categorized data along 2 axes. where a 2d bar chart places multiple subsets next to each other, the 3d bar places multiple subsets at different z locations. similar to the graph component, the 3d bar chart only needs ydata. xdata and zdata are not used in this mode. subsets defines how many rows are along z axis and points defines how many columns are along x axis. subsetlabels and pointlabels are used to label rows and columns. subsetcolors is used to control colors of subset bars. within the demo, see example the 3d scatter chart is much like a 2d scatter chart with the addition of zdata. each data point thus has its own xdata, ydata, and zdata coordinates. possible plotting methods are points, lines, and points plus lines. theres also an area plotting method which will produce area layers along the z axis. this can be used to construct a waterfall chart. comparison subsets are supported in this mode to allow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5210716198323528, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f48b77af-487c-47c7-b85e-1deb0ebcbae2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.983633"}
{"text": "together random chord progressions and random sentences off the internet, automatically play them with a synthesizer, and send them into the copyright office as quickly as they could record the vocals. in other words, such an incentive would not result in more entertainment : it would result in a tsunami of unlistenable crap. commoditization : what does \u201c fungible \u201d mean? the definition of a commodity is \u201c a good supplied without qualitative differentiation across a market. \u201d this property is called \u201c fungibility \u201d. sadly, the term \u201c fungible \u201d has nothing to do with either fungi or dirigibles. a fungible good is capable of mutual substitution : one unit is defined to be just as good as any other. we can see that fungibility is a necessary property of money. if i loan you 100 dollars, i don \u2019 t expect to get the same $ 100 back i loaned to you \u2026 any $ 100 will do, because dollars are fungible. similarly, we can see that fungibility is a necessary property of commodities. if i contract to deliver you 1000 pounds of copper in march of next year, you shouldn \u2019 t have to care where the copper comes from. fungibility also applies to agricultural commodities : if i contract to deliver 100 bushels of corn in september of next year for a set price, it \u2019 s clearly impossible for you to inspect or evaluate corn that i haven \u2019 t even grown yet! so certain minimum standards for delivery are defined \u2014 and beyond that, all corn is the same. like most commodities, grains are mixed without regard to source : the producers sell their corn, whereupon it \u2019 s transferred via an elevator to a silo and mingled with all the other corn from the area, and anyone who buys corn simply gets whatever comes out of the elevator first. we can see that an attempt to make non - fungible creations ( songs ) into a fungible commodity, as in the silly example above, would result in both an oversupply of unlistenable songs and an economic catastrophe. problem # 1 : real food is not fungible the alert reader will see several problems with this \u201c fungible food \u201d scenario right away. the first problem is that real food is not fungible. for instance, when we go to buy onions, tomatoes, melons, or other produce, we don \u2019 t just choose them at random. we choose the variety that will taste best in our recipe, and from that, we choose the ripest, least damaged, best - looking, best", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5353490359224519, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f7a08f2-5339-4d7d-a36e-5de7d18befff>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:01.996587"}
{"text": "dementia may be defined as a progressive and largely irreversible clinical syndrome that is characterized by global deterioration in intellectual function, behaviour and personality in the presence of normal consciousness and perception ( 1 ). many patients have preserved positive personality traits and personal attributes but the following features may become evident as the disease progresses : - memory loss, language impairment, disorientation, changes in personality, difficulty in carrying out daily activities, self - neglect - psychiatric symptoms - apathy, depression or psychosis - unusual behaviour - aggression, sleep disturbance or disinhibited sexual behaviour ( 1 ) dementia can be divided into : - young - onset dementia \u2013 formerly known as \u201c pre - senile dementia \u201d, refers to patients who develop dementia before the age of 65 years - late - onset dementia \u2013 previously known as \u201c senile dementia \u201d, refers to patients who develop dementia after the age of 65 years ( 1 ) several risk factors responsible for the development of dementia have been recognized ( 1 ). - non modifiable risk factors - age \u2013 advancing age is the most important risk factor in developing dementia - learning disabilities \u2013 in people with down \u2019 s syndrome, dementia develops 30 \u2013 40 years earlier than in a normal person - gender \u2013 rate of dementia is higher in women than in men ( specially for alzheimers disease ) - genetic factors - modifiable risk factors - alcohol consumption - smoking \u2013 particulary for alzheimers - head injury - education and mental stimulation ( 1 ) the most common causes of dementia are age - related neurodegenerative processes. dementia is becoming an increasing problem as the population ages.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5221406192594715, "token_count": 323, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:addab407-7dcb-4a36-9527-236762bef572>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.005340"}
{"text": "the use of simplified small sided games in training. posted by chris on 01 april, 2011 players love playing football. take any group of players, the first thing they will do is make two goals, select sides and have a game. football is fun, the concept of using simplified small sided games as an integral aspect of training is to provide players with an opportunity to do what they enjoy doing the most, playing a game. during the process of playing a game players are constantly faced with observing, analysing and solving a succession of quick moving problems. as the game ebbs and flows, their ability to react and deal with constantly changing situations is always being tested. whilst technical and skill practices have their role to play in training players, with an emphasis on their \u201c how things are done \u201d repetitive mantra, they don \u2019 t always take into account the \u201c when to \u201d and \u201c why \u201d of playing football. simplified small sided games challenge players to make decisions on the \u201c when to \u201d and \u201c why \u201d. the decisions players are forced to make in simplified small sided games develop improved technical performance in all aspects of the game, players having lots more touches of the ball and greater participation in the game, a better understanding of working and co \u2013 operating in units of players, quick transition between attacking to defending and defending to attacking, an appreciation of finding and creating space for themselves and others, vital communication skills, greater fitness and most importantly of all fun. what are simplified small sided games? - invasion games. games that have goals or targets, objectives and outcomes - games that have a reduced number of players, 2 v 2, 3 v 3, 4 v 4 etc - smaller playing areas - simple and flexible rules that are adaptable to the structure of the game - fewer structured stops and starts, free kicks, corners, throw ins etc - opportunities for players to have a greater participation and to have more touches of the ball. - lots of opportunities to repeatedly practice a range of technical skills - less reliance on players playing in specific positions. - lots of opportunities for players to be exposed to game situations that involve the ball, opponents and team mates. which will improve their decision making process as they progress to more complex games, 7 v 7 upwards. - greater communication and co \u2013 operation between players. - greater freedom of play, more rotation of positions, developing more complete and intelligent players from a coaching perspective, simplified smaller sided games can be structured or conditioned to achieve a specific training objective, for example passing and support, running with the ball, recovery runs when", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5055856698771954, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ab1083e8-80e2-432b-8d5d-e4851ad3b023>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.010609"}
{"text": "and sense of independence. kids who struggle in school are often overly dependent on parents, siblings, friends and teachers for help with assignments. by using at, kids can experience success with working independently. what types of learning problems does assistive technology address? at can address many types of learning difficulties. a student who has difficulty writing can compose a school report by dictating it and having it converted to text by special software. a child who struggles with math can use a hand - held calculator to keep score while playing a game with a friend. and a teenager with dyslexia may benefit from at that will read aloud his employer ' s online training manual. there are at tools to help students who struggle with : what kinds of assistive technology tools are available? the term \" assistive technology \" has usually been applied to computer hardware and software and electronic devices. however, many at tools are now available on the internet. at tools that support kids with ld include : - abbreviation expanders - alternative keyboards - audio books and publications - electronic math work sheets - freeform database software - graphic organizers and outlining - information / data managers - optical character recognition - personal fm listening systems - portable word processors - proofreading programs - speech - recognition programs - speech synthesizers / screen readers - talking calculators - talking spell checkers and electronic dictionaries - variable - speed tape recorders - word - prediction programs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5047538353569535, "token_count": 286, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0fdbc7a0-419f-4f74-afe2-df37afdef365>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.015824"}
{"text": "relationship development intervention ( rdi ) - an intervention which aims to develop an individual \u2019 s ability to participate in authentic emotional relationships by exposing the individual to those relationships in a gradual, systematic way. regression - process in which children appear to develop normal language and social skills but then lose these. regressive autism - form of autism in which children appear to develop normal language and social skills but then lose these with the onset of autism before age 3. some forms of regressive autism are severe enough to be classed as childhood disintegrative disorder. receptive language delay - difficulty understanding language. symptoms may include difficulty following directions, decreased comprehension of \" yes / no \" and \" wh \" questions, limited vocabulary, poor understanding of grammatical markers ( i. e. verb tenses, possessives ) and syntax and difficulty attending to spoken language. rett syndrome - a complex neurological disorder which is genetic in origin. it affects mainly girls. although present at birth, it becomes more evident during the second year. rotation diet - diet which involves eating different things at different times. salicylates - a plant hormone found in leafy vegetables and fruit. some people advocate a low salicylate diet. sara \u2019 s diet - a lutein - free, soy - protein free and casein / gluten - restricted diet which also restricts or removes some artificial additives. secretin - gastrointestinal hormone that helps promote digestion of food. seizures - sudden changes in behavior due to an excessive electrical activity in the brain. selective serotonin reuptake enhancer - a class of anti - depressant drugs that enhance the reuptake of serotonin instead of inhibiting it. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( ssri ) - a class of drugs that works by stopping ( inhibiting ) the uptake ( loss ) of serotonin, which means that more serotonin is available to help pass on messages between nerve cells. ssris are used to treat a variety of conditions including depression and anxiety. some people believe that they can also be used to treat people with autism who have other problems, such as repetitive behaviors or social deficits. semantic - pragmatic disorder - condition characterized by good grammatical language but lack of ability to use language in a socially appropriate manner. sensory deprivation therapy - an intervention based around sensory deprivation i. e. minimizing sensory inputs such as sound, lights and smells. sensory integration - the capacity of an individual to receive and process information provided", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5675000679272773, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d7fc8b0d-7bcd-4730-900a-866d2bd6f929>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.036968"}
{"text": "to use language in a socially appropriate manner. sensory deprivation therapy - an intervention based around sensory deprivation i. e. minimizing sensory inputs such as sound, lights and smells. sensory integration - the capacity of an individual to receive and process information provided by the senses. sensory integration therapy - intervention that is designed to mitigate abnormal behaviors caused by sensory sensitivity. sensory integrative function - condition characterized by unusual reactions or sensitivity to sensations such as sound, light or touch. sensory processing disorder - disorder of the brain which makes people misinterpret everyday sensory information, such as touch, sound, and movement. this can lead to behavioral problems, difficulties with coordination, and many other issues. small intestine ( small bowel ) - its primary function is to digest ( break down ) food and absorb nutrients ( vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats ). smith magenis syndrome - a genetic disorder where common characteristics include some degree of self - injury, sleep, disturbance, developmental delay, short stature, decreased sensitivity to pain, hyperactivity and destructive or aggressive behavior. social skills groups - social skills groups provide an opportunity for individuals with autism to practice and improve their social skills in a safe, supportive environment. social stories\u2122 - short stories for children on the autism spectrum designed to aid their understanding of social situations. son - rise program\u00ae - an intensive training program based on the idea that the best way to help a child with autism is to follow the child \u2019 s lead. the program is a home - based, one - to - one approach, typically implemented by the parents, often with the assistance of a team of volunteers. specific carbohydrate diet ( scd ) - a strict, complex and restrictive diet which excludes complex carbohydrates, such as those found in rice and potatoes. these carbohydrates are replaced with simple carbohydrates. speech and language therapy - an intervention in which a therapist works with individuals to help them develop their communication skills using a range of techniques. steatorrhea - stool that is frothy, foul - smelling and floats because of a high fat content. it is common in malabsorption syndromes. this may be the result of the lower small intestine unable to absorb fats, or simply too much fat for even normal digestion to handle. sometimes this can indicate liver, gall bladder or lipid metabolism diseases. stimming - any kind of repetitive or stereotypic behavior", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5561575279196266, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d7fc8b0d-7bcd-4730-900a-866d2bd6f929>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.038016"}
{"text": "lower small intestine unable to absorb fats, or simply too much fat for even normal digestion to handle. sometimes this can indicate liver, gall bladder or lipid metabolism diseases. stimming - any kind of repetitive or stereotypic behavior. stomach - the function of the stomach is to begin digestion by physically breaking down food received from the esophagus. the stomach mucosa contains cells which secrete hydrochloric acid and this in turn activates the other gastric enzymes pepsin and rennin. sulfation - the process of adding sulphate to the body. t cells - control the b cells. when a harmless substance enters the body, the t cells signal the b cells to suppress antibody production, yet when a dangerous substance enters and must be eliminated, the t cells allow antibody production at a controlled rate and only until no more are needed. t cells can be programmed through vaccination or immunization to allow antibody production to previously unfamiliar but harmful antigens such as smallpox or polio. conversely, allergy shots or other immunostimulation techniques can program t cells to recognize harmless antigens and to suppress production of their antibodies. ( act like soldiers on the front line of the body \u2019 s defense against disease. ) teaching interaction - 10 - step procedure designed to help students learn appropriate social and school - related behaviors. testosterone - main male sex hormone, a steroid which controls the growth and functioning of the male sex organs. believed by some to reduce the effectiveness of chelation, a chemical intervention used to treat autism. therapeutic listening program - training program which includes a form of auditory integration training therapy dog - a dog that has been specially trained to act as a companion to the person with autism. thimerasol - a mercury - containing preservative. widely used as a preservative in a number of biological and drug products, including many vaccines. tic - condition in which a part of the body moves repeatedly, quickly, suddenly and uncontrollably. tics can occur in any body part, such as the face, shoulders, hands or legs. toe walking - walking on toes, a common symptomatic problem in some children with autism tomatis method - auditory training method, similar to auditory integration training, in which a person with autism listens to a selection of music which has been modified. total communicaton - approach that makes use of a number of modes of communication such as signed, oral, auditory, written and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5363334319251256, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d7fc8b0d-7bcd-4730-900a-866d2bd6f929>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.039142"}
{"text": "to auditory integration training, in which a person with autism listens to a selection of music which has been modified. total communicaton - approach that makes use of a number of modes of communication such as signed, oral, auditory, written and visual aids, depending on the particular needs and abilities of the individual tourette \u2019 s syndrome - condition characterized by multiple tics characteristically involving the face and head. transfer factor - polypeptide secreted by lymphocytes that is capable of transferring immunity from one cell or individual to another trichuris suis ova ( pig whipworm larvae ) - sometimes used as a treatment for gastro - intestinal and immune problems. triglycerides - the main form of fat found in foods and the human body. containing three fatty acids and one unit of glycerol, triglycerides are stored in adipose cells in the body, which, when broken down, release fatty acids into the blood. triglycerides are fat storage molecules and are the major lipid component of the diet. tuberous sclerosis - rare genetic disease that causes benign tumors to grow on vital organs. it commonly affects the central nervous system. turner ' s syndrome - rare chromosomal condition affecting girls where the second x chromosome is absent or abnormal. more common in girls with autism. sources : canadian autism intervention research network", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5461962597823302, "token_count": 279, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d7fc8b0d-7bcd-4730-900a-866d2bd6f929>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.039772"}
{"text": "materials. add a / c to the house, and the floor above the crawl space becomes even cooler \u2014 and any ductwork in the crawl space creates an added risk of condensation. in closed conditioned crawl spaces, insulation is normally placed around the perimeter and not in the floor. with perimeter insulation, the house is coupled to the cooler temperatures of the ground, and this can reduce the overall amount of a / c needed to cool the house. when closed conditioned crawls are used in heating - dominated climates, this same ground coupling can actually increase the heating load of a house, but that may cost very little compared to the cost of damage done by moisture brought in by venting. crawl spaces can be vented or closed. crawl spaces without venting are usually referred to as unvented, closed, or sealed. in this article i use \u201c closed \u201d to refer to any crawl space without passive vents from the crawl to the exterior. vented crawl spaces have the air and vapor barriers and the thermal boundary of the house in the floor assembly above the crawl space and provide passive venting from the crawl to the exterior. most codes require a minimum of 1 square foot of net free vent area for each 150 square feet of crawl space ; they also require that vents be placed to provide cross - ventilation. closed ( unvented ) crawl spaces come in a variety of configurations. some are actively conditioned ; some have an intentional passive connection to the conditioned part of the house ; and in extreme cases, some have an active dehumidification system ( see \u201c dehumidifier metering study, \u201d p. 44 ). insulation is normally at the perimeter of the crawl with a continuous air and vapor barrier on the ground and running up the perimeter wall to the sill plate or to a termite inspection strip, where required. closed power - vented crawl spaces generally look like closed unconditioned crawl spaces but include an exhaust fan to draw air from the crawl space to the exterior. the primary advantage of this system is its ability to reverse the stack effect and decouple the air in the house from the crawl \u2014 especially during the heating season. codes generally require 1 cfm of power venting for every 50 square feet of crawl space area. in the drier regions of the west, and even \u2014 surprisingly \u2014 in the marine climates of the northwest, vented crawl spaces work acceptably most of the time. the hot - dry conditions in summer and the cold - moist conditions in winter do not cause the same problems that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5112248016328713, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fab78800-2661-4cd6-b960-28791c5162e7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.070625"}
{"text": "to the interior of the crawl space, but this may also allow additional condensation on the cold surfaces of the perimeter wall. the best solution in the figure 1 example is to use rigid - foam insulation with sealed seams, or to use spray foam. this provides a continuous air and vapor barrier with a material that isn \u2019 t susceptible to moisture damage. the insulation thickness should be determined by the amount of insulation required for thermal performance. do vented crawl spaces ever really work? the results of tests conducted in cold - dry west and northwest marine climates suggest that vented crawl spaces can work. the washington state university extension energy program ( wsu - eep ), as part of its work for building america, monitored four test houses in vancouver and moses lake, washington, for over a year and found that the vented crawls rarely, if ever, reached dew point and that they remained above 80 % rh only for brief periods of time. monitoring of wood moisture content in the crawls showed no moisture buildup, and while the vented crawl spaces in the test houses did maintain higher rh levels on average than found in closed crawl spaces, the rh levels were not a problem. see figures 2 and 3. in any crawl space, site water must be properly managed. vented crawls should be considered only where there is little risk of condensation and no prolonged periods of high rh. where the average ground temperature is above the average seasonal outdoor dew point, crawl temperatures should be above dew point most of the time, and moisture introduced by venting shouldn \u2019 t be a major problem ( see figure 5 ). risks in closed crawl spaces wsu - eep conducted tracer gas testing in vented and closed power - vented crawl spaces in a marine climate ( vancouver, washington ) in december 2006. the results showed that vented crawls provide a significantly higher air change rate with the exterior than closed crawls. vented crawls averaged about 3. 5 ach, while the closed power - vented crawls averaged about 1 ach. additional radon testing showed that radon levels in the closed crawls \u2014 with a relatively low dilution rate \u2014 were roughly 10 times the levels measured in the vented crawls. the tracer gas testing also showed that roughly 40 % of the air in the homes with vented crawl spaces that we tested originated in the crawl space. in the closed power - vented crawls that we tested, the stack effect was substantially offset by the venting \u2014", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5218607975514267, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fab78800-2661-4cd6-b960-28791c5162e7>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.072551"}
{"text": "a very early conception of a solid state device invented at bell telephone laboratories between 1945 and 1948, many consider the transistor to be one of the most important inventions in 20th century technology. the story of the first working transistor underscores the power modern industrial laboratories have had to coordinate scientific discovery in the pursuit of technological breakthroughs. it is about great intellectual leaps and driving ambition. but while the story has been told and retold to scientists and engineers for years, only a small circle of history buffs and scholars know that the pursuit of the solid - state amplifier has an even longer history than the transistor. this quest dates back to 1924 \u2013 1925, and the work of julius edgar lilienfeld. the dawn of the electronics age though karl braun \u2019 s cathode ray tube ( 1897 ) and ambrose fleming \u2019 s vacuum tube rectifier ( 1904 ) marked the beginning of the electronics age, lee de forest \u2019 s triode actually propelled electronics forward. by placing a wire \u201c grid \u201d between the cathode and anode, de forest transformed fleming \u2019 s rectifier into an amplifier. with amplification, radio communications blossomed and long - distance telephony became a reality. the very success of the triode, however, brought out its long - term limitations. it was a fragile device that consumed a lot of power. and so in the mid - 1920s, with an eye on radio technology, julius edgar lilienfeld set out to find a solid - state replacement for the thermionic triode. lilienfeld follows his intuition in patent applications to canada in 1925 and to the united states in 1926, lilienfeld claimed that his solid - state amplifier \u201c relates to a method of and apparatus for controlling the flow of an electrical current between two terminals of an electrically conducting solid by establishing a third potential between said terminals. \u201d he filed two more u. s. patent applications in 1928. in his 28 march u. s. patent application, lilienfeld was more explicit about what he was after : \u201c the provision of a simple, compact and substantial device which withal shall be inexpensive to construct. \u201d offering an alternative to thermionic principles, lilienfeld argued that his novel device \u201c [ could ] be operated under much lower voltage conditions than heretofore. \u201d no one really knows whether lilienfeld ever tried to build his device. even if he did, the device would not have worked well, if at all, since the production of high -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5278958696603462, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:187c5f5e-f7ab-434f-a736-041d8a6c6e5a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.111162"}
{"text": "under much lower voltage conditions than heretofore. \u201d no one really knows whether lilienfeld ever tried to build his device. even if he did, the device would not have worked well, if at all, since the production of high - quality semiconductor materials was still decades away. thus, in the 1920s and 1930s, lilienfeld \u2019 s solid - state amplifier ideas had no practical value to the radio industry. like so many patents, lilienfeld \u2019 s went into obscurity. nevertheless, his ideas embody the principles of the modern - day, field - effect transistor ( fet ). history is sketchy little is known of the intellectual journey that led lilienfeld to his field - effect approach to solid - state amplification. even the details of his life are sketchy. like so many pioneers in solid - state electronics, lilienfeld was an accomplished physicist. born in poland in 1881, he obtained his ph. d. in 1905 at the university of berlin. in 1910, he became a physics professor at the university of leipzig. his early interests seem to have focused on cryogenics. in 1911, lilienfeld filed a u. s. patent for separating gas mixtures. he also worked with count ferdinand von zeppelin on designing hydrogen - filled dirigibles. from 1914 through the early 1920s, lilienfeld made important contributions to x - ray tube design, receiving six u. s. patents. in 1927, lilienfeld left germany to escape the rising tide of anti - semitism, immigrating to the united states. here, while head of an industrial research laboratory, he patented several contributions to capacitor technology, including the first solid - state electrolytic capacitor. it could be that work on capacitors led him to conceive of the solid - state amplifier through the framework of electric field effects. from the grave to the forefront for nearly two decades, lilienfeld \u2019 s field - effect approach lay buried and forgotten. then, in 1947, it reached out from the grave to shape bell telephone laboratories \u2019 ( btl ) patent strategy on the transistor. in the process, it frustrated william shockley \u2019 s grand ambition. although the vacuum tube had made long distance telephony possible, bell telephone was keenly aware of the tube \u2019 s limitations. in the late 1930s, shockley began looking for a solid - state version of the triode, but with little success. at the end of world war ii,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5219589061182567, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:187c5f5e-f7ab-434f-a736-041d8a6c6e5a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.112143"}
{"text": "##een and brattain \u2019 s invention of the bipolar, point - contact transistor took many unexpected twists and turns. shockley did not put all his eggs in the field - effect basket. not to be outdone by bardeen and brattain, shockley secretly worked on a different bipolar device. within a short time, his patent for the bipolar junction transistor had wiped out all commercial interest in the point - contact transistor. shockley remained committed to the value of his field - effect theory, but was unable to make a go of it. more than 15 years of material technology advances would be needed before the first practical fet appeared. today, 75 years after lilienfeld \u2019 s work, metal - oxide silicon ( mos ) transistors, which are built around field - effect principles, dominate semiconductor electronics. lilienfield acknowledged as pioneer in an address to the american institute of physics in 1988, bardeen acknowledged the great credit due lilienfeld for his pioneering efforts to make the semiconductor amplifier. in the 1920s, lilienfeld could not have understood the physics of the field - effect semiconductor amplifier, as the quantum theory of solids was still several years away. nevertheless, he had a good intuitive feel for a new approach to electronics. in bardeen \u2019 s own words, \u201c lilienfeld had the basic concept of controlling the flow of current in a semiconductor to make an amplifying device. it took many years of theory development and material technology to make his dream a reality. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5674967202876375, "token_count": 311, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:187c5f5e-f7ab-434f-a736-041d8a6c6e5a>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.116293"}
{"text": "early applications of electricity early applications of electricity - page created by shh, 9 september 2008 - contributors : shh x3, nbrewer x10, nmolnar x1, administrator1 x4, rnarayan x5 - last modified by administrator1, 11 january 2012 making electricity work : putting theory into practice when people realized what electricity and magnetism were they took the first steps towards putting them to work. the very first machines hardly seem useful compared to the stuff we use today, but 200 years ago, when the industrial revolution was getting under way in europe, they were major breakthroughs. in the 19th century inventors began looking for ways to use electromagnetism to run machines, which was being done at that time by steam engines, water wheels, horses, or even people. one of the first to think about using electricity for practical purposes was the american joseph henry. in 1829 he used a large battery to build a powerful electromagnet. it was not just a scientific instrument \u2014 it could do heavy work, such as lifting hundreds of pounds of metal. with his demonstration, henry really began to transform electricity into something that people could use every day. those interested in using electricity also found new ways to produce electric current. inventors tried to improve the basic idea of electromagnetic induction and used magnets to create a flow of current in wires. one of the first to invent such a machine was frenchman hippolyte pixii in 1832. pixii \u2019 s machine generated what would today be called an alternating current. it flowed first in one direction and then in the opposite direction. belgian floris nollet improved pixii \u2019 s electromagnetic generator around 1850, and his design was capable of producing about 50 volts. the nollet generator was the first to be produced in large numbers by a manufacturing firm. they were used in electroplating, the first industrial operation to employ electricity. the electrical age was truly under way. along with the generator came much more powerful ways to put electricity to work. a key technology was the electric motor. by the 1800 inventors had already harnessed the power of steam to run locomotives and factory machines. many thought that electricity could be tapped to do the same kind of work, especially after michael faraday demonstrated a tiny electric motor. in 1834 thomas davenport designed a motor that was strong enough to run a small printing press. he patented the motor in 1837. but progress was slow \u2014 it wasn \u2019 t until almost 50 years later that electric motors were used commercially.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5011969564759031, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:db8b29ef-2105-4568-aab4-d82eaf665d9e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.122852"}
{"text": "tiny electric motor. in 1834 thomas davenport designed a motor that was strong enough to run a small printing press. he patented the motor in 1837. but progress was slow \u2014 it wasn \u2019 t until almost 50 years later that electric motors were used commercially. davenport also used his motor ( which was powered by batteries ) to move a small railroad car around a track. unfortunately, commercial railroad cars were large, and so many batteries were needed that an electric railroad was not practical. but inventors used batteries and motors to power small automobiles beginning in the 1880s. in fact, in 1900 electric automobiles outsold gasoline - powered cars. today, of course, most cars use gas, but electric cars continue to be developed. since they do not produce exhaust gas and are easier on the environment than gasoline, they continue to attract interest. electricity was also put to work at an early age in the field of medicine. just three years after the invention of the leyden jar in 1745, doctors in geneva began to treat patients with electric shocks. a swiss physician reported that victims of paralysis could sometimes be cured by repeated shocks to their muscles. when luigi galvani announced the discovery of \u201c animal electricity, \u201d doctors were encouraged to continue their experiments. doctors such as guillaume - benjamin duchenne, the \u201c father of electrotherapy, \u201d believed that shocking people with electricity might even cure their ailments. unfortunately, this type of medicine did not prove effective and became much less common by the early 20th century. but there were many other uses of electricity in medicine that succeeded. the first detection of the electric currents emanating from the brain was made in 1875, and the x - ray machine was introduced in 1895. however, the most successful practical early use of electricity in the 19th century was the telegraph. this new form of communication ushered in the era of electrical communication and brought electricity to the forefront of the public \u2019 s attention. < rating comment = \" false \" > well written? 1 ( no ) 2 3 4 5 ( yes ) < / rating > < rating comment = \" false \" > informative? 1 ( no ) 2 3 4 5 ( yes ) < / rating > < rating comment = \" false \" > accurate? 1 ( no ) 2 3 4 5 ( yes ) < / rating >", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5203894958463117, "token_count": 460, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:db8b29ef-2105-4568-aab4-d82eaf665d9e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.123873"}
{"text": "for immediate release, april 1, 2010 for information : alice tibbetts, 612 - 625 - 3889 the chocolate headline appeared in a newspaper in 2005 and was based on a study involving only 14 people. results from more current studies are in the news again, just in time for the easter candy season. how do we determine if such health claims are credible? how do we interpret the statistics behind headlines? when are statistics manipulated to further an agenda? nancy reid, a professor of statistics at the university of toronto, will speak to these questions at a public lecture, thursday, april 22, 2010 in 175 willey hall, 225 19th avenue south at the university of minnesota. she is the final speaker in this season ' s free lecture series sponsored by the institute for mathematics and its applications ( ima ). when the media presents findings as definitive, the public is misinformed, she said. \" statistics are not black and white. in reality, there is a lot of nuance, and in the most complex problems, there is ambiguity. one number won ' t tell you anything important about climate change or cancer. instead, we have to ask : where did the number come from? how can we find more data to better inform us? what could have gone wrong? data is just the beginning of the conversation. \" reid will discuss the statistics behind current news stories, including : chocolate ' s impact on health, whether girls are really less capable in math than boys, the netflix grand prize for movie recommendations, and the use of new on - line visuals to explain large data sets, such as how stimulus money is being spent. for updates on future public lectures : http : / / www. ima. umn. edu / public - lecture. the ima brings together the best minds in math and the sciences to solve pressing problems facing our society, our industries, and our planet. it receives major funding from the national science foundation and the university of minnesota.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.534466042668433, "token_count": 401, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e7deccef-13d1-4554-9b22-3af78c3c272f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.126089"}
{"text": "| | | medical myths | | | sleep : what ' s going on behind that shut - eye? last reviewed on january 13, 2011 by robert h. shmerling, m. d. beth israel deaconess medical center have you ever watched someone sleep and wondered what he or she was dreaming? the persons outward appearance would never give it away : slow breathing, eyes occasionally fluttering, but mostly the very picture of peace and stillness. but, appearances can be deceiving. when people sleep, theres a lot more going on than meets the eye. the notion of sleep as the bodys ultimate down time has some truth to it, but sleep is also an active process, in which the brain can be remarkably busy, even if the body remains ( mostly ) immobile. whats going on during sleep? there is much about sleep that remains mysterious, but experts divide it into two main categories, based on observations of sleeping persons and recordings of the brains electrical activity during sleep : - non - rem sleep this is divided into four stages, with stage 1 the lightest and stage 4 the deepest. - rapid - eye movement ( rem ) sleep during rem sleep, dreaming is common, muscles ( other than the eyes ) are inactive, and electrical activity in the brain is similar to that of an awake person. the blood pressure and heart and breathing rates may suddenly increase for short periods of time, just as they do during wakefulness during a typical eight - hour period of sleep, a person drifts from wakefulness to stage 1 non - rem sleep, through stages 2, 3 and 4 and finally rem sleep over the first several hours. during the last half of the night, rem sleep and stage 2 sleep alternate for 90 to 120 minutes each. as we age, brief awakenings increase in frequency, while deeper stages of non - rem sleep decrease. back to top why do we sleep? the function of sleep is not entirely clear, but researchers believe that rem sleep is important for solidifying memories, and perhaps for even more critical functions. rodents completely deprived of rem sleep die after a few weeks. non - rem sleep, meanwhile, seems to be important in providing a sense of restored energy and ability to concentrate during the day. a number of theories about sleep attempt to explain its role or roles : a restorative for the mind and body in preparation for the day ahead ; or a way of reducing energy consumption, to save energy for activities occurring during the day. some scientists believe that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5397274214692631, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aedc3701-40df-4faa-894c-550a7cdad2c8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.146526"}
{"text": "of theories about sleep attempt to explain its role or roles : a restorative for the mind and body in preparation for the day ahead ; or a way of reducing energy consumption, to save energy for activities occurring during the day. some scientists believe that sleep is evolutions way of improving survival by preventing animals from preying on each other 24 hours a day. back to top consequence of sleep deprivation it is hard to define just how much sleep is normal ; different people seem to need different amounts. sleep experts define enough sleep as how long a person would sleep if there were no alarm clocks ; that is, left to decide entirely on your own, how long would you sleep? the other way to define it is how long one needs to sleep in order to feel alert and rested the next day. however, duration of sleep is not the only thing that matters the quality of sleep also matters. too little sleep or poor - quality sleep can cause a number of problems, including difficulty with short - term memory, concentration, depression, anxiety, irritability, poor energy and reduced libido. in short, quality of life at work and at home may suffer terribly due to insufficient or poor sleep. all of these problems may resolve when sleep duration increases or sleep quality improves. one problem related to sleep deprivation deserves particular emphasis : automobile and truck accidents attributed to sleepy drivers account for thousands of deaths each year. although the impact is uncertain in humans, sleep - deprived rodents have reduced immune function and higher susceptibility to infection. back to top there are more than 80 individual sleep disorders, but they are divided into 4 main categories : - dyssomnias, in which there is insomnia ( difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep ), sleepiness during the day, and abnormal sleep - wake timing ; examples include sleep apnea and the effects of medications or alcohol. - parasomnias, in which there is abnormal behavior around sleep, but without excessive sleepiness or insomnia ; examples include sleepwalking or night terrors. - medical - psychiatric sleep disorders, in which a condition that causes other problems disrupts or impairs sleep ; examples include anxiety, depression, parkinsons disease, dementia or gastroesophageal reflux disease ( gerd ). - sleep problems that cannot be clearly separated from normal variation, or for which there is no consensus among experts ; examples include pregnancy - associated sleep disorder and sleep hyperhidrosis ( excessive and unexplained sweating during sleep ). back to top getting a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5587113559509268, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aedc3701-40df-4faa-894c-550a7cdad2c8>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.147509"}
{"text": "though apple designed the iphone, ipod and ipad to be very user friendly and intuitive devices, they do take some adjusting to especially as they move further into roles computers have held - email, word processing, spread sheet, powerpoint, etc and are becoming more common in business, and educational functions. analogies are comparisons that point out relationships between two or more different things. for example : cat : kitten as dog : puppy. by providing your child with practice in correctly identifying analogies, you \u2019 ll not only help him improve his iq and placement test scores, but you ' ll also improve his analytical thinking, problem solving, perception, spatial skills, memory and creativity. go grab istart spanish now ( deadline sep 30, 2010 ) - - you can learn spanish, and enter to win a 16gb apple ipad!! contest terms and conditions are clearly explained in the app, and the winner will be announced on 3 oct, 2010. this contest is not related in any way to iphonelife. com promotions or giveaways. as a dabbler of a few languages, i admit that i am not a natural learner. my english is not that good, and it ' s my native tongue! anyhoo, i took spanish in high school, but never could quite get the hang of the tricky rolling r sounds, the masculine and feminine forms, etc. with istart spanish on my ipod, i may finally be able to make some progress, and understand some of my wife ' s favorite tv shows. charles peattie ' s animal alphabet is bound to be a favorite with young and old alike. are you looking for a way to entertain your preschooler? teach him or her the letters of the alphabet? either way, here \u2019 s an app to do it, and you \u2019 ll discover that you \u2019 ll be entertained as well! for you history buffs, check out the history apps available from \u2026 making learning fun again! last year our school district was fortunate to receive a $ 12, 000 grant to fund a handheld computing project. we chose the ipod touch ( a. k. a., \" itouch \" ) as our handheld solution for a variety of reasons. the itouch is fast and portable. the students stay on task because we can control the apps they are using. there are apps available in all subject areas that focus on specific classroom objectives. we purchased 18 itouch units for our high school and 30 units for our middle school, grades 5 - 8. they were implemented as \" portable labs \" (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5050753571756523, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:22e81239-9c1d-4914-a31c-8a05148df678>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T09:44:02.158525"}