had proved mathematically the feasibility of using the reactive force that lifts a rocket to eject a vehicle into space above the pull of the earth ' s gravity. twenty years later romanian - born hermann oberth had independently worked out similar formulas, but before the l950s, outside a very small circle of rocket buffs, the studies of both men remained virtually unknown in the english - speaking world. neither had built a usable rocket to demonstrate the validity of his theories, and, preoccupied as each was with plans for human journeys to the moon and planets, neither had so much as mentioned an unmanned artificial satellite. 1 indeed until communication by means of radio waves had developed far beyond the techniques of the 1930s and early l940s, the launching of an inanimate body into the heavens could have little appeal for either the scientist or the romantic dreamer. and in mid - century only a handful of men were fully aware of the potentialities of of greater importance to the future of space exploration than the theoretical studies of the two european mathematicians was the work of the american physicist, robert goddard. while engaged in post - graduate work at princeton university before world war i, goddard had demonstrated in the laboratory that rocket propulsion would function in a vacuum, and in 1917 he received a grant of $ 5, 000 from the smithsonian institution to continue his experiments. under this grant the smithsonian published his report of his theory and early experiments, method of reaching extreme altitudes. in 1918 he had successfully developed a solid - fuel ballistic rocket in which, however, even the united states army lost interest after the armistice. convinced that rockets would eventually permit travel into outer space, goddard after the war had continued his research at clark university, seeking to develop vehicles that could penetrate into the ionosphere. in contrast to tsiolkovskiy and oberth, he set himself to devising practical means of attaining the goal they all three aspired to. in 1926 he successfully launched a rocket propelled by gasoline and liquid oxygen, a " first " that ranks in fame with the wright brothers ' kitty hawk flights of 1903. with the help of charles lindbergh after his dramatic solo transatlantic flight. goddard obtained a grant of $ 5, 000 from daniel guggenheim and equipped a small laboratory in new mexico where he built several rockets. in 1937, assisted by grants from the daniel and florence guggenheim foundation, he launched a rocket that reached an altitude of 9, 000 feet. although not many people in the united states knew much about his work, a few had followed it as closely as his secretiveness


assisted by grants from the daniel and florence guggenheim foundation, he launched a rocket that reached an altitude of 9, 000 feet. although not many people in the united states knew much about his work, a few had followed it as closely as his secretiveness allowed them to ; among them were members of the american interplanetary space society, organized in 1930 and later renamed the american rocket society. with the coming of world war ii goddard abandoned his field experiments, but the navy employed him to help in developing liquid propellants for jato, that is, jet - assisted takeoff for aircraft. when the nazi " buzz " bombs of 1943 and the supersonic " vengeance " missile - the " v - 2s " that rained on london during 1944 and early 1945 - awakened the entire world to the potentialities of rockets as weapons, a good many physicists and military men studied his findings with attention. by a twist of fate, goddard, who was even more interested in astronautics than in weaponry, died in 1945, fourteen years before most of his countrymen acknowledged manned space exploration as feasible and recognized his basic contribution to it by naming the government ' s new multi - million - dollar experimental station at beltsville, maryland, " the goddard space flight center. " 3 ( photo courtesy of mrs. robert h. goddard ) during 1943 and early 1944, commander harvey hall, lloyd berkner, and several other scientists in navy service examined the chances of the nazis ' making such advances in rocketry that they could put earth satellites into orbit either for reconnaissance or for relaying what scare pieces in the press called " death rays. " while the investigators foresaw well before the first v - 2 struck britain that german experts could build rockets capable of reaching targets a few hundred miles distant, study showed that the state of the art was not yet at a stage to overcome the engineering difficulties of firing a rocket to a sufficient altitude to launch a body into the ionosphere. the region between 50 and 250 miles above the earth ' s surface. in the process of arriving at that conclusion members of the intelligence team, like tsiolkovskiy and oberth before them, worked out the mathematical formulas of the velocities needed. once technology had progressed further, these men knew, an artificial earth - circling satellite would be entirely feasible. more important, if it were equipped with a transmitter and recording devices, it would provide an invaluable means of obtaining information about outer space. 4 at the end of the war, when most americans wanted to forget


satellite would be entirely feasible. more important, if it were equipped with a transmitter and recording devices, it would provide an invaluable means of obtaining information about outer space. 4 at the end of the war, when most americans wanted to forget about rockets and everything military, these men were eager to pursue rocket development in order to further scientific research. in 1888 simon newcomb, the most eminent american astronomer of his day, had declared : - " we are probably nearing the limit of all we can know about astronomy. " in 1945, despite powerful new telescopes and notable advances in radio techniques, that pronouncement appeared still true unless observations made above the earth ' s atmosphere were to become possible. only a mighty rocket could reach beyond the blanket of the earth ' s atmosphere ; and in the united states only the armed services possessed the means of procuring rockets with sufficient thrust to attain the necessary altitude. at the same time a number of officers wanted to experiment with improving rockets as weapons. each group followed a somewhat different course during the next few years, but each gave some thought to launching an " earth - circling spaceship, ' ' since, irrespective of ultimate purpose, the requirements for launching and flight control were similar. the character of those tentative early plans bears examination, if only because of the consequences of their rejection. " operation paperclip. " the first official army project aimed at acquiring german know - how about rocketry and technology, grew out of the capture of a hundred of the notorious v - 2s and out of interrogations of key scientists and engineers who had worked at the nazi ' s rocket research and development base at peenemuende. hence the decision to bring to the united states about one hundred twenty of the german experts along with the captured missiles and spare parts. before the arrival of the germans, general donald putt of the army air forces outlined to officers at wright field some of the nazi schemes for putting space platforms into the ionosphere ; when his listeners laughed at what appeared to be a tall tale, he assured them that these were far from silly vaporings and were likely to materialize before the end of the century. still the haughtiness of the germans who landed at wright field in the autumn of 1945 was not endearing to the americans who had to work with them. the navy wanted none of them, whatever their skills. during a searching interrogation before the group left germany a former german general had remarked testily that had hitler not been so pig - headed the nazi team might now


americans who had to work with them. the navy wanted none of them, whatever their skills. during a searching interrogation before the group left germany a former german general had remarked testily that had hitler not been so pig - headed the nazi team might now be giving orders to american engineers ; to which the american scientist conducting the questioning growled in reply that americans would never have permitted a hitler to rise to power. 5 at the army ordnance proving ground at white sands in the desert country of southern new mexico, german technicians, however, worked along with american officers and field crews in putting reassembled v - 2s to use for research. as replacing the explosive in the warhead with scientific instruments and ballast would permit observing and recording data on the upper atmosphere. the army invited other government agencies and universities to share in making high - altitude measurements by this means. assisted by the german rocketeers headed by wernher von braun, the general electric company under a contract with the army took charge of the launchings. scientists from the five participating universities and from laboratories of the armed services designed and built the instruments placed in the rockets ' noses. in the course of the next five years teams from each of the three military services and the universities assembled information from successful launchings of forty instrumented v - 2s. in june 1946 a v - 2, the first probe using instruments devised by members of the newly organized rocket sonde research section of the naval research laboratory, carried to an altitude of sixty - seven miles a geiger - counter telescope to detect cosmic rays, pressure and temperature gauges, a spectrograph, and radio transmitters. during january and february 1946 nrl scientists had investigated the possibility of launching an instrumented earth satellite in this fashion, only to conclude reluctantly that engineering techniques were still too unsophisticated to make it practical ; for the time being, the laboratory would gain more by perfecting instruments to be emplaced in and recovered from v - 2s. as successive shots set higher altitude records, new spectroscopic equipment developed by the micron waves branch of the laboratory ' s optics division produced a number of excellent ultraviolet and x - ray spectra, measured night air glow, and determined ozone concentration. 6 in the interim the army ' s " bumper " project produced and successfully flew a two - stage rocket consisting of a " wac corporal " missile superimposed on a v - 2. after each launching, an unofficial volunteer panel of scientists and technicians, soon known as the upper atmosphere rocket research panel, discussed the findings. indeed


two - stage rocket consisting of a " wac corporal " missile superimposed on a v - 2. after each launching, an unofficial volunteer panel of scientists and technicians, soon known as the upper atmosphere rocket research panel, discussed the findings. indeed the panel coordinated and guided the research that built up a considerable body of data on the nature of the upper atmosphere. nevertheless, because the supply of v - 2s would not last indefinitely, and because a rocket built expressly for research would have distinct advantages, the nrl staff early decided to draw up specifications for a new sounding rocket. although the applied physics laboratory of the johns hopkins university. under contract with the navy ' s bureau of ordnance and the office of naval research, was modifying the " wac corporal " to develop the fin - stabilized aerobee research rocket, nrl wanted a model with a sensitive steering mechanism and gyroscopic controls. in august 1946 the glenn l. martin company won the contract to design and construct a vehicle that would meet the nrl requirements. 7 four months before the army ordnance department started work on captured v - 2s, the navy bureau of aeronautics had initiated a more ambitious research scheme with the appointment of a committee for evaluating the feasibility of space rocketry. unmistakably inspired by the ideas of members of the navy intelligence team which had investigated nazi capabilities in rocketry during the war, and, like that earlier group, directed by the brilliant harvey hall, the committee embarked upon an intensive study of the physical requirements and the technical resources available for launching a vessel into orbit about the earth. by 22 october 1945, the committee had drafted recommendations urging the bureau of aeronautics to sponsor an experimental program to devise an earth - orbiting " space ship " launched by a single - stage rocket, propelled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, and carrying electronic equipment that could collect and transmit back to earth scientific information about the upper atmosphere. here was a revolutionary proposal. if based on the speculative thinking of navy scientists in 1944, it was now fortified by careful computations. designed solely for research, the unmanned instrumented satellite weighing about two thousand pounds and put into orbit by a rocket motor burning a new type of fuel should he able to stay aloft for days instead of the seconds possible with vertical probing rockets. nazi experts at peenemuende, for all their sophisticated ideas about future space flights, had never thought of building anything comparable. 8 the recommendations to the bureau of aeronautics quickly led to exploratory contracts with the jet propulsion laboratory of the california institute of technology and the


unit of the douglas aircraft company and a forerunner of the rand corporation of california. 11 like the scientists of the bureau of aeronautics committee, project rand mathematicians and engineers declared technology already equal to the task of launching a spaceship. the ship could be circling the earth, they averred, within five years, namely by mid - 1951. they admitted that it could not be used as a carrier for an atomic bomb and would have no direct function as a weapon, but they stressed the advantages that would nevertheless accrue from putting an artificial satellite into orbit : " to visualize the impact on the world, one can imagine the consternation and admiration that would be felt here if the united states were to discover suddenly that some other nation had already put up a successful satellite. " 12 officials at the pentagon were unimpressed. theodore von karman, chief mentor of the army air forces and principal author of the report that became the research and development bible of the service, advocated research in the upper atmosphere but was silent about the use of an artificial satellite. nor did vannevar bush have faith in such a venture. the most influential scientist in america of his day and in 1946 chairman of the joint army and navy research and development board. bush was even skeptical about the possibility of developing within the foreseeable future the engineering skills necessary to build intercontinental guided missiles. his doubts, coupled with von karman ' s disregard of satellite schemes, inevitably dashed cold water on the proposals and helped account for the lukewarm reception long accorded them. 13 still the veto of a combined navy - army air forces program did not kill the hopes of advocates of a " space ship. " while the navy and its contractors continued the development of a scale model 3, 000 - pound - thrust motor powered by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, project rand completed a second study for the army air forces. but after mid - 1947, when the air force became a separate service within the newly created department of defense, reorganization preoccupied its officers for a year or more, and many of them, academic scientists believed, shared general lemay ' s indifference to research not immediately applicable to defense problems. at buaer, on the other hand, a number of men continued to press for money to translate satellite studies into actual experiments. unhappily for them, a technical evaluation group of civilian scientists serving on the guided missiles committee of the defense department ' s research and development board declared in march 1948 that " neither the navy nor the usaf has as yet established either a military or a scientific


- ray and ultraviolet wavelengths, equipment which would later supply answers to questions about the nuclear composition of solar radiation. equally valuable was the development of an electronic tracking device known as a " single - axis phase - comparison angle - tracking unit, " the antecedent of " minitrack, " which would permit continuous tracking of a small instrumented body in space. when the next to last viking, no. 11, rose to an altitude of 158 miles in may 1954, the radio telemetering system transmitted data on cosmic ray emissions, just as the viking 10, fired about two weeks before, had furnished scientists with the first measurement of positive ion composition at an altitude of 136 miles. 21 this remarkable series of successes achieved in five years at a total cost of less than $ 6 million encouraged nrl in 1955 to believe that, with a more powerful engine and the addition of upper stages, here was a vehicle capable of launching an earth satellite. an " earth circling satellite ", 1951. essential though this work was to subsequent programs, the naval research laboratory in the late l940s and the l950s was hampered by not having what john p. hagen called " stable funding " for its projects. hagen, head of the atmosphere and astrophysics division., found the budgetary system singularly unsatisfactory. nrl had been founded in 1923, but a post - world - war - ii reorganization within the navy had brought the office of naval research into being and given it administrative control of the laboratory ' s finances. onr allotted the laboratory a modest fixed sum annually, but other navy bureaus and federal agencies frequently engaged the laboratory ' s talents and paid for particular jobs. the arrangement resembled that of a man who receives a small retainer from his employer but depends for most of his livelihood on fees paid him by his own clientele for special services. nrl ' s every contract, whether for design studies or hardware, had to be negotiated and administered either by onr or by one of the permanent navy bureau - in atmospheric research, it was by the navy bureau of aeronautics. the cancellation of a contract could seriously disrupt nrl functioning, as the years 1950 to 1954 illustrated. 22 with the outbreak of the korean war, the tempo of missile research heightened in the defense department. while the navy was working on a guided missile launchable from shipboard and a group at nrl on radio interferometers for tracking it, rocketeers at redstone arsenal in alabama were engaged in getting the " bugs " out of a north american aviation engine


navy was working on a guided missile launchable from shipboard and a group at nrl on radio interferometers for tracking it, rocketeers at redstone arsenal in alabama were engaged in getting the " bugs " out of a north american aviation engine for a ballistic missile with a 200 - mile range, and rand was carrying on secret studies of a military reconnaissance satellite for the air force. in june 1952 nrl got approval for the construction of four additional vikings similar to viking no. 10 to use in ballistic missile research, but eleven months later buaer withdrew its support and canceled the development contract for a high - performance oxygen - ammonia engine that was to have replaced the less powerful viking engine ; this cancellation postponed by over three years the availability of a suitable power plant for the first stage of the future vanguard rocket. similarly in 1954 lack of funds curtailed an nrl program to design and develop a new liquid - propelled aerobee - hi probing rocket. at the request of the western development division of the air force in july 1954, the laboratory investigated the possible use of an improved viking as a test vehicle for intercontinental ballistic missiles, icbms. the study, involving a solution of the " reentry problem, " that is, how to enable a missile ' s warhead to return into the atmosphere without disintegrating before reaching its target, produced the design of an m - i0 and m - 15 viking, the designations referring to the speeds, measured by mach number, at which each would reenter the atmosphere. but the air force later let the development contracts to private industry. 23 in these years the department of defense was unwilling to spend more than token sums on research that appeared to have only remote connection with fighting equipment. the creation of the national science foundation in may 1950 tended to justify that position, for one of the new agency ' s main functions was to encourage and provide support for basic research chiefly by means of grants - in - aid to american universities. the mission of the army, navy, and air force was national defense, that of the foundation the fostering of scientific discovery. it was a responsibility of the foundation to decide what lines of fundamental research most merited public financial aid in their own right, whereas other federal agencies must by law limit their basic research to fields closely related to their practical missions. while the foundation ' s charter forbade it to make grants for applied research and development - the very area in which the military would often have welcomed assistance - any government department could ask the national academy of sciences for help on scientific problems


to their practical missions. while the foundation ' s charter forbade it to make grants for applied research and development - the very area in which the military would often have welcomed assistance - any government department could ask the national academy of sciences for help on scientific problems. the academy, founded in 1863 as a self - perpetuating body advisory to but independent of the government, included distinguished men in every scientific field. when its executive unit, the national research council, agreed to sponsor studies for federal agencies, the studies sometimes involved more applied than pure research. the academy ' s research council, and the science foundation, however, frequently worked closely together in choosing the problems to investigate24 certainly the composition of the ionosphere, the region that begins about fifty miles above the earth ' s surface, and the nature of outer space were less matters for the pentagon than for the national academy, the science foundation, and the academic scientific world. indeed, the panel of volunteers which analyzed the findings from each instrumented v - 2 shot and later appraised the results of aerobee, viking, and aerobee - hi flights contained from the first some future members of the academy. among the participants over the years were homer j. stewart and william h. pickering of cal tech ' s jet propulsion laboratory, milton w. rosen, homer e. newell, jr., and john w. townsend, jr., of nrl, and james a. van allen of the applied physics laboratory of the johns hopkins university and later a professor at the state university of iowa. under van allen ' s chairmanship, the panel on upper atmosphere rocket research came to be a strong link between university physicists and the department of defense, a more direct link in several respects than that afforded by civilian scientists who served on advisory committees of the dod ' s research and development board. 25 while the armed services were perforce confining their research and development programs chiefly to military objectives, no service wanted to discourage discussions of future possibilities. in the autumn of 1951 several doctors in the air force and a group of physicists brought together by joseph kaplan of the university of california, los angeles, met in san antonio, texas, for a symposium on the physics and medicine of the upper atmosphere. the participants summarized existing knowledge of the region named the " aeropause, " where manned flight was not yet possible, and examined the problems of man ' s penetrating into that still unexplored area. the papers published in book form a year later were directly instrumental, kaplan believed, in arousing


effects of the radiation from outer space upon living cells. in communications, john r. pierce, whose proposal of 1952 gave birth to telstar a decade later, 28 discussed the utility of a relay for radio and television broadcasts. data obtainable in the realm of geodesy. according to major john o ' keefe of the army map service, would throw light on the size and shape of the earth and the intensity of its gravitational fields, information which would be invaluable to navigators and mapmakers. the meteorologist eugene bollay of north american weather consultants spoke of the predictable gains in accuracy of weather forecasting. perhaps most illuminating to the nonscientifically trained reader was homer e. newell ' s analysis of the unknowns of the ionosphere which data accumulated over a period of days could clarify. confusing and complex happenings in the atmosphere, wrote newell, were " a manifestation of an influx of energy from outer space. what was the nature and magnitude of that energy? much of the incoming energy was absorbed in the atmosphere at high altitudes. from data transmitted from a space satellite five hundred miles above the earth, the earth - hound scientist might gauge the nature and intensity of the radiation emanating from the sun, the primary producer of that energy. cosmic rays. meteors, and micrometeors also brought in energy. although they probably had little effect on the upper atmosphere, cosmic rays, with their extremely high energies, produced ionization in the lower atmosphere. low - energy particles from the sun were thought to cause the aurora and to play a significant part in the formation of the ionosphere. sounding rockets permitted little more than momentary measurements of the various radiations at various heights, but with a satellite circling the earth in a geomagnetic meridian plane it should be possible to study in detail the low - energy end of the cosmic ray spectrum, a region inaccessible to direct observation within the atmosphere and best studied above the geomagnetic poles. batteries charged by the sun should be able to supply power to relay information for weeks or months. contrary to what an indifferent public might have expected from rocket " crackpots, " the document noted that " to create a satellite merely for the purpose of saying it has been done would not justify the cost. rather, the satellite should serve useful purpose - purposes which can command the respect of the officials who sponsor it, the scientists and engineers who produce it, and the community who pays for it. " the appeal was primarily to the scientific community, but the intelligent


, the satellite should serve useful purpose - purposes which can command the respect of the officials who sponsor it, the scientists and engineers who produce it, and the community who pays for it. " the appeal was primarily to the scientific community, but the intelligent layman could comprehend it. and its publication in an engineering journal in february 1955 gave the report a diversified audience. 29 a number of men in and outside government service meantime had continued to pursue the satellite idea. in february 1952 aristid v. grosse of temple university, a key figure in the manhattan project in its early days, had persuaded president truman to approve a study of the utility of a satellite in the form of an inflatable balloon visible to the naked eye from the surface of the earth. aware that wernher von braun, one of the german - born experts from peenemuende, was interested, the physicist took counsel with him and his associates at redstone arsenal in huntsville, alabama. fifteen months later grosse submitted to the secretary of the air force a description of the " american star " that could rise in the west. presumably because the proposed satellite would be merely a show piece without other utility, nothing more was heard of it. 30 a series of articles in three issues of collier ' s, however, commanded wide attention during 1952. stirred by an account of the san antonio symposium as kaplan described it over the lunch table, the editors of the magazine engaged wernher von braun to write the principal pieces and obtained shorter contributions from kaplan, fred l. whipple, chairman of the harvard university department of astronomy, heinz haber of the air force space medicine division, the journalist willy ley, and others. the editors ' comment ran : " what are we waiting for? ", an expression of alarm lest a communist nation preempt outer space before the united states acted and thereby control the earth from manned space platforms equipped with atomic bombs. on the other hand, von braun ' s articles chiefly stressed the exciting discoveries possible within twenty - five years if america at once began building " cargo rockets " and a wheel - shaped earth - circling space station from which american rocket ships could depart to other planets and return. perhaps because of severe editing to adapt material to popular consumption, the text contained little or no technical data on how these wonders were to be accomplished ; the term " telemetry " nowhere appeared. but the articles, replete with illustrations in color, and a subsequent walt disney film fanned public interest and led to an change of letters between von braun


on how these wonders were to be accomplished ; the term " telemetry " nowhere appeared. but the articles, replete with illustrations in color, and a subsequent walt disney film fanned public interest and led to an change of letters between von braun and s. fred singer, a brilliant young physicist at the university of maryland. 31 at the fourth congress of the international astronautics federation in zurich, switzerland, in summer 1953, singer proposed a minimum orbital unmanned satellite of the earth, mouse, based upon a study prepared two years earlier by members of the british interplanetary society who had predicated their scheme on the use of a v - 2 rocket. the upper atmosphere rocket research panel at white sands in turn discussed the plan in april 1954, and in may singer again presented his mouse proposal at the hayden planetarium ' s fourth space travel symposium. on that occasion harry wexler of the united states weather bureau gave a lecture entitled, " observing the weather from a satellite vehicle. " 32 the american public was thus being exposed to the concept of an artificial satellite as something more than science fiction. by then, commander george hoover and alexander satin of the air branch of the office of naval research had come to the conclusion that recent technological advances in rocketry had so improved the art that the feasibility of launching a satellite was no longer in serious doubt. hoover therefore put out feelers to specialists of the army ballistic missile agency at huntsville. there von braun, having temporarily discarded his space platform as impractical, was giving thought to using the redstone rocket to place a small satellite in orbit. redstone, a direct descendant of the v - 2, was, as one man described it, a huge piece of " boiler plate. " sixty - nine feet long, seventy inches in diameter, and weighing 61, 000 pounds, its power plant using liquid oxygen as oxidizer and an alcohol - water mixture as fuel. a new redstone engine built by the rocketdyne division of north american aviation, inc., and tested in 1953 was thirty percent lighter and thirty - four percent more powerful than that of the v - 2. 33 if commander hoover knew of the futile efforts of buaer in 1947 to get army air forces collaboration on a not wholly dissimilar space program, that earlier disappointment failed to discourage him. and as he had reason to believe he could now get navy funds for a satellite project, he had no difficulty in enlisting von braun ' s interest. at a meeting in washington arranged by frederick c. durant,


" orbiter was to be built largely from existing hardware. 36 during the spring of 1953 the united states national committee drafted a statement which the international council later adopted, listing the fields of inquiry which igy programs should encompass - oceanographic phenomena, polar geography, and seismology, for example, and, in the celestial area, such matters as solar activity, sources of ionizing radiations, cosmic rays, and their effects upon the atmosphere. 39 army ballistic missile agency, huntsville, alabama. at this point it is necessary to examine the course scientific thought had been taking among physicists of the national academy and american universities, for in the long run it was their recommendations that would most immediately affect governmental decisions about a satellite program. this phase of the story opens in spring 1950, at an informal gathering at james van allen ' s home in silver spring, maryland. the group invited by van allen to meet with the eminent british geophysicist sydney chapman consisted of lloyd berkner, head of the new brookhaven national laboratory on long island, s. fred singer, j. wallace joyce, a geophysicist with the navy buaer and adviser to the department of state, and ernest h. vestine of the department of terrestrial magnetism of the carnegie institution. as they talked of how to obtain simultaneous measurements and observations of the earth and the upper atmosphere from a distance above the earth, berkner suggested that perhaps staging another international polar year would be the best way. his companions immediately responded enthusiastically. berkner and chapman then developed the idea further and put it into form to present to the international council of scientific unions. the first international polar year had established the precedent of international scientific cooperation in 1882 when scientists of a score of nations agreed to pool their efforts for a year in studying polar conditions. a second international polar year took place, in 1932. berkner ' s proposal to shorten the interval to 25 years was timely because 1957 - 1958, astronomers knew, would be a period of maximum solar activity. 37 european scientists subscribed to the plan. in 1952 the international council of scientific unions appointed a committee to make arrangements, extended the scope of the study to the whole earth, not just the polar regions, fixed the duration at eighteen months, and then renamed the undertaking the international geophysical year, shortened in popular speech to igy. it eventually embraced sixty - seven nations. 38 in the international council of scientific unions the national academy of sciences had always been the adhering body for the united states. the council


undertaking the international geophysical year, shortened in popular speech to igy. it eventually embraced sixty - seven nations. 38 in the international council of scientific unions the national academy of sciences had always been the adhering body for the united states. the council itself, generally called icsu, was and is the headquarters unit of a nongovernmental international association of scientific groups such as the international union of geodesy and geophysics. the international union of pure and applied physics, the international scientific radio union, and others. when plans were afoot for international scientific programs which needed governmental support, americans of the national academy naturally looked to the national science foundation for federal funds. relations between the two organizations had always been cordial, the foundation often turning for advice to the academy and its secretariat, the national research council, and the academy frequently seeking financing for projects from the foundation. at the end of 1952 the academy appointed a united states national committee for the igy headed by joseph kaplan to plan for american participation. the choice of kaplan as chairman strengthened the position of men interested in the upper atmosphere and outer space. during the spring of 1953 the united states national committee drafted a statement which the international council later adopted, listing the fields of inquiry which igy programs should encompass - oceanographic phenomena, polar geography, and seismology, for example, and, in the celestial area, such matters as solar activity, sources of ionizing radiations, cosmic rays, and their effects upon the atmosphere. 39in the course of the year the science foundation granted $ 27, 000 to the igy committee for planning, but in december, when hugh odishaw left his post as assistant to the director of the bureau of standards to become secretary of the national committee, it was still uncertain how much further support the government would give igy programs. foundation resources were limited. although in august congress had removed the $ 15, 000, 000 ceiling which the original act had placed on the foundation ' s annual budget, the appropriation voted for fy 1954 had totaled only $ 8 million. in view of the foundation ' s other commitments, that sum seemed unlikely to allow for extensive participation in the igy. in january 1954 the national committee asked for a total of $ 13 million. scientists ' hopes rose in march when president eisenhower announced that, in contrast to the $ 100 million spent in 1940 on federal support of research and development, he was submitting a $ 2 - billion research and development budget to congress for fy 1955. hope turned to gratification in


of his associates to his room at the hotel majestic to review the pros and cons, to make sure, as one man put it. that the proposal to csagi was not just a " pious resolution " such as newton could have submitted to the royal society. the group included joseph kaplan, u. s. national committee chairman, hugh odishaw, committee secretary, athelstan spilhaus, dean of the university of minnesota ' s institute of technology. alan h. shapley of the national bureau of standards, harry wexler of the weather bureau, wallace joyce, newell, and singer. the session lasted far into the night. singer outlined the scientific and technical problem - the determination of orbits, the effects of launching errors, the probable life of the satellite, telemetering and satellite orientation, receiving stations, power supplies, and geophysical and astrophysical applications of data. newell, better versed than some of the others in the technical difficulties to be overcome, pointed out that satellite batteries might bubble in the weightless environment of space, whereupon spilhaus banged his fist and shouted : " then we ' ll get batteries that won ' t! " singer ' s presentation was exciting, but the question remained whether an artificial body of the limited size and weight a rocket could as yet put into orbit could carry enough reliable instrumentation to prove of sufficient scientific value to warrant the cost ; money and effort poured into that project would not be available for other research, and to attempt to build a big satellite might be to invite defeat. both berkner and spilhaus spoke of the political and psychological prestige that would accrue to the nation that first launched a man - made satellite. as everyone present knew, a. n. nesmeyanov of the soviet academy of sciences had said in november 1953 that satellite launchings and moon shots were already feasible ; and with tsiolkovskiy ' s work now recognized by western physicists, the americans had reason to believe in russian scientific and technological capabilities. in march 1954 moscow radio had exhorted soviet youth to prepare for space exploration, and in april the moscow air club had announced that studies in interplanetary flight were beginning. very recently the u. s. s. r. had committed itself to igy participation. while the american scientists in september 1954 did not discount the possible russian challenge, some of them insisted that a satellite experiment must not assume such emphasis as to cripple or halt upper atmosphere research by means of sounding rockets. the latter was an established


. while the american scientists in september 1954 did not discount the possible russian challenge, some of them insisted that a satellite experiment must not assume such emphasis as to cripple or halt upper atmosphere research by means of sounding rockets. the latter was an established useful technique that could provide, as a satellite in orbit could not, measurements at a succession of altitudes in and above the upper atmosphere, measurements along the vertical instead of the horizontal plane. nevertheless at the end of the six - hour session, the group unanimously agreed to urge csagi to endorse an igy satellite project. 41 during the csagi meeting that followed, the soviet representatives listened to the discussion but neither objected, volunteered comment, nor asked questions. on 4 october csagi adopted the american proposal : " in view, " stated of the great importance of observations during extended periods of time of extra - terrestrial radiations and geophysical phenomena in the upper atmosphere, and in view of the advanced state of present rocket techniques, csagi recommends that thought be given to the launching of small satellite vehicles, to their scientific instrumentation, and to the new problems associated with satellite experiments, such as power supply, telemetering, and orientation of the vehicle. 42 what had long seemed to most of the american public as pure jules verne and buck rogers fantasy now had the formal backing of the world ' s most eminent scientists. thus by the time the united states committee for the igy appointed a feasibility panel on upper atmosphere research, three separate, albeit interrelated, groups of americans were concerned with a possible earth satellite project : physicists, geodesists, and astronomers intent on basic research ; officers of the three armed services looking for scientific means to military ends ; and industrial engineers, including members of the american rocket society, who were eager to see an expanding role for their companies. the three were by no means mutually exclusive. the dedicated scientist, for instance, in keeping with theodore von karman ' s example as a founder and official of the aerojet general corporation, might also be a shareholder in a research - orientated electronics or aircraft company, just as the industrialist might have a passionate interest in pure as well as applied science, and the military man might share the intellectual and practical interests of both the others. certainly all three wanted improvements in equipment for national defense. still the primary objective of each group differed from those of the other two. these differences were to have subtle effects on vanguard ' s development. although to some people the role of the national academy appeared to be that of a johnny


corporate social responsibility ( csr ) refers to the relationship of corporations with society as a whole, and the need for corporations to align their values with societal expectations in order to avoid conflict and reap tangible benefits. multinational enterprises ( mnes ) are an important part of the international economy. through international direct investment, they bring substantial benefits to home and host countries in the form of productive capital, managerial and technological know - how, job creation and tax revenues. at the same time, public concerns remain about the social, economic and environmental impact of mne activities on the societies in which they operate. these concerns have led to a proliferation of initiatives at the company, industry, national and global levels, including the development of codes of conduct, monitoring and reporting initiatives, and social labelling schemes covering a broad range of issues, including labour standards. among these are three key multilateral initiatives aimed at encouraging corporations to make a positive contribution to economic and social progress, and to minimize and resolve the difficulties to which their operations may give rise. the ilo ' s tripartite declaration of principles concerning multinational enterprises and social policy is the universal basic reference point for social responsibility in the world of work. it sets out principles, developed through tripartite dialogue, in the fields of employment, training, working conditions, and industrial relations. the effect given by governments, employers and workers ' organizations and multinational enterprises ( mnes ) to the principles of the declaration is monitored through a periodic survey. the ilo has also produced a useful guide to the tripartite declaration that offers practical suggestions on building relationships in global markets among business, government and labour that balance the goals of profitability, the protection of workers ' rights and socio - economic development. the oecd ' s guidelines for multinational enterprises ( pdf 1. 75 mb ) are recommendations from governments to multinational enterprises. they set out voluntary principles and standards for responsible business conduct, consistent with domestic and international laws, in areas such as human rights, information disclosure, employment and industrial relations, environmental stewardship, combating bribery, consumer rights, science and technology, competition and taxation. countries adhering to the guidelines are required to set up a national contact point ( ncp ) that is responsible for promoting the guidelines and contributing to the resolution of issues that arise in relation to the implementation of the guidelines in specific cases. ncps are expected to operate in accordance with the core criteria of visibility, accessibility, transparency and accountability. the labour program participates in canada ' s national contact point, an interdepartmental committee


in moscow, drivers reported an average delay of two - and - a - half hours when asked to report the length of the worst traffic jam they experienced in the past three years. but they ’ re not alone. cities everywhere are battling an increase in demand and an inability to build sufficient infrastructure to cope. for example, in the u. s., as population grew nearly 20 % between 1982 and 2001, traffic jumped 236 %. the recent ibm commuter pain study ( us ) paints a grim picture of metropolitan - area commuters in many cities struggling to get to and from work each day, often with negative consequences. for example, 57 percent of all respondents say that roadway traffic has negatively affected their health, but that percentage soars to 96 percent in new delhi and 95 percent in beijing. ibm commuter pain index ibm compiled the results of the survey into an index that ranks the emotional and economic toll of commuting in each city on a scale of one to 100 ― with 100 being the most onerous. the index reveals a tremendous disparity in the pain of the daily commute from city to city. for example, the commute in beijing is four times more painful than the commute in los angeles or new york, and seven times more painful than the commute in stockholm, according to the index. here ’ s how the cities stack up : the survey was conducted to better understand consumer thinking toward traffic congestion as the issue reaches crisis proportions nationwide and higher levels of auto emissions stir environmental concerns. these events are impacting communities around the world, where governments, citizens and private sector organizations are looking beyond traditional remedies like additional roads and greater access to public transportation to reverse the negative impacts of increased road congestion. improving mobility for the 21st century ibm chairman samuel j. palmisano addresses members of the intelligent transportation society of america about the opportunities for a smarter transportation system. traffic systems are part of a larger system rethinking how we get from point a to point b means applying new technology and new policies to old assumptions and habits. it means improving the drivers ' experience, not just where and when they drive. and it could lead to advances in the cars we drive, the roads we drive them on, and the public transit we might take instead. for example, seeing a city ' s traffic in a consolidated, real - time view can help anticipate problems, alleviate congestion and decrease emergency - response times. ibm intelligent transportation ( us ), a compliment to the intelligent operations center for smarter cities, enables advanced analysis of


in rural and developing areas of africa, there is a lack of expected comforts that other areas of the world take for granted, such as light and energy. sometimes building or receiving these necessities help to stimulate communities and raise the quality of life for families. to help encourage these struggling areas, undergraduate students from the university of kwazulu - natal, school of electrical, electronic and computer engineering, in south africa, will be designing and building a solar photo - voltaic lamp that is portable and suitably priced for rural households. the lamp will have additional functions such as an am / fm radio and the capability to charge mobile phones. with further enhancement, it would also be capable of including a miniature multi - media device. the project will involve 4th year students at the university. the work of the students will be guided and mentored by ieee member edward chikuni, along with a senior academic, who will insure that they learn design skills and other necessary knowledge associated with their degree program. most importantly, students will learn to work in teams and serve their community. they will collaborate with “ family literacy project, ” a non - profit organization with strong activities in education and literacy among rural dwellings. the university students will interact with high school students at qalimfundo primary school for feedback on the project. at the beginning of 2011, data will be collected from rural areas to determine the specifications of the lamp design. during the students first semester, they will work in groups to come up with conceptual designs to compare with one another. by the end of 2011, a detailed prototype and design should be ready. the construction and deployment of these lamps will happen in 2012, when the project is evaluated and refined through government participation. the ultimate goal of this project is to enhance the educational experience of rural families, and encourage students to serve these communities with their engineering backgrounds. with more available access to the functions of the lamp, young children can start, from a young age, to learn and increase their literacy. in turn, it will empower them to find greater opportunities for more educational endeavors.


presentation : " the aging workforce : challenges and opportunities " by susanne bruyere and judy young workplace considerations for employees with non - visible disabilities people with disabilities comprise a significant percentage of our society. when we think about " disability " we often picture obvious disabilities such as someone who uses a wheelchair or who is blind. but actually a large proportion of individuals with disabilities actually have non - visible disabilities such as learning disabilities or psychiatric impairments. these individuals have a unique set of needs and issues, as well as potential challenges they may encounter in the workplace. this program will explore society ' s view of people with non - visible disabilities and how that can be reflected in the workplace. it will also explore issues around defining disability, disclosure, and confidentiality in the workplace. specifically, this program will enable participants to : • explore issues around defining what a disability can be and increase their knowledge about different types of disabilities ; • consider what affects the decision to disclose a disability and what the employer ' s obligations and options are for responding and addressing the needs of an employee who is disclosing having a non - visible disability ; • discuss how to navigate performance management issues that involve someone with a non - visible disability ; and • learn best practices around interacting and communicating with employees with disabilities and how to create a disability inclusive workplace. this informational seminar provides basic information pertaining to eligibility for and claiming the earned income tax credit as well as information pertaining to the veterans administration benefits using lecture, powerpoint and opportunity for question and answer. online polling will be used to test participant knowledge. a preparatory reading assignment will be provided and is required. home | about edi | contact us 201 dolgen hall, ithaca, new york 14853 - 3201 voice : 607 - 255 - 7727 | fax : 607 - 255 - 2763 | tty : 607 - 255 - 2891 cornell university | ilr school | employment and disability institute


tuesday, june 10, 2008 leckey on pluralism in the history of canadian civil marriage posted by mary l. dudziak profane matrimony is an essay by robert leckey, mcgill university - faculty of law. it appeared in the canadian journal of law and society ( 2006 ). here ' s the abstract : recent debates over same - sex marriage prompt reflection more generally on the competing norms regulating marriages. two supremacy claims emerged in the debates, one that religious traditions provide the supreme law of marriage, another that civil marriage is entirely secular and its supreme law is the canadian charter of rights and freedoms. this paper identifies similarities in these claims. both wrongly ascribe an internal uniformity to cultural communities. referring to historical amendments to marriage law, the paper argues that both claims are unfaithful to the canadian tradition of marriage law. amendments to the prohibited degrees of relationship and the introduction of federal divorce legislation show the federal parliament to have developed a civil or profane marriage in conscious opposition to religious forms. since the 1880s, marriage law has been periodically altered on the basis that it is wrong in a plural, secular society to impose religious views on nonbelievers. parliament has not simply followed top - down norms, but also regarded social practice as a source of marriage norms. past instances of law reform indicate a rich political tradition of argument and contestation, one in which the churches have not maintained consistently that the civil law of marriage should mirror religious rules. civil marriage and religious marriage are not, as claimed by the standard bearers of the charter, unrelated. they stand instead in a constantly adjusting relationship of tension and difference.


ture. the authors that have treated of it. its relation to the art of gram - the use of it in the matter of speech, consists in the words, either written message in use amongst the terials of writing, whether the paper by changing of their places. ters, by changing their powers. the use of this amongst the jewes and romanes. the key - character. are requisite to the intended mea - barbarous words, and such as shall not seeme to be of any signification. how all the letters may be expressed by any five, three, or two of them. of writing with a double alphabet. how from these two last wayes together, there may be contrived the best kind of se - ters then are required to the words of it. the use of this amongst the jews and ring any letter - characters. how to ex - presse any sense, either by points, or lines, first invention of these. of those that signifie things and notions, as hierogly may be legible to all nations and langua - ges. the benefit, and possibility of this. sing, by signes and gestures, which may ons, either by qualities, as the impressi - on of imagination, and the sensitive spe - cies ; or by spirituall substances, as bodies, whether inanimate, as arrows, bullets, or animate, as men, beasts, the species of sound. of tunes and musicall notes, without any articulate sound. cret and swift informations by the species of sight, which are either fabulous, or smokes. their antiquity. the ture man - ner of using them to this purpose. that these were meant in nuntius inani - matus.


to form poisonous chlorine gas that can cause burning and watering of eyes, as well as burning of the nose and mouth. bleach – see sodium hypochlorite diethanolamine ( dea ) – listed as a suspected carcinogen by the state of california, this chemical is a skin and respiratory toxicant and a severe eye irritant. used in a wide range of household cleaning products. d - limonene – this chemical is produced by cold - pressing orange peels. the extracted oil is 90 % d - limonene. it is a sensitizer, a neurotoxin, a moderate eye and skin irritant, and can trigger respiratory distress when vapours are inhaled by some sensitive individuals. there is some evidence of carcinogenicity. d - limonene is the active ingredient in some insecticides. it is used as a solvent in many all - purpose cleaning products, especially ‘ citrus ’ and ‘ orange ’ cleaners. also listed on labels as citrus oil and orange oil. ethoxylated nonyl phenol – nonyl phenols are hormone disruptors and some contain traces of ethylene oxide, a known human carcinogen. they are eye and skin irritants. used in laundry detergents and other cleaning products. formaldehyde – in lab tests, formaldehyde has caused cancer and damaged dna. formaldehyde is also a sensitizer, with the potential to cause asthma. several laboratory studies have shown it to be a central nervous system depressant. exposure to formaldehyde may cause joint pain, depression, headaches, chest pains, ear infections, chronic fatigue, dizziness and loss of sleep. while formaldehyde naturally occurs in the human body in minute amounts, it is estimated that 20 per cent of people exposed to it will experience an allergic reaction. used in a wide range of products, including some furniture polishes. formaldehyde may be released by other chemicals, eg. quaternium 15. fragrance – fragrance on a label can indicate the presence of up to 4, 000 separate ingredients, most of which are synthetic. many compounds in fragrance are human toxins and suspected or proven carcinogens. in 1989, the us national institute of occupational safety and health evaluated 2, 983 fragrance chemicals for health effects. they identified 884 of them as toxic substances. synthetic fragrances are known to trigger asthma attacks. the us environmental protection agency found that 100 % of perfumes contain


institute of occupational safety and health evaluated 2, 983 fragrance chemicals for health effects. they identified 884 of them as toxic substances. synthetic fragrances are known to trigger asthma attacks. the us environmental protection agency found that 100 % of perfumes contain toluene, which can cause liver, kidney and brain damage as well as damage to a developing fetus. symptoms reported to the fda from fragrance exposure have included headaches, dizziness, rashes, skin discoloration, violent coughing and vomiting, and allergic skin irritation. clinical observations by medical doctors have shown that exposure to fragrances can affect the central nervous system, causing depression, hyperactivity, irritability, inability to cope, and other behavioral changes. fragrance is a common skin irritant. methylene chloride – methylene chloride is a carcinogen, a neurotoxin and a reproductive toxin. on inhalation, it can cause liver and brain damage, irregular heartbeat, and even heart attack. it is a severe skin and moderate eye irritant. used in stain removers. monoethanolamine – this chemical may cause liver, kidney and reproductive damage, as well as depression of the central nervous system. inhalation of high concentrations – when cleaning an oven for example – can cause dizziness or even coma. the chemical can also be absorbed through the skin. it is a moderate skin irritant, and a severe eye irritant. found in many cleaning products, including oven cleaners, tub and tile cleaners, laundry pre - soaks, floor strippers and carpet cleaners. morpholine – this corrosive ingredient can severely irritate and burn skin and eyes, and can even cause blindness if splashed in eyes. it can cause liver and kidney damage, and long - term exposure can result in bronchitis. it reacts with nitrites ( added as a preservative in some products, or present as a contaminant ) to form carcinogenic nitrosomines. morpholine is a moderate to severe eye, skin and mucous membrane irritant. used as a solvent in a number of cleaning products, including some furniture polishes and abrasive cleansers. naphthalene – this registered pesticide is listed as a suspected carcinogen in california and is most commonly found in mothballs, and some other pest repellants, as well as in deodorizers. as a reproductive toxin, it is transported across the place


registered pesticide is listed as a suspected carcinogen in california and is most commonly found in mothballs, and some other pest repellants, as well as in deodorizers. as a reproductive toxin, it is transported across the placenta and can cause blood damage. it can cause liver and kidney damage, and corneal damage and cataracts. skin exposure is especially dangerous to newborns. parabens – parabens are hormone disruptors. widely used in cleaning products as preservatives, paraben is usually preceded by the prefixes methyl -, ethyl -, butyl -, or propyl. parabens may cause contact dermatitis in some individuals paradichlorobenzene – this highly volatile registered pesticide is in the same chemical class as ddt. it is a suspected carcinogen, and may cause lung, liver and kidney damage. it is used in mothballs and some washroom deodorizers and urinal blocks. phosphoric acid – extremely corrosive, it can severely irritate and burn the skin and eyes. breathing vapours can make the lungs ache, and it may be toxic to the central nervous system. found in some liquid dishwasher detergents, metal polishes, some disinfectants, and bathroom cleaners, especially those that remove lime and mildew. sodium dichloroisocyanurate dihydrate – this corrosive chemical is a severe eye, skin and respiratory irritant. it may cause liver and gastrointestinal damage, and may be toxic to the central nervous system. it will react with bleach to form poisonous chlorine gas that can cause burning and watering of eyes, as well as burning of the nose and mouth. it is found in some toilet bowl cleaners and deodorizers, as well as industrial detergents and some institutional dishwashing detergents. sodium hypochlorite ( bleach ) – a corrosive chemical, sodium hypochlorite is an eye, skin and respiratory irritant, as well as a sensitizer. it is especially hazardous to people with heart conditions or asthma, and can be fatal if swallowed. it may be a neurotoxin and toxic to the liver. found in a wide range of household cleaners. sodium lauryl sulfate ( sls ) – used as a lathering agent. this chemical is a known skin irritant


some elements of a window interface contain collections of items, for example rows of buttons, lists of filenames, and groups of menu items. such elements are known in the capi as collections. in most collections, items may be selected by the user - - for example, a row of buttons. collections whose items can be selected are known as choices. each button in a row of buttons is either checked or unchecked, showing something about the application ' s state - - perhaps that color graphics are switched on and sound is switched off. this selection state came about as the result of a choice the user made when running the application, or default choices made by the application itself. the capi provides a convenient way of producing groups of items from which collections and choices can be made. the abstract class provides a means of specifying a group of items. the subclass provides groups of selectable items, where you may specify what initial state they are in, and what happens when the selection is changed. subclasses of used for producing particular kinds of grouped elements are described in the sections that follow. all the choices described in this chapter can be given a print function via the keyword. this allows you to control the way in which items in the element are displayed. for example, passing the argument would capitalize the initial letters of all the words of text that an instance of a choice displays. some of the examples in this chapter require the functions which were introduced in creating common windows.


of their democratic ways. no citizen was above the law – laws were posted in the agora for all to see – or was exempt from being a part of the legal process. in fact, athenians considered it a duty and a privilege to serve on juries. both the city law courts and senate were located in the agora to demonstrate the open, egalitarian nature of athenian life. the athenian democratic process, whereby issues were discussed in a forum and then voted on, is the basis for most modern systems of governance. ultimate brainstorm session scientific theory also got its start in the agora, where the city ' s greatest minds regularly met informally to socialize. socrates, plato and aristotle all frequented the athenian agora, discussed philosophy and instructed pupils there. aristotle, in particular, is known for his contributions to science, and may have developed his important theories on the empirical method, zoology and physics, among others, while chatting in the agora ' s food stalls or sitting by its fountains. hippocrates, the father of modern medicine and its hippocratic oath, and pythagoras, a mathematician who developed the geometric theory of a triangle ' s sides, were both highly public figures who taught and shared ideas in their own hometown agoras. - last week : how qin shi huang changed the world - next week : how the battle of actium changed the world - gallery : the seven ancient wonders of the world - top 10 ancient capitals more from livescience. com


overview of the nervous system anatomy of the brain congenital and hereditary disorders neurological disorders in the newborn inflammatory and infectious disorders seizures and epilepsy the nervous system is a complex, sophisticated system that regulates and coordinates the body ' s basic functions and activities. it is made up of two major divisions, including the central nervous system ( consisting of the brain and spinal cord ) and the peripheral nervous system ( consisting of all other neural elements ). the central nervous system controls thought, behavior, and movement. the peripheral nervous system relays information to the central nervous system for transmitting messages to muscles and glands. in addition to the brain and spinal cord, principal organs of the nervous system include the eyes, ears, sensory organs of taste, sensory organs of smell, and sensory receptors in the skin, joints, muscles, and other parts of the body. the nervous system is vulnerable to various disorders. because of its complexity and the high technology used in evaluation and treatment of its disorders, the branches of medicine, physician specialists, and clinical services that manage it are as numerous and varied as the disorders and conditions. pediatric neurologists and neurosurgeons specialize in the management and treatment of neurological conditions that only affect children - from newborns to adolescents. the information on this web page is provided for educational purposes. you understand and agree that this information is not intended to be, and should not be used as, a substitute for medical treatment by a health care professional. you agree that lucile salter packard children ' s hospital is not making a diagnosis of your condition or a recommendation about the course of treatment for your particular circumstances through the use of this web page. you agree to be solely responsible for your use of this web page and the information contained on this page. lucile salter packard children ' s hospital, its officers, directors, employees, agents, and information providers shall not be liable for any damages you may suffer or cause through your use of this page even if advised of the possibility of such damages.


concerning the hydrothermal system, they are best used in conjunction with other data ( mineral stability, other stable isotopes ). in comparison with sulfides from other meteorites, the delta 34s of the pyrite from alh 84001 is enriched in 34s. this signature implies that the planetary body represented by alh 84001 experienced processes capable of fractionating s isotopes that were not functional on asteroidal bodies represented by chondrite and achondrite meteorites. as was noted previously, the terrestrial delta 34s exhibits a wide variability. in particular, the large negative values in terrestrial delta 34s has been attributed, in many cases, to the bacterial reduction of sulfate to sulfide. the positive delta 34s measured in the alh 84001 pyrite therefore suggests that the sulfur in this hydrothermal sulfide was not processed by bacteria in a manner analogous to terrestrial processes. the positive delta 34s measured in the alh 84001 pyrite may be attributed to several different processes that may be functioning on the martian surface or in the shallow martian crust : model 1 : assuming that the delta 34s in the fluid was essentially 0, the pyrite may be enriched in delta 34s by ph, temperature, and fo2 conditions during precipitation. the ph and the fugacity of oxygen may be approximated using the delta 34s data presented here, delta 13c data on the carbonates, a relatively low sigma s, a temperature of precipitation of ~ 100°c and the coexistence of pyrite and carbonate. making these assumptions, precipitation occurred in a reduced and moderately alkaline environment with the dominant sulfur - bearing species in solution being hs -. at higher temperatures ( ~ 700°c ) as suggested by [ 7, 9 ], the delta 34s of pyrite in the stability fields of carhonate + pyrite will not have values that approach + 5 to + 8. model 2 : the above interpretation makes the assumption that the delta 34s in the fluid was equal to 0. at more acidic conditions than suggested above ( but at the same reducing conditions ), delta 34s will not be strongly fractionated during pyrite precipitation from an aqueous solution. therefore, under these conditions, the pyrite will approximate the delta 34s in the fluid. there are several potential processes that can generate positive delta 34s in the fluid under these ph and fo2 conditions : ( 2a ) previous isotopic studies of snc meteor


was not a dominant species in the solution. therefore, the extent of sulfur isotopic fractionation during pyrite precipitation from the hydrothermal solution was moderate, at alkaline conditions ( delta 34sfluid < delta 34spyrite ), to minor at low ph conditions ( delta 34sfluid = delta 34spyrite ) this suggests two different models for the generation of positive delta 34s in the pyrite. if the pyrite precipitated at low temperature ( 100° - 150°c ) reducing conditions and high ph ( < 9 ), a delta 34sfluid equal to 0 would precipitate pyrite with delta 34spyrite between 5 and 8. under more acidic conditions, the delta 34sfluid will be equal to that of the pyrite. this requires the positive delta 34sfluid signature to be produced prior to pyrite deposition. the positive delta 34s in the fluid may be attributed to upper atmospheric processes, impact processes, or low - temperature weathering reactions enriching the soil in 34s. these components may then be leached and their delta 34s signature transported to the location of precipitation. this process requires isotopic communication between the hydrothermal system and the martian surface. if the isotopic signature of the sulfide reflects communication with surfacial - atmospheric processes, it may constrain additional aspects of martian atmosphere evolution. references : ohmoto h. and rye r. o. ( 1979 ) in geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits ( ed. barnes h. l. ), pp. 509 - 567. pillinger c. t. ( 1984 ) geochim. cosmochim. acta, 48, 2739 - 2766. monster j. et al. ( 1965 ) geochim. cosmochim. acta, 29, 773 - 779. kaplan i. r. and hulston j. r. ( 1965 ) geochim. cosmochim. acta, 30, 479 - 496. paterson b. a. et al. ( 1994 ) lunar and planetary science xxv, 1057 - 1058. kerridge j. f. and kaplan i. r. ( 1978 ) proc. lunar planet. sci. conf. 9th, 1687 - 1709. mittlefehldt d. w. ( 1994 ) meteoritics, 29, 214 - 221. romanek c.


what is lupus lupus is a chronic, autoimmune disease that can damage any part of the body ( skin, joints, and / or organs inside the body ). chronic means that the signs and symptoms tend to last longer than six weeks and often for many years. in lupus, something goes wrong with your immune system, which is the part of the body that fights off viruses, bacteria, and germs ( " foreign invaders, " like the flu ). normally our immune system produces proteins called antibodies that protect the body from these invaders. autoimmune means your immune system cannot tell the difference between these foreign invaders and your body ’ s healthy tissues ( " auto " means " self " ) and creates autoantibodies that attack and destroy healthy tissue. these autoantibodies cause inflammation, pain, and damage in various parts of the body. - lupus is also a disease of flares ( the symptoms worsen and you feel ill ) and remissions ( the symptoms improve and you feel better ). lupus can range from mild to life - threatening and should always be treated by a doctor. with good medical care, most people with lupus can lead a full life. - lupus is not contagious, not even through sexual contact. you cannot " catch " lupus from someone or " give " lupus to someone. - lupus is not like or related to cancer. cancer is a condition of malignant, abnormal tissues that grow rapidly and spread into surrounding tissues. lupus is an autoimmune disease, as described above. - lupus is not like or related to hiv ( human immune deficiency virus ) or aids ( acquired immune deficiency syndrome ). in hiv or aids the immune system is underactive ; in lupus, the immune system is overactive. - our research estimates that at least 1. 5 million americans have lupus. the actual number may be higher ; however, there have been no large - scale studies to show the actual number of people in the u. s. living with lupus. - it is believed that 5 million people throughout the world have a form of lupus. - lupus strikes mostly women of childbearing age ( 15 - 44 ). however, men, children, and teenagers develop lupus, too. - women of color are 2 - 3 times more likely to develop lupus. - people of all races and ethnic groups can develop lupus. - more than 16, 000 new cases of lupus are


functions in lisp | column tag : | | lisp listener " functions in lisp " by andy cohen, human factors engineering, hughes aircraft, mactutor contributing editor as you may recall from the first installment of the lisp listener, a procedure is a description of an action or computation. a primitive is a predefined or " builtin " procedure ( e. g. " + " ). as in forth, lisp can have procedures which are defined by the programmer. defun, from define function, is used for this purpose. the syntax for defun in experlisp is as follows : ( defun functionname ( symbols ) ( all sorts of computations which may or may not use the values represented by the symbols ) ) the function name is exactly that. whenever the name is used the defined procedure associated with that function name is performed. the symbols are values which may or may not be required by the procedures within the defined function. if required, the values must follow the function name. when given, these values are assigned to the symbol. this is similar to the way values are assigned to a symbol when using setq. it is easier to see how defun works when observed within an example : ; ( defun reciprocal ( n ) ( / 1 n ) ) the word " reciprocal " is the function name and the numbers following are the values for which the reciprocal ( 1 / n ) are found. after the list containing defun is entered and the carriage return is pressed the function and it ' s title are assigned a location in memory. the function name is then printed in the listener window. ; ( defun square ( x ) ( * x x ) ) ; ( defun cubed ( y ) ( * y ( * y y ) ) ; ( defun average ( w x y z ) ( / ( + w x y z ) 4 ) ) ; ( average 2 3 4 5 ) you might recognize " average " from last month ' s lisp listener. one might imagine using defined functions inside other defined functions. if it was possible to have variables which have the same values in each procedure, then the version of lisp used has what is called dynamic scoping. in this context the values of the variable are determined by the lisp environment which is resident when the procedure is called. experlisp, however, is lexically scoped. that means that variable values are local to each procedure. two defined procedures can use the same labels for variables,


by the lisp environment which is resident when the procedure is called. experlisp, however, is lexically scoped. that means that variable values are local to each procedure. two defined procedures can use the same labels for variables, but the values will not be considered as the same. each variable is defined locally. this is in accordance to the common lisp standard. lexical scoping makes it easier to debug someone elses ' ' programs. if you don ' t know what i mean yet, don ' t worry. this subject will come up again in more detail later. if no values are required by the defined function then " nil " or an empty list must follow the function name. ; ( defun line ( ) the empty list obviously contains no atoms ( i ' ll describe the above function, " line " later in the section on bunnies ). it is synonymous to the special term nil, which is considered by lisp as the opposite of t or true. nil is used in many other contexts. ; ( cddr ' ( one two ) ) in the above, the first cdr returns " two ". the second cdr returns nothing, hence " nil ". the values of true and false are returned by procedures called predicates. while nil represents a false condition, anything other then nil, including " t ", is generally considered true. please note that i used lowercase letters in the above. experlisp recognizes both upper and lowercase. i ' ve been using uppercase only to make it clear within the text when i ' m referring to lisp equal is a predicate which checks the equality of two arguments. note the arguments can be integers or symbols. if the two arguments are equal then " t " is returned. if they are not equal then " nil " is returned. ; ( equal try try ) ; ( equal 6732837 6732837 ) ; ( equal 6732837 6732833 ) ; ( equal first second ) atom checks to see if it ' s argument is a list or an atom. remember, the single quote is used to indicate that what follows is a not evaluated as in the case of a list. symbols are evaluated. ; ( atom ( a b c d ) ) in the first of the above ' thing is an atom due to the single quote. in the second, thing is considered a symbol. a symbol is evaluated and contains a value or values as


evaluated. ; ( atom ( a b c d ) ) in the first of the above ' thing is an atom due to the single quote. in the second, thing is considered a symbol. a symbol is evaluated and contains a value or values as a list. in the third, ( a b c d ) is obviously a list. listp checks if it ' s argument is a list. ; ( listp ' ( 23 45 65 12 1 ) ) ; ( setq babble ' ( wd ihc wi kw ) ) one interesting observation is that nil is both an atom and a list, ( ) = nil. therefore atom and listp both return true for nil. when one needs to know if a list is empty, null does the job. ; ( null ( x y z ) ) numberp checks if the argument that follows is or represents a number rather than a string. ; ( setq fifty - six ' ( 56 ) ) now for a real slick one. member tests whether or not an argument is a part of a list. an easy demonstration follows : ; ( member ' bananas ( apples pears bananas ) ) ; ( apples pears bananas ) ; ( member ' grapes ( apples pears bananas ) ) when the argument is a member, then the contents of the list are given. if not then nil is returned. member also checks symbols of lists. ; ( setq fruit ' ( apples grapes pears ) ) ; ( member ' grapes fruit ) ; ( apples grapes pears ) ; ( member ' banana fruit ) evenp tests to see if an integer is even and minusp checks if an integer is negative. oddp and plusp are not needed since they are simply opposite of the first two. ; ( evenp ( - 806 35 ) ) ; ( minusp ( - 34 86 ) ) in the second and fourth examples above the lists contained within are calculated prior to memberp evaluation. ( 806 - 35 = 771 & 34 - 86 = - 52. there ' s a few more simple predicates such as not, <, >, and zerop. i ' ll discuss them along with conditionals next month. now for something completely different. if you ' ve ever learned logo, the concept of bunny graphics should sound familiar. as mentioned last month, the bunny is expertelligence ' s version of the turtle. all one needs to do in order to make a bunny move is to tell it to. forward x initially moves the bunny


bright light at night could up depression risk, mouse study suggests latest depression news wednesday, nov. 14 ( healthday news ) - - a new study suggests that when the sun goes down, you might end up happier and better able to learn new things if you turn down all the lights - - even your computer screen. unfortunately, the research was done just with mice. but because they share the same set of special light - activated cells in their eyes that humans have - - known as iprgcs - - it may be that the comparisons could apply to people. those cells, called intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, are stimulated by bright light, which affects the brain ' s mood, memory and learning centers, the researchers said. " expose yourself to bright light in the day and avoid it at night, " suggested study co - author samer hattar, an associate professor of biology and neuroscience at johns hopkins university, in baltimore. " that will keep the iprgcs that affect mood from being activated. " the research was published online in the nov. 14 in the journal nature. hattar said the research team was initially interested in whether seasonal affective disorder ( sad ) - - a form of depression people sometimes experience in the lower - light winter months - - applied to mice. they exposed mice to an alternating cycle of 3. 5 hours of light and then 3. 5 hours of darkness. the mice got depressed. how do you know that a mouse is sad? they take less interest in sugar and move less in the cage, and they have trouble learning and remembering, hattar explained. when the mice were given prozac ( fluoxetine ), a commonly prescribed antidepressant, their symptoms went away. to understand the role of the retina ' s neurological circuits in affecting mood, memory and learning, the researchers studied animals that didn ' t have the specialized iprgc cells. without them, the irregular light schedule did not impair mood and cognitive ( thinking ) function, even though their vision and general light detection ability remained intact. this showed that light affects learning and mood directly through these special photosensitive retinal cells, hattar said. the researchers created light - exposure patterns for the mice that allowed the scientists to rule out the possibility that circadian rhythm and sleep disruption were responsible for the changes in mood and learning ability they observed. circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24 - hour cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness in an


out the possibility that circadian rhythm and sleep disruption were responsible for the changes in mood and learning ability they observed. circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24 - hour cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness in an organism ' s environment, according to the u. s. national institutes of health. one expert questioned whether the mice ' s normal circadian rhythm was indeed maintained. " perhaps even though the overall sleep timing pattern remained intact, the quality of their sleep deteriorated, " suggested tony tang, an adjunct professor in the department of psychology at northwestern university, in evanston, ill. tang also found an important difference between how humans are exposed to light at night in modern life and how the reaction of mice to light was tested during the research. " in the current study, the poor mice ended up having bright lights shining on them while they slept ; but for humans in the past century, we ' ve stayed up while we kept lights on, and then turned the lights off when we sleep, " he said. scientists note that research with animals often fails to provide similar results in humans. study co - author hattar said the study should be replicated in human subjects. " but even if it comes out not as clear as it did in mice, i think there will be some benefit for people to turn down their lights at night. i don ' t think there is any harm in it. " copyright © 2012 healthday. all rights reserved. sources : samer hattar, ph. d., associate professor, biology and neuroscience, johns hopkins university, baltimore ; tony tang, ph. d., adjunct professor, department of psychology, northwestern university, evanston, ill. ; nov. 14, 2012, nature online get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox free!


interactive java tutorials refractive index determination oblique illumination is sometimes utilized as an alternative to the becke line test to determine whether the refractive index of a specimen is higher or lower than that of the surrounding medium. this interactive tutorial explores how variations in the refractive index of a specimen and its surrounding medium alter visibility in the microscope when utilizing oblique illumination techniques. the tutorial initializes with a specimen having a refractive index of 1. 15 positioned in a surrounding medium of refractive index 1. 33 ( representing water or lightly buffered aqueous saline solution ), and being illuminated with off - axis light rays originating from the lower left - hand side of the tutorial window. in order to operate the tutorial, translate the specimen ( refractive index value ) slider between values of 1. 0 and 1. 5. as the slider is moved from right to left, the specimen appearance is altered in the eyepiece view window. to change the refractive index of the surrounding medium, move the surround ( refractive index value ) slider to the right or left ( this slider also has a range of refractive indices between 1. 0 and 1. 5 ). translating the surround slider will also affect specimen appearance and visibility, as discussed below. the two sliders are interactive and positioning of one slider will affect the range of motion of the other. in situations where the specimen is mounted in a medium of lower refractive index, shading that results from the anaxial illumination will appear on the side opposite to that from which the light enters the specimen, and vice versa, as illustrated in figure 1. for both diagrams presented in figure 1, two equal sized oblique light rays are depicted entering the specimen through the surrounding medium at the same angle of incidence. at point a on the left - hand diagram, the light is spread over a larger area of the specimen than at point b, so that the area near point a on the specimen appears darker than the area near point b. under these conditions, one side of the specimen will appear shaded or somewhat darker than the other side when viewed through the microscope eyepieces ( represented by points a ' and b ' in the upper left portion of figure 1 ). this is the case when the specimen refractive index is higher than that of the surrounding medium. the opposite effect occurs when the specimen has a lower refractive index than that of the surrounding medium ( see the right - hand side of figure 1 ). in this case, the shaded or darker side


index is higher than that of the surrounding medium. the opposite effect occurs when the specimen has a lower refractive index than that of the surrounding medium ( see the right - hand side of figure 1 ). in this case, the shaded or darker side of the specimen will be on the side that is nearest to the oblique light sector stop. when the specimen and the surrounding medium have identical refractive indices, then the specimen will be transparent ( or invisible ) and will have no refractive effects on the oblique illumination. the sensitivity of this refractive index determination technique is highly dependent on the condenser focal length, the iris diaphragm position, and the geometry of sector stops ( if employed ). in general, the best results are obtained when the condenser is carefully focused and an even field of illumination is achieved. matthew j. parry - hill and michael w. davidson - national high magnetic field laboratory, 1800 east paul dirac dr., the florida state university, tallahassee, florida, 32310. back to oblique illumination questions or comments? send us an email. © 1998 - 2013 by michael w. davidson and the florida state university. all rights reserved. no images, graphics, scripts, or applets may be reproduced or used in any manner without permission from the copyright holders. use of this website means you agree to all of the legal terms and conditions set forth by the owners. last modification : thursday, jun 15, 2006 at 03 : 39 pm access count since july 22, 2002 : 24065 for more information on microscope manufacturers, use the buttons below to navigate to their websites :


the entire physical universe is made up of pure energy and vibration. when you have the insight to see everything as vibration, the nature of the universe is revealed to you. light is vibration. the entire electromagnetic wave spectrum of visible light produces different colors. colors are simply waves vibrating at different frequencies. on one end of the spectrum you have red, on the other end you have violet. red has the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency, violet has the shortest wavelength and the highest frequency. there are two kinds of electrical lighting that you can find when you visit an electronic store. warm light and cool light. warm light contains a greater mixture of lower frequency color waves such as yellow and orange. cool light contains a greater mixture of higher frequency color waves such as green and blue. light is crucial in its environmental effect upon work, play, rest and other life activities. it controls stimulation, relaxation and energy level. since warm light is more relaxing than cool light, you might decide to use it for the ambience it creates. have you ever used only warm lights in a room and thought that you could make the place more relaxing or stimulating simply by increasing or decreasing the light intensity? but it doesn ’ t work that way. increasing the light intensity of warm light does not make it a lot more stimulating. higher energy levels require higher rate of vibration. it is not the magnitude but the frequency of the vibration that determines it ’ s energy level. is it any wonder that blue flame is hotter than yellow flame? health is vibration. cold, damp and dark places with lack of airflow are breeding grounds for bacteria, whereas sunny places with abundance of airflow eliminate unhealthy micro organisms. the second type of environment is healthier than the first because it is high vibration while the other is low vibration. although sunlight is biologically beneficial, too much of it causes heatstroke. the energy turns from being constructive to destructive. the key here is balance. too much of something beyond the rightful amount causes instability. this is what all sickness and disease does. it seeks to weaken or destabilize vibration. the more vibrant and stable a person is, the more alive and constructive he / she are. the more lackluster and unstable he / she is, the less alive and / or the more ( self ) destructive. ever wonder why you have always been told to drink warm water and not to drink cold one when you were sick? when the body is sick, there are things within that are clogging up the system and slowing


the more ( self ) destructive. ever wonder why you have always been told to drink warm water and not to drink cold one when you were sick? when the body is sick, there are things within that are clogging up the system and slowing down some functions. the body needs energy to move the sickness out of the body or to destroy it. that is why your doctor advices you to drink plenty of water. it is the medium that your blood cells use to mobilize their work. more water and oxygen gives your body the much needed resources it needs in getting rid of the sickness. your impulse of coughing out phlegm and blowing out mucus is your bodies act of expelling the bad stuff from your body, which means you are on the road to recovery. warm water is high vibration whereas cold water is low vibration. cold water removes the precious energy needed for recovery, whereas warm water supplies it. one supports your recovery rate while the other sabotages it. sound is vibration. bassy music is low vibration and energetic music is high vibration. we enjoy listening to different types of music because we like to experience different ranges of emotion. the variety of feelings in life makes it fun and meaningful. high energy dance music appeal to younger people because they are highly energetic and expressive. slower and emotional entrancing music is what we desire to hear when we want to be moved in a deep and sensual way. we want time to slow down and come to a standstill the experience to be like an eternal moment. chemical is vibration. alcohol and earl grey tea are opposite in terms of vibration. although stress and anxiety is a form of high vibration, it is undesirable because the vibration is incoherent and disorderly. alcohol lowers vibration. that ’ s why people drink to relax and distress. but drinking consumes more than the natural amount of alcohol that the body is supposed to take. therefore it causes instability as well. drivers who drink have impaired judgment and reaction rate are more susceptible to accidents. people who are above the need of alcohol to relax have chosen more intelligent means of doing so. earl grey tea acts as a stimulant that counters the effects of alcohol to a certain extent to “ sober ” you up. the vibration of our “ bodies ” at every level, physical and non - physical, has a profound influence on our ability to attract positive experiences. the higher your vibration, the more of a “ magnet ” you become as a result of the thoughts you hold in your mind.


bodies ” at every level, physical and non - physical, has a profound influence on our ability to attract positive experiences. the higher your vibration, the more of a “ magnet ” you become as a result of the thoughts you hold in your mind. by holding only thoughts of the “ things ” you wish to manifest into your experience, and keeping your vibrations high in the ways we discussed previously, you will find your wishes will manifest much more quickly. when you learn to see everything as vibration different in terms of rate and stability, you will understand what you need in order to obtain the desired effect in any situation. it is all about balancing vibrations. there are lots more aspects of physical reality than those mentioned here where this principle is applied to. once you are aware of this principle and always think in terms of vibration, you can understand practically everything that happens in the physical world. this is one of the governing dynamics that allows you to make sense of everything. having this awareness is like seeing the world in code, like the matrix. - persistence of will manifests what you desire - affecting probable outcomes with your mind - casting magic spells and intention manifestation - shared reality - cooperative mental creation - actively defend your beliefs against conflict - mentally uniting with your desire by giving thanks for it - speaking your intention gives it more power - letting extremes guide you to balance of mind - purchasing the best things in life for yourself - everything is formed by vibration and geometry


the bar coding of finished products is an effective and widespread tool for managing inventory and distribution, expediting work - in - process and simplifying warranty fulfillment. what has not been practical is the tracing and tracking of individual parts that are internal to finished goods. these are the critical components that determine, after all, whether products perform or fail. there are several reasons why individual parts have not been marked until recently. key among them has been the limitation inherent in traditional marking, specifically the inability to withstand common manufacturing processes such as heat treating, mechanical abrasion and chemical baths. but this didn ' t mean there was not a need for this technology. roger schellhorn, quality coordinator at john deere ( waterloo, iowa ), was looking for a system that would code individual internal parts. " our first priority was to achieve individual parts traceability throughout the production line, " he explains. " we wanted to put a pedigree on parts, and assign quality data to individual items. we ' ve always been able to correlate quality data with a particular group of parts, but before recently, there had been no way to marry quality data with individual parts. " the company considered numerous systems for achieving individual part traceability, including optical character recognition ( ocr ). " our biggest objection, " says mr. schellhorn, " was the miles — literally miles — of wiring that would have been required. it looked to us like an upkeep nightmare. " then he found a new marking technology referred to as bumpy barcoding ( bbc ) by its supplier, mecco marking systems, ( ingomar, pennsylvania ). bbc indents a high - integrity 3d mark into metal, plastic and composite materials. indented bbc marks are expressed by highs and lows in surface height, rather than variations in black and white. indented bbc readers use differences in height, rather than contrast, to distinguish the bars and spaces of the code being read. this allows bumpy bar codes to be read where no contrast is available, ( for example, when a part is exiting a heat treating cycle and the surface is dark. ) the mark, which is permanent, can be made through indent marking, die stamping, or roll marking on virtually any material of less than rockwell 45c. materials do not have to be perfectly flat or smoothmachined ; in fact, only highly reflective materials ( such as polished stainless steel ) are problematic. marks can also be incorporated easily with most casting, forging