{"text": "outside a small town in gifu prefecture is a little - known scientific research establishment engaged in a project to \u201c create a sun on the earth. \u201d if successful, this venture will profoundly affect the lives of most people in the world. the national institute for fusion science ( nifs ) is a collection of buildings on the tree - covered hillsides surrounding the town of toki. it houses the large helical device ( lhd ), which cost \u00a550 billion to make and is the only one of its kind in the world. the machine is designed to replicate fusion, the nuclear reaction that powers the sun. once this is achieved, it will herald the end of humanity \u2019 s dependence on fossil fuels and begin an era of cheap and limitless energy. the current democratic party of japan administration is cutting back on big, expensive projects, and large - scale scientific organizations such as the lhd are under budgetary pressure. but it is worthwhile work according to denis humbert, an international atomic energy agency ( iaea ) scientist from france, who recently spent three months researching at the nifs. \u201c the budget for this project is actually very small \u2014 $ 18 billion over the next 20 years. fusion research has implications of great interest to many other fields such as research into new materials and the nanosciences. and most important, if it works, it will bring a solution to the planet \u2019 s energy problem. \u201d hiroshi yamada, executive director of research at the nifs, gave the japan times a tour of the facility in july. we put on hard hats, climbed ladders and crossed metal gangways in a huge, cavernous building that measures 40 meters high, 75 meters long and 45 meters wide. the space houses the lhd \u2014 an enormous sprouting of pipes and coils all wrapped around a giant metal tube. your reporter was invited to put on protective gear, crawl into a small space and stand upright to peer through a head - size hole, right into the silvery innards of the beast. if i were to stand in the same spot a few months down the road, i thought, this thing would vaporize me in an instant. weighing 1, 500 tons and measuring 13. 5 meters long and 9. 1 meters wide, the lhd is shaped somewhat like a vast twisted snake swallowing its own tail. it is the world \u2019 s largest superconductor and the only one of its type in the world. it costs the government \u00a55 billion a year to run. the technology started with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5552296355937038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2ef4a0a-02b2-4877-8e3a-e6c0d48ee689>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.486044"}
{"text": "shaped somewhat like a vast twisted snake swallowing its own tail. it is the world \u2019 s largest superconductor and the only one of its type in the world. it costs the government \u00a55 billion a year to run. the technology started with secret military research in the soviet union and, separately, the united states and great britain, just after world war ii. until today, the most dramatic demonstration of fusion power the world has seen has been purely destructive : the testing of hydrogen bombs set off by atomic bombs and, of course, the nuclear weapons used against the cities of hiroshima and nagasaki in august 1945. nuclear fission splits nuclei to create energy and nuclear fusion joins them to do the same thing. the first fusion device made for peaceful purposes was the tokamak, which was invented by leonid zakharov in russia in 1951. nuclear fission for peaceful use began in 1958 after a united nations conference in geneva on peaceful uses of atomic energy. since then, japan, the european union and the united states have made great efforts to modify and improve the machine. the tokamak is still widely regarded as the most promising fusion device, but there are other similar devices in the world, including one in naka, ibaraki prefecture, and at the culham centre for fusion energy near oxford, england. the tokamak has reached temperatures of 500 million degrees celsius in experiments, more than 30 times hotter than the sun. nuclear power for peaceful use has developed rapidly and there are now 400 nuclear fission power plants around the world. by contrast, the aim of constructing fusion reactors to generate electricity is still in the research and development phase. \u201c replicating the fusion of helium and hydrogen that powers the sun, in earthly conditions, means generating temperatures beyond 100 million degrees celsius, \u201d explains yamada. \u201c this creates plasma, the fourth state of matter after solids, liquids and gases. \u201d all stars, our sun included, are made of plasma. flashes of lightning are natural plasma and so too are the spectacular northern lights. artificial plasma, at much lower pressure, is present inside neon lights and plasma television screens. \u201c the extreme temperatures inside the lhd mean the plasma must not be allowed to touch the walls of the device. if it did, ( the walls ) would melt. \u201d herein lies the main difficulty with the lhd. researchers must create materials strong enough to withstand fusion at temperatures many times hotter than the sun. plasma at extremely high temperatures creates wild, unstable reactions and would irreparably damage any machine made", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5888308388267197, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2ef4a0a-02b2-4877-8e3a-e6c0d48ee689>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.487194"}
{"text": "\u201d herein lies the main difficulty with the lhd. researchers must create materials strong enough to withstand fusion at temperatures many times hotter than the sun. plasma at extremely high temperatures creates wild, unstable reactions and would irreparably damage any machine made to contain it that uses existing materials. yamada demonstrates this process by heating a circular fluorescent tube inside a microwave oven in a nifs display area. when he takes it out, it casts a purplish glow and is warm to the touch. he says, \u201c the glass walls of the tube cool the plasma. when a similar reaction occurs inside the sun, its vast gravitational pull keeps the plasma from shooting in all directions. \u201c once new materials have been invented, the way will be open to constructing fusion reactors able to generate electricity, using easily obtained resources that will never run out. the raw materials needed for creating plasma in fusion reactions, are lithium and deuterium, which can be extracted from seawater. \u201d one widespread modern use of lithium, is in mobile phones. the amount commonly used in each phone is about 0. 3 grams. together with the deuterium taken from 3 liters of seawater, a fusion reaction equivalent to 22, 000 kilowatt - hours of electric power could be created. this amount of electricity would supply a typical family in a developed country for a couple of years. or to put it another way, one liter of seawater contains enough deuterium to provide the energy content, when fused with tritium, of more than 500 liters of petroleum. fusion power plants of the future, producing a million kilowatts, would need about a tenth of a ton of deuterium and 10 tons of lithium a year as fuel. seawater covers over 70 percent of our planet and rates of extraction for hundreds of fusion reactors around the globe would never exhaust supplies. plasma inside the lhd is prevented from touching the walls by a magnetic field created inside the sinuous innards of the machine. it is done by means of a twisting, orange - hued metal alloy, wound 450 times and coiling round the outer walls of the giant tube. the coil is exposed to an electromagnetic force reaching 1, 000 tons per meter. beforehand the coil and supporting structure are cooled to minus 270 c. when cooled the structure typically shrinks 2 mm. the machine is built to tolerate a shrinkage of 2 cm. hydrogen gas is heated and injected into the machine. after reaching 10, 000 c, the hydrogen molecules disintegrate into atoms.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5960176977066634, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2ef4a0a-02b2-4877-8e3a-e6c0d48ee689>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.488378"}
{"text": "when cooled the structure typically shrinks 2 mm. the machine is built to tolerate a shrinkage of 2 cm. hydrogen gas is heated and injected into the machine. after reaching 10, 000 c, the hydrogen molecules disintegrate into atoms. then the parts of the atoms, the positive nucleus and the tiny negative electrons spinning around it, are unbound and create plasma. yamada explains how the process works : \u201c atoms that have lost electrons become ions and are 2, 000 times heavier than electrons. the ions are trapped and rotated along the magnetic field and the electrons are sent in an opposite motion. this is the means by which plasma many times the temperature of the sun is kept from destroying the lhd. the sun \u2019 s temperature is only 15 million degrees. its vastness \u2014 it is 100 times the size of the earth \u2014 allows fusion to occur at a much less fierce heat than inside the lhd. \u201d when being readied for experiments, the lhd is cooled for a month. usually from october to february each year it makes plasma four days a week. last year, however, the machine was switched on only between oct. 11 and the end of december, due to budget cuts. when the experiment ends and the lhd is switched off, it takes another month to warm up again. although at the moment the toki lhd is the only one of its type in the world, another device will be built in germany in 2015. after that, the next big development in fusion science will be the iter project ( originally the international thermonuclear experimental reactor ), when a tokamak 10 times bigger than toki \u2019 s lhd will be built in cadarache, france, in 2019. it is expected to be operational around 2027, when plasma will be ignited for the first time. forty - five percent of the cost will be funded by the european union, while japan, china, india, russia, the united states and south korea will each contribute around 9 percent. a demonstration reactor is expected to start producing electrical power from fusion energy in the 2030s. then the next phase will be construction a new generation of fusion reactors. they are expected to start generating electric power, in place of current technologies, around the middle of this century. yamada defends the fusion process as a lot safer than conventional nuclear power. \u201c radioactive materials used in fusion do not have to be moved off - site. waste also does not have to be stored for thousands of years, as is the case", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5795748502583702, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2ef4a0a-02b2-4877-8e3a-e6c0d48ee689>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.489370"}
{"text": ". yamada defends the fusion process as a lot safer than conventional nuclear power. \u201c radioactive materials used in fusion do not have to be moved off - site. waste also does not have to be stored for thousands of years, as is the case with spent uranium at conventional nuclear power stations. fusion waste could be reused after cooling off for 100 years. \u201d as regards local politics, the nifs is seen by toki \u2019 s municipal government as a valuable asset to the area. a couple of local politicians oppose it, however, fearing \u201c industrial accidents. \u201d \u201c but the lhd is for studying plasma at high temperatures, \u201d says yamada. \u201c not creating fusion. so the dangers of radioactive waste are not the same in toki as they would be at the site of a real fusion reactor. \u201d as all the scientists analyzing the lhd experiments cannot be physically present in the control room, the results are studied by linking computer systems at eight universities around japan. nifs also attracts participating scientists from all over the world. the deputy director general of nifs, professor osamu kaneko, believes the educational function of the institute is very important. \u201c since it will take 20 or more years to make fusion reactors a reality, it is necessary to educate young people as successors to our research. nifs has a physical sciences department at the graduate university of advanced studies in kanagawa prefecture. thirty students from japan and abroad study for their phds in toki, at the forefront of nuclear fusion research, \u201d says kaneko. this big science project is, in a sense, reaching for utopia. it heralds the end of dependence on fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas, along with all their attendant ills : environmental degradation, global warming and the unstable geopolitics of oil. the many unsolved problems associated with atomic fission power would also end. toki \u2019 s lhd is a project looking for results in the long term \u2014 extremely long term \u2014 explains akio komori, director general of the nifs. \u201c our era is the longest known period between ice ages, \u201d komori says. the occurrence of another ice age, despite the current fear of global warming, is an overwhelming likelihood. in that distant future, when the world is again covered in ice, fusion plants, creating \u2018 suns \u2019 all over the globe, would allow life on earth to flourish for another 5 billion years, until the sun in the sky finally burns out. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5243851627324818, "token_count": 501, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b2ef4a0a-02b2-4877-8e3a-e6c0d48ee689>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.490534"}
{"text": "gel is a dynamically scoped language. we will explain what this means below. that is, normal variables and functions are dynamically scoped. the exception are parameter variables, which are always global. like most programming languages, gel has different types of variables. normally when a variable is defined in a function, it is visible from that function and from all functions that are called ( all higher contexts ). for example, suppose a function f defines a variable and then calls function g. then function g can reference a. but once f returns, a goes out of scope. for example, the following code will print out 5. the function g cannot be called on the top level ( outside f as will not be defined ). function f ( ) = ( a : = 5 ; g ( ) ) ; function g ( ) = print ( a ) ; f ( ) ; if you define a variable inside a function it will override any variables defined in calling functions. for example, we modify the above code and write : function f ( ) = ( a : = 5 ; g ( ) ) ; function g ( ) = print ( a ) ; a : = 10 ; f ( ) ; ato 5 inside f does not change the value of aat the top ( global ) level, so if you now check the value of ait will still be 10. function arguments are exactly like variables defined inside the function, except that they are initialized with the value that was passed to the function. other than this point, they are treated just like all other variables defined inside the function. functions are treated exactly like variables. hence you can locally redefine functions. normally ( on the top level ) you cannot redefine protected variables and functions. but locally you can do this. consider the following session : genius > function f ( x ) = sin ( x ) ^ 2 = ( ` ( x ) = ( sin ( x ) ^ 2 ) ) genius > function f ( x ) = sin ( x ) ^ 2 = ( ` ( x ) = ( sin ( x ) ^ 2 ) ) genius > function g ( x ) = ( ( function sin ( x ) = x ^ 10 ) ; f ( x ) ) = ( ` ( x ) = ( ( sin : = ( ` ( x ) = ( x ^ 10 ) ) ) ; f ( x ) ) ) genius > g ( 10 ) = 1e20 functions and variables defined at the top level are considered global. they are visible from anywhere", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5774525679838589, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a75caa1-d419-405f-a5a1-a844a1b452be>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.516634"}
{"text": "sin : = ( ` ( x ) = ( x ^ 10 ) ) ) ; f ( x ) ) ) genius > g ( 10 ) = 1e20 functions and variables defined at the top level are considered global. they are visible from anywhere. as we said the following function f will not change the value of a to 5. a = 6 ; function f ( ) = ( a : = 5 ) ; f ( ) ; ato the value 3 you could call : the set function always sets the toplevel global. there is no way to set a local variable in some function from a subroutine. if this is required, must use passing by reference. so to recap in a more technical language : genius operates with different numbered contexts. the top level is the context 0 ( zero ). whenever a function is entered, the context is raised, and when the function returns the context is lowered. a function or a variable is always visible from all higher numbered contexts. when a variable was defined in a lower numbered context, then setting this variable has the effect of creating a new local variable in the current context number and this variable will now be visible from all higher numbered contexts. there are also true local variables, which are not seen from anywhere but the current context. also when returning functions by value it may reference variables not visible from higher context and this may be a problem. see the sections true local variables and returning functions.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5573760765182207, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a75caa1-d419-405f-a5a1-a844a1b452be>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.517286"}
{"text": "did you know that many gadgets in your home suck up energy \u2013 and your hard - earned dollars \u2013 even when they are turned off? de - fang these \" energy vampires \" and you ' ll lower your monthly energy bills. what is a \" vampire appliance \" and how is it sucking up money? many electronic devices use what is called \" standby power \" when they ' re turned off - - as long as they are plugged in. that way, you don ' t have to wait the few seconds it takes for the device to \" power up \" when you turn it on. but that \" instant - on \" convenience wastes a ton of energy and dollars. first clue that an appliance is an energy vampire - - if it has a glowing led light or lit clock, it ' s using energy even when it ' s turned off : - dvd players - video game consoles - microwave ovens - computers ( laptops especially ) - music systems - rechargeable appliances such as hand - held vacuums and tools other unplugable energy wasters : phone and battery chargers. do you leave the charger plugged into the wall even when your phone is not attached? that vacant charger is costing you money. read : \" top 5 energy - sucking vampire appliances \". also, check out this standby energy chart to see which devices use the most energy when not in use. just how much these \" energy vampires \" are costing you? federal regulations have cut back on the amount of electricity \u201c vampire appliances \u201d can consume, but they still account for as much as 5 \u2013 10 % of the electricity used in the average home. in other words, $ 0. 05 to $ 0. 10 out of every dollar spent on electricity could be eliminated, according to the lawrence berkeley national laboratory. one tv can waste about $ 150 a year in standby energy ( depending on the type and age of the tv ) ; many video game consoles another $ 25 a year. multiply those tvs, dvd players and other appliances and the dollars really add up! what ' s the easiest way to eliminate these unnecessary energy costs? the cheapest option is to just unplug the suckers. when you turn off your tv, video game player or other electronic device or appliance, unplug it from the electric outlet. that keeps the device from continuing to draw power. simplify unplugging appliances by bundling them on a power strip. this is a smart practice anyway, because the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5156151701163065, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a1db8c1-b79a-40ec-b0e3-8422345c6fc9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.543655"}
{"text": "the advent of industrialization, known as the second wave, has brought economic well - being and general renovation to many fields in our life. this was one of the most influential revolutions of all time, spreading across the world, but it also brought about problems. pollution occurred as a result of rapid development and a rise in population, leading the ecosystem including humans to suffer. contamination of the environment has destroyed the ecological balance and environmental problems are now a globally shared concern. many experts do not anticipate the earth to take this much longer. the cause for this devastation lies in the general concept of industrialization and developments, which is \u201c environmental possibilism. \u201d environmental possibilism, a theory asserting that humans have the ultimate power to take advantage of their environment, has been the dominant conception across the world for a few centuries, especially in the field of business and science. to people, nature was a gift from god to humanity, which could be developed in any way for the sake of the well - being of the people. only recently have we been starting to realize that nature should coexist with humanity, instead of being a mere tool to boost the economy and make some people better off. serious pollution and its devastating results have caught the attention of people, and calls for corporations to take responsibility have risen. awakening alarms from nature have made people keen on new policies from corporations. fortunately, positive steps are being taken. efforts to prevent further environmental contamination by the industrial world are underway. the international chamber of commerce ( icc ) has made it clear that it will enhance eco - friendly businesses. as a result, an environmental management system has become a trend among many corporations in the world. last year, in my school ' s environmental science club, echo, we debated over whether this environmental management system will actually last and bring about a better outcome regarding the environment surrounding us. after a year, we finally came up with a report based on the research on these eco - friendly corporations and their sustainability. surprisingly, there were already myriads of enterprises adapting this system, and their policies seemed quite plausible and hopeful. for example, philips has made continuous efforts and has taken action for a healthy environment. it has set up an eco - marketing program called \u201c eco - vision \u201d to prevent a further worsening of the environment and fully monitors the life span of its products and the production process to discover improvements regarding sustainability and annually reports on its work. however, some limitations and flaws in environmental management also captured our attention. it is undeniable that is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5368043970136851, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c0716f66-ec31-4c36-94f9-41b39ac85649>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.553038"}
{"text": "there are a couple of different ways to execute commands or run programs on a remote machine and have the output, be it text or graphics, sent to your workstation. the connections can be secure or insecure. while it is of course advised to use secure connections instead of transporting your password over the network unencrypted, we will discuss some practical applications of the older ( unsafe ) mechanisms, as they are still useful in a modern networked environment, such as for troubleshooting or running exotic programs. the rlogin and rsh commands for remote login and remote execution of commands are inherited from unix. while seldom used because they are blatantly insecure, they still come with almost every linux distribution for backward compatibility with unix programs. telnet, on the other hand, is still commonly used, often by system and network administrators. telnet is one of the most powerful tools for remote access to files and remote administration, allowing connections from anywhere on the internet. combined with an x server, remote graphical applications can be displayed locally. there is no difference between working on the local machine and using the remote machine. because the entire connection is unencrypted, allowing telnet connections involves taking high security risks. for normal remote execution of programs, secure shell or ssh is advised. we will discuss the secure method later in this section. however, telnet is still used in many cases. below are some examples in which a mail server and a web server are tested for replies : checking that a mail server works : [ jimmy @ blob ~ ] telnet mailserver 25 trying 192. 168. 42. 1... connected to mailserver. escape character is ' ^ ] '. 220 m1. some. net esmtp sendmail 8. 11. 6 / 8. 11. 6 ; 200302281626 ehlo some. net 250 - m1. some. net hello blob. some. net [ 10. 0. 0. 1 ], pleased to meet you 250 - enhancedstatuscodes 250 - 8bitmime 250 - size 250 - dsn 250 - onex 250 - etrn 250 - xusr 250 help mail from : firstname. lastname @ example. org 250 2. 1. 0 email @ example. com... sender ok rcpt to : firstname. lastname @ example. org 250 2. 1. 5 email @ example. com... recipient ok data 354 enter mail, end with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5273840894536712, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a280ad5-772a-4171-8668-26764448e867>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.596033"}
{"text": "1. 0 email @ example. com... sender ok rcpt to : firstname. lastname @ example. org 250 2. 1. 5 email @ example. com... recipient ok data 354 enter mail, end with \". \" on a line by itself test. 250 2. 0. 0 g2ma1r619237 message accepted for delivery quit 221 2. 0. 0 m1. some. net closing connection connection closed by foreign host. checking that a web server answers to basic requests : [ jimmy @ blob ~ ] telnet www. some. net 80 trying 188. 8. 131. 52... connected to www. some. net. escape character is ' ^ ] '. head / ; http / 1. 1 http / 1. 1 200 ok date : fri, 22 mar 2002 10 : 05 : 14 gmt server : apache / 1. 3. 22 ( unix ) ( red - hat / linux ) mod _ ssl / 2. 8. 5 openssl / 0. 9. 6 dav / 1. 0. 2 php / 4. 0. 6 mod _ perl / 1. 24 _ 01 last - modified : fri, 04 jan 2002 08 : 21 : 00 gmt etag : \" 70061 - 68 - 3c3565ec \" accept - ranges : bytes content - length : 104 connection : close content - type : text / html connection closed by foreign host. [ jimmy @ blob ~ ] this is perfectly safe, because you never have to give a username and / or password for getting the data you want, so nobody can snoop that important information off the cable. as we already explained in chapter 7 ( see section 7. 3. 3 ), the x window system comes with an x server which serves graphics to clients that need a display. it is important to realize the distinction between the x server and the x client application ( s ). the x server controls the display directly and is responsible for all input and output via keyboard, mouse and display. the x client, on the other hand, does not access the input and output devices directly. it communicates with the x server which handles input and output. it is the x client which does the real work, like computing values, running applications and so forth. the x server only opens windows to handle input and output for the specified client. in normal operation ( graphical mode ), every linux workstation is an x server to itself", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.522256979681208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a280ad5-772a-4171-8668-26764448e867>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.596876"}
{"text": "most linux systems will run a version of openssh, an open source implementation of the ssh protocol, providing secure encrypted communications between untrusted hosts over an untrusted network. in the standard setup x connections are automatically forwarded, but arbitrary tcp / ip ports may also be forwarded using a secure channel. the ssh client connects and logs into the specified host name. the user must provide his identity to the remote machine as specified in the sshd _ config file, which can usually be found in / etc / ssh. the configuration file is rather self - explanatory and by defaults enables most common features. should you need help, you can find it in the sshd man pages. when the user ' s identity has been accepted by the server, the server either executes the given command, or logs into the machine and gives the user a normal shell on the remote machine. all communication with the remote command or shell will be automatically encrypted. the session terminates when the command or shell on the remote machine exits and all x11 and tcp / ip connections have been closed. when connecting to a host for the first time, using any of the programs that are included in the ssh collection, you need to establish the authenticity of that host and acknowledge that you want to connect : lenny ~ > ssh blob the authenticity of host ' blob ( 10. 0. 0. 1 ) ' can ' t be established. rsa fingerprint is 18 : 30 : 50 : 46 : ac : 98 : 3c : 93 : 1a : 56 : 35 : 09 : 8d : 97 : e3 : 1d. are you sure you want to continue connecting ( yes / no )? yes warning : permanently added ' blob, 192. 168. 30. 2 ' ( rsa ) to the list of known hosts. last login : sat dec 28 13 : 29 : 19 2002 from octarine this space for rent. lenny is in ~ it is important that you type \" yes \", in three characters, not just \" y \". this edits your ~ /. ssh / known _ hosts file, see section 10. 4. 4. 3. if you just want to check something on a remote machine and then get your prompt back on the local host, you can give the commands that you want to execute remotely as arguments to ssh : lenny ~ > ssh blob who jenny @ b", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.558579692206955, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a280ad5-772a-4171-8668-26764448e867>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.600184"}
{"text": "you just want to check something on a remote machine and then get your prompt back on the local host, you can give the commands that you want to execute remotely as arguments to ssh : lenny ~ > ssh blob who jenny @ blob ' s password : root tty2 jul 24 07 : 19 lena tty3 jul 23 22 : 24 lena 0 : jul 25 22 : 03 lenny ~ > uname - n magrat. example. com if the x11forwarding entry is set to yes on the target machine and the user is using x applications, the display environment variable is set, the connection to the x11 display is automatically forwarded to the remote side in such a way that any x11 programs started from the shell will go through the encrypted channel, and the connection to the real x server will be made from the local machine. the user should not manually set display. forwarding of x11 connections can be configured on the command line or in the sshd configuration file. the value for display set by ssh will point to the server machine, but with a display number greater than zero. this is normal, and happens because ssh creates a proxy x server on the server machine ( that runs the x client application ) for forwarding the connections over the encrypted channel. this is all done automatically, so when you type in the name of a graphical application, it is displayed on your local machine and not on the remote host. we use xclock in the example, since it is a small program which is generally installed and ideal for testing : ssh will also automatically set up xauthority data on the server machine. for this purpose, it will generate a random authorization cookie, store it in xauthority on the server, and verify that any forwarded connections carry this cookie and replace it by the real cookie when the connection is opened. the real authentication cookie is never sent to the server machine ( and no cookies are sent in the plain ). forwarding of arbitrary tcp / ip connections over the secure channel can be specified either on the command line or in a configuration file. | the x server | this procedure assumes that you have a running x server on the client where you want to display the application from the remote host. the client may be of different architecture and operating system than the remote host, as long as it can run an x server, such as cygwin ( which implements an x. org server for ms windows clients", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5072704642719746, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a280ad5-772a-4171-8668-26764448e867>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.601175"}
{"text": "display the application from the remote host. the client may be of different architecture and operating system than the remote host, as long as it can run an x server, such as cygwin ( which implements an x. org server for ms windows clients and others ) or exceed, it should be possible to set up a remote connection with any linux or unix machine. the ssh client / server system automatically maintains and checks a database containing identifications for all hosts it has ever been used with. host keys are stored in $ home /. ssh / known _ hosts in the user ' s home directory. additionally, the file / etc / ssh / ssh _ known _ hosts is automatically checked for known hosts. any new hosts are automatically added to the user ' s file. if a host ' s identification ever changes, ssh warns about this and disables password authentication to prevent a trojan horse from getting the user ' s password. another purpose of this mechanism is to prevent man - in - the - middle attacks which could otherwise be used to circumvent the encryption. in environments where high security is needed, sshd can even be configured to prevent logins to machines whose host keys have changed or are unknown. the ssh suite provides scp as a secure alternative to the rcp command that used to be popular when only rsh existed. scp uses ssh for data transfer, uses the same authentication and provides the same security as ssh. unlike rcp, scp will ask for passwords or passphrases if they are needed for authentication : lenny / var / tmp > scp schedule. sdc. gz blob : / var / tmp / lenny @ blob ' s password : schedule. sdc. gz 100 % | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | 100 kb 00 : 00 lenny / var / tmp > any file name may contain a host and user specification to indicate that the file is to be copied to / from that host. copies between two remote hosts are permitted. see the info pages for more information. if you would rather use an ftp - like interface, use sftp : lenny / var / tmp > sftp blob connecting to blob... lenny @ blob ' s password : sftp > cd / var / tmp sftp > get sch * fetching", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.513768230664539, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a280ad5-772a-4171-8668-26764448e867>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.602056"}
{"text": "sftp : lenny / var / tmp > sftp blob connecting to blob... lenny @ blob ' s password : sftp > cd / var / tmp sftp > get sch * fetching / var / tmp / schedule. sdc. gz to schedule. sdc. gz sftp > bye lenny / var / tmp > | secure copy or ftp guis | don ' t feel comfortable with the command line yet? try konqueror ' s capabilities for secure remote copy, or install putty. the ssh - keygen command generates, manages and converts authentication keys for ssh. it can create rsa keys for use by ssh protocol version 1 and rsa or dsa keys for use by ssh protocol version 2. normally each user wishing to use ssh with rsa or dsa authentication runs this once to create the authentication key in $ home /. ssh / identity, id _ dsa or id _ rsa. additionally, the system administrator may use this to generate host keys for the system. normally this program generates the key and asks for a file in which to store the private key. the public key is stored in a file with the same name but. pub appended. the program also asks for a passphrase. the passphrase may be empty to indicate no passphrase ( host keys must have an empty passphrase ), or it may be a string of arbitrary length. there is no way to recover a lost passphrase. if the passphrase is lost or forgotten, a new key must be generated and copied to the corresponding public keys. we will study ssh keys in the exercises. all information can be found in the man or info pages. vnc or virtual network computing is in fact a remote display system which allows viewing a desktop environment not only on the local machine on which it is running, but from anywhere on the internet and from a wide variety of machines and architectures, including ms windows and several unix distributions. you could, for example, run ms word on a windows nt machine and display the output on your linux desktop. vnc provides servers as well as clients, so the opposite also works and it may thus be used to display linux programs on windows clients. vnc is probably the easiest way to have x connections on a pc. the following features make vnc different from a normal x server or commercial implementations : no state is stored at the viewer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.569288386179292, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a280ad5-772a-4171-8668-26764448e867>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.602972"}
{"text": "conflict of principles [ included in the bastiat collection ( 2011 ), this article appeared in economic sophisms ( 1845 ). ] there is one thing that confounds me, and it is this. sincere publicists, studying the economy of society from the producer ' s point of view, have laid down this double formula : \" governments should order the interests of consumers who are subject to their laws, in such a way as to be favorable to national industry. \" \" they should bring distant consumers under subjection to their laws, for the purpose of ordering their interests in a way favorable to national industry. \" the first of these formulas gets the name of protection ; the second we call outlets, or the creating of markets, or vents, for our produce. both are founded on what we call the balance of trade : \" a nation is impoverished when it imports ; enriched when it exports. \" for if every purchase from a foreign country is a tribute paid and a national loss, it follows, of course, that it is right to restrain, and even prohibit, importations. and if every sale to a foreign country is a tribute received, and a national profit, it is quite right and natural to create markets for our products even by force. the system of protection and the colonial system are, then, only two aspects of one and the same theory. to hinder our fellow citizens from buying from foreigners, and to force foreigners to buy from our fellow citizens, are only two consequences of one and the same principle. now, it is impossible not to admit that this doctrine, if true, makes general utility to repose on monopoly or internal spoliation, and on conquest or external spoliation. i enter a cottage on the french side of the pyrenees. the father of the family has received but slender wages. his half - naked children shiver in the icy north wind ; the fire is extinguished, and there is nothing on the table. there are wool, firewood, and corn on the other side of the mountain ; but these good things are forbidden to the poor day - laborer, for the other side of the mountain is not in france. foreign firewood is not allowed to warm the cottage hearth ; and the shepherd ' s children can never know the taste of biscayan wheat, and the wool of navarre can never warm their benumbed limbs. general utility has so ordered it. be it so ; but let us agree that all this is in direct opposition to the first principles of justice. to dispose legislative", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5658436152223216, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2993ee91-a935-4945-85ec-d8a2367427b5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.632128"}
{"text": "of calm or peace of mind. for my own part, it seems to me that if i had entered the precincts of the science by the same gate, if i had failed to perceive clearly that liberty, utility, justice, peace, are things not only compatible, but strictly allied with each other, and, so to speak, identical, i should have endeavored to forget what i had learned, and i should have asked, \" how god could have willed that men should attain prosperity only through injustice and war? how he could have willed that they should be unable to avoid injustice and war except by renouncing the possibility of attaining prosperity? \" dare i adopt, as the basis of the legislation of a great nation, a science that thus misleads me by false lights, that has conducted me to this horrible blasphemy, and landed me in so dreadful an alternative? and when a long train of illustrious philosophers have been conducted by this science, to which they have devoted their lives, to more consoling results \u2014 when they affirm that liberty and utility are perfectly reconcilable with justice and peace \u2014 that all these great principles run in infinitely extended parallels, and will do so to all eternity, without running counter to each other \u2014 i would ask, have they not in their favor that presumption which results from all that we know of the goodness and wisdom of god, as manifested in the sublime harmony of the material creation? in the face of such a presumption, and of so many reliable authorities, ought i to believe lightly that god has been pleased to implant antagonism and dissonance in the laws of the moral world? no ; before i should venture to conclude that the principles of social order run counter to and neutralize each other, and are in eternal and irreconcilable opposition \u2014 before i should venture to impose on my fellow citizens a system so impious as that to which my reasonings would appear to lead \u2014 i should set myself to re - examine the whole chain of these reasonings, and assure myself that at this stage of the journey i had not missed my way. \" but if, after a candid and searching examination, 20 times repeated, i arrived always at this frightful conclusion, that we must choose between the right and the good, discouraged, i should reject the science, and bury myself in voluntary ignorance ; above all, i should decline all participation in public affairs, leaving to men of another temper and constitution the burden and responsibility of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5486051364963015, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2993ee91-a935-4945-85ec-d8a2367427b5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.634717"}
{"text": "a padawan, padawan learner, or jedi apprentice, referred to a force - sensitive adolescent who had begun one - on - one instruction with a jedi knight or master... the jedi are characters in the fictional star wars universe and the series ' main protagonists. they use a quasi - telekinetic power, known as the force, weapons known as lightsabers, which emit a controlled energy flow in the shape of a sword, to serve and protect their republic and the whole... current grand master - darth _ grave apply to be trained in the ways of the jedi and light side of the force by one of our jedi masters. pm one of our jedi masters for more info. emotion, yet peace. ignorance, yet knowledge. passion, yet serenity. chaos, yet harmony. death, yet the force. there is no emotion, there is peace. there is no ignorance, there is knowledge. there is no passion, there is serenity. there is no chaos, there is harmony. there is no death, there is the force. jedi are the guardians of peace in the galaxy. jedi use their powers to defend and to protect. jedi respect all life, in any form. jedi serve others rather than ruling over them, for the good of the galaxy. jedi seek to improve themselves through knowledge and training. learn this or fail our tests - arielyssou master of the order", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5556161393486025, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:97ccacec-9737-48c1-9ace-a32bb0bd48f1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.637742"}
{"text": "this project just makes a wireless fm microphone which looks very simple in its structure. it is a useful device in our day - today life. a wireless microphone, as the name implies, is a microphone without a physical cable connecting it directly to the sound recording or amplifying equipment with which it is associated. more commonly known as a radio microphone, there are many different standards, frequencies and transmission technologies used to replace the microphone ' s cable connection and make it into a wireless microphone. they can transmit, for example, in radio waves using uhf or vhf frequencies, fm, am, or various digital modulation schemes. some low cost models use infrared light. infrared microphones require a direct line of sight between the microphone and the receiver, while costlier radio frequency models do not. some models operate on a single fixed frequency, but the more advanced models operate on a user selectable frequency to avoid interference and allow the use of several microphones at the same time. it can be used in seminar halls, class rooms, for a school or college radio etc. one such piece costs 100 - 300 rupees in the market. the coming sections give the entire idea of making a miniature wireless microphone. we hope that you will find this quite interesting as you go through this particular project. 2. block diagram and its description figure 1 : block diagram above diagram shows the block diagram of the simple wireless fm microphone. it consists of simple audio amplifier, modulated tuned amplifier & a condenser mic. here a microphone ( condenser ) captures the audio signal and a simple audio amplifier amplifies this signal before the modulation is done. a modulated tuned amplifier modulates the signal with self generated carrier frequency. the carrier frequency can be varied by changing the capacitor and inductor value in the tank circuit. then the modulated signal is fed to the antenna. as a trimmer capacitor is used in the l - c circuit, we can vary the transmitting frequency anywhere in the whole fm band. 4. components description a resistor is a two terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in its terminals in proportion to the current, that is in accordance with ohm ' s law : v = ir. the electrical resistance r is equals to the voltage drop v across the resistor divided by the current / through the resistor. resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. an electrical signal can be amplified by using transistors that allows a small current or voltage to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5129103314513074, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.669946"}
{"text": "the voltage drop v across the resistor divided by the current / through the resistor. resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. an electrical signal can be amplified by using transistors that allows a small current or voltage to control the flow of a much larger current. in analog circuit transistors are used in oscillator, amplifier and linear regulated power supply. transistors are also used in digital circuits where they function as electronic switches. digital circuits include logic gates, ram and micro processors. here we use 2n3904 transistor. it is a common npn bipolar junction transistor. it is used for general purpose low power amplifying and switching applications. it is designed for low current and power, medium voltage and can operate at moderately high speed. this transistor is of low cost and is widely available. when looking at the flat side, with the base pointed downwards, the three wires emerging from the base are, left to right, the emitter, base and collector leads. the inductor used in the circuit is a handmade coil using 22 swg ( standard wire gauge ) enameled copper wire. the length, inner diameter, number of turns etc are the important parameters to be considered while making the inductor. then only the inductor resonates in the 88 - 108 band fm frequency. for this circuit, the coil radius was selected as 0. 26 inches ( outer diameter ) and 0. 13 inner diameter. coil can be wound around a screw driver ( with same diameter ) to get a 5 turn coil of 0. 2 inch long. remove the coil from the screw driver and use the 5 turn air core coil. remove the enamel from the tips and solder close to the transistor. the inductance of the coil can be calculated using the formula : l = n2r2 / ( 9r + 10 x ) where r is the inner radius of the coil, x is the length of the coil and n, number of turns. the resulting value is in micro henry. an inductor is just a coil of wire and you need to wind one for this circuit. an inductor is characterized by its length, radius and the number of turns of wire in the coil. magnet wire ( radio shack part 278 - 1345 ) was used to build the inductor but you can use standard solid strand 22 awg gauge copper wire. some on - line and printed articles describe winding the wire around", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5024909050228169, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.672114"}
{"text": "wire in the coil. magnet wire ( radio shack part 278 - 1345 ) was used to build the inductor but you can use standard solid strand 22 awg gauge copper wire. some on - line and printed articles describe winding the wire around a pencil. unfortunately, pencils come in different diameters and hence a mcdonald \u2019 s soda straw was used ; the yellow - red - white striped straw, found in every mcdonalds in the world, is the same size. the straw \u2019 s radius is exactly 0. 1325 inches ( diameter = 0. 2650 inches ) and 1 / 4 inches was snipped off the straw. 4. 4 condenser mic the condenser mic is used to pick up the sound signals. the diaphragm inside the mic vibrates according to the air pressure changes and generates ac signals. variable resistor vr1 adjusts the current through the mic and thus determines the sensitivity of mic. the condenser mic should be directly soldered on the pcb to get maximum sensitivity. sleeving the mic inside plastic tubing can increase its sensitivity error. a capacitor is an electrical / electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors ( called \" plates \" ). the process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as \" charging \", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy - storage devices. they can also be used to differentiate between high - frequency and low - frequency signals. this property makes them useful in electronic filters. practical capacitors have series resistance, internal leakage of charge, series inductance and other non - ideal properties not found in a theoretical, ideal, capacitor. 4. 6 trimmer capacitor a small button type variable capacitor with a value of 40 pf can be used to adjust the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. the variable capacitor and the inductor coil form the tank circuit ( lc circuit ) that resonates in the 88 - 108 mhz. in the tank circuit, the capacitor stores electrical energy between its plates while the inductor stores magnetic energy induced by the windings of the coil. the resonant frequency can be calculated using the formula : f = 1 / 2 \u03c0 \u221alc = hz where f is the frequency in hertz, x is the coil length, c is the cap", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5464491310243262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.673933"}
{"text": "induced by the windings of the coil. the resonant frequency can be calculated using the formula : f = 1 / 2 \u03c0 \u221alc = hz where f is the frequency in hertz, x is the coil length, c is the capacitance of trimmer in farads, and l is the inductance of coil in henry. 4. 7 tank circuit every fm transmitter needs an oscillator to generate the radio frequency ( rf ) carrier waves. the name \u2018 tank \u2019 circuit comes from the ability of the lc circuit to store energy for oscillations. the purely reactive elements, the c and the l simply store energy to be returned to the system. in the tank ( lc ) circuit, the 2n3904 transistor and the feedback 4. 7 pf capacitor are the oscillating components. the feedback signal makes the base - emitter current of the transistor vary at the resonant frequency. this causes the emitter - collector current to vary at the same frequency. this signal fed to the aerial and radiated as radio waves. a plastic wire or telescopic aerial can be used as antenna. the length of the antenna is very important to transmit the signals in the suitable range. as a rule, the length of the antenna should be \u00bc of the fm wave length. to determine the length of antenna, use the following equation. by multiplying the wave frequency and wave length will give the speed of light. speed of light = frequency of oscillation x wavelength = in kms / sec wave length = speed of light / frequency = in meters antenna length = 0. 25 x wavelength = in meters antenna length = 0. 25 x wavelength = in meters by using this formula it is easy to select the antennal length. for the circuit mentioned above, a 25 - 27inches long antenna is sufficient. 5. fm ( frequency modulation ) in telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation ( fm ) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. this is in contrast with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant. in analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal amplitude. digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier ' s frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency - shift keying. frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5496121409554078, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.675726"}
{"text": "instantaneous value of the input signal amplitude. digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier ' s frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency - shift keying. frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the fm modulating signal. fm is widely used for broadcasting of music and speech, and in two - way radio systems, in magnetic tape recording systems, and certain video transmission systems. in radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally - occurring noise. frequency - shift keying ( digital fm ) is widely used in data and fax modems. suppose the baseband data signal ( the message ) to be transmitted is xm ( t ) and the sinusoidal carrier is, where fc is the carrier ' s base frequency and ac is the carrier ' s amplitude. the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal : in this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the frequency deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one direction, assuming xm ( t ) is limited to the range \u00b11. although it may seem that this limits the frequencies in use to fc \u00b1 f\u03b4, this neglects the distinction between instantaneous frequency and spectral frequency. the frequency spectrum of an actual fm signal has components extending out to infinite frequency, although they become negligibly small beyond a point. 5. 1. 1 sinusoidal baseband signal while it is an over - simplification, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal continuous wave signal with a frequency fm. the integral of such a signal is, thus, in this specific case, equation ( 1 ) above simplifies to : where the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid, is represented by the peak deviation ( see frequency deviation. the harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by such a sinusoidal signal can be represented with bessel functions - this provides a basis for a mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain. 5. 2 modulation index as with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its un - modulated level. it relates to the variations in the frequency of the carrier signal : where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm ( t ), and is the peak frequency - deviation, i. e. the maximum deviation of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5759980749752573, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.677552"}
{"text": "level. it relates to the variations in the frequency of the carrier signal : where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm ( t ), and is the peak frequency - deviation, i. e. the maximum deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency. if, the modulation is called narrowband fm, and its bandwidth is approximately. if, the modulation is called wideband fm and its bandwidth is approximately. while wideband fm uses more bandwidth, it can improve signal - to - noise ratio significantly. for example, doubling the value of while keeping fm constant, results in an eight - fold improvement in the signal to noise ratio. compare with chirp spread spectrum, which uses extremely wide frequency deviations to achieve processing gains comparable to more traditional, better - known spread spectrum modes. with a tone - modulated fm wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the ( non - negligible ) bandwidth of the fm signal increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same ; some spectral components decrease in strength as others increase. if the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the spacing between spectra increases. frequency modulation can be classified as narrow band if the change in the carrier frequency is about the same as the signal frequency, or as wide - band if the change in the carrier frequency is much higher ( modulation index > 1 ) than the signal frequency. for example, narrowband fm is used for two way radio systems such as family radio service where the carrier is allowed to deviate only 2. 5 khz above and below the center frequency, carrying speech signals of no more than 3. 5 khz bandwidth. wide - band fm is used for fm broadcasting where music and speech is transmitted with up to 75 khz deviation from the center frequency, carrying audio with up to 20 khz bandwidth. 5. 3 carson ' s rule a rule of thumb, carson ' s rule states that nearly all ( ~ 98 % ) of the power of a frequency - modulated signal lies within a bandwidth of where, as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the center carrier frequency. the noise power decreases as the signal power increases ; therefore the snr goes up significantly. fm signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. \u00b7 direct fm modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a vco. \u00b7 for indirect fm modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. this is used", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5376564731824578, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.679289"}
{"text": "using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. \u00b7 direct fm modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a vco. \u00b7 for indirect fm modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. this is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an fm signal. many fm detector circuits exist. one common method for recovering the information signal is through a foster - seeley discriminator. a phase - locked loop can be used as an fm demodulator. slope detection demodulates an fm signal by using a tuned circuit, which has its resonant frequency slightly offset from the carrier frequency. as the frequency rises and falls, the tuned circuit provides a changing amplitude of response, converting fm to am. am receivers may detect some fm transmissions by this means, though it does not provide an efficient method of detection for fm broadcasts. fm is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. this technique, known as fm synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards. edwin howard armstrong ( 1890 \u2013 1954 ) was an american electrical engineer who invented wideband frequency modulation ( fm ) radio. he patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the super - heterodyne receiver in 1918 and the super - regenerative circuit in 1922. he presented his paper : \" a method of reducing disturbances in radio signaling by a system of frequency modulation \", which first described fm radio, before the new york section of the institute of radio engineers on november 6, 1935. the paper was published in 1936. as the name implies, wideband fm ( wfm ) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. as a result, fm was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission : hence the term \" fm radio \" ( although for many years the bbc called it \" vhf radio \", because commercial fm broadcasting uses a well - known part of the vhf band \u2014 the fm broadcast band ). fm receivers employ a special detector for fm signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. problematically however, frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5384417635568661, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.683253"}
{"text": "detector for fm signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. problematically however, frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal to be suddenly overtaken by another on an adjacent channel. frequency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate selectivity may plague any tuner. an fm signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal : see fm stereo. however, this is done by using multiplexing and de - multiplexing before and after the fm process. the rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and de - multiplexing process used in \" stereo fm \", and concentrates on the fm modulation and demodulation process, which is identical in stereo and mono processes. a high - efficiency radio - frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit fm signals ( and other constant - amplitude signals ). for a given signal strength ( measured at the receiver antenna ), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. this gives fm another advantage over other modulation schemes that require linear amplifiers, such as am and qam. frequency - shift keying is the frequency modulation using only a discrete number of frequencies. morse code transmission has been implemented this way, as were most early telephone - line modems radio teletype also use fsk. fm modulation is also used in telemetry applications, radar, seismic prospecting and newborn eeg seizures modeling. 5. 9 super heterodyne reciever in electronics, a super heterodyne receiver ( sometimes shortened to superhets ) uses frequency mixing or heterodyning to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency, which can be more conveniently processed than the original radio carrier frequency. virtually all modern radio and television receivers use the super heterodyne principle. the diagram at right shows the minimum requirements for a single - conversion super heterodyne receiver design. the following essential elements are common to all superhet circuits : [ a receiving antenna, a tuned stage which may optionally contain amplification ( rf amplifier ), a variable frequency local oscillator, a frequency mixer, a band pass filter and intermediate frequency ( if ) amplifier, and a demodulator plus additional circuitry to amplify or process the original audio signal ( or other transmitted information ). figure : block diagram of super heterodyne receiver 5. 10 circuit description to receive a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5694451559109261, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.686002"}
{"text": "if ) amplifier, and a demodulator plus additional circuitry to amplify or process the original audio signal ( or other transmitted information ). figure : block diagram of super heterodyne receiver 5. 10 circuit description to receive a radio signal, a suitable antenna is required. this is often built into a receiver, especially in the case of am broadcast band radios. the output of the antenna may be very small, often only a few microvolts. the signal from the antenna is tuned and may be amplified in a so - called radio frequency ( rf ) amplifier, although this stage is often omitted. one or more tuned circuits at this stage block frequencies which are far removed from the intended reception frequency. in order to tune the receiver to a particular station, the frequency of the local oscillator is controlled by the tuning knob ( for instance ). tuning of the local oscillator and the rf stage may use a variable capacitor, or varicap diode. the tuning of one ( or more ) tuned circuits in the rf stage must track the tuning of the local oscillator. 5. 11 mixer stage the signal is then fed into a circuit where it is mixed with a sine wave from a variable frequency oscillator known as the local oscillator ( lo ). the mixer uses a non - linear component to produce both sum and difference beat frequencies signals, each one containing the modulation contained in the desired signal. the output of the mixer may include the original rf signal at fd, the local oscillator signal at flo, and the two new frequencies fd + flo and fd - flo. the mixer may inadvertently produce additional frequencies such as 3rd - and higher - order intermediation products. the undesired signals are removed by the if bandpass filter, leaving only the desired offset if signal at fif which contains the original modulation ( transmitted information ) as the received radio signal had at fd. historically, broadcast am receivers using vacuum tubes would save costs by employing a single tube as a mixer and also as the local oscillator. the pentagrid converter tube would oscillate and also provide signal amplification as well as frequency shifting. 5. 12 intermediate frequency stage the stages of an intermediate frequency amplifier are tuned to a particular frequency not dependent on the receiving frequency ; this greatly simplifies optimization of the circuit. the if amplifier ( or if strip ) can be made highly selective around its center", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5116747584756833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.689593"}
{"text": "12 intermediate frequency stage the stages of an intermediate frequency amplifier are tuned to a particular frequency not dependent on the receiving frequency ; this greatly simplifies optimization of the circuit. the if amplifier ( or if strip ) can be made highly selective around its center frequency fif, whereas achieving such a selectivity at a much higher rf frequency would be much more difficult. by tuning the frequency of the local oscillator flo, the resulting difference frequency flo - fd ( or fd - flo when using so - called low - side injection ) will be matched to the if amplifier ' s frequencyfif for the desired reception frequency fd. one section of the tuning capacitor will thus adjust the local oscillator ' s frequency flo to fd + fif ( or. less often, to fd - fif ) while the rf stage is tuned to fd. engineering the multi - section tuning capacitor and coils to fulfill this condition across the tuning range is known as tracking. other signals produced by the mixer ( such as due to stations at nearby frequencies ) can be very well filtered out in the if stage, giving the superheterodyne receiver its superior performance. however, if flo is set to fd + fif, then an incoming radio signal at flo + fif will also produce a heterodyne at fif ; this is called the image frequency and must be rejected by the tuned circuits in the rf stage. the image frequency is 2fif higher ( or lower ) than fd, so employing a higher if frequency fif increases the receiver ' s image rejection without requiring additional selectivity in the rf stage. usually the intermediate frequency is lower than the reception frequency fd, but in some modern receivers ( e. g. scanners and spectrum analyzers ) it is more convenient to first convert an entire band to a much higher intermediate frequency ; this eliminates the problem of image rejection. then a tunable local oscillator and mixer converts that signal to a second much lower intermediate frequency where the selectivity of the receiver is accomplished. in order to avoid interference to receivers, licensing authorities will avoid assigning common if frequencies to transmitting stations. standard intermediate frequencies used are 455 khz for medium - wave am radio, 10. 7 mhz for broadcast fm receivers, 38. 9 mhz ( europe ) or 45 mhz ( us ) for television, and 70 mhz for satellite and terrestrial microwave equipment. 5. 13 bandpass filter the received the if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5148015845282521, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.693944"}
{"text": "joint. otherwise they cannot be joined together. 9. 1 soldering fluxes in order to make the surface accept the solder readily, the component terminals should be for from order and other abstractly films. soldering flux cleans the orders from the surface of the metal. zinc chloride, aluminums chloride, and rosin at the commonly used fluxes. solder is used for joining two or more mental at temperature below their melting point. the popularly used solders on alloy are alloys of tin ( 60 % ) and lead ( 40 % ) that metals at stiff and solidifies when it cools. 9. 3 soldering iron it is used the melt the solder and apply at the joints in the circuit. \u00f8 working with a simple dry cell power supply. \u00f8 it is user friendly. \u00f8 low cost. \u00f8 easy to install. \u00f8 simple circuit. \u00f8 greater freedom of movement for the artist or speaker. \u00f8 avoidance of cabling problems common with wired microphones, caused by constant moving and stressing the cables. \u00f8 sometimes limited range ( a wired balanced xlr microphone can run up to 300 ft or 100 meters ). some wireless systems have a shorter range, while more expensive models can exceed that distance. \u00f8 possible interference with or, more often, from other radio equipment or other radio microphones, though models with many frequency - synthesized switch - selectable channels are now plentiful and cost effective. \u00f8 operation time is limited relative to battery life ; it is shorter than a normal condenser microphone due to greater drain on batteries from transmitting circuitry, and from circuitry giving extra features, if present. \u00f8 noise or dead spots ( places where it doesn ' t work, especially in non - diversity systems ). \u00f8 limited number of operating microphones at the same time and place, due to the limited number of radio channels ( frequencies ). \u00f8 it is used in seminar halls, class rooms, for a school or college radio etc. the mini project ' wireless fm microphone ' is developed from the elementary idea of making a wireless hand piece, which can be used in a seminar hall, auditorium etc. this idea forced us to proceed with our project. as our project deals with transmitter & the most common receiver is fm receiver, we decided to make the fm transmitter. 15. future scope as the field of information technology and communication is developing day - by - day, the necessity of more sophisticated equipments and discoveries is raising up. hence, more enhanced version of our project, wireless fm microphone can be implemented in various", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5112452085244314, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a89424a-adcc-499c-a57c-a51f0cf88bc6>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.725244"}
{"text": "mount union students face their fears october 18, 2012 alliance, ohio \u2014 for the third year in a row, university of mount union students enrolled in assistant professor of psychology dr. kevin meyers \u2019 abnormal psychology course had the opportunity to overcome a specific phobia at cedar point amusement park. students learned to overcome their phobias through a process known as \u201c exposure therapy. \u201d this year \u2019 s \u2018 face your fears \u2019 project was held at cedar point in sandusky, oh. students explored and overcame the \u201c roller coaster phobia \u201d which falls into the category of anxiety disorders known as specific phobias. specific phobias can be focused on certain objects or certain environments and their impact on the individual. a person with a specific phobia disorder is commonly diagnosed with behavioral disorders and the individual can suffer from anxiety attacks, persistent fear and the action of avoiding the object or environment to which their fear stems from. this is where the concept of exposure therapy comes into play. exposure therapy is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy in which the individual is gradually exposed to their fear over time. according to meyer, cedar point is a prime location to expose students to their roller coaster fears since cedar point has moderate to medium to extreme roller coaster varieties available. the overall goal of the \u2018 face your fear \u2019 project is to expose students to a real - world application of how a specific therapeutic method can be applied to successfully treat a behavioral disorder. students were active in collecting various types of data, serving as an active sample in a real - time working study, and will have the opportunity to integrate what they learn into a course project. through this process, several individuals will in fact overcome their roller coaster phobia, opening up a previously inaccessible source of fun and excitement they can now be free to explore. back to previous page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5063919743674579, "token_count": 367, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c0231749-1c9b-4d9f-a8bc-f997ce6e0a82>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.740493"}
{"text": "the use of pressure of the fingers and hands for massage and to stimulate qi ( vital energy ) flow throughout the body. it is used well with tension and stress ailments. acupuncture - the use of thin needles to restore energy balances. it is believed that the body has special channels of energy, called meridians, running throughout the body. by stimulating special points on these meridians with acupuncture needles, energy balance is restored to normal functioning. an educational technique, rather than a therapeutic technique, that teaches a method of adjusting body postures and movement to relieve damaging stresses. the therapeutic use of bee venom to help alleviate pain and various conditions. a science that tests nerve and muscle groups throughout the body to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the various organ systems. it is also used to determine the body ' s receptivity to various remedies thereby assisting health restoration. additional modalities like nutrition, massage, and acupressure are then added for treatments. bee sting see apitherapy chiropractic - a technique of manipulating and adjusting the spine to restore normal flow of nerve function throughout the spinal column to heal and to alleviate p homeopathy - the field of medicine that treats disease and restores health by giving minute amounts of medicinal substances that would produce the same symptoms of the disease in healthy persons. this field uses the principle that \" like cures like. \" hyperbaric oxygen therapy see oxygen therapy magnetic field therapy the use of magnets and electromagnetic fields for medical treatments of many conditions including pain and stress. there is current ongoing research in this field. music and sound therapy the use of sounds and music to promote health through its calming and soothing effects and through energizing effects on the central nervous system. it is being widely spread for use in hospitals and schools. treatment programs have been used for stress reduction, pain alleviation, improvements in movement, balance, and cognition, and promotion of strength and endurance. the use of oxygen to destroy pathogens in the body through oxygenation or oxidation. the use of oxygen therapy in the united states is controversial, even though use in europe is wide spread. the legal use of oxygen therapy varies from state to state. a therapy that utilizes motion and soft stretching and rotations to promote relaxation and to improve flexibility and range of motion. view these alternatives health and well being - diet, exercise, herbs, vitamins, apitherapy, hyperbaric oxygen stress - massage, reflexology, meditation, guided imagery, biofeedback, tai", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6024692648295535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1fcfc434-2d4f-40e2-b82b-6a7a46993a9c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.762691"}
{"text": "joined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : wed dec 13, 2006 11 : 39 am post subject : new method creates nanowire detectors exactly where needed | new method creates nanowire detectors exactly where needed there seems to be little doubt among cancer researchers that new detection systems using nanowires and microfluidics hold the promise of providing a quantum leap in the detection of cancer - related molecules and genes. however, researchers also know that there are significant technical barriers that must be overcome to realize that promise, including the current difficulty in creating microfluidic devices built around nanowire detectors. now, a team of investigators at the nanosystems biology cancer center, one of eight nci - funded centers of cancer nanotechnology excellence, has developed a method for creating conducting polymer nanowires in place within microfluidic circuits. the team, led by hsian - rong tseng, ph. d., of the university of california, los angeles, and james health, ph. d., of the california institute of technology, reported their work in the journal chemical communications. the researchers create the nanowires using standard microelectrodes built into the microfluidics device specifically for the purpose of carrying out electrochemical reactions within the channels of the device. this allows them to use the microfluidic channels to introduce the precursor molecules, or monomers, needed to create the conducting polymer nanowires and trigger an electrochemical reaction at the exact place where the nanowires are needed to function as biomolecule detectors. this reaction causes the monomers to link to one another, forming the conducting polymer nanowires. this process can create two different types of polymer nanowires, one made of polyaniline, the other of polypyrrole. the chemical reactions are completed within 40 minutes. once formed, the nanowires can function immediately as detectors, with the electrodes used to form the nanowires now functioning as the circuitry that connects the nanowires to electrical signal recorders. the investigators demonstrate that these detectors are highly sensitive to changes in ph and to changing ammonia concentrations, though they note that these nanowires should be able to be used to detect a wide range of biomolecules. this work, which was supported in part by the national cancer institute, is detailed in a paper titled, \u201c electrochemical fabrication of conducting polymer nanowires in an integrated microfluidic system. \u201d this story was first posted on 26th september 2006.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5731206134345131, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:05aa96f1-4573-4ed6-a24c-f08440ed4788>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.826571"}
{"text": "joined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : tue aug 11, 2009 11 : 55 am post subject : new line of lasers for biomedicine | dundee leads eu project to develop next generation of lasers laser technology has revolutionised the world of medicine in ways never before thought of. more and more often the scalpel is giving way to a new generation of lasers. now the fast - dot project, backed by the eu with \u20ac10. 1 million in financing, is underway to develop a new line of lasers for biomedical applications. led by a team located at the university of dundee, 18 european partners from 12 countries will pool their knowledge and resources to develop the next generation of lasers which will be used for biomedical applications. their combined efforts mean that they are able to conduct nearly 100 person years of work in a fraction of the time. according to professor edik rafailov of the university of dundee, ' this project will revolutionise the use of lasers in the biomedical field, providing both practitioners and researchers with pocket sized ultra high performance lasers at a substantially lower cost, which will make their widespread use affordable. ' the new lasers that will be developed will not only be much smaller but also more energy efficient than current lasers in use. current lasers are not portable and are heavy on energy consumption. the new lasers will be designed for use in microscopy and nanosurgery, where high precision cutting, imaging and treatment therapies will be made possible. according to neil stewart, fast - dot project manager, ' the objectives of the project are to use a technology called quantum dot materials, probably gallium arsenide, and exploit their lasing characteristics for use in biomedical applications, such as laser tweezing for microsurgery. ' the new lasers will mean that surgeons and life scientists will have access to much higher performance and lower cost lasers than are currently available and will open up exciting new application areas for lasers in biomedicine. there is also hope that new lasers under development will also decrease in size. currently, lasers are roughly the size of a shoebox. fast - dot hopes to bring down the size to that of a matchbox while bringing the cost down to a tenth of what they currently are. dr stewart also claimed that the new lasers would be applicable in the field of micro - surgery. ' with these lasers we ought to be able to take that down to about a very few microns. and because of the differences in the way the energy is controlled, it enables us to deliver very controlled amounts of energy so", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5893593355811889, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f3058f00-68e1-4ae6-858c-194efbd80988>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.832590"}
{"text": "biologists have known for decades that cells use tiny molecular motors to move chromosomes, mitochondria, and many other organelles within the cell, but no one has been able to understand what \" steers \" these engines to their destinations. now, researchers at the university of rochester have shed new light on how cells accomplish this feat, and the results may eventually lead to new approaches to fighting pathogens and neurological diseases. michael welte, associate professor of biology, shows in a paper published in today ' s issue of cell that the mechanisms that control the molecular motors are quite different from what biologists have previously believed. before these findings, scientists assumed that the number of motors attached to an organelle determined how far and fast the organelle could travel, but welte and colleagues have discovered that it is not the number of motors, but yet - to - be - discovered molecules that are likely the master regulators. \" the fact that motor number has nothing to do with regulating transport is extremely surprising, and somewhat unsettling to people working in vitro, \" says welte. \" it says we ' re really missing something when we study these motors only in the test tube instead of in a living cell. \" intracellular transport is crucial to a cell ' s health, says welte. for instance, during cell division, one copy of each of the cell ' s chromosomes migrates to one side of the cell while the other copy moves to the other side. if this movement is disturbed, it could cause an imbalance of chromosomes in the daughter cells, which might die or become cancerous. similarly, neurons, some of which are as much as three feet in length, manufacture proteins and organelles at one end and then must move that precious cargo all the way to the far end where they ' ll be used. this is an enormous task, says welte, and defects in this transport are thought to cause a number of neurological diseases. given the difficulty of investigating these tiny motors acting within the cell, biologists have performed basic experiments on them outside of the cell in a carefully controlled environment. this led them to believe that the speed and distance an organelle could be transported depended on how many motors were pulling it, says welte. thus, the scientists reasoned, perhaps the cell simply attaches the right number of motors to an organelle to send it the right distance. although this \" multi - motor \" hypothesis is very simple and elegant, says welte, whether it actually holds true within living", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5439577723696883, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7509ef7b-8994-402e-a924-65bea8d3e7eb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.839740"}
{"text": "reasoned, perhaps the cell simply attaches the right number of motors to an organelle to send it the right distance. although this \" multi - motor \" hypothesis is very simple and elegant, says welte, whether it actually holds true within living cells had never been tested. welte ' s graduate student, susan tran, decided to perform that test. she created fruit - fly eggs lacking a type of molecular motor called kinesin and found that certain organelles stopped moving \u2014 strong evidence that kinesin is responsible for their transport. tran then made another type of mutant eggs, this time ones that produced only about half the number of kinesin motors of a regular egg. in both types of eggs, organelles were transported with the same speed and the same distance. welte needed to know if this equality was because the normal egg was simply utilizing only half the available kinesin motors, or if some master regulator was controlling the organelle ' s progress, regardless of the number of motors moving it. to do this, welte turned to steven gross, associate professor of developmental and cell biology at the university of california. gross ' group uses an apparatus called \" optical tweezers \" that employs laser light to measure the tiny forces the motors generate. the team found that organelles in regular cells are pulled with twice the force of tran ' s mutant, low - kinesin cells. \" that clinched it for us, \" says welte. \" yes, there are multiple motors moving organelles around, but exactly how many doesn ' t matter. there is something else in the cell that ' s controlling all the motors. that opens up a big area for research \u2014 find what ' s driving these motors and maybe we can control them all by controlling one thing. \" welte and his team are now looking at where in the cell this signal comes from and how it influence the motors. although welte ' s team studied fruit fly eggs, the motors moving the organelles are present in all animals and employed for many tasks, including transport in human neurons. welte also points out that viruses, including hiv, make use of the same kind of motors to move about the cell, first to get from the site of penetration to the nucleus, where they multiply, and then to get progeny viruses back to the cell surface. if welte and others can figure out how cells normally control these motors, it may be possible to prevent hiv from taking control of the motors and thus to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5488110773443127, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7509ef7b-8994-402e-a924-65bea8d3e7eb>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.841604"}
{"text": "the latest news from academia, regulators research labs and other things of interest posted : december 7, 2009 super cool atom thermometer ( nanowerk news ) as physicists strive to cool atoms down to ever more frigid temperatures, they face the daunting task of developing new, reliable ways of measuring these extreme lows. now a team of physicists has devised a thermometer that can potentially measure temperatures as low as tens of trillionths of a degree above absolute zero. their experiment is reported in the current issue of physical review letters and highlighted with a viewpoint in the december 7 issue of physics. physicists have developed a new thermometry method suitable for measuring temperatures of ultracold atoms. ( illustration : alan stonebraker ) physicists can currently cool atoms to a few billionths of a degree, but even this is too hot for certain applications. for example, richard feynman dreamed of using ultracold atoms to simulate the complex quantum mechanical behavior of electrons in certain materials. this would require the atoms to be lowered to temperatures at least a hundred times colder than what has ever been achieved. unfortunately, thermometers that can measure temperatures of a few billionths of a degree rely on physics that doesn ' t apply at these extremely low temperatures. now a team at the mit - harvard center for ultra - cold atoms has developed a thermometer that can work in this unprecedentedly cold regime. the trick is to place the system in a magnetic field, and then measure the atoms ' average magnetization. by determining a handful of easily - measured properties, the physicists extracted the temperature of the system from the magnetization. while they demonstrated the method on atoms cooled to one billionth of a degree, they also showed that it should work for atoms hundreds of times cooler, meaning the thermometer will be an invaluable tool for physicists pushing the cold frontier. source : american physical society translate this article : check out these other trending stories on nanowerk :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6681028279003937, "token_count": 406, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39aad08e-2ac1-46ad-a696-742392fc2775>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.847028"}
{"text": "21 may - 3 october 2010 \u2018 the glass delusion \u2019 was the name given in the late middle ages and baroque times to a form of depression. sufferers were obsessive, compulsive, driven by irrational fears, and imagined themselves to be made of glass, hence brittle and fragile. so pervasive was the condition that it entered world literature, philosophy and history. cervantes wrote the novel the glass licentiate, descartes mentions it as a premise to his syllogism i think therefore i am, and charles vi of france had iron ribs sewn into his clothes to protect himself from breaking. victims allegedly travelled padded in straw and refused to sit down fearing their body weight would fracture their buttocks. the syndrome evokes a psychological separation between reality and imagination, between a strength and a vulnerability that we all experience at times. glass is a barrier, yet allows light to pass through it ; it magnifies and shrinks ; it can be delicate as well as deadly. its attributes are appropriated in symbolic ways : the glass brain and the glass man ; mirror image, alter ego, doppelganger, and split personality all come to mind. more than any other material glass has the ability to combine opposites and it is this duality that is the inspiration for this exhibition.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5770435491415866, "token_count": 268, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4151a7a2-cc4c-4078-8480-03fe0078ee6d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.852670"}
{"text": "the pulling power of chaos our science essay ponders the riddle of the wandering stars. starting with poincare, complex maths i what is the most efficient way to get a space probe to its target? when apollo 11 went to the moon in 1969 it followed a conventional hohmann transfer orbit. imagine an egg - shaped outline, with the earth at the bottom. as the spacecraft comes up the left - hand side, it burns fuel to accelerate, and swings into orbit around the moon. this was the quickest route \u2013 aside from the impractical one of flying straight out by burning fuel the whole time \u2013 and, in a manned mission, speed was of the essence. however, we now know that when efficient use of fuel is the main objective, and time is unimportant, less direct routes can be much better. when nasa sent the cassini probe to saturn, it first went inwards in the solar system, undergoing two close encounters with venus. then it swung back past the earth and on to jupiter before making a sharp turn to meet saturn. trajectories such as this exploit the slingshot effect, in which the spacecraft steals energy from a planet. the tiny spacecraft speeds up considerably, pulled towards the planet by gravity ; the massive planet slows down very slightly, but not enough to notice. yet there is another, subtler effect of orbital dynamics which is also being used to get spacecraft to their targets using as little fuel as possible : chaos. the technique was first used in 1991. a japanese space probe, hiten, had been surveying the moon. having completed its mission and returned to orbit the earth, it had pretty much run out of fuel. edward belbruno, an orbital analyst at nasa \u2019 s jet propulsion laboratory in los angeles, came up with an idea that sounded impossible. he wanted to extend its useful life and enhance its scientific value by sending it back to the moon. then it would visit the moon \u2019 s trojan points \u2013 the points in space 60 degrees ahead of and behind the moon in its orbit where gravity and centrifugal forces cancel each other out. there it could search for cosmic dust that might have become trapped. it sounded crazy, but belbruno knew a way to do it. mathematicians and physicists had realised that the motion of bodies under gravity can be chaotic \u2013 highly irregular, despite obeying entirely deterministic laws. chaotic orbits are sensitive to very small disturbances. normally, this feature is seen as an obstacle to prediction, but belbruno realised", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5236635597564414, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.898892"}
{"text": "realised that the motion of bodies under gravity can be chaotic \u2013 highly irregular, despite obeying entirely deterministic laws. chaotic orbits are sensitive to very small disturbances. normally, this feature is seen as an obstacle to prediction, but belbruno realised that it could be used to advantage. very small changes in position or speed, which use very little fuel, can cause large changes to the trajectory. that makes it easy to redirect the spacecraft in a fuel - efficient, though possibly slow, manner. one place where chaotic orbits can arise is somewhere called the \u201c l1 lagrange point \u201d between the earth and the moon, where the net gravitational force is zero ( essentially, objects are \u201c suspended \u201d between the two bodies because of the forces generated by each ). belbruno designed a new orbit that took hiten close to the l1 point, where a short, carefully calculated burst of its rockets would loop it out to where he wanted it to go. he faxed his proposals, unsolicited, to the japanese team ; they loved the idea. when the probe arrived at l1, it found there was no more dust than you \u2019 d expect ; after a few years orbiting the moon, hiten was crashed into its surface in 1993. still, it had ushered in a new era of space travel. a similar trick was used for nasa \u2019 s genesis mission to bring back samples of the solar wind. the first oscar our fascination with the planets goes back to prehistoric times, when human eyes watched the star - spangled splendour of the night sky and human minds were awed by the cosmic spectacle. countless stars moved across the sky, pinpricks of light on a gigantic, rotating velvet - black bowl. a few of those pinpricks of light, however, did not obey the rules. they went walkabout. the greeks called them planetes \u2013 wanderers ; we call them planets. their paths are complicated and sometimes loop back on themselves. it is not surprising that the ancients attributed their movements to the caprices of supernatural beings. ptolemy, a roman who lived in egypt around ad120, began the lengthy process of taming the solar system, proposing that we live in an earth - centred universe in which everything revolves around humanity in complex combinations of circles supported by giant crystal spheres. around 1300, the persian islamic philosopher najm al - katibi proposed a heliocentric ( sun - centred ) theory, but changed his mind. the big breakthrough came in 154", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5599675013739239, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.900014"}
{"text": "around humanity in complex combinations of circles supported by giant crystal spheres. around 1300, the persian islamic philosopher najm al - katibi proposed a heliocentric ( sun - centred ) theory, but changed his mind. the big breakthrough came in 1543 when nicolaus copernicus published on the revolutions of the celestial spheres. he was clearly influenced by al - katibi, but he went further, setting out an explicitly heliocentric system. among its implications was the novel thought that human beings were not at the centre of things. to the christian church, this suggestion was contrary to doctrine, and explicit heliocentrism was heresy. the riddle of the wandering stars was finally answered in 1609 by johannes kepler, an assistant to the astronomer tycho brahe. when his employer died unexpectedly, kepler took over as court mathematician to emperor rudolph ii. his main role was casting imperial horoscopes, but he also had time to analyse the orbit of mars. for years, he tried without success to fit the planet \u2019 s orbit to an egg - shaped curve, sharper at one end than the other. in 1605 he decided to try an ellipse, equally rounded at both ends. he discovered that this shape fitted the observations, and declared : \u201c ah, what a foolish bird i have been! \u201d in 1609, kepler published a new astronomy, stating two basic laws of planetary motion. first law : all planets move in ellipses with the sun as a focus. second law : a planet moves along its orbit in such a manner that it sweeps out equal areas in equal times. in 1619 he returned to planetary orbits in the harmony of the world. the book contained many curious ideas \u2013 for example, that planets emit musical sounds as they roll round the sun. but it also contained his third law : the squares of the time taken for planets to orbit are proportional to the cubes of their distances from the sun. this work led to one of the greatest scientific discoveries of all time. in his mathematical principles of natural philosophy of 1687, isaac newton proved that kepler \u2019 s three laws are equivalent to a single universal law of gravitation. two bodies attract each other with a force that is proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. newton \u2019 s law of gravity had a huge advantage over kepler \u2019 s ellipses : it applies to any system of bodies, however many there might be. the price to be paid is the way the law prescribes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5125605541253839, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.901013"}
{"text": "the distance between them. newton \u2019 s law of gravity had a huge advantage over kepler \u2019 s ellipses : it applies to any system of bodies, however many there might be. the price to be paid is the way the law prescribes the orbits \u2013 not as geometric shapes, but as solutions of a mathematical equation. the problem is to solve it. newton achieved that for two bodies \u2013 a planet plus the sun \u2013 and the answer is what kepler had already discovered : the bodies move around their common centre of gravity in elliptical orbits. but some questions involve more than two bodies. if you want to predict the motion of the moon with high precision, you have to include both the sun and the earth in your equations. so, fresh from newton \u2019 s success with the motion of two bodies under gravity, mathematicians and physicists moved on to three bodies. their initial optimism rapidly dissipated ; the three - body problem turned out to be very different from the two - body problem. in fact, it defied solution. only in the late 19th century did its true complexity become apparent, however, when henri poincare tried to win a scientific prize. the 60th birthday of oscar ii, king of norway and sweden, happened in 1889. the norwegian mathematician gosta mittag - leffler persuaded the king to mark the occasion by announcing a prize for calculating the motion of any number of bodies under gravity and finding out whether the solar system is stable. poincare decided to start with the simplest case : two bodies ( say the sun and a planet ) moving in perfect circles, with the third body being a dust particle of negligible mass. even that version proved too ambitious and he failed to solve it, but he made so much progress that he was awarded the prize anyway. in particular, poincare proved that sometimes the orbit of the dust particle became extraordinarily messy. he deduced this from some highly original ideas that made it possible to infer features of the solutions without actually solving the equations, saying : \u201c one is struck by the complexity of this figure that i am not even attempting to draw. \u201d we now recognise poincare \u2019 s discovery as a sign that the dynamics of such a system are chaotic. the equations are not random, but their solutions can be very irregular, sharing features with properly random processes. this idea is colloquially known as chaos theory, and it all goes back to poincare and his oscar award. well, that \u2019 s the story that historians of mathematics used to tell. around 1990", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5723389351213357, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.902058"}
{"text": "very irregular, sharing features with properly random processes. this idea is colloquially known as chaos theory, and it all goes back to poincare and his oscar award. well, that \u2019 s the story that historians of mathematics used to tell. around 1990, however, june barrow - green found a copy of poincare \u2019 s prize - winning memoir in the depths of the mittag - leffler institute in sweden. she realised that when he submitted his work he had overlooked the chaotic solutions. he spotted the error before the memoir was published, and paid to have the original version destroyed and a corrected version printed. his initial oversight lay undiscovered for a century. building on poincare \u2019 s discovery, we now know that the three - body problem does not have simple solutions. even so, vast progress has been made on the many - body problem in special cases ; for example, when all of the bodies have the same mass. this is seldom a realistic assumption in celestial mechanics, but it is sensible for some models of elementary particles, such as electrons. in 1993, cristopher moore at the sante fe institute found a solution to the three - body problem in which the bodies play follow - my - leader along the same orbit. even more surprising is the shape of the orbit \u2013 a figure of eight. stranger than imagination in 2000, the spanish mathematician carles simo used a computer to show that this configuration is stable : it persists after small disturbances. indeed, it remains stable even when the three masses are slightly different, so, somewhere in the universe, there might be three stars of almost identical mass, chasing each other along a figure - of - eight path. the same year, douglas heggie of edinburgh university estimated that the number of such triple stars lies somewhere between one per galaxy and one per universe. the figure - of - eight orbit is a planetary dance in which the bodies return to the same positions but swap their identities, each occupying the location that the body in front of it has vacated. this kind of orbit is called a choreography. using a computer, simo has found a huge number of choreographies, which can involve a large number of bodies. the solar system is, was, and will be, far stranger than we imagine. consider the comet oterma. a century ago, oterma \u2019 s orbit was well outside that of jupiter. after a close encounter with the giant planet, its orbit shifted inside that of jupiter. after another close encounter, it switched", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6040104616723114, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.903131"}
{"text": "imagine. consider the comet oterma. a century ago, oterma \u2019 s orbit was well outside that of jupiter. after a close encounter with the giant planet, its orbit shifted inside that of jupiter. after another close encounter, it switched back to outside again. we can confidently predict that oterma will continue to switch orbits in this way every few decades, not because it breaks newton \u2019 s law, but because it obeys it. oterma \u2019 s gyrations are a far cry from kepler \u2019 s tidy ellipses. the explanation is straight out of science fiction. in pandora \u2019 s star, peter hamilton portrays a future where people travel to planets encircling distant stars by train, running the railway lines through a wormhole, a short cut through space - time. in his lensman series, edward elmer \u201c doc \u201d smith came up with the hyperspatial tube, which malevolent aliens used to invade human worlds from the fourth dimension. although we don \u2019 t have wormholes or aliens from the fourth dimension, the planets and moons of the solar system are tied together by a network of multidimensional mathematical tubes that provide energy - efficient routes from one world to another. if we could visualise the ever - changing gravitational landscape that controls the planets, we would see these tubes, swirling along with the planets as they orbit the sun. oterma \u2019 s orbit lies inside two tubes, which meet near jupiter at a lagrange point. one tube lies inside jupiter \u2019 s orbit, the other outside. at the lagrange point the comet can switch tubes, or not, depending on chaotic effects of jovian and solar gravity ; once inside a tube, however, oterma is stuck there until the tube returns to the junction. like a train that has to stay on the rails, but can change its route to another set of rails if someone switches the points, oterma has some freedom to change its itinerary, but not a lot. as such, the way to plan an efficient mission profile is to work out which tubes are relevant to your choice of destination. then you route your spacecraft along the inside of the first inbound tube, and when it gets to the associated lagrange point you fire a quick burst on the motors to redirect it along the most suitable outbound tube. that tube naturally flows into the corresponding inbound tube of the next switching point... and so it goes on. plans for future tubular space missions are already", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5846037756605571, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.904152"}
{"text": "quick burst on the motors to redirect it along the most suitable outbound tube. that tube naturally flows into the corresponding inbound tube of the next switching point... and so it goes on. plans for future tubular space missions are already being drawn up. in 2000, wang sang koon, martin lo, jerrold marsden and shane ross used the tube technique to plot what they described as a \u201c petit grand tour \u201d \u2013 an energy - efficient route \u2013 around the moons of jupiter, ending in orbit around europa. in 2005, michael dellnitz, oliver junge, marcus post and bianca thiere used tubes to plan an energy - efficient mission from the earth to venus. their route would use one - third of the fuel required by the european space agency \u2019 s venus express mission, which has observed venus since 2006. past, present, future the influence of tubes may go further. dellnitz has discovered evidence of a natural system of tubes connecting jupiter to each of the inner planets. this remarkable structure, known as the interplanetary superhighway, hints that jupiter, long known to be the dominant planet of the solar system, also plays the role of a celestial grand central station. in the past, its tubes may well have organised the formation of the entire solar system, determining the spacings of the inner planets. so, is the solar system stable? the answer is a definite \u201c maybe \u201d. two research groups, run by jack wisdom of the massachusetts institute of technology and jacques laskar of the observatoire de paris, have pioneered highly accurate computational methods to understand the probable future of the solar system. wisdom \u2019 s group has found that pluto behaves chaotically over timescales of several hundred million years. in 1999, norman murray of the canadian institute for theoretical astrophysics and matthew holman of the smithsonian astrophysical observatory discovered that the orbit of uranus can also change chaotically, so that it occasionally gets close to saturn, with the possibility that uranus would then be ejected from the solar system. however, it will probably take about one quintillion years for this to happen. ( the sun will blow up into a red giant much sooner, about five billion years from now. the earth will move outwards and might just escape being engulfed, even though tidal interactions will probably pull it into the sun. in any case, our planet \u2019 s oceans will boil away long before that. and, anyway, the typical lifetime of a species is no more than five million years. ) it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5404942362534705, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.905172"}
{"text": "a well - studied connection between elevated ldl, often called the \" bad cholesterol, \" and heart attack. decades of research, including studies of genetic disorders in humans and the discovery of the ldl receptor and its role in cholesterol regulation, paved the way for the development of life - saving drugs known as statins. this work showed beyond any reasonable doubt that many different methods of reducing a person ' s ldl levels lower the risk of heart disease. large - scale studies of genetic variation tied to ldl have been revealing, but the data on hdl are not so clear. more than 30 years ago, human epidemiological studies first revealed an association between hdl and risk for heart attack : the higher the levels, the lower the risk. experiments in cells and mice further support the idea and suggest that hdl is protective because it may remove cholesterol from the sites where it can do damage. however, it has been difficult for researchers to prove conclusively that raising hdl levels is beneficial, primarily for two reasons. first, studies of human genetic diseases where individuals have very low hdl levels have not yielded definitive answers as to the impact on heart attack. and second, because there are currently no drugs that specifically elevate hdl levels, it has been difficult to prove in humans that such an intervention will lower heart attack risk. \" there are many biomarkers measurable in the blood that track with disease but only a very small number are actually causal and directly participate, \" said first author benjamin voight, who since completing this work has left the broad and mgh for a position as an assistant professor at university of pennsylvania. \" the reason you want to distinguish between causal and non - causal biomarkers is because of the implications for therapy. \" to investigate, kathiresan teamed up with colleagues from mgh, the broad institute, and beyond, including voight and co - first author gina peloso. together, the researchers looked to the human genome for help. individuals typically carry two copies of each gene in the genome ; which copy a child will inherit from each parent is essentially a random decision, like flipping a coin. this phenomenon, sometimes called \" mendelian randomization, \" provides a powerful means of testing connections between genes, biomarkers, and disease - similar to the way that randomized controlled clinical trials can evaluate the effectiveness of new drugs. using this technique, researchers study two groups of people - those who carry a particular gene variant, and those who", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.507806574176564, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a361031c-1714-4b66-bcaf-6dc83329131b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.912670"}
{"text": "between genes, biomarkers, and disease - similar to the way that randomized controlled clinical trials can evaluate the effectiveness of new drugs. using this technique, researchers study two groups of people - those who carry a particular gene variant, and those who do not. when sufficiently large groups are studied, both groups should be similar in every factor, except for the specific gene variant or biomarker of interest, allowing researchers to home in on whether the biomarker actually causes a particular trait or condition. by harnessing this method, kathiresan and his team tested whether certain genetic variants that can dial up a person ' s hdl levels impact the chances of developing heart attack. what they found was surprising. individuals who carried a particular variation in a gene called endothelial lipase had hdl levels that were elevated about 6mg / dl, or 10 percent - a change expected to decrease heart attack risk by about 13 percent. however, these individuals showed no difference in their risk of heart disease compared to people without the variant. similarly, the researchers identified a panel comprised of not just one but 14 different hdl - raising variants. they devised a scoring system based on the total number of copies of the gene variants a person carries - ranging from 0 to 28 - and then asked whether that score relates to the risk of heart attack. here also they uncovered no association. kathiresan emphasized that these results do not diminish the value of hdl levels as a predictor - a so - called biomarker - that can help estimate the likelihood of a person going on to develop heart attack. \" we know that hdl is a great biomarker - it ' s quite useful in identifying individuals at higher risk of having a heart attack in the future, \" said kathiresan. \" but we have shown that you cannot assume that raising hdl by any mechanism will help patients. perhaps other mechanisms exist that can lower risk, but we will need to keep searching for them, \" kathiresan added. ( ani ) read more : lady harding medical college | medical college | gsvm medical college | medical college po | b. r. d medical college | mlb medical college so | medical campus | govt. medical college | gandhi medical college | madras medical college | kilpauk medical college | thanjavur medical college so | pariyaram medical college | calicut medical college mdg | alappuzha medical college | r. g. kar medical college po | assam medical college | si", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5042629970310034, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a361031c-1714-4b66-bcaf-6dc83329131b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.913733"}
{"text": "the nobel prize in physics 2001 eric a. cornell, wolfgang ketterle, carl e. wieman bose - einstein condensation in a dilute gas ; the first 70 years and some recent experiments eric a. cornell held his nobel lecture december 8, 2001, at aula magna, stockholm university. he was presented by professor mats jonson, chairman of the nobel committee for physics. summary : fundamental ideas behind creating bose - einstein condensate ( bec ) in a gas are outlined. starting with heisenberg ' s uncertainty principle, the formation of bose - einstein condensate ( bec ) is explained as occurring when the interatomic spacing is comparable to thermal de broglie wavelength. the conditions for creating bec in a gas are described, and the necessary ingredients for creating bec in a gas are listed in an \" ultra cold alkali tool kit \". copyright \u00a9 nobel web ab 2001 credits : kamera communications ( webcasting ) read the nobel lecture pdf 447 kb copyright \u00a9 the nobel foundation 2001 from les prix nobel. the nobel prizes 2001, editor tore frangsmyr, [ nobel foundation ], stockholm, 2002 mla style : \" eric a. cornell - nobel lecture : bose - einstein condensation in a dilute gas ; the first 70 years and some recent experiments \". nobelprize. org. 22 may 2013 http : / / www. nobelprize. org / nobel _ prizes / physics / laureates / 2001 / cornell - lecture. html", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6507441867698498, "token_count": 307, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e599b6f4-d04f-4617-b151-3ff1bce3b832>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.922909"}
{"text": "unicosunicos is the standard operating system for vsmp ( cray vector symmetric multi - processor ) computers and established since 1985. it was derived from the unix system v, a far common and well ported operating system programmed in c. the unicos system also was affected by the 4th generation of bsd and extended by super computing abilities to provide high performance to support the science and development market. unicos is the first 64 bit implementation of unix and a unix similar file system. unicos system offers a stable base from small servers up to gigantic computer plants. photos : cray inc. the unicos system makes extremely flexible and robust calculating machines with support of the following hard and software characteristics possible : the unicos system is the first high performance unix based operating system which supports smp. multi - processor and multi - threading operating system the unicos system is scalable on more than 32 processors. cray aims at a small cpu percentage for the consumption of system processes, also in the greatest and the most extensive configuration. high performance i / o bandwidth and capacity. unicos i / o scales with the number of processors in the system. the standard unix was modified around a file system for up to 8 tbyte to support large files. the support of several devices in a system, multiple types of fixed disks and memory devices in a file system ( for build in memory solutions ) and the file storage strategy with the used algorithm were specified. cache support is availably for physical devices in addition to the file system. through this a high efficiency is made possible for some devices and file systems. the unicos system allows combining of buffered and direct access to i / o devices without integrity loss of the data which are not natural for the devices of other systems. for cray is performance not acceptable without data integrity low waiting times for i / o processes the i ' / o path by the unicos system is high optimized. as much as possible user data transmittings are finished directly to reduce the need for temporary buffering and copying actions. the unicos system created asynchronous i / o for unix systems. many interfaces are designed for the flexible programming to check i / o processes. the unicos system contains an optimized path for asynchronous i / o to avoid extra controls or background processes which reduce the total performance. the unicos system facilitates i / o in the direct access for the user in most cases as a standard.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5065692232734331, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79ffedf6-8b2c-4a11-849e-74451959e691>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.967968"}
{"text": "in the early 1990s, researchers, including itzhaki, found evidence suggesting that as we age, the herpes virus begins moving from its hideout near the bottom of the skull directly into the brain ( possibly because our immune systems lose some bite ). indeed, one journal of pathology study found the virus in a high proportion of postmortem brain samples taken from people who ' d died in their later decades, while it was absent in those from people who ' d died in youth or middle age. what effect does the virus have when it reaches your brain? the short answer : that depends. in certain people it seems to do much less damage than in others ; just as some of us never develop cold sores, some of us can have the herpes virus inside our brains without any horribly ill effects. but itzhaki believes that in other people \u2014 specifically those who carry apoe e4, a gene form, or allele, strongly linked to alzheimer ' s \u2014 the virus is not only reactivated by triggers like stress or a weakened immune system, but also actually begins to create the proteins that form the plaques and tangles presumed to be responsible for alzheimer ' s. if you ' re looking for evidence, itzhaki can show you a stack of it. in two studies, for example, she and several colleagues took brain samples from 109 deceased people \u2014 61 of whom had had alzheimer ' s, 48 of whom hadn ' t \u2014 to search for any correlation between herpes, apoe e4, and alzheimer ' s. their results : people who had both the apoe e4 gene and the herpes virus in their brains were 15 times more likely to have alzheimer ' s than people who had neither. ( the researchers also found, intriguingly, that people who suffered from recurrent cold sores were almost six times as likely to have the apoe e4 gene as those who didn ' t get cold sores. ) a decade later, dr. federoff, then working at the university of rochester, administered the herpes virus to four different groups of mice, each of which had a different variation or absence of the apoe gene. he found that in mice with the specific apoe e4 variation, the virus was slower to become dormant than it was in mice with apoe e2, apoe e3, or no apoe gene, suggesting that the virus could be replicating faster in the e4 mice. \" the results definitely suggest there ' s something different about having apoe e4,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5052178199256863, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a943b959-781e-4efa-aaac-6d416b1c524e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.975983"}
{"text": "mice with apoe e2, apoe e3, or no apoe gene, suggesting that the virus could be replicating faster in the e4 mice. \" the results definitely suggest there ' s something different about having apoe e4, \" says dr. federoff. still other research shows the direct impact of hsv - 1 itself. in 2007, a study by itzhaki and wozniak found that infecting lab samples of brain cells with the virus caused a buildup of the protein ( beta amyloid ) that ' s the primary component of the plaque clogging the brains of alzheimer ' s patients. the same study also found a similar result in the brains of mice that had been infected with hsv - 1. then there was january ' s study in the journal of pathology. in it, itzhaki and wozniak looked at brain samples from 11 deceased people ; six had had alzheimer ' s and five hadn ' t. while both groups had plaques ( not surprisingly, the alzheimer ' s group had far more ) and evidence of the herpes virus in their brains, there was a crucial difference in the concentration of the virus : in the alzheimer ' s patients, 72 percent of the virus ' s dna was found in the plaques, compared with only 24 percent that was found in the plaques of the non - alzheimer ' s brains. not surprisingly, all but one of the alzheimer ' s sufferers also carried the apoe e4 gene, compared with none of the samples from the non - alzheimer ' s people. wozniak is confident that these last two studies point to the same conclusion : \" the results strongly suggest that hsv - 1 is a major cause of amyloid plaques \u2014 and probably of alzheimer ' s disease. \" most popular in health", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5198897445242012, "token_count": 367, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a943b959-781e-4efa-aaac-6d416b1c524e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.976650"}
{"text": "if you have a student in the marketing area, they will enjoy talking about how features of a product / service should be translated into benefits. this article will provide you with some background and some ideas to feed in to the discussion : the text in the box below is based on phrases given in the article. 1 write on the board these words : features tell, benefits sell. you might have to establish the meaning of \u2018 feature \u2019 : something interesting or important about a product. and you will probably want to give ( or elicit ) a few quick and obvious examples of features and their benefits, such as power steering ( feature ) makes a car easier to park ( benefit ) ; or innovative design of a product ( feature ) means you look cool and stylish when you use it ( benefit ) ; or small size of a product ( feature ) means it easily fits into your bag or pocket ( benefit ). 2 have a warmer discussion on this topic. marketing people will have a lot to say about this ( marketers understand that you have to appeal to people \u2019 s emotions, not just give them dry information ). 3 after a general discussion, write the text below on the board. now ask the students to use the language on the board to write a few sentences about one of their own products / services and two of its features and resulting benefits. 4 when they finish, the students can read out their sentences and there will be further discussion, this time more specific to the students \u2019 own business.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5443709134247253, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b4e65b77-81d1-4751-ba8b-21551427163e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:03.995098"}
{"text": "functional diversity in marine ecosystems functional diversity refers to the variety of biological processes, functions or characteristics of a particular ecosystem in this case marine biodiversity. functional diversity reflects the biological complexity of an ecosystem. some scientists argue that examining functional diversity may in fact be the most meaningful way of assessing biodiversity while avoiding the difficult and usually impossible task of cataloging all species in marine ecosystems. by focusing on processes, it may be easier to determine how an ecosystem can most effectively be protected. protecting biological functions will protect many of the species that perform them. however, the exact function of most of the species is hardly known to date. there are several ways in which ecological classifications group organisms according to common functions : classification according to their habitat, to their position in the food web or to their functional feeding mechanism. classification by \u2018 habitat \u2019 aquatic organisms can be divided into four major groups : pelagic, benthic, neuston and fringing, according to the water body which they inhabit. for the coastal wiki there are eleven sub - categories : pelagic organisms are those that live in ocean water and are not associated with the bottom. they thus inhabit the water column and can be divided into plankton and nekton. plankton are organisms that are suspended, ( they float or are weakly self - propelled ) in the water and drift with it as it moves. plankton is either passive and includes algae, bacteria and variety of animals. plankton is usually subdivided in phytoplankton ( photosynthethic organisms like algae ) and zooplankton ( animals ), what refers to their ecological function. plankton can also be subdivided in holoplankton and meroplankton. holoplankton are permanent members, represented by many taxa in the sea. meroplankton are temporary members, spending only a part of their life cycle in the plankton. they include larvae of anemones, barnacles, crabs and even fish, which later in life will join the nekton or the benthos. meroplankton are very much a feature of the sea, particularly coastal waters, as the often sedentary adult forms of coastal species use their planktonic stage for dispersal. nekton are organisms swimming actively in the water, it includes a variety of animals, mostly fish. benthos comprises organisms on the bed of the water body. animals attached to or living on the bottom are referred to as epifauna, while those which burrow into soft", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5397297871085776, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d7ff4c7c-91bb-4779-b851-05000edfea80>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.005623"}
{"text": "in the water, it includes a variety of animals, mostly fish. benthos comprises organisms on the bed of the water body. animals attached to or living on the bottom are referred to as epifauna, while those which burrow into soft sediments or live in spaces between sediment particles are described as infauna. attached multicellular plants and algae are referred to as macrophytes, while single - celled or filamentous algae are called as periphyton or microphytobenthos. epiphytic algae are those which grow on macrophytes. benthic consumers can be divided by size into macrofauna ( > 500 \u03bcm ), meiofauna ( 10 - 500 \u03bcm ) and micro - organisms ( < 10 \u03bcm ). neuston are those organisms associated with the water surface, where they are supported by surface tension. most neuston require very still water surface and is therefore very restricted in the sea. fringing communities are floral communities that occur where the water is shallow enough for plentiful light to reach the bottom, allowing the growth of attached photosynthesisers, which may be entirely submerged or emergent into the air. marine communities are composed mostly out of algal seaweeds. wetlands are composed of this type of vegetation. there are a lot of other habitat classifications, for example the eunis habitat types classification.. this is a comprehensive pan - european system to facilitate the harmonized description and collection of data across europe through the use of criteria for habitat identification ; it covers all types of habitats from natural to artificial, from terrestrial to freshwater and marine. an example of the eunis habitat classification : marine habitats at level 1 is the following : - littoral rock and other hard substrata - littoral sediment - infralittoral rock and other hard substrata - circalittoral rock and other hard substrata - sublittoral sediment - deep - sea bed - pelagic water column - ice - associated marine habitats classification by position in the food web it is very difficult to make generalizations about the trophic relationships in coastal marine systems, because the ecological habitats are so diverse. a simplified description of a food web : the phytoplankton are the primary producers and are eaten by the zooplankton ( smallest floating animals ). the zooplankton are eaten by small fish ( sardines, herring ) and small fish are eaten by larger fish. at the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5018046665432834, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d7ff4c7c-91bb-4779-b851-05000edfea80>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.006608"}
{"text": "the unique design of literature & thought provides the literature and teaching support you need to meet the challenges of the common core english language arts curriculum. close reading strategies writing to sources appropriate text complexity academic vocabulary support text dependent questions and tasks essential questions ( whole book ) and cluster questions ( units ) focus on developing specific critical thinking skills through careful reading, textual analysis, discussion, and writing activities. outstanding literature and content - rich nonfiction and informational texts engage student ' s interest and focus attention on the critical thinking questions. selections provide the text complexity and academic vocabulary required by the common core state standards ( ccss ). new! professional learning \u2014 interactive online courses with experts from the great books foundation in close reading of literary texts, strategic reading of informational texts, and more are included with each teacher package. new! interactive whiteboard lessons \u2014 explicit modeling and instruction of critical thinking and reading skills, writing rubrics, and much more. new! expanded teacher guides \u2014 informational text strategies, citing evidence to support analyses and claims, practice with academic vocabulary, specific support for ccss in each selection ( including detailed ccss correlations ), and multiple assessment options. great books discussion guides for teachers \u2014 specific questioning strategies developed by the great books foundation supporting close text reading and discussion.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5084451860609029, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ffe10044-cb7d-4de7-91a3-892bae9c0285>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.011951"}
{"text": "although diesel was born in paris, his parents were german. his father was a leather craftsman, and his mother a governess and language tutor. rudolf was a good student in primary school and was admitted at the age of 12 to the ecole primaire superieure, then regarded as the best in paris. on the outbreak of the franco - prussian war, however, he and his parents were considered enemy aliens, and were deported to neutral asylum in london. a cousin helped him to return to his father ' s home town, augsburg, where he entered the royal county trade school. from there he won a scholarship to the technische hochschule of munich, where he was an outstanding student. he became a protege of carl von linde, the pioneer of refrigeration. he was a devout lutheran. after graduation, he was employed for two years as a machinist and designer in winterthur, switzerland. after this, he returned to paris, where he was employed as a refrigeration engineer at linde refrigeration enterprises. in paris he became a connoisseur of the fine arts and an internationalist. he married in 1883, and had three children. he set up his first shop - laboratory in 1885 in paris, and began full - time work on his engine. this continued when he moved to berlin, working again for linde enterprises. in 1892 he was granted a german patent for the engine, and found some support for its continued development, this time in augsburg. rudolf diesel developed the idea of an engine that relied on a high compression of the fuel to ignite it, eliminating the spark plug used in the nikolaus otto internal combustion engine. he received a patent for the device on february 23, 1892 and a major milestone was achieved when he was able to run a single piston engine for one minute on february 17, 1894. the engine was fueled by powdered coal injected with compressed air. this machine stood 10 feet ( 3 m ) tall, and achieved a compression of 80 atmospheres ( 8100 kpa ). he built an improved prototype in early 1897 while working at the maschinenfabrik augsburg ( from 1906 on the man ) plant at augsburg. diesel ' s engine had some similarities with an engine invented by herbert akroyd stuart in 1890. diesel was embroiled for some years in various patent disputes and arguments over priority, but in the end he prevailed, and his invention came to be called the diesel engine. he continued its development over the next", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5016181654321272, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c1f57c9f-0131-4406-837e-f24f8e658778>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.039127"}
{"text": "herbert akroyd stuart in 1890. diesel was embroiled for some years in various patent disputes and arguments over priority, but in the end he prevailed, and his invention came to be called the diesel engine. he continued its development over the next three years, began production ( the first commercial engine was at a brewery in the united states ), and secured licenses from firms in several countries. he became a millionaire. diesel was something of an unstable character, having several nervous breakdowns, and was somewhat paranoid at times. he defended his priority of invention tenaciously. diesel toured the united states as a lecturer in 1904, and he self - published a two volume work on his social philosophy. he died under suspicious circumstances during a crossing of the english channel to harwich on september 29, 1913, possibly by suicide. a cross in his journal on the date he died was an indicator of suicide. a briefcase containing a very small sum of money and a large amount of bank statements showing debts, was left to his wife, martha. another theory revolves around the german military, which was beginning to use his engines on their submarines \u2014 something which mr. diesel opposed \u2014 and perhaps feared his potentially providing the technology to the british royal navy for use in their own submarines. his body was found in the channel a few days later. as was usual at the time, the seamen only took his belongings ( identified later by diesel ' s younger son eugen ) and then threw the body back into the sea. after diesel ' s death, the diesel engine underwent much further development, and became a very important replacement for the steam engine in many applications. this engine required a heavier, more robust construction than the gasoline engine, making it unsuitable for certain applications ( such as aviation ), but allowed the use of cheaper fuels. diesel was especially interested in using coal dust or vegetable oil as fuel for the engine, but this never materialized in any major way, at least until recent rises in fuel prices and concerns about oil reserves lead to more widespread use of vegetable oil and biodiesel \u2014 most diesel engines will function just as well using either. but the primary source of fuel has been what became known as diesel fuel, an oil byproduct derived from the refining of petroleum. the diesel engine became widespread in many other applications, such as stationary engines, submarines, ships, and much later, locomotives. recently, diesel engines have been designed, certified and flown that have overcome the weight penalty in light aircraft. these engines are designed to run on either diesel fuel or more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5070706164862574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c1f57c9f-0131-4406-837e-f24f8e658778>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.040231"}
{"text": "i recently watched a bbc documentary entitled out of africa, a five - part series chronicling the migration of homo sapiens out of africa and into asia, australia, europe, and the americas. although all five parts were fascinating, i was particularly rapt by the arrival of homo sapiens ( modern humans ) into europe some 40, 000 years ago after a 70, 000 year trek out of africa, only to discover that neanderthals, a proto - human and distant cousin had arrived some 100, 000 years earlier. neanderthals were a heartier, huskier species than homo sapiens, had a larger brain and more advanced technology, and had long since adapted to harsh european winters. however, 20, 000 years or so later, neanderthals had died out \u2014 completely. to this day, no neanderthal genetic markers have been found in modern humans. how is it possible that a physically more powerful, better environmentally adapted, and technologically more advanced proto - human did not survive, while homo sapiens, the weaker, less advanced interloper, not only survived but burgeoned to eventually populate the entire globe and create the marvelously modern societies of today? paleoanthropologists hot on the homo sapien trail out of africa have discovered in europe a marked difference between homo sapiens and neanderthals : homo sapiens may not have produced better weapons and tools, at least then, but they did make a quantum leap to produce art. they carved, pottered, sculpted, painted, and even made musical instruments, all with an eye on style rather than just making meaningless pretty. more importantly, their art embodied and transmitted \u2014 as art does \u2014 their identity, spirituality, and, their strong affinity for community. early homo sapien art strongly suggests that our predecessors engaged in an intellectual endeavor to create a unique and dynamic culture and to communicate that culture through art. homo sapien civilization, it seems, was predicated on the notion that life must be more than just survival, and that working together to survive allowed room for higher pursuit. conversely, there is no evidence of this intellectual \u201c artsy \u201d undertaking among neanderthals, who seem to have clung to a strictly utilitarian life for survival, which, ironically, led to their extinction when europe became encased in 13 feet of ice. because homo sapiens had cultivated a common cultural bond and strong communal ties, they were able to come together and huddle together, literally and figuratively, and, although", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5157846157246371, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:56ae886f-bf28-47e1-bfbd-1e8365f92ba8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.043643"}
{"text": "geoscience experts have developed a system of smart buoys that can predict the formation of self - reinforcing underwater waves, or solitons, 10 hours before they threaten the safety of oil rigs and divers. in 2008, martin goff and his colleagues at fugros, a geoscience consulting agency, successfully tested the system for three months in the andaman sea. now, global ocean associates have acknowledged the device as \" the first deployed system with real - time warning capability. \" scientists discover ancient rocks on the sea - floor that give them a window into the earth ' s mantle by gregory mone posted 04. 14. 2008 at 8 : 28 am 0 comments no, you can ' t hike or spelunk or even tunnel down to the center of the earth, even if movies like the core or this summer ' s 3d adventure flick, journey to the center of the earth, suggest otherwise. to find out about our planet ' s insides, scientists rely on very different tricks. and, apparently, a little luck. five amazing, clean technologies that will set us free, in this month ' s energy - focused issue. also : how to build a better bomb detector, the robotic toys that are raising your children, a human catapult, the world ' s smallest arcade, and much more.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5448204708486533, "token_count": 269, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:67de25b3-2aa5-4eb7-8108-2b29a04d3ecc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.045687"}
{"text": "never mind the movie stars pulling up to the oscars in their priuses. when the u. s. army announces, as it did recently, that it is developing a new hybrid humvee to save fuel and extend range, you can be sure that hybrid technology has arrived. hybrid vehicles improve efficiency by integrating a combustion engine with an electric drive train - a combo that recaptures braking energy, stores unused idle power, and reduces engine weight to increase mileage. but as today\u00b4s generation of hybrids flies out of showrooms, the stage is set for the next fleet, which will slash gas use and emissions much further. they\u00b4re called plug - in hybrid electric vehicles ( phevs ), and they recharge overnight in home garages to take advantage of low off - peak electric rates. \" the implications for our national oil addiction are profound, \" says daniel kammen, director of the university of california at berkeley\u00b4s renewable and appropriate energy laboratory. \" if the current u. s. vehicle fleet were replaced overnight with phevs, oil consumption would decrease by 70 to 90 percent, eliminating the need for oil imports and leaving the u. s. self - sufficient in oil for many years to come. \" even if the electrical power for those vehicles were drawn from coal - fired power plants, co2 emissions would drop by more than half. if the power were produced by renewable energy sources, and the fuel in the tank were biodiesel or ethanol [ facing page ], the proposition gets exponentially better. clearly, though, it\u00b4s not going to happen overnight. with the exception of daimlerchrysler, which has built a plug - in prototype based on its dodge sprinter cargo van, automakers have been slow to get into the plug - in hybrid market. aftermarket conversion kits will hit the streets for the first time later this year [ see \" can i plug in my prius? \" on page 84 ], tempting mileage - obsessed prius owners like david k. garman, undersecretary of the u. s. department of energy. \" like most americans, \" he says, \" i drive less than 40 miles a day, back and forth to work. if i\u00b4m able to drive in all - electric mode, i won\u00b4t need to use the gas tank. that, to me, is a game changer. \" it may not be the only agent of change. whether cars are run by hybrid or conventional drive trains, the fuel - saving potential of reduced", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5137926647035073, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a9b97656-dcff-4e0c-b375-e64ac4f66f69>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.050966"}
{"text": "won\u00b4t need to use the gas tank. that, to me, is a game changer. \" it may not be the only agent of change. whether cars are run by hybrid or conventional drive trains, the fuel - saving potential of reduced vehicle weight is often overlooked, says amory lovins, co - founder of the rocky mountain institute, a natural - resources think tank in colorado. \" by substituting high - strength, lightweight composite materials for steel, \" he says, \" automakers could roughly double the efficiency of hybrids. in terms of fuel - efficiency, that\u00b4s by far the most effective and doable approach. \" moreover, sometimes the simplest tweaks can have big effects. a recent study by the federal national renewable energy laboratory found that if every car and truck on america\u00b4s roads was equipped with ventilated seats, air - conditioning - related gasoline consumption could be reduced by 7. 5 percent, dropping fuel intake by 522 million gallons a year. now, there\u00b4s a cool idea. the 300mpg drag racer in the late 1940s, andrew frank was a hot - rodding teenager who mounted a cadillac v12 engine in his 1936 ford. by the 1990s, he was a mechanical - engineering professor at the university of california at davis who pulled big engines out of suvs and swapped them for smaller ones boosted by plug - in electric motors. his first \" plug - in hy - brid \" got 68 mpg without sacrificing horsepower. frank is now fielding a student team for the u. s. department of energy\u00b4s clean - vehicle competition, challenge x. the group is building a 300 - mpg plug - in hybrid with an ethanol - powered gasoline engine and a solar - powered electric motor. sounds responsibly efficient. but the professor is still a hot - rodder at heart : \" last year we had a ford explorer that we converted into a plug - in hybrid, and it had so much torque that we couldn\u00b4t keep the axles from snapping. with six of my students in there, it could still burn rubber. \" he is now fielding a student team for the u. s. department of energy\u00b4s clean - vehicle competition, challenge x. \" we were getting 64 miles per gallon without sacrificing anything on the power side, \" frank says. \" but i saw that the most important thing is that energy for cars could be supplied by solar energy and wind using existing technology. \" five amazing, clean technologies that will set us free,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5189502814637825, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a9b97656-dcff-4e0c-b375-e64ac4f66f69>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.051997"}
{"text": "intracranial tumors comprise approximately 2 % of all adult cancers, but form a larger fraction within the group of childhood tumors. gliomas account for approximately 60 % of all intracranial tumors and are classified according to the suggested cell of origin, differentiation and malignancy grade. the prognosis for high - grade gliomas is poor due to limited possibilities of curative treatment. gliomas are tumors of neuroepithelial tissue and comprise a complex and heterogeneous group of tumors representing counterparts to various normal inhabitant cells of the central nervous system ( cns ). the most common form of glioma is astrocytoma, representing approximately one third of all gliomas. astrocytomas are defined based on morphological features such as cellularity, nuclear atypia, mitotic rate, endothelial proliferation and necrosis, and assigned to grades i - iv according to the current who classification system. these include pilocytic astrocytoma ( grade i ), astrocytoma ( grade ii ), anaplastic astrocytoma ( grade iii ), and glioblastoma ( grade iv ). the various forms of glioma are highly vaiable and several phenotypically different cell types exist, including gemistocytic glioma cells. gemistocytic cells resemble a morphological alteration that can also be found in reactive astrocytes and is characterized by eosinophilic staining of a large, swollen cytoplasm. approximately 15 % of gliomas are oligodendrogliomas. histologically, oligodendrogliomas commonly show uniform cell architecture with increased numbers of delicate blood vessels. the tumor cell nuclei are mainly round and regular, and often surrounded by an artifactual perinuclear clearing that results in the so called? fried egg? appearance. high - grade oligodendrogliomas ( anaplastic oligodendrogliomas ) are recognized by features such as increased cellularity, mitotic activity and nuclear pleomorphism, as well as necrosis and endothelial proliferation. additional forms of glioma include mixed gliomas such as oligoastrocytoma and ependymal tumors. examples of other neuroepithelial tumors that grow within the cns are neuronal and mixed neuronal - glial tumors, as well as embryonal tumors including neuroblastoma and medulloblastoma. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5335971466845747, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c71faa1f-b8c1-4e51-abe7-7a648b7792f9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.073962"}
{"text": "richard childress racing january 25, 2013 science on the fast track \" racing teaches you to think broad, and people who are used to working in intense environments are valued members of the team. \" author : rachel kaufmann date : jan. 11, 2013 along a racetrack ' s \" pit road, \" crew chiefs and race engineers for various nascar teams await their drivers ' inevitable pit stop. the souped - up racers need fresh tires and to top off their fuel. every 30 - second lap, the ground shakes as 43 cars whip past at 200 miles per hour. stock car racing isn ' t rocket science \u2014 and yet the track is usually crawling with people who are, in effect, rocket scientists. you might not expect it from a sport that evolved out of bootleggers racing their moonshine down twisty appalachian roads, but modern racing teams use computational fluid dynamics simulations, wind tunnels, and the highly technical know - how of engineers to eke milliseconds out of each driver ' s lap time. \" if you go to these race shops, you think you walked into a hospital operating room. it ' s absolutely spotless, \" says robert johnson, dean of the college of engineering at the university of north carolina ( unc ), charlotte, and co - founder of the college ' s motorsports program. \" these are not shade - tree mechanics having some fun. \" instead, these are highly skilled engineers pushing automobiles to their limits, sometimes using that experience as a springboard to advance their careers. engineered for speed when eric warren began working in motorsports, he didn ' t know of any other ph. d. - level scientists or engineers in nascar. \" now, on my team alone, there are four different ph. d. s., \" he says. warren, whose degree is in aerospace engineering, oversees engineering and also \" the whole racing effort \" for richard childress racing in welcome, north carolina. as a graduate student in the mid - 1990s, warren bumped into the owner of kranefuss - haas racing ( now penske racing ) when visiting a friend at the team \u2019 s north carolina headquarters. \" he said, ' call me, we need somebody like you, ' \" warren says. \" he convinced me to get into racing, which was very difficult to comprehend at the time. at the time, nascar wasn ' t seen as a technical thing. it was like, ' ok, i ' ve been working on research in aerodynamics, working with nasa langley [ research center ]. ' [", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5142854767439551, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c547d6d3-ad4a-4e05-a034-3631a85e7ba4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.104346"}
{"text": "using an ultra - bright electron source, scientists at the university of toronto have recorded atomic motions in real time, offering a glimpse into the very essence of chemistry and biology at the atomic level. their recording is a direct observation of a transition state in which atoms undergo chemical transformation into new structures with new properties. using a new tool called a quantum simulator \u2014 based on a small - scale quantum computer \u2014... a massive telescope buried in the antarctic ice has detected 28 extremely high - energy... a fried breakfast food popular in spain provided the inspiration for the development of doughnut - shaped droplets that may provide scientists with a new approach for studying fundamental issues in physics, mathematics, and materials. the doughnut - shaped droplets, a shape known as toroidal, are formed from two dissimilar liquids using a simple rotating stage and an injection needle. the massive ball of iron sitting at the center of earth is not quite as \" rock - solid \" as has been thought, say two stanford university mineral physicists. by conducting experiments that simulate the immense pressures deep in the planet ' s interior, the researchers determined that iron in earth ' s inner core is only about 40 % as strong as previous studies estimated. graphene has dazzled scientists ever since its discovery more than a decade ago. but one long - sought goal has proved elusive : how to engineer into graphene a property called a band gap, which would be necessary to use the material to make transistors and other electronic devices. new findings by massachusetts institute of technology researchers are a major step toward making graphene with this coveted property. with the hand of nature trained on a beaker of chemical fluid, the most delicate flower structures have been formed in a harvard university laboratory \u2014 and not at the scale of inches, but microns. these minuscule sculptures, curved and delicate, don ' t resemble the cubic or jagged forms normally associated with crystals, though that ' s what they are. rather, fields of flowers seem to bloom from the surface of a submerged glass slide. a new joint innovation by the national physical laboratory and the university of cambridge could pave the way for redefining the ampere in terms of fundamental constants of physics. the world ' s first graphene single - electron pump provides the speed of electron flow needed to create a new standard for electrical current based on electron charge. described as the \" most beautiful experiment in physics, \" richard feynman emphasized how the diffraction of individual particles at a grating is an unambiguous demonstration of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6305194958466135, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38bd495e-a715-4cfc-97e2-fee204e62652>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.111321"}
{"text": "needed to create a new standard for electrical current based on electron charge. described as the \" most beautiful experiment in physics, \" richard feynman emphasized how the diffraction of individual particles at a grating is an unambiguous demonstration of wave - particle duality and contrary to classical physics. a research team recently used carefully made fluorescent molecules and nanometric detection accuracy to provide clear and tangible evidence of the quantum behavior of large molecules in real time. bubble baths and soapy dishwater and the refreshing head on a beer : these are foams, beautiful yet ephemeral as the bubbles pop one by one. now, a team of researchers has described mathematically the successive stages in the complex evolution and disappearance of foamy bubbles, a feat that could help in modeling industrial processes in which liquids mix or in the formation of solid foams such as those used to cushion bicycle helmets. an international team of physicists has found the first direct evidence of pear - shaped nuclei in exotic atoms. the findings could advance the search for a new fundamental force in nature that could explain why the big bang created more matter than antimatter \u2014 a pivotal imbalance in the history of everything. from powerful computers to super - sensitive medical and environmental detectors that are faster, smaller, and use less energy \u2014 yes, we want them, but how do we get them? in research that is helping to lay the groundwork for the electronics of the future, university of delaware scientists have confirmed the presence of a magnetic field generated by electrons which scientists had theorized existed, but that had never been proven until now. physicists working with optical tweezers have conducted work to provide an all - in - one guide to help calculate the effect the use of these tools has on the energy levels of atoms under study. this effect can change the frequency at which atoms emit or absorb light and microwave radiation and skew results ; the new findings should help physicists foresee effects on future experiments. physicists in switzerland have demonstrated one of the quintessential effects of quantum optics \u2014 known as the hong - ou - mandel effect \u2014 with microwaves, which have a frequency that 100, 000 times lower than that of visible light. the experiment takes quantum optics into a new frequency regime and could eventually lead to new technological applications. the allure of personalized medicine has made new, more efficient ways of sequencing genes a top research priority. one promising technique involves reading dna bases using changes in electrical current as they are threaded through a nanoscopic hole. now, a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.7183525498475056, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38bd495e-a715-4cfc-97e2-fee204e62652>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.112436"}
{"text": "technological applications. the allure of personalized medicine has made new, more efficient ways of sequencing genes a top research priority. one promising technique involves reading dna bases using changes in electrical current as they are threaded through a nanoscopic hole. now, a team led by university of pennsylvania physicists has used solid - state nanopores to differentiate single - stranded dna molecules containing sequences of a single repeating base. an international research team led by astronomers from the max planck institute for radio astronomy used a collection of large radio and optical telescopes to investigate in detail a pulsar that weighs twice as much as the sun. this neutron star, the most massive known to date, has provided new insights into the emission of gravitational radiation and serves as an interstellar laboratory for general relativity in extreme conditions. using uniquely sensitive experimental techniques, scientists have found that laws of quantum physics \u2014 believed primarily to influence at only sub - atomic levels \u2014 can actually impact on a molecular level. the study shows that movement of the ring - like molecule pyrrole over a metal surface runs counter to the classical physics that govern our everyday world. in a process comparable to squeezing an elephant through a pinhole, researchers at missouri university of science and technology have designed a way to engineer atoms capable of funneling light through ultrasmall channels. their research is the latest in a series of recent findings related to how light and matter interact at the atomic scale. cancer cells that can break out of a tumor and invade other organs are more aggressive and nimble than nonmalignant cells, according to a new multi - institutional nationwide study. these cells exert greater force on their environment and can more easily maneuver small spaces. one simple phenomenon explains why practical, self - sustaining fusion reactions have proved difficult to achieve : turbulence in the superhot, electrically charged gas, called plasma, that circulates inside a fusion reactor can cause the plasma to lose much of its heat. this prevents the plasma from reaching the temperatures needed to overcome the electrical repulsion between atomic nuclei. until now. lawrence berkeley national laboratory \u2019 s sound - restoration experts have done it again. they \u2019 ve helped to digitally recover a 128 - year - old recording of alexander graham bell \u2019 s voice, enabling people to hear the famed inventor speak for the first time. the recording ends with bell saying \u201c in witness whereof, hear my voice, alexander graham bell. \u201d researchers at university of california, santa barbara in collaboration with colleagues at the ecole polytechnique in france, have conclusively identified auger recombination", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.653339974501214, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38bd495e-a715-4cfc-97e2-fee204e62652>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.113517"}
{"text": "bell saying \u201c in witness whereof, hear my voice, alexander graham bell. \u201d researchers at university of california, santa barbara in collaboration with colleagues at the ecole polytechnique in france, have conclusively identified auger recombination as the mechanism that causes light - emitting diodes ( leds ) to be less efficient at high drive currents. a harvard university - led team of researchers has created a new type of nanoscale device that converts an optical signal into waves that travel along a metal surface. significantly, the device can recognize specific kinds of polarized light and accordingly send the signal in one direction or another. the planet - hunting kepler telescope has discovered two planets that seem like ideal places for some sort of life to flourish. according to scientists working with the nasa telescope, they are just the right size and in just the right place near their star. the discoveries, published online thursday, mark a milestone in the search for planets where life could exist. throughout decades of research on solar cells, one formula has been considered an absolute limit to the efficiency of such devices in converting sunlight into electricity : called the shockley - queisser efficiency limit, it posits that the ultimate conversion efficiency can never exceed 34 % for a single optimized semiconductor junction. now, researchers have shown that there is a way to blow past that limit. scientists in australia have recently demonstrated that ultra - short durations of electron bunches generated from laser - cooled atoms can be both very cold and ultra - fast. the low temperature permit sharp images, and the electron pulse duration has a similar effect to shutter speed, potentially allowing researchers to observe critical but quick dynamic processes, such as the picosecond duration of protein folding. a university of missouri engineer has built a system that is able to launch a ring of plasma as far as two feet. plasma is commonly created in the laboratory using powerful electromagnets, but previous efforts to hold the super - hot material through air have been unsuccessful. the new device does this by changing how the magnetic field around the plasma is arranged. physicists operating an experiment located half a mile underground in minnesota reported this weekend that they have found possible hints of dark - matter particles. the cryogenic dark matter search experiment has detected three events with the characteristics expected of dark matter particles.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6317748983646498, "token_count": 468, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38bd495e-a715-4cfc-97e2-fee204e62652>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.115757"}
{"text": "the power of fits ). remote central - station solar requires years, or even decades to permit and build, and requires costly new transmission that is highly inefficient ( 7 - 12 % line losses ). it also commits us to a path - dependency that could preclude taking the more desert - friendly, efficient and cost - effective distributed path. there really is no doubt - solar generation in the already built environment is faster, cheaper, more democratic, efficient and better for local economies and the environment than industrial solar. ( also see rocky mountain institute, \" obama ' s renewable energy plan : let ' s raise the roof \" ) one has to wonder why nrdc and other industry - friendly environmental groups cling stubbornly to a misguided policy that is in direct conflict with their purported mission to protect the environment. could the answer lie in the fact that current board members and former influential players ( like r. f. kennedy, jr., john bryson and carl pope ) are themselves heavily invested in these projects? isn ' t it time to focus on proven policies that cash in on the 60 % efficiency dividend and generate the energy where its used rather than fueling an increasingly divisive and confusing policy of advocating for the unnecessary destruction of our public and other valuable undeveloped lands? the information and views expressed in this blog post are solely those of the author and not necessarily those of renewableenergyworld. com or the companies that advertise on this web site and other publications. this blog was posted directly by the author and was not reviewed for accuracy, spelling or grammar. to add your comments you must sign - in or create a free account.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5018563365910026, "token_count": 337, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b6e609d-0c1d-46cb-9738-8a3c591b96c9>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.130811"}
{"text": "in writing by the parents or guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught to their children or wards in public elementary and high schools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or approved by the religious authorities of the religion to which the children or wards belong, without additional cost to the government. ( 2 ) educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and mission boards, shall be owned solely by citizens of the philippines or corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is owned by such citizens. the congress may, however, require increased filipino equity participation in all educational institutions. the control and administration of educational institutions shall be vested in citizens of the philippines. no educational institution shall be established exclusively for aliens and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one - third of the enrolment in any school. the provisions of this subsection shall not apply to schools established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents and, unless otherwise provided by law, for other foreign temporary residents. ( 2 ) academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning. ( 3 ) every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair, reasonable, and equitable admission and academic requirements. ( 4 ) the state shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. non - teaching academic and non - academic personnel shall enjoy the protection of the state. ( 5 ) the state shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment. ( \u2026 ) the government shall take steps to initiate and sustain the use of filipino as a medium of official communication and as a language of instruction in the educational system. the state shall give priority to education [... ] no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws. the state shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service, and prohibit political dynasties as may be defined by law. the congress shall give highest priority to the enactment of measures that protect and enhance the right of all the people to human dignity, reduce social, economic, and political inequalities, and remove cultural inequities by equitably diffusing wealth and political power for the common good. to this end, the state shall regulate the acquisition, ownership, use, and disposition of property and its increments. ( 1 ) the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5070212843292284, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38dae8b5-e339-49b9-8eb1-4b8fc1e403ff>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.143483"}
{"text": "feb. 17, 2009 the genome of a marine bacterium living 2, 500 meters below the ocean ' s surface is providing clues to how life adapts in extreme thermal and chemical gradients, according to an article published feb. 6 in the journal plos genetics. the research focused on the bacterium nautilia profundicola, a microbe that survives near deep - sea hydrothermal vents. microorganisms that thrive at these geysers on the sea floor must adapt to fluctuations in temperature and oxygen levels, ranging from the hot, sulfide - and heavy metal - laden plume at the vents ' outlets to cold seawater in the surrounding region. the study combined genome analysis with physiological and ecological observations to investigate the importance of one gene in n. profundicola. that gene, called rgy, allows the bacterium to manufacture a protein called reverse gyrase when it encounters extremely hot fluids from the earth ' s interior. previous studies found the gene only in microorganisms growing in temperatures greater than 80\u00b0c, but n. profundicola thrives best at much lower temperatures. \" the gene ' s presence in n. profundicola suggests that it might play a role in the bacterium ' s ability to survive rapid and frequent temperature fluctuations in its environment, \" said assistant professor of marine biosciences barbara campbell, the study ' s lead scientist. additional university of delaware contributors were professor of marine biosciences stephen craig cary, assistant professor of marine biosciences thomas hanson, and julie smith, marine biosciences doctoral student. also collaborating on the project were researchers from the davis and riverside campuses of the university of california ; the university of louisville ; the university of waikato in hamilton, new zealand ; and the j. craig venter institute in rockville, md. the researchers also uncovered further adaptations to the vent environment, including genes necessary for growth and sensing environmental conditions, and a new route for nitrate assimilation related to how other bacteria use ammonia as an energy source. photosynthesis cannot occur in the hydrothermal vents ' dark environment, where hot, toxic fluids oozing from below the seafloor combine with cold seawater at very high pressures. these results help to explain how microbes survive near the vents, where conditions are thought to resemble those found on early earth. nautilia profundicola contains all the genes necessary for life in conditions widely believed to mimic those in our planet ' s early biosphere and could aid in understanding of how life evolved", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.530317516271021, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:facd01c8-ab37-4b28-9686-62d8769d3a80>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.176619"}
{"text": "aug. 5, 2009 divers who held their breath for several minutes had elevated levels of a protein that can signal brain damage, according to a new study from the journal of applied physiology. however, the appearance of the protein, s100b, was transient and leaves open the question of whether lengthy apnea ( breath - holding ) can damage the brain over the long term. \" the results indicate that prolonged, voluntary apnea affects the integrity of the central nervous system, and may have cumulative effects, \" the swedish researchers said. the release of s100b into the blood suggests that holding one ' s breath for a long time disrupts the blood - brain barrier, they said. the concern is that repetitive exposures to severe hypoxia ( lowered oxygen supply ), such as that experienced by individuals training and competing in static apnea diving events, could cause neurological damage over time. the researchers recommended further research on free divers that would begin early in their careers and follow them for years to monitor their neurological function. the study is \" increased serum levels of the brain damage marker s100b after apnea in trained breath - hold divers : a study including respiratory and cardiovascular observations. \" the researchers are johan p. a. andersson, mats h. liner and henrik jonsson, of lund university in sweden. the american physiological society published the study. free diving is a tradition there is a tradition of breath - hold diving in japan and some other parts of the world that goes back hundreds of years, although the occupation has been dying out. these divers harvest seaweed, shellfish and other growth from the sea bottom, diving dozens of times per day. some divers routinely dive to depths of 90 feet on a single breath while others dive in the 15 - 30 foot range. more recently, breath - hold diving has become a competitive sport. competitive events include how long divers can remain underwater, how far they can swim underwater and how deep they can dive. participants must undergo intense training to increase their lung capacity while learning crucial safety measures. breath - hold diving often leads to hypoxia, elevated blood pressure, slowed heartbeat and other physiological changes. however, whether the sport causes any long - term damage to the brain has remained a point of contention. studies have produced conflicting results. the authors of this study see cause for concern, noting that in six international competitions between 1998 and 2004, 10 % of the contestants in the static apnea events were disqualified after they lost either motor control or consciousness. in this event, participants float face down on the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.517221202662467, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ef53fb9-a863-4920-9b45-9b486af9fcf2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.183727"}
{"text": "this study see cause for concern, noting that in six international competitions between 1998 and 2004, 10 % of the contestants in the static apnea events were disqualified after they lost either motor control or consciousness. in this event, participants float face down on the water for as long as possible without coming up for air. the world record for the event is 11 minutes 35 seconds. divers at international competitions routinely hold their breath 4 - 7 minutes. \" whether such hypoxic episodes are associated with a risk for brain damage in these athletes remains to be established, \" the researchers said. \" studying the changes in established biochemical markers of brain damage after such performances offers the possibility to address this question. \" breath hold experiment nine competitive breath - hold divers ( eight men and one woman ) took part in this study, along with six individuals who had limited experience with breath - hold diving. the nine competitive divers formed the experimental group, while the non - divers acted as the controls the researchers told the participants to lie on their backs on a cot and hold their breath for as long as possible. the conditions were dry, but mimicked a static apnea dive in which the divers float face down holding their breath. the divers used whatever preparatory techniques they customarily use in competition, such as hyperventilating, insufflation ( filling the lungs with as much air as possible ) and breath - holding warm - ups. the researchers took arterial blood samples from a catheter inserted into the artery that runs through the wrist. they took samples before the breath hold, at the end of the breath hold and at fixed intervals for the two hours following the end of the breath hold. the researchers also measured arterial blood gases. they did the same measurements on the individuals in the control group, but the controls rested on their backs for the entire experiment, without performing the breath hold or the warm - ups. among the findings of this experiment : - the average breath - hold time was 5 minutes 35 seconds. the longest was 6 minutes 43 seconds and the shortest was 4 minutes 41 seconds. - the marker for brain damage, s100b, rose in seven of the nine divers. - the controls showed no change in s100b - on average, s100b rose 37 % within 10 minutes after the apnea ended. - s100b levels returned to normal within two hours for all the participants. - the divers showed signs of asphyxia, that is, blood oxygen levels fell, while carbon dioxide levels rose. the s100b levels, while", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5079650804708931, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ef53fb9-a863-4920-9b45-9b486af9fcf2>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.184902"}
{"text": "jan. 30, 2011 in a new study, scientists at the university of maryland and the institut pasteur show that bacteria evolve new abilities, such as antibiotic resistance, predominantly by acquiring genes from other bacteria. the researchers new insights into the evolution of bacteria partly contradict the widely accepted theory that new biological functions in bacteria and other microbes arise primarily through the process of gene duplication within the same organism. their just released study will be published in the open - access journal plos genetics on january 27. microbes live and thrive in incredibly diverse and harsh conditions, from boiling or freezing water to the human immune system. this remarkable adaptability results from their ability to quickly modify their repertoire of protein functions by gaining, losing and modifying their genes. microbes were known to modify genes to expand their repertoire of protein families in two ways : via duplication processes followed by slow functional specialization, in the same way as large multicellular organisms like us, and by acquiring different genes directly from other microbes. the latter process, known as horizontal gene transfer, is notoriously conspicuous in the spread of antibiotic resistance, turning some bacteria into drug - resistant ' superbugs ' such as mrsa ( methicillin - resistant staphylococcus aureus ), a serious public health concern. the researchers examined a large database of microbial genomes, including some of the most virulent human pathogens, to discover whether duplication or horizontal gene transfer was the most common expansion method. their study shows that gene family expansion can indeed follow both routes, but unlike in large multicellular organisms, it predominantly takes place by horizontal transfer. first author todd treangen, a postdoctoral researcher in the university of maryland center for bioinformatics and computational biology and co - author eduardo p. c. rocha of the institut pasteur conclude that because microbes invented the majority of life ' s biochemical diversity - - from respiration to photosynthesis - -, \" the study of the evolution of biology systems should explicitly account for the predominant role of horizontal gene transfer in the diversification of protein families. \" other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - todd j. treangen, eduardo p. c. rocha. horizontal transfer, not duplication, drives the expansion of protein families in prokaryotes. plos genetics, 2011 ; 7 ( 1 ) : e1001284 doi : 10. 1371 / journal. pgen. 1001284 note : if no author is given, the source", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.556286430569647, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:684ca815-f362-4191-a451-4b20ecbf1b10>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.193090"}
{"text": "feb. 24, 2011 why, and when, do we learn to speak the way that we do? research from north carolina state university on african - american children presents an unexpected finding : language use can go on a roller - coaster ride during childhood as kids adopt and abandon vernacular language patterns. \" we found that there is a ' roller - coaster effect, ' featuring an ebb and flow in a child ' s use of vernacular english over the course of his or her language development, \" says dr. walt wolfram, william c. friday distinguished university professor of english linguistics at nc state and co - author of several recent papers describing the research. \" this was totally unanticipated. \" vernacular english is defined here as culturally specific speech patterns that are distinct from standard english ; in this case, the vernacular is african - american english ( aae ). one implication of the finding involves education, since teachers often advocate teaching standard english early in a childhood education. \" this approach does seem to work at first, \" wolfram says, \" but it doesn ' t last. \" in other words, if a school system wants its students to graduate high school with a strong foundation in standard english, it may have to revisit standard english later in the education curriculum. specifically, the researchers found that children come to school speaking english with a relatively high number of vernacular features. then, through the first four grades of elementary school, those features are reduced, as children adopt more standard english language patterns. as the children move toward middle school, the level of vernacular rises - - though many children often reduce their use of vernacular again as they enter high school. \" this finding reveals a cyclic pattern in the use of african - american vernacular english that no one expected to see during children ' s language development, \" says janneke van hofwegen, a research associate at nc state and co - author of the study. \" this wasn ' t even a hypothesis when we began the study. \" the researchers note that, while their data looked solely at african - american children, the findings may be applicable more broadly to other groups. the research stems from the longest, and largest, study ever to examine the longitudinal development of language in african - american children. the study began in 1990, following 88 african - american children from central north carolina in order to track their language development. the study is ongoing, with 68 of the original participants still being tracked. the data is collected by the frank porter graham child development institute in chapel hill, n.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5216955047116947, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ef756a8b-8910-4b2a-94c6-a6013c4b74cf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.196392"}
{"text": "88 african - american children from central north carolina in order to track their language development. the study is ongoing, with 68 of the original participants still being tracked. the data is collected by the frank porter graham child development institute in chapel hill, n. c. the retention rate of the participants is remarkably high, particularly given that approximately 71 percent of the children were living below the poverty line in 1990. \" it ' s incredible, and gives us a rare opportunity to study language development in children, \" wolfram says. the study also gives researchers an impressive array of data, providing them with access to school and test data, as well as the data collected through the study ' s own interviews and surveys. researchers are currently assessing how and whether dialect use is related to literacy skills, as well as the role that mothers play in their children ' s use of vernacular. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - wolfram, walt, janneke van hofwegen, mary kohn, jennifer renn. trajectories of development in aae : the first 17 years. proceedings of the conference on african american language in popular culture, ( in press ) - janneke van hofwegen, walt wolfram. coming of age in african american english : a longitudinal study. journal of sociolinguistics, 2010 ; 14 ( 4 ) : 427 doi : 10. 1111 / j. 1467 - 9841. 2010. 00452. x note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5094364907762527, "token_count": 314, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ef756a8b-8910-4b2a-94c6-a6013c4b74cf>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.196968"}
{"text": "tumour and do not end up in the liver, gut and skin where they could cause nasty side - effects like smaller particles do. \" work in the laboratory and in animals had already shown that the minicells worked in the way they were designed to, but this trial is the first time that they have been used in humans. professor solomon said : \" in this study we loaded the cells with a cytotoxic chemotherapy drug called paclitaxel ( which is currently used in many tumour types ) and coated the minicells with an antibody targeting the loaded minicells to tumours expressing the epidermal growth factor receptor ( egfr ) - - a protein that is found on the surface of many cancer cells. the study was then conducted in the way standard phase i studies are conducted to determine the safety and toxicity of minicells by treating small groups of patients with progressively higher doses of minicells and closely monitoring safety and toxicity. \" a total of 28 patients with advanced, incurable cancers were treated with the minicells in four centres in australia. ten patients had stable disease at six weeks and received more than one cycle of minicells. \" the key finding of the study is that minicells can be given safely to patients with advanced cancer, \" said prof solomon. \" additionally, we showed that we could give multiple doses and one patient received 45 doses over 15 months. the major toxicity we observed was a mild self - limiting fever seen on the day of the infusion with little or no side - effects seen in the remainder of the following week. at higher doses we found that there were additional side - effects, in particular changes in liver function tests, which, although asymptomatic, prevented us from raising the doses of the treatment higher. \" this important study shows for the first time that these bacterially - derived minicells can be given safely to patients with cancer. it thereby allows further clinical exploration of a completely new paradigm of targeted drug delivery using this platform coupled with different ' payloads ' of cell - killing drugs or other treatments such as rna interference, and with different targeting antibodies. \" he concluded : \" the minicell technology is a platform for the targeted delivery of many different molecules, including drugs and molecules for silencing rogue genes which cause drug resistance in late stage cancer. the technology can also be viewed as a powerful antibody drug conjugate where up to a million molecules of drug can be attached to targeting antibodies and delivered to the body in a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.504004583087648, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:49d41884-f90d-4e23-bc6e-dc98bff861d5>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.210445"}
{"text": "for silencing rogue genes which cause drug resistance in late stage cancer. the technology can also be viewed as a powerful antibody drug conjugate where up to a million molecules of drug can be attached to targeting antibodies and delivered to the body in a safe way. in the future this will enable a truly personalised medicine approach to cancer treatment, since the minicell payload can be adjusted depending on the genetic profile of the patient. \" phase ii trials of the minicells are now being planned, including a trial in patients with glioblastoma ( a type of brain tumour ) using minicells loaded with doxorubicin. the researchers also want to develop imaging methods to track the minicells in patients. professor stefan sleijfer, the scientific chair of the eortc - nci - aacr symposium, from erasmus university medical centre ( the netherlands ), commented : \" approaches resulting in selective delivery of anti - cancer drugs to tumour cells is highly interesting as it may lead to a reduction in adverse side - effects and improved anti - tumour activity. in this respect, the use of ' minicells ' is a novel and promising technique. \" eortc [ european organisation for research and treatment of cancer, nci [ national cancer institute ], aacr [ american association for cancer research ]. abstract no : 585. poster session, phase i trials, 09. 00 hrs, 9 november. the study was funded by engeneic. prof solomon has not received any remuneration from engenic and declares no relevant conflicts of interest. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5309858246486232, "token_count": 349, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:49d41884-f90d-4e23-bc6e-dc98bff861d5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.211210"}
{"text": "what is scientology? scientology definiton : scio ( latin ) \u201c knowing, in the fullest sense of the word, \u201d logos ( greek ) \u201c study of. \u201d thus scientology means \u201c knowing how to know. \u201d developed by l. ron hubbard, scientology is a religion that offers a precise path leading to a complete and certain understanding of one \u2019 s true spiritual nature and one \u2019 s relationship to self, family, groups, mankind, all life forms, the material universe, the spiritual universe and the supreme being. scientology addresses the spirit \u2014 not the body or mind \u2014 and believes that man is far more than a product of his environment, or his genes. scientology comprises a body of knowledge which extends from certain fundamental truths. prime among these are : man is an immortal spiritual being. his experience extends well beyond a single lifetime. his capabilities are unlimited, even if not presently realized. within the vast amount of data which makes up scientology \u2019 s religious beliefs and practices there are many principles which, when learned, give one a new and broader view of life. knowing the tone scale, for instance, a person can see how best to deal with a grumpy child, mollify an upset friend or get an idea across to a staid employer. these principles amount to a huge area of observation in the humanities. it is a body of knowledge there for the learning. there is nothing authoritarian in it. it is valuable purely as a body of knowledge. scientology helps each being to regain awareness of himself or herself as an immortal spiritual being and the rehabilitation of full spiritual potential \u2014 to achieve a recognition of spiritual existence and one \u2019 s relationship to the supreme being. god is identified in scientology as the eighth dynamic. all scientology services bring people closer to the eighth dynamic, and the congregational services especially focus on this. it is a bringing together of many beings in a joint spiritual experience and an occasion to recognize the ultimate which is the eighth dynamic or god. the church of scientology sunday service consists of a reciting of the creed of the church, a sermon based on the writings of the scientology founder l. ron hubbard, congregational group auditing and prayer. there may also be music and singing, as well as announcements of church events and programs.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5643608661850432, "token_count": 453, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:79fc3dff-4a34-479b-b366-746dacaa95b0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.220204"}
{"text": "can we teach computers what \u201c truth \u201d means? it \u2019 s harder than it sounds. courtesy of null0 / flickr this article arises from future tense, a partnership of slate, the new america foundation, and arizona state university. from feb. 28 through march 2, future tense will be taking part in emerge, an annual conference on asu \u2019 s tempe campus about what the future holds for humans. this year \u2019 s theme : the future of truth. visit the emerge website to learn more and to get your ticket. i \u2019 d like to begin with two different ideas of truth. the first appears to be the simplest : \u201c it is true that 1 + 1 = 2. \u201d the second is from the beginning of the declaration of independence : \u201c we hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. \u201d now, these sound like quite different ideas about truth. but the process of trying to teach computers to understand truths like these \u2014 difficult for both notions \u2014 is revealing the ways in which they are similar. the term artificial intelligence was coined in 1955 by a computer scientist named john mccarthy. early on, mccarthy enunciated his key aim as the systematization of common sense knowledge. in 1959, he wrote : \u201c [ a ] program has common sense if it automatically deduces for itself a sufficiently wide class of immediate consequences of anything it is told and what it already knows. \u201d this has proven very difficult, primarily because it is difficult to encode, in a systematic fashion, what it means to say something is true. even \u201c 1 + 1 = 2 \u201d is less obvious than it seems at first. beginning in the early part of the 20th century, mathematicians and philosophers, led at first by bertrand russell and gottlob frege and later by ludwig wittgenstein, kurt godel, alan turing, and others, tried to see whether mathematical knowledge \u2014 facts like \u201c 1 + 1 = 2 \u201d \u2014 could be reduced to the laws of logic. ( by logic, frege meant \u201c those laws of thought that transcend all particulars. \u201d the most basic principle of logic is perhaps the conviction that nothing exists \u2014 it is possible to name a set that has no elements. ) david hilbert, the dean of mathematics at the dawn of the century, had thought that such a reduction was possible and posed it as a challenge. but hilbert", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5596857183415052, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bbdae031-edd1-48b3-8f6f-ab3d827c60c4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.308522"}
{"text": "the conviction that nothing exists \u2014 it is possible to name a set that has no elements. ) david hilbert, the dean of mathematics at the dawn of the century, had thought that such a reduction was possible and posed it as a challenge. but hilbert was doomed to failure here. the reason for this, at a basic level, is self - reference. sentences like \u201c this sentence is false \u201d turn out to pose a nasty set of technical challenges that make it impossible to fully express mathematical knowledge as a consequence of logical axioms \u2014 things that are held, on their face, to be true. godel, an austrian logician who would become a good friend of albert einstein \u2019 s after both of them settled in princeton, proved this in a 1931 paper, whose consequences were later strengthened by turing. godel \u2019 s incompleteness theorem says that in any sufficiently strong logical system ( meaning one that is rich enough to express mathematics ), it is impossible to prove that the axioms \u2014 the assumptions \u2014 of the system do not lead to a contradiction. the importance of godel \u2019 s incompleteness theorems for artificial intelligence is something that remains hotly debated. one school of thought, as ernest nagel and james newman wrote in 1956, holds that incompleteness means \u201c that the resources of the human intellect have not been, and cannot be, fully formalized, and that new principles of demonstration forever await invention and discovery. \u201d the other school of thought says, basically, \u201c don \u2019 t worry about it! \u201d the best - known recent exponent of this school is ray kurzweil, who claims, without much evidence, that \u201c there is an essential equivalence between a computer and the brain. \u201d kurzweil \u2019 s overheated triumphalism aside ( he seems determined to prove that careful thought is not necessary to be human by displaying a tremendous lack of care himself ), this is not a question that we need to resolve to say something about what current progress in artificial intelligence is doing to the idea of truth. even if nagel and newman are right and human intellect cannot be fully formalized, computer scientists have come a long way since john mccarthy first enunciated the aim of formalizing common sense. computer scientists have worked to come up with formal descriptions of the everyday world. here is a short list, taken from the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy of some of scenarios they \u2019 ve tried to encode : the baby scenario, the bus ride scenario, the chess board scenario, the ferryboat connection scenario, the furniture assembly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6216330741070513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bbdae031-edd1-48b3-8f6f-ab3d827c60c4>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.310015"}
{"text": "world. here is a short list, taken from the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy of some of scenarios they \u2019 ve tried to encode : the baby scenario, the bus ride scenario, the chess board scenario, the ferryboat connection scenario, the furniture assembly scenario, the hiding turkey scenario, the kitchen sink scenario, the russian turkey scenario, the stanford murder mystery, the stockholm delivery scenario, the stolen car scenario, the stuffy room scenario, the ticketed car scenario, the walking turkey scenario, and the yale shooting anomaly. let \u2019 s take the last of these \u2014 the yale shooting anomaly, which aims to formally codify the fact that an unloaded shotgun, if loaded and then shot at a person, would kill the person. classical logic dealt with things like \u201c 1 + 1 = 2 \u201d which are true, ( or false, like 1 = 0 ) for all time. they were true, are true, and always will be true. it doesn \u2019 t allow for things to happen. but to encode common - sense knowledge, computer scientists need a way to allow for events to take place. they also need ways to encode spatial locations. some of this had been worked out in a rigorous but limited way, in what philosophers call modal logic, which was first enunciated by c. i. lewis in 1918. but modal logic was too limited for computer scientists to use in semireal world systems. in the languages that computer scientists have come up with, as in the yale shooting anomaly, they were unable to preclude the possibility that the shotgun would spontaneously unload itself. it \u2019 s not that computer scientists think that that will happen ; it \u2019 s that they struggle to formalize how it can \u2019 t. ( since the yale shooting anomaly was first stated in 1986, many solutions have been proposed, but it remains an area of research. ) a central challenge computer scientists face is what \u2019 s called the ramification problem : how to codify that fact that if i walk into a room, my shirt does, too. this is paralleled by the \u201c frame problem, \u201d first enunciated by mccarthy in 1969, which is the \u201c problem of efficiently determining which things remain the same in a changing world. \u201d these problems are considerably harder than careless cheerleaders like kurzweil make them out to be. the central result of logicians in the 20th century was that, in the end, it will always be necessary to extend your axioms \u2014 things you just assume to be true without", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6458640507648118, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bbdae031-edd1-48b3-8f6f-ab3d827c60c4>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.311748"}
{"text": "polishing characteristics and problems pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, magnetite and pentlandite. kambalda, western australia the section has been partially polished with 6\u00b5m diamond paste. individual grains of pyrrhotite ( brown ) are clearly seen due to differential polishing. crystals in some orientations still retain many polishing pits ( black ) whereas others are well polished. chalcopyrite ( yellow, centre bottom ) and magnetite ( light grey, bottom right ) are present. pentlandite ( pale yellow - brown, centre right and close to a diagonal fracture ) has higher reflectance than pyrrhotite and is just visible within the largest pyrrhotite crystal as small pentlandite flame - like exsolution bodies along a fracture - dark grey area ( bottom right ) is silicate, black areas are polishing pits. coarse features, especially grain boundaries, are well shown after initial polishing, but fine features are still difficult to see. llmenite and haematite. kimberlite pipe. unknown provenance this section has been polished with 1\u00b5m diamond paste, but shows extensive plucking. host magnesium - rich ilmenite crystals ( brown ) carry lath - shaped haematite exsolution bodies ( blue - grey ). plucked areas ( black ) have the same size, shape and orientation as the haematite, suggesting that it has been preferentially removed. if more than one phase is plucked in a section then it becomes difficult to estimate modal percentages. bornite, stromeyerite, chalcocite, pyrite and tetrahedrite group mineral. unknown provenance this section has been polished with \u00bc \u00b5m diamond paste. although the section is scratch - free has enormous relief and hence shows strong shadows about the harder phases. euhedral to subhedral pyrite ( pale yellow, high reflectance ), a tetrahedrite group mineral ( light grey, centre and top centre ) and quartz ( dark grey, bottom centre ) show high relief against the softer copper and silver sulphides. bornite ( brown - red, left ) has an symplectite - like intergrowth with, and inclusions of, chalcocite ( light blue ). stromeyerite ( light lilac - grey, centre right ) also is complexly intergrown with chalcocite. although relief accentuates the symplectite texture of the softer phases, they remain poorly polished", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5067704737401887, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d428ba0b-4614-4133-b826-530cea6eea73>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.322272"}
{"text": "light blue ). stromeyerite ( light lilac - grey, centre right ) also is complexly intergrown with chalcocite. although relief accentuates the symplectite texture of the softer phases, they remain poorly polished in areas close to high relief minerals. minerals forming thin rims around the harder phases would be ' lost ' within the shadows. bornite ( top and bottom right ) is purple coloured rather than brown, this is tarnish which has been protected by the adjacent quartz crystals from removal. chloanthite, rammelsbergite, pyrargyrite, argentopyrite, acanthite and altered argentopyrite. tynebottom mine, north pennines, britain this section has been polished with \u00bc\u00b5m diamond paste but shows the effects of overpolishing. chloanthite ( cream - white ) is overgrown by rhombic rammelsbergite ( pale blue - white, slightly lower reflectance, centre ) on the edge next to pyrargyrite. pyrargyrite ( blue ) and argentopyrite ( brown ) overgrow the arsenides. in argentopyrite the slightly higher reflectance patches with a lighter surface colour in the centre of the crystals are more overpolished than the margins. the pyrargyrite crystal ( bottom centre left ) also shows the same effect. acanthite ( light blue - grey, bottom left ) is less strongly coloured than pyrargyrite and more poorly polished. fine - grained porous aggregates of pyrite, marcasite and an uncharacterized mineral, agfe11s8, have pseudomorphed argentopyrite ( bottom right ) but individual crystals cannot be identified at this magnification. calcite ( dark grey ) is the main gangue. pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, native gold and galena. cabacal 1, mato grosso, brazil the final polishing conditions are not known. native gold shows relief, compare gold ( golden - yellow, high reflectance, strong relief, centre top ) within the silicate gangue with gold ( centre bottom ) intergrown with chalcopyrite ( yellow - green, bottom centre ) and pyrrhotite ( brown, right ) where it shows less relief minor amounts of galena ( blue - grey, top centre ) are intergrown with pyrrhotite and gold, but are difficult to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5055754148741471, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d428ba0b-4614-4133-b826-530cea6eea73>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.323317"}
{"text": ", bottom centre ) and pyrrhotite ( brown, right ) where it shows less relief minor amounts of galena ( blue - grey, top centre ) are intergrown with pyrrhotite and gold, but are difficult to see. the high reflectance and colour of gold give adjacent crystals of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite anomalously low reflectance and colours. these effects are more marked to the eye than the photomicrograph suggests. gangue phases ( greys ) are quartz ( left ) and phyllosilicates ( centre ). black areas are polishing pits. sphalerite, galena, haematite and magnetite. jersey, channel islands, britain final polishing with \u00bc \u00b5m diamond paste. despite a wide variation in hardness between the phases, there is little relief. sphalerite ( light grey, left ) is intergrown with galena ( white, centre ) and euhedral magnetite ( brown, bottom centre ). haematite ( pale blue, bottom centre ) laths are being replaced by galena ( centre ). the gangue is quartz ( dark grey, bottom centre ) and abundant coarse - grained carbonate with a slightly higher reflectance than quartz.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5323091361380383, "token_count": 258, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d428ba0b-4614-4133-b826-530cea6eea73>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.323874"}
{"text": "publisher : u. s. census bureau social explorer ; u. s. census bureau ; design and methodology, american community survey. u. s. government printing office, washington, dc, 2009. a term used in 2000 to describe the data that were asked of \" 100 percent \" of the population in census 2000. that is, questions that were collected for all people on both the census short - form and long - form questionnaires. in 2000, this included sex, relationship, age / date of birth, hispanic origin, race, and tenure. one of four key dimensions of survey quality, accessibility refers to the ability of the data users to readily obtain and use survey products. the average number of basic acs items reported per person, including sex, age ( counted double ), relationship, marital status, hispanic origin, and race. a questionnaire for an occupied unit must have an acceptability index of 2. 5 or greater to be considered an interview. one of four key dimensions of survey quality. accuracy refers to the difference between the survey estimate and the true ( unknown ) value. attributes are measured in terms of sources of error ( for example, coverage, sampling, nonresponse, measurement, and processing ). address control file the residential address list used in the 1990 census to label questionnaires, control the mail response check - in operation, and determine the nonresponse follow - up workload. address corrections from rural directories a post - census 2000 master address file ( maf ) improvement operation where census bureau staff reviewed commercial directories for 300 rural counties in 10 midwestern states to obtain new city - style addresses for maf records that did not contain a city - style address. conducted in 2002, over 15, 000 city - style addresses were associated with maf records that previously lacked a city - style address. a census 2000 field operation to develop the address list in areas with predominantly non - city - style mailing addresses. a lister captured the address and / or a physical / location description for each living quarters within a specified assignment area. the lister marked the location of each residential structure on a block map by placing a spot on the map indicating its location and assigning a map spot number. the lister also updated and corrected features on the map if necessary. this activity was called \" prelist \" in the 1990 census. geographic areas, usually with legally defined boundaries but often without elected officials, created to administer elections and other governmental functions. administrative areas include school districts, voting districts, zip codes,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5222257526884831, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.366745"}
{"text": "necessary. this activity was called \" prelist \" in the 1990 census. geographic areas, usually with legally defined boundaries but often without elected officials, created to administer elections and other governmental functions. administrative areas include school districts, voting districts, zip codes, and nonfunctioning minor civil divisions ( mcds ) such as election precincts, election districts, and assessment districts. imputation method required when values for missing or inconsistent items cannot be derived from the existing response record. in these cases, the imputation must be based on other techniques such as using answers from other people in the household, other responding housing units, or people believed to have similar characteristics. such donors are reflected in a table referred to as an allocation matrix. american community survey ( acs ) alert this periodic electronic newsletter informs data users and other interested parties about news, events, data releases, congressional actions, and other developments associated with the acs. american community survey demonstration program the full set of testing, research, and development program activities that started in 1994 and continued until the acs was fully implemented in 2005. american community survey full implementation the period beginning in january 2005 during which the acs interviewing of its housing unit sample was conducted in every county and puerto rico municipio as well as all american indian and alaska native areas and hawaiian homelands. the full implementation initial sample size is approximately 3 million addresses each year, and includes group quarters ( gq ) facilities which were added beginning in january 2006. american community survey test sites the acs demonstration program expanded from an initial four test counties in 1996 to 36 test counties in 1999. when the term acs test site is used, it refers to data from these 36 counties. american factfinder ( aff ) an electronic system for access and dissemination of census bureau data on the internet. the system offers prepackaged data products and user - selected data tables and maps from census 2000, the 1990 census of population and housing, the 1997 and 2002 economic censuses, the population estimates program, annual economic surveys, and the acs. american indian area, alaska native area, hawaiian homeland ( aianahh ) a census bureau term referring to the following types of areas : federal and state american indian reservations, american indian off - reservation trust land areas ( individual or tribal ), oklahoma tribal statistical areas ( in 1990 tribal jurisdictional statistical area ), tribal designated statistical areas, state designated american indian statistical areas, alaska native regional corporations, alaska native village statistical areas, and hawaiian homelands. imputation method in which values for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5127094602354072, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.367886"}
{"text": ". these tables form the data source for the \" derived products. \" base tables are also known as detailed tables. the base weight for an address is equal to the inverse of the probability with which the address was selected for the sample as determined by the sample design. since these weights are based only on the initial probability of selection, they are known as a priori to the data collection phase. this is the weight for a housing unit before any adjustments are made. the base weight is also known as the unbiased weight. be counted enumeration and be counted questionnaire the be counted program provided a means for people who believed they were not counted to be included in census 2000. the census bureau placed be counted questionnaires at selected sites that were easily accessible to and frequented by large numbers of people. the questionnaires also were distributed by the questionnaire assistance centers and in response to requests received through telephone questionnaire assistance. an authoring application that produces an instrument used to collect data using computer - assisted telephone interviewing ( cati ) or computer - assisted personal interviewing ( capi ). a subdivision of a census tract ( or, prior to 2000, a block numbering area ), a block is the smallest geographic entity for which the census bureau tabulates decennial census data. many blocks correspond to individual city blocks bounded by streets, but blocks - especially in rural areas - may include many square miles and may have some boundaries that are not streets. the census bureau established blocks covering the entire nation for the first time in 1990. previous censuses back to 1940 had blocks established only for part of the nation. over 8 million blocks were identified for census 2000. a census 2000 field operation to ensure the currency and completeness of the maf within the mailout / mailback area. listers traveled in their assignment areas to collect and verify information to ensure that their address listing pages ( derived from the maf ) contained a mailing address for every living quarters. they especially looked for hidden housing units ( such as attics, basements, or garages converted into housing units ) and houses that appeared to be one unit but actually contained multiple housing units. they also updated and corrected their census bureau maps. a subdivision of a census tract ( or, prior to 2000, a block numbering area ), a block group is a cluster of blocks having the same first digit of their four - digit identifying number within a census tract. boundary and annexation survey ( bas ) an annual survey of all counties and statistically equivalent entities, all or selected incorporated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5230541620713739, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.370137"}
{"text": "), a block group is a cluster of blocks having the same first digit of their four - digit identifying number within a census tract. boundary and annexation survey ( bas ) an annual survey of all counties and statistically equivalent entities, all or selected incorporated places and minor civil divisions, all or selected federally recognized american indian reservations and off - reservation trust lands, and alaska native regional corporations, to determine the location of legal limits and related information as of january 1 of the survey year. a tool used by field representatives that allows them to manage their interview assignments on their laptops. census 2000 supplementary survey ( c2ss ) the c2ss was an operational test conducted as part of the research program in census 2000, and used the acs questionnaire and methods to collect demographic, social, economic, and housing data from a national sample. this evaluation study gave the census bureau essential information about the operational feasibility of converting from the census long - form sample to the acs. census county division ( ccd ) a subdivision of a county that is a relatively permanent statistical area established cooperatively by the census bureau and state and local government authorities. used for presenting decennial census statistics in those states that do not have well - defined and stable minor civil divisions that serve as local governments. census designated place ( cdp ) a statistical entity that serves as a statistical counterpart of an incorporated place for the purpose of presenting census data for a concentration of population, housing, and commercial structures that is identifiable by name, but is not within an incorporated place. cdps usually are delineated cooperatively with state, puerto rico, island area, local, and tribal government officials, based on the census bureau guidelines. for census 2000, cdps did not have to meet a population threshold to quality for the tabulation of census data. a collective term referring to the types of geographic areas used by the census bureau in its data collection and tabulation operations, including their structure, designations, and relationships to one another. census information center ( cic ) the cic program is a cooperative activity between the census bureau and the national nonprofit organizations representing interests of racial and ethnic communities. the program objective is to make census information and data available to the participating organizations for analysis, policy planning, and for further dissemination through a network of regional and local affiliates. census sample data population and housing information collected only on the census long form for a sample of households. a small, relatively permanent statistical subdivision of a county delineated by a local committee of census data users for the purpose of presenting data. census", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5535310609481024, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.371308"}
{"text": ". census sample data population and housing information collected only on the census long form for a sample of households. a small, relatively permanent statistical subdivision of a county delineated by a local committee of census data users for the purpose of presenting data. census tract boundaries normally follow visible features, but may follow governmental unit boundaries and other nonvisible features ; they always nest within counties. designed to be relatively homogeneous units with respect to population characteristics, economic status, and living conditions at the time of establishment, census tracts average about 4, 000 inhabitants. an address that consists of a house number and street or road name ; for example, 201 main street. the address may or may not be used for the delivery of mail, and may include apartment numbers / designations or similar identifiers. the process of associating numeric codes with write - in strings. for example, the write - in associated with place of birth is turned into a three - digit code. coefficient of variation ( cv ) the ratio of the standard error ( square root of the variance ) to the value being estimated, usually expressed in terms of a percentage ( also known as the relative standard deviation ). the lower the cv, the higher the relative reliability of the estimate. cold deck values the values used to initialize matrices used for hot - deck allocation. reducing the amount of detail shown in a base table to comply with data release rules. community address updating system ( caus ) a post - census 2000 maf improvement program that provides a systematic methodology for enhancement and update of address and feature information. designed to provide a rural counterpart to the update of the city - style addresses received from the u. s. postal services delivery sequence file, caus identifies and conducts listing operations in selected geographic areas suspected of experiencing growth that is either not available from or appears to be incomplete in the u. s. postal services delivery sequence file. address and feature updates collected for caus are added to the maf and the tiger\u00ae system. comparison profiles are available from the acs for 1 - year estimates beginning in 2007. these tables are available for the united states, the 50 states, the district of columbia, and geographic areas with a population of more than 65, 000. the acs interview is classified as complete when all applicable questions have been answered on the mail form, or during a cati or capi interview. the interview may include responses of \" don ' t know \" and \" refused \" to specific questions. computer - assisted personal interviewing ( capi ) a method of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5356806725796657, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.372363"}
{"text": "have been answered on the mail form, or during a cati or capi interview. the interview may include responses of \" don ' t know \" and \" refused \" to specific questions. computer - assisted personal interviewing ( capi ) a method of data collection in which the interviewer asks questions displayed on a laptop computer screen and enters the answers directly into a computer. computer - assisted telephone interviewing ( cati ) a method of data collection using telephone interviews in which the questions to be asked are displayed on a computer screen and responses are entered directly into a computer. the sample estimate and its standard error permit the construction of a confidence interval that represents the degree of uncertainty about the estimate. each acs estimate is accompanied by the upper and lower bounds of the 90 percent confidence interval, or the 90 percent margin of error, from which a confidence interval can be constructed. a 90 percent confidence interval can be interpreted roughly as providing 90 percent certainty that the interval defined by the upper and lower bounds contains the true value of the characteristic. the guarantee made by law ( title 13, united states code ) to individuals who provide census information, regarding nondisclosure of that information to others. congressional tool kit a collection of documents developed for members of congress that explain how and why the acs is conducted, its benefits, and how to obtain additional information. the tool kit originally was distributed as hard copies in 3 - ring binders and is now available as a series of online portable document format ( pdf ) files. consumer price index ( cpi ) the cpi program of the bureau of labor statistics produces monthly data on changes in the prices paid by urban consumers for a representative basket of goods and services. a file which represents the current status of any case in sample in the acs. during the acs weighting process, the intercensal population and housing estimates are used as survey controls. weights are adjusted so that acs estimates conform to these controls. count question resolution ( cqr ) a process followed in census 2000 whereby state, local, and tribal government officials could ask the census bureau to verify the accuracy of the legal boundaries used for census 2000, the allocation of living quarters and their residents in relation to those boundaries, and the count of people recorded by the census bureau for specific living quarters. the joint distribution of two or more data characteristics, where each of the categories of one characteristic is repeated for each of the categories of the other characteristic ( s ). a cross - tabulation in a base table is denoted where \" by \" is used as the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5216743929228849, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.373439"}
{"text": "distribution of two or more data characteristics, where each of the categories of one characteristic is repeated for each of the categories of the other characteristic ( s ). a cross - tabulation in a base table is denoted where \" by \" is used as the conjunction between characteristics ; for example, \" age by sex \" or \" age by sex by race. \" current population survey ( cps ) monthly sample survey of the u. s. population that provides employment and unemployment estimates as well as current data about other social and economic characteristics of the population. collected for the bureau of labor statistics by the census bureau. the concept used in the acs to determine who should be considered a resident of a sample address. everyone who is currently living or staying at a sample address is considered a resident of that address, except people staying there for two months or less. people who have established residence at the sample address and are away for only a short period of time are also considered to be current residents. the census bureau offers a wide variety of general purpose data products from the acs. these products are designed to meet the needs of the majority of data users and contain predefined sets of data for standard census geograpic areas, including both political and statistical geography. these products are available on the american factfinder and the acs web site. for users with data needs not met through the general purpose products, the census bureau offers \" custom \" tabulations on a cost - reimbursable basis, with the acs custom tabulation program. custom tabulations are created by tabulating data from acs microdata files. they vary in size, complexity, and cost depending on the needs of the sponsoring client. for users with data needs not met through the general purpose products, the census bureau offers \" custom \" tabulations on a cost - reimbursable basis, with the acs custom tabulation program. custom tabulations are created by tabulating data from acs microdata files. they vary in size, complexity, and cost depending on the needs of the sponsoring client. data capture file the repository for all data captured from mail return forms and by cati and capi blaise instruments. data collection mode one of three acs methods ( mail, telephone, personal visit ) of data collection. data products containing estimates of key demographic, social, economic, and housing characteristics. data swapping is done by editing the source data or exchanging records for a sample of cases. a sample of households is selected and matched", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5076814517727175, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.374787"}
{"text": "personal visit ) of data collection. data products containing estimates of key demographic, social, economic, and housing characteristics. data swapping is done by editing the source data or exchanging records for a sample of cases. a sample of households is selected and matched on a set of selected key variables with households in neighboring geographic areas that have similar characteristics. because the swap often occurs within a neighboring area, there is usually no effect on the marginal totals for the area or for totals that include data from multiple areas. de facto residence rules de facto means \" in fact. \" a de facto residence rule would define survey residents as all people living or staying at the sample address at the time of the interview without considering other factors such as the amount of time they will be staying there. such a rule would exclude people away from a regular residence even if they were away for only that one day. the acs is using a de facto residence rule when determining the residents of gq facilities eligible to be sampled and interviewed for the survey. delivery sequence file ( dsf ) a u. s. postal service ( usps ) computer file containing all mailing addresses serviced by the usps. the usps continuously updates the dsf as its letter carriers identify addresses for new delivery points and changes in the status of existing addresses. the census bureau uses the dsf as a source for maintaining and updating its maf. demographic area address listing ( daal ) a post - census 2000 program associated with coverage improvement operations, address list development, and automated listing for the caus and demographic household surveys. the program uses automated listing methods to update the inventory of living quarters, and also updates the street network in selected blocks. derived products are informational products based largely on estimates from the base tables. see base tables. disclosure avoidance ( da ) statistical methods used in the tabulation of data prior to releasing data products to ensure the confidentiality of responses. see confidentiality. disclosure review board ( drb ) a board comprised of census bureau staff who review and must approve all data products based on disclosure avoidance rules before they can be released to the public. to subject data to program logic to check for missing data and inconsistencies. edit management and messaging application ( emma ) an internet application used by acs subject - matter analysts to show the status of edit review and to relay analysts relevant comments. numerical values obtained from a statistical sample and assigned to a population parameter. data produced from the acs interviews are collected from samples of housing units. these data are used to produce estimates", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.580519937245111, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.375904"}
{"text": "of the data collection which characterizes the status of the case, such as \" completed occupied interview \" or \" respondent refusal noninterview. \" first stage sample acs first stage sampling maintains five 20 percent partitions of the maf by determining which addresses were in the first stage sample 4 years prior and excluding them. this ensures that no address is in sample more than once in any 5 - year period. the first phase sample is the universe from which the second phase sample is selected. estimates based on 5 years of acs data. these estimates are meant to reflect the characteristics of a geographic area over the entire 60 - month period and will be published for all geographic areas down to the census block group level. functioning governmental unit ( fgu ) a general purpose government that has the legal capacity to elect or appoint officials, raise revenues, provide surveys, and enter into contracts. the process whereby write - in answers to hispanic origin, race, ancestry, and language are categorized into codes. this is accomplished using an automated system approach, relying on a set of growing dictionaries of write - ins against which responses are computer matched. responses that are not found in the dictionaries are sent to subject matter experts who code them. these new responses are added to the computer dictionaries for subsequent use. the assignment of an address, structure, key geographic location, or business name to a location that is identified by one or more geographic codes. for living quarters, geocoding usually requires identification of a specific census block. geographic summary level a geographic summary level specifies the content and the hierarchical relationships of the geographic elements that are required to tabulate and summarize data. for example, the county summary level specifies the state - county hierarchy. thus, both the state code and the county code are required to uniquely identify a county in the united states or puerto rico. government printing office ( gpo ) a federal agency responsible for producing, procuring, and disseminating printed and electronic publications of the congress as well as the executive departments and establishments of the federal government. governmental unit measure of size ( gumos ) the smallest measure of size associated with a given block. it is used in the sample selection operation to determine the initial sampling rate at the block level. group quarters ( gq ) facilities a gq facility is a place where people live or stay that is normally owned or managed by an entity or organization providing housing and / or services for the residents. these services may include custodial or medical care, as well as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5450771425275429, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.378045"}
{"text": "or trailer, a group of rooms, or a single room occupied as separate living quarters, or if vacant, intended for occupancy as separate living quarters. separate living quarters are those in which the occupants live separately from any other individuals in the building and have direct access from outside the building or through a common hall. for vacant units, the criteria of separateness and direct access are applied to the intended occupants whenever possible. when information is missing or inconsistent, the census bureau uses imputation methods to assign or allocate values. imputation relies on the statistical principle of \" homogeneity, \" or the tendency of households within a small geographic area to be similar in most characteristics. interactive voice recognition ( ivr ) an automated telephone application which allows the caller to hear prerecorded responses to frequently asked questions. the caller may proceed through the application by entering numbers from the telephone key pad or by speaking responses to select which messages he / she wants to hear. the caller may also elect to speak to an interviewer instead of listening to the recorded responses. official census bureau estimates of the population of the united states, states, metropolitan areas, cities and towns, and counties ; also official census bureau estimates of housing units ( hus ). these are codes assigned to a sample gq assignment in the gqfq system by a field representative when scheduling a personal visit to a sample acs gq facility, when additional research is needed to locate the gq facility, or when a return visit to the gq facility is needed to obtain additional survey information. interpolation is frequently used in calculating medians or quartiles based on interval data and in approximating standard errors from tables. linear interpolation is used to estimate values of a function between two known values. pareto interpolation is an alternative to linear interpolation. in pareto interpolation, the median is derived by interpolating between the logarithms of the upper and lower income limits of the median category. a process in which cati supervisors, for quality control purposes, listen to interviewers while they are conducting interviews with respondents to assure that the interviewer is following all interviewing procedures correctly. the interviewer is not told when the supervisor is listening, but is given feedback on his / her performance after the monitoring. the failure to obtain valid responses or responses consistent with other answers for individual data items. subgroups of the original tabulation universe, especially by race, hispanic origin, ancestry, and tribal groups. for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5666741880105298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.380242"}
{"text": "feedback on his / her performance after the monitoring. the failure to obtain valid responses or responses consistent with other answers for individual data items. subgroups of the original tabulation universe, especially by race, hispanic origin, ancestry, and tribal groups. for example, many acs base tables are iterated by 9 race and hispanic origin groups. joint economic edit an edit which looks at the combination of multiple variables related to a person ' s employment and income, thereby maximizing the information used for filling any missing related variables. an operation in which keyers use a software program to capture questionnaire responses by typing responses directly into the scanned image of a questionnaire displayed on their work station screen. an operation in which keyers use a software program to capture questionnaire responses from a hard - copy of the questionnaire. a geographic entity whose origin, boundary, name, and description result from charters, laws, treaties, or other administrative or governmental action, such as the united states, states, the district of columbia, puerto rico, the island areas, counties, cities, boroughs, towns, villages, townships, american indian reservations, alaska native villages, congressional districts, and school districts. the legal entities and their boundaries that the census bureau recognizes are those in existence on january 1 of each calendar year. a method of decennial census data collection in some of the more remote, sparsely populated areas of the united states and the island areas, where many of the households do not have mail delivery to city - style addresses. enumerators list the residential addresses within their assignment areas on blank address register pages, map spot the location of the residential structures on census bureau maps, and conduct an interview for each household. local update of census addresses ( luca ) a census 2000 program, established in response to requirements of public law 103 - 430, that provided an opportunity for local and tribal governments to review and update individual address information or block - by - block address counts from the maf and associated geographic information in the tiger\u00ae database. the goal was to improve the completeness and accuracy of both computer files. individuals working with the addresses had to sign a confidentiality agreement before a government could participate. also called the address list review program. the decennial census long - form questionnaire was used to survey a sample of the u. s. population. it contained the questions on the census short form and additional detailed questions relating to the social, economic, and housing characteristics of each individual and household. represents the low end of the 90 percent confidence interval of an estimate from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5752296537633481, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.382407"}
{"text": "the u. s. population. it contained the questions on the census short form and additional detailed questions relating to the social, economic, and housing characteristics of each individual and household. represents the low end of the 90 percent confidence interval of an estimate from a sample survey. a 90 percent confidence interval can be interpreted roughly as providing 90 percent certainty that the true number falls between the upper and lower bounds. the address used by a living quarters, special place, business establishment, and the like for mail delivery by the usps. it can be a house number and street or road name, which may be followed by an apartment, unit, or trailer lot designation ; a building or apartment complex name and apartment designation ; a trailer park name and lot number ; a special place / gq facility name ; a post office box or drawer ; a rural route or highway contract route, which may include a box number ; or general delivery. a mailing address includes a post office name, state abbreviation, and zip code. a mailing address may serve more than one living quarters, establishment, and so on. a method of data collection in which the usps delivers addressed questionnaires to housing units. residents are asked to complete and mail the questionnaire to a specified data capture center. main phase sample the annual acs sample is chosen in two phases. during the first phase, referred to as the main phase, approximately 98 percent of the total acs sample is chosen. the main phase sample addresses are allocated to the 12 months of the sample year. the second phase, referred to as supplemental sample selection, is implemented to represent new construction. master address file ( maf ) the census bureau ' s official inventory on known living quarters ( housing units and gq facilities ) and selected nonresidential units ( public, private, and commercial ) in the united states. the file contains mailing and location address information, geocodes, and other attribute information about each living quarters. the census bureau continues to update the maf using the usps dsf and various automated, computer - assisted, clerical, and field operations. master address file geocoding office resolution ( mafgor ) an operation in which census staff try to find the location of addresses from the usps that did not match to the records in the tiger\u00ae database. staff use atlases, maps, city directories, and the like to locate these addresses and add their streets and address ranges to the tiger\u00ae database. master address file / tiger\u00ae reconciliation a post - census 2000 ma", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5306237815736428, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.383439"}
{"text": "in the tiger\u00ae database. staff use atlases, maps, city directories, and the like to locate these addresses and add their streets and address ranges to the tiger\u00ae database. master address file / tiger\u00ae reconciliation a post - census 2000 maf improvement activity where census staff reviewed and corrected map spot inconsistencies in over 1, 800 counties. over 75, 000 maf records in nonmailout / mailback blocks were corrected. the most common types of maf corrections were the assignment of map spots to maf records such that they are consistent with the tiger\u00ae database, and the identification and linkage of duplicate maf records. margin of error ( moe ) some acs products provide an moe instead of confidence intervals. an moe is the difference between an estimate and its upper or lower confidence bounds. confidence bounds can be created by adding the moe to the estimate ( for the upper bound ) and subtracting the moe from the estimate ( for the lower bound ). all published acs moes are based on a 90 percent confidence level. measure of size ( mos ) a generic term used to refer to the estimated size of a specific administrative or statistical area. it is used in the sample selection operation to determine the initial sampling rate at the block level. also referred to as \" response error, \" measurement error occurs when the response received differs from the \" true \" value as a result of the respondent, the interviewer, the questionnaire, the mode of collection, the respondents record - keeping system ( s ) or other similar factors. this measurement represents the middle value ( if n is odd ) or the average of the two middle values ( if n is even ) in an ordered list of data values. the median divides the total frequency distribution into two equal parts : one - half of the cases fall below the median and one - half of the cases exceed the median. medians in the acs are estimated using interpolation methods. information about the content, quality, condition, and other characteristics of data. metadata related to tables presented in american factfinder can be found by clicking on column headings or by clicking \" help \" and then \" census data information. \" minor civil division ( mcd ) a primary governmental and / or administrative subdivision of a county, such as a township, precinct, or magisterial district. mcds exist in 28 states and the district of columbia. in 20 states, all or many mcds are general - purpose governmental units : connecticut, illinois, indiana, kansas,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5105388724777398, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.384443"}
{"text": ", such as a township, precinct, or magisterial district. mcds exist in 28 states and the district of columbia. in 20 states, all or many mcds are general - purpose governmental units : connecticut, illinois, indiana, kansas, maine, massachusetts, michigan, minnesota, missouri, nebraska, new hampshire, new jersey, new york, north dakota, ohio, pennsylvania, rhode island, south dakota, vermont, and wisconsin. most of these mcds are legally designated as towns or townships. three - and five - year estimates based on multiple years of acs data. three year estimates will be published for geographic areas with a population of 20, 000 or more. five year estimates will be published for all geographic areas down to the census block group level. primary legal divisions of puerto rico. these are treated as county equivalents. a data product that includes easy - to - read descriptions for a particular geography. national processing center ( npc ) the permanent census bureau processing facility in jeffersonville, indiana. until 1998, it was called the data preparation division. a mailing address that does not use a house number and street or road name. this includes rural routes and highway contract routes, which may include a box number ; post office boxes and drawers ; and general delivery. a sample address which was eligible for an interview, but from which no survey data was obtained. error caused by survey failure to get a response to one or possibly all of the questions. nonresponse error is measured in the acs by survey response rates and item nonresponse rates. an operation whose objective is to obtain complete survey information from housing units for which the census bureau did not receive a completed questionnaire by mail. in the acs, telephone and personal visit methods are used for nonresponse follow - up. total survey error can be classified into two categories - sampling error and nonsampling error. errors that occur during data collection ( for example, nonresponse error, response error, and interviewer error ) or data capture fall under the category of nonsampling error. office of management and budget ( omb ) omb assists the president in the development and execution of policies and programs. omb has a hand in the development and resolution of all budget, policy, legislative, regulatory, procurement, e - government, and management issues on behalf of the president. omb is composed of divisions organized either by agency and program area or by functional responsibilities. however, the work of omb often requires a broad exposure", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5121637890470824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.385438"}
{"text": ", legislative, regulatory, procurement, e - government, and management issues on behalf of the president. omb is composed of divisions organized either by agency and program area or by functional responsibilities. however, the work of omb often requires a broad exposure to issues and programs outside of the direct area of assigned responsibility. in accordance with the paperwork reduction act of 1995, the census bureau submits survey subjects, questions, and information related to sampling, data collection methods, and tabulation of survey data to omb for approval and clearance. operational response rates response rates for data collection operations conducted in the acs - mail, cati, capi, and fefu operations. optical mark recognition ( omr ) technology that uses a digital image of a completed questionnaire and computer software to read and interpret the marking of a response category and to convert that mark into an electronic response to the survey question. extent to which a frame includes units from the target population more than once, giving the unit multiple chances of selection, as well as the extent to which the frame includes units that are not members of the target population. an estimate based on information collected over a period of time. for acs the period is either 1 year, 3 years, or 5 years. an estimate based on one point in time. the decennial census longform estimates for census 2000 were based on information collected as of april 1, 2000. intercensal estimates used in weighting acs sample counts to ensure that acs estimates of total population and occupied housing units agree with official census bureau estimates. primary sampling unit ( psu ) the psu for the housing unit sample selection is the address. for the gq sample selection it is groups of ten expected interviews. for the small gq sample selection operation it is the gq facility. all residents of small gq facilities in sample are included in the person sample. error introduced in the postdata collection process of taking the responses from the questionnaire or instrument and turning those responses into published data. thus, processing error occurs during data capture, coding, editing, imputation, and tabulation. public use microdata area ( puma ) an area that defines the extent of territory for which the census bureau releases public use microdata sample ( pums ) records. public use microdata sample ( pums ) files computerized files that contain a sample of individual records, with identifying information removed, showing the population and housing characteristics of the units and people included on those forms. public use microdata sample", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5038934564828319, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.387564"}
{"text": ". public use microdata sample ( pums ) files computerized files that contain a sample of individual records, with identifying information removed, showing the population and housing characteristics of the units and people included on those forms. public use microdata sample ( pums ) management and messaging application ( pmma ) this system is the pums version of emma, and is used by analysts to communicate with the data processing team about their review of the pums files. puerto rico community survey ( prcs ) the counterpart to the acs that is conducted in puerto rico. quality assurance ( qa ) the systematic approach to building accuracy and completeness into a process. quality control ( qc ) various statistical methods that validate that products or operations meet specified standards. a measure of the quality of a particular return which is used when there are multiple returns for a particular sample unit. statistics that provide information about the quality of the acs data. the acs releases four different quality measures with the annual data release : 1 ) initial sample size and final interviews ; 2 ) coverage rates ; 3 ) response rates, and ; 4 ) item allocation rates for all collected variables. an iterative procedure whereby a series of ratio adjustments are performed and then repeated. each ratio adjustment corresponds to a dimension of the raking matrix. the goal of the procedure is to achieve a high degree of consistency between the weighted marginal totals and the control totals used in the ratio adjustment. the raking ratio estimator is also known as iterative proportional fitting. ranking tables are tables and related graphics that show the rank order of a key statistic or derived measure across various geographic areas, currently states, counties, and places. variables on data files that are the result of combining values from more than one variable. time interval to which survey responses refer. for example, many acs questions refer to the day of the interview ; others refer to the \" past 12 months \" or \" last week. \" regional office ( ro ) one of 12 permanent census bureau offices established for the management of all census and survey operations in specified areas. one of four key dimensions of survey quality. relevance is a qualitative assessment of the value contributed by the data. value is characterized by the degree to which the data serve to address the purposes for which they are produced and sought by users ( including mandate of the agency, legislated requirements, and so on. ) rural areas in alaska which are difficult to access. in these areas, all acs sample cases are interviewed using the personal visit mode.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5156386665169179, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.389153"}
{"text": "are produced and sought by users ( including mandate of the agency, legislated requirements, and so on. ) rural areas in alaska which are difficult to access. in these areas, all acs sample cases are interviewed using the personal visit mode. field representatives attempt to conduct interviews for all cases in specific areas of remote alaska during a single visit. all sample cases in remote alaska are interviewed in either january through april or september through december. the series of rules that define who ( if anyone ) is considered to be a resident of a sample address for purposes of the survey or census. the person supplying survey or census information about his or her living quarters and its occupants. the respondents failure to provide the correct answer to a survey question for any reason, such as poor comprehension of the question meaning, low motivation to answer the question, inability to retrieve the necessary information, or an unwillingness to answer the question truthfully. the response options for a particular survey question shown on the paper questionnaire, read to the respondent in a cati interview or read or presented on a flashcard to the respondent in a capi interview. also referred to as measurement error, response error is any error that occurs during the data collection stage of a survey resulting in a deviation from the true value for a given survey question or questions. errors made by respondents, interviewer errors such as misreading a question or guiding the response to a particular category, and poorly designed data collection instruments or questionnaires all contribute to response error. a rolling sample design jointly selects k nonoverlapping probability samples, each of which constitutes 1 / f of the entire population. one sample is interviewed each time period until all of the sample has been interviewed after k periods. the first month of a samples 3 - month interview period. geographic and statistical entities eligible to be used in determining the sampling strata assignment. errors that occur because only part of the population is directly contacted. with any sample, differences are likely to exist between the characteristics of the sampled population and the larger group from which the sample was chosen. any list or device that, for purposes of sampling, delimits, identifies, and allows access to the sampling units, which contain elements of the sampled population. the frame may be a listing of persons, housing units, businesses, records, land segments, and so on. one sampling frame or a combination of frames may be used to cover the entire sampled population. proportion of the addresses in a geographical area, or residents of a gq facility, who are selected for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.523980385381931, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.390390"}
{"text": "businesses, records, land segments, and so on. one sampling frame or a combination of frames may be used to cover the entire sampled population. proportion of the addresses in a geographical area, or residents of a gq facility, who are selected for interview in a particular time period. variation that occurs by chance because a sample is surveyed rather than the entire population. second stage sample the set of addresses selected from the first phase sample using a systematic sampling procedure. this procedure employs seven distinct sampling rates. selected population profiles ( spps ) an acs data product that provides certain characteristics for a specific race or ethnic group ( for example, alaska natives ) or other population subgroup ( for example, people aged 60 years and over ). spps are produced directly from the sample microdata ( that is, not a derived product ). the decennial census short - form questionnaire includes questions on sex, age / date of birth, relationship, hispanic origin, race, and tenure. estimates based on the set of acs interviews conducted from january through december of a given calendar year. these estimates will be published for geographic areas with a population of 65, 000 or more. population sizes of geographical areas that determine when data products will first be released for that area ; for example, areas with 65, 000 or greater populations will get single - year profiles in 2006 and every year thereafter ; areas with 20, 000 or greater populations will receive 3 - year data products in 2008 and every year thereafter. there are no population size thresholds applied to the 5 - year data products other than those imposed by the drb. small area income and poverty estimates ( saipe ) census bureau program that prepares mathematical model - based estimates of selected characteristics of the united states, states, and school districts. a federal census conducted at the request and expense of a local governmental agency to obtain a population count between decennial censuses. special place ( sp ) a special place is an entity that owns and / or manages one or more gq facilities. a special place can be in the same building or location as the gq facility or it can be at a different location than the gq facility it manages or oversees. special sworn status ( sss ) or special sworn status ( sss ) individual individuals with sss are defined as non - census bureau personnel who require access to census information or confidential data. an sss individual is bound by census bureau confidentiality requirements, as authorized by title 13, united states code. the standard error is a measure of the deviation of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5379596874690462, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.391641"}
{"text": "as non - census bureau personnel who require access to census information or confidential data. an sss individual is bound by census bureau confidentiality requirements, as authorized by title 13, united states code. the standard error is a measure of the deviation of a sample estimate from the average of all possible samples. state data center ( sdc ) a state agency or university facility identified by the governor of each state and state equivalent to participate in the census bureau ' s cooperative network for the dissemination of census data. defined and intended to provide nationally consistent definitions for collecting, tabulating, and publishing federal statistics for a set of geographic areas. the determination of whether the difference between two estimates is not likely to be from random chance ( sampling error ) alone. this determination is based on both the estimates themselves and their standard errors. for acs data, two estimates are \" significantly different at the 90 percent level \" if their difference is large enough to infer that there was a less than 10 percent chance that the difference came entirely from random variation. a grouping or classification that has a similar set of characteristics. refers to the sampling of a sample. the cases that are not completed by mail or through a telephone interview become eligible for capi interviewing. this winnowing of the sample is referred to as subsampling. data products organized by subject area that present an overview of the information that analysts most often receive requests for from data users. successive differences replication ( sdr ) a variance estimation methodology to be used for surveys with a systematic sample. the initial sampling weights are multiplied by sets of 80 predetermined factors, and then reprocessed through the weighting system to produce 80 new sets to replicate weights. the 80 replicate weights and the final production weights are used to estimate the variance of acs estimates. sufficient partial interview a sufficient partial interview means that the census bureau accepts an interview as final even if the respondent did not provide a valid response for all applicable items. summary file 3 ( sf 3 ) this file presents base tables on population and housing characteristics from census 2000 sample topics, such as income and education. it also includes population estimates for ancestry groups and selected characteristics for a limited number of race and hispanic or latino categories. summary file 4 ( sf 4 ) this file presents data similar to the information included on summary file 3. the data from census 2000 are shown down to the census tract level for 336 race, hispanic or latino, american indian and alaska native, and ancestry categories. the sample that is selected from new addresses ( primarily new construction )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5645655474216579, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.392875"}
{"text": "included on summary file 3. the data from census 2000 are shown down to the census tract level for 336 race, hispanic or latino, american indian and alaska native, and ancestry categories. the sample that is selected from new addresses ( primarily new construction ) and allocated to the last 9 months of the sample year. this is done in january of the sample year. a data collection for a sample of a population. surveys are normally less expensive to conduct than censuses, hence, they may be taken more frequently and can provide an information update between censuses. survey of income and program participation ( sipp ) a longitudinal survey conducted by the census bureau that collects data periodically from the same respondents over the course of several years. the sipp produces data on income, taxes, assets, liabilities, and participation in government transfer programs. the four key elements of survey quality include relevance, accuracy, timeliness, and accessibility. survey response rates a measure of total response across all three modes of data collection, calculated as the ratio of the estimate of the interviewed units to the estimate of all units that should have been interviewed. the acs weights the survey response rate to reflect the sample design, including the subsampling for the capi. see data swapping. errors or inaccuracies occurring in data consistently in one direction, which can distort survey results. by definition, any systematic error in a survey will occur in all implementations of that same survey design. the month associated with a sample case which is used in producing estimates. also known as the interview month, it reflects the response month, which may or may not be the same as the sample month. the specific category of people, households, or housing units on which estimates are based ; for example, people aged 25 and over or occupied housing units. in the context of the acs language program, this refers to the identification of geographic areas warranting specific language tools. telephone questionnaire assistance ( tqa ) a process which allows respondents to call a toll - free telephone number to receive help when completing the survey questionnaire. this process also allows respondents to complete the survey over the telephone with an interviewer. data products that show the geographic patterns in statistical data. thematic maps are a complement to the ranking tables, and are a tool to visually display on a map the geographic variability of a key summary or derived measure. estimates based on 3 years of acs data. these estimates are meant to reflect the characteristics of a geographic area over the entire 36 - month period. these estimates will be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5599399999085706, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.394106"}
{"text": "visually display on a map the geographic variability of a key summary or derived measure. estimates based on 3 years of acs data. these estimates are meant to reflect the characteristics of a geographic area over the entire 36 - month period. these estimates will be published for geographic areas with a population of 20, 000 or more. one of four key dimensions of survey quality. timeliness refers to both the length of time between data collection and the first availability of a product and to the frequency of the data collection. title 13 ( u. s. code ) the law under which the census bureau operates and that guarantees the confidentiality of census information and establishes penalties for disclosing this information. a disclosure avoidance practice whereby extremely low or high values are masked by replacing them with a value that represents everything above or below a certain value. topologically integrated geographic encoding and referencing ( tiger\u00ae ) system or database a digital ( computer - readable ) geographic database that automates the mapping and related geographic activities required to support the census bureau ' s census and survey programs. see census tract. a usps notification that a mailing piece could not be delivered to the designated address. the extent to which the sampling frame does not include members of the target population thus preventing those members from having any chance of selection into the sample. the failure to obtain the minimum required data from a unit in the sample. a sample address that is inadequate for delivery by the usps. a method of data collection used in census 2000 and other censuses, whereby enumerators canvassed assignment areas and delivered a census questionnaire to each housing unit. at the same time, enumerators updated the address listing pages and census bureau maps. the household was asked to complete and return the questionnaire by mail. this method was used primarily in areas where many homes do not receive mail at a city - style address ; that is, the majority of united states households not included in mailout / mailback areas. u / l was used for all of puerto rico in census 2000. represents the high end of the 90 percent confidence interval of an estimate from a sample survey. a 90 percent confidence interval can be interpreted roughly as providing 90 percent certainty that the true number falls between the upper and lower bounds. an area, sector, or residential development, such as a neighborhood, within a geographic area in puerto rico. urbanized area ( ua ) a densely settled territory that contains 50, 000 or more people. the census bureau delineates uas to provide a better separation of urban and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5577682002011853, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.395371"}
{"text": "development, such as a neighborhood, within a geographic area in puerto rico. urbanized area ( ua ) a densely settled territory that contains 50, 000 or more people. the census bureau delineates uas to provide a better separation of urban and rural territory, population, and housing in the vicinity of large places. the concept used to define residence in the decennial census. the place where a person lives and sleeps most of the time. voluntary methods test a special test conducted at the request of congress in 2002 to measure the impact on the acs of changing the data collection authority from mandatory to voluntary. a control system which is used to track and assign cases to individual telephone interviewers. webcati evaluates the characteristics of each case ( for example, the date and time of the previous call ) and the skills needed for each case ( for example, the need for the case to be interviewed in spanish ), and delivers the case to the next available interviewer who possesses the matching skill. web data server ( wds ) a research tool for reporters, sdcs, cics, ros, and internal census bureau analysts. wds features a user - friendly interface that allows users to quickly access, visualize, and manipulate acs base tables. a series of survey adjustments. survey data are traditionally weighted to adjust for the sample design, the effects of nonresponse, and to correct for survey undercoverage error.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5034555070790006, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c19b36c-61be-4041-96ab-768f6d50a771>", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.395930"}
{"text": "\u201d the lack of rain and the incessant heat, has also increased the need for irrigation water for farming, meaning increasing competition between the agricultural and power generation sectors for the same shrinking water \u201c pool. \u201d but, every cloud has a silver lining. california \u2019 s pacific gas and electric co. utility, commonly known as pg & e, that provides natural gas and electricity to most of the northern two - thirds of california, from bakersfield almost to the oregon border, is on the case. pg & e has informed its customers that its \u201c diablo canyon ( nuclear ) power plant, the largest source of generation in the utility \u2019 s service area, is cooled by ocean water, not by rivers that could dry up. \u201d never mind the fact that by the time the diablo canyon npp was completed in 1973, engineers discovered that it was several miles away from the hosgri seismic fault, which had a 7. 1 magnitude earthquake on 4 november 1927. but ocean water as a coolant is not necessarily the answer either. on 12 august dominion resources \u2019 millstone npp, situated on connecticut \u2019 s niantic bay on long island sound, was forced to shut down one of two reactor units because seawater used to cool down the plant was too warm, averaging 1. 7 degrees above the nrc limit of 75 degrees fahrenheit. the millstone npp, which provides half of all power used in connecticut and 12 percent in new england, was only restarted twelve days later. the federal government is hardly known for its scaremongering tactics, but it would seem that mother nature is forcing americans to belatedly consider making some lifestyle changes, as the choice seems to be devolving into energy conservation, turning down the air conditioner and digging deeper into the wallet for food costs. it might also be time for serious national discussion about renewable energy, including wind and solar. if the sun stops shining, all bets are off. by. john c. k. daly of oilprice. comhome solar power, hydroelectric plants, national oceanic and atmospheric administration, palmer drought index short url : http : / / www. solarthermalmagazine. com /? p = 21120", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5027186607237357, "token_count": 448, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:86e28879-f223-4422-a14b-5d61114c348e>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.404312"}
{"text": "cubesat thruster : engine of creation a worry about the proliferation of cubesat satellite launches is adding clutter to an already troublesome amount of earth - circling debris. if cubesats were deployed at higher orbits, they would take much longer to degrade, potentially creating space clutter. as more cubesats are launched farther from earth in the future, the resulting debris could become a costly problem. \u201c these satellites could stay in space forever as trash, \u201d says paulo lozano, an associate professor of aeronautics and astronautics at the massachusetts institute of technology ( mit ). this trash could collide with other satellites. \u201c you could basically stop the space age with just a handful of collisions, \u201d he suggests. today, more than two dozen cubesats orbit earth \u2013 each slightly bigger than a rubik \u2019 s cube, and tip the scale at less than three pounds. but now, an ultra - small rocket thruster could soon power the smallest of satellites in space. as small as a penny, these thrusters run on jets of ion beams. the device, fabricated by lozano, is a flat, compact square \u2014 much like a computer chip \u2014 covered with 500 microscopic tips that, when stimulated with voltage, emit tiny beams of ions. together, the array of spiky tips creates a small puff of charged particles that can help propel a shoebox - sized satellite forward. lozano and his colleagues found that an array of 500 tips produces 50 micronewtons of force \u2014 an amount of thrust that, on earth, could only support a small shred of paper. but in zero - gravity space, this tiny force would be enough to propel a two - pound satellite. this new technology could enable cubesats to propel down to lower orbits to burn up, or even act as space garbage collectors, pulling retired satellites down to degrade in earth \u2019 s atmosphere. the mit researchers envision a small satellite with several microthrusters, possibly oriented in different directions. when the satellite needs to propel out of orbit, onboard solar panels would temporarily activate the thrusters. in the future, lozano predicts, microthrusters may even be used to power much larger satellites : flat panels lined with multiple thrusters could propel a satellite through space, switching directions much like a rudder, or the tail of a fish. \u201c just like solar panels you can aim at the sun, you can point the thrusters in any direction you want, and then thrust, \u201d lozano says.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5338136824659674, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc77eb2-7652-47f9-bacd-dca6ea892db0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.407114"}
{"text": "based solely on appearances. | the suffering and humiliation of | | use visual aids to teach that jesus suffered real pain and is responsible for the death of jesus? | | discover that all sinners are responsible for the death of jesus. and its consequences | | jesus died to give us eternal life because even the smallest sins make us unacceptable to god. | | children can agree to bear each other ' s punishment for a week at a time. | the resurrection egg hunt | | use this activity to reinforce the fact that jesus rose from the dead. | go to work for god | | children learn the different kinds of things they can do to help god bring people into his kingdom. | top 5 countdown in prayer | | use this game to help the children understand there are no limits to prayer. a person can pray whenever, wherever, and for whatever there is a reason to pray. use this activity to help the children understand that they should love others regardless of where they live, what they do, the language they speak, | search for the | | use these activities to help the children understand the joy god has when a person separated from god returns to | | use this activity to help the children understand what they should do when a person turns from god. the children can also think about how god acts towards a sinner who asks for forgiveness and wants to return to god. | the world vs. the kingdom of god | | use this activity to help the children understand how the requirements for entry into god ' s kingdom differ from the standards sometimes imposed by the world. | | use this activity to help the children understand that jesus fulfilled the prophecies of the old testament prophets. | smell the nard. | | bring a sample of nard ( also called spikenard or nardostachys jatamansi ) and let the children smell the perfume mary used to anoint jesus. | | what is temptation and how can it be resisted? | the definition of sin | | identify which sins make a person unacceptable to god. | the impact of | | learn that sin affects more than just the sinner. if nobody ' s watching | | use this activity to help the children understand that god always knows what is on our minds and in our hearts. | | use this activity to help the children understand that the more a person lives a sinful life, the easier it is to sin, and the more a person tries to please god, the easier it gets to please god. | | cain was a farmer. abel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5103510480911223, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d06fa109-3933-4a91-b48b-dc63c83facd0>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.456630"}
{"text": "what xml means published : april 1, 2004 published in tdan. com april 2004 publisher ' s note... this article previously appeared in the journal of conceptual modeling, may 2003. the following two quotes were denigrated in a recent article : 1 ) \u201c there really is no difference between a document and a database. \u201d 2 ) \u201c xml data is fundamentally different from relational data \u2026 [ relational structure ] can led to inefficiencies in queries and retrievals. \u201d while both of these claims were denounced, they both do contain substantial truth. this article will consider to what extent they are true. it will also present xml as a reasonable data model with characteristics of special interest. natural language is more general, expressive and difficult than relational databases. nevertheless, texts certainly do store data and do require a model ( background knowledge ) to be information \u2013 try reading in a foreign language or in an unknown theoretical field in your own language. since natural language is a proliferating machine - readable data source, thanks to the web, it is of legitimate interest as a data object. unfortunately the problem of extracting data from general text is not solved, perhaps not even solvable. xml offers an approach in which the users of language can mark the significant factual content of text. the raison d \u2019 etre of xml is marking, not data management. however to mark content implies that some level of data management must be inherent. moreover the simple, hierarchical structure of xml, the expressiveness of tags and the flexible range of constraints available through the dtd ( a bnf equivalent ) creates a data model adaptable to many sources \u2013 text, formula, database or programmatic data. this article proceeds by examining pascal \u2019 s definition of data model. a simple data model for xml is given and is examined against pascal \u2019 s definition of and requirements for a data model. some characteristics unique to xml are shown and an argument is made that it is simple in a meaningful sense. it is a tenet, since von neumann, that anything may be data. in this regard, there is no difference between a conceptual model, a logical model and a physical model. all maintain data. the differences are simply what the models mean to represent. these models are at three levels because : 1 ) they represent three levels of abstraction in one process, 2 ) what is modeled at each level is different. all three models support data structuring, data \u2018 access \u2019 and inference. even a simple diagrammatic notion such as a semantic network diagram does", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5727220131852038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.473714"}
{"text": "they represent three levels of abstraction in one process, 2 ) what is modeled at each level is different. all three models support data structuring, data \u2018 access \u2019 and inference. even a simple diagrammatic notion such as a semantic network diagram does these. it is certainly fair to insist on a narrower definition for \u2018 data model \u2019. among proponents of xml there are two distinguishable viewpoints, related to the purposes of the viewers. the first view is a data centric view. persons with this view are interested in more or less the same set of operations as traditional dbms. xml seems to be, with a suitable query language, adequate for this. this view is fundamental in xml - ql and in semi - structured databases. [ abiteboul ] the second ( and the original ) view of xml is a text centric view. persons with this view are concerned with capturing the data content of texts without the violence of re - writing the source. xml marking while useful, is not perfect at capturing the data in even the most common texts. [ riggs ] technically a model is just a set with relations such that there is an interpretation function that makes the standard commutation diagram work. xml is a model of data in text, as complete with respect to data as relational theory. xml maps far more directly to text data sources. that this ready mapping extends to many other program systems may be no more than the reflection of the nature of programs themselves. it is however a fact of real world practice, shown by the proliferation of xml as an underlying means of logical storage in more and more software systems. a data model is not a map a data model is not \u201c a general theory of data used to map enterprise - specific business model \u2026 to enterprise specific logical models that are understood by dbms ' s. \u201d a compiler is a map from a conceptual model to a physical model. compiler theories ( such as lr - k grammars and algorithms ) are maps from language classes to compilers. relational theory is a general data model, in which specific models may be constructed. the paradigm here is first order predicate calculus in which a theory may be embedded. as a practical matter, creating a database ( or information base, etc. ) requires a judicious choice of theoretically possible representations. this is quite as true for relational models as any other. fictitious ( non - domain ) entities may be created ( as for m - n relationships ). constraints must be selected or omitted. the entire design may become subject to efficiency", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5765709450016281, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.474729"}
{"text": "theoretically possible representations. this is quite as true for relational models as any other. fictitious ( non - domain ) entities may be created ( as for m - n relationships ). constraints must be selected or omitted. the entire design may become subject to efficiency and purposive constraints as well. the xml data model while xml is new and evolving, the fundamental data representation is the well - known a tree. for sake of argument, the following is the model for xml 1 ) an ordered tree of named nodes with id \u2019 s. with two named, leaf nodes : a ) a \u2018 text \u2019 node that holds a string. 2 ) a set of manipulations ( xslt, xmlql, xql, xirql are candidates. ) b ) a \u2018 reference \u2019 node that holds a pointer to a node existing in the tree. it is similar to other models such as semi - structured data. [ abiteboul ] xml as a data model rather than offer a specific definition of data model, pascal ' s criteria for a data model are examined. xml seems to meet them if they define storing and retrieving data and are not construed so narrowly as to simply define \u2018 relational database \u2019. the tree is one of the most basic models of data. it is no less formal because it is not generally described by first order predicate calculus and set theory. it does not have a specific semantics as has been recognized for a long time. [ link ] we are not aware of an essentially clearer semantics for relational databases. the desire for a richer representation of link semantics for xml is addressed in addressed by several communities. rdf is an example of this. [ rdf ] the xml model has four types : node names, node id \u2019 s, node references and content as data. the semantics of the first three is as clear as table names, column headers or foreign keys. content is more general / less detailed than relational domains. content and node references clearly are data in xml. node id ' s are ' pseudo data ', they are arbitrary, but constrained to uniqueness. node names are not subject to data operations ( although we may generate them in xml processors ). in a sense then, xml has more data types than the relational where we mean types of data not domains. the utility of general data types is to map values to sets of operations ; a specific list is not a definition of ' data model '. strings, of course, support only weak data operations. yet in normal discourse", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5671686062215751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.475687"}
{"text": "mean types of data not domains. the utility of general data types is to map values to sets of operations ; a specific list is not a definition of ' data model '. strings, of course, support only weak data operations. yet in normal discourse, words have types. they are ' soft typed ', i. e. the reader can interpret them by context. such a theory ( more probably sets of such theories ) would be of interest. the lack of a broader range of content data types is a concern for some potential uses of xml. extensions to xml such as xml schema address this. [ schema ] xml schema is much richer in data types than most relational systems. the normal forms are a masterpiece in relational theory. they are however not universally applied in building relational databases they are constraints on the relational theories inference methods with the aristotelian goal of not saying of what is not that it is. the 1st normal form is distinct from the others in that regard. xml will have to address keys in order to develop a similar area of theory. pascal explicitly mentions constraints as representing business rules. the dtd, which is a specific formulation of bnf seems to be a reasonable means to express these constraints. it is not clear that these are part of the relational model proper. keys are one integrity constraint not normally considered in xml articles. thus data referring to an individual can occur in several places. this models textual reality, but may be a difficulty in practice. this concern is indirectly implied in \" xml and free text \". [ riggs ] xml data operations, based on tree traversal, are in no way theoretically deficient. whether they are practically sufficient is a separate question. again one may define data model as narrowly as one wishes, but only by removing sense. xml separates its representation model from its inference model. there are several candidate inference models, among them xslt, xml - ql, xql and xirql. select and project are simple enough ( although obviously not exactly the ' same '. ) many with the data base view of xml do insist that the set of operations must be broadened to include at least join. [ xmlql ] others with the text centric view wish to add operations required for text retrieval. [ xirql ]. why these operations on a data ( information -, text -, knowledge - ) base are not legitimate is not clear to me. data model characteristics if xml is a data model ( the old hierarchical model more or less )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5698822781439344, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.476644"}
{"text": "xirql ]. why these operations on a data ( information -, text -, knowledge - ) base are not legitimate is not clear to me. data model characteristics if xml is a data model ( the old hierarchical model more or less ) perhaps it is just a poor model. this is belied prima facie by its increasing use. pascal offers four necessary characteristics of a data model are considered below. it is well - known that a relational database can be represented as a tree and vice - versa [ abiteboul ]. the formalization above is enough for this purpose. thus in the formal sense of what can be represented, neither is more general than the other. xml is superior to relational databases in at least one sense : it can often be imposed on free text sources without disturbing them. relational databases do not maintain locality of data. [ sowa ] this is exactly the real sense of the quote, dismissed by pascal, that \u201c xml data is fundamentally different from relational data \u2026 [ relational structure ] can led to inefficiencies in queries and retrievals. \u201d the tree representation does something that relational representations cannot do - represent the data as it is without need of reconstruction. generality of inference is another aspect of a model. in xml we have to pick from the competing inference models. the range of data operations is narrower, the same or broader as we choose. the use of xml as a serialization of data between software systems includes rdbms but extends to many other sorts of applications. the desired generality would seem to be to communicate data between the widest assortment of applications of all types. besides text, the structure of data in most programs is more nearly tree - like than relational. the value of a single representation for interchange is obvious. formality formality does not depend on expression in predicate calculus plus set theory. the representational model of xml is adequately formal. the inference models for traditional data processes depend on tree traversal and are equally well defined. if we extend inference to include search as in the information retrieval community, there are also formal models. ( they most fundamental - the probabilistic model, is however difficult. ) no model is simply \u2018 complete \u2019. a model is complete with respect to some domain, abstract or real and set of operations. soundness is similarly determined by that comparison, not by the choice of mathematical theory chosen to express the model. it is quite possible for a graphical theory to be sound and complete. to turn the normal relationship on its head", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5556395005824671, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.477757"}
{"text": "real and set of operations. soundness is similarly determined by that comparison, not by the choice of mathematical theory chosen to express the model. it is quite possible for a graphical theory to be sound and complete. to turn the normal relationship on its head, tableaus are a sound and complete theory for sentential calculus. since representation equality of xml and relations is guaranteed, only inferential completeness is at question here. the inference in the domain of discourse are the important criterion here. information retrieval is a ubiquitous example in which non - crisp methods ( vector or probabilistic retrieval ) are typically of more value than crisp ( boolean ) methods. simplicity is likewise not a single measure. relational databases are reasonably economical, that is they do not have too many axiom schemata or inference rules. the same is true of trees and tree traversal. representational simplicity is also of concern as is operational simplicity. the formal issue is one of more or less, not optimal. no one i know likes to write their logical formulas using the sheffer stroke ( the minimal set of operators for logic ), although it is more economical than using \u2018 and \u2019, \u2018 or \u2019 and \u2018 not \u2019 ( the familiar set ). indeed, most people are happy to add implication and logical equivalence to their models. representational simplicity is extrinsic to the model and concerns the ease with which model objects are interpreted to domain objects. xml has both pluses and minuses here as data theory. as said earlier : it models documents and some other types of data better but perhaps individuals worse. ( so far at least. ) pascal claims that meaning in the sense of \u201c how things are related and how to deal with them are lost in xml. that claim is hollow. how things are related is the essence of structure ( and pointers ). how to infer with things is a more open question and depends on what you need to infer. surely the xml data model stores and retrieves data, how much narrower must the definition be? the lack of rich set of domains and domain operations limits some operations, but also simplifies and generalizes xml. although xml schema attempts to address classical database concerns, in is not impossible that an alternative ( ' soft typing ' ) could provide the same data functions. as a data model xml does not have a theory of keys and dependencies known to me. whether that is vicious or not may be worth discussing. in any case the data operations which can be easily modeled by xml will not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5675190641821783, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.478954"}
{"text": "the same data functions. as a data model xml does not have a theory of keys and dependencies known to me. whether that is vicious or not may be worth discussing. in any case the data operations which can be easily modeled by xml will not go away. tag names are a two - sided device that are meant to mediate between text and data values. they should resonate with a reader and they should mark data as a meaningful ( computational ) unit. relational attribute names do no more. in fact, attempts to link xml with ontologies [ oil ] can be seen as attempts to formalize something ubiquitous but unanalyzed in the relational model. ( unless we consider the data dictionary a suitably formal device. ) in regard to the use of xml as a data interchange format, the problem is not one of interchange between rdbms ' s. the problem xml addresses is much more general. also note that interchange is a problem of representation, not inference. we only need to exchange representation between equivalent inference systems. thus xml is works here too. it is certain that there are interesting questions about xml. its origin from a committee, myriad uses and rapid development complicate formalizing it authoritatively. however, it clearly does have a formal basis, if a yet incomplete and multi - faceted one. its core is already enough to recognize it as a data model and one with unique applicability. the proliferation of auxiliary notations such as : xml schema, xml links, rdf, etc. indicate its fecundity, not its frailty. [ abiteboul ] data on the web, serge abiteboul, peter buneman, dan suciu, morgan kaufmann, 2000 [ date ] \" models, models, everywhere, nor any time to think \", c. j. date, www. dbdebunk. com / cjd3a. htm [ link ] \" what ' s in a link : foundations for semantic networks \", william a. woods, in readings in knowledge representation, p217, morgan kaufmann, 1984 [ oil ] welcome to oil, www. ontoknowledge. org / oil [ rdf ] resource description framework ( rdf ) : concepts and abstract syntax, w3c working draft 23 january 2003, http : / / www. w3. org / tr / rdf - concepts [ pascal1 ] \" what meaning means \", fabian pascal http : / / www. inconcept. com", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5467651231639328, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.480007"}
{"text": "w3c working draft 23 january 2003, http : / / www. w3. org / tr / rdf - concepts [ pascal1 ] \" what meaning means \", fabian pascal http : / / www. inconcept. com / jcm [ pascal2 ] \" something to call one ' s own \", fabian pascal, http : / / www. dbdebunk. com / fp6a. htm [ riggs ] \" xml and free text \", k. r. riggs, journal of the american society for information science and technology, v53, n 6, 2002, 526 - 528 [ schema ] xml schema, w3c org, www. w3. org / xml / schema [ sowa ] knowledge representation, john f. sowa, brooks cole, 2000 [ xirql ] xirql : a query language for information retrieval in xml documents, fuhr, n. gro\u00dfjohann, k. http : / / www. is. informatik. uni - duisburg. de / bib / xml / fuhr _ grossjohann _ 01. html. en [ xml - ql ] xml - ql : a query language for xml, alin deutsch, mary fernandez, daniela florescu, alon levy, dan suciu, http : / / www. w3. org / tr / note - xml - ql / # issues this article previously appeared in the journal of conceptual modeling, may 2003. ken roger riggs, ph. d - ken roger riggs, ph. d. is a computer scientist and a professor of cis at florida a & m university. his degrees are in philosophy ( indiana university ), computer science ( u. of central florida ) and electrical and computer engineering ( u. of miami ). he has been involved in a mix of practice, research and teaching since 1976. his interest in models is both practical and pedagogical. his recent published work includes papers on ai, databases, datamining and xml marking. other recent publications address conceptual modeling related issues in software engineering ( refactoring ) and programming languages.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6359349617771932, "token_count": 455, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15747714-b61b-4b8a-81e9-47335d512148>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.480917"}
{"text": "source : garland science / taylor and francis books, inc. in this animation adapted from garland science publishing, a detailed look at dna reveals the structural features that make up the famed double - helix molecule. the animation shows how the ladder - shaped dna is constructed from chemical building blocks, including phosphates, sugars, and bases, held together by different kinds of chemical bonds. the narration further explains how the overall structure determines the charge and stability of the molecule, and how structure predicts key cellular functions of replication and transcription. every living thing contains building and operating instructions from a molecule inside all cells called deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ). dna contains regions called genes that tell the cells which proteins to produce. at all levels of organization in the living world, structure and function are related. thanks to the work of many researchers using different technologies, scientists now understand the structure and function of dna at the molecular level. dna is a double - stranded molecule made up of two helical chains of nucleotides. this structure enables several important functions related to heredity and evolution. to enable these functions, the structure allows certain kinds of proteins, called regulatory proteins, to bind to and interact directly with the dna. these regulatory proteins help to dictate replication and transcription ( information encoding ) by relaxing the dna structure in the region where they are bound. the double - helix structure of dna contains a major ( wider ) groove and a minor ( narrower ) groove. because the nucleotide sequence is more accessible in the major groove, many proteins that bind to and interact with dna do so here. through the process of dna replication, genetic information is passed from parent cell to daughter cell whenever the parent cell divides. complementary base pairing ensures that dna strands are copied quickly and accurately. the dna double - helix molecule is unzipped by the enzyme helicase, resulting in two strands that will act as templates for new dna strands. these strands are referred to as antiparallel ; they are oriented side by side, but their respective nucleotide sequences read in opposite directions. a dna polymerase enzyme controls the replication of each strand, which occurs as free - floating nucleotides move in one by one to match up with the nucleotides present on each \u201c old \u201d strand of the unzipped ladder. this creates two identical dna molecules, each made of an \u201c old \u201d strand and a \u201c new \u201d complementary strand. the arrangement of bases in a dna molecule determines the genetic code. approximately once", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5642354145368972, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bea57faf-a75a-4bbc-8b16-ac29ed5368b9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.486512"}
{"text": "each \u201c old \u201d strand of the unzipped ladder. this creates two identical dna molecules, each made of an \u201c old \u201d strand and a \u201c new \u201d complementary strand. the arrangement of bases in a dna molecule determines the genetic code. approximately once every 100, 000, 000 bases or so, this copying process makes errors, so that the wrong nucleotide is placed in position. these errors are called mutations. the cell corrects many of the mutations itself. when specialized repair proteins identify a mismatched base pair, they remove the incorrect nucleotide and give dna polymerase a chance to correct the sequence. to manufacture the proteins it needs, the cell must transcribe or copy the instructions contained in its dna into rna ( ribonucleic acid ). it uses the sequence of nucleotides in a given gene to produce a single - stranded complementary messenger rna ( mrna ). the mrna is then translated by structures called ribosomes from the language of nucleotides into the amino acid sequence of proteins. each amino acid is specified by a combination of three of the chemical bases ( a, t, c, or g ), called codons. the codons determine the sequence of the amino acids that are put together in a long chain to form the protein that the cell uses to perform specific jobs for the body. academic standards correlations on teachers ' domain use the achievement standards network ( asn ) database of state and national standards, provided to nsdl projects courtesy of jes & co. we assign reference terms to each statement within a standards document and to each media resource, and correlations are based upon matches of these terms for a given grade band. if a particular standards document of interest to you is not displayed yet, it most likely has not yet been processed by asn or by teachers ' domain. we will be adding social studies and arts correlations over the coming year, and also will be increasing the specificity of alignment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5693183810991496, "token_count": 399, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bea57faf-a75a-4bbc-8b16-ac29ed5368b9>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.487273"}
{"text": "the opportunity for investigation and treatment has been missed. a false positive means further and, commonly, invasive tests ( and possible treatment ) when neither is needed. in addition, there is immense psychological morbidity associated with a false - positive result in a cancer check, as the individual ( and family ) waits for further tests and results. the uk screens over 4 million cervical smears a year. in nearly a tenth of the smears, the sampling is inadequate. during 1996 - 97, 91 % of adequate smears were reported as negative. estimates of prevented cases of cervical cancer range from 1000 to 4000 a year. the advocates of cervical - smear screening programmes can only estimate the benefits of testing, because the introduction of the programme was never tested in randomised trials. one of the few who dares speak the unspeakable about screening is a bristol - based public - health physician, herself involved in a smear - test screening programme. angela raffle came under fire for writing, in a research paper in the lancet in june, 1995, that \u201c much of our effort \u2026 is devoted to limiting the harm done to healthy women and to protecting our staff from litigation \u201d. she concluded : \u201c the screening programme is identifying one in ten young women as \u2018 at risk \u2019 for a disease that is likely to affect one in many thousands \u201d. she returned to the debate in a letter in our jan 24 issue : \u201c screening has distorted public belief. in our desire for good population coverage we have said that screening is simple, effective, and inexpensive. in truth, it is complex, of limited effectiveness, and very expensive \u201d. if screened people are not adequately informed about the possibility of a false - negative result, it is little wonder that, when they get such a result, their next port of call is a lawyer. by that stage, they will not be interested in the distinction between a less than perfect test and less than perfect provision of a testing service, as provided at the kent hospital.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5149388500799009, "token_count": 403, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6c6dfa27-133a-4a76-9df6-8fdfd864ad72>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.579763"}
{"text": "aardwolf wrote : as far as i am aware ee theory doesn ' t have any drift associated with it. imo antartica has always been exactly where it is now ( relative to the other continents ). the drifting of continents has always appeared an absurdity to me, and that was before i was even aware of other potential theories. dr. james maxlow wrote : ancient magnet poles the published ancient magnetic pole information ( the location of ancient magnetic poles established from measuring the remnant magnetism in iron - rich rocks ) in particular provides conclusive evidence in support of expansion tectonics. when this magnetic pole data is plotted on expansion tectonic models it demonstrates that all pole data plot as diametrically opposed north and south poles for each model. these models show that the ancient north pole was located in eastern mongolia - china throughout the precambrian and paleozoic eras. as the continents slowly migrated south, during subsequent increase in earth radius, there was an apparent northward polar wander through siberia to its present location within the arctic ocean. similarly, the ancient precambrian and paleozoic south pole was located in west central africa, and, as the continents slowly migrated north, there was an apparent southward polar wander along the south american and west african coastlines to its present location in antarctica. the locations of these magnetic poles, as well as the derived ancient equators, independently confirm the model reconstructions shown in figure 3 and again suggest that expansion tectonics is indeed a viable process. figure 3 : spherical archaean to future expanding earth models. models show relative increase in earth radii during earth history, and include both continental and oceanic geology. models range in age from the late archaean to recent, plus one model projected 5 million years into the future. ( geology after the cgmw and unesco bedrock geology map, 1990 ). click here to see a bigger version of this figure. ancientd wrote : also remeber we are not only getting possibly frozen preserved mammoths but in antartica at least huge forests of fossilized forests and leaves. i. e. wood transformed into rocklike substances. the agent causing snap freezing must also be capable of causing fossilization. alos beneath antartica are marsupial and other remains not to mention coal fields. so does this insinuate your ionization theory as capable of producing these fossils. any comments. certainly some have seen high voltage powerlines on live trees causing petrification very quickly. the ancient permian gloss", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5126003011085298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f877b1c0-612e-4797-a47d-b85437a91f6d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.603122"}
{"text": "remains not to mention coal fields. so does this insinuate your ionization theory as capable of producing these fossils. any comments. certainly some have seen high voltage powerlines on live trees causing petrification very quickly. the ancient permian glossopteris fern is a common fossil in coals throughout the southern hemisphere and has traditionally been used to define the ancient gondwana supercontinent. the known distribution of glossopteris ferns is centred on localities in south africa and adjacent india. during the permian period east antarctica straddled the equator adjacent to south africa, which was surrounded by occurrences of glossopteris flora in australia, west antarctica and india, suggesting glossopteris flora may have also been extensive beneath the present east antarctica ice - cap. although he doesn ' t acknowledge the saturnian cosmology, i think the research of donald patten in his book \" the biblical flood and the ice epoch \" could shed some light on a lot of the questions raised in this thread. patten ' s conclusion is that the polar ice sheets were caused by a deposition of ice from a fragmenting icy visitor ( an icy moon of mars to be exact ), but i think his research can be better explained by the eu theory. in 1929, a group of historians found an amazing map drawn on a gazelle skin. research showed that it was a genuine document drawn in 1513 by piri reis, a famous admiral of the turkish fleet in the sixteenth century. his passion was cartography. piri reis high rank within the turkish navy allowed him to have a privileged access to the imperial library of constantinople. the turkish admiral admits, in a series of notes on the map, that he compiled and copied the data from a large number of source maps, some of which dated back to the fourth century bc or earlier. the controversy - the piri reis antarctica map - ice free the piri reis map shows the western coast of africa, the eastern coast of south america, and the northern coast of antarctica ice free. the northern coastline of antarctica is perfectly detailed. the most puzzling however is not so much how the piri reis antarctica map managed to so accurate 300 years before it was discovered, but that the map shows the coastline under the ice. geological evidence confirms that the latest date queen maud land could have been charted in an ice - free state is 4000 bc. piri reis antarctica map - antarctica ice free oronteus fineus map of an ice free antarctica the oro", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5151094039645735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f877b1c0-612e-4797-a47d-b85437a91f6d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.604325"}
{"text": "aug. 31, 2010 ) \u2014 about 12, 900 years ago, a sudden cold snap interrupted the gradual warming that had followed the last ice age. the cold lasted for the 1, 300 - year interval known as the younger dryas ( yd ) before the climate began to warm again. in north america, large animals known as megafauna, such as mammoths, mastodons, saber - tooth tigers and giant short - faced bears, became extinct. the paleo - indian culture known as the clovis culture for distinctively shaped fluted stone spear points abruptly vanished, eventually replaced by more localized regional cultures. what had happened? one theory is that either a comet airburst or a meteor impact somewhere in north america set off massive environmental changes that killed animals and disrupted human communities. in sedimentary deposits dating to the beginning of the yd, impact proponents have reported finding carbon spherules containing tiny nano - scale diamonds, which they thought to be created by shock metamorphism or chemical vapor deposition when the impactor struck. the nanodiamonds included lonsdaleite, an unusal form of diamond that has a hexagonal lattice rather than the usual cubic crystal lattice. lonsdaleite is particularly interesting because it has been found inside meteorites and at known impact sites. in the august 30 issue of the proceedings of the national academy of sciences, a team of scientists led by tyrone daulton, phd, a research scientist in the physics department at washington university in st. louis, reported that they could find no diamonds in yd boundary layer material. daulton and his colleagues, including nicholas pinter, phd, professor of geology at southern illinois university in carbondale and andrew c. scott, phd, professor of applied paleobotany of royal holloway university of london, show that the material reported as diamond is instead forms of carbon related to commonplace graphite, the material used for pencils. \" of all the evidence reported for a yd impact event, the presence of hexagonal diamond in yd boundary sediments represented the strongest evidence suggesting shock processing, \" daulton, who is also a member of wustl ' s center for materials innovation, says. however, a close examination of carbon spherules from the yd boundary using transmission electron microscopy by the daulton team found no nanodiamonds. instead, graphene - and graphene / graphane - oxide aggregates were found in all the specimens examined ( including carbon spherules dated from before the yd to the present ). importantly, the researchers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5032586464737356, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f877b1c0-612e-4797-a47d-b85437a91f6d>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.606378"}
{"text": "team found no nanodiamonds. instead, graphene - and graphene / graphane - oxide aggregates were found in all the specimens examined ( including carbon spherules dated from before the yd to the present ). importantly, the researchers demonstrated that previous yd studies misidentified graphene / graphane - oxides as hexagonal diamond and likely misidentified graphene as cubic diamond. the yd impact hypothesis was in trouble already before this latest finding. many other lines of evidence - - including : fullerenes, extraterrestrial forms of helium, purported spikes in radioactivity and iridium, and claims of unique spikes in magnetic meteorite particles - - had already been discredited. according to pinter, \" nanodiamonds were the last man standing. \" \" we should always have a skeptical attitude to new theories and test them thoroughly, \" scott says, \" and if the evidence goes against them they should be abandoned. \" starbiter wrote : hello mungo : now that nasa has found limestone in comet dust, the limestone and debris encasing the mega fauna is most likely comet dust. or a reef slowly grew around the remains over many years. ancientd wrote : no one seems to of considred electrical transmutation of say vaste amounts of water or air to calcium carbonate. the fossils are equally buried in coal. is this comet delivered or perhaps a creation of new compounds and minerals under electro magnetic extremes. after all is the limestone within comets created by an electro magnetic whirlpool that constantly modifies its constituents. or am i thinking beyond the pail? as i look at my periodic tables i often see how close the various mainline elements are. often seperated by only a neutron or proton. for instance carbon, nitrogen and oxygen a mere proton apart. users browsing this forum : no registered users and 1 guest", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5206498820936869, "token_count": 384, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f877b1c0-612e-4797-a47d-b85437a91f6d>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.607225"}
{"text": "a material made from fibers or thread by weaving, knitting, felting etc. as any cloth. 1. to make, build or construct by assembling parts or manufacturing. 2. to make from raw material. external front of a building that faces the street or courtyard and is usually used to describe bigger, elegant buildings. fasade materials include wood, brick, glass, masonry, aluminum, etc. 1. the side of a wall covering that faces away from the framing ; for example in an a - b plywood panel, the face would be the a side. 2. an exterior, exposed surface on a structure. 3. any surface of a thing. 4. the outward appearance of anything. the dollar amount, shown on a document. exterior decorative surface, which is made of brick that is not rendered, painted or plastered and is made of various brick materials, including clay, to give a desired effect. applies to the direction of the grain on the face of a veneer - faced panel, which is also called the long dimension of the panel. since the greatest strength and firmness is parallel to the face grain, it is normal to run the face grain across the supports. hardening process for the surface of materials. as an example, the hardening of carbon steel is accomplished by first heating the steel to approximately 1200 degrees f. and then it is immersed in powdered carbon. when some of the carbon is absorbed into the molecular structure of the steel, the surface or face of the steel is hardened. also referred to as the face ply, it is the outer layer when there are two or more layers. face line lines that are made of strong string, which is stretched out and attached to staked boards, so that masons can follow the straightness of it when building masonry walls. nails, which are hammered at right angles ( perpendicular ) to the work surface. also called direct nailing. the side of the material where the weld was applied, which has the exposed weld. face plate holds the work to be turned on a lathe. the plate is then fastened to the lathe headstock, which is the part of the lathe that turns the work. also referred to as the face layer, it is the outer layer when there are two or more layers. additional weld material, which is added to the face of the weld. front of a concrete block. coverings, designed to protect the entire face of a worker when a sander, grinder, etc.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5761360882873148, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4845eb11-16bf-45e5-a4d5-f851bb3fb797>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.613908"}
{"text": "are two or more layers. additional weld material, which is added to the face of the weld. front of a concrete block. coverings, designed to protect the entire face of a worker when a sander, grinder, etc. are being used. a transparent eye panel allows the worker to be protected from small particles, which are being thrown, while being able to see. the dollar amount shown on a document. measurement of the air velocity as measured at the face of the inlet or outlet in an hvac system. the outer veneer on a piece of plywood. the front wall of a structure or, alternately, a retaining wall. masonry structure that has different types of material as backing and facing, such as brick on concrete, bonded together. veneer covered structural wall. real estate professional who aids in a transaction but does not have an agency relationship with that party and can be known as an intermediary or transaction broker. 1. ease of doing or making ; absence of difficulty. 2. a building or special room, constructed for a specific function. 1. covering of contrasting material to decorate or protect a building ; a finished wall surface. 2. smoothing ; finishing. specifically made brick, in a special color or texture, for the outside or facing wall of a building. a reproduction or exact copy or architecturally a reproduction of a building style. alternately, the electronic transfer of an exact image of a document or picture, referred to as a \" fax \". the purchase of the accounts receivable of a business or alternately, taking the accounts receivable of a business as collateral for a loan. the ratio of the maximum strength of a piece of material or a part to the probably maximum load to be applied to it. if a maximum of 2, 000 pounds can be tolerated, a load of 500 pounds will have a 4 to one factor of safety. the edge of any fabricated item that has been prepared in a factory, such as the long edge of wallboard panels, coming from a factory covered with paper. fade. 1. to become less distinct. to lose color or brilliance. 2. to disappear slowly. to wane. also spelled faggot, the term refers to a bundle of sticks or branches to be used for fuel, or alternately, a bundle of iron or steel pieces to be hammered or rolled, at welding temperature, into bars. temperature measurement, named after its discoverer daniel fahrenheit 1686 - 1736, in which 32 degrees is the freezing point and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5997460279237574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4845eb11-16bf-45e5-a4d5-f851bb3fb797>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.616728"}
{"text": "catherine, and with his friends? 3. paul farmer had a very unusual upbringing in massachusetts, alabama, and florida. what specific elements from his childhood and family life prepared farmer for his current life? how has your upbringing influenced your own choices and goals in life? 4. throughout the book, kidder describes farmer \u2019 s interactions with patients. in many cases, farmer tends to reach out to touch his patients comfortingly and call them by pet names or endearments. are these gestures typical of modern american doctors? how do these gestures reflect farmer \u2019 s philosophy of the role of a doctor? 5. what motivates paul farmer to do the work he does? what does he see as his compensation? ( page 24 ) 6. farmer \u2019 s philosophy is at odds with standard notions of efficiency and cost - effectiveness. his approach to public health care has drawn criticism because it is not perceived to be cost - effective. for instance, one critic commented that the $ 20, 000 spent on transporting a sick haitian child to boston for treatment could have been better spent on other things, like supplies or drugs for many other children ( page 287 ). what is his response to these arguments? what factors do you think are most important in making such decisions about how money should be spent in public health programs? 7. paul has trained as a medical anthropologist and as a doctor. discuss the difference between these two careers with your class. how has his background in medical anthropology complemented his work as a doctor? what specific scenes illustrate farmer \u2019 s skills as a medical anthropologist? 8. what is meant by the phrase, \u201c all suffering isn \u2019 t equal \u201d on page 216? how does this belief shape the work that paul farmer, jim kim, and partners in health do? 9. as partners in health grows, farmer is expected to travel to many places to implement and monitor programs, meet with policy - makers and other doctors, and make presentations on public health issues. his increasing involvement in other programs in peru and russia requires that he spend less time in cange ( page 260 ). how does he describe the inner conflict between serving his patients in haiti and helping to solve international inequities and epidemics globally? 10. many people in cange believe that paul farmer \u201c works with both hands, \u201d meaning that he works both with science and with the magic necessary to remove voodoo curses ( page 27 ). how did he learn about the role of voodoo in the lives of the residents of cange? how does farmer interpret the continuing presence of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5027131813157868, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2f6e9f15-4fdc-4421-b0ac-8973ab5b980c>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.629536"}
{"text": ", \u201d meaning that he works both with science and with the magic necessary to remove voodoo curses ( page 27 ). how did he learn about the role of voodoo in the lives of the residents of cange? how does farmer interpret the continuing presence of voodoo in modern haitian life? 11. early members of partners in health refer frequently to an idea from the catholic liberation theology movement, of \u201c preferential option for the poor \u201d ( pages 78 and 81 ). how does farmer \u2019 s life and work reflect this particular theology? what are some other examples of the role of faith and religion in paul farmer \u2019 s work? 1. do you think that farmer has struck an appropriate balance between acting locally and acting globally? how do you think he should prioritize his responsibilities toward his haitian patients, pih \u2019 s other international programs, and the global public health community? 2. what responsibilities do you think individuals in wealthier nations have toward people in poor countries? how has reading this account of paul farmer \u2019 s work changed your ideas about your responsibility or obligations toward people who are poorer than you are? what do you think is the best way to express or act on this sense of responsibility? 3. in many of his projects and activities, paul farmer achieves his goals by subverting policies. for example, while there is officially a fee for patient services at zanmi lasante, he has made a long list of exceptions, so that in fact almost no one has to pay for services ( page 21 ). while he was in medical school, he \u201c borrowed \u201d tens of thousands of dollars worth of drugs and lab services from brigham and young hospital on behalf of his patients at zanmi lasante by charming the pharmacists and lab workers ( page 149 ). how do you feel about his unconventional approach to problem solving? do you think that he could be more effective by working within a framework of existing policies and institutional structures, or by working to change policies that he sees as oppressive to the poor? 4. in the final paragraph of the book, kidder makes a reference to the time he spent with the american soldiers before he met paul farmer and of how he regarded the plight of the suffering people. in what ways have kidder and his viewpoints changed since first meeting farmer? how did your own perception of farmer \u2019 s life and work change, if it did, as you read the book? about the teacher ' s guide writer heather kelly received her master \u2019 s degree in public administration and economic and political development from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5294219495799242, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2f6e9f15-4fdc-4421-b0ac-8973ab5b980c>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.631967"}
{"text": ". - water education foundation wef is an impartial non - profit organization, dedicated to creating a better understanding of water issues and helping to resolve water resource problems through educational programs. - water environment association of texas weat is an association of water professionals, practitioners, operations specialists, and public officials working together for professional growth and development, and to educate the public on water issues. - water environment federation the water environment federation is a not - for - profit technical and educational organization with a vision of preserving and enhancing the global water environment. - water environment research foundation the water environment research foundation is dedicated to advancing science and technology addressing water quality issues as they impact water resources, the atmosphere, the lands, and quality of life. - watereuse association the watereuse association is a non - profit organization whose mission is to advance the beneficial and efficient use of water resources through education, sound science, and technology using reclamation, recycling, reuse and desalination. - national institutes for water resources the niwr is a network of 54 research institutes ( one institute located in every state or territory of the us ) with each institute conducting basic and applied research to solve water problems unique in its area. - texas water resources institute twri, a member of the national institutes for water resources, provides leadership for priority research and educational programs in water resources within the texas a & m university system and throughout texas. - universities council on water resources about 90 universities in the unites states and throughout the world comprise the ucowr which facilitates education, research, technology transfer, and information dissemination on contemporary and emerging water resource issues. useful reference documents the document ' s primary purpose is to facilitate further development of water reuse by serving as an authoritative reference on water reuse practices. it updates and builds on the 2004 guidelines for water reuse by incorporating information on water reuse that has been developed since the 2004 document was issued. this report provides a general overview of current knowledge related to direct potable reuse ( dpr ), and identifies the information that needs to be developed through targeted studies to inform the stakeholders regarding the feasibility of implementing dpr as a viable water supply management option. the report provides a comprehensive assessment of technical, economic, social, and regulatory issues associated with both potable and non - potable reuse.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5045099027516209, "token_count": 467, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e7e23b74-47ca-412e-bc67-8e57481702f6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.643812"}
{"text": "what is homeopathy? the main idea behind homeopathy is the law of similars, which is sometimes explained as a\u20acslike cures like. a\u20act in the late 18th century, a german physician named samuel hahnemann read that quinine containing peruvian bark ( chinchona ) cured malaria. hahnemann swallowed a dose of peruvian bark and began to feel feverish, drowsy, extremely thirsty, and agitated - - all symptoms of malaria. hahnemann started to experiment more and formed his theory that like cures like, or the law of similars : that when a substance in large doses causes certain symptoms, in small doses it can cure these same symptoms. herbs and other plants, minerals, venom from snakes, and other substances can be used to make homeopathic remedies. they are diluted again and again and a\u20acssuccusseda\u20act or shaken vigorously between each dilution. the process of sequential dilution and succussion is called potentization. how does homeopathy work? homeopathic remedies start with substances such as herbs, minerals, or animal products. these substances are first crushed and dissolved in a liquid - - usually grain alcohol or lactose - - mechanically shaken, then stored. this is the \" mother tincture. \" homeopaths then dilute tinctures more with alcohol or lactose, either 1 part to 10 ( written as \" x \" ) or 1 part to 100 ( written as \" c \" ). these tinctures are shaken, yielding a 1x or 1c dilution. homeopaths can further dilute these tinctures 2 times ( 2x or 2c ), 3 times ( 3x or 3c ), and so forth. many times professional homeopaths will use much higher dilutions, because the more diluted the substance, the more potent its healing powers are thought to be. homeopathic remedies aim to stimulate the body ' s own healing mechanisms. homeopaths believe that any physical disease has a mental and emotional component. so a homeopathic diagnosis includes physical symptoms ( such as feverishness ), current emotional and psychological state ( such as anxiety and restlessness ), and the person ' s constitution. a person ' s constitution includes qualities related to creativity, initiative, persistence, concentration, physical sensitivities, and stamina. the right remedy for a condition will take all of these aspects into account, so each diagnosis and remedy is individualized", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5479870775986324, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e30e8294-74c1-4d25-8e46-51052451c366>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.660403"}
{"text": "a person ' s constitution includes qualities related to creativity, initiative, persistence, concentration, physical sensitivities, and stamina. the right remedy for a condition will take all of these aspects into account, so each diagnosis and remedy is individualized. that means 3 people with hay fever could need 3 very different prescriptions. health food stores and some pharmacies sell homeopathic remedies for a variety of problems. remedies are usually taken for no more than 2 - 3 days, although some people may need only 1 - 2 doses before they start feeling better. in some cases daily dosing may be prescribed. what happens during a visit to the homeopath? your first visit to the homeopath can take from 1 - hours. because homeopaths treat the person rather than the illness, the homeopath will interview you at length, asking many questions and observing personality traits, as well as unusual behavioral and physical symptoms. the homeopath will also perform a physical examination and possibly order laboratory work. what illnesses and conditions respond well? scientific evidence is mixed. in some clinical trials, homeopathy appeared to be no better than placebo. in other clinical studies, researchers believed they saw benefits from homeopathy. more controlled clinical research is needed. preliminary evidence shows that homeopathy may be helpful in treating childhood diarrhea, otitis media ( ear infection ), asthma, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, symptoms of menopause such as hot flashes, pain, allergies, upper respiratory tract infections, sore muscles, and colds and flu. some professional homeopaths specialize in treating serious illnesses, such as cancer, mental illness, and autoimmune diseases. in fact, several studies suggest there may be a role for homeopathy in symptom relief and improving quality of life among cancer patients. you should not treat a life - threatening illness with homeopathy alone. always make sure that all your health care providers know about all the different therapies you are using. homeopathic medicines, because they are diluted, generally don ' t have side effects. however, some people report feeling worse briefly after starting homeopathic remedies. homeopaths interpret this as the body temporarily stimulating symptoms while it makes an effort to restore health. homeopathic medicines are not known to interfere with conventional drugs. however, if you are considering using homeopathic remedies, you should discuss this with your doctor. is home", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5086033502150706, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e30e8294-74c1-4d25-8e46-51052451c366>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.661537"}
{"text": "h. reporting data on homeopathic treatments ( redhot ) : a supplement to consort. homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 1 ) : 42 - 5. dos santos al, perazzo ff, cardoso lg, carvalho jc. in vivo study of the anti - inflammatory effect of rhus toxicodendron. homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 2 ) : 95 - 101. ernst e. homeopathy : what does the \" best \" evidence tell us? med j aust. 2010 ; 192 ( 8 ) : 458 - 60. fleming s, gutknecht n. naturopathy and primary care practice. primary care : clinics in office practice. 2010 : 37 ( 1 ). frei h, everts r, von ammon k, kaufmann f, et al. randomised controlled trials of homeopathy in hyperactive children : treatment procedure leads to an unconventional study design. experience with open - label homeopathic treatment preceding the swiss adhd placebo controlled, randomised, double - blind, cross - over trial. homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 1 ) : 35 - 41. frenkel m. homeopathy in cancer care. altern ther health med. 2010 ; 16 ( 3 ) : 12 - 6. goossens m, laekeman g, aertgeerts b, buntinx f ; arch study group. evaluation of the quality of life after individualized homeopathic treatment for seasonal allergic rhinitis. a prospective, open, non - comparative study. homeopathy. 2009 jan ; 98 ( 1 ) : 11 - 6. jacobs j, herman p, heron k, olsen s, vaughters l. homeopathy for menopausal symptoms in breast cancer survivors : a preliminary randomized controlled trial. j altern complement med. 2005 ; 11 ( 1 ) : 21 - 7. jacobs j, williams al, girard c, njike vy, katz d. homeopathy for attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder : a pilot randomized - controlled trial. j altern complement med. 2005 ; 11 ( 5 ) : 799 - 806. kistin sj, newman ad. induction of labor with homeopathy : a case report. j midwifery womens health. 2007 ; 52 ( 3 ) : 303 - 7. mathie rt, farrer s. outcomes from homeopathic prescribing in dental practice", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.525636048310988, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e30e8294-74c1-4d25-8e46-51052451c366>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.665456"}
{"text": "of labor with homeopathy : a case report. j midwifery womens health. 2007 ; 52 ( 3 ) : 303 - 7. mathie rt, farrer s. outcomes from homeopathic prescribing in dental practice : a prospective, research - targeted, pilot study. homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 2 ) : 74 - 81. mcguigan m. hypothesis : do homeopathic medicines exert their action in humans and animals via the vomeronasal system? homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 2 ) : 113 - 9. merrell wc, shalts e. homeopathy [ review ]. med clin north am. 2002 ; 86 ( 1 ) : 47 - 62. milazzo s, russell n, ernst e. efficacy of homeopathic therapy in cancer treatment. eur j cancer. 2006 ; 42 ( 3 ) : 282 - 9. milgrom lr. journeys in the country of the blind : entanglement theory and the effects of blinding on trials of homeopathy and homeopathic provings. evid based complement alternat med. 2007 ; 4 ( 1 ) : 7 - 16. mojaver yn, mosavi f, mazaherinezhad a, shahrdar a, manshaee k. individualized homeopathic treatment of trigeminal neuralgia : an observational study. homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 2 ) : 82 - 6. mousavi f, mojaver yn, asadzadeh m, mirzazadeh m. homeopathic treatment of minor aphthous ulcer : a randomized, placebo - controlled clinical trial. homeopathy. 2009 jul ; 98 ( 3 ) : 137 - 41. muller - krampe b, oberbaum m, dipl - math pk, weiser m. effects of spascupreel versus hyoscine butylbromide for gastrointestinal cramps in children. pediatr int. 2007 ; 49 ( 3 ) : 328 - 34. pilkington k, kirkwood g, rampes h, fisher p, richardson j. homeopathy for anxiety and anxiety disorders : a systematic review of the research. homeopathy. 2006 ; 95 ( 3 ) : 151 - 62. ramachandran c, nair pk, clement rt, melnick sj. investigation of cytokine expression in human leukocyte cultures", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5545500903314251, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e30e8294-74c1-4d25-8e46-51052451c366>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.666325"}
{"text": "review of the research. homeopathy. 2006 ; 95 ( 3 ) : 151 - 62. ramachandran c, nair pk, clement rt, melnick sj. investigation of cytokine expression in human leukocyte cultures with two immune - modulatory homeopathic preparations. j altern complement med. 2007 ; 13 ( 4 ) : 403 - 7. rao ml, roy r, bell ir, hoover r. the defining role of structure ( including epitaxy ) in the plausibility of homeopathy. homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 3 ) : 175 - 82. relton c, chatfield k, partington h, foulkes l. patients treated by homeopaths registered with the society of homeopaths : a pilot study. homeopathy. 2007 ; 96 ( 2 ) : 87 - 9. relton c, smith c, raw j, walters c, adebajo ao, thomas kj, young ta. healthcare provided by a homeopath as an adjunct to usual care for fibromyalgia ( fms ) : results of a pilot randomised controlled trial. homeopathy. 2009 apr ; 98 ( 2 ) : 77 - 82. rossi e, endrizzi c, panozzo ma, bianchi a, da fra\u00a8 m. homeopathy in the public health system : a seven - year observational study at lucca hospital ( italy ). homeopathy. 2009 jul ; 98 ( 3 ) : 142 - 8. rostock m, naumann j, guethlin c, guenther l, bartsch hh, walach h. classical homeopathy in the treatment of cancer patients - - a prospective observational study of two independent cohorts. bmc cancer. 2011 ; 11 : 19. tan g, craine mh, bair mj, et al. efficacy of selected complementary and alternative medicine interventions for chronic pain. j rehabil res dev. 2007 ; 44 ( 2 ) : 195 - 222. thompson ea, montgomery a, douglas d, reilly d. a pilot, randomized, double - blinded, placebo - controlled trial of individualized homeopathy for symptoms of estrogen withdrawal in breast - cancer survivors. j altern complement med. 2005 ; 11 ( 1 ) : 13 - 20. vickers aj, smith c. homoeopathic oscillococcinum for preventing and treating influenza and influenza - like syndromes. cochrane", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5465447786123129, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e30e8294-74c1-4d25-8e46-51052451c366>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.667270"}
{"text": "drive that the desire - free women must resist. in this view, if a woman is raped, she must have brought it upon herself. \" a woman may be viewed that she should be responsible for being raped because she aspired to date or go to a man ' s premises ; or that she took the risk of being raped as she went out alone late at night or drank alcohol ; or that she enticed others to rape her with her behavior or dressing, \" said linda wong, executive director of the association concerning sexual violence against women in hong kong. the perception that a raped woman is dirty or ruined further compounds the stigma, even within a woman ' s own family. luo studied one case in which after a girl was raped, \" her family wouldn ' t put her clothes together into the washing machine when they washed the clothes. they divided them from the other family members, because they thought she was dirty. \" wong believes that these attitudes point to a larger inequality in chinese culture. \" violence against women is rooted in patriarchal gender relations where women are assigned roles based not on their capacity but norms and values that perpetuate male dominance and superiority, \" she said. \" the gender inequality is embedded in all levels of the society such as employment, education and social status. \" the lack of well - rounded sex education doesn ' t help matters. on the chinese mainland as well as on taiwan, sex education is largely cursory and focused on the biological aspects as opposed to the social. \" taiwan does not have much sex education, \" luo said. \" so students turn to pornographic material. they implant a lot of wrong information in them, such as \u2018 no means yes ' and \u2018 all girls want sex. ' \" the laws pertaining to rape, while not blind to the crime, largely follow cultural perceptions. for example, the definition of \" rape \" is quite narrow. \" only women can be victims in china \u2014 males cannot be counted as victims, \" zhang said. these laws haven ' t seen change in a decade or so. \" the criminal law in china was issued in 1979, and revised in 1997 \u2026 to combine the crime of fornication with an underage girl into the crime of rape, \" zhang said. \" some judicial interpretations took place during 2003 and 2004. no news was heard from modification of laws since then. \" sentences for rape range from three years in prison to a death sentence, though there are loopholes to the latter. \" the punishment can be a death penalty with a two", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5331814243330069, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:637e80a6-0da9-49f2-b48a-2c5cf30874e7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.687510"}
{"text": "float, a community service project or merely to keep the house clean. a fraternity provides a unique combination : family, home away from home, social organization, business and organization in which students can develop confidence as they acquire competence. the opportunities for leadership are unlimited and the most important thing is that the principles of leadership are learned through experience. this experience teaches fraternity men that success is not automatic, but rather, that knowledge and performance are what count most. a fraternity man learns how to develop sensitivity regarding the desires, goals, and aspirations of others ; how to communicate, how to inspire, how to motivate ; the importance of setting an example ; how to delegate responsibility ; and how to accept failure as well as success and glory. he learns that a true leader must have the courage to stand up for his beliefs, while also being attentive, interested, and responsive to those who may disagree. too many students come to college, sign up for classes, study from test to test memorizing material and feeding it back at test time. they may get good grades and graduate, but it is surprising how many college graduates are wandering around looking for jobs because they did not develop the ability to work with people or the basic qualities of leadership while they were in college. the qualities of leadership must be tested and developed by each person and a fraternity provides the opportunity for students for just that. this is how 2 % can equal 80 custom research papers provided by essaylib. com", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5454967910196793, "token_count": 296, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb41e21d-4f88-4197-b031-d3cd369f40cc>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.706755"}
{"text": "( adj ) far ( at a great distance in time or space or degree ) \" we come from a far country \" ; \" far corners of the earth \" ; \" the far future \" ; \" a far journey \" ; \" the far side of the road \" ; \" far from the truth \" ; \" far in the future \" ( adj ) far ( being of a considerable distance or length ) \" a far trek \" ( adj ) far ( being the animal or vehicle on the right or being on the right side of an animal or vehicle ) \" the horse on the right is the far horse \" ; \" the right side is the far side of the horse \" ( adj ) far ( beyond a norm in opinion or actions ) \" the far right \" ( adj ) further, farther ( more distant in especially degree ) \" nothing could be further from the truth \" ; \" further from our expectations \" ; \" farther from the truth \" ; \" farther from our expectations \" ( adv ) far ( to a considerable degree ; very much ) \" a far far better thing that i do \" ; \" felt far worse than yesterday \" ; \" eyes far too close together \" ( adv ) far ( at or to or from a great distance in space ) \" he traveled far \" ; \" strayed far from home \" ; \" sat far away from each other \" ( adv ) far ( at or to a certain point or degree ) \" i can only go so far before i have to give up \" ; \" how far can we get with this kind of argument? \" ( adv ) far ( remote in time ) \" if we could see far into the future \" ; \" all that happened far in the past \" ( adv ) far ( to an advanced stage or point ) \" a young man who will go very far \" ( adv ) further, farther ( to or at a greater extent or degree or a more advanced stage ( ` further ' is used more often than ` farther ' in this abstract sense ) ) \" further complicated by uncertainty about the future \" ; \" let ' s not discuss it further \" ; \" nothing could be further from the truth \" ; \" they are further along in their research than we expected \" ; \" the application of the law was extended farther \" ; \" he is going no farther in his studies \" ( adv ) further ( in addition or furthermore ) \" if we further suppose \" ; \" stated further that he would not cooperate with them \" ; \" they are definitely", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5702402206531345, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:31411909-5937-49a6-9942-8174e4f815fe>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.710783"}
{"text": "support us with kachingle! may 31, 2012 | 12 : 00 a. m. cst robotic sounds spill out of the speakers of what used to be a speak & spell. although it might sound like random humming and high - pitched beeping, this device demonstrates the basics of circuit bending, a trend in the music industry. when the device is turned on, it emits a series of r2 - d2 - like noises that vary depending on which point of the circuit board is touched. the violet - colored children \u2019 s toy, when resting on its plastic front, shows a disordered jumble of yellow and black wires connected to a green circuit board. although it might look like a complicated electrical entanglement, it was created in a matter of minutes for the sheer purpose of demonstration. \u201c [ circuit bending ] is basically, in a nutshell, creative short - circuiting, and you \u2019 re trying to get results and delve into an interface, \u201d daniel park says. \u201c it \u2019 s like being able to pinpoint control over chaos. \u201d in other words, circuit bending is simply controlling circuits of electricity that produce a sound. this technology can be applied to musical instruments and creates a futuristic, electronic sound. park, 34, constructs modified instruments. he considers this not only music but also an intuitive art form. \u201c you \u2019 re just experimenting and seeing what happens, \u201d park says. \u201c i want to explore sound and make music. that \u2019 s my bottom line. \u201d his first experiment took place seven years ago after buying a cheap casio keyboard. park distributes his circuit - bent devices to producers and studios, mostly from australia, england and japan. \u201c it \u2019 s one of those things like jazz where it \u2019 s not really appreciated as much in our own country, \u201d he says. he builds each of the devices in his home and handles all the business aspects. he \u2019 s sold more than 500 devices, which range in price from $ 300 to $ 1, 000. although there are many different approaches people have taken with this technique, park relies on his musical background while experimenting. when toying around with wiring and sounds, he seeks changes in tones and patterns. throughout the years, park has worked with musical instruments such as synths and keyboards as well as electronic children \u2019 s toys. the price of the object determines how he will approach it. with cheap toys such as speak & spell, park tends to get a little more daring. but when he \u2019 s working with instruments, he", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5310679447635613, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bb2b8958-501a-4a7f-a01d-f3773e1c9f77>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.716336"}
{"text": "about the importance of public interventions in making growth more inclusive. indeed, it is now well understood that policies that are designed to maximise growth can only trickle down to the poor if they are accompanied by wealth redistribution, employment opportunities, investments in human capital, and the provision of social protection for the most vulnerable groups in society. spatial inequalities are particularly evident across china, with western and interior rural communities experiencing much weaker effects from economic growth than the eastern coastal provinces. unu - wider \u2019 s world income inequality database shows that the gini coefficients in china, which measure the income inequality ranging from zero for \u2018 perfect \u2019 equality to one for maximal inequality, have been consistently higher in rural areas than in urban areas, despite the observed growing inequality in urban areas largely attributed to unregistered migration from the countryside to the cities. this, in combination with the fact that the national gini coefficients are higher than both the rural and urban ginis, indicates that the rural \u2013 urban divide is driving the growing levels of inequity in the country. in india, the ginis have been consistently higher in the urban areas, with the rural \u2013 urban divide also growing over the last two decades. this is illustrated by the ratios of the rural to urban consumption expenditure that have declined from 0. 63 in the early 1970s to 0. 58 in the mid 1990s. fiscal policies have a lot to do with wealth redistribution. tax rates in china and india are low, with most revenues coming from indirect taxes. this also reflects the low share of government revenues as percentage of gdp, which oscillates around 20 %. this is in contrast with the average of 50 % observed in oecd countries. tax systems in both countries remain limited to maximising redistributive policies, and to a large extent, they will also limit the capacity of these countries to tackle extreme deprivation in the coming years. china and india also face significant challenges in terms of employment generation. rising unemployment is a driving factor in the incidence of poverty in urban areas in china, which has been exacerbated by market - oriented structural reforms and large migration flows of unskilled workers from rural areas to the cities. migrant workers face exclusion from formal employment arrangements and state benefits such as housing, health and school subsidies, as well as income support from social protection schemes. but the capacity of china to continue absorbing a larger share of the global consumer goods markets is becoming increasingly limited, with other emerging markets, including india, aggressively competing to get a share of the market", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5011404657623209, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:93d03997-9abb-4e83-860b-7625d0f4463a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.776590"}
{"text": "changing planet : black carbon black carbon contributes to global warming in two ways. when in the atmosphere, it absorbs sunlight and generates heat, warming the air. when deposited on snow and ice, it changes the albedo of the surface, absorbing sunlight and generating heat. this further accelerates warming, since the heat melts snow and ice, revealing a lower albedo surface which continues to absorb sunlight - a vicious cycle of warming. click on the video at the left to watch the nbc learn video - changing planet : black carbon. lesson plan : changing planet : black carbon - a dusty situation shop windows to the universe science store! is a fun group game appropriate for the classroom. players follow nitrogen atoms through living and nonliving parts of the nitrogen cycle. for grades 5 - 9. you might also be interested in : earth \u2019 s climate is warming. during the 20th century earth \u2019 s average temperature rose 0. 6\u00b0 celsius ( 1. 1\u00b0f ). scientists are finding that the change in temperature has been causing other aspects of our planet... more this picture shows a part of the earth surface as seen from the international space station high above the earth. a perspective like this reminds us that there are lots of different things that cover the... more arctic sea ice is covered with snow all winter. bright white, the snow - covered ice has a high albedo so it absorbs very little of the solar energy that gets to it. and during the arctic winter, very little... more altocumulus clouds ( weather symbol - ac ), are made primarily of liquid water and have a thickness of 1 km. they are part of the middle cloud group ( 2000 - 7000m up ). they are grayish - white with one part... more altostratus clouds ( weather symbol - as ) consist of water and some ice crystals. they belong to the middle cloud group ( 2000 - 7000m up ). an altostratus cloud usually covers the whole sky and has a gray... more cirrocumulus clouds ( weather symbol - cc ) are composed primarily of ice crystals and belong to the high cloud group ( 5000 - 13000m ). they are small rounded puffs that usually appear in long rows. cirrocumulus... more cirrostratus ( weather symbol - cs ) clouds consist almost entirely of ice crystals and belong to the high cloud ( 5000 - 13000m ) group. they are sheetlike thin clouds that usually cover the entire", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5174740568374736, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7e0f4306-a276-497d-a041-0d920b423022>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.789374"}
{"text": "a ` ` shelf ' ' is a persistent, dictionary - like object. the difference with ` ` dbm ' ' databases is that the values ( not the keys! ) in a shelf can be essentially arbitrary python objects - - anything that the pickle module can handle. this includes most class instances, recursive data types, and objects containing lots of shared sub - objects. the keys are ordinary strings. to summarize the interface ( key is a string, data is an d = shelve. open ( filename ) # open, with ( g ) dbm filename - - no suffix d [ key ] = data # store data at key ( overwrites old data if # using an existing key ) data = d [ key ] # retrieve data at key ( raise keyerror if no # such key ) del d [ key ] # delete data stored at key ( raises keyerror # if no such key ) flag = d. has _ key ( key ) # true if the key exists list = d. keys ( ) # a list of all existing keys ( slow! ) d. close ( ) # close it - the choice of which database package will be used ( e. g. dbm or gdbm ) depends on which interface is available. therefore it is not safe to open the database directly using dbm. the database is also ( unfortunately ) subject to the limitations of dbm, if it is used - - this means that ( the pickled representation of ) the objects stored in the database should be fairly small, and in rare cases key collisions may cause the database to refuse updates. - dependent on the implementation, closing a persistent dictionary may or may not be necessary to flush changes to disk. - the shelve module does not support concurrent read / write access to shelved objects. ( multiple simultaneous read accesses are safe. ) when a program has a shelf open for writing, no other program should have it open for reading or writing. unix file locking can be used to solve this, but this differs across unix versions and requires knowledge about the database implementation used. see about this document... for information on suggesting changes. - module anydbm : - generic interface to - module dbhash : db database interface. - module dbm : - standard unix database interface. - module dumbdbm : - portable implementation of the - module gdbm : - gnu database interface, based on the - module pickle : - object serialization used by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5297870623099967, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:853e10d8-9ce8-43db-8c80-215743d4f260>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.795899"}
{"text": "learn something new every day more info... by email a predicate is part of a sentence or clause in english and is one of two primary components that serves to effectively complete the sentence. sentences consist of two main components : subjects and predicates. subjects are the primary \u201c thing \u201d in a sentence which the rest of the words then describe through either a direct description or by indicating what type of action that subject is performing. the predicate is this secondary aspect of the sentence and usually consists of a verb or adjective, though complicated sentences may have multiple verbs and a number of descriptions affecting the subject. it can be easiest to understand predicates by first understanding subjects and how sentences are constructed. a sentence just about always has a subject, though it can be implied in some way and not necessarily directly stated. in a simple sentence like \u201c the cat slept, \u201d the subject is \u201c the cat, \u201d which is a noun phrase consisting of the direct article \u201c the \u201d and the noun \u201c cat. \u201d subjects can be longer and more complicated, but they are usually fairly simple in nature. the predicate of a sentence is then basically the rest of the sentence, though this is not always the case for longer and more complicated sentences. in \u201c the cat slept, \u201d the predicate is quite simple and merely consists of the word \u201c slept. \u201d this is simple because \u201c slept \u201d is an intransitive verb, which means that it requires no further description or objects to make it complete. the sentence could be expanded as \u201c the cat slept on the bed, \u201d but this is not necessary and merely adds a descriptive component to the predicate through the prepositional phrase \u201c on the bed. \u201d in a somewhat more complicated sentence, such as \u201c the man gave the ball to his son, \u201d the subject of the sentence is still quite simple : \u201c the man. \u201d the predicate in this sentence, however, has become substantially more complicated and consists of the rest of the sentence : \u201c gave the ball to his son. \u201d this has been made more complicated because the verb \u201c gave \u201d is transitive, specifically ditransitive, which indicates both a direct object and an indirect object. the act of \u201c giving \u201d requires that there is a direct object, which is the item given, and an indirect object, which is who or what it is given to. in this instance, the predicate consists of the verb \u201c gave \u201d and the direct object \u201c the ball \u201d with a connecting preposition \u201c to \u201d and the indirect object", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5645427496741017, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b6182938-d2ed-4d47-a28c-9ae9952dbc8d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.800183"}
{"text": "sorry, no definitions found. \u201c also, stephen j. tonsor of michigan state university and mary f. wilson of the forestry sciences laboratory in juneau, alaska, found that some flowering plants, such as pokeweeds ( phytolacca americana ) and english plantains ( plantago lanceolata ), grow faster when potted with full or half sib lings than when potted with nonrelatives. \u201d \u201c no publications found so far for tonsor and phytolacca should be 1989 \u201d \u201c other homeopathic remedies to consider include phytolacca, sanguinaria, and hydratis \u2014 all in 6th to 30th potency. \u201d \u201c poke root phytolacca americana has a well - deserved reputation as an herb that purifies the glands, including the breasts. \u201d \u201c specific herbs that clear up this problem are dandelion root tea taken together with a combination of three parts echinacea root tincture and one part poke root phytolacca americana. \u201d \u201c of the twelve most frequently reported plants in poisoning incidents, only one, pokeweed phytolacca decandra, is used medicinally. \u201d \u201c few of such plants are those which can be used as laxatives and purgatives, for example, cassia absus, c. alata, c. obtusifolia, tamarindus indica and phytolacca dodecandra. \u201d \u201c the poke - weed ( _ phytolacca _ ) ( fig. 98, _ k _ ), so conspicuous in autumn on account of its dark - purple clusters of berries and crimson stalks, is our only representative of the family _ phytolaccace\u00e6 _. \u201d \u201c it belongs to the rare phytolacca family, and has an immense girth - - forty or fifty feet in some cases ; at the same time the wood is so soft and spongy that it can be cut into with a knife, and is utterly unfit for firewood, for when cut up it refuses to dry, but simply rots away like a ripe water - melon. \u201d \u201c it is believed by some in this country that the pokeweed ( phytolacca ), if allowed to die in a cotton field, will produce rust. \u201d resources of the southern fields and forests, medical, economical, and agricultural. being also a medical botany of the confederate states ; with practical information on the useful properties of the trees, plants, and shrubs \u2018 phyt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5215241581947887, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:51d40846-dd32-400b-866d-1d4716ab20d0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.805534"}
{"text": "the smart grid is coming! what \u2019 s a smart grid? several hundred utility executives, government regulators, and engineers have gathered in downtown san diego this week for a three - day conference that is focused on what may be the utility industry \u2019 s biggest paradigm shift since the tennessee valley authority electrified the southeastern united states. the only problem is that it \u2019 s the biggest paradigm shift that people have never heard of. a harris poll recently highlighted the fact that u. s. utilities have committed billions of dollars to upgrade the electric grid by installing new \u201c smart meters \u201d in homes and businesses. but the harris poll shows about two - thirds of americans ( 68 percent ) have never heard the term \u201c smart grid \u201d and 63 percent don \u2019 t know what a smart meter is. so for at least some people, you got it here first : instead of merely tracking how much total electricity ( or gas, or water ) a customer uses each month, a smart meter tracks a customer \u2019 s usage continuously throughout the day and uses wireless technology to automatically transmit the data in real time to the utility. this automated meter reading technology makes it possible for regulators to set prices that vary at different times of day \u2014 and which encourage or discourage consumption \u2014 based on the relative cost of power production and periods of peak energy demand. as the harris poll shows, if the price of electricity changes according to how much it actually costs to produce, three out of four people want to be able to see and control how much electricity they are using. so why are smart meters a big deal? and why should technology innovators care? a few highlights from the \u201c metering america \u201d conference are in order : \u2014 in california, the big three investor - owned utilities are in the process of deploying 12 million smart meters, covering about 80 percent of the state \u2019 s population at an estimated cost of $ 4. 5 billion, according to commissioner nancy ryan of the california public utilities commission. ryan told the \u201c metering america \u201d conference that utility rates based on time - of - day pricing related to the cost of producing electricity must be coupled with extensive customer communications and education campaigns, or the effort to align consumers and true market costs will be wasted. \u2014 san diego gas & electric is on schedule to complete installation of 1. 4 million electric smart meters and 850, 000 gas smart meters in its service area by the end of 2011 at an estimated cost of $ 600 million, says anne shen smith, sdg & e \u2019 s senior vice president for customer services. while there really are benefits to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5070066482647421, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f011a949-f941-4d06-825f-d84765eb944e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.819903"}
{"text": "gas power plants operate on the margin at least half of the time \u2014 and in a number of regions ( the west, southwest, texas, florida, and new england ), they operate on the margin 80 to 90 percent of the time. electricity users can therefore indirectly decrease natural gas consumption \u2014 and thus help to put downward pressure on prices \u2014 by reducing their electricity use, particularly during daytime hours when natural gas is most likely to be the marginal fuel source for electricity generation. in fact, in many cases, electric efficiency efforts provide the \" biggest bang for the buck. \" federal agencies can build on their reputation as leaders in promoting the efficient use of electricity by engaging in measures such as retrofitting lighting and hvac systems, installing or recommissioning energy management systems, and establishing energy - smart operational practices. - demand response and load management : in a number of regions, electricity users have the opportunity to receive payment for reducing their electricity use during specific periods by participating in demand response programs offered by the regional grid operator or their electricity provider. two types of programs are typically offered : \" emergency \" programs that pay customers to reduce their load during periods when the reliability of the grid is potentially jeopardized, and \" economic \" programs that give customers the opportunity to offer load curtailments in exchange for market - based payments. the importance of such programs is heightened by the recent run - up in natural gas prices, which is likely to put upward pressure on peak period electricity prices in many parts of the country. by participating in demand response programs, federal customers can help to dampen this effect. agencies can leverage their efficiency and demand response efforts with financial and / or technical resources funded through public benefits funds or demand side management programs. these programs have historically been administered by the local utility, although in a number of states ( new york, vermont, oregon, wisconsin ) the programs are administered by a statewide agency or non - governmental organization. current ratepayer funding for electric energy efficiency tops $ 1 billion annually \u2014 providing for a range of resources to federal agencies, from rebates for energy - efficient equipment and retrofits, to facility audits and project evaluation. funding for natural gas efficiency is also available in many gas utility service territories. information on those programs most relevant to federal customers is available on the femp web site. for more information, please contact charles goldman of lbnl at 510 - 486 - 4637.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5107095127689779, "token_count": 489, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b1c67e9f-a81a-4259-aa75-a68366d704d0>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.834169"}
{"text": "a research internship can allow students to learn while working in the lab with their professor or it can offer them the chance to learn while building a new lab with their professor. such was the case last summer when david negro ' 06 and soo hooi oh ' 06 helped boon siew ooi, associate professor of electrical and computer engineering, set up a new optoelectronics and photonics lab in lehigh ' s center for optical technologies. the students ' mission was to assemble the lab ' s several optical waveguide and semiconductor laser characterization stations, and interface them with a central computer so all the new equipment could be controlled from the same keyboard and mouse. \" neither of us knew a whole lot about photonics before last summer, \" says negro, an electrical engineering major, \" so the learning experience was huge. \" we not only had to learn how to use new tools, we also had to manipulate the tools for unconventional purposes. \" \" we had to build the lab, learn the equipment, see how the different instruments work together and learn to be creative, \" says oh, a triple major in electrical engineering, integrated business and engineering ( ibe ) and music composition. one purpose of the new lab, says ooi, is to develop emitters and other light sources for use in medical technology, the semiconductor industry and other applications. ooi has a grant from carl zeiss meditec inc., a german - based international maker of eye ophthalmology systems, to develop a semiconductor light source that would increase the sensitivity and resolution of the system. \" we have developed a broadband light source for this application, \" says ooi, \" but we need to increase the bandwidth and the strength of its signal. \" negro and oh were chosen for their internship after successfully completing fundamentals of semiconductor devices, a sophomore - level electrical engineering course that ooi taught last spring. their internships were funded by the cot. the students assembled the lab ' s state - of - the - art equipment the old - fashioned way, says negro. \" we read the manuals, we got stuck and then we called the company hotline. \" the students spent much of the summer measuring the performance of the new equipment, characterizing the properties of photonic devices and semiconductor chips, and generating and guiding laser signals. they also helped determine the properties of quantum dot materials. quantum dots, which emit the light that creates lasers, are nanometer - size semiconductor structures in which the presence or absence of a quantum electron can be used to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5775939915406381, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:57b5a8a2-bdb6-4da9-9220-dc5317c0a580>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.839617"}
{"text": "generating and guiding laser signals. they also helped determine the properties of quantum dot materials. quantum dots, which emit the light that creates lasers, are nanometer - size semiconductor structures in which the presence or absence of a quantum electron can be used to store information. \" we tried to modify the bandgap and lasing wavelength in order to control the optical properties of the quantum - dot structures, \" says soo, who hopes to continue her work in the area by setting up the photoluminescent system that can characterize this nano - material structure. using labview software, negro and oh integrated the new equipment to a central computer, then merged data from two or more machines so that the experimental results could be plotted in one graph on the computer screen. \" without the computer, it would have taken an entire day to generate a graph, \" says negro. \" with the computer, we generated the same graph in two seconds. \" in addition to gaining valuable experience in the lab, the students realized other benefits from their summer internship. \" this opened a wide variety of options for me, \" says negro, who hopes to take advantage of the university ' s presidential scholarship program, which offers a tuition - free fifth year of study to students with a 3. 75 undergraduate gpa. \" working in a lab requires a lot of patience and dedication, \" says oh. \" it has enabled me to see what it would be like to be a graduate student. it has also shown me what i ' m lacking, and that will help me know what electives to choose the next two years. \" posted on wednesday, december 01, 2004", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6530793106867839, "token_count": 330, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:57b5a8a2-bdb6-4da9-9220-dc5317c0a580>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.840457"}
{"text": "of another country \u2014 clear evidence that they had been opened \u2014 kaunitz calmly replied, \u201c how clumsy these people are. \u201d when the french ambassador to russia, the marquis de la chetardie, in 1744 protested an order for him to leave, an official began reading him his intercepted letters, showing his meddling in russian affairs. \u201c that \u2019 s enough! \u201d the marquis said \u2014 and began packing. the mores of diplomacy began to change in the 19th century, pushed first by the spread of democracy and republican government. public opinion came to regard it as wrong and unbecoming to a democracy to do anything illegal \u2014 in particular when representing itself abroad. other factors in that change, according to the british diplomat and writer harold nicolson, lay in the emerging sense of the community of nations and of the importance of public opinion. as lord palmerston, the mid - 19th - century british prime minister, maintained, opinions are stronger than armies. this shift was exemplified by a growing belief that mail shouldn \u2019 t be tampered with. in britain in the 1840s, there was a huge public outcry over the post office \u2019 s opening of the mail of the italian revolutionary giuseppe mazzini ; at the time, the english historian and politician thomas babington macaulay declared that it was as wrong to take his letter from the mail as to take it from his desk. and when the vienna convention on diplomatic relations was passed in 1961, among its prescriptions was that \u201c the official correspondence of the mission shall be inviolable. \u201d ambassadors now regard themselves as ladies and gentlemen. they do not lie. they do not steal. but in some ways, diplomacy has not advanced beyond the old ways. and diplomatic cables can always be intercepted or revealed \u2014 as wikileaks has demonstrated.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.501573149761162, "token_count": 365, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3b829bc4-5af6-4904-97f1-f3c05f5a1596>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.868489"}
{"text": "| module 3 : interpreting data | 2. using data to support an argument to test a theory or answer a question a study is designed, sampling is conducted and the data is collected. the process of descriptive statistics then involves presenting the data in tables and graphs. the data may seem to indicate a clear conclusion about the population which has been sampled. but how strongly do the data support that conclusion? is there strong evidence for the link between data and conclusion? how can you be sure that the effect observed is due to the experimental treatment and is not just an accidental result? deciding on the strength of the link between data - and making conclusions about the population - involves interpretation. the basis of how to make interpretation lies in another statistical process called inferential statistics. inferential statistics involves the use of statistical methods and models to make measurable claims about populations ( and population parameters ) on the basis of samples ( and sample statistics ). usually researchers do not know the value of population parameters - they have to estimate them. but they do have measurements made on a sample - these are sample statistics. researchers also realise that if they used a different sample from the same population to produce more data, the new sample statistics would be different to the first ones. inference uses probability to account for this sample variability. however, to make inferences you need to have designed a reliable, unbiased study so that the data that are produced are accurate and valid. therefore, in order to make useful interpretations about data, or to assess the appropriateness of other interpretations, you need to first ask about how the data were produced and presented. this page last updated 31 august 2009", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5310477766129118, "token_count": 332, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a6bea8fa-367c-49d6-8f25-41e8746417ff>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.870351"}
{"text": "( the very short version ) in september 1891, pasadena philanthropist amos throop rented the wooster block building in pasadena for the purpose of establishing throop university, the forerunner of caltech. in november of that year, throop university opened its doors to 31 students and a six - member faculty. throop might have remained just a good local school had it not been for the arrival in pasadena of astronomer george ellery hale. the first director of the mount wilson observatory, hale became a member of throop \u2019 s board of trustees in 1907, and envisioned molding it into a first - class institution for engineering and scientific research and education. under his leadership throop \u2019 s transformation began. by 1921, hale had been joined by chemist arthur a. noyes and physicist robert a. millikan. these three men set the school, which by then had been renamed the california institute of technology, firmly on its new course. for the next 85 years, millikan and his successors \u2014 lee dubridge, harold brown, marvin goldberger, thomas everhart, and david baltimore \u2014 led the institute as it achieved preeminence in the scientific community. during this time programs were added in geology, biology, aeronautics, astronomy, astrophysics, the social sciences, computer science, and computation and neural systems. now serving as president is jean - lou chameau, who took office in september 2006. dr. chameau came to caltech from georgia tech, where he was provost and vice president for academic affairs, hightower professor, and a georgia research alliance eminent scholar. he previously served as dean of georgia tech ' s college of engineering, the largest in the nation. dr. chameau places strong emphasis on improving the educational experience of students, increasing diversity, and fostering research, entrepreneurial, and international opportunities for faculty and students. his research interests include sustainable technology ; environmental geotechnology ; soil dynamics ; earthquake engineering ; liquefaction of soils ; and soil - structure interaction problems. you may have run into the work of past caltech scientists without even knowing it. if your mom ever told you to take vitamin c to fend off a cold, you can thank linus pauling, the caltech chemist who discovered the nature of the chemical bond in 1930 ( his ideas about vitamins came later ). his chemical - bond research won him the 1954 nobel prize for chemistry. ( pauling also won the nobel peace prize in 1962. ) after an earthquake, news anchors", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5124225396344948, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:16a7d1d2-2960-43b3-a93f-898e2eb972c0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.878895"}
{"text": "nature of the chemical bond in 1930 ( his ideas about vitamins came later ). his chemical - bond research won him the 1954 nobel prize for chemistry. ( pauling also won the nobel peace prize in 1962. ) after an earthquake, news anchors can tell us how relatively shaken up we were, courtesy of the formula that geophysicist charles richter devised in the 1920s for measuring the size of southern california earthquakes. ( later, richter and fellow caltech geophysicist beno gutenberg would apply the formula to earthquakes throughout the world. ) and if anyone ' s ever told you to stop acting so \" left brain, \" it ' s because of the pioneering brain - hemisphere research done by caltech psychobiologist roger sperry ( another nobelist ). other luminaries in our past include carl anderson ( discoverer of the positron ) ; clair patterson ( whose work on lead pollution spurred the federal government to impose pollution controls on the auto industry ) ; henry borsook ( who formulated the recommended daily requirements for human nutrition ) ; theodore von karman ( father of modern aviation, jet flight, and, indirectly, jpl ) ; and richard feynman ( the theoretical physicist / renaissance man whose name was for years practically synonymous with caltech ' s ). you can read about these and other scientists in more detail in scientific milestones.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5628503407588601, "token_count": 276, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:16a7d1d2-2960-43b3-a93f-898e2eb972c0>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.879553"}
{"text": "science fair project encyclopedia religious conversion is the adoption of new religious beliefs that differ from the convert ' s previous beliefs ; in some cultures ( e. g. judaism ) conversion also signifies joining an ethnic group as well as adopting that group ' s religious beliefs. conversion requires internalization of the new belief system. a person who has undergone conversion is called a convert or proselyte. a proselyte ( from the latin word proselytus which in turn comes from the greek word, proselytos meaning \" someone who has found his / her place \" ) is in general a title given to a person who has fully embraced a certain religion, world view, ideology, metaphysics, ontology et cetera. in the traditional sense like in proselytism this word signified people who have converted to judaism, but is nowadays used in a wider meaning. conversion to judaism see also the main article ger tzedek jewish law has strict guidelines for accepting new converts to judaism ( a process called \" giur \" ). according to jewish law, which is still followed as normative by orthodox judaism and most of conservative judaism, potential converts must want to convert to judaism for its own sake, and for no ulterior motives. a male convert needs to undergo a ritual circumcision, and there has to be a commitment to observe the 613 commandments and jewish law. a convert must accept jewish principles of faith, and reject the previous theology that he or she had prior to the conversion. ritual immersion in a small pool of water known as a mikvah is required, and the convert takes a new jewish name and is considered to be a son or daughter ( in spirit ) of the biblical patriarch abraham, and a male is called up in that way to the torah. the reform judaism and conservative judaism movements are lenient in their acceptance of converts. many of their members are married to non - jews, and these movements make an effort to welcome the spouses of jews who seek to convert. this issue is a lightning rod in modern day israel as many immigrants from the former soviet union are technically not jewish. conversion to judaism in history - see the main article : list of converts to judaism the most famous jewish king, king david, was descended from the convert ruth ( who, according to the talmud and midrash, was a moabite princess ). no formal conversion procedure is given in the text ; modern critical historians generally hold giur, in its modern sense, to be an innovation of a later period.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5784590228529851, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:917fc847-092c-4ae4-98b5-7dee520d536a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.895913"}
{"text": "times. differences between jewish and christian views judaism does not characterize itself as a religion ( although one can speak of the jewish religion and religious jews ). the subject of the tanach ( hebrew bible ) is the history of the children of israel ( also called hebrews ), especially in terms of their relationship with god. thus, judaism has also been characterized as a culture or as a civilization. rabbi mordecai kaplan defines judaism as an evolving religious civilization. one crucial sign of this is that one need not believe, or even do, anything to be jewish ; the rabbinic definition of ' jewishness ' requires only that one be born of a jewish mother, or that one convert to judaism in accord with jewish law. ( today, reform and reconstructionist jews also include those born of jewish fathers and gentile mothers if they are raised as jews. ) to jews, jewish peoplehood is closely tied to their relationship with god, and thus has a strong theological component. this relationship is encapsulated in the notion that jews are a chosen people. although some have taken this as a sign of arrogance or exclusivity, there are jewish scholars and theologians who have emphasized that a special relationship between jews and god does not in any way preclude other nations having their own relationship with god. for jews, being \" chosen \" fundamentally means that jews have chosen to obey a certain set of laws ( see torah and halakha ) as an expression of their covenant with god. jews hold that other nations and peoples are not required or expected to obey these laws, and face no penalty for not obeying them. thus, as a national religion, judaism has no problem with the notion that others have their own paths to god ( or \" salvation \" ), though it still makes claim as to the truth or falsehood of other beliefs, and as to whether gentiles are allowed to hold them. thus, for example, maimonides believed that the truth claims of islam were largely false, but he also believed that gentiles were not sinning by following islam ; on the other hand, he regarded idolatry not just as false, but also as a serious sin, for jew or non - jew. in this respect, rabbinical sources have usually classed christianity with islam, rather than with idolatry, though the use of icons in many denominations has raised questions as to whether they are, in fact, idolatrous. christianity is characterized by its claim to universality, which marks a break with jewish identity", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5079801102303398, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:917fc847-092c-4ae4-98b5-7dee520d536a>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.898759"}
{"text": "entire country should convert to christianity, and that sacrifice to the old gods, while still allowed, should no longer be made in the open. similar mass conversions in other scandinavian countries were not as democratic. the christian denomination of the religious society of friends ( quakers ) accepts new members into its monthly meetings. after a person becomes familiar with the beliefs and practices of friends, he may embrace these things for himself. this embracing of the beliefs and practices of friends is called convincement. he then applies for membership, and, if accepted is officially a friend. conversion to islam one becomes a muslim by believing that allah ( arabic for god ) is the only god and that muhammad was his messenger. a person is considered a muslim from the moment he sincerely makes this witness, the shahada. of course a new muslim has to familiarize himself / herself with the religion, the belief, and the practices of islam, but there is no formal requirement for that. it is a personal process ; acceptance of all of that is taken to follow from the original statement, since all of islam is considered to derive from either divine inspiration, in the form of the qur ' an, or prophetic example, in the form of the hadith and sunna of muhammad. conversion to religions of indic origin religions of indic origin such as hinduism, sikhism and buddhism do not believe in conversion as a form of religious expansion, even though they welcome anybody to join their faiths. the reason for this is the strongly held belief in these religions that \" all religions are true and are only different paths to the same truth \". the followers also believe that the religion you follow is to be chosen based on an individual ' s temprement, birth etc. also, what would be very strange and foreign to non - indic origin faiths is that people can claim to be follower of multiple religions. for example in japan which was influenced by the indic faith of buddhism, it is easy to find people who follow both buddhism and shinto. it is also common to find people in india claming to be both hindu and buddhist or hindu and sikh etc. this inclusivism is in direct contrast to the belief that the ordained path in the book is the only true paths, found in exclusivistic belief systems. this inclusivism also makes any conversion unnecessary. it should be noted that the above does not apply for some sects of indic faiths, like soka gakkai and hare krishna / iskcon. conversion to new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5253238983745714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:917fc847-092c-4ae4-98b5-7dee520d536a>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.901296"}
{"text": "belief systems. this inclusivism also makes any conversion unnecessary. it should be noted that the above does not apply for some sects of indic faiths, like soka gakkai and hare krishna / iskcon. conversion to new religious movements and cults conversion to new religious movements ( nrm ' s ) is riddled with controversies. the anti - cult movement sometimes uses the term thought reform or even brainwashing, though the latter term has now become discredited, for this process. often they will call certain nrm ' s cults. however, the definition of a cult has become so broad that in many instances it is almost meaningless and is used to define anything outside of orthodoxy. nrms are very diverse and it is not clear whether conversion to nrms differs from conversion to mainstream religions. see also brainwashing controversy in new religious movements research, both in the usa and in the netherlands has shown that there is a positive correlation between the lack of involvement in main stream churches in certain areas and provinces and the percentage of people who are a member of a new religious movement. this applies also for the presence of new age centers., the dutch research included jehovah ' s witnesses and the latter day saint movement / mormonism to the nrm ' s. professor eileen barker believes that the psychological changes as described in converts of the divine light mission can be generalized for other nrms, however she has supplied no proof of such claims. conversion of catholics to protestantism prohibition of conversion several ethnic religions don ' t accept converts, like the yazidis and the druze. the only way to become a yazidi is to be born in a yazidi family. conversely, the shakers and some indian eunuch brotherhoods don ' t allow procreation, so every member is a convert. the english language word proselytism is derived ultimately from the greek language prefix ' pros ' ( towards ) and the verb ' erchomai ' ( to come ). it generally describes attempts to convert a person from one point of view to another, usually in a religious context. in the bible, the word proselyte denotes a person who has converted to judaism, without overtly negative overtones. in our day, however, the connotations of the word proselytism are almost exclusively negative. nonetheless, many people use the words interchangeably. an orthodox writer, stephen methodius hayes has written : \" if people talk about the need for evangelism, they meet with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5301893872573241, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:917fc847-092c-4ae4-98b5-7dee520d536a>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.902497"}
{"text": "brookhaven national laboratory has what is currently one of the highest energy particle accelerators on the planet. the relativistic heavy ion collider ( rhic ) hosts collisions between the nuclei of gold atoms that are moving at roughly 99 percent of the speed of light, creating a quark soup similar to the one that existed immediately after the big bang. but the scientists running the experiments started noticing something funny about the data : instead of expanding evenly outward, the collision debris were ellipsoidal ( think a 3 - d ellipse ). what was even stranger was that this sort of behavior had already been described, for a gas of lithium atoms at the opposite end of the temperature spectrum, at a fraction of a microkelvin. as these groups were talking about a collaboration, things got stranger still when string theorists started citing this work, since the behavior had already been predicted through their work \u2014 a fact that the physicists weren ' t aware of until a science reporter called to ask what they thought about it. the tale of this unlikely collaboration unfolded at the american association for the advancement of science meeting, where the introductory remarks described just how far apart these systems are. in terms of temperature, the rhic and chilled lithium differ by 19 orders of magnitude ( that ' s a factor of 1019 ). when it comes to density, the difference is an astonishing 25 orders of magnitude. meanwhile, the bit of string theory that describes the normal, four - dimensional ( 3 - d + time ) behavior of these systems can be predicted by modeling a four - dimensional sphere wrapped around a five dimensional black hole. quantum viscosity runs hot and cold the cold atomic cloud is probably easiest to understand, although john thomas of duke, who does the work, claimed that, when dragged to wine tastings with his wife ' s friends, \" i wait until everyone ' s sufficiently drunk before explaining what we do. \" his short description is that he makes bowls of light ; in principle, the first steps in his system involve the sort of laser cooling that our chris lee has described in the past. this can only get things down to a bit under a kelvin above absolute zero, but thomas then loosens the laser trap, and a few atoms evaporate off, taking most of the remaining heat with them. the end result is an atomic cloud at one - tenth of a microkelvin. the 6li atoms that he uses have up and down spins that form an analog of the cooper pairs of electrons that cause high - temperature supercondu", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6475208503667755, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4b3439ec-7a03-4190-bead-e890fe4fe4c9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.951650"}
{"text": "with them. the end result is an atomic cloud at one - tenth of a microkelvin. the 6li atoms that he uses have up and down spins that form an analog of the cooper pairs of electrons that cause high - temperature superconductivity, so his system allows theorists to test some of their ideas in an accessible experimental system. but it also has interesting properties when in a magnetic field. at a specific magnetic field strength, the interactions between the paired atoms start to go asymptotic and, when at a very precise point, the interactions vanish and quantum effects dominate. when the laser trap is released again, the atoms expand elliptically, displaying essentially the smallest amount of quantum viscosity possible. because the system is experimentally possible, they were able ( on the advice of string theorists \u2014 more on that below ) to measure both the viscosity and entropy, and found that they were related directly to one divided by four?. out at the other end of the temperature spectrum, the collisions in the rhic were producing what brookhaven ' s barbara jacack termed \" quark soup. \" in normal matter, quarks interact by exchanging gluons with a limited number of partners. but, at the densities that exist immediately after these collisions, quarks can exchange multiple gluons with multiple partners, leading to longer - range interactions that are more similar to those in a liquid. two aspects of the behavior seen by rhic ' s detectors, however, were a bit surprising. the first is the ellipsoidal expansion that marks the behavior of perfect quantum liquids that we mentioned above. the second is that, although radiation can pass across the small cluster of quark soup, the actual quarks, it appeared, could not. jacack likened the fact that even the heavy charm quark didn ' t make it across the collision to a set of bowling pins stopping an incoming ball. like thomas, talking to string theorists allowed jacack and her team to look for some specific properties \u2014 in this case, shock waves of a particular type \u2014 of the quark soup. so far, it ' s looking like they ' re there. rhic is about to undergo a retrofit that should make it easier to study this, and the stimulus package may have some money for the doe that could accelerate the work. the theory needs a five - dimensional black hole, but reality may not clifford johnson of usc then spoke about how a specific application of string theory helped tie everything together", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6398421343365663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4b3439ec-7a03-4190-bead-e890fe4fe4c9>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.952881"}
{"text": ", and the stimulus package may have some money for the doe that could accelerate the work. the theory needs a five - dimensional black hole, but reality may not clifford johnson of usc then spoke about how a specific application of string theory helped tie everything together. as he described it, quantum chromodynamics ( qcd ) works very well at describing the interactions of a limited number of particles, and its successes in the early 1970s caused researchers to abandon an earlier version of string theory. but qcd doesn ' t work that well at the densities seen in the rhic, where ensembles of particles have emergent behavior \u2014 as johnson noted, a single water molecule isn ' t wet ; that ' s a property that emerges from a population of water molecules. and this, along with a few other vexing problems, has allowed string theory back in the game. \" string theory, \" johnson said, \" having failed to explain something, got resurrected a few years on and was used to explain everything, \" or at least provide a quantum description of gravity. he got interested in the problem of describing quantum black holes, which are far smaller than the macroscopic ones we ' ve observed in space. based on their emission of quantum radiation, they have to have an internal structure, one that our lack of a quantum gravity is preventing us from probing. ( during the questions, it became clear that johnson is one of the few people hoping that the lhc does spawn a small black hole. ) it turns out, using the math of string theory, it ' s easy to examine a five - dimensional black hole simply by wrapping a four - dimensional sheet around it. when you do that, however, a lot of three - dimensional qcd behavior pops out of the equations \u2014 \" the bugs of string theory become features, \" as johnson put it. in the extra dimensions, gravitons get pulled towards, and then bounce off, the black hole, undergoing interference as they do. that interference apparently describes the behavior seen in both of these real - world systems. johnson was emphatic that this doesn ' t mean that the experiments that have used these string theory models are a test of the theory ; rather, it means that the predictions of string theory are being used to guide experiments, which is a measure of its utility. as for whether there ' s really an extradimensional black hole tucked away in these conditions, johnson described himself as \" agnostic. \" it may be possible, he said, to find a way to describe this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6650910964020144, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4b3439ec-7a03-4190-bead-e890fe4fe4c9>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.954312"}
{"text": "- published : 24 feb 2007 - views : 235816 - author : coderedreel | | this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( may 2011 ) | the modern - day confusion in the english language around the word \" biscuit \" is created by its etymology. the middle french word bescuit is derived from the latin words bis ( twice ) and coquere, coctus ( to cook, cooked ), and, hence, means \" twice - cooked \". this is because biscuits were originally cooked in a twofold process : first baked, and then dried out in a slow oven. however, the dutch language from around 1703 had adopted the word koekje, a language diminutive of cake, to have a similar meaning for a similar hard, baked product. this may be related to the russian or ukrainian translation, where \" biscuit \" has come to mean \" sponge cake \". the difference between the secondary dutch word and that of latin origin is that, whereas the koekje is a cake that rises during baking, the biscuit, which has no raising agent, in general does not ( see gingerbread / ginger biscuit ), except for the expansion of heated air during baking. when peoples from europe began to emigrate to the united states, the two words and their \" same but different \" meanings began to clash. after the american war of independence against the british, the word cookie became the word of choice to mean a hard, twice - baked product. further confusion has been added by the adoption of the word biscuit for a small leavened bread popular in the united states. today, throughout most of the world, the term biscuit still means a hard, crisp, brittle bread, except in north america, where it now denotes a softer bread product baked only once. in modern italian usage, the term biscotto is used to refer to any type of hard twice - baked biscuit, and not only to the cantuccini as in the past. the need for nutritious, easy - to - store, easy - to - carry, and long - lasting foods on long journeys, in particular at sea, was initially solved by taking live food along with a butcher / cook. however, this took up additional space on what were either horse - powered treks or small ships, reducing the time of travel before additional food was required. this resulted in early armies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5065061326224473, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5dcf8d74-ebe0-4e28-83da-95838a2f9c9b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:04.969393"}
{"text": "provide paired - up aid. in 2001 the central authorities held the fourth tibet work forum, at which it was decided that more effective measures would be adopted and efforts would be further strengthened to support tibet and push forward in an all - around way the region ' s development and stability. since 1994 the central government has organized 60 state organs, 18 provinces and municipalities and 17 state - owned enterprises to provide aid to tibet in the fields of human resources, finance and materials, technology and management in a paired - up way to cover all the cities at the prefectural level and 73 counties ( including cities and districts at the county level ) in tibet. the completion of 62 aid projects identified in 1994 and 117 aid projects identified in 2001, respectively, in tibet gave a strong impetus to its economic and social development. in the meantime, the central government overcame interference and sabotage from the dalai lama clique, identified the reincarnated the soul boy of the 10th panchen lama, approving gyaltsen zangpo ' s position as the 11th panchen lama, and resolutely struggled against the dalai lama ' s secessionist group, all of which helped to maintain stability in tibet. 6. upholding the scientific outlook on development, vigorously accelerating tibet ' s development to realize leapfrog development, and achieving lasting peace based on stability. after the 16th national congress of the cpc, in light of the new historical conditions, the central authorities explicitly stated that its priorities for tibet ' s economic and social development would be to ensure and improve the production and living conditions of farmers and herdsmen, and to increase their incomes as required by the scientific outlook on development. by doing this, it helped to promote the region ' s economy and society to develop in a better and faster way, and make all ethnic groups in tibet enjoy the fruit of the reform and development. in 2006 the central government formulated 40 preferential policies aiming to accelerate tibet ' s development and maintain its stability, and identified 180 ( the actually completed number is 188 ) construction projects for its 11th five - year plan ( 2006 - 2010 ), which helped tibet to score remarkable achievements in development and stability. tibet ' s economy developed at a high rate, infrastructure construction in transportation and energy improved markedly, a large number of major projects including the qinghai - tibet railway were completed and have produced satisfactory economic benefits, social undertakings showed all - around progress, the living standards of people of all ethnic groups in tibet were greatly improved and tibet ' s self - development capacity was further enhanced. in the meantime", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5060267015826991, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5425c5c9-c196-40b6-b034-05400c350ecd>", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.084397"}
{"text": "all over the world. tibet ' s energy, transportation and other basic industries are also flourishing. on the eve of tibet ' s peaceful liberation, there was only one 125 - kw hydropower station in the region, which supplied electricity only to a handful of senior officials and aristocrats. now, an extensive energy system has been formed, with hydropower as the mainstay, backed up by geothermal, wind and solar energy sources. in 2010 the installed power - generating capacity in tibet reached 974, 000 kw, and more than 82 percent of the population had access to electricity. the qinghai - tibet dc power transmission line is under construction, which will link the tibetan grid to those of the rest of the country. in the old days there was not a single highway in tibet. today, a comprehensive transportation network has taken shape, with highway, rail, air and pipeline transportation as the backbone. all townships and more than 80 percent of the administrative villages in tibet have gained access to highways, which now total 58, 200 km. china ' s last \" isolated \" county is soon to be connected to the country ' s highway network with the completion and operation of the galung la tunnel on the medog highway. the operation of the qinghai - tibet railway ended tibet ' s history of being without railways. the navigation lighting project at the lhasa gongkar airport, and the nyingchi menling airport, ngari gunsa airport, xigaze peace airport have been completed and put into use, allowing night flights into and out of tibet and greatly increasing the number of air routes. an airport layout has taken shape in tibet, with the lhasa gongkar airport as the main hub, and the chamdo bangda, nyingchi menling, ngari gunsa and xigaze peace airports as the branches, catering to 22 domestic and international air services. in old tibet, letters were carried by people or beasts of burden and relayed via posthouses. nowadays, tibet has entered the information age, having established a modern telecommunications network with cables, satellites and the internet as the backbone. it has also realized broadband coverage in all townships and telephone communication in all villages. in the old days tibet ' s agriculture and animal husbandry were completely at the mercy of the weather. nowadays, modern facilities have been widely introduced. the added value of primary industry ( agriculture ) in tibet increased from 128 million yuan in 1959 to 6. 813 billion yuan in 2010, registering an average annual growth of 4. 8", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5038245863932798, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5425c5c9-c196-40b6-b034-05400c350ecd>", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.089669"}
{"text": "bbsrc is not responsible for the content of external websites biology by design \u2013 how synthetic biology could revolutionise everything from medicines to energy 13 july 2012 in a series of articles we will be highlighting the work of some of the leading synthetic biology researchers in the uk. here we profile professor dek woolfson of the university of bristol, professor jamie davies of the university of edinburgh and professor richard cogdell of the university of glasgow. flat pack proteins \u2013 professor dek woolfson, university of bristol professor dek woolfson is hoping to use synthetic biology to create new structures out of proteins with uses ranging from wound repair to water purification. - proteins play many important roles in nature. - proteins can assemble into complicated structures like tiny pumps and motors. - scientists are hoping to combine proteins in new ways using synthetic biology to create useful new tools for uses as diverse as water filtration and medicine. proteins are like nature ' s robots working tirelessly in the cells of every plant, animal and microbe to do virtually all of the important functions that make life tick. each individual protein can twist and fold into an incredibly complex 3d shape, with holes, cracks and protrudances giving it its function. groups of proteins then combine with one another and other types of molecules to create bigger and more complicated structures still. understanding how proteins assemble and combine is at the heart of professor dek woolfson ' s research at the university of bristol. professor dek woolfson this work is important for our understanding of biology because by figuring out how to make parts these molecular machines from scratch scientists can get a much better understanding of how they work in nature. it could also have a range of possible applications. professor woolfson and his team are working on a toolkit of newly designed proteins that could be used as building blocks to produce biological machines. this is a key pillar of a synthetic biology approach. scientists like professor woolfson hope to create catalogues of modular parts so that biological structures can be built from flat pack rather than being crafted from scratch each time. one such structure that professor woolfson ' s team are working on is a synthetic version of the extracellular matrix, the scaffold that surrounds our cells. a synthetic extracellular matrix could be used in regenerative medicine to help generate tissues like skin, nerves or bone in the test tube that could then be transplanted into patients. professor woolfson is currently working with clinical scientists exploring applications for the technology in wound repair. another project in their lab is attempting to use rational protein design to produce", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5439787700144028, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb894008-2892-435b-b812-c68e37dea3f7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.138996"}
{"text": "skin, nerves or bone in the test tube that could then be transplanted into patients. professor woolfson is currently working with clinical scientists exploring applications for the technology in wound repair. another project in their lab is attempting to use rational protein design to produce new technologies for water purification and desalination. the team have discovered a new cylindrical protein structure which they call cc - hex which they think could be engineered into biological membranes to filter water. these devices would be particularly valuable for producing small scale products that could be used easily by people who do not have access to clean water in the developing world. this research is being developed in collaboration with the university of oxford and with an australian water consortium that brings together a team of engineers, biochemists, chemists, materials scientist and microbiologists. prof woolfson explains \" when we discovered cc - hex we thought we might use it to make enzymes. it was a visiting colleague from australia who recognised the similarity of the structure to aquaporins ( a natural protein that rescues water in kidneys, the brain and even the roots of plants ). he suggested that we explore that direction too and it is now the basis of our latest bbsrc grant. we are far from achieving a working prototype but are collaborating with australian scientists with this goal in mind. \" designer tissues \u2013 professor jamie davies, university of edinburgh stem cells offer incredible medical promise because they can turn into virtually any tissue in our bodies ; but what about tissues that do not exist in our bodies or even in nature? - during development, a simple group of cells multiplies and rearranges to form complicated tissues and organs and eventually a whole plant or animal. - currently, scientists are working to coax stem cells to produce human tissues in the lab to repair damaged organs. - using synthetic biology, scientists could put new programming in to cells so that they develop into never - before seen types of tissues with a range of medical uses. professor jamie davies of the university of edinburgh is working to use synthetic biology to control cell and tissue shape, research which he calls ' synthetic morphology '. his work could lead to a future where cells can be programmed to self assemble into new structures and tissues which have never existed before in nature. professor jamie davies this science is in its infancy and there are a number of technical hurdles still to be overcome. however it promises to give us a far greater understanding of how organisms develop which might give scientists insights that could help prevent developmental abnormalities like conjoined twinning. as well as increasing our understanding of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5526147247991073, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb894008-2892-435b-b812-c68e37dea3f7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.141419"}
{"text": "are a number of technical hurdles still to be overcome. however it promises to give us a far greater understanding of how organisms develop which might give scientists insights that could help prevent developmental abnormalities like conjoined twinning. as well as increasing our understanding of development this work could allow the production of useful new tissues that would not be possible with stem cells. you could imagine, for example, that tissues grown in this way could provide an interface to allow a person to control movement in an artificial hand or even to see through an artificial eye. these developments are still some way off. however in the nearer term professor davies hopes to be able to improve medical technologies like dialysis machines by developing tissues that can live happily inside medical machinery. dialysis machines are very good at replicating the mechanical functions of a kidney but they cannot perform the biochemical functions that are important in properly filtering blood. by designing tissues that could grow along the tubes of a dialysis machine researchers could produce a more effective artificial kidney. professor davies explains \" the development of even really complex tissues can be broken down into a series of simple events like the multiplication, clumping together or movement of cells. there are about ten of these simple behaviours and we think that by programming cell circuitry to carry them out in different orders we can coax cells into new types of tissues in ways that we can predict. \" the immediate value of this work to scientists is that it will give them a much deeper understanding of the process of development. how relatively unorganised populations of cells assemble precisely into something as complex as a person is one of the big outstanding questions in biology. by developing synthetic systems that cause cells to organise and assemble themselves, the researchers can begin to understand how it happens in nature. one of the immediate challenges that professor davies and their team faced when starting this work was that they wanted to work with animal cells. most synthetic biology to date has been in simple organisms that are easy to work with like bacteria or yeast. mammalian cells are much bigger and more complex than those of bacteria which make them considerably harder to work with. however this work is not just limited to human or animal cells. it should be possible to programme bacteria, yeast or plant cells to form new multicellular structures which could have an enormous range of uses in medicine and industry. the artificial ' leaf ' \u2013 professor richard cogdell, university of glasgow professor richard cogdell is hoping to use synthetic biology to create an artificial \" leaf \" capable of converting the sun ' s energy into sustainable liquid fuels. - plants", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5153740501955963, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb894008-2892-435b-b812-c68e37dea3f7>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.143244"}
{"text": "industry. the artificial ' leaf ' \u2013 professor richard cogdell, university of glasgow professor richard cogdell is hoping to use synthetic biology to create an artificial \" leaf \" capable of converting the sun ' s energy into sustainable liquid fuels. - plants use photosynthetisis to capture energy of the sun to create fuel to power the plant ' s growth. - we use this fuel ourselves in the form of wood, coal, oil and gas. - by using the tools of synthetics biology, scientists hope to create an artificial system that can do photosynthesis, - this could capture the sun ' s energy like a solar panel but would produce liquid fuel rather than electricity. we have always relied on plants to provide us with energy. for millennia, burning wood was humanity ' s main, sometimes only, source of power. later, more energy dense fuels \u2013 coal, oil and gas, drove the development of modern society. professor richard cogdell by burning these fuels we are tapping into the stored energy of the sun. in the case of wood this might have been captured months or years before. when we burn fossil fuels we are releasing energy that fell as sunlight on the world of the dinosaurs hundreds of millions of years ago. only plants, algae and some bacteria have the amazing ability to capture and store the sun ' s rays as sugars using photosynthesis. while amazing, photosynthesis is actually quite an inefficient process. a plant is not a machine for producing fuel, rather a machine for producing plants, and as such scientists think that they might be able to tweak photosynthesis to produce fuel more efficiently. the researchers, based at the university of glasgow, hope to deliver the next stage in our long relationship with photosynthesis by taking it out of the leaf and into the lab. professor cogdell, who is leading the research project, explains : \" more energy hits the surface of the earth in the form of sunlight in the space of one hour than the entire human race uses in a whole year. this abundant energy is given away for free but making use of it is tricky. we can use solar panels to make electricity but it ' s intermittent and difficult to store. you can ' t fly an aeroplane or send a ship round the world using batteries, you need a fuel. what we are trying to do is to take the energy from the sun and trap it so that it can be used when it is needed most. \" the researchers hope to use a chemical reaction similar to photos", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5321476995986758, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb894008-2892-435b-b812-c68e37dea3f7>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.144321"}
{"text": "world using batteries, you need a fuel. what we are trying to do is to take the energy from the sun and trap it so that it can be used when it is needed most. \" the researchers hope to use a chemical reaction similar to photosynthesis but in an artificial system. plants take solar energy, concentrate it and use it to split apart water into hydrogen and oxygen. the oxygen is released and the energy from the hydrogen used to lock carbon into a fuel. the latest research aims to use synthetic biology to replicate the process outside of the cell. professor cogdell added : \" we are working to devise a chemical system that could replicate photosynthesis artificially on a grand scale. this artificial leaf would use solar collectors and produce a fuel, as opposed to electricity. \" professor cogdell hopes that his team ' s artificial system could also improve on natural photosynthesis to make better use of the sun ' s energy. by stripping back photosynthesis to a level of basic reactions, much higher levels of energy conversion could be possible. ultimately, success in this research could allow the development of a sustainable carbon neutral economy arresting the increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning. in fact, if successful, this research could allow for carbon to be harvested from the atmosphere and returned to the ground, reversing the accumulation of carbon caused by burning fossil fuels. the research is funded through a joint eu funding scheme \" eurosolarfuels \" which aims to produce fuels from light. the bbsrc funds the uk part of this research. what is synthetic biology? synthetic biology is the science of designing, engineering and building useful new biological systems which have not existed before in nature. using our ever - increasing understanding of genetics and cell biology synthetic biologists are able to design complicated biological parts, systems and devices to act as sensors, tissues or to produce useful chemicals. these technologies could deliver advances in a wide range of fields including medicine, biofuels and renewable materials. a synthetic biology approach offers incredible promise but also poses many ethical, legal and even existential questions for the scientific community, policymakers and for all of us to think about. some of these questions were explored in a public dialogue carried out by bbsrc and the engineering and physical sciences research council in 2010.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5747801560080497, "token_count": 464, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb894008-2892-435b-b812-c68e37dea3f7>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.145422"}
{"text": "a chinese farmer dries corn outside of qingdao, 14 oct. 2009. china has approved its 1st strain of gm rice, which is locally - developed, for commercial production. china has also approved its first gm corn. \" africa \u2014 from basket case to breadbasket \" op - ed, new agriculturalist author : calestous juma, professor of the practice of international development ; director, science, technology, and globalization project ; principal investigator, agricultural innovation in africa calestous juma, professor of the practice of international development and director of the agricultural innovation project at harvard kennedy school, is optimistic about economic prospects in his native continent of africa. in his new book, the new harvest : agricultural innovation in africa, launched in january 2011, he states very clearly that africa is a continent that can feed itself within a generation. for readers of new agriculturist he outlines why, despite the challenges of ever increasing population and climate change, he thinks africa will change its image of being a basket case to becoming a breadbasket. the basis for my optimism is the reality on the ground and knowledge of the rapid rate at which africa is changing. one concrete example is the investment that africa is making in economic transformation. take infrastructure for example : a significant effort is being made by african countries to extend road networks, the lack of which has been the biggest barrier to agricultural production, especially connecting markets to farms. similar investments are being made in energy and irrigation. only seven per cent of african agriculture is irrigated \u2014 3. 6 per cent in sub - saharan africa \u2014 compared to about 47 per cent in south asia ; this is changing. the impact of telecommunications has served as an important source of inspiration and evidence of the role of infrastructure in development. mobile phones are helping farmers to know when to plant, where to sell and where to bank. mobile technology is also becoming a substitute for traditional extension services. the next wave of broadband technology will be even more transformative and will affect all sectors of the economy. agriculture will be a key beneficiary of the terrestrial cables that are being laid across the continent. innovation in agriculture now includes the use of genetically - modified crops that have been adopted in south africa, burkina faso and egypt. other countries such as kenya and tanzania are planning to follow suit. but africa will go further in using all methods, including organic farming, as well as alternative crops such as breadfruit that help meet food needs while providing vegetation cover. sustainable agriculture can take root in africa. the second fact that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5043069779917965, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8cd9aa53-03ce-4b06-a09e-e9dc750d6c48>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.152427"}
{"text": "an efficient solar harvest solar power could be harvested more efficiently and transported over longer distances using tiny molecular circuits based on quantum mechanics, according to research inspired by new insights into natural photosynthesis. incorporating the latest research into how plants, algae and some bacteria use quantum mechanics to optimize energy production via photosynthesis, ucl scientists have set out how to design molecular circuitry that is 10 times smaller than the thinnest electrical wire in computer processors. published in nature chemistry, the report discusses how tiny molecular energy grids could capture, direct, regulate and amplify raw solar energy. solar fuel production is all about energy from light being absorbed by an assembly of molecules ; this electronic excitation is subsequently transferred to a suitable acceptor. for example, in photosynthesis, antenna complexes capture sunlight and direct the energy to reaction centers that then carry out the associated chemistry. in photosynthesis chlorophyll captures sunlight and directs the energy to special proteins that help make oxygen and sugars. this is no different in principle than a solar cell. in natural systems energy from sunlight is captured by colored molecules called dyes or pigments, but it is only stored for a billionth of a second. this leaves little time to route the energy from pigments to the molecular machinery that produces fuel or electricity. the key to transferring and storing energy very quickly is to harness the collective quantum properties of antennae, which are made up of just a few tens of pigments. recent studies have identified quantum coherence and entanglement between the excited states of different pigments in the light - harvesting stage of photosynthesis. although this stage of photosynthesis is highly efficient, it remains unclear exactly how or if these quantum effects are relevant. dr alexandra olaya - castro, co - author of the paper from ucl \u2019 s department of physics and astronomy said : \u201c on a bright sunny day, more than 100 million billion red and blue colored photons strike a leaf each second. \u201d \u201c under these conditions plants need to be able to both use the energy that is required for growth but also to get rid of excess energy that can be harmful. transferring energy quickly and in a regulated manner are the two key features of natural light harvesting systems. \u201c by assuring that all relevant energy scales involved in the process of energy transfer are more or less similar, natural antennae manage to combine quantum and classical phenomena to guarantee efficient and regulated capture, distribution and storage of the sun \u2019 s energy. \u201d summary of lessons from nature about concentrating and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6531076294972885, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5650b21a-52be-4f3e-bbd4-894e5d1fd662>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.168744"}
{"text": "the president, in his inaugural address, told america and the world that if god \" truly \" created us \" equal, \" biblically condemned homosexual relations are morally equivalent to biblically affirmed heterosexual relations. twisting scripture. twisting truth. some thoughts about what he said : the president ' s carefully crafted words created pictures of pilgrims on a journey. pilgrims making progress. a picture of secular progressivism and relative truth, wrapped in the original intent of our founding fathers and god ' s plan for mankind as revealed in his word. he spoke of a people and a country \" without boundaries. \" while it is true our pursuit of excellence and achievement is nearly limitless - - - the sky is the limit, it is equally true that morality has boundaries. freedom, as the founders understood it, was freedom to do the morally right thing, not license to do anything and everything. and they made it abundantly clear their understanding of freedom and morality was based on biblical teaching. our country was founded on judeo - christian values and principles, not evolving moral \" truth. \" the president said, \" our journey is not complete until our gay brothers and sisters are treated like everyone else under the law, for if we are truly created equal, then surely their love and commitment to one another must be equal as well. \" there is no question all people must be treated with equal dignity and respect. but should the most fundamental component of human culture, marriage and family, be redefined to conform to a sexual behavior in order to prove respect or tolerance? in the context of his speech, his recent statements and his actions to move the homosexual agenda forward, this is the message : if homosexual behavior is not elevated, affirmed and treated as normal, moral and equal to heterosexual relationships, then god didn ' t create us equal. or. those who oppose normalizing homosexual behavior and redefining marriage are taking a stand against god. if you oppose redefining marriage, or \" marriage equality \" on the journey as the president ' s sees it, you oppose both god and the original intent of the founding fathers. this is a deceptive message which twists the truth. and it twists scripture. god ' s word is abundantly clear on homosexual behavior. he loves the person and extends forgiveness and restoration to them, as he does to all of us, but not license to behave as we may be inclined to behave. the president ' s narrative reminds me of an ancient conversation that also involved removing boundaries and relative, evolving truth. a journey without moral boundaries. right and wrong", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5125509397368395, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4dc81cd2-f32a-4f5a-a405-d010a3f5f6e4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.172078"}
{"text": "the study of motion is often called kinematics. we will begin our study with one dimensional kinematics. we will later expand to 2 and 3 dimensional kinematics after we have studied vectors. we can give the position of an object in relation to a reference point. there are a number of variables we can use for position, such as x, d, or s. the official metric unit for position is the meter ( abbreviated m ). the meter was first defined in terms of the circumference of the earth on a meridian passing through paris. it is now defined in terms of the speed of light. when working with other scales, it might be convenient to use other metric units such as the nanometer ( nm ), the centimeter ( cm ), and the kilometer ( km ). we will often use exponential notation. exponential notation is convenient for expressing very large and small numbers. for instance, 12, 300 would be expressed as 1. 23 x 10, 000 or 1. 23 x 104 so 3. 14 km = 3140 m = 3. 14 x 103 m for small numbers, 0. 000345 = 3. 45 x 10 - 4 a micrometer, 1 \u03bcm = 10 - 6 m the width of a human hair on average is 10 \u03bcm. this would be 10 x 10 - 6 m. the wavelength of a helium - neon laser is 633 nm = 633 x 10 - 9 m = 6. 33 x 10 - 7 m the common metric units are given in powers or 3. the kilometer is 1000 m. although the 100 centimeters = 1 meter it is not actually a common unit. 1 millimeter = 1mm = 10 - 3 m 1 micrometer = 1um = 10 - 6 m 1 nanometer = 1nm = 10 - 9 m 1 picometer = 1pm = 10 - 12 m 1 femotometer = 1fm = 10 - 15 m also known as a fermi except for kilometer, we often do not use the larger metric prefixes for distance. but they are used for frequencies and other units in physics. 1 kilometer = 1 km = 1000 m = 103 m megameter = 1mm = 106 m gigameter = 1gm = 109 m terrameter = 1 tm = 1012 m common british imperial units for measuring distance include the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile. an easy way to remember the conversion from meters to miles can be remembered in terms of track and field. the loop in a track", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5979612696882161, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:627b76b2-d80d-4591-b9b8-01ec5ccc1148>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.194973"}
{"text": "1012 m common british imperial units for measuring distance include the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile. an easy way to remember the conversion from meters to miles can be remembered in terms of track and field. the loop in a track is \u00bc mile long. it is also known as the 400 m race, so 1 mile is approximately = 1600 m. engineers in america commonly use imperial units. very small measurements for the purposes of manufacturing are given in 1 / 1000ths of an inch. when dealing with astronomical distances there are other units we might use such as the light - year, the parsec, or the astronomical unit. the light - year is the distance light will travel in one year. an object which is one parsec away has one arc - second of parallax from earth. an astronomical unit is the average distance from the earth to the sun. distance vs displacement in physics we often study the change in position of an object. if we are only examining the change in position from the start of our observation to the end, we are talking about displacement. we ignore how we get from point a to point b. we are only concerned with how the crow flies. if we are concerned with our path, we are working with distance ( see figure a ). for example, let us suppose i were to talk around the perimeter of a square classroom ( see figure b ). the classroom is 10 meters on a side. at the end of my trip i return to my original starting position. the distance traveled would be 40 m. the displacement would be zero meters because displacement only depends on the starting and ending positions. the other important distinction between distance and displacement is that distances do not have a direction. if you were wearing a pedometer is would record distance. the odometer on a car records distance. displacement has a direction and a magnitude. magnitude is a fancy physics term for size or amount. for instance, suppose i walked 10 m north, 10 m east, 10 south, and then 5 m west ( see figure c ). my distance traveled would be 35 m. there is a magnitude but no net direction. since we can describe distance with just a magnitude ( but no direction ) we call it a scalar. but my displacement would be 5 m due east. as displacement has both a magnitude and a direction, we call it a vector. we measure time in seconds. we will use the variable t for time. the elapsed time for a certain action would be \u03b4t.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5310950210036582, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:627b76b2-d80d-4591-b9b8-01ec5ccc1148>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.196128"}
{"text": "5 m due east. as displacement has both a magnitude and a direction, we call it a vector. we measure time in seconds. we will use the variable t for time. the elapsed time for a certain action would be \u03b4t. the greek letter delta, \u03b4, is used to represent a change in a quantity. if we are talking about a reoccurring event ( such as the orbit of the earth around the sun ) we talk about the period of time t, with a capitol t. for longer periods of time we will often use the conventional minutes, hours, days, or years. for shorter periods of time will often use exponential notation or may use milliseconds, microseconds, picoseconds, or femtoseconds. for instance, chemical reactions may often take place on the picosecond timescale. just as when you dance under a strobe like at a cool school dance you can see your movements in stop action. scientists use pulsed lasers with picosecond and femtosecond pulses to examine dynamics at the molecular level. speed and velocity building on changes in position and changes in time, we can examine the rate at which these changes in position take place. how fast are we moving? you probably use the terms speed and velocity interchangeably in your everyday vernacular, but in physics they have distinct meanings. speed is a scalar and has no direction. speed can be defined as speed = distance / elapsed time velocity is a vector. we could consider velocity to be speed in a given direction. to calculate the average velocity over a period of time, we use displacement and elapsed time. where v is velocity, x is position, t is time. the greek letter delta, \u03b4, means a change in a quantity, such as the change in position or the change in time. the bar over the velocity v means the terms in averaged. for instance, \u03b4x = xf \u2013 xo, or the change is position equals the difference of the final position and the original positions. our first set of problems will involve the above kinematic equation. problem solving method when solving physics problems, it is useful to follow a simple problem solving strategy. although at first, it may be easy to solve some problems in your head, by following this strategy you will develop good problem solving habits. just as you must develop good habits by brushing your teeth every day, you should attempt to follow the following methodology for solving physics problems. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6228020933950746, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:627b76b2-d80d-4591-b9b8-01ec5ccc1148>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.197104"}
{"text": "be easy to solve some problems in your head, by following this strategy you will develop good problem solving habits. just as you must develop good habits by brushing your teeth every day, you should attempt to follow the following methodology for solving physics problems. the first step is step 0 because it does not always apply. step 0 : draw a picture of the problem if appropriate. step 1 : write down the given information step 2 : write down the unknown quantity you are trying to find out step 3 : write down the physics equations or relationships that will connect your given information to the unknown variables. step 4 : perform algebraic calculations necessary to isolate the unknown variable. step 5 : plug in the given information to the new equation. cancel appropriate units and do the arithmetic. example 1 : a robot travels across a countertop a distance of 88. 0 cm, in 30 seconds. what is the speed of the robot? in this case, we do not need to do any algebra. significant figures : at this point we should not how many significant figures our answer has. your final answer cannot have more information that your original data. we were presented with a distance and a time with only 3 significant figures, therefore our final answer cannot have more precision than this. now let us look at a problem which does require some algebra. example 2 : the sr - 71 blackbird could fly at a speed of mach 3, or 1, 020 m / s. how much time would it take the sr - 71 to take off from los angeles and fly to new york city via a path which is a distance of 5500 miles. you should note that you need to convert miles to meters, remembering that 1 mile = 1600 m first we need to algebraically isolate the variable t. first we multiply both sides by t, and t cancels on the right hand side of the equation. then dividing both sides by v gives us now, plugging in for distance and speed gives us note the units and the number of significant digits. because one piece of our original data ( distance ) only had two significant digits, we have to round off our final answer to 2 significant digits. also, look at the cancelation of units. the meters in the units cancel. our units have the reciprocal of a reciprocal, thus the final units are in seconds, which you might have guessed since we are working with time. for ease of perspective we converted these units into minutes. average velocity vs instantaneous velocity another important distinction is finding an average value or the velocity versus the velocity at a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5815780955047555, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:627b76b2-d80d-4591-b9b8-01ec5ccc1148>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.199141"}
{"text": "partnership is the most common form of business organisation in india. partnership firms are governed by the provisions of the indian partnership act, 1932. the act lays down the rules relating to formation of partnership, the rights and duties of partners and dissolution of partnership. it defines partnership as a \" relationship between persons who have agreed to share the profits of business carried on by all or any of them acting for all \". this definition gives three minimum requirements to constitute a partnership : - - there must be an agreement entered into orally or in writing by the persons who desire to form a partnership. - the object of the agreement must be to share the profits of business intended to be carried on by the partnership. - the business must be carried on by all the partners or by any of them acting for all of them. under the act, persons who have entered into partnership with one another are individually called as ' partners ' and collectively as ' firm ' and the name under which they run their business is called the ' firm name '. provisions relating to taxation of partnership firms partnership firm is subjected to taxation under the income tax act, 1961. it is the umbrella act for all the matters relating to income tax and empowers the central board of direct taxes ( cbdt ) to formulate rules ( the income tax rules, 1962 ) for implementing the provisions of the act. the cbdt is a part of department of revenue in the ministry of finance. it has been charged with all the matters relating to various direct taxes in india and is responsible for administration of direct tax laws through the income tax department. the income tax act is subjected to annual amendments by the finance act, which mentions the ' rates ' of income tax and other taxes for the corresponding year. under the income tax act, the partnership firm is taxed as a separate entity, distinct from the partners. in the act, there is no distinction between assessment of a registered and unregistered firms. however, the partnership must be evidenced by a partnership deed. the partnership deed is a blue print of the rights and liabilities of partners as to their capital, profit sharing ratio, drawings, interest on capital, commission, salary, etc, terms and conditions as to working, functioning and dissolution of the partnership business. under the act, a partnership firm may be assessed either as a partnership firm or as an association of persons ( aop ). if the firm satisfies the following conditions, it will be assessed as a partnership firm, otherwise it will be assessed as an aop : - - the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5293713384339082, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb1028a7-de97-4e7b-9672-3f313c42cd14>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.218143"}
{"text": ", at every stage of hungary ' s history, we find him dividing the leading politicians into two groups : those who believed in \" small hungary \" and those who believed in \" greater hungary \". the \" small hungarians \" were those whose primary goal was national independence from the habsburgs. but this aspiration of theirs, he maintained, was motivated not by some lofty ideal, the love of freedom, for example, but by selfish \" class interest \" ( the nobility ' s determination to protect its privileges ), coupled with a passion for dissension and upheaval inherited from their eastern ancestors. another name for this \" passion \" was protestantism, which, as szekfu saw it, was ab ovo inspired by the resolve to spark denominational conflict and create disorder. the \" great hungarians \", on the other hand, had always appreciated that the great power status of the habsburg empire was a historical necessity. they recognized the need for political compromise, and strove to promote social reform, and the nation ' s material improvement and intellectual progress ( naturally, with habsburg support ). szekfu ' s synthesis presents the baroque culture of the eighteenth century as the zenith of hungarian history, a time when the country ' s territorial integrity had been more or less restored, when religious ( protestant vs. catholic ) and political ( estates vs. absolutism ) in - fighting no longer undermined the unity of the nation, when the country ' s economic and cultural development picked up momentum, and its resettlement began. even in the late ' 30s, szekfu was very much preoccupied by matters of external politics and national sovereignty. in his allam es nemzet ( state and nation, 1942 ), he rejected both the french notion of a political nation and the german \" ethnic nation \" concept, and presented a uniquely hungarian notion, one rooted in st. stephen ' s tolerance toward the \" foreigners \". it was a nation concept which guaranteed the country ' s minorities a high degree of autonomy, while its raison d ' etre was to safeguard, and / or to restore hungary ' s territorial integrity. \" a nepiseg tortenete \" ( ethnohistory ) written in 1931, was the most comprehensive formulation malyusz would ever give of his program. the study starts with a definition of the notion of \" the ethnic \". as opposed to \" the national \", the conscious expression of a people ' s cultural and political aspirations, \" the ethnic \" was shorthand for the spontaneous", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5331765056009016, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cf09ad27-b14f-4ff8-aa00-93a2dd1c39a5>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.230168"}
{"text": "of his program. the study starts with a definition of the notion of \" the ethnic \". as opposed to \" the national \", the conscious expression of a people ' s cultural and political aspirations, \" the ethnic \" was shorthand for the spontaneous ways and cultural preferences of a particular people. the best way to get started in ethnohistorical research, he went on to say, was to write \" synthetic \" local and / or county histories. by \" synthetic \" he meant just the opposite of the village by village approach of the prewar county histories : the historian was to focus on the small, organically - related historico - geographical units - estates, valleys, plains, and so on - units he would later call \" cultural regions \", and whose study he expected to reveal an entire network of southern, eastern and northern cultural contacts. malyusz honed his theory by clashing swords with proponents of the most powerful historical ideology of his time. taking a direct stab at geistesgeschichte, its preoccupation with western cultural influences and its exclusive reliance on the evidence of the written word, he set ethnohistory the task of concentrating on \" spontaneous \" cultural elements such as roads, means of transportation, architecture, systems of local political and administrative organization, and \" anthropological \" data of every kind that might serve to give an accurate picture of the day - to - day life of the people. malyusz ' s views on the nature and techniques of ethnohistory, were thus fully developed by the time he came to give his \" introduction to ethnohistory \" course ( i. e., the series of lectures that form the core of the volume under review ) in the 1936 - - 37 academic year. ( as the editor makes clear, only the lectures delivered in the second semester have been found among malyusz ' s extant papers. ) one of the issues addressed in the lectures was the matter of the \" auxiliary disciplines \" which malyusz proposed to \" modify \" with a view to making them integral parts of the science of ethnohistory. he was particularly enthusiastic about the potential of ethnography and of linguistics, attaching great importance to the study of dialects ( and their exact geographic mapping ), and to tracing the origins of place names and personal names. he was also keen to have his students learn to use questionnaires, and to set up the institutional framework of ethnohistorical research. malyusz", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.509645145660309, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cf09ad27-b14f-4ff8-aa00-93a2dd1c39a5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.234452"}
{"text": "geographic mapping ), and to tracing the origins of place names and personal names. he was also keen to have his students learn to use questionnaires, and to set up the institutional framework of ethnohistorical research. malyusz ' s ethnohistory was the revival of the positivist traditions of the nineteenth century. the legacy of positivism, as his contemporaries were quick to point out, was evident in his preoccupation with the collective, and with the law - like regularities of development, and in his concentration on cultural history. but ethnohistory proposed to give an account of cultural development with full regard to its grounding in economic history and historical geography. instead of political and administrative units, it took organically related historical and / or geographic regions for its units of analysis, and investigated them at all levels and with all the tools that we have come to associate with microhistory and microgeography. so far, so good. the picture is tainted, however, by the fact that the contemporary inspiration of malyusz ' s ethnohistory was the volkstumskunde associated with aubin, kotzschke, keyser, and spamer in the inter - war years. volkstumskunde itself harked back to the nation concept espoused by herder, arndt, fichte and the brothers grimm, which posited race and ethnicity as the basis of nationhood, and defined national affiliation in terms of a community of descent, language and culture. it was an approach humanist in inspiration, but wide open to racist exploitation. thus it was that by the turn of the century, the pan - german movement had made it into an ideology of world domination, oneserving to substantiate their doctrine of the germans ' racial superiority over the slavs. allied with ostforschung, another fin - de - siecle intellectual trend, volkstumskunde came to present german history as essentially a crusade to spread german culture ( the german \" cultural ground \" ), principally toward the east. empire building and \" civilizing \" - founding cities, introducing the german legal system, organizing churches - was, on this view, at the very heart of german history, as was the struggle for pan - german unification. ( paradoxically, for all its chauvinism, volkstumskunde proved to be a highly fruitful trend in german historiography. as opposed to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5168996655322282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cf09ad27-b14f-4ff8-aa00-93a2dd1c39a5>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.235951"}
{"text": "german in several respects. for one thing, his very emphasis on the autonomy of hungarian culture implied resistance to hitler ' s attempts at expansionism. but there was also another side to it. malyusz ' s cultural nationalism - as he himself admitted - was meant to lay the groundwork for revisionism. his resolute underscoring of the strength and autonomy of hungarian culture was meant to provide an alternative to szekfu ' s vision of a hungary whose fortunes were irrevocably tied to that of the habsburgs. given the opportunity, malyusz was suggesting, hungary would be capable of carrying through a territorial revision on its own. all in all, however, malyusz might most equitably be judged as having posited - as opposed to szekfu ' s concept of nation as state - the concept of nation as culture. for all its manifest ideological and political bias, in respect of methodology, ethnohistory anticipated our current approach to social history. in publishing malyusz ' s lectures for the first time ever in book form, the editor of the volume under review has enabled non - historians, too, to draw their own conclusions about the more universal lessons of ethnohistory. the lesson might prove as timely as the german revisitation of volkstumskunde has proved to be.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5135607071750985, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cf09ad27-b14f-4ff8-aa00-93a2dd1c39a5>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.238171"}
{"text": "transformations in the coordinate plane transformations in the coordinate plane are often represented by \" coordinate rules \" of the form ( x, y ) - - > ( x ', y ' ). this means a point whose coordinates are ( x, y ) gets mapped to another point whose coordinates are ( x ', y ' ). when possible, simple formulas are given for x ' and y ' in terms of x and y. for example, ( x, y ) - - > ( x + y, x \u2013 y ) is a coordinate rule for some transformation and maps the points ( 0, 0 ), ( 2, 0 ), ( 2, 5 ), and ( 0, 5 ) as follows : ( 0, 0 ) - - > ( 0, 0 ) ( 2, 0 ) - - > ( 2, 2 ) ( 2, 5 ) - - > ( 7, \u2013 3 ) ( 0, 5 ) - - > ( 5, \u2013 5 ) this transformation is not an isometry ( it changes the size of any figure ) and the image of the blue rectangle with those vertices is the red rectangle : translations of geometric figures in the coordinate plane can be determined by translating the x - and y - coordinates of points. horizontal and vertical translations are the easiest. all other translations can be thought of as a composition of horizontal and vertical translations. the following examples illustrate this. example 1 : give a coordinate rule for translating a figure horizontally by 3 units. solution : a horizontal translation just changes the x - coordinates of all points, so the rule is ( x, y ) a ( x + 3, y ). to illustrate, the blue rectangle with vertices ( 0, 0 ), ( 2, 0 ), ( 2, 5 ), and ( 0, 5 ) is translated to the red rectangle with coordinates ( 3, 0 ), ( 5, 0 ), ( 5, 5 ), and ( 3, 5 ) : example 2 : give a coordinate rule for a translation by a distance of 4 units at 30o. solution : consider a point with coordinates ( x, y ) and its image with coordinates ( p, q ) draw a right triangle with the point and its image as the endpoints of the hypotenuse. this is a 30 - 60 - 90 triangle, so the side opposite the 30o angle is half the hypotenuse and the other side is that times the square root of 3. therefore we have the following picture : from this picture", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5607445454263185, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5a87378c-8f3a-440e-b812-447617fb0107>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.257108"}
{"text": ". this is a 30 - 60 - 90 triangle, so the side opposite the 30o angle is half the hypotenuse and the other side is that times the square root of 3. therefore we have the following picture : from this picture we see that and q = x + 2 therefore the coordinate rule is : ( x, y ) - - > when a point is reflected in a line, the line is the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining the point and its image. we will only consider coordinate rules for reflections in horizontal and vertical lines, and in the lines y = x and y = \u2013 x since the rules for lines in general involve messy details beyond the scope of this course. example 3 : give a coordinate rule for reflecting in the line vertical line x = 3. solution : consider a point ( x, y ) and its image ( p, q ) : the y - coordinate of the image is the same as the y - coordinate of the preimage, so q = y. since the line x = 3 bisects the segment from the point to its image, the horizontal distances from the point to the line and its image to the line are equal, so 3 \u2013 x = p \u2013 3 adding 3 to both sides tells us that p = 6 \u2013 x. therefore the coordinate rule is : ( x, y ) - - > ( 6 \u2013 x, y ) example 4 : give a coordinate rule for reflecting in the line y = x. solution : again let the point and its image have coordinates ( x, y ) and ( p, q ), respectively. the line y = x is a 45o line through the origin, and the relation between the point and its image looks like this : if we draw horizontal and vertical segments from the axes through the points and to the line y = x, we have the following : since the green line is at 45o, we can focus on two squares to see that q = x and p = y : thus, the coordinate rule is : ( x, y ) - - > ( y, x ) that is, when reflected in the line y = x, the coordinates of any point are transposed. coordinate rules for reflections in general, the following coordinate rules for reflections can easily be established : reflection in x - axis : ( x, y ) - - > ( x, \u2013 y ) reflection in y - axis : ( x, y ) - - > ( \u2013 x, y ) reflection in y = x : ( x", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5493669908726004, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5a87378c-8f3a-440e-b812-447617fb0107>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.258098"}
{"text": "established : reflection in x - axis : ( x, y ) - - > ( x, \u2013 y ) reflection in y - axis : ( x, y ) - - > ( \u2013 x, y ) reflection in y = x : ( x, y ) - - > ( y, x ) reflection in y = \u2013 x : ( x, y ) - - > ( \u2013 y, \u2013 x ) we will only consider rotations about the origin of multiples of 90o. example 5 : give a coordinate rule for a rotation about the origin of 90o ( counterclockwise ). solution : such a rotation is equivalent to reflections in two lines that intersect at the origin and are 45o apart. we could use the x - axis as the first line and the line y = x as the second. the composite of these reflections is : ( x, y ) - - > ( x, \u2013 y ) - - > ( \u2013 y, x ) that is, a rotation about the origin of 90o has the coordinate rule : ( x, y ) - - > ( \u2013 y, x ) coordinate rules for rotations in general, we can state the following coordinate rules for ( counterclockwise ) rotations about the origin : for a rotation of 90o : ( x, y ) - - > ( \u2013 y, x ) for a rotation of 180o : ( x, y ) - - > ( \u2013 x, \u2013 y ) for a rotation of 270o : ( x, y ) - - > ( y, \u2013 x ) dilations in the coordinate plane first consider dilations with the origin as center. then the coordinate rule for a dilation with scale factor k is simply this : ( x, y ) - - > ( kx, ky ). example 6 : triangle abc has coordinates a ( \u2013 1, \u2013 3 ), b ( 1, 1 ) and c ( 2, \u2013 3 ). triangle def has coordinates d ( 2, 6 ), e ( \u2013 4, 6 ) and f ( \u2013 2, \u2013 2 ). show that triangle dfe is the image of triangle abc under a dilation with center at the origin, and find the scale factor. solution : the image of a is given by ( \u2013 1, \u2013 3 ) - - > ( \u2013 1k, \u2013 3k ). if d is that image, then \u2013 1k = 2 and \u2013 3k = 6. both give k = \u2013 2. if we apply this dilation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5618320212903015, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5a87378c-8f3a-440e-b812-447617fb0107>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.258955"}
{"text": "1, \u2013 3 ) - - > ( \u2013 1k, \u2013 3k ). if d is that image, then \u2013 1k = 2 and \u2013 3k = 6. both give k = \u2013 2. if we apply this dilation to b and c, we find that f is the image of b and e is the image of c. dilations with center other than the origin a dilation with any point other than the origin as the center of dilation can be accomplished by first translating the center of dilation and figure so the origin becomes the center, and then translating back : example 7 : find a coordinate rule for the dilation with center ( 5, \u2013 3 ) and scale factor 2. solution : if ( x, y ) is a point on a figure to be dilated, we first translate left 5 and up 3. this gives us the point ( x \u2013 5, y + 3 ), and the origin becomes the center of the dilation. the dilation now gives us ( 2x \u2013 10, 2y + 6 ). then we translate back - - that is, right 5 and down 3, which gives us ( 2x \u2013 10 + 5, 2y + 6 \u2013 3 ). so the coordinate rule is : ( x, y ) - - > ( 2x \u2013 5, 2y + 3 ) return to lesson 5", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5281420743539282, "token_count": 280, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5a87378c-8f3a-440e-b812-447617fb0107>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.259427"}
{"text": "investigation of neurofeedback with real - time fmri in healthy volunteers and patients with hyperkinetic movement disorders - many people can learn to use feedback about brain activity to modify that activity, but is it not known if people with tourette syndrome can modify their brain activity. - researchers have evidence that certain areas of the brain are involved in causing tics in people with tourette syndrome. if people with tourette syndrome can use feedback about brain activity to modify activity in those parts of the brain, they may be able to modify their brain activity to help control the tics. - to determine if people with and without tourette syndrome can learn to use thought to control brain activity. - to test whether people who have tourette syndrome can learn to control brain activities, possibly helping to control tics. - healthy volunteers ages 18 and older who are right - handed and are willing to not consume caffeine or alcohol for 24 hours before the study visit. - patients with tourette syndrome who have tics that can be observed and studied. - all participants must be able to undergo magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) scans. - healthy volunteers ( two visits to the nih clinical center over a 2 - to 4 - week period ; visit may last up to 3 hours ) : - screening visit, including physical examination and medical history, and a magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) scan if the individual has not had one performed at the national institutes of health in the past year. - study visit : functional mri ( fmri ) scan to allow researchers to see if volunteers can learn to control their brain activity during a scan. volunteers will be asked to complete tasks as directed during the fmri scan. - patients with tourette syndrome ( three or four outpatient visits over a 4 - to 6 - week period ; each visit may last up to 4 hours ) : - screening visit, including physical examination and medical history, and an mri scan if the individual has not had one performed at the national institutes of health in the past year. - evaluation visit to ask questions about tourette symptoms and to have patients complete questionnaires about their tics and their mental health. - study visit : fmri scan to allow researchers to see if patients can learn to control their brain activity during a scan. patients will be asked to complete tasks as directed during the fmri scan. - final visit : researchers will ask questions about tic symptoms, have patients complete questionnaires, and perform a brief exam. afterward, patients will have an fmri scan similar to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5214154025524896, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f1fa358c-574b-474e-95d9-b347366ca451>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.289652"}
{"text": "be asked to complete tasks as directed during the fmri scan. - final visit : researchers will ask questions about tic symptoms, have patients complete questionnaires, and perform a brief exam. afterward, patients will have an fmri scan similar to the previous one. - all participants will be paid a small amount of money in compensation for their participation in the study. | study design : | | time perspective : prospective | | official title : | | investigation of neurofeedback with real - time fmri in healthy volunteers and patients with hyperkinetic movement disorders | | study start date : | | april 2009 | the objective of this study is to see if healthy volunteers and patients with hyperkinetic movement disorders such as tourette syndrome ( ts ) are able to learn how to alter their brain activity using feedback during functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fmri ), and whether such feedback training can lead to improvement in symptoms in ts patients. this study is to be carried out in three phases. in phase 1 we will study the feedback technique using fmri with right - handed adult healthy volunteers, in phase 2 we intend to study if right - handed adult patients with ts are also able to learn the feedback technique, and in phase 3 we intend to study whether feedback training with fmri leads to improvement in symptoms in ts patients and whether patients were able to retain the ability to alter their brain activity. phase 1 : healthy volunteers will be shown an image that corresponds to their brain activity being measured continuously during fmri scanning and asked to attempt to alter this activity first with a simple finger - tapping task and then with their thoughts. phase 1 will require two visits ( one screening and one scanning ) ( completed ). phase 1a : a pilot study evaluating the ability of healthy volunteers to learn to modulate their own brain connectivity using feedback of connectivity patterns between two motor regions during a real - time fmri paradigm. phase 1a will require three visits ( one screening and two scanning with evaluation ). phase 2 : ts patients will be studied to see if they can learn to alter their brain activity in a similar way as the healthy volunteers. patients will have their symptoms videotaped and a brief interview after scanning. phase 2 will require three visits ( one screening, one evaluation, and one scanning ). phase 3 : the effect of altering brain activity in a specific brain area on symptoms in ts patients will be studied. patients will be asked to continue to focus their thoughts as they did during feedback scanning any time that they feel an urge prior to a tic or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5289817112844901, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f1fa358c-574b-474e-95d9-b347366ca451>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.290752"}
{"text": ": the effect of altering brain activity in a specific brain area on symptoms in ts patients will be studied. patients will be asked to continue to focus their thoughts as they did during feedback scanning any time that they feel an urge prior to a tic or every hour while awake, whichever is more frequent, until a follow - up visit and fmri scan two or three days later. phase 3 will require four visits ( one screening, one evaluation, one scanning, and one follow - up ). no visit will last more than 4 hours. the primary outcome for phases 1 and 2 is the difference in brain activation within a specific area after feedback training compared to a baseline, and for phase 3 it is the difference in symptoms measured by a ts rating scale before fmri scanning compared to two or three days after learning the feedback technique. secondary outcomes for all three phases include the changes in activation in a specific brain area compared to a baseline after repeated scanning trials and when no feedback image is displayed. | contact : elaine p considine, r. n. | | ( 301 ) firstname. lastname @ example. org | | contact : mark hallett, m. d. | | ( 301 ) email @ example. com | | united states, maryland | | national institutes of health clinical center, 9000 rockville pike | | recruiting | | bethesda, maryland, united states, 20892 | | contact : for more information at the nih clinical center contact patient recruitment and public liaison office ( prpl ) 800 - 411 - 1222 ext tty8664111010 firstname. lastname @ example. org | | principal investigator : | | mark hallett, m. d. | | national institute of neurological disorders and stroke ( ninds ) |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.538074006176043, "token_count": 361, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f1fa358c-574b-474e-95d9-b347366ca451>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.291492"}
{"text": "join hundreds of early years practitioners in the tes early years group. find lesson ideas and inspiration, share best practice and get your questions answered by your peers. what age group? what ' s wrong with paper and pencils? give them a variety of paper and writing implements to choose in your writing area, include different colours and sizes, post - it notes, envelopes, rolls of paper etc. and access to glue sticks, sellotape, paper clips. have clipboards and pens or pencils, post its, notebooks, exercise books, etc. placed in all your other areas so they can writie while they are there. at the moment i ' ve got scrolls made from paper discoloured with tea bags and rolled up in my castle role play along with a quill pen made from a feather taped to a biro. i ' ve got a clipboard next to some castle and knights small world play and they use it for noting down the score between two sets of knights, i haven ' t been able to fathom their rules yet but never mind! i ' ve got small world superhero characters made from laminated photos of some of the boys dressed up and mounted on wooden blocks placed on my author ' s table with appropriate vocabulary and small blank books for them to write in, these are well used. laminated photos of other children are mixed with the wooden fairytale characters in a fairytale small world setting along with a clipboard, i haven ' t had much writing in that area yet but a lot of verbal story telling. don ' t forget paper on clipboards, long rolls of wallpaper as well as whiteboards and pens, chalkboards and large chalks for writing on the ground outside. in the past i ' ve had paper and a plastic bottle near pirate small world play and they used it for writing messages. it was hard getting the scrunched up paper out of the bottle but certain reluctant boys improved rapidly. most important - celebrate any writing that they do. share it with the class - praise the letter formation, the quantity, the firm positive pencil strokes, the attempt at using letter sounds, anything positive at all - the other children will take their cue from this and want to get in on it. i agree with inkyp mashed potato is fun and so is paint and sand and mud and... but in reception they need to use pen / pencil and paper and sometimes reluctant boys have to do things they don ' t automatically choose. it ' s not what they use to mark", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.50939333476371, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7f916cc3-745c-4343-8e99-b35f2c63bede>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.335632"}
{"text": "the classic free - speech axiom is that the cure for bad speech is more speech. this article considers the possible social costs of speech, focusing on speech strategies that impede and degrade change, even if the speech itself is socially acceptable. this article introduces the clucking theorem, which states that human nature unnecessarily inflates the costs of processes related to proposed legal changes. clucking is a form of externality \u2014 it is an action that inflates the social costs associated with discourse over a new or revised norm. it also alters transitions, degrades the quality of reforms, impedes certain changes, and facilitates undesirable transitions. this article \u2019 s inquiry into the characteristics of clucking is supported by a qualitative study of debates and disputes over changes to backyard chicken laws in more than one hundred localities between 2007 and 2010. this study emphasizes that certain clucking characteristics are unrelated to the substance of the issue at stake, the size of the population, or the innovation in the proposed change. in synthesizing the study, this article identifies five categories of individuals who engage in clucking : losers, winners, status quo enforcers, political opportunists, and human roosters. finally, this article stresses that civility norms and procedural rules are viable means to reduce the social costs of clucking. a supplement to this article is available here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5432566848018148, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d2cc1e48-e54c-462f-bba0-388c1ca0fc16>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.338905"}
{"text": "what is a cyborg? revision as of 00 : 15, 24 december 2010 by caseorganic anything that is an external prosthetic device creates one into a cyborg. the idea of a cell phone being a technosocial object that enables an actor ( user ) to communicate with other actors ( users ) on a network ( information exchange and connectivity ) makes one into what david hess calls low - tech cyborgs : \" i think about how almost everyone in urban societies could be seen as a low - tech cyborg, because they spend large parts of the day connected to machines such as cars, telephones, computers, and, of course, televisions. i ask the cyborg anthropologist if a system of a person watching a tv might constitute a cyborg. ( when i watch tv, i feel like a homeostatic system functioning unconsciously. ) i also think sometimes there is a fusion of identities between myself and the black box \" ( gray, 373 ). types of cyborgs \" according to the editors of the cyborg handbook, cyborg technologies take four different forms : restorative, normalizing, reconfiguring, and enhancing ( gray, 3 ). cyborg translators are currently thought of almost exclusively as enhancing : improving existing translation processes by speeding them up, making them more reliable and cost - effective. and there is no reason why cyborg translation should be anything more than enhancing \". source : cyborg translation consumptive vs. necessitative prosthetics i ' d additionally define two additional types of cyborgs based on consumptive practices : those who attach prosthetics as a necessity, and those who attach them as an external representation of status and tribal affiliation. in the latter case, one ' s external prosthesis is chosen carefully and updated frequently. this is most often seen in middle classes, especially in the young offspring of these classes. other specialized cyborg types : 1. cyborgs actually do exist ; about 10 % of the current u. s. population are estimated to be cyborgs in the technical sense, including people with electronic pacemakers, artificial joints, drug implant systems, implanted corneal lenses, and artificial skin. a much higher percentage participates in occupations that make them into metaphoric cyborgs, including the computer keyboarder joined in a cybernetic circuit with the screen, the neurosurgeon guided by fiber optic microscopy during an operation, and the teen gameplayer in the local videogame arc", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.529702211301637, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b9410a62-9354-445f-a675-2e5854095017>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.356037"}
{"text": "them into metaphoric cyborgs, including the computer keyboarder joined in a cybernetic circuit with the screen, the neurosurgeon guided by fiber optic microscopy during an operation, and the teen gameplayer in the local videogame arcarde. \" terminal identity \" scott bukatman has named this condition, calling it an \" unmistakably doubled articulation \" that signals the end of traditional concepts of identity even as it points toward the cybernetic loop that generates a new kind of subjectivity ( gray, 322 ). 2. this merging of the evolved and the developed, this integration of the constructor and the constructed, these systems of dying flesh and undead circuits, and of living and artificial cells. have been called many things : bionic systems, vital machines, cyborgs. they are a central figure of the late twentieth century.... but the story of cyborgs is not just a tale told around the glow of the televised fire. there are many actual cyborgs among us in society. anyone with an artificial organ, limb or supplement ( like a pacemaker ), anyone reprogrammed to resist disease ( immunized ) or drugged to think / behave / feel better ( psychopharmacology ) is technically a cyborg. the range of these intimate human - machine relationships is mind - boggling. it ' s not just robocop, it is our grandmother with a pacemaker ( gray, 322 ). - george p. landow, professor of english and art history, brown university. in \" cyborgology : constructing the knowledge of cybernetic organisms \" - - the introduction to the ( gray, introduction ), four classes of cyborg are described : the latter category seeks to construct everything from factories controlled by a handful of \" worker - pilots \" and infantrymen in mind - controlled exoskeletons to the dream many computer scientists have - downloading their consciousness into immortal computers ( gray, 3 ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.557937689955537, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b9410a62-9354-445f-a675-2e5854095017>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.356805"}
{"text": "| a children ' s mummer ' s parade, as on the fourth of july, with prizes for the best costumes. | | a fool or simpleton ; ninny. | | the science or occupation of cultivating land and rearing crops and livestock ; farming ; husbandryrelated : geoponic | | [ c17 : from latin agricultura, from ager field, land + cultura | | agriculture ( ag ' ri - kul ' ch\u0259r ) pronunciation key the science of cultivating land, producing crops, and raising livestock. tilling the ground ( gen. 2 : 15 ; 4 : 2, 3, 12 ) and rearing cattle were the chief employments in ancient times. the egyptians excelled in agriculture. and after the israelites entered into the possession of the promised land, their circumstances favoured in the highest degree a remarkable development of this art. agriculture became indeed the basis of the mosaic commonwealth. the year in palestine was divided into six agricultural periods : - i. sowing time. tisri, latter half ( beginning about the autumnal equinox. ) marchesvan. kisleu, former half. early rain due = first showers of autumn. ii. unripe time. kisleu, latter half. tebet. sebat, former half. iii. cold season. sebat, latter half. adar. [ veadar. ] nisan, former half. latter rain due ( deut. 11 : 14 ; jer. 5 : 24 ; hos. 6 : 3 ; zech. 10 : 1 ; james 5 : 7 ; job 29 : 23 ). iv. harvest time. nisan, latter half. ( beginning about vernal equinox. barley green. passover. ) ijar. sivan, former half., wheat ripe. pentecost. v. summer ( total absence of rain ) sivan, latter half. tammuz. ab, former half. vi. sultry season ab, latter half. elul. tisri, former half., ingathering of fruits. the six months from the middle of tisri to the middle of nisan were occupied with the work of cultivation, and the rest of the year mainly with the gathering in of the fruits. the extensive and easily - arranged system of irrigation from the rills and streams from the mountains made the soil in every part of palestine richly productive ( ps. 1 : 3 ; 65 : 10 ; prov", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.501024170258608, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:43ee722f-53ca-43a4-97a1-f3062f107f75>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.374407"}
{"text": "corn. it was called by the hebrews a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge ( 2 sam. 24 : 22 ; 1 chr. 21 : 23 ; isa. 3 : 15 ). it was somewhat like the roman tribulum, or threshing instrument. when the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being thrown up against the wind ( jer. 4 : 11 ), and afterwards tossed with wooden scoops ( isa. 30 : 24 ). the shovel and the fan for winnowing are mentioned in ps. 35 : 5, job 21 : 18, isa. 17 : 13. the refuse of straw and chaff was burned ( isa. 5 : 24 ). freed from impurities, the grain was then laid up in granaries till used ( deut. 28 : 8 ; prov. 3 : 10 ; matt. 6 : 26 ; 13 : 30 ; luke 12 : 18 ). the active production of useful plants or animals in ecosystems that have been created by people. agriculture has often been conceptualized narrowly, in terms of specific combinations of activities and organisms - wet - rice production in asia, wheat farming in europe, cattle ranching in the americas, and the like - but a more holistic perspective holds that humans are environmental engineers who disrupt terrestrial habitats in specific ways. anthropogenic disruptions such as clearing vegetation or tilling the soil cause a variety of localized changes ; common effects include an increase in the amount of light reaching ground level and a reduction in the competition among organisms. as a result, an area may produce more of the plants or animals that people desire for food, technology, medicine, and other uses. learn more about agriculture with a free trial on britannica. com.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5143194523895465, "token_count": 362, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:43ee722f-53ca-43a4-97a1-f3062f107f75>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.376926"}
{"text": "date of award doctor of philosophy ( phd ) frank j. floyd, ph. d. - chair this study examined mechanisms by which sibling relationships may buffer the harmful effects of negative peer experiences on the psychological adjustment of children with mental retardation ( mr ) or learning disabilities ( ld ). the study broadened existing findings with typically developing children and examined the effects of sibling social competency training on peer experiences and the impact of sibling relationship qualities, including warmth and positivity, supportiveness, conflict, and negativity, on children \u2019 s loneliness, internalizing, and delinquent behavior problems. the participants included 100 families with children who were between 8 and 10 years old. the families had a sibling dyad in which the target child had mr ( n = 36 ), an ld ( n = 43 ), or was typically developing ( n = 21 ), while siblings were typically developing. parents, target children, and siblings completed questionnaires and interviews assessing family and peer relationships. sibling dyads completed a video - taped interaction. results indicated that, as predicted, children with an ld or mr experienced significantly lower rates of positive peer experiences and significantly higher rates of negative peer experiences than did typically developing children. they exhibited significantly higher rates of loneliness and internalizing, but not delinquent, behavior problems than typically developing children. there was only partial support for the hypothesized protective effects of siblings on children \u2019 s development of adverse peer experiences. in particular, there was an indirect effect of one form of social competency training : social involvement mediated the effect of learning disabilities on adverse peer experiences. as predicted by the buffering hypothesis, emotional supportiveness by siblings moderated the impact of negative peer experiences on children \u2019 s internalizing and delinquent behavior problems. in addition, negativity within the sibling relationship moderated the effect of negative peer experiences on children \u2019 s internalizing problems while sibling conflict moderated the effect of positive peer experiences on loneliness. there were no significant effects for sibling warmth and positivity. findings that siblings of children with mr or an ld can buffer some of the harmful effects of adverse peer experiences on psychological well being in specific instances suggest that including siblings in interventions aimed at improving peer experiences and psychological functioning may be relevant under certain circumstances. hindes, andrea r., \" the buffering effect of sibling relationships on problems with peer experiences and psychological functioning in children with cognitive disabilities \" ( 2006 ). psychology dissertations. paper 20.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5256159815219508, "token_count": 502, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:acb522b9-ed20-4a88-9d0a-f02cc81fb958>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.387645"}
{"text": "traditional medicine has come far. but in some ways, it has not kept pace with the times. far too often, through today \u2019 s symptom based healthcare system, \u2018 illnesses \u2019 are too quickly diagnosed. introducing yet another foreign substance ( more medication ) into the system may not be the best solution. toxins in the body frequently are the problem. toxins can enter our bodies in many ways \u2026 from the foods and liquids we eat and drink or from our environment. major culprits can be processed foods, junk foods, deep - fried foods, fast foods, preservatives, soft drinks, alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and a variety of sugars. also included are chemicals and substances such as hormones and antibiotics from meats, dairy and poultry products, even fertilizers and pesticides used in farming. plus, other chemicals used in manufacturing, cleaning solutions, painting and building supplies may prove harmful. sadly, in the times we live in, even personal care products and popular, handy containers should be suspect. of course, heavy metals like mercury, lead and others are always a red flag... while the list goes on. surprisingly, we can also create our own toxins. mental and emotional stress from personal loss, worry, your job, depression, divorce and finances, among others can cause the body to manufacture its own toxins. additionally, a lengthy illness or hospital stay with prescribed medication, although sometimes necessary, can be toxic themselves, and may actually worsen one \u2019 s biochemical imbalances long term. to our detriment, all of these toxins may become stored in the liver and other vital organs, creating inflammation and making us more susceptible to disease. in many a case, the symptoms alone can make us feel sick. for some people it may be one or two ; for others, an entire rash of symptoms, which can manifest quickly or gradually, over months or years. it is the mission of the detoxification network of america ( dna ) to bring awareness of these challenges to the masses. dna will also educate and inform them of viable solutions : through the new medicine foundation protocol, detoxification happens by removing these toxins and restoring health at the cellular / biochemical level. as balance is restored, the symptoms ; many symptoms, sometimes misdiagnosed as illness, quite often diminish and then disappear completely. at dna, we work with a diligence toward assuring you the highest quality in knowledge, treatment, counseling and personal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5111397784716469, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:da43cccf-e63d-4ff4-958a-0cbecc58062d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.405455"}
{"text": "certificate - based authentication over an ssl connection is the most secure type of authentication. therefore, when authentication occurs at the connection layer, the client does not need to provide an additional name ( bind dn ) and password to directory proxy server during the ldap bind. a client can only perform certificate - based authentication over an ssl connection. the basic steps in establishing an ssl connection are as follows : the client requests that a secure connection be established. as part of this request, directory proxy server provides a server certificate to the client. a server certificate is a single certificate associated with one instance of directory proxy server. when a secure connection is used, the server certificate identifies the instance of directory proxy server to the client. the establishment of the connection includes a negotiation phase. during this phase, the client and directory proxy server attempt to agree on the encryption policy that is used. the server certificate contains the list of encryption policies ( ciphers ) that are supported by the directory proxy server. depending on the security configuration of the proxy server, the server might require the client to provide a certificate. the client provides a certificate to the server, either because the client is configured to do so, or because the proxy server has requested it. the client then sends an ldap bind request to directory proxy server to establish the client ' s identity on that connection. if the request is a simple bind, directory proxy server uses the bind dn and password provided by the client. if the request is a sasl external bind, directory proxy server does one of two things : considers the subject of the certificate as the bind dn of the client. maps the certificate by searching the backend server for an entry that matches the received certificate. if the verify - certs property is set, directory proxy server verifies that the received certificate is the one stored in the entry that is found. the following configuration properties determine how directory proxy server performs that search : cert - data - view - routing - policy cert - data - view - routing - custom - list cert - search - bind - dn cert - search - bind - pwd - file cert - search - base - dn cert - search - attr - mappings when the proxy server has the bind dn, it can verify the validity of the client. for more information about ssl for directory proxy server, see secure sockets layer for directory proxy server. for certificate - based authentication to occur, directory proxy server must be configured to accept client certificates and the client", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5344768973815992, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d14aca34-b4cc-4f09-9352-b3f17758e649>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.438303"}
{"text": "it can verify the validity of the client. for more information about ssl for directory proxy server, see secure sockets layer for directory proxy server. for certificate - based authentication to occur, directory proxy server must be configured to accept client certificates and the client must be configured to use sasl external bind. when you create a directory proxy server instance, the certificate database is automatically populated with the ca certificates of certain trusted cas. you can add trusted ca certificates to the certificate database if necessary, by using the directory service control center ( dscc ) or by using the dpadm command. for more information, see to install a ca - signed server certificate for directory proxy server in oracle fusion middleware administration guide for oracle directory server enterprise edition. when a client provides a certificate to directory proxy server, the server verifies that certificate against the list of trusted ca certificates in its certificate database. the verification is successful if the server ' s certificate database contains the client certificate itself, or the ca certificate with which the client certificate was generated. the server certificate can be one of the following : self - signed certificate. a public and private key pair, where the public key is signed by directory proxy server. trusted ca certificate. a single certificate that is automatically generated by the company \u2019 s internal certificate server or by a known certificate authority ( ca ). directory proxy server also supports the use of a server certificate chain. a server certificate chain is a collection of certificates that are automatically generated by the company \u2019 s internal certificate server or by a known ca. the certificates in a chain trace back to the original ca, providing proof of identity. this proof is required each time you obtain or install a new server certificate. when an instance of directory proxy server is created, a default self - signed certificate is created. by default, directory proxy server manages the ssl certificate database password internally. you can install any number of certificates on a server. when you configure ssl for an instance of directory proxy server, you must install at least one server certificate and one trusted ca certificate. for an explanation of how certificate - based authentication works, see certificate - based authentication. for information about how to configure certificate - based authentication for directory proxy server, see to configure certificate - based authentication in oracle fusion middleware administration guide for oracle directory server enterprise edition. when a client binds to directory proxy server with the simple authentication and security layer ( sasl ) external bind, directory proxy server obtains the credentials of the client from the certificate, rather", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5015081570856461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d14aca34-b4cc-4f09-9352-b3f17758e649>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.440608"}
{"text": "the energy information administration has released \u201c world shale gas resources, \u201d an important commissioned report providing an assessment of how much natural gas is locked in shale deposits in 14 regions around the world. ( here \u2019 s its overview of shale gas in the united states. ) here \u2019 s a map of the surveyed regions : the report includes some pretty remarkable numbers from countries that currently have limited domestic gas options, including china and quite a few western european nations that have been held somewhat hostage by russia. its publication comes in sync with a disturbing article in the times noting how much crop production, including tropical staples such as cassava, is being diverted to making biofuels. i sent the following query to a batch of people immersed in assessing and / or developing the world \u2019 s energy menu but it \u2019 s a query for you, as well, of course ( i \u2019 ve tweaked it to remove some e - mail shorthand ) : i would greatly appreciate some reflection from you on the new shale gas assessment from eia ( global estimates for areas that have been surveyed ) against the trends for food crops, including cassava, going to make fuels, as reported today by elisabeth rosenthal in the times. i \u2019 ve seen some fresh analysis saying this new shale report completely ices the case that gas is now ( more than was already clear ) a fundamental game changer. the figures for china help explain why a team of chinese gas experts, as i was told not long ago by folks at oklahoma state university, has been there studying extraction technologies. there are strong new hints that gas can play a much bigger role in energy for transport ( for example lng for big trucks ) and that it will ( and should? ) outcompete nuclear, coal and renewables for electricity ( at least in the us ). can it compete with the political influence of big agriculture here, and, any time soon, with coal in china? jesse ausubel long ago also noted that natural gas is a far better bet to link with carbon capture ( through \u201c zero emission power plant \u201d technology ), if you think carbon capture and sequestration is a serious prospect down the line. so is this it? one thing i note in that e. i. a. report is the big blank spots in assessed regions, many of which ( like much of sub - saharan africa, of course ) are also regions locked in deep energy poverty. how does this gas push relate to ending energy poverty in such places? the first reply came from ausubel, a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5190694478668164, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e1b7dd08-a139-4bde-b349-0c94b5f585d9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.446343"}
{"text": "as we check our coding page in. net application we found that at the top after the namespaces there is a call that is partially defined in every web page. the question arrives in our mind that what is this partial and why we use the class with partial access specifier. why we not use the class as publicly or privately? here we are to answer all these question. first we will get the partial class definition and its need. the normalisation is a data analysis technique to design a database system. the normalisation allows the database designer to understand the current data structure within an organisation. the end result of a normalisation is a set of entity. we remove the unnecessary redudency by normalising the database table. read the rest of this entry \u00bb the alias name is the name that is referred to any column name or table name that is given by user. the alias name also used to represent some column or table without using its real name. as we will proceed in this article we will see that how we can use both the alias column name and alias table name in sql server. using the querystring is the another method to pass information between pages in your asp. net application. as we know that querystring is the portion of the url after a question mark (? ). the information is always retrieved as a string that can be converted with any type. here we get the code to pass multiple values at a single time in querystring. the cast ( ) function is used to change the data type of a column. we can use the cast ( ) function for various purpose. cast ( original _ expression as desired _ datatype ) read the rest of this entry \u00bb the convert ( ) function is used to convert an expression of one specific data type to another type. also this function can be used to represent the value of date / time type variable in different different format. as we will discuss later in this post we will see how we accomplish this task. reference type are important features of the c # language. they enable us to write complex and powerful application and effectively use the run - time framework. if we define the reference type variables in c # then the reference type variables contain a reference to the data not the value. the value is stored in a separate memory area. for example in c # we used several reference type variables such as classes, structures, array, enumeration etc.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5467206779115286, "token_count": 491, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:65ffd00f-bfa8-4e85-ba0a-061109f0599f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.461170"}
{"text": "co - operation has considered as important by libraries. therefore regular national annual meetings have been organised with directors of it and computing centres together with directors of university libraries for some time. furthermore at the local level it steering committees or advisory committees for information management have been introduced at universities. it is necessary to consider the evolutionary stage of present library, computer and information services as well as other players in the field. are they yet at a sufficiently mature stage for new systems to be designed with confidence, or is there still a great deal of dynamism, so that different design criteria must be incorporated to deal with the continuing evolution? consequently, most organisations have started to look at new ways of working. co - operation and collaboration have been found productive and useful, with organisations entering into new type of alliances. libraries and computing centres have developed closer relationships in the uk and usa, although less so in other countries. the first alliance of this type in finland is at tampere university of technology, where the computing centre as a independent institute was terminated. co - operation has always been a strong feature in finnish university libraries, and not less today. a major work has been carried out in selecting and at the moment implementing a new library system voyager. this is a second system consecutively in university libraries, and co - operation has proven its advantages and benefits. another success story is finelib, finnish electronic library that acquires electronic material for university libraries. the finnish universities form the core of the finelib consortium, and it started already in 1997. it is financed by the ministry of education ( 18 mill. finnish marks ) and the rest comes from the licence fees of university libraries. finnish electronic library works in close co - operation with other national development programmes. common concerns include electronic publishing, long - term storage of electronic material, copyright and other topical issues. international projects in the field of electronic libraries are being followed closely. virtual university collaboration and the development of digital learning environments is the next extensive area to be considered. the work has already begun under the project of finnish virtual university. \u00a9 this publication and its compilation in form and content is copyrighted. every realization which is not explicitly allowed by copyright law requires a written agreement. especially, this holds for reprography and processing / storing by electronic systems.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5007551896165257, "token_count": 459, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d7512bc-89a5-409b-ae95-f2d5b5fce038>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.555948"}
{"text": "teachers were working way too hard on some things that modern technology could make so much easier, says to dan levin. \u201c precisely, there are a lot of questions available on the internet, but they tend to be in the form of pdf files, \u201d he says. \u201c teachers need to get the pdfs, skim through them, find the kinds of questions they are looking for and then, after doing all that work, they still have to cut and paste and reformat. \u201d his solution to all that, problem - attic, makes the process a whole lot faster, simpler and more convenient. here, dan discusses what the name means, takes us through the late 1980s when technology integration into the classroom began in earnest, through an era of large vertical systems \u2014 and into the present time environment of technology in education to fill us in on what he thinks is really going on with teachers and technology. victor : what does the name mean? dan : the name problem - attic gradually evolved from a lot of experimentation with words such as test, quiz, problem, question and exercise. we wanted to combine that part of instruction with the concept of storage, particularly long - term storage, and content curation. a lot of the documents that we thought we could make more searchable and useful to teachers have been up on websites for years. some of them have been gathering \u201c digital dust \u201d because they are much harder to access than they should be. we eventually realized that problem - attic was a really good play on words for what we are doing. victor : so the attic is really coming from the attic of the house? dan : that \u2019 s the metaphor. there are gobs of really good questions on the internet that organizations and states have been putting up for decades \u2013 new york regents exams are a good example \u2013 but they were too hard to access. but they \u2019 re great questions! to us, attic means long - term storage, so we thought problem - attic was appropriate. really, what we \u2019 ve done is dusted off the questions and made them modern and accessible \u2013 made them new again. victor : what is it? who created it? dan : our company, educaide, is the creator of problem - attic. we have a long history of providing schools with high - quality, standards - based material for assessment and instruction. what we \u2019 ve done with problem - attic reflects more of a startup mentality. like a lot of young companies, we spotted a problem that could be fixed, and we thought we could make the lives", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5561069982533878, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:732913d9-3139-4fa6-9151-7d6ba057a46b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.686078"}
{"text": "standards - based material for assessment and instruction. what we \u2019 ve done with problem - attic reflects more of a startup mentality. like a lot of young companies, we spotted a problem that could be fixed, and we thought we could make the lives of teachers, homeschoolers, tutors and parents a lot easier. it was fortunate for us that our company had experience developing question banks and teacher tools. even though we approached this with a startup mentality, we were able to apply some unique skills because we had already been doing something similar for a long time. we \u2019 d already figured out how to handle the formatting, and we knew how to scale up and organize a lot of questions quickly. i think we brought in a good understanding of what needed to be done and how to do it. i helped found educaide about 20 years ago. some people might have given up and moved on, but we \u2019 ve always approached our work as a long - term effort. a lot of things happen quickly on the internet, but this is content curation, so we \u2019 ve had to grow our offerings almost as a museum director would. knowing how to organize content and make searching efficient requires a particular set of skills. i think that we were uniquely positioned to develop problem - attic because we had been grappling with these issues for a long time. i was a teacher before this company was founded, so the main idea behind problem - attic, which is coming into play now, comes from my own experience. as a teacher, i was frustrated. computers were entering classrooms in the late 1980s, and i had a dream, even back then, of building a massive database for teachers to eliminate the problems of cutting and pasting, searching for material and sharing. so problem - attic is not a new idea, but a confluence of factors was needed to make it a reality. one is the whole web 2. 0 model, which is only about 10 years old. the second is a good understanding of how websites like this should work, what the interaction should be. a lot of the technology behind the website is actually very new \u2013 probably no more than a few years old. so even though i think we were way ahead of our time 20 years ago and we tried mightily to do something like problem - attic back in the 1990s, we were stuck with desktop applications and databases, and we had no good distribution model. the model became clearer around 2002 to 2003 with no child left behind. we started to get some insight into what a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5278347514009052, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:732913d9-3139-4fa6-9151-7d6ba057a46b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.687120"}
{"text": "something like problem - attic back in the 1990s, we were stuck with desktop applications and databases, and we had no good distribution model. the model became clearer around 2002 to 2003 with no child left behind. we started to get some insight into what a large - scale solution might look like. then, in recent years, the quantity of available material became even larger, states began to coalesce around certain things such as common core standards, and people became very comfortable with the idea of software as a service. everything came together perfectly for us, which is to say, changes in the world around us finally made our dream of problem - attic achievable. i hope problem - attic is an overnight success, but it will have taken us 20 years to achieve that overnight success! victor : what does problem - attic do? what are the benefits? dan : first and foremost, problem - attic puts a lot of good material back in the hands of teachers \u2013 material that was excellent when it first came out and has unfortunately gotten lost or buried, become inaccessible over time or was not in a good form for teachers. problem - attic gives them access to great questions that have already been written and shouldn \u2019 t be forgotten. it \u2019 s a waste of time for so many educators around the world to be rewriting this stuff, reinventing the wheel. from the technical side, problem - attic eliminates the drudgery of cutting and pasting, reformatting and putting questions together into a test, quiz or worksheet. problem - attic \u2019 s output is gorgeous and can make a teacher feel proud. it doesn \u2019 t look like you took scissors and tape and went over to the photocopy machine. it looks like there is real desktop publishing muscle behind what you created. i think that \u2019 s really neat and that a lot of teachers are going to appreciate it. the documents look very professional. from there, problem - attic \u2019 s benefits flow down to students. although it is definitely a time - saving tool for teachers, that is only a means to an end. the goal is to help students learn, to personalize learning. giving kids quick feedback, having a convenient way to do ongoing assessment, being able to serve classes of mixed abilities, meeting students \u2019 individual needs \u2013 all that makes for a powerful tool! victor : how is it unique from other similar products / services? what companies do you see as in the same market? dan : one of the interesting things about the web is that it is pretty easy to put up", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5274285908327663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:732913d9-3139-4fa6-9151-7d6ba057a46b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.688234"}
{"text": "industry, i think no child left behind stalled things quite a bit. around 2001 to 2002, a lot of interest, including our own interest in what we developed, shifted toward large - scale assessment, state standards, and scoring and reporting \u2013 basically, toward data - driven instruction. the way i see it, there was a need for development in that area, but ultimately it sidetracked us a little bit from that dream we had in the \u2018 90s of doing more pure content and serving the needs of teachers. like a lot of companies, we shifted our focus to assessment, and in retrospect, that \u2019 s a different industry, a different model. it doesn \u2019 t work quite as well with web 2. 0 because it is so large and integrated. so that whole era, from about 2001 or 2002 to just a couple of years ago, was based on the concept of large, vertical systems that did everything for schools and teachers \u2013 everything from attendance and grading to curriculum management, from tracking student progress to contacting parents. and that still is somewhat of a model in education, though i think it is fading. in the last three or four years, we began to see a change, an understanding that websites could be more directed at specific needs, and that they could speak to each other. so it turns out you don \u2019 t really need big systems. thus there has been fertile development in a lot of areas, a shift toward best - of - class solutions for specific problems. of course the solutions should talk to one another so teachers end up with a complete solution that is best - of - class, seamlessly integrated, convenient and, of course, usable on a whole bunch of different devices and with different applications in the classroom. that \u2019 s the change which has occurred, or rather is occurring, in k - 12 education. the shift from big, vertically integrated systems is producing a fertile environment with much more adaptable software, with a better understanding that the end user, rather than the company that made it, should decide how to do the work. so that \u2019 s our philosophy : let the end user decide the best way to make use of all of these great questions. and i think that what i just described is how a lot of people are approaching the web these days. it is not unique to education. victor : where did it originate? where can you get it now? dan : as i said earlier, problem - attic was developed by educaide, of which i \u2019 m one of the founders. we still", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5257771300528435, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:732913d9-3139-4fa6-9151-7d6ba057a46b>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.690542"}
{"text": "is making it an amazing time because there are so many things that can be done now to improve education and help teachers. we look at our company as helping to solve one piece of the puzzle. problem - attic helps fulfill the promise of a digital classroom \u2013 personalized learning and everything that goes with that. it is a great time to be in this field. victor : what sort of formative experiences in your own education and teaching career helped to inform your approach to creating problem - attic? dan : like a lot of inventors going back centuries, it was frustration over something that had to be better. of course, i don \u2019 t think problem - attic is a complicated type of invention or discovery compared with some. but it can help solve teachers \u2019 frustration with not having easy access to, or not a having a good means of formatting, high - quality, proven content. i have two daughters, and i help them at home with their math homework. i was a math coach and a math club adviser when they were in middle school. there were a lot of times i would have done anything to have a product like problem - attic because i was spending so much time trying to pull questions together. i hope we can help teachers of all types who are in search of good questions, in and out of the classroom, to help kids understand difficult concepts. victor : how does problem - attic address some of your concerns about education? dan : education needs help in many ways, but the system is also showing great promise right now. i think problem - attic, like a lot of other great web tools, does change the economics. i think that it shows, among other things, that this can be done affordably and that valuable resources can be made available free of charge. there is no reason that the tools that educators need should be costly. and that isn \u2019 t just our discovery. khan academy does free videos, and so do others. a couple of companies that could be considered our competitors have realized that they will have to make a lot of things available for free. i think that is maybe the biggest way we are changing the economics \u2013 making the solutions less expensive and more widely available, if they are done right. it took a lot of years to figure out how to do this ; there were no shortcuts. victor : what is your outlook on the future of education? dan : i \u2019 m excited about where education is headed, toward more online and blended learning. i also realize there will be bumps in the road. one thing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5252295911834792, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:732913d9-3139-4fa6-9151-7d6ba057a46b>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.692656"}
{"text": "a room, turn off your computer ( and the screen ) when you don ' t use it, same with the tv and other electric appliances, prefer compact fluorescent lamps or even better leds. when a device is on stand - by, its transformator uses electricity, using a multi plug with a switch will save this useless waste. there are easy but very efficient things you can do. we can do without a tumble drier. little things are all important. don ' t let the water run while brushing your teeth. fix leaks that represent big volumes of water at the end of the day. install dry toilets to save even more water ( more than 10m3 / per head every year ) and to get compost. prefer tap water, quite drinkable in western countries to save the plastic and wrapping of bottle water. use biodegradable soap for your washing and select a low temperature program. buy second - hand items is it always necessary to buy new items? second - hand goods are often quite a good idea and are cheaper. as for quality, there can be different cases but older products will often last longer. using second - hand things is consuming less and so polluting less. instead of considering an item as waste, you can give it a second life! however, the energy consumption of older appliances must be taken into account. use biodegradable products try and use as little plastic as possible : is it always necessary to wrap an item you can hold in your hand? a good alternative is using cloth bags or willow baskets. be careful with the so - called biodegradable plastic bags, some will only be fragmented, which makes a difference. plenty of polluting and toxic products can easily be replaced by biodegradable ones for housecleaning : white vinegar, hydrogen carbonate will do wonders. the higher the quality of a product, the longer it will last. so prefer wood to plastic for your furniture, wood is sturdier and can be repaired. same for building, use timber which is more environment friendly as it traps and stores carbon, also, it is a renewable resource. let ' s take action we have the duty to pass on a healthy planet to the next generations so we must do our best to become worthy eco - citizens, we can join green groups locally and raise awareness, share our pleasure in simple living and, last but not least, we can contribute to... ekopedia! see also - \u2191 the american dietetic association position paper at eatright, pdf. -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5012551832345482, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ffff156c-acfd-4e3a-9b46-cd1738b481d0>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.705413"}
{"text": "general chemistry / periodicity and electron configurations blocks of the periodic table the periodic table does more than just list the elements. the word periodic means that in each row, or period, there is a pattern of characteristics in the elements. this is because the elements are listed in part by their electron configuration. the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals have one and two valence electrons ( electrons in the outer shell ) respectively. these elements lose electrons to form bonds easily, and are thus very reactive. these elements are the s - block of the periodic table. the p - block, on the right, contains common non - metals such as chlorine and helium. the noble gases, in the column on the right, almost never react, since they have eight valence electrons, which makes it very stable. the halogens, directly to the left of the noble gases, readily gain electrons and react with metals. the s and p blocks make up the main - group elements, also known as representative elements. the d - block, which is the largest, consists of transition metals such as copper, iron, and gold. the f - block, on the bottom, contains rarer metals including uranium. elements in the same group or family have the same configuration of valence electrons, making them behave in chemically similar ways. causes for trends there are certain phenomena that cause the periodic trends to occur. you must understand them before learning the trends. effective nuclear charge the effective nuclear charge is the amount of positive charge acting on an electron. it is the number of protons in the nucleus minus the number of electrons in between the nucleus and the electron in question. basically, the nucleus attracts an electron, but other electrons in lower shells repel it ( opposites attract, likes repel ). shielding effect the shielding ( or screening ) effect is similar to effective nuclear charge. the core electrons repel the valence electrons to some degree. the more electron shells there are ( a new shell for each row in the periodic table ), the greater the shielding effect is. essentially, the core electrons shield the valence electrons from the positive charge of the nucleus. electron - electron repulsions when two electrons are in the same shell, they will repel each other slightly. this effect is mostly canceled out due to the strong attraction to the nucleus, but it does cause electrons in the same shell to spread out a little bit. lower shells experience this effect more because they are smaller and allow the electrons to interact more. coulomb ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5758116635228664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7ab562e2-c61b-4988-9c51-24c5b3cb1d20>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.717855"}
{"text": "canceled out due to the strong attraction to the nucleus, but it does cause electrons in the same shell to spread out a little bit. lower shells experience this effect more because they are smaller and allow the electrons to interact more. coulomb ' s law coulomb ' s law is an equation that determines the amount of force with which two charged particles attract or repel each other. it is, where is the amount of charge ( + 1e for protons, - 1e for electrons ), is the distance between them, and is a constant. you can see that doubling the distance would quarter the force. also, a large number of protons would attract an electron with much more force than just a few protons would. trends in the periodic table most of the elements occur naturally on earth. however, all elements beyond uranium ( number 92 ) are called trans - uranium elements and never occur outside of a laboratory. most of the elements occur as solids or gases at stp. stp is standard temperature and pressure, which is 0\u00b0 c and 1 atmosphere of pressure. there are only two elements that occur as liquids at stp : mercury ( hg ) and bromine ( br ). bismuth ( bi ) is the last stable element on the chart. all elements after bismuth are radioactive and decay into more stable elements. some elements before bismuth are radioactive, however. atomic radius leaving out the noble gases, atomic radii are larger on the left side of the periodic chart and are progressively smaller as you move to the right across the period. conversely, as you move down the group, radii increase. atomic radii decrease along a period due to greater effective nuclear charge. atomic radii increase down a group due to the shielding effect of the additional core electrons, and the presence of another electron shell. ionic radius for nonmetals, ions are bigger than atoms, as the ions have extra electrons. for metals, it is the opposite. extra electrons ( negative ions, called anions ) cause additional electron - electron repulsions, making them spread out farther. fewer electrons ( positive ions, called cations ) cause fewer repulsions, allowing them to be closer. | ionization energy is the energy required to strip an electron from the atom ( when in the gas state ). ionization energy is also a periodic trend within the periodic table organization. moving left to right within a period or upward within a group, the first ionization energy generally increases. as the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5819497082468859, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7ab562e2-c61b-4988-9c51-24c5b3cb1d20>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.718920"}
{"text": "an electron from the atom ( when in the gas state ). ionization energy is also a periodic trend within the periodic table organization. moving left to right within a period or upward within a group, the first ionization energy generally increases. as the atomic radius decreases, it becomes harder to remove an electron that is closer to a more positively charged nucleus. ionization energy decreases going left across a period because there is a lower effective nuclear charge keeping the electrons attracted to the nucleus, so less energy is needed to pull one out. it decreases going down a group due to the shielding effect. remember coulomb ' s law : as the distance between the nucleus and electrons increases, the force decreases at a quadratic rate. it is considered a measure of the tendency of an atom or ion to surrender an electron, or the strength of the electron binding ; the greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron. the ionization energy may be an indicator of the reactivity of an element. elements with a low ionization energy tend to be reducing agents and form cations, which in turn combine with anions to form salts. electron affinity | electron affinity is the opposite of ionization energy. it is the energy released when an electron is added to an atom. electron affinity is highest in the upper left, lowest on the bottom right. however, electron affinity is actually negative for the noble gasses. they already have a complete valence shell, so there is no room in their orbitals for another electron. adding an electron would require creating a whole new shell, which takes energy instead of releasing it. several other elements have extremely low electron affinities because they are already in a stable configuration, and adding an electron would decrease stability. electron affinity occurs due to the same reasons as ionization energy. electronegativity is how much an atom attracts electrons within a bond. it is measured on a scale with fluorine at 4. 0 and francium at 0. 7. electronegativity decreases from upper right to lower left. electronegativity decreases because of atomic radius, shielding effect, and effective nuclear charge in the same manner that ionization energy decreases. metallic character metallic elements are shiny, usually gray or silver colored, and good conductors of heat and electricity. they are malleable ( can be hammered into thin sheets ), and ductile ( can be stretched into wires ). some metals, like sodium, are soft and can be cut with a knife. others, like iron,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5849564338023971, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7ab562e2-c61b-4988-9c51-24c5b3cb1d20>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.720210"}
{"text": "in formal language theory, a grammar ( when the context isn ' t given, often called a formal grammar for clarity ) is a set of production rules for strings in a formal language. the rules describe how to form strings from the language ' s alphabet that are valid according to the language ' s syntax. a grammar does not describe the meaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context \u2014 only their form. formal language theory, the discipline which studies formal grammars and languages, is a branch of applied mathematics. its applications are found in theoretical computer science, theoretical linguistics, formal semantics, mathematical logic, and other areas. a formal grammar is a set of rules for rewriting strings, along with a \" start symbol \" from which rewriting starts. therefore, a grammar is usually thought of as a language generator. however, it can also sometimes be used as the basis for a \" recognizer \" \u2014 a function in computing that determines whether a given string belongs to the language or is grammatically incorrect. to describe such recognizers, formal language theory uses separate formalisms, known as automata theory. one of the interesting results of automata theory is that it is not possible to design a recognizer for certain formal languages. parsing is the process of recognizing an utterance ( a string in natural languages ) by breaking it down to a set of symbols and analyzing each one against the grammar of the language. most languages have the meanings of their utterances structured according to their syntax \u2014 a practice known as compositional semantics. as a result, the first step to describing the meaning of an utterance in language is to break it down part by part and look at its analyzed form ( known as its parse tree in computer science, and as its deep structure in generative grammar ). introductory example a grammar mainly consists of a set of rules for transforming strings. ( if it only consisted of these rules, it would be a semi - thue system. ) to generate a string in the language, one begins with a string consisting of only a single start symbol. the production rules are then applied in any order, until a string that contains neither the start symbol nor designated nonterminal symbols is produced. a production rule is applied to a string by replacing one occurrence of its left - hand side in the string by its right - hand side ( cf. the operation of the theoretical turing machine ). the language formed by the grammar consists of all distinct strings that can be generated in this manner. any particular sequence of production", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6174886772602655, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99965faf-12a7-4c7d-a354-48255ea89c73>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.762872"}
{"text": "its left - hand side in the string by its right - hand side ( cf. the operation of the theoretical turing machine ). the language formed by the grammar consists of all distinct strings that can be generated in this manner. any particular sequence of production rules on the start symbol yields a distinct string in the language. if there are multiple ways of generating the same single string, the grammar is said to be ambiguous. for example, assume the alphabet consists of a and b, the start symbol is s, and we have the following production rules : then we start with s, and can choose a rule to apply to it. if we choose rule 1, we obtain the string asb. if we then choose rule 1 again, we replace s with asb and obtain the string aasbb. if we now choose rule 2, we replace s with ba and obtain the string aababb, and are done. we can write this series of choices more briefly, using symbols :. the language of the grammar is then the infinite set, where is repeated times ( and in particular represents the number of times production rule 1 has been applied ). formal definition the syntax of grammars - a finite set n of nonterminal symbols, none of which appear in strings formed from g. - a finite set of terminal symbols that is disjoint from n. - a finite set p of production rules, each rule of the form - where is the kleene star operator and denotes set union. that is, each production rule maps from one string of symbols to another, where the first string ( the \" head \" ) contains an arbitrary number of symbols provided at least one of them is a nonterminal. in the case that the second string ( the \" body \" ) consists solely of the empty string \u2013 i. e., that it contains no symbols at all \u2013 it may be denoted with a special notation ( often, e or ) in order to avoid confusion. - a distinguished symbol that is the start symbol. the semantics of grammars the operation of a grammar can be defined in terms of relations on strings : - given a grammar, the binary relation ( pronounced as \" g derives in one step \" ) on strings in is defined by : - the relation ( pronounced as g derives in zero or more steps ) is defined as the reflexive transitive closure of - a sentential form is a member of that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, a sentential form is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5811016818826502, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99965faf-12a7-4c7d-a354-48255ea89c73>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.763987"}
{"text": "g derives in zero or more steps ) is defined as the reflexive transitive closure of - a sentential form is a member of that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, a sentential form is a member of. a sentential form that contains no nonterminal symbols ( i. e. is a member of ) is called a sentence. - the language of, denoted as, is defined as all those sentences that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, the set. note that the grammar is effectively the semi - thue system, rewriting strings in exactly the same way ; the only difference is in that we distinguish specific nonterminal symbols which must be rewritten in rewrite rules, and are only interested in rewritings from the designated start symbol to strings without nonterminal symbols. for these examples, formal languages are specified using set - builder notation. consider the grammar where,, is the start symbol, and consists of the following production rules : this grammar defines the language where denotes a string of n consecutive ' s. thus, the language is the set of strings that consist of 1 or more ' s, followed by the same number of ' s, followed by the same number of ' s. some examples of the derivation of strings in are : - ( note on notation : reads \" string p generates string q by means of production i \", and the generated part is each time indicated in bold type. ) the chomsky hierarchy when noam chomsky first formalized generative grammars in 1956, he classified them into types now known as the chomsky hierarchy. the difference between these types is that they have increasingly strict production rules and can express fewer formal languages. two important types are context - free grammars ( type 2 ) and regular grammars ( type 3 ). the languages that can be described with such a grammar are called context - free languages and regular languages, respectively. although much less powerful than unrestricted grammars ( type 0 ), which can in fact express any language that can be accepted by a turing machine, these two restricted types of grammars are most often used because parsers for them can be efficiently implemented. for example, all regular languages can be recognized by a finite state machine, and for useful subsets of context - free grammars there are well - known algorithms to generate efficient ll parsers and lr parsers to recognize the corresponding languages", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6014881670727974, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99965faf-12a7-4c7d-a354-48255ea89c73>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.767483"}
{"text": "for example, all regular languages can be recognized by a finite state machine, and for useful subsets of context - free grammars there are well - known algorithms to generate efficient ll parsers and lr parsers to recognize the corresponding languages those grammars generate. context - free grammars a context - free grammar is a grammar in which the left - hand side of each production rule consists of only a single nonterminal symbol. this restriction is non - trivial ; not all languages can be generated by context - free grammars. those that can are called context - free languages. the language defined above is not a context - free language, and this can be strictly proven using the pumping lemma for context - free languages, but for example the language ( at least 1 followed by the same number of ' s ) is context - free, as it can be defined by the grammar with,, the start symbol, and the following production rules : a context - free language can be recognized in time ( see big o notation ) by an algorithm such as earley ' s algorithm. that is, for every context - free language, a machine can be built that takes a string as input and determines in time whether the string is a member of the language, where is the length of the string. deterministic context - free languages is a subset of context - free languages that can be recognized in linear time. there exist various algorithms that target either this set of languages or some subset of it. regular grammars in regular grammars, the left hand side is again only a single nonterminal symbol, but now the right - hand side is also restricted. the right side may be the empty string, or a single terminal symbol, or a single terminal symbol followed by a nonterminal symbol, but nothing else. ( sometimes a broader definition is used : one can allow longer strings of terminals or single nonterminals without anything else, making languages easier to denote while still defining the same class of languages. ) the language defined above is not regular, but the language ( at least 1 followed by at least 1, where the numbers may be different ) is, as it can be defined by the grammar with,, the start symbol, and the following production rules : all languages generated by a regular grammar can be recognized in linear time by a finite state machine. although, in practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using regular expressions, some forms of regular expression used in practice do not strictly generate the regular languages and do", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5453818790176472, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99965faf-12a7-4c7d-a354-48255ea89c73>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.768559"}
{"text": "languages generated by a regular grammar can be recognized in linear time by a finite state machine. although, in practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using regular expressions, some forms of regular expression used in practice do not strictly generate the regular languages and do not show linear recognitional performance due to those deviations. other forms of generative grammars many extensions and variations on chomsky ' s original hierarchy of formal grammars have been developed, both by linguists and by computer scientists, usually either in order to increase their expressive power or in order to make them easier to analyze or parse. some forms of grammars developed include : - tree - adjoining grammars increase the expressiveness of conventional generative grammars by allowing rewrite rules to operate on parse trees instead of just strings. - affix grammars and attribute grammars allow rewrite rules to be augmented with semantic attributes and operations, useful both for increasing grammar expressiveness and for constructing practical language translation tools. recursive grammars a recursive grammar is a grammar which contains production rules that are recursive. for example, a grammar for a context - free language is left - recursive if there exists a non - terminal symbol a that can be put through the production rules to produce a string with a as the leftmost symbol. all types of grammars in the chomsky hierarchy can be recursive. analytic grammars though there is a tremendous body of literature on parsing algorithms, most of these algorithms assume that the language to be parsed is initially described by means of a generative formal grammar, and that the goal is to transform this generative grammar into a working parser. strictly speaking, a generative grammar does not in any way correspond to the algorithm used to parse a language, and various algorithms have different restrictions on the form of production rules that are considered well - formed. an alternative approach is to formalize the language in terms of an analytic grammar in the first place, which more directly corresponds to the structure and semantics of a parser for the language. examples of analytic grammar formalisms include the following : - the language machine directly implements unrestricted analytic grammars. substitution rules are used to transform an input to produce outputs and behaviour. the system can also produce the lm - diagram which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied. - top - down parsing language ( tdpl ) : a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early 1970s to study the behavior", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5165732579779491, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99965faf-12a7-4c7d-a354-48255ea89c73>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.769652"}
{"text": "lm - diagram which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied. - top - down parsing language ( tdpl ) : a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early 1970s to study the behavior of top - down parsers. - link grammars : a form of analytic grammar designed for linguistics, which derives syntactic structure by examining the positional relationships between pairs of words. - parsing expression grammars ( pegs ) : a more recent generalization of tdpl designed around the practical expressiveness needs of programming language and compiler writers. see also - chomsky, noam ( 1956 ). \" three models for the description of language \". ire transactions on information theory 2 ( 2 ) : 113 \u2013 123. doi : 10. 1109 / tit. 1956. 1056813. - chomsky, noam ( 1957 ). syntactic structures. the hague : mouton. - ginsburg, seymour ( 1975 ). algebraic and automata theoretic properties of formal languages. north - holland. pp. 8 \u2013 9. isbn 0 - 7204 - 2506 - 9. - harrison, michael a. ( 1978 ). introduction to formal language theory. reading, mass. : addison - wesley publishing company. p. 13. isbn 0 - 201 - 02955 - 3. - sentential forms, context - free grammars, david matuszek - grune, dick & jacobs, ceriel h., parsing techniques \u2013 a practical guide, ellis horwood, england, 1990. - earley, jay, \" an efficient context - free parsing algorithm, \" communications of the acm, vol. 13 no. 2, pp. 94 - 102, february 1970. - knuth, donald ( july 1965 ). \" on the translation of languages from left to right \". information and control 8 : 707 \u2013 639. retrieved 29 may 2011. - joshi, aravind k., et al., \" tree adjunct grammars, \" journal of computer systems science, vol. 10 no. 1, pp. 136 - 163, 1975. - koster, cornelis h. a., \" affix grammars, \" in algol 68 implementation, north holland publishing company, amsterdam, p. 95 - 109, 1971. - knuth, donald e., \" semantics of context - free languages, \" mathematical systems theory, vol. 2 no", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5669937733230624, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99965faf-12a7-4c7d-a354-48255ea89c73>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.770633"}
{"text": "grammars, \" in algol 68 implementation, north holland publishing company, amsterdam, p. 95 - 109, 1971. - knuth, donald e., \" semantics of context - free languages, \" mathematical systems theory, vol. 2 no. 2, pp. 127 - 145, 1968. - knuth, donald e., \" semantics of context - free languages ( correction ), \" mathematical systems theory, vol. 5 no. 1, pp 95 - 96, 1971. - notes on formal language theory and parsing, james power, department of computer science national university of ireland, maynooth maynooth, co. kildare, ireland. jpr02 - birman, alexander, the tmg recognition schema, doctoral thesis, princeton university, dept. of electrical engineering, february 1970. - sleator, daniel d. & temperly, davy, \" parsing english with a link grammar, \" technical report cmu - cs - 91 - 196, carnegie mellon university computer science, 1991. - sleator, daniel d. & temperly, davy, \" parsing english with a link grammar, \" third international workshop on parsing technologies, 1993. ( revised version of above report. ) - ford, bryan, packrat parsing : a practical linear - time algorithm with backtracking, master \u2019 s thesis, massachusetts institute of technology, sept. 2002.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5550929021923704, "token_count": 286, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:99965faf-12a7-4c7d-a354-48255ea89c73>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.771156"}
{"text": "| look up gable in wiktionary, the free dictionary. | a gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of a sloping roof. the shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the structural system being used ( which is often related to climate and availability of materials ) and aesthetic concerns. thus the type of roof enclosing the volume dictates the shape of the gable. a gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the entire wall, including the gable and the wall below it. a variation of the gable is a crow - stepped gable, which has a stair - step design to accomplish the sloping portion. crow - stepped gables were used in scotland and england as early as the seventeenth century. examples of the crow - stepped gable can be seen at muchalls castle and monboddo house, both 17th century scottish buildings. other early examples are found in parts of denmark and sweden. gable ends of more recent buildings are often treated in the same way as the classic pediment form. but unlike classical structures, which operate through trabeation, the gable ends of many buildings are actually bearing - wall structures. thus, the detailing tends to be ambiguous, misleading, and to some architects \" deceitful \". [ why? ] see : john ruskin and the seven lamps of architecture. gable end roofs are among the worst roof designs for hurricane regions. not only do gable roofs easily peel off in hurricane winds, but according to one hurricane survival guide book, a gable end \" catches wind like a sail. \" [ this quote needs a citation ] when wind flows over a gable roof it behaves much like a wing. lift is created on the leeward side of the roof. the flatter the roof the more likely this will happen. steep roofs tend to cause the wind to \" stall \" as it goes over the roof and breaks up the effect. the addition of a \" vertical fin \" to low pitched roofs will also help. see also - bell - gable \u2013 espadana - crow - stepped gable - dutch gable - gablet roof - hip roof - cape dutch architecture - roof damage by hurricane force winds in bermuda the fabian experience, september 2003, page 5, mark rowe, department of environmental protection, government of bermuda | wikimedia commons has media related to : gables |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5227806657939671, "token_count": 474, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dd294bd2-c4c3-4825-a611-3952cd2314ed>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.804741"}
{"text": "| part of a series on | terminology mining, term extraction, term recognition, or glossary extraction, is a subtask of information extraction. the goal of terminology extraction is to automatically extract relevant terms from a given corpus. in the semantic web era, a growing number of communities and networked enterprises started to access and interoperate through the internet. modeling these communities and their information needs is important for several web applications, like topic - driven web crawlers, web services, recommender systems, etc. the development of terminology extraction is essential to the language industry. one of the first steps to model the knowledge domain of a virtual community is to collect a vocabulary of domain - relevant terms, constituting the linguistic surface manifestation of domain concepts. several methods to automatically extract technical terms from domain - specific document warehouses have been described in the literature. typically, approaches to automatic term extraction make use of linguistic processors ( part of speech tagging, phrase chunking ) to extract terminological candidates, i. e. syntactically plausible terminological noun phrases, nps ( e. g. compounds \" credit card \", adjective - nps \" local tourist information office \", and prepositional - nps \" board of directors \" - in english, the first two constructs are the most frequent ). terminological entries are then filtered from the candidate list using statistical and machine learning methods. once filtered, because of their low ambiguity and high specificity, these terms are particularly useful for conceptualizing a knowledge domain or for supporting the creation of a domain ontology. furthermore, terminology extraction is a very useful starting point for semantic similarity, knowledge management, human translation and machine translation, etc. see also - computational linguistics - natural language processing - domain ontology - subject indexing - taxanomy ( general ) - text mining - text simplification - menczer f., pant g. and srinivasan p. topic - driven crawlers : machine learning issues. - fan j. and kambhampati s. a snapshot of public web services, in acm sigmod record archive volume 34, issue 1 ( march 2005 ). - yan zheng wei, luc moreau, nicholas r. jennings. a market - based approach to recommender systems, in acm transactions on information systems ( tois ), 23 ( 3 ), 2005. - bourigault d. and jacquemin c. term extraction + term clustering : an integrated platform for computer - aided terminology", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5331156841697596, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84a3e9f0-b48c-4306-8647-7a416dff9597>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.811258"}
{"text": "systems, in acm transactions on information systems ( tois ), 23 ( 3 ), 2005. - bourigault d. and jacquemin c. term extraction + term clustering : an integrated platform for computer - aided terminology, in proc. of eacl, 1999. - collier n., nobata c. and tsujii j. automatic acquisition and classification of terminology using a tagged corpus in the molecular biology domain, terminology, 7 ( 2 ). 239 - 257, 2002 - k. frantzi, s. ananiadou and h. mima. ( 2000 ). automatic recognition of multi - word terms : the c - value / nc - value method. in : c. nikolau and c. stephanidis ( eds. ) international journal on digital libraries, vol. 3, no. 2., pp. 115 - 130. - k. frantzi, s. ananiadou and j. tsujii. ( 1998 ) the c - value / nc - value method of automatic recognition of multi - word terms, in : ecdl ' 98 proceedings of the second european conference on research and advanced technology for digital libraries, pp. 585 - 604. [ isbn : 3 - 540 - 65101 - 2 ] - l. kozakov, y. park, t. fin, y. drissi, y. doganata, and t. cofino. \" glossary extraction and utilization in the information search and delivery system for ibm technical support \", ibm system journal, volume 43, number 3, 2004 - navigli r. and velardi, p. learning domain ontologies from document warehouses and dedicated web sites. computational linguistics. 30 ( 2 ), mit press, 2004, pp. 151 - 179 - y. park, r. j. byrd, b. boguraev. \" automatic glossary extraction : beyond terminology identification \", international conference on computational linguistics, proceedings of the 19th international conference on computational linguistics - taipei, taiwan, 2002. - sclano, f. and velardi, p.. termextractor : a web application to learn the shared terminology of emergent web communities. to appear in proc. of the 3rd international conference on interoperability for enterprise software and applications ( i - esa 2007 ). funchal ( madeira island ), portugal, march 28 \u2013 30th, 2007. - p. velardi, r. navigli, p", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5418718983268828, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84a3e9f0-b48c-4306-8647-7a416dff9597>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.812170"}
{"text": "the 3rd international conference on interoperability for enterprise software and applications ( i - esa 2007 ). funchal ( madeira island ), portugal, march 28 \u2013 30th, 2007. - p. velardi, r. navigli, p. d ' amadio. mining the web to create specialized glossaries, ieee intelligent systems, 23 ( 5 ), ieee press, 2008, pp. 18 - 25. - wermter j. and hahn u. finding new terminology in very large corpora, in proc. of k - cap ' 05, october 2 \u2013 5, 2005, banff, alberta, canada - wong, w., liu, w. & bennamoun, m. ( 2007 ) determining termhood for learning domain ontologies using domain prevalence and tendency. in : 6th australasian conference on data mining ( ausdm ) ; gold coast. [ isbn : 978 - 1 - 920682 - 51 - 4 ] - wong, w., liu, w. & bennamoun, m. ( 2007 ) determining termhood for learning domain ontologies in a probabilistic framework. in : 6th australasian conference on data mining ( ausdm ) ; gold coast. [ isbn : 978 - 1 - 920682 - 51 - 4 ] - wong, w., liu, w. & bennamoun, m. ( 2008 ) determination of unithood and termhood for term recognition. in : m. song and y. wu ; handbook of research on text and web mining technologies ; igi global. [ isbn : 978 - 1 - 59904 - 990 - 8 ] - texlexan - an open - source text summarizer and keyword extractor. - anchovy anchovy is a free multilingual cross - platform glossary editor and term extraction tool based on the open glossary markup language ( glossml ) format. - lexterm, a free / open - source lexical extractor for terminology and translation ( mono - and bilingual extraction ). - sematext key phrase extractor, a package for extraction of collocations, statistically improbable phrases ( sips ), etc. by sematext - five filters term extraction, a free software term extraction service web application - alchemyapi, a web - based multi - lingual keyword / terminology extraction api web application - zemanta api, a web - based keyword extraction and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5378175523570855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84a3e9f0-b48c-4306-8647-7a416dff9597>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.813186"}
{"text": "five filters term extraction, a free software term extraction service web application - alchemyapi, a web - based multi - lingual keyword / terminology extraction api web application - zemanta api, a web - based keyword extraction and disambiguation api by zemanta - yahoo term extraction api web application - introduction to terminology management, by ibm - termine, a term management system by the uk ' s national centre for text mining. web application - termextractor, a free terminology extraction web application - termfinder, free online terminology extractor web application - trm extractor, experimental terminology extractor web application that can process english and hungarian texts - statistical bilingual terminology extractor, online terminology extractor web application - ngram statistics package, open source package for identifying collocations - heartsome araya bilingual terminology extractor for tmx files, by heartsome europe - english phrases extractor, by the blogscope team at the university of toronto, extracted terms are used to search for conceptually related blogs over the web rather than for linguistic analysis purpose web application - a demo of document skimming and scanning using domain - related terms extracted from news articles. the domain terms are organised into ' term clouds ' for visualising key concepts in the news. - an interface for extracting domain - relevant terms from documents using the ot and th measures. a list of documents together with their automatically extracted domain - relevant terms are available for browsing here. - gabor melli ' s info page on terminology extraction - yahoo! quest demo exploiting term extraction for browsing the yahoo! answers q & a collection - ultimate research assistant, a free online literacy tool with strong multi - lingual terminology extraction capabilities and visualizations including bar charts, mind maps, and taxonomies. includes xml web services for term extraction, text summarization, and taxonomy generation / clustering.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5105705724484788, "token_count": 386, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84a3e9f0-b48c-4306-8647-7a416dff9597>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.813966"}
{"text": "be owing to the veneration i have for antiquity, but more to observing that some fables discover a great and evident similitude, relation, and connection with the thing they signify, as well in the structure of the fable as in the propriety of the names whereby the persons or actors are characterized ; insomuch, that no one could positively deny a sense and meaning to be from the first intended, and purposely shadowed out in them. for who can hear that fame, after the giants were destroyed, sprung up as their posthumous sister, and not apply it to the clamour of parties and the seditious rumours which commonly fly about for a time upon the quelling of insurrections? or who can read how the giant typhon cut out and carried away jupiter ' s sinews - which mercury afterwards stole and again restored to jupiter - and not presently observe that this allegory denotes strong and powerful rebellions, which cut away from kings their sinews, both of money and authority ; and that the way to have them restored is by lenity, affability, and prudent edicts, which soon reconcile, and as it were steal upon the affections of the subject? or who, upon hearing that memorable expedition of the gods against the giants, when the braying of silenus ' s ass greatly contributed in putting the giants to flight, does not clearly conceive that this directly points at the monstrous enterprises of rebellious subjects, which are frequently frustrated and disappointed by vain fears and empty rumours? again, the conformity and purport of the names is frequently manifest and self - evident. thus metis the wife of jupiter, plainly signifies counsel ; typhon, swelling ; pan, universality ; nemesis, revenge, & c. nor is it a wonder, if sometimes a piece of history or other things are introduced, by way of ornament ; or if the times of the action are confounded ; or if part of one fable be tacked to another ; or if the allegory be new turned ; for all this must necessarily happen, as the fables were the inventions of men who lived in different ages and had different views ; some of them being ancient, others more modern ; some having an eye to natural philosophy, and others to morality or civil policy. it may pass for a farther indication of a concealed and secret meaning, that some of these fables are so absurd and idle in their narration as to show and proclaim an allegory, even", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5005327300445961, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1bf22d47-943a-465d-9895-0171e05ebba1>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.867971"}
{"text": "philosophy, and others to morality or civil policy. it may pass for a farther indication of a concealed and secret meaning, that some of these fables are so absurd and idle in their narration as to show and proclaim an allegory, even afar off. a fable that carries probability with it may be supposed invented for pleasure, or in imitation of history ; but those that could never be conceived or related in this way must surely have a different use. for example, what a monstrous fiction is this, that jupiter should take metis to wife, and as soon as he found her pregnant eat her up, whereby he also conceived, and out of his head brought forth pallas armed. certainly no mortal could, but for the sake of the moral it couches, invent such an absurd dream as this, so much out of the road of thought! but the argument of most weight with me is this, that many of these fables by no means appear to have been invented by the persons who relate and divulge them, whether homer, hesiod, or others ; for if i were assured they first flowed from those later times and authors that transmit them to us, i should never expect anything singularly great or noble from such an origin. but who - ever attentively considers the thing, will find that these fables are delivered down and related by those writers, not as matters then first invented and proposed, but as things received and embraced in earlier ages. besides, as they are differently related by writers nearly of the same ages, it is easily perceived that the relators drew from the common stock of ancient tradition, and varied but in point of embellishment, which is their own. and this principally raises my esteem of these fables, which i receive, not as the product of the age, or invention of the poets, but as sacred relics, gentle whispers, and the breath of better times, that from the traditions of more ancient nations came, at length, into the flutes and trumpets of the greeks. but if any one shall, notwithstanding this, contend that allegories are always adventitious, or imposed upon the ancient fables, and no way native or genuinely contained in them, we might here leave him undisturbed in that gravity of judgment he affects ( though we cannot help accounting it somewhat dull and phlegmatic ), and if it were worth the trouble, proceed to another kind of argument. men have proposed to answer two different and contrary ends by the use of parable ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5179059030337938, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1bf22d47-943a-465d-9895-0171e05ebba1>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.869178"}
{"text": "judgment he affects ( though we cannot help accounting it somewhat dull and phlegmatic ), and if it were worth the trouble, proceed to another kind of argument. men have proposed to answer two different and contrary ends by the use of parable ; for parables serve as well to instruct or illustrate as to wrap up and envelop, so that though, for the present, we drop the concealed use, and suppose the ancient fables to be vague, undeterminate things, formed for amusement, still the other use must remain, and can never be given up. and every man, of any learning, must readily allow that this method of instructing is grave, sober, or exceedingly useful, and sometimes necessary in the sciences, as it opens an easy and familiar passage to the human understanding, in all new discoveries that are abstruse and out of the road of vulgar opinions. hence, in the first ages, when such inventions and conclusions of the human reason as are now trite and common were new and little known, all things abounded with fables, parables, similes, comparisons and allusions, which were not intended to conceal, but to inform and teach, whilst the minds of men continued rude and unpractised in matters of subtilty and speculation, or even impatient, and in a manner uncapable of receiving such things as did not directly fall under and strike the senses. for as hieroglyphics were in use before writing, so were parables in use before arguments. and even to this day, if any man would let new light in upon the human understanding, and conquer prejudice, without raising contests, animosities, opposition, or disturbance, he must still go in the same path, and have recourse to the like method of allegory, metaphor, and allusion. to conclude, the knowledge of the early ages was either great or happy ; great, if they by design made this use of trope and figure ; happy, if, whilst they had other views, they afforded matter and occasion to such noble contemplations. let either be the case, our pains, perhaps, will not be misemployed, whether we illustrate antiquity or things themselves. the like indeed has been attempted by others ; but to speak ingenuously, their great and voluminous labours have almost destroyed the energy, the efficacy, and grace of the thing, whilst being unskilled in nature, and their learning no more than that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.525068267935071, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1bf22d47-943a-465d-9895-0171e05ebba1>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.870239"}
{"text": "\" there may indeed, my friends, be one bond and means of security between us ; and that is, for you to demonstrate you have delivered into our hands, such things as that if you had the greatest desire to hurt us you could not be able. \" therefore, if the power of offending be taken away, or if by a breach of compact there be danger of destruction or diminution to the state or tribute, then it is that covenants will be ratified, and confirmed, as it were by the stygian oath, whilst there remains an impending danger of being prohibited and excluded the banquet of the gods ; by which expression the ancients denoted the rights and prerogatives, the affluence and the felicities, of empire and dominion. - ^ varro distributes the ages of the world into three periods ; viz. the unknown, the fabulous, and the historical. of the former we have no accounts but in scripture ; for the second we must consult the ancient poets, such as hesiod, homer, or those who wrote still earlier, and then again come back to ovid, who in his metamorphoses, seems, in imitation perhaps of some ancient greek poet, to have intended a complete collection, or a kind of continued and connected history of the fabulous age, especially with regard to changes, revolutions, or transformations.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5040694191853455, "token_count": 282, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1bf22d47-943a-465d-9895-0171e05ebba1>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.877275"}
{"text": "a stock character is a fictional character that relies heavily on cultural types for its personality, manner of speech, and other characteristics. stock characters are instantly recognizable to members of a given culture. stock characters in the western tradition originate from the theatres of ancient greece and rome. some examples of stock characters are : - the hero - the villain, evil personified, be it the duke of gloucester in william shakespeare ' s richard iii or prince john in the robin hood stories. - the damsel in distress, the young, beautiful, virginal woman who must be rescued from some cruel fate by the hero, a la penelope pitstop [? ]. - the femme fatale, la belle dame sans merci, the black widow, the beautiful, but evil woman who leads the hero to his doom. - the fop : the fop is a man attempting but failing to rise into fashionable aristocratic culture. he is typically overdressed and his speech is characterized by over - use or misuse of popular phrases ( often french phrases ) or various forms of hypercorrection [? ]. the fop is never intelligent and always talkative. zorro hid behind the image of the fop, don diego. the scarlet pimpernel hid behind the persona of sir percy blakeney. - the fool : the fool is a clown or joker who speaks in riddles and puns. often, the fool is intelligent and witty and reveals key truths about the characters he fools with ( shakespeare ' s fools, such as the ones in twelfth night and king lear, are well - known examples ). - the mad scientist : the insane man of science, who either accidentally or intentionally \" meddles with the forces of nature \" and causes the trouble which the hero must correct. - the revenger : the revenger is a hot - blooded young man who has had a loved one ( ideally a fiance ) cruelly murdered and / or raped and seeks his revenge outside the law. ( laertes in hamlet and hamlet himself are examples of revengers. ) - the sidekick - the hero ' s helper, sancho panza in don quixote, dr. watson in sherlock holmes. the sidekick is often a figure of fun, but is trustworthy and sometimes shows surprising resourcefulness and bravery. in whodunnits and secondary literature on detective fiction in general, the sidekick is often referred to as the watson - - slightly dumber than the average reader, time and again overlooking decisive clues, occasionally drawing the wrong conclusions ( such as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5002680744566455, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f2df3cf5-0027-4888-ae72-d846883ac338>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.880218"}
{"text": "energy in agriculture resources energy in agriculture program - food and fiber processing technologies read about california food and fiber processing facilities participating in research, development, and demonstration projects to advance the adoption of energy and resource efficient technologies. process energy videos food processing video : steam system best practices are used to optimize system performance. basic management principles and maintenance proceedures are described that will enhance steam system efficiencies. - california ' s food processing industry energy efficiency initiative : adoption of industrial best practices, january 2008, cec publication # cec - 400 - 2008 - 006, posted : january 31, 2008. ( pdf file, 35 pgs., 2. 3 mb research and demonstration projects - fetzer case study # 1 - heat exchange system improvement saves energy and improves production at a winery. - fetzer case study # 2 - controls upgrade at a winery saves energy and increases equipment life. electricity peak load reduction - pacific coast producers - tomato - processing company moves facility location to upgrade equipment, increase production, improve efficiency, and be closer to where the tomatoes are grown. pacific coast producers - measurement and verification report, energy commission publication # cec - 400 - 2003 - 902, march 2003. ( pdf file, 19 pages, 702 kilobytes ) - campbell soup company - waste heat driven turbines - valley fig growers - variable speed controlled refrigeration system benchmarking, power quality & market studies - technology roadmap : energy efficiency in california ' s food industry - the california institute of food and agricultural research formed a food industry advisory council of industry and technology experts. this group prioritized research that would help the industry meet their objectives, and developed a vision and plan for the future. their findings, bolstered by input from public forums, are presented in this roadmap, along with recommendations for the future. - dynamic characterization of process power quality for the california food processing industry - in - line - monitoring systems were installed to collect real time performance data from plant equipment while the food production was in process. using this monitoring data, plant process equipment schematics and historical plant process performance data, overall process sensitivities to different power quality disturbances were defined. - california institute of food and agricultural research survey on energy management in the food industry", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5666124857965743, "token_count": 462, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f0050c4d-c548-4465-bacc-b773350a24fb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.886059"}
{"text": "ananyo writes \" rappers making up rhymes on the fly while in a brain scanner have provided an insight into the creative process. freestyle rapping \u2014 in which a performer improvises a song by stringing together unrehearsed lyrics \u2014 is a highly prized skill in hip hop. but instead of watching a performance in a club, siyuan liu and allen braun, neuroscientists at the u. s. national institute on deafness and other communication disorders in bethesda, maryland, and their colleagues had 12 rappers freestyle in a functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fmri ) machine. the artists also recited a set of memorized lyrics chosen by the researchers. by comparing the brain scans from rappers taken during freestyling to those taken during the rote recitation, they were able to see which areas of the brain are used during improvisation. the rappers showed lower activity in part of their frontal lobes called the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during improvisation, and increased activity in another area, called the medial prefrontal cortex. the areas that were found to be ' deactivated ' are associated with regulating other brain functions. the results echo an earlier study of jazz musicians. the findings also suggest an explanation for why new music might seem to the artist to be created of its own accord. with less involvement by the lateral prefrontal regions of the brain, the performance could seem to its creator to have ' occurred outside of conscious awareness, ' the authors write in the paper. \" bonus points for science rhymes ; for anyone who has the time.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5353240622016087, "token_count": 316, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a87e4c3-6435-4992-b296-70038e2f3a20>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.887756"}
{"text": "normal left eardrum ( tympanic membrane ) the eardrum is a paper - thin membrane, shaped like a miniature satellite dish, 8 - 10 mm diameter. the tympanic membrane forms the boundary between outer and middle ear. the eardrum vibrates when sounds arrive through the external ear canal. the vibrations are transmitted to the inner ear via three small bones ( ossicles ) suspended in the middle ear. abnormally thin right eardrum damaged by glue ear and showing ossicles - malleus incus and stapes the three little bones ( oss - i - culls ) are - malleus ( mal - ee - us ) shaped like a hammer - incus ( ink - us ) shaped like an anvil - stapes ( stay - peas ) shaped like a stirrup their job is to concentrate the sound energy, collected by the relatively large area of the eardrum, onto the tiny footplate of the stapes. the outer and middle ear work like an old mechanical gramophone in reverse. the gramophone needle picks up vibrations from the grooves in the record, passes them to a vibrating membrane, then into the large horn, and so to the outside world. the outer and middle ear collect sound from the outside world and concentrate it down to the stapes footplate. the footplate moves like a piston in the oval window, the opening of the inner ear. the inner ear has two parts, the cochlea and the vestibular labyrinth. cochleathe cochlea is the hearing part of the inner ear. it is a biological microphone. sound vibrations are turned into electrical signals and sent to the brain in the nerve of hearing. the vestibular labyrinth of the inner ear is concerned with balance. disturbance of the balance organ of the inner ear can cause vertigo. the eustachian tube connects the middle ear with the back of the nose. to hear normally, the eardrum and ossicles must be able to move easily. for this to occur, the middle ear must contain air at the same atmospheric pressure as the outer ear. air in the middle ear comes from the back of the nose, via the eustachian tube. the job of the eustachian tube is to ventilate the middle ear, keeping the pressure in the middle ear the same as in the outer ear. most middle ear diseases, including glue ear, are associated with poor eustachian tube function. the health of the middle ear depends on the eustachian tube", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5001050611053109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15fed52c-11de-46ed-8970-2142328ad4b7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.913197"}
{"text": "recourse to grommets. sometimes, if glue ear has persisted a long time, the eardrum may become permanently damaged and will not hold a grommet. in such cases, a hearing aid may be the only way of restoring hearing. what is a grommet / ventilation tube - how does it work? shah grommet held between forefinger and thumb shah grommet in position right eardrum - abnormally thin due to longstanding retraction prior to fitting grommet. head of stapes visible, long process of incus partially eroded long term shah ventilation tube in position right ear eac = external ear canal vt = ventilation tube tm = tympanic membrane ( eardrum ) the long term ventilation tube is larger than the standard grommet. a grommet is a tiny plastic tube, shaped like a miniature cotton reel, about 2mm diameter. it is fitted through a small cut in the eardrum ( myringotomy ). the tension of the eardrum grips the grommet around its waist. the cotton - reel shape stops it falling in or out, like a shirt stud in a button hole. the grommet allows air from the outer ear directly into the middle ear. provided the grommet remains in position and is not blocked, the hearing returns to normal almost immediately. a grommet does not drain, it ventilates - lets air in the grommet does not drain fluid out, it lets air into the middle ear. another name for a grommet is a ventilation tube, sometimes abbreviated to tube or vt. they can also be called tympanostomy tubes or tt ' s. short term and long term grommets the standard shah grommet is designed to stay in position for about nine months. then the opening in the eardrum heals over, and the grommet is pushed out. longer term ventilation tubes are sometimes fitted, which can last for several years. but long term grommets are more likely to leave a perforation which may need repair later. grommets don ' t treat underlying cause of glue ear it is important to understand that a grommet does not cure the underlying cause of glue ear. grommets do help relieve deafness and earache - for a while a grommet does provide highly effective and immediate relief of deafness and earaches. the grommet only works while it is - in the right position ( in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5205882538965347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15fed52c-11de-46ed-8970-2142328ad4b7>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.918976"}
{"text": "[ erlang - questions ] design methodology going from object oriented to functional programming? tue oct 23 04 : 41 : 26 cest 2007 actually, at the level you are describing, there should be no difference between fp and oop. while oop definitely emphasize data and relations, it is not the only paradigm that does so - and given your background you should be experienced with the relational paradigm, which has even heavier emphasis on data and relations, but is not oop. to leverage your knowledge on relations - you can pretend sql queries are functions, i. e. select is a function, update is a function, and insert is a function. then instead of writing insert ( object ) - which looks a lot like the sql query insert into table... that ' s it. in the java style oop the head of the statement is an object, and in fp the head of the statement is a function name. but in either case you need to model the same world. an extremely crude way of thinking about fp is that it decouples the data from the function ( or vice versa, that oop couples functions and data ). that means some facilities that you ' ve taken for granted in oop, such as inheritance, polymorphism, etc., will no longer be available. but fp have a different approaches to address these problems, and that ' s where the rubber meet the road. erlang ' s process model is basically the actor model - the idea of everything is an actor feels similar to everything is an object in oop. so as others have alluded to instead of thinking in objects you can think in processes. but actor model is independent of fp or oop, so you would still have to get used to the fp part in erlang. you might want to check out http : / / www. math. chalmers. se / ~ rjmh / papers / whyfp. html < http : / / www. math. chalmers. se / % 7erjmh / papers / whyfp. html >. a higher level introduction is http : / / www. defmacro. org / ramblings / fp. html. on 10 / 22 / 07, alexander lamb < > wrote : > hello list, > i am trying to understand what is the design process ( intellectual, that > is ) when building a program in erlang. > indeed, in the object oriented world, i would start by finding what my > classes might be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5299363241264955, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b480edef-faa3-4d41-bb3d-093798823b41>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.938957"}
{"text": "> hello list, > i am trying to understand what is the design process ( intellectual, that > is ) when building a program in erlang. > indeed, in the object oriented world, i would start by finding what my > classes might be and the relationship between them. gradually i would add > functions ( class or instance methods ) to the classes in order to provide > solid foundations on top of which i can write an application. > for example, i could have person, profile, role, feature, etc... and > decide a profile is a collection of features. a person can have 0 or many > roles. a role is a profile on a given area ( a department for example ) for a > given time. i would then add functions such as \" give all the active roles > for the user \" or \" what features give that profile \" or \" does the user have a > given feature for that department \". > i admit it is more complexe than that, but you get the idea. > obviously, this doesn ' t seem to be the way to go with erlang. intuitively, > i would start making a list of all the functions which will allow me to > interract with my application. in that case i could have \" give me all users > with an active role on that department \", etc... then by implementing those > high level functions i would split them into pieces by calling smaller > simpler functions. the underlying data structure will \" just follow \" or > \" appear \" naturally. > hence : object oriented design is \" data structure and relationships first, > functions second \" and functional design is \" functions first, data structure > am i being over simplistic here. are there some guidelines as to how one > can approach a problem when creating a new program? especially programs > which deal with persistent data, not protocole analysers or socket servers! > alexander lamb > founding associate > rodanotech sarl > 4 ch. de la tour de champel > 1206 geneva > tel : 022 347 77 37 > fax : 022 347 77 38 > erlang - questions mailing list - - - - - - - - - - - - - - next part - - - - - - - - - - - - - - an html attachment was scrubbed... more information about the erlang - questions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.536093341586749, "token_count": 489, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b480edef-faa3-4d41-bb3d-093798823b41>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:05.940087"}
{"text": "cori spezzati ( kor ' ee spetz ah ' tee ), italian for \" separated choirs, \" is the term used to describe a musical composition that uses spatial effects to emphasize the interplay between its various voices. typically, this means placing two or more choirs or groups of instruments in various places around a performance space. music that is intended to be performed cori spezatti is by nature antiphonal ; in fact, some consider these two terms to be synonymous, at least when they refer to instrumental music. cori spezzati isn ' t a particularly common form of music, and for obvious reasons. in order for it to work out right, it must be performed in a specific type of space ; namely, one which is both big enough to accomodate the separation of the instrumental / vocal groups and acoustically suited to the kind of call and answer phrasing that characterizes antiphonal music. ( if the space is too echoey, the interplay among the groups just becomes muddled. if it ' s just moderately echoey, though, it sounds great. ) and even in concert halls which meet these specifications, there ' s a certain awkwardness to the idea of putting half the ensemble onstage and sending the rest up to the balcony or ( as i have seen done ) forsaking the stage altogether and having half the group stand in the left - hand balcony and the other half in the right - hand one. the type of performance space which is most obviously suited to cori spezzati is the cathedral ; in churches, the problem of the stage is eliminated, and there are generally balconies and nooks and crannies galore in renaissance - style basilicas. unsurprisingly, a renaissance basilica was the formal birthplace of cori spezzati : in the late 1500 ' s, giovanni gabrieli, the music director, organist, and composer - in - residence at st. mark ' s basilica in venice, began experimenting with the idea of separating his choirs and putting them in different places around the church. gabrieli is considered to be the father of cori spezzati, and probably the only composer to write a serious volume of work in this style. he wrote both choral and instrumental pieces ( mostly sacred, because of the nature of his job ), some of which are still performed today and shouldn ' t be too hard to find recordings of. ( i, unfortunately, do not own recordings of any of gabriel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5068888938314834, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0f78d82f-b865-4b55-ace2-dd4fb2425460>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.002635"}
{"text": "i have taught this introductory survey course to large groups ranging from 75 to 120 students. in the classroom, i use structured class discussions to promote student engagement, assign in - class writing on weekly readings, utilize small groups to involve even the most reserved students in class activities, and bring research and media familiar to students ' lives as a way of illustrating key sociological concepts. i often incorporate my own research on collegiate cultures to demonstrate both how to do research and ways that sociology intersects with their own worlds.. in this introductory course, we will explore what it means to do sociology. one of the most exciting things about sociology is that you can study anything from a sociological perspective. therefore, this class will cover a variety of diverse issues including but not limited to race, class, gender, deviance, religion, and politics. throughout the semester we will look at how these topics relate to current social issues. most importantly, students will learn to apply a sociological lens to the topics that most interest them. this upper - level course is designed for between 50 - 75 students. the class provides the students with empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks necessary to understand the k - 12 and postsecondary educational systems in the united states. the class is discussion based, and focused on honing students \u2019 critical thinking skills. students must complete two mini - paper assignments designed to build their writing skills. in this class we explore how external forces ( like politics, financial support, and demographics of the population ) shape how schools work, how internal institutional arrangements sort and channel students in different directions, what factors shape student achievement and behavior, and how schooling influences where individuals end up in society. we start with a case study of how gender, race, and class shape students \u2019 experiences in urban schools. we then move to examination of key theories in the sociology of education, and analyze their utility for understanding today \u2019 s educational issues. the class also includes a second case study that helps us to look across and within schools as institutions. finally, we end with a closer look at how social class, race, gender, and sexuality both organize and are organized by educational environments. this upper - level course is designed for a small group of students, up to 35. in the class, i seek to build studentsi knowledge of sociological perspectives on the family while strengthening their written and oral communication skills. the class is discussion based, and driven by student participation. i encourage critical thinking about how data on the family are collected, analyzed, and presented as \" fact. \" students also employ critical thinking", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5194921217808197, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e1858282-717a-4140-9d44-0f7468438732>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.007917"}
{"text": "france, officially the french republic is a unitary semi - presidential republic in western europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the indian, pacific, and atlantic oceans. metropolitan france extends from the mediterranean sea to the english channel and the north sea, and from the rhine to the atlantic ocean. it is often referred to as l \u2019 hexagone because of the geometric shape of its territory. it is the largest western european country and it possesses the second - largest exclusive economic zone in the world, just behind that of the united states. over the past 500 years france has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in europe and around the world. during the 17th and 18th centuries, france colonised great parts of north america and southeast asia ; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, france built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of north, west and central africa, southeast asia, and many caribbean and pacific islands. france has its main ideals expressed in the declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen. the french republic is defined as indivisible, secular, democratic and social by its constitution. france is one of the world ' s most developed countries, it possesses the world ' s fifth largest economy measured by gdp, the ninth - largest economy measured by purchasing power parity and is europe ' s second largest economy by nominal gdp. france is the wealthiest nation in europe \u2013 and the fourth wealthiest in the world \u2013 in aggregate household wealth. france enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world ' s longest life expectancies. france has been listed as the world ' s \" best overall health care \" provider by the world health organization. it is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually. france has the world ' s fourth largest nominal military budget, the third largest military in nato and eu ' s largest army. france also possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world \u2013 with around 300 active warheads as of 25 may 2010 \u2013 and the world ' s second largest diplomatic corps. france is a founding member of the united nations, one of the five permanent members of the un security council, and a member of the francophonie, the g8, g20, nato, oecd, wto, and the latin union. it is also a founding and leading member state of the european union and the largest eu state by area. in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5092273085158479, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1c0efd2d-38f6-4228-8f51-e6004f1e9fc4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.026682"}
{"text": "step 2 is difficult. chapter 5 of \" the book of genesis \" ( \" the bog \" ), which was assigned as reading for this lecture, gives some useful information for answering the two questions. this chapter ( segev, 2005 ) is also very mathematical, and it is easy to get lost in the equations and forget what they are used for. i wanted you to read it in order to get an overview of the theory of passive propagation in dendrites. now, i ' ll list what i think is important for you to remember. there are three things that can be measured experimentally and are related to the parameters that we need for a model : - the attentuation of voltage with distance, and the \" space constant \" or - the membrane time constant. - the input resistance of the cell, measured at the soma. this slide gives a summary of the electrical properties of a uniform section of passive dendrite having length l and diameter d. the conducting cytoplasm inside the neuron, the insulating neural membrane, and the liquid ( similar to salt water ) surrounding the neuron form a cable with a capacitance cm. the inner conductor, the cytoplasm, is a poorer conductor than the copper wire used in an undersea cable, and it has an resistance along the length of the cable ra, the \" axial resistance \". the membrane in not a perfect insulator due to the ion - conducting channels that pass through it. it is convenient to make a distinction between the \" passive channels \" that do not vary in conductance, and the \" active channels \" that have conductances varying with voltage, calcium concentration, or synaptic input. the passive channels account for the membrane resistance rm and the associated leakage current ileak. the active channels are represented by the various variable conductances that are labeled as gk in the neural compartment diagram and the differential equation for vm that we described in the previous section on compartments.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5753639345419717, "token_count": 403, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c4dcbca5-ce92-4349-8ae3-a98b4e7976f8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.036777"}
{"text": "write with a style and clarity that students will appreciate. this full - color book is organized into four parts that reflect the presence of sports around us. part i sets the stage for studying sport in society. part ii examines the scope and effect of sport on society. part iii explores sport as an institution and how it functions within other institutions such as schools, colleges, and the olympic movement. part ivfocuses on the interaction between our society \u2019 s culture and sports. in 19 chapters, the book enthusiastically invites students to explore many issues, such as how a participant, spectator, coach, and administrator may have differing views of sports ; how to distinguish between different levels of play, games, and sport when assessing the role of sport ; and what trends to expect in the future and how to be part of a positive development of sporting structures. social issues in sports contains the following features that encourage learning : - an engaging writing style, rich with examples and pedagogical aids, gets students excited about and invested in the sporting world around them. - interesting sidebars include up - close profiles of significant people and organizations ( in the arena with ), examples of how sport is viewed in the public ( pop culture ), and insights from those who study the subject extensively ( expert \u2019 s view ). - activity time - outs, nicely integrated with the text, invite readers to recognize and assess the sociocultural issues that sport raises and apply the book \u2019 s concepts to their own lives. - an instructor guide, test package, and presentation package provide instructors with tools and assignment ideas to ensure that students remain engaged. social issues in sport is an engaging, in - depth, and inspiring resource that will help students understand the value of sport and its limitations and equip them to make choices about the role sports will play in their lives. about the author : ron woods, ph. d is a performance coach at the human performance institute in orlando, florida and an adjunct professor at the university of tampa and the university of south florida. ron formerly worked for the united states tennis association for twenty years as director of player development and community tennis. formerly, a professor at west chester university of pennsylvania in exercise science and coach of men \u2019 s tennis. he has been honored by the international tennis hall of fame, national coach of the year for united states professional tennis association and was inducted into the athletic hall of fame at both east stroudsburg university and west chester university.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5124231474130059, "token_count": 494, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:122a7595-b9f5-483a-805a-22ff70fedd52>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.061648"}
{"text": "bisphenol a, or bpa, is a chemical compound used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. bpa has been in use for over 50 years, and is often used to make plastics hard and shatter - resistant. it ' s also used to coat metal items like the inside of food cans, bottle caps and canned drinks. you can find bpa in plastic baby bottles, sports equipment, compact discs, water bottles, medical equipment, dental sealants, eyeglass lenses, electronic devices, paints, and countless other consumer products. even cash register receipts can be coated with bpa. health effects of bisphenol a bpa has come under increased scrutiny in recent years for its possible connection to birth defects and reproductive problems. studies have shown that bpa mimics the hormone estrogen, and it might be linked to problems like lower sperm counts, hormonal changes, enlarged prostate glands, brain and behavioral abnormalities, early onset of puberty, obesity and a host of other health problems. ( it shares many of these problems with another plastic additive, phthalates. ) it ' s unclear at what levels bpa will health problems, or if bpa studies in animals can be applied to humans. people can be exposed to bpa through many sources, though food and drink account for most exposures. the recycling symbol \" 7 \" indicates a polycarbonate plastic containing bpa. metal cans, however, will usually not indicate whether they contain a bpa lining or not. if you ' re concerned about exposure to bpa, follow these simple suggestions from the national institute of environmental health sciences : - don \u2019 t microwave polycarbonate plastic food containers. ( look for the recycling symbol # 7 on the bottom. ) - reduce your use of canned foods. - when possible, opt for glass, porcelain or stainless steel containers, particularly for hot food or liquids. - use baby bottles and toys that are bpa - free.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5145050203896329, "token_count": 401, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9a38a5f2-9f32-4bf9-9f75-2f4d8fd5d988>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.066349"}
{"text": "| version 5 ( modified by simonmar, 3 years ago ) | the garbage collector gc algorithms supported : - copying gc - parallel gc? - marking? ( for compaction or sweeping ) - sweeping? ( for mark - region gc ) the gc is designed to be flexible, supporting lots of ways to tune its behaviour. here ' s an overview of the techniques we use : - generational gc, with a runtime - selectable number of generations ( + rts - g < n > - rts, where n > = 1 ). currently it is a traditional generational collector where each collection collects a particular generation and all younger generations. generalizing this such that any subset of generations can be collected is a possible future extension. - the heap grows on demand. this is straightforwardly implemented by basing the whole storage manager on a block allocator. - aging : objects can be aged within a generation, to avoid premature promotion. see commentary / rts / storage / gc / aging. - the heap collection policy is runtime - tunable. you select how large a generation gets before it is collected using the + rts - f < n > - rts option, where < n > is a factor of the generation ' s size the last time it was collected. the default value is 2, that is a generation is allowed to double in size before being collected. gc data structures the main data structure is generation, which contains : - a pointer to a list of blocks - a pointer to a list of blocks containing large objects - a list of threads in this generation - the \" remembered set \", a list of blocks containing pointers to objects in this generation that point to objects in younger generations and various other administrative fields ( see includes / rts / storage / gc. h for the details ). generations are kept in the array generations, indexed by the generation number. a nursery is a list of blocks into which the mutator allocates new ( small ) objects. for resaons of locality, we want to re - use the list of blocks for the nursery after each gc, so we keep the nursery blocks rather than freeing and re - allocating a new nursery after gc. the struct nursery contains only two fields - the list of blocks in this nursery - the number of blocks in the above list in the threaded rts, there is one nursery per capability, as each capability allocates independently into its own allocation area.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5155008311529659, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:33a5f7fa-0ccf-4ab3-bb64-d5642ce42372>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.075049"}
{"text": "a splendrous lotus with four superb petals for over 200 years, western scholars have struggled to understand hinduism, a faith whose followers seemed ( to outsiders ) to arbitrarily worship any one of a dozen gods as the supreme, a religion vastly diverse in its beliefs, practices and ways of worship. some indologists labeled the hinduism they encountered polytheistic ; others even coined new terms, like henotheism, to describe this baffling array of spiritual traditions. few, however, have realized, and fewer still have written, that india ' s sanatana dharma, or \" eternal faith, \" known today as hinduism and comprising nearly a billion followers, is a family of religions with four principal denominations saivism, shaktism, vaishnavism and smartism. this single perception is essential for understanding hinduisim and explaining it accurately to others. contrary to prevailing misconceptions, hindus all worship a one supreme being, though by different names. for vaishnavites, lord vishnu is god. for saivites, god is siva. for shaktas, goddess shakti is supreme. for smartas, liberal hindus, the choice of deity is left to the devotee. each has a multitude of guru lineages, religious leaders, priesthoods, sacred literature, monastic communities, schools, pilgrimage centers and tens of thousands of temples. they possess a wealth of art and architecture, philosophy and scholarship. these four sects hold such divergent beliefs that each is a complete and independent religion. yet, they share a vast heritage of culture and belief karma, dharma, reincarnation, all - pervasive divinity, temple worship, sacraments, manifold deities, the guru - shishya tradition and the vedas as scriptural authority. in this eight - page insight, drawn from satguru sivaya subramuniyaswami ' s dancing with siva, we offer a synopsis of these four denominations, followed by a point - by - point comparison. each of hinduism ' s philosophies, schools and lineages shares a common purpose : to further the soul ' s unfoldment to its divine destiny. nowhere is this process better represented than in the growth of the renowned lotus, which, seeking the sun, arises from the mud to become a magnificent flower. its blossom is a promise of purity and perfection. saivite hindus worship the supreme god as siva, the compassionate one. saivites esteem self discipline and philosophy and follow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5221865714464069, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8432ae71-4de8-423f-9c54-177543100e69>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.117418"}
{"text": "which appears to our ignorance as a manifold universe of names and forms and changes. like the gold of which many ornaments are made, it remains in itself unchanged. such is brahman, and that art thou. \" aum namah sivaya. comparing the four major denominations as just seen, the spectrum of hindu religiousness is found within four major sects or denominations : saivism, shaktism, vaishnavism and smartism. among these four streams, there are certainly more similarities than differences. all four believe in karma and reincarnation and in a supreme being who is both form and pervades form, who creates, sustains and destroys the universe only to create it again in unending cycles. they strongly declare the validity and importance of temple worship, in the three worlds of existence and the myriad gods and devas residing in them. they concur that there is no intrinsic evil, that the cosmos is created out of god and is permeated by him. they each believe in maya ( though their definitions differ somewhat ), and in the liberation of the soul from rebirth, called moksha, as the goal of human existence. they believe in dharma and in ahimsa, noninjury, and in the need for a satguru to lead the soul toward self realization. they wear the sacred marks, tilaka, on their foreheads as sacred symbols, though each wears a distinct mark. finally, they prefer cremation of the body upon death, believing that the soul will inhabit another body in the next life. while hinduism has many sacred scriptures, all sects ascribe the highest authority to the vedas and agamas, though their agamas differ somewhat. here, now, is a brief comparison of these four denominations. on the personal god / goddess saivism : personal god and temple deity is siva, neither male nor female. lords ganesha and karttikeya are also worshiped. shaktism : personal goddess and temple deity is shri devi or shakti, female, worshiped as rajarajeshvari, parvati, lakshmi, sarasvati, kali, amman, etc. the divine mother. vaishnavism : personal god and temple deity is vishnu, male. his incarnations as rama and krishna are also worshiped, as well as his divine consort, radharani. smartism : personal god and temple deity is ishvara, male or female, worshiped as vishnu, si", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5266469862329742, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8432ae71-4de8-423f-9c54-177543100e69>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.122392"}
{"text": "devotion, followed by internalized worship, or yoga, and its meditative disciplines. union with god siva comes through the grace of the satguru and culminates in the soul ' s maturity in the state of jnana, or wisdom. saivism values both bhakti and yoga, devotional and contemplative sadhanas, or disciplines. shaktism : the spiritual practices in shaktism are similar to those in saivism, though there is more emphasis in saktism on god ' s power as opposed to being, on mantras and yantras, and on embracing apparent opposites : male - female, absolute - relative, pleasure - pain, cause - effect, mind - body. certain sects within shaktism undertake \" left - hand \" tantric rites, consciously using the world of form to transmute and eventually transcend that world. the \" left - hand \" approach is somewhat occult in nature ; it is considered a path for the few, not the many. the \" right - hand \" path is more conservative in nature. vaishnavism : most vaishnavites believe that religion is the performance of bhakti sadhanas, devotional disciplines, and that man can communicate with and receive the grace of the gods and goddesses through the darshan ( sight ) of their icons. the paths of karma yoga and jnana yoga lead to bhakti yoga. among the foremost practices of vaishnavites is chanting the holy names of the avataras, vishnu ' s incarnations, especially rama and krishna. through total self - surrender, prapatti, to vishnu, to krishna or to his beloved consort radharani, liberation from samsara ( the cycle of reincarnation ) is attained. smartism : smartas, the most eclectic of hindus, believe that moksha is achieved through jnana yoga alone defined as an intellectual and meditative but non - kundalini - yoga path. jnana yoga ' s progressive stages are scriptural study ( shravana ), reflection ( manana ) and sustained meditation ( dhyana ). guided by a realized guru and avowed to the unreality of the world, the initiate meditates on himself as brahman, absolute reality, to break through the illusion of maya. devotees may also choose from three other non - successive paths to cultivate devotion, accrue good karma and purify the mind. these are bhakti yoga", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5271345963075205, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8432ae71-4de8-423f-9c54-177543100e69>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.125227"}
{"text": "others say a peaceful protest will cause the king to change his mind on the tax increase. how would you respond to the tax increase? why? building background : from its beginnings, hinduism has been an open - minded religion. it is a basic hindu belief that there are many ways to approach god. hinduism does not dictate one way as the only way. hindus believe \" truth is one, paths are many \" and that every person eventually finds spiritual salvation. religion permeates the hindu ' s daily life hindus base their way of life upon their religion. the hindu culture comes from hindu beliefs. the key beliefs are in a one supreme god, subordinate gods and goddesses, heaven worlds, the divinity of the soul, dharma, karma, reincarnation, god realization and liberation from rebirth. god realization means the direct and personal experience of the divine within oneself. the original sanskrit name for hinduism is sanatana dharma, meaning \" eternal religion. \" belief in god and the gods and goddesses hindus believe in and worship a one supreme god. in the scriptures, the supreme god is called brahman or bhagavan, worshiped as both male and female. brahman is all - powerful, all - knowing, all - loving and present in all things. god created everything in the universe out of himself. this creation is not separate from him. he guides the evolution of everything over vast spans of time. ultimately, he absorbs the universe back into himself. this cycle of creation, preservation and absorption repeats without end. the supreme god is both transcendent and immanent. these are two key philosophical concepts. as transcendent, god exists beyond the physical universe. as immanent, his divine form pervades all nature and humanity. in hinduism, the soul is called atman. god exists within each soul. the chandogya upanishad explains it like this : \" what you see when you look into another person ' s eyes, that is atman, immortal, beyond fear ; that is god. \" hinduism has different branches with varying beliefs and practices. the four major branches are saiva, shakta, vaishnava and smarta. saivas and shaktas call the supreme god siva, though shaktas worship the female aspect of god. vaishnavas call him vishnu. smartas may choose one of six deities to worship as the supreme. by whichever name or form, he is the same, one supreme god. the rig veda says", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5290198245273972, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a325e483-bc6f-4d6e-a4ec-e222078825a1>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.166077"}
{"text": "are many ways to worship the divine. dharma, karma and reincarnation dharma means righteousness, divine law, ethics, religion, duty, justice and truth. dharma means the proper way one should live one ' s life. to follow dharma, one should be religious, truthful, kind, honest and generous. dharma includes the practice of nonviolence, called ahimsa in sanskrit. it is the ideal of not injuring others in thought, word or action. karma, a central hindu belief, is the law of cause and effect. it means that anything you do will eventually return to you in this or future lives. if we do something selfish or hateful, we will in time experience the same pain and suffering we caused to others. if our acts are good and kind, we will receive goodness and kindness. reincarnation means literally to \" re - enter the flesh. \" it is the belief that the soul, atman, is reborn in a new body, experiencing many lifetimes. the purpose of rebirth is to progressively achieve spiritual maturity and god realization. eventually each soul learns to live by religious principles and avoid creating negative karma. the process of reincarnation continues through many lives until the soul achieves liberation. hinduism ' s sacred scriptures the four vedas are the holiest scriptures for all hindus. the upanishads, an important part of the vedas, explain the hindu philosophy. the next most important scriptures, also in sanskrit, are the agamas. there are specific agamas for each major tradition in hinduism - - saiva, shakta and vaishnava. the agamas explain philosophy, personal conduct, worship and temple construction. there are hundreds of other scriptural texts dealing with religious and secular law, government, social order, economics, ecology, health, architecture, science, music, astronomy and many other subjects. the puranas are encyclopedic accounts of the forms and avatars of god, the many subordinate gods and divine beings, creation, spiritual teachings, historical traditions, geography and culture. the tirukural is a tamil masterpiece on ethics and moral living. the yoga sutras of patanjali explore yoga and meditation. the ramayana and mahabharata are two sacred epic histories of india. the ramayana is the story of lord rama, who is the seventh incarnation of lord vishnu, and his divine wife sita. this 24, 000 - verse poem describes prince rama ' s birth, his banishment to a forest for 14", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5349160837085949, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a325e483-bc6f-4d6e-a4ec-e222078825a1>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.168416"}
{"text": "military dictatorship. another example is cesar chavez, who won rights for california farm workers using nonviolent methods. analysis skill : what are the advantages of nonviolence over violence in bringing about social change? subordinate : lower in rank, less important pervade : to be present throughout encompass : to surround and hold within consecrated : made sacred through ceremony invoke : summon a deity ; appeal to secular : activities or things not related to religion section 2 assessment reviewing ideas, terms and people 1. a. define : what is sanatana dharma? b. explain : what is a deva? c. elaborate : what are the two key terms used by hindus to describe the supreme god? 2. categorize : what are the four main branches of hinduism? 3. a. recall : why do hindus pray first to lord ganesha? b. identify : what are the two most popular incarnations of lord vishnu? c. explain : what is the purpose of the hindu puja? 4. a. explain : what is karma? b. illustrate : what are some examples of following dharma? c. explain : what is the purpose of reincarnation? 5. summarize : make a list of hindu scriptures, starting with the vedas. 6. evaluate : why do hindus believe that there are many ways to approach the supreme god? 7. understanding nonviolence : write a paragraph explaining your way to deal with the tax increase example given on page six. do you think a nonviolent approach would succeed? sacred texts : an excerpt from the upanishads translated by swami prabhavananda and frederick manchester the upanishads are the part of the vedas that teach philosophy. the word upanishad means \" sitting by devotedly, \" as a student sits near his guru to learn. this excerpt is taken from the kena upanishad. it explains the nature of the supreme god, called brahman in sanskrit. try to sum up the meaning of each sentence in your own words. once the gods won a victory over the demons, and though they had done so only through the power of brahman, they were exceedingly vain. they thought to themselves, \" it was we who beat our enemies, and the glory is ours. \" brahman saw their vanity and appeared before them as a nature spirit. but they did not recognize him. then the other gods said to the god of fire, \" fire, find out for us who this mysterious nature spirit is. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5745209639149781, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a325e483-bc6f-4d6e-a4ec-e222078825a1>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.170556"}
{"text": "of wind, come to recognize brahman, the supreme god. philosophy : a theory or attitude that guides behavior vain : excessively proud consume : to destroy completely, as by fire adorned : beautifully dressed beholding : looking at something remarkable attained : won ; achieved understanding sacred texts 1. analyzing : hindus believe that the supreme god is immanent. that means he exists everywhere in the universe, in everyone and everything. how does this belief appear in the story? 2. comparing : what is the difference between brahman, the supreme god, and the other gods introduced here - - indra, the god of fire and the god of wind? 3. one verse says that the gods were vain. what test did the supreme god put them through? 4. indra took a different approach to finding out who the spirit was. why did he succeed when the others failed? section three : hinduism in practice hinduism today ' s teaching standards 8. describe the spread of hinduism outside of india in ancient and modern times. 9. describe the daily observances of hindus, home and temple worship, religious teachers and the major festivals. 10. explain how hinduism has survived over the last 5, 000 years. what you will learn... 1. hinduism has spread outside of india several times. 2. hinduism is the third largest religion in the world. 3. hindus practice religion at home and in temples and through the many festivals. the big idea : hinduism is the oldest world religion flourishing today. key terms : samskara, bindi, puja, swami, kumbha mela if you lived then... you are born in fiji in 1910. your parents were brought from india by the british to work in the sugarcane fields as indentured laborers. now they are free of debt and own farmland. the public school is ok, but your parents want you to go to the best private school. the principal there says you must leave hinduism and convert to his religion before you can enroll. what do you think your parents would do? building background : hinduism is the only major religion from the distant past that is still vibrant today. it survived because of its tradition of home - centered worship, because of its rich teachings and many religious leaders, and because it is not merely tolerant of other religions but respects the validity of all spiritual paths. traditions and holy days hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world. there are today nearly a billion hindus worldwide, 95 percent of whom live on the indian subcontinent. hinduism continues to thrive for many", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5635874400675531, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a325e483-bc6f-4d6e-a4ec-e222078825a1>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.172682"}
{"text": "\" analysis skill : how do festivals help remind people to be more kind and generous to one another? the impact today : there are hindu temples in nearly every country of the world indentured : under contract to work for a certain number of years austerity : a difficult practice of self - denial and discipline meditate : think deeply about, go within yourself or seek god within mendicant : a holy person who lives by begging auspicious : a favorable time - - for the mela, as determined by the hindu calendar section 3 assessment reviewing ideas, terms and people 1. a. list : what are the five basic practices of hinduism? b. define : what does the bindi, red dot, signify? c. explain : how do hindus use their home shrine room? 2. list : what are the various kinds of priests and holy men and women in hinduism? 3. a. explain : what is the year ' s biggest hindu festival? b. define : what is the meaning of the rakhi bracelet? c. recall : what is special about the kumbha mela? d. elaborate : why has hinduism lasted so long? 4. list : make a list of three columns. in the first column write the name of a major hindu festival. in the second, put the time of year it occurs. in the third list what it celebrates. 5. understanding hindu practices : why do you think hindus want to live near a temple? chapter one standards assessment directions : read each question and circle the letter of the best response 1. evidence for what form of worship in the vedas was found by archaeologists in the ruins of the indus - 2. the indus - sarasvati civilization ended because : 3. the aryan invasion theory was based upon : 4. which discovery was not made in ancient india? 5. evidence of hindu temple worship can be as early as : 6. which of these descriptions does not apply to women in ancient india? 7. which of these words does not describe the hindu concept of the supreme god? 8. hindus believe that the devas, such as lord ganesha or goddess lakshmi, are like : 9. which of the following is not used in nonviolent protests? 10. the hindu scriptures include : 11. hindus believe that every other religion : 12. how many countries do hindus live in today? 13. the saints of hinduism are : 14. the biggest religious event in the world is : internet resources : go to http : / / www. hinduismto", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5043600958881199, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a325e483-bc6f-4d6e-a4ec-e222078825a1>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.179923"}
{"text": "good answer by fishtoaster. the science is ancient, discovered by archimedes. 1 : any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. in other words, if you put a ball, with volume 1 litre completely under water, there is an upwards force on the ball ( buoyancy or flotation ) equal to the weight of 1 litre of water. ( i. e. 1 kilogram - force or 9. 81 newtons ) 2 : ( corollary ) any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid. if we place a floating object of mass 1 kilo, it will displace exactly 1 kilo of water, or 1 litre of water. if the volume of our object is less than 1 litre, it will float. so, with a hydrometer, it is weighted such that the submerged volume at the 1. 000 reading is exactly equal to the weight of the hydrometer. if we dissolve solids into the water ( sugar ) that volume of water is heavier, and less of it needs to be displaced in order for the hydrometer ' s weight to be matched, and the hydrometer floats higher.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5086006687191891, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:710105c9-fdc7-4e38-9ce1-cfb2eb9ec746>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.201041"}
{"text": "steel is one of the world \u2019 s most important engineering and construction materials, and increasingly a material of choice in commercial and residential applications. although no one is certain when it was first used, a british inventor named henry bessemer is credited with creating the first technique by which steel could be mass - produced. today, the metal is produced by adding a small amount of carbon to iron ore, and removing impurities, such as sulfur and phosphorous. small amounts of alloying metals, such as nickel, manganese, chromium and vanadium may also be added. facts about steel - there are currently more than 3, 500 different grades, most of which have been developed within the last few decades. the eiffel tower, if it were built using modern varieties of steel, would require only one - third as much steel as was used in 1889 when it was constructed. - the recent economic boom in china and india has caused a massive increase in it \u2019 s demand. - china is the world \u2019 s top producer, followed by japan, russia, and the united states, respectively. the physical properties of steel offer significant advantages over concrete, wood, and other building materials. here are some of these advantages : - it is highly recyclable. in the united states, more steel is recycled than plastic, glass and aluminum combined, making it the most recycled material nationally. the reason for this is threefold : first, by virtue of its magnetic properties, steel can be easily separated from the waste stream. second, recycling saves the steel industry an enormous amount of energy \u2014 enough to power 18 million homes for one year, according to the steel recycling institute. third, recycled steel loses none of its properties, making the recycling process simple and efficient. - it \u2019 s use saves trees. a typical 2, 000 - square - foot house, which requires 26, 700 board feet to build, would require the use of 102 trees, according to the the idaho forest products commission. - more windows can be integrated in structures of steel construction, due to elevated mechanical properties of the metal. windows reduce energy consumption and increase the comfort of building occupants. - steel has the highest strength - to - weight ratio of any comparable construction material, making it among the most durable. - steel conforms to any aesthetic. the availability of finishes, facades and other wall claddings allows builders to craft steel structures in any fashion. - there is an unlimited production capacity. steel \u2019 s main ingredient \u2013 iron \u2013 is one of the most", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5138086658330756, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:016aeff8-bc9f-4ac9-a5ff-67fb6ba82b25>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.206569"}
{"text": "robots game activity bring the stack of crc index cards you developed in lab yesterday to lecture, one for each class you hope to design in your robots program. this activity will involve elaboration of these cards, giving greater specificity to responsibilities and describing each class ' s attributes. your task in class is to embellish these cards as follows : - each card should list of member functions and instance variables of the class. ( instance variables are the private variables. ) insofar as possible, you should give the type / class of all parameters and return values of the member functions, and the types of the instance variables. - one additional card lists non - member functions ( if any ) along with the purpose of each. again, give the type / class of all parameters and return values. - number all member functions and procedures in the order you intend to code and test them. you ' ll put the number ( 1 ) in front of all methods and procedures you can test on their own without writing any others. put a ( 2 ) in front of procedures you can ' t write until you ' ve written procedures from ( 1 ), and so forth. - identify with a ( * ) all methods which appear challenging to write. these are ones which you hope you can break up later into smaller procedures once you ' ve thought about the robots program more.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5122784914014377, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4fe2fa59-6eeb-4077-99a2-3e6678c046da>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.211153"}
{"text": "| digital evidence - science insider reported january 2009 what is cyber forensics? the subset of forensic science concerned with interpreting evidence contained in computers and digital media is called cyber forensics. the field is concerned with issues such as recovering lost data and revealing and decrypting data hidden on a suspect ' s computer. in addition to computers, cyber forensics specialists can also recover information from cellular phones, mp3 players, cds, dvds and more. approximately 80 to 90 percent of legal cases today involve some sort of digital evidence. what ' s a flasher box? a flasher box is a device that transfers data from a cell phone to a computer, where people unfamiliar with the device in question can examine files for evidence. with one of these devices, non - experts are able to check for clues that may help them solve cases, even if they have never before seen a similar device. the institute of electrical and electronics engineers, inc., contributed to the information contained in the tv portion of this report. if you would like more information, please contact : richard p. mislan purdue university, cyber forensics lab west lafayette, in 47907 - 2021 institute of electrical and electronics engineers, inc. ieee - usa washington, dc 20036 - 5104 on the web... cyber forensics lab - purdue university", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.588950141787172, "token_count": 266, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38542d52-968d-4f81-a188-e9dee7866153>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.248313"}
{"text": "from mozillazine knowledge base about : config is a feature of mozilla applications which lists application settings ( known as preferences ) that are read from the profile files prefs. js and user. js, and from application defaults. many of these preferences are not present in the options or preferences dialog. using about : config is one of several methods of modifying preferences and adding other \" hidden \" ones. this article is a companion article for about : config entries where the most important about : config variables are described. warning : modifying preferences can, in rare circumstances, break firefox, thunderbird or the mozilla suite, or can cause strange behavior. only do so if you know what you are doing or are following trustworthy advice. adding modifying and resetting preferences to add a new preference, context - click ( right - click ) anywhere in the list of preferences. in the context menu, select new then select the type of preference you are adding. to modify an existing preference, context - click ( right - click ) on the preference, select modify and type in the new value. in some cases, toggle will be the selection offered for boolean ( true - false ) preferences. to reset a preference to its default value or to remove an added preference, context - click ( right - click ) on the preference and select reset. if you added the entry via about : config, the preference will no longer be listed after restarting the program. ( for more information about resetting preferences, see this article ). you can use the \" search \" bar at the top of the about : config page ( \" filter \" bar in older versions ) to filter the preferences that you want to inspect. the search bar is case - insensitive, unlike the actual configuration variables. some examples to filter results : some examples of regular expressions ( regexp ) to filter results", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5149071034079545, "token_count": 397, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:947754b2-c386-42a2-a65c-46a39174d340>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.258557"}
{"text": "the milky way, especially in the southern hemisphere. it ' s very, very obvious actually compared to the northern hemisphere. and it ' s this broad and rather dim stripe of light which they ' re able to detect and to orient with respect to. flatow : how do you craft an experiment to discover this? warrant : yes. well, the first clue we got was that we covered their heads with little tiny cardboard hats, which we cut out of black card and then taped onto the back of their bodies so that they - the view of the night sky was removed. and when we did that, they were no longer able to orient. and the way they normally orient is that they roll balls of dung in straight lines directly away from the dung pad. they have to do this because if they don ' t do this, they end up rolling back into the dung pad. and there ' s a lot of beetles there, all competing for this very valuable resource, and it ' s very likely that they get their dung ball stolen after quite a fight often. so they must get away from the dung pad in a straight line. that ' s the quickest and the most efficient way of leaving the dung pad, and so it ' s critically important for them that they do this. and so the stripe of light in the sky helps them to do this. they can actually orient with respect to it and orient in straight line away. flatow : so what happens when it ' s a cloudy night and they can ' t see the sky? they just don ' t go out that night? warrant : no, they do but they roll in circles. so it ' s actually a very dangerous night indeed for dung beetles. warrant : but thankfully, in south africa where we were working, cloudy nights are not all that common. flatow : wow. and so they must have developed this over the millennia, this ability to do this? warrant : well, we ' re not absolutely sure when and how and for how long it ' s evolved. but certainly, i daresay, it been around for a while because, as i say, it ' s a very important behavior that they have. everything that they live for really has to do with dung. so - and the dung ball is incredibly important to them because they have to find a mate and lay their eggs in this ball. so it ' s a very valuable thing, this ball. so rolling away from the dung pile in a straight line with the help of the moon and - if it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5188988241257548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c7c62123-02a8-4629-86ae-7b86eac58b17>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.316848"}
{"text": "de minimis is a latin expression that means \u201c the law does not concern itself with trifles \u201d. the law will not resolve petty or unimportant disputes. courts have held that trifling may include minor legal violations and would fall under the category of non - actionable items and thereby it would serve as a good ground for defence. there have been many instances when the courts have dismissed the copyright infringement cases based on the principle of de minimis that the alleged infringer \u2019 s use of the copyrighted work is too insignificant. the violation of the law may not be considered as a sufficient cause of action if the effect is too small to be of much consequence. it is important to remember that a patent application should consist of only one invention. however, a person may file a group of inventions which are claimed in one patent application, but the inventions so linked should form a single inventive concept. the application for patent shall be filed at the patent office along with the respective forms. the forms include form1, form2, form 3, form 5 and form 26. according to the indian patent act, a patent application may be filed by any of following persons including true and first inventor, assignee of the true and first inventor or the legal representative of the true and first inventor. 1. true and first inventor of the invention may apply for the patent. the person who invents a new product or a process has the right to file a patent application. true and first inventor means the person who is the first to invent and also the first in filing the patent application. thus, a person who first invents a product or a process and also, first files the patent application is the true and first inventor. according to the indian patent act, the following are the inventions that are not patentable. a. frivolous inventions or inventions that are against the laws of nature are not patentable. for example an invention comprising machines that have 120 % efficiency is against the natural laws and hence, non - patentable. b. any use of an invention that is against the public order or public morality or which endangers human or plant or animal life or health is non - patentable. for example an invention of a gambling machine is not patentable. another example would include an invention of a weapon that may cause mass destruction. in simple terms invention means an act of inventing either a product or a process for producing the product. technically, invention is defined as a new product or process involving an in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5583079490275963, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e4618ae1-71d4-4c84-9569-d371383b8d07>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.330532"}
{"text": "posted by denis borris on november 11, 2002 at 15 : 37 : 10 : in reply to : insect word problem posted by sheila on november 10, 2002 at 17 : 46 : 30 : : help, please. i have a word problem concerning insect larvae survival. soon after they hatch, they must search for food. the survival rate depends on many things and environmental temperature is one of them. for a certain speces of insect, a model of the number of larvae n ( t ) that survive the searching period is given by n ( t ) = - 0. 6t ^ 2 + 32. 1t - 350 where t is the temperature in degrees celsius. i have to answer the following questions : : a. at what temperature will the maximum number of larvae survive and round my answer to the nearest degree. : b. what is the maximum number of surviving larvae and round my answer to the nearest whole number. : c. find the x - intercepts to the nearest whole number, for the graph of this function. : d. write a sentence that describes the meaning of the x - intercept in the context of this problem. : i am totally clueless as to how to work this in order to answer these questions. any help would be appreciated. post a followup", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5391879570153671, "token_count": 262, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:706430b5-fe9f-449f-91a2-2c5a624f2f75>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.333820"}
{"text": "creating a forum blackboard allows instructors to set up multiple, threaded, asynchronous discussions from the control panel, or from any content area. the discussion board is broken down into forums : each forum represents a particular broad subject of discussion, week of class, or group of users. forums are further broken down into threads : each thread is a collection of messages constituting a conversation about a more particular subject. for example, a forum about the united states constitution may contain a thread about the pursuit of happiness, another thread about the first amendment, and a third about current proposed constitutional amendments. create a discussion forum - click on control panel > course tools > discussion board to see all of your discussion boards ; click on the discussion board where you want to add a forum. - click on the create forum button. - fill in the forum title and description. - decide on availability of the forum and choose forum settings. if allow post tagging is enabled, instructors can create and apply text labels, after they have collected thread messages, to allow for grouping of message independent of thread or thread status. other discussion board users can read, filter, and search messages using the tags, but cannot create new ones. note : if you are using tagging and you notice it ' s taking a long time for discussion board pages to load, turn tagging off. if you use tagging at the beginning of a term, and then turn it off during times of heavy forum usage, you can re - enable tagging later in the term, which will restore all previous tag data. if allow members to rate posts is enabled, students can rate each others ' posts on a five point scale. the overall rating shown is an average of all rates given. if allow members to subscribe to threads is enabled, a student can click on the thread to subscribe to, then click the subscribe button. this provides an e - mail alert whenever the thread is updated or replied to ; if you select \" include body of post in the email \" under \" subscribe, \" students will also see the content of posts in their e - mail alert. students can unsubscribe in the same way, but the button will be labeled unsubscribe. if allow members to subscribe to forum is enabled, then you and your students will see a subscribe button at the top of the page when you enter your discussion forum. note that if you choose \" allow members to subscribe to threads, \" students will have to subscribe to each", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5015835074099512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5d8f84eb-5dcb-48c3-9eb4-1daf54dcd268>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.347502"}
{"text": "inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry ( icp ) is a powerful technique of chemical characterization capable of simultaneously measuring up to 50 different trace elements, sometimes at concentrations as low as several parts per billion. the icp - ms functions by passing small amounts of material into a plasma, a super - heated gas, which ionizes the sample material. the plasma itself operates at around 8000 degrees c, a temperature greater than the surface of the sun. this ionized sample is then sent through a series of powerful magnets called a mass spectrometer, which separates sample ions on the basis of their mass / charge ratio. these ions are then measured by a detector to establish sample composition. sample can be introduced into the icp - ms either as a vaporized solid, or as a liquid. one such method is laser ablation, in which a pulsed laser is used to remove small amounts of sample material, which is then swept into the plasma via a helium carrier gas. alternatively, samples can be dissolved in solution and sent into the plasma in liquid form. depending on sample composition, this may involve dissolving the sample in strong acids, assited by high heat and pressure produced by bombarding the sample with microwaves. our inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry ( icp - ms ) laboratory operates around a high sensitivity varian quadrupole icp - ms and a new wave up213 laser ablation system for solid sample introduction. additionally, the icp - ms laboratory houses a milestone microwave digestion system for sample dissolution and liquid sample introduction. the eaf icp - ms laboratory. the varian icp - ms is connected to our adaptable chamber up266 laser ablation system, with a ceramic vessel from the north coast of papua new guinea positioned for analysis. laser ablation is particularly valuable due to its ability to target specific components of samples. for ceramics, it is possible to target paste, paints, temper, slips, and glazes separately. in one study performed by museum scientists, the glazes on chinese blue and white porcelains and celadon wares were analyzed chemically by la - icp - ms. this study demonstrated that the majority of such ceramics found at archaeological sites in western india and eastern africa were produced by chinese kilns, and were not imitation wares produced at middle eastern or southeast asian kilns. other projects have studied production and exchange of ceramics from belgian neolithic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5577875743004251, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:41f2c479-72da-4147-93b2-b92d29f8263e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.353161"}
{"text": "of such ceramics found at archaeological sites in western india and eastern africa were produced by chinese kilns, and were not imitation wares produced at middle eastern or southeast asian kilns. other projects have studied production and exchange of ceramics from belgian neolithic sites, proto - historical and historical archaeological sites in the phillippines, chinese neolithic sites, ceramics on the northern coast of papua new guinea, and archaeological ceramics from throughout the central andes. likewise, la - icp - ms can be used to analyze metal and corrosion products separately on metal artifacts, eliminating problems that have plagued bulk characterization studies of archaeological metals. la - icp - ms is also highly useful for rapidly characterzing obsidian and artificial glasses. the eaf has large ongoing projects applying la - icp - ms to characterize glass beads traded in the indian ocean, and obsidian from archaeological sites in the western pacific, andes, and belize. the eaf also houses a modified adaptable chamber new wave up266 laser ablation system developed in collaboration with dr. richard cox at the university of quebec at chicoutimi, canada. this adaptable chamber laser ablation system is the first of its kind applied in a museum setting, having only been employed in experimental industrial systems previously. as such, it equips the field museum with unique, virtually non - destructive, high precision, multi - element analysis for large objects that cannot be destructively subsampled, such as complete ceramic vessels. ongoing projects using the adaptable chamber to analyze collections objects include analysis of glass objects from the sumerian city of kish, and analysis of ceramics from the western pacific.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5260385433060959, "token_count": 327, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:41f2c479-72da-4147-93b2-b92d29f8263e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.353859"}
{"text": "/ 2003 ] is there a mathematical formula to determine the length of material on a roll, given the outside diameter of the core, the outside diameter of the whole roll, and the thickness of the material ( determined by a - earth ' s curvature [ 01 / 27 / 1997 ] how do you figure out the degree of curvature of the earth ' s surface? - ellipse geometry [ 08 / 09 / 1998 ] i wish to draw a line departing at a given angle from the long axis of an ellipse and bisecting the perimeter of the ellipse at right angles to the tangent at that point... - elliptical orbits in the solar system [ 05 / 22 / 2005 ] i want to have my students draw a scale model of the solar system that shows the orbits of the planets. assuming i have the apogee and perigee of each planet ' s orbit about the sun, they need to construct 9 ellipses with some degree of accuracy. what ' s the best way to go about - equation for an arch [ 09 / 09 / 1997 ] i am trying to draw an arch that will go in the ceiling of a building. the arch will be at a maximum height of 28 inches... - fabric left on a roll [ 03 / 15 / 2001 ] i am going to write a program for my ti - 83 + to calculate how many feet of material are left on a roll. - filling a garden with topsoil [ 2 / 5 / 1996 ] i have a garden that is 10 ' x 10 ' ( 100 square feet ). i want to add 6 \" of topsoil to my garden. topsoil is sold by the cubic yard. how many cubic yards of topsoil will i need for my project? - filling cylindrical holes [ 05 / 18 / 1999 ] what volume of cement, in cubic yards, will fill 42 holes that have a 9 \" diameter and are 4 ' deep? - finding a plane shape for a truncated cone [ 05 / 10 / 2000 ] what is the best way to cut a flat two - dimensional piece of sheet metal into a three - dimensional truncated cone? - finding miles per hour [ 03 / 06 / 2002 ] if a wheel is making 64. 2 revolutions per minute, how many miles per hour is it going? - finding the angle of solar collectors on a sloped roof [ 08 / 30 / 2008 ] i have solar collectors on my roof. they are mounted so that the base of each panel runs up the slope of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5178803530598619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e80e3279-da65-413a-a6e8-6a2fbd3ac89d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.407301"}
{"text": "is there no possible way that it has a final digit? he even proved a stronger result, yes, loiville 1882 ( i believe ). not algebraic? it was not proven geometrical. it was proven based on an integration that produces as a result. geometrically, if we were drawing a circle, the ends must touch? ( even at the very small value level? ) here ' s my little conjecture ( since i don ' t know how to prove it and excel says it doesn ' t work, but after 200 terms i don ' t know how accurate excel can be ) this shows that the closer you get to infinity, the more decimal places will be in pi, but what if you reach infinity ( which you obviously can ' t do )? you would get infinite decimal places, and it would equal pi... does this mean that the ends of a circle do not touch at all? ( apart from at infinity ) how can you calculate that in excel?? the best i can get for calculating pi is doing the sum of about 100000 inverse squares! if pi has infinite decimal places then it must never be closed circle as there must be a space somewhere on the circle that is infinitely small and can not be filled. what i ' m thinking is usually hard to understand so think of it like this... pretend your drawing a circle with an incredibly fine pencil and your drawing of the circle is literally perfect. the diameter of the circle is 1cm so the circumference is pi. you start at a point and draw 3cm. the circle is not yet complete as there is 0. 14159.. cm left so you draw 0. 1cm but there ' s still 0. 0415926... cm left to draw! you get closer and closer but since pi has infinite decimal places ( that aren ' t all 0s ) you will never reach the starting point of the circle! i hope thats easy enough to follow! it ' s clear what you mean, but mathematically there ' s no problem and practically, there ' s no difference with other numbers. take a diameter of 1 / pi, then you have to draw the circle with circumference 1. you have your fine pencil and you start drawing, already at 0. 9, then 0. 95, then 0. 9997, then... stopping at exactly 1, isn ' t fysically / practially \" easier \" than stopping at pi. the circle is closed, because", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5035807639141126, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6ea69df8-29c5-4951-a058-658f63ac8872>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.412921"}
{"text": "at 0. 9, then 0. 95, then 0. 9997, then... stopping at exactly 1, isn ' t fysically / practially \" easier \" than stopping at pi. the circle is closed, because pi is what it is, it ' s not 3. 14 and not 3. 141592653, but pi. my mistake was assuming pi would be drawn from a meaurable point of view when really \" it is what it is \". so in theory - no problem. pi has its value and thats the value in the ratio from diameter to circumference. however, on paper it can be a problem as if you draw a perfect closed circle ( ie. no errors in drawing it whatsoever ) there will always be an infinitesimally small gap! why still the gap? the paper doesn ' t know about real numbers, nor about our concept of ' meters '. the only problem which we practically encounter is our inability to draw so perfectly. for us, it ' s not harder / easier to draw a perfect 3 - 4 - 5 ( 5\u00b2 = 3\u00b2 + 4\u00b2 ) right triangle, than to draw a 1, 1, sqrt ( 2 ) ( sqrt ( 2 ) \u00b2 = 1\u00b2 + 2\u00b2 ) right triangle, although this last one has a side which has an irrational number as length! a number is said to be constructable when we can using euclidean toys ( striaghtedge and compass ) construct. this is an algebra question but the important fact about the set of all constructable numbers is that. meaning the it contains all rational numbers. thus, what you need to show is that you cannot constuct and hence show it is irrational ( note, not transcendental! this does not show this ). the problem with this approach is that these concepts was purposely created to simplify construcability problems but we are going backwards meaning from this approach making more difficult.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5179290666048987, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6ea69df8-29c5-4951-a058-658f63ac8872>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.413624"}
{"text": "news tagged with immune related topics : immune system immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. immunity involves both specific and non - specific components. the non - specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity. other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen - specific immunity. adaptive immunity is often sub - divided into two major types depending on how the immunity was introduced. naturally acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially acquired immunity develops only through deliberate actions such as vaccination. both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the host or passively transferred from a immune host. passive immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or activated t - cells from an immune host, and is short lived, usually lasts only a few months, whereas active immunity is induced in the host itself by antigen, and lasts much longer, sometimes life - long. the diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity. this text uses material from wikipedia and is available under the gnu free documentation license. human breastmilk responds quickly to protect the child when there is an infection in mothers or babies, according to new international research led by the university of western australia. immunology 20 hours ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 ( medical xpress ) \u2014 scientists at emory vaccine center have shown that an immune regulatory molecule called il - 21 is needed for long - lasting antibody responses in mice against viral infections. immunology 20 hours ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 | more than half of patients diagnosed with non - hodgkin lymphoma ( nhl ) are now surviving the disease thanks to improved diagnosis and treatment, according to a new report1 from cancer research uk. cancer 20 hours ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.551999575083191, "token_count": 416, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b19fd1d1-6503-476a-a07b-3dc5e2ac812b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.416972"}
{"text": "in addition to the above types of problems, considerable research is directed to basic questions such as, do we understand how quasars form and evolve? can we connect theories of galaxy and black hole formation with the observations of quasars at high redshift and the incidence of black holes in galaxies at low redshift? here i mention briefly some recent theoretical work that demonstrates progress in our understanding of quasars and ties in with present and future observational work. haiman, madau, and loeb ( 1998 ) point out that the scarcity of quasars at z > 3. 5 in the hubble deep field implies that the formation of quasars in halos with circular velocities less than 50 km / s is suppressed ( on the assumption that black holes form with constant efficiency in cold dark matter halos ). they note that the next generation space telescope should be able to detect the epoch of formation of the earliest quasars. cavaliere and vittorini ( 1998 ) note that the observed form for the evolution of the space density of quasars can be understood at early times when cosmology and the processes of structure formation provide material for accretion onto central black holes as galaxies assemble. quasars then turn off at later times because interaction with companions cause the accretion to diminish. haehnelt, natarajan, and rees ( 1998 ) show that the peak of quasar activity occurs at the same time as the first deep potential wells form. the press - schechter approach provides a way to estimate the space density of dark matter halos. but the space density of z = 3 quasars is less than 1 % that of star - forming galaxies, which implies the quasar lifetime is much less than a hubble time. for an assumed relation between quasar luminosity and timescale and the eddington limit, it is possible to connect the observed quasar luminosity density with dark matter halos and the numbers of black holes in nearby galaxies. the apparently large number of local galaxies with black holes implies that accretion processes for quasars are inefficient in producing blue light.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5737886908155354, "token_count": 453, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3b1a9e85-b862-4186-8471-8747530a00ce>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.478101"}
{"text": "repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ( rtms ) is a new tool to study brain function and is being investigated as a treatment modality for depression and other neuropsychiatric disorders. 1, 2 to perform rtms, a powerful electromagnetic coil is placed on the scalp. the coil produces a rapidly changing focal magnetic field that induces an electrical current that depolarizes neurons. because the magnetic field produced by the coil decreases exponentially with distance, 3 only superficial structures are directly stimulated. currently in most rtms applications, rtms is dosed for each individual according to the amount of stimulation required to cause contraction of the contralateral ( right extremity ) abductor pollicis brevis. this is called the motor threshold ( mt ), and it is commonly expressed as a percentage of the total magnetic pulse capable for each machine. surprisingly, despite more than a decade of research now using tms as a tool to investigate the motor system, the relationship between the motor threshold for each individual and the distance from the individual ' s scalp to cortex is not well understood. because the motor threshold is inexpensively determined and appears to relate to seizure risk, 4 most studies using tms over nonmotor regions such as the prefrontal cortex have stimulated with the intensity determined by the motor threshold over motor cortex. an untested assumption is made that the motor cortex variables apply to the prefrontal cortex. initial open studies5 \u2014 7 and later crossover8, 9 and now double - blind parallel studies10 all suggest that rtms has antidepressant properties. not all studies have been positive. 11 for example, psychotically depressed patients appear not to respond to rtms as currently applied. 12 moreover, in all studies, older subjects have not responded as well as younger subjects. 7, 13 imaging studies have shown that the prefrontal cortex atrophies with age in depressed subjects. 14, 15 accordingly, the trend of nonresponse in elderly patients in the tms antidepressant trials prompted us to wonder if the degree of brain atrophy, particularly prefrontal, might play a role in the relative nonresponse in older depressed subjects. we thus carried out the following magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) study in adult depressed subjects participating in a parallel - design randomized placebo - controlled trial of left prefrontal rtms for the treatment of depression. ( for full details of this clinical trial, see nahas et al. 10 ) thirty - two depressed adults enrolled in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5478182125868665, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.496703"}
{"text": "participating in a parallel - design randomized placebo - controlled trial of left prefrontal rtms for the treatment of depression. ( for full details of this clinical trial, see nahas et al. 10 ) thirty - two depressed adults enrolled in a 2 - week double - blind placebo - controlled trial. two subjects who had been randomized to receive active rtms did not tolerate the procedure and dropped out after fewer than three treatments. they were excluded from final analysis. prior to treatment, all subjects had an mri scan of the head. one subject could not tolerate the initial mri scan. included for this mri study, therefore, were 29 patients ( 11 men ) who met dsm - iv criteria for either major depressive disorder ( n = 21 ; 7 men ) or bipolar disorder \u2014 most recent episode depressed ( n = 8 ; 4 men ). they were randomized into one of three cells, in each of which the subjects received 10 days of prefrontal stimulation over 2 weeks. the cells and the subject means ( \u00b1sd ) for hamilton depression score ( ham - d ) and years of age were as follows : high frequency ( active, 20 hz, n = 12 ; ham - d = 30\u00b15. 86, age = 42. 6\u00b114 ) ; low frequency ( active, 5 hz, n = 8 ; ham - d = 26. 3\u00b15. 98, age = 42. 4\u00b17 ) ; and placebo ( n = 9 ; ham - d = 23. 8\u00b14. 1, age = 48. 5\u00b18. 8 ). following full explanation of the procedures, all subjects signed a written informed consent document according to the declaration of helsinki and as approved by the medical university of south carolina institutional review board and the u. s. food and drug administration devices section. subjects were free of antidepressant medications for at least 2 weeks prior to study entry. three exceptions were bipolar patients who required ongoing mood stabilizers or benzodiazepines for anxiety. no subjects were currently abusing substances. two subjects, however, had a history of alcohol dependence, and one had a history of heroine and butane abuse. subjects underwent an mri scan of the brain at the beginning and end of the study16 and had three regional cerebral blood flow single - photon emission computed tomography ( spect ) scans : at baseline, during the fifth rtms session, and 3 days after completion of the trial prior to restarting medications. this report discusses the initial mri scans only ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5441369018843405, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.499004"}
{"text": "regional cerebral blood flow single - photon emission computed tomography ( spect ) scans : at baseline, during the fifth rtms session, and 3 days after completion of the trial prior to restarting medications. this report discusses the initial mri scans only ; the spect results have been discussed elsewhere. 17, 18 qualitative and quantitative analysis of mri scans done before and after the 2 weeks of treatment showed that rtms produced no mri changes. 16 transcranial magnetic stimulation a medical doctor ( a. m. s., z. n., or m. s. g. ) trained in the proper use of repetitive rtms used a cadwell magnetic stimulator ( cadwell ; kennewick, wa ) equipped with a figure - 8 - shaped coil and a continuous water cooling system to prevent overheating. subjects were seated upright in a comfortable chair with eyes open during rtms. on the initial treatment visit, motor threshold was determined at rest in the contralateral ( right extremity ) abductor pollicis brevis ( apb ) muscle, as described previously, 13 by using visible twitch. the left prefrontal cortex stimulation site was defined as the location 5 cm rostral and in a parasagittal plane from the site of maximal apb stimulation. subjects were randomly assigned to receive stimulation over 20 minutes each weekday morning for 2 weeks as active ( 5 hz or 20 hz ; see nahas et al. 10 for discussion of the role of stimulation frequency ) or placebo ( coil held tangential off the head ). the left prefrontal cortex was stimulated at 100 % mt, with an equal total number of 16, 000 stimulations across all cells. ratings and response classification before entering the study, subjects were screened and diagnosed by trained clinicians using the schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia. 19 in addition, the ham - d ( 21 items ) 20 was administered at baseline, on the fifth day of treatment ( end of week 1 ), and at the end of the study ( week 2 ). trained psychiatric nurses, blind to treatment arm, performed all ratings. ham - d scores were used to calculate percentage improvement from the beginning to the end of treatment ( 2 weeks ). subjects who showed \u226550 % improvement in the 21 - item ham - d at 2 weeks from baseline were classified as antidepressant treatment responders. one day prior to the beginning of treatment, a t1 - weighted 3d volumetric mri sequence was obtained with a 1. 5 - tesla", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5361894563219672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.500135"}
{"text": "21 - item ham - d at 2 weeks from baseline were classified as antidepressant treatment responders. one day prior to the beginning of treatment, a t1 - weighted 3d volumetric mri sequence was obtained with a 1. 5 - tesla picker mri scanner ( picker international ; cleveland, oh ). scans in this study were 142 1 - mm - thick sagittal slices covering the entire brain ( 128\u00d7128, fov = 20 cm, te = 4. 4, tr = 13 ; voxel size 1. 2\u00d71. 2\u00d71 mm ). most, but not all, subjects ( 21 of 29 ) had vitamin e capsule fiducials ( approximately 7 mm\u00d712 mm oval ) placed at the site of rtms prefrontal stimulation. mri scan reformatting and distance calculations the t1 - weighted mri scans were reformatted from sagittal to coronal plane by a blinded reader ( f. a. k. or c. d. ) using analyze mayo clinic image processing system version 7. 5. 2 on a sun ultrasparc 20 station. a line was drawn on the midsagittal view to bisect the anterior commissure and posterior commissure. the corresponding transverse image was resliced and corrected for problems in roll or yaw. the roll - correction was done by equalizing the structures of both eyes in the transverse plane and correcting yaw such that the midsagittal sulcus appeared vertical in that slice. the image was reformatted to the coronal plane, with 250 1 - mm - thick slices from the caudal to the rostral aspect of the skull. mri distance measurements were performed by a trained observer ( f. a. k. ) blind to all patient variables, using medx 2. 1 ( sensor systems ; alexandria, va ) on a dec alpha workstation with a 21 - inch high - resolution screen. the coronal mri images were enlarged so that there were three slices per screen ( approximately 7\u00d712 cm image size on the screen ). the software, medx, has a semi - automated function where, when a line is drawn from one point to another, the distance ( in mm ) and a reference angle ( e. g., moving from one point vertically upward to another gives a value of \u2014 90. 00 degrees ) are computed based on image voxel sizes ( see f1 ). prefrontal cortex distance measurement ( d - pfc ) a trained and blinded", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5438364345320842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.501136"}
{"text": "g., moving from one point vertically upward to another gives a value of \u2014 90. 00 degrees ) are computed based on image voxel sizes ( see f1 ). prefrontal cortex distance measurement ( d - pfc ) a trained and blinded investigator ( f. a. k. ) assessed the shortest distance from the tms coil to the nearest prefrontal cortex by using three different techniques. after determining the d - pfc with all three methods, we elected to use the standard method for testing our hypotheses because it allowed the inclusion of the 8 subjects where the fiducial was not visible. in addition, there were concerns that the fiducials, even when visible, might have been moved from the true site because of hair, gravity, or displacement by the inflatable head holder used while scanning. motor cortex distance measurement ( d - mc ) fiducials were not placed at the scalp position where the motor cortex threshold was determined. because of the difficulty of determining the motor cortex region for thumb control from a structural mri scan, particularly in the coronal plane, 21 we chose not to identify the motor cortex directly. in the clinical trial, however, we determined the prefrontal stimulation location by empirically finding the area of motor cortex for apb and then moving in a parasagittal plane 5 cm forward. thus, the motor cortex stimulation site would theoretically be 5 cm caudal from the prefrontal stimulation site. we therefore decided to use the prefrontal site as the point of reference from which to determine the motor cortex site, using the following algorithm. in order to measure the distance from the coil to the motor cortex, we first counted 16 slices rostral from the corpus callosum ( which was the first slice measured using the standard method ) and copied the vertical line from lateral left eye socket to the skull that was created by the standard method for measuring the prefrontal cortex. we then moved 50 slices ( 5 cm ) caudally, and the vertical line was copied unchanged onto this slice ( the first presumed motor cortex slice ). this provided a point of intersection between the skull and the line. a measurement was taken from that intersection to the nearest cortex. this was recorded as the distance from the coil to the motor cortex in millimeters ( d - mc ). the line was copied onto the next eight rostral contiguous slices, and distance measurements were taken as above. first, using a paired student ' s t - test, we compared whether d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5484518640010335, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.502147"}
{"text": "the motor cortex in millimeters ( d - mc ). the line was copied onto the next eight rostral contiguous slices, and distance measurements were taken as above. first, using a paired student ' s t - test, we compared whether d - mc significantly differed from d - pfc. correlational hypotheses were tested by using statview 4. 5, where bivariate plots were performed and a pearson ' s correlation with a fisher ' s r to z ( p - values ) was calculated to determine if significant relationships existed between our hypothesized variables ( p < 0. 05 ). we analyzed the relationship of distance from coil to motor cortex ( d - mc ) with 1 ) percentage output to reach motor threshold ; 2 ) age ; 3 ) distance from coil to prefrontal cortex ( d - pfc ) ; and 4 ) percentage antidepressant clinical response. next, we analyzed the correlation of d - pfc with 1 ) percentage clinical response ; 2 ) age among responders and nonresponders ; and 3 ) percentage output to reach motor threshold. finally, potential relationships between the nondistance measures were tested ( age, percentage output to reach motor threshold, and percentage antidepressant clinical response ). for a full description of this patient sample, see nahas et al. 10 as noted above, there were 11 men and 18 women ; 20 subjects with mri scans were in the active group and 9 in the placebo group. this antidepressant trial had 7 responders and 22 ( 9 placebo ) nonresponders. motor distance and prefrontal distance d - pfc was significantly greater than d - mc ( d - pfc = 14. 4\u00b12. 7 mm, d - mc = 12. 7 \u00b12. 6 mm, t = \u2014 3. 6, p < 0. 01 ; mean\u00b1sd and student ' s paired t - test ). distance and motor threshold mt significantly increased with increasing d - mc ( p < 0. 01, fisher ' s r to z, 29 subjects ; see f2 ). there was no significant relationship between d - pfc and mt ( p = 0. 0525 ). d - mc and d - pfc significantly cross - correlated ( r = 0. 562, p < 0. 01 ). d - mc ( r = 0. 525, p < 0. 01 ) as well as d - pfc ( r = 0. 611, p < 0", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5385964848336909, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.503001"}
{"text": "correlated ( r = 0. 562, p < 0. 01 ). d - mc ( r = 0. 525, p < 0. 01 ) as well as d - pfc ( r = 0. 611, p < 0. 001 ) significantly increased with age. interestingly, a trend for d - pfc to increase more with age than d - mc was found in this depressed cohort ( see f3 ). in this small group, there was not a significant correlation ( p = 0. 5746 ) between age and d - mc minus d - pfc. there was not a significant correlation between age and mt ( p = 0. 1340 ) or between age and percentage antidepressant response ( p = 0. 1271 ). correlation with clinical antidepressant response there was no correlation between d - mc or d - pfc and percentage clinical response. ( d - pfc did not correlate with percentage clinical response with any of the three measuring methods : fiducial to cortex ( p = 0. 1216 ), skull under fiducial to cortex ( p = 0. 4885 ), or standard ( p = 0. 2029 ). when we examined d - pfc and age, analyzed separately for responders and nonresponders ( see f4 ), the responders were significantly younger ( t = \u2014 2. 430, p = 0. 0258 ), but response did not significantly correlate with d - pfc. there does seem to be a maximum threshold of age and distance, with the responders being younger than 55 years of age and having a d - pfc of less than 17. 00 mm. there was not a significant correlation between percentage output to reach mt and percentage clinical antidepressant response ( p = 0. 1693 ). this is the first study addressing the complicated area of whether and to what degree the distance from coil to motor or prefrontal cortex interacts with motor threshold. this study also examines the relationships between age, prefrontal cortex distance, and clinical antidepressant response. as the first study exploring these questions, it suffers from several methodological shortcomings outlined below. nevertheless, there were several important findings. the estimated distance from tms coil to prefrontal cortex ( d - pfc ) was greater than the distance from coil to motor cortex ( d - mc ). the motor threshold ( mt ) significantly correlated with d - mc, whereas it did not co", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5107944768904082, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.503905"}
{"text": "distance from tms coil to prefrontal cortex ( d - pfc ) was greater than the distance from coil to motor cortex ( d - mc ). the motor threshold ( mt ) significantly correlated with d - mc, whereas it did not correlate with d - pfc. both motor and prefrontal cortex distances increased with age in this depressed cohort, with d - pfc showing a trend to increase at a faster rate than d - mc. finally, there was not a linear correlation between d - pfc and clinical antidepressant response. all subjects however, who responded were below a critical threshold of age and prefrontal cortex distance. there are several limitations of this study that bear on proper interpretation. the most important of these was difficulty in determining the tms sites on the mri scans. one method used was to place a fiducial at the site of the rtms. when designing the study, we reasoned that this fiducial would enable a relatively precise localization of the actual site of stimulation. using this method alone, however, would have limited an already small sample size, because only about three - fifths of the subjects studied and scanned had fiducials that could be seen on the mri scan. complicating things further, during scanning several of the fiducials appeared to have moved off of the scalp, resulting in a placement that no longer represented the true site of rtms. because of these confounding factors, we felt that using the actual fiducial to measure the distance to nearest cortex in this study was not an accurate method. while trying to develop a more accurate method, we noticed that the prefrontal fiducial was often directly in line with a vertical ( \u2014 90 degree ) line from the lateral center point of the left eye. we found that the fiducial was commonly 20 slices anterior from the corpus callosum and therefore adopted this as the \" virtual \" location of the rtms coil to start measuring the eight scans. by performing the measurement 4 mm in front of and behind this chosen intersection, we averaged the scalp to cortex distance over the likely prefrontal spot. thus, even if we did not measure directly under the actual tms spot, we were able to obtain a distance measurement that likely represented the average distance of skull to cortex in this region. further, this averaging system of a virtual spot enabled us to utilize all of the scans available for analysis, and the technique often correlated well with the position of the fidu", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5479765269277256, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.504885"}
{"text": "distance measurement that likely represented the average distance of skull to cortex in this region. further, this averaging system of a virtual spot enabled us to utilize all of the scans available for analysis, and the technique often correlated well with the position of the fiducial. the limitation was that we could not be sure how close to the actual coil stimulation the measurements were performed. despite these difficulties, the standardized method of measuring eight scans and averaging the result does appear to give a rough approximation of the distance to the nearest cortex in the area stimulated. this corresponds to either the left medial frontal gyrus or the left superior frontal gyrus ( talairach coordinates : x plane from \u2014 25 to \u2014 40, y from 50 to 58, z from 20 to 40 ). future studies with more precise fiducial placement, or even mri phase maps of the actual magnetic field3 in all subjects, would improve on the current study. similarly, there was no fiducial over the motor cortex apb area where mt was actually determined. thus, we were forced to empirically determine this spot as well by measuring backward from the prefrontal site. we again measured the motor cortex distance over a relatively large area ( 8 mm ) in order to compensate for the imprecision of our location. because we measured motor cortex distance on 8 slices, the number used as a dependent variable is thus more likely a rough measure of motor cortex atrophy, rather than the exact distance from coil to motor cortex. despite all these factors, the robust correlation of motor threshold with distance to motor cortex is surprising, especially given these limitations in spatial location. future studies with fiducials directly over the true site of optimum apb stimulation are needed. the motor threshold was determined in this study by using visible movement, which is not standard practice but which our group has shown on a different machine to correspond to mt determined by motor evoked potentials. 13 future studies exploring these issues might use electrophysiologically determined mt. similarly, our choice of the percentage change in ham - d as the dependent variable for clinical response is relatively imprecise, but a standard practice. future studies using other behavioral, neuroendocrine, or even brain metabolism measures might better address the correlation between distance and clinical response. finally, the small sample size could have reduced the power of the study such that the relationship between distance to the cortex and percentage response was not statistically significant. our sample was especially small at the extremes of age ( 5 subjects > 55 years old", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.540292249326928, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.506148"}
{"text": ". finally, the small sample size could have reduced the power of the study such that the relationship between distance to the cortex and percentage response was not statistically significant. our sample was especially small at the extremes of age ( 5 subjects > 55 years old ) and distance to the prefrontal cortex ( 3 subjects > 17 mm ). on a more theoretical note, the magnetic field declines logarithmically with distance, and we tested for correlations that assumed linear relationships. future studies with larger samples might explore whether nonlinear relationships exist between the distance variables and the other factors examined in this study. despite these important limitations, these data provide intriguing results that will require further investigation combining rtms and imaging. motor cortex distance and motor threshold : the distance to motor cortex correlated strongly with the motor threshold, while the prefrontal distance did not ( although there was a nonsignificant trend ). this would imply that the distance from the coil to the nearest cortex is critical in determining the amount of energy required to depolarize the pyramidal tract neurons in the motor cortex. another interpretation, however, is that brain atrophy by neuronal degeneration of cortical neurons may disproportionately alter the excitatory and inhibitory balance, requiring a higher mt. in this interpretation, the increased distance is not the most important variable and instead reflects another process that also alters the motor threshold. the current study cannot distinguish which of these, or even other, explanations lies behind the observed relationship between motor cortex distance and motor threshold. regardless of mechanism, a greater distance to cortex would indicate a higher motor threshold. further studies will be needed to address this question of mechanism. in this study, the skull to motor cortex distance alone accounts for 49. 7 % ( r - correlation value ) of the variance in mt across individuals. presumably other factors such as gyral orientation and intrinsic neuronal excitation ( particularly inhibition ) account for the rest of the variance across individuals. this finding of the importance of distance in determining mt, if confirmed, would imply that the distance is an important variable that might be measured and used as a covariate in studies where the motor threshold is used to examine pharmacology or other questions. 22 lack of direct correlation between prefrontal distance and antidepressant response : the antidepressant mechanisms of action of rtms are unknown. positive clinical effects have been found over both left and right prefrontal cortex, at intensities from 80", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5468919580719697, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.507198"}
{"text": "direct correlation between prefrontal distance and antidepressant response : the antidepressant mechanisms of action of rtms are unknown. positive clinical effects have been found over both left and right prefrontal cortex, at intensities from 80 % to 110 % mt, and at frequencies from 0. 5 to 20 hz. some have suggested that the studies to date have a trend toward larger antidepressant effects with greater intensity, although this has not been directly examined. 1 an assumption is made, but not formally tested, that stimulation with an intensity sufficient to cause neuronal depolarization is necessary and that low - intensity stimulation would not cause cortical cell depolarization with trans - synaptic effects. in light of these working assumptions in this new field of tms and depression, we hypothesized that increasing skull - to - cortex distance might correlate with clinical antidepressant response. although we failed to find a direct linear relationship, the many limitations of the current study preclude any large interpretation of this negative result. future clinical trials in conjunction with imaging are needed to directly test the assumptions above about the antidepressant effects of tms, intensity, and distance to prefrontal cortex. increase in distance with age : although the motor and prefrontal measurements both increase with age and do correspond to each other, the distance to prefrontal cortex appears to increase faster with age ( though not significantly ) than the distance to motor cortex. this finding of greater prefrontal atrophy with age in a depressed cohort is similar to findings in other studies that have examined depressed subjects compared with age - matched healthy control subjects. 14, 15 although in this study mt also increased with age ( though not significantly ), it may be the case that there is a greater d - pfc in older depressed subjects that is not accounted for by the more modest increase in mt with age. our finding that no individuals older than 55 years or with a prefrontal distance greater than 17 mm responded to rtms is consistent with this idea, although larger studies in elderly depressed subjects are needed to directly test it. some have suggested that older depressed patients do not respond as well to medication therapy. an age - related variable, therefore, such as prefrontal atrophy, itself may confer a resistance to antidepressant response independent of d - pfc. further study is indicated to understand the relationships between distance, age, and antidepressant action. we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5455513585204537, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.508333"}
{"text": ", such as prefrontal atrophy, itself may confer a resistance to antidepressant response independent of d - pfc. further study is indicated to understand the relationships between distance, age, and antidepressant action. we have found that the motor threshold measurement used in tms studies is highly dependent on the distance from cortex to skull under the tms coil. further, this distance increases with age, and in a depressed cohort there is prefrontal cortical atrophy that may outpace the motor cortex declines. these distances do not directly correlate with antidepressant clinical response, although tms did not work in older subjects with large prefrontal distances. further work combining tms with imaging will likely expand knowledge of tms brain effects. the authors thank drs. james c. ballenger, jeremy young, george arana, eric wassermann, sarah lisanby, and ulf ziemann for helpful reviews and comments. andrew m. speer assisted in the scanning and rtms for the study. the national alliance for research on schizophrenia and depression and the ted and vada stanley foundation provided grants to dr. george. an abstract of this work was presented at the new research session of the 152nd annual meeting of the american psychiatric association, washington, dc, may 1999. 23", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5367515238355809, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:863900d8-310b-41ce-822e-d0d980c39fea>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.508914"}
{"text": "the research team includes first author bradley bernstein, recipient of a howard hughes medical institute ( hhmi ) physician postdoctoral fellowship who works in the harvard university laboratory of hhmi investigator stuart l. schreiber. other co - authors are from the broad institute of mit and harvard, and affymetrix. their findings are published in the january 28, 2005 issue of cell. \" now that the human genome has been sequenced, it is vital to learn how the genome is translated to make living cells and organisms, and how we can use that information to improve human health, \" said bernstein, who is an instructor of pathology at brigham & women ' s hospital and harvard medical school. \" every one of our cells has the same genome, yet is completely different. muscle cells are different from neurons. they are different because different genes are on. \" many scientists believe changes in the regulatory scaffolding surrounding the genome may be as important as changes in the genome itself in causing diseases such as cancer. this regulatory structure, called chromatin, is a key regulator of gene expression in healthy and diseased cells, bernstein said. chromatin is composed of dna spooled around bundles of histone proteins, and resembles a chain of beads which is then compressed into a working chromosome. chemical tags placed on the histones alter the way chromatin is organized, thus allowing the right combination of genes to be turned on. in their study, the researchers analyzed the chromatin structure of the two shortest human chromosomes, numbers 21 and 22, containing about two percent of the human genome. they also sampled additional regions in both the human and mouse gen contact : jennifer donovan howard hughes medical institute", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5635648699890442, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aae296f5-e272-44fe-8411-166e5b63049e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.537000"}
{"text": "skip to content by leigh macmillan | posted on thursday, jan. 31, 2013 \u2014 9 : 29 am in a wide - ranging lecture that moved from plants to nematode worms to human leukemia, nobel laureate andrew fire, ph. d., outlined his vision for a genomics - based understanding of how organisms respond to novel information. biological responses to foreign information involve an \u201c immune response \u201d \u2014 mediated in some organisms by rna and in others by proteins and cells, said fire, professor of pathology and genetics at stanford university school of medicine. fire and craig mello, ph. d., were awarded the 2006 nobel prize in physiology or medicine for their discovery of rna interference \u2014 an rna - based immune response that allows cells to selectively silence certain genes, for example those of a pathogenic virus. immune responses like rna interference can be \u201c positive \u201d and directed against a pathogen, or they can be \u201c negative \u201d and directed against the organism itself ( generating autoimmune disorders in humans ). \u201c we live at this interface between having the immunity good enough to target as many viruses as possible coming from outside, and having it not so effective that it starts to target our own natural products and turn off processes that are very important, \u201d fire said. in the course of their studies of rna interference, fire and his colleagues began to use high - throughput dna sequencing as a tool to probe all of the rnas produced in response to foreign information. they wondered if dna sequencing might also be applied to the human immune response, in particular to the production of antibodies and t cell receptors. dna sequencing revealed \u201c lots of sequences \u201d in a healthy individual \u2013 a rich diversity and repertoire of antibodies and receptors. in individuals with leukemia or lymphoma, the sequencing detected the amplification of single clonal receptors. the findings may be useful clinically, fire said, to track the recurrence of such clonal cells and improve monitoring of residual disease after treatment. fire also described using the approach to follow responses to the flu vaccine and to dengue virus infection. \u201c as we get more sophisticated about this, we should be able to classify antibodies by similarity to each other and \u2026 build a way to track diseases, \u201d fire said. \u201c i think it \u2019 s an opportunity to develop sequence - based diagnostics. \u201d fire was the department of cell and developmental biology distinguished faculty speaker. for a complete schedule of the flexner discovery lecture series and archived video of previous lectures, go to www. mc. vanderbilt. edu / discoveryser", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5409795393950165, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:66a5ce21-e0a8-4174-83b5-42bdb448a39e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.557939"}
{"text": "the samurai dominated japanese society for 700 years, and the vision of this class permeates japanese culture. ever present is the samurai ' s sword \u2014 as a tool, a companion, and a symbol. the samurai sword is both a technical marvel and a significant cultural object. as a technology, it involves a large system of craftsmen, distinct stages of and for the materials, and a long apprenticeship to develop the necessary skills. culturally, the sword is surrounded by a history of legend, prescribed behaviors, and complex status relationships. like a many - faceted diamond, a close examination of this one tool can give us a wide perspective on japanese culture. to study the relationship between the samurai and his sword, we will study the whole of samurai history. the role the sword has played has changed over time, but so have the times brought out different aspects of that many - layered relationship. the sword makes the samurai, makes him its wielder as much as he makes it his weapon. how was the technology of the sword appropriate to the samurai, and what roles did it play? we will spend considerable time exploring the psyche of the samurai, particularly with respect to zen anti - ideology. how is zen reflected in the samurai and in his sword? we will also follow japanese history as it revolves around samurai. by what fire is the samurai ' s identity forged, and what of today ' s society can its gleaming edge cut apart? | ses # | | topics | | readings | | questions | | 1 | | introduction to japan | | | storry, richard. fig. 1 - 2 and \" the silent warrior. \" the way of the samurai. london, england : orbis books, 1978, pp. 7 - 17. isbn : 9780856134043. suzuki, daisetz. \" zen and swordsmanship i. \" chapter v in zen and japanese culture. princeton, nj : princeton university press, 1970, pp. 89 - 93. isbn : 9780691017709. | 2 | | the katana | | kapp, leon, hiroko kapp, and yoshindo yoshihara. \" a craft reborn, \" and \" the sword. \" the craft of the japanese sword. new york, ny : kodansha international, 1987, pp. 17 - 27, 53 - 55 and 61 - 94. isbn : 9780870117985. | | ( pdf ) | | 3 | | the samurai ' s cultural origins | |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5539231097208293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f6981212-92db-4138-9de5-66b1bb75cd7d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.587902"}
{"text": ". rutland, vt : c. e. tuttle, 1986, pp. 22 - 27, 65 - 76, 108, 117 - 19, 129 and 143. isbn : 9780804831796. - storry, richard. \" zen and the sword. \" the way of the samurai. london, england : orbis books, 1978, pp. 43 - 61. isbn : 9780856134043. - suzuki, daisetz. \" what is zen? \" and \" zen and the samurai. \" chapters i, iv in zen and japanese culture. princeton, nj : princeton university press, 1970, pp. 7 - 15 and 70 - 85. isbn : 9780691017709. | 6 | | civil war and unification | | | yoshikawa, eiji. taiko. new york, ny : kodansha international, 1992, pp. 653 - 663. isbn : 9784770015709. please read one of : - beaseley, w. g. \" the unifiers. \" chapter 7 in the japanese experience : a short history of japan. berkeley, ca : university of california press, 2000, pp. 116 - 127. isbn : 9780520225602. - berry, mary elizabeth. \" the sword hunt. \" and \" freezing the social order. \" chapter 5 in hideyoshi. cambridge, ma : council on east asian studies at harvard university, 1989, pp. 102 - 111. isbn : 9780674390263. | 7 | | giving up the gun | | perrin, noel. chapters 1 - 4 in giving up the gun : japan ' s reversion to the sword. boston, ma : d. r. gordine, 1988. isbn : 9780879237738. | | ( pdf ) | | 8 | | the tokugawa state | | | storry, richard. \" the armed mandarins. \" the way of the samurai. london, england : orbis books, 1978, pp. 63 - 77. isbn : 9780856134043. sadler, a. l. \" the legacy of ieyasu. \" in the maker of modern japan : the life of shogun tokugawa. rutland, vt : c. e. tuttle, 1978, pp. 387 - 398. isbn : 9780804812979. the lab for this module is to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5426138116460858, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f6981212-92db-4138-9de5-66b1bb75cd7d>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.589822"}
{"text": "add to my links, based on koch et al. 2002 ( pmid 12124289 ). as shown in this picture, dna fragments with a complementary 3 ' ( three prime ) overhang can be ligated to the unzipping construct. if dna is attached to a surface ( e. g. a coverglass ) at one end and to another surface ( e. g. a microsphere ) in the middle, the dna can be unzipped if there is a nick between the two attachments. this was first shown by bockelmann, essevaz - roulet, and heslot in the mid - 1990s ( pmid 9342340 ). we describe here a versatile adaptation first described in koch et al. 2002 ( pmid 12124289 ). compared to dna constructs for end - to - end dna stretching ( see, e. g. labeling dna by pcr unzipping constructs are more challenging to produce. the method we describe here has a significant stretch of double - stranded dna ( dsdna ) between the first and second attachment labels ( dig and biotin ). a simpler construct can be made by directly hybridizing two end - labeled dna oligos, producing a fork construct. ( see, e. g. koch _ lab : protocols / fork unzipping constructs. ) however, this produces shorter tethered particles, which was disadvantageous for the optical tweezers systems we were using. the key to this method is that unzipping of a variety of downstream dna molecules can be carried out with very little modification to the protocol. this versatility was leveraged by jiang et al. 2004 ( pmid 16337600 ), shundrovsky et al. 2006 ( pmid 16732285 ), and johnson et al. 2007 ( pmid 17604719 ). - the anchoring segment ( typically about 1 kilobase pairs ( kb ) in length ) is convenient for producing long initial tethers. however, the structural stability of this dsdna anchoring segment sets an upper limit of below 60 pn ( to assure that the dsdna anchoring segment does not undergo force - induced melting or \" overstretching \" ). - as shown in figure above, the complementary overhang is provided by the biotin - labeled strand of the \" insert duplex \" ( or \" adapter duplex \" ). this is for a 3 ' overhang. for a 5 ' overhang, the bottom strand will be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5584641049936165, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ccd0d416-cc3a-429b-9259-be6d10ad7d8e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.596239"}
{"text": "non - psalmodic chants, including the ordinary of the mass, sequences, and hymns, were originally intended for congregational singing. the structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. in sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. the strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza. template : main early plainchant, like much of western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the diatonic scale. modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions : the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. the earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the enchiriadis group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. in contrast to the ancient greek system of tetrachords ( a collection of four continuous notes ) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the enchiriadis writings base their tone - system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, d, e, f, and g. the disjunct tetrachords in the enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard medieval scale ( for example, there is a high f #, a note not recognized by later medieval writers ). a diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b / b - flat was first described by hucbald, who adopted the tetrachord of the finals ( d, e, f, g ) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the greek greater and lesser perfect systems. these were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant. around 1025, guido d ' arezzo revolutionized western music with the development of the gamut, in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping hexachords. hexachords could be built on c ( the natural hexachord, c - d - e ^ f - g - a ), f ( the soft hexachord, using a b - flat, f - g - a ^ bb - c - d ), or g ( the hard hexachord, using a b - natural, g - a - b ^ c - d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5259662202771926, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:24a63b57-ae3d-40c4-bdc7-3cc473f1d196>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.665029"}
{"text": "soft hexachord, using a b - flat, f - g - a ^ bb - c - d ), or g ( the hard hexachord, using a b - natural, g - a - b ^ c - d - e ). the b - flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an accidental. the use of notes outside of this collection was described as musica ficta. gregorian chant was categorized into eight modes, influenced by the eightfold division of byzantine chants called the oktoechos. each mode is distinguished by its final, dominant, and ambitus. the final is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. the dominant is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a reciting tone in the melody. ambitus refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as plagal, while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as authentic. although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants. the existent pseudo - greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the ancient greek modes ; the prefix \" hypo - \" ( under, gr. ) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. in contemporary latin manuscripts the modes are simply called protus authentus / plagalis, deuterus, tritus and tetrardus : the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. in the roman chantbooks the modes are indicated by roman numerals. - modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on d, sometimes called dorian and hypodorian. - modes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on e, sometimes called phrygian and hypophrygian. - modes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on f, sometimes called lydian and hypolydian. - modes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on g, sometimes called mixolydian and hypomixolydian. although the modes with melodies ending on a, b, and c are sometimes referred", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5148650233057039, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:24a63b57-ae3d-40c4-bdc7-3cc473f1d196>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.666988"}
{"text": "mounted arc tube | mounted arc tube. | in some ways, gases are a pain from a sample point of view. with the exception of chlorine and bromine they all look exactly the same : like nothing at all. my beautiful set of noble gas flasks is beautiful because of the flasks, not what ' s in them, which is indistinguishable from plain air or vacuum. ( so much so that i got them for a bargain price because the seller thought the were empty. ) but set up an electric current through almost any gas, and things are completely different. the current ionizes the gas, and when the electrons fall back into their orbits, they emit light of very specific frequencies. these spectral lines can easily be seen with even a very cheap pocket spectroscope, and they give the glowing tubes very unusual colors. so unusual in fact that they are basically impossible to photograph. the pictures here simply don ' t look at all like the real colors of these tubes, which cannot be represented by the limited red, green, and blue mixtures available in computer or printed photographs. david franco helped arrange these tubes, which were made by a guy who specializes in noble gas tubes and geissler tubes ( click the source link ). i have tubes installed in each of the five stable noble gas spots in the table, hooked up underneath to a high voltage transformer. they are really quite beautiful. on my noble rack page i have all the pictures collected, along with pictures of arcs i made in my other collection of noble gas flasks. source : special effects neon contributor : theodore gray acquired : 22 november, 2002", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5311809443700746, "token_count": 337, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:28e980e9-5d5d-4553-9eb2-246b6e1901c1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.671784"}
{"text": "mind and language 20 ( 2 ) : 241 - 57 ( 2005 ) | abstract | | anosognosia is literally \u2018 unawareness of or failure to acknowledge one \u2019 s hemi - plegia or other disability \u2019 ( oed ). etymology would suggest the meaning \u2018 lack of knowledge of disease \u2019 so that anosognosia would include any denial of impairment, such as denial of blindness ( anton \u2019 s syndrome ). but babinski, who introduced the term in 1914, applied it only to patients with hemiplegia who fail to acknowledge their paralysis. most commonly, this is failure to acknowledge paralysis of the left side of the body following damage to the right hemisphere of the brain. in this paper, we shall mainly be concerned with anosognosia for hemiplegia. but we shall also use the term \u2018 anosognosia \u2019 in an inclusive way to encompass lack of knowledge or acknowledgement of any impairment. indeed, in the construction \u2018 anosognosia for x \u2019, x might even be anosognosia for some y. | | keywords | | amnesia belief delusion epistemology impairment | | through your library | | configure | similar books and articles elizabeth leritz, chris loftis, greg crucian, william j. friedman & dawn bowers ( 2004 ). self - awareness of deficits in parkinson disease. clinical neuropsychologist 18 ( 3 ) : 352 - 361. oliver h. turnbull, karen jones & judith reed - screen ( 2002 ). implicit awareness of deficit in anosognosia? an emotion - based account of denial of deficit. comment. neuro - psychoanalysis 4 ( 1 ) : 69 - 86. vilayanur s. ramachandran ( 1995 ). anosognosia in parietal lobe syndrome. consciousness and cognition 4 ( 1 ) : 22 - 51. drakon nikolinakos ( 2004 ). anosognosia and the unity of consciousness. philosophical studies 119 ( 3 ) : 315 - 342. lisa bortolotti, rochelle cox & amanda barnier ( 2011 ). can we recreate delusions in the laboratory? philosophical psychology 25 ( 1 ) : 109 - 131. paul m. jenkinson, nicola m. j. edelstyn, justine l. drakeford & simon j. ellis ( 2009 ). reality monitoring in anosognosia for hemiplegia. consciousness and cognition 18 ( 2 ) : 458 - 470. martin", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5184384874661487, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fea25b9d-d2f8-4ddb-9c61-6b557071a1f6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.675469"}
{"text": "( phys. org ) - - this image, taken by the nasa / esa hubble space telescope, shows a detailed view of the spiral arms on one side of the galaxy messier 99. messier 99 is a so - called grand design spiral, with long, large and clearly defined spiral arms giving it a structure somewhat similar to the milky way. lying around 50 million light - years away, messier 99 is one of over a thousand galaxies that make up the virgo cluster, the closest cluster of galaxies to us. messier 99 itself is relatively bright and large, meaning it was one of the first galaxies to be discovered, way back in the 18th century. this earned it a place in charles messiers famous catalog of astronomical objects. in recent years, a number of unexplained phenomena in messier 99 have been studied by astronomers. among these is the nature of one of the brighter stars visible in this image. cataloged as ptf 10fqs, and visible as a yellow - orange star in the top - left corner of this image, it was first spotted by the palomar transient facility, which scans the skies for sudden changes in brightness ( or transient phenomena, to use astronomers jargon ). these can be caused by different kinds of event, including variable stars and supernova explosions. what is unusual about ptf 10fqs is that it has so far defied classification : it is brighter than a nova ( a bright eruption on a stars surface ), but fainter than a supernova ( the explosion that marks the end of life for a large star ). scientists have offered a number of possible explanations, including the intriguing suggestion that it could have been caused by a giant planet plunging into its parent star. this hubble image was made in june 2010, during the period when the outburst was fading, so ptf 10fqss location could be pinpointed with great precision. these measurements will allow other telescopes to home in on the star in future, even when the afterglow of the outburst has faded to nothing. a version of this image of messier 99 was entered into the hubbles hidden treasures competition by contestant matej novak. hidden treasures is an initiative to invite astronomy enthusiasts to search the hubble archive for stunning images that have never been seen by the general public. the competition is now closed and the winners will be announced soon. explore further : hubble reveals the ring nebula ' s true shape", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5557894516556672, "token_count": 498, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dd2657be-0a30-4558-8174-04f735448ce0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.678168"}
{"text": "( phys. org ) - - an essay on robots by a professor in japan over 40 years ago has just got its official translation. many in robotics and other science circles will say better late than never for an official translation of yasahiro mori ' s paper, the uncanny valley which was published in a japanese journal called energy 42 years earlier. the essay has generated interest about the extent and limitations of making robots more and more human - like in human - robot interaction. an english translation was done in 2005 but the translation that has been authorized and and reviewed by mori was published tuesday in ieee spectrum. i have noticed that, in climbing toward the goal of making robots appear human, our affinity for them increases until we come to a valley ( figure 1 ), which i call the uncanny valley. that observation from his original essay is what sparked conversations and interest among robotic designers over the years. mori maintains that humans are drawn to human - like robots with positive feelings of affinity until the robot moves or reveals itself in such a way that triggers the persons realization that it is not human. then it becomes uncanny or in popular - culture terms, creepy. affinity is lost. in his essay, mori expressed this experience in a graph, and he also offered an example, the prosthetic hand. the human being gets an eerie sensation, he said, when realizing that the hand is not real. we could be startled during a handshake by its limp boneless grip together with its texture and coldness. when this happens, we lose our sense of affinity, and the hand becomes uncanny. in mathematical terms, this can be represented by a negative value. he adds that when a prosthetic hand that is near the bottom of the uncanny valley starts to move, the sensation of eeriness intensifies. the official translation on tuesday is accompanied by an interview with mori, who can look at the validity of his remarks 42 years later, when robotics has gone through so many developments. a counterpoint to the popularity of moris essay has been the contention that the essay was an essay, after all, of limited scientific value. mori said, i have read that there is scientific evidence that the uncanny valley does indeed exist ; for example, by measuring brain waves scientists have found evidence of that. i do appreciate the fact that research is being conducted in this area, but from my point of view, i think that the brain waves act that way because we feel eerie. it still doesn ' t explain why we feel eerie to begin with. mori said", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5645044892582449, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e7bda736-5a20-4841-97f5-534cd7eb25b6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.683606"}
{"text": "do appreciate the fact that research is being conducted in this area, but from my point of view, i think that the brain waves act that way because we feel eerie. it still doesn ' t explain why we feel eerie to begin with. mori said that pointing out the existence of the uncanny valley was intended as advice for people who design robots rather than a scientific statement itself. mori said he still thinks that designers should steer clear of making robots too lifelike, falling into the valley. i have no motivation to build a robot that resides on the other side of the valley why do you have to take the risk and try to get closer to the other side? he said he did not even find it interesting to develop a robot that looks exactly like a human. mori spoke approvingly about asimo as invigorating, a robot inviting positive feelings but appearing as different from humans. the two translators of the essay are karl f. macdorman, associate professor of human computer interaction at the school of informatics, indiana university. and norri kageki, a journalist who writes about robots. explore further : robots learn to take a proper handoff by following digitized human examples more information : spectrum. ieee. org / automaton / robotics / humanoids / the - uncanny - valley", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5282556245364944, "token_count": 262, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e7bda736-5a20-4841-97f5-534cd7eb25b6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.684195"}
{"text": "statistical modeling could help us understand cosmic accelerationdecember 24th, 2010 in physics / general physics ( physorg. com ) - - while it is generally accepted by scientists that the universe is expanding at an accelerated rate, there are questions about why this should be so. for years, scientists have been trying to determine the cause of this behavior. one of the theories is that dark energy could be the cause of cosmic acceleration. in order to test theories of dark energy, a group at los alamos national laboratory in new mexico and the university of california santa cruz came up with a technique designed to test different models of dark energy. we are trying to investigate what could be behind the accelerated expansion of the universe, katrin heitmann, one of the los alamos scientists tells physorg. com. our technique is based on data, and can be used to evaluate different models. heitmann and her collaborators created their method based on gaussian process modeling ; the implementation was led by tracy holsclaw from uc santa cruz. were using statistical methods rather than trying to come up with different models. our process takes data from different sources and then uses it to look for certain deviations from what we assume in a cosmological constant. the groups work can be seen in physical review letters : nonparametric dark energy reconstruction from supernova data. many scientists think that dark energy is driving the accelerated expansion of the universe, heitmann says. if this is the case, it is possible to characterize it via its equation of state w ( z ). the redshift evolution of the equation of state parameter w ( z ) would show some indication of a dynamical origin of dark energy. heitmann points out that in such a case, there could be an infinite number of models. we cant test all those models, she says, so we have to do an inverse problem. we have data and we can characterize the underlying cause of the accelerated expansion. it assumes that w is a smoothly varying function, and a dynamical dark energy theory would fit that. we can use data and analyze it to see if we can find indications that dark energy really is behind accelerated expansion. the los alamos and university of california, santa cruz team first tested their statistical technique on simulated data in order see whether the method was reliable. after we saw that it was, heitmann says, we tried it on currently available supernova data. so far, their analysis has not revealed that a dynamical dark energy is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6017422310365488, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:511e54b3-75f5-412a-95d6-d7d80684d08a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.687957"}
{"text": "technique on simulated data in order see whether the method was reliable. after we saw that it was, heitmann says, we tried it on currently available supernova data. so far, their analysis has not revealed that a dynamical dark energy is behind the accelerated expansion ( the cosmological constant is a very special case of dark energy and is still in agreement with the data ), but heitmann doesnt think that means that the door is closed on dynamical dark energy theories as the cause of acceleration in the expanding universe. the data so far is limited, and better data is coming in every day, she says. additionally, the group hopes to include other data in their statistical analyses. our technique allows for the input of data from cosmic microwave background and baryon acoustic oscillations as well, and thats what we want to add in next. if this technique does identify a dynamical dark energy as the reason behind accelerated expansion of the universe, it could mean revisiting the basics of what we know about the workings of the universe. if we do find the time dependence that supports the idea of dark energy as this mechanism, then we can go back to the theory approach. we would have an idea of which models could better explain universes expansion history and ultimately develop a self - consistent theory with no ad hoc assumptions. more information : tracy holsclaw, ujjaini alam, bruno sanso, herbert lee, katrin heitmann, salman halbib, and david higdon, nonparametric dark energy reconstruction from supernova data, physical review letters ( 2010 ). available online : link. aps. org / doi / 10. 1103 / physrevlett. 105. 241302 copyright 2010 physorg. com. all rights reserved. this material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or part without the express written permission of physorg. com. \" statistical modeling could help us understand cosmic acceleration. \" december 24th, 2010. http : / / phys. org / news / 2010 - 12 - statistical - cosmic. html", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5889358681515506, "token_count": 436, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:511e54b3-75f5-412a-95d6-d7d80684d08a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.688835"}
{"text": "in the karlsruhe physics course one defines the term \" substance - like \" quantity : let my cite the definition from a paper by falk, herrmann and schmid : \" there is a class of physical quantities whose characteristics are especially easy to visualize : those extensive physical quantities to which a density can be assigned. these include electric charge, mass, amount of substance ( number of particles ), and others. because of the fundamental role these quantities play throughout science and because such quantities can be distributed in and flow through space, we give them a designation of their own : substance - like. \" are there examples of extensive quantities, which are not substance - like? i think volume is one example, since it seems to make no sense to assign a density to it, are there others? now the authors write that a quantity can only be conserved if it is substance - like, let my cite this from an other publication : f. herrmann, writes : \" it is important to make clear that the question of conservation or non - conservation only makes sense with substance - like quantities. only in the context of substance - like quantities does it make sense to ask the question of whether they are conserved or not. the question makes no sense in the case of non - substance - like quantities such as field strength or temperature. \" so my second question is : why has a conserved quantity to be substance like? it would be great if one could give me a detailed explanation ( or a counterexample if he thinks the statement is wrong ). are there resources where the ideas cited above are introduced with some higher degree of detail and rigour?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6288553350261048, "token_count": 330, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38e7da68-52df-433a-bb58-c531417c0521>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.690555"}
{"text": "the induction lamp is one of the newer technologies in lighting. this new tech lamp offers high efficacy and a very long life. with a shape similar to that of an incandescent lamp, it is useful in a variety of applications : - hard - to - reach areas - lobbies and atriums - decorative street lighting - hazardous areas compared with the incandescent lamp, the induction bulb is about four times as efficient and lasts over 40 times longer. in fact, this lamp and generator system are rated at 100, 000 hours, as compared to incandescents, which burn only 750 to 2, 500 hours. when compared to metal halide lamps of similar wattages, the induction lamp lasts up to 10 times longer, has higher color rendering, starts instantly, and does not require the warm - up period of metal halide lamps. the induction lamp operates without an electrode. at the center of the lamp is the induction coil, powered by an electronic unit at the base of the lamp, which produces a magnetic field that produces light. this coil is sometimes referred to as an energy - coupling antenna. the glass assembly surrounding the induction coil contains a mercury electron - ion plasma material, which is energized in a magnetic field producing uv light. the inner portion of the glass is lined with a phosphor coating very similar to that in fluorescent lamps. the induction lamp offers many features that make it an attractive light source. with such a long rated life, these lamps seldom need replacing, rendering them virtually maintenance - free. this is particularly useful in applications where lamp replacement is cumbersome and expensive, as in some outdoor applications and in hard - to - reach areas. the induction lamp is also durable, and its light output is not significantly influenced by ambient temperature. this makes the induction lamp ideal for outdoor applications, where durability is certainly a high priority. - ultra - long life - - 100, 000 hours rated life - white light, excellent color rendering ( 80 + cri ) with choice of color temperatures - no color shift - high reliability - - instant start when cold and re - starting when hot - low emi complies with fcc non - consumer limits", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5286767638713192, "token_count": 441, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9422e17-45bf-442b-ba35-db3708b1542a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.734912"}
{"text": "individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | philosophy index : aesthetics \u00b7 epistemology \u00b7 ethics \u00b7 logic \u00b7 metaphysics \u00b7 consciousness \u00b7 philosophy of language \u00b7 philosophy of mind \u00b7 philosophy of science \u00b7 social and political philosophy \u00b7 philosophies \u00b7 philosophers \u00b7 list of lists - main article : inductive deductive reasoning in traditional aristotelian logic, deductive reasoning is inference in which the conclusion is of no greater generality than the premises, as opposed to inductive reasoning, where the conclusion is of greater generality than the premises. other theories of logic define deductive reasoning as inference in which the conclusion is just as certain as the premises, as opposed to inductive reasoning, where the conclusion can have less certainty than the premises. in both approaches, the conclusion of a deductive inference is necessitated by the premises : the premises can ' t be true while the conclusion is false. ( in aristotelian logic, the premises in inductive reasoning can also be related in this way to the conclusion. ) - all men are mortal. - socrates is a man. - therefore socrates is mortal. - the picture is above the desk. - the desk is above the floor. - therefore the picture is above the floor. - all birds have wings. - a cardinal is a bird. - therefore a cardinal has wings. - every criminal opposes the government. - everyone in the opposition party opposes the government. - therefore everyone in the opposition party is a criminal. this is invalid because the premises fail to establish commonality between membership in the opposition party and being a criminal. this is the famous fallacy of the undistributed middle. | basic argument forms of the calculus | | modus ponens | | [ ( p \u2192 q ) \u2227 p ] q | | if p then q ; p ; therefore q | | modus tollens | | [ ( p \u2192 q ) \u2227 \u00acq ] \u00acp | | if p then q ; not q ; therefore not p | | hypothetical syllogism | | [ ( p \u2192 q ) \u2227 ( q \u2192 r ) ] ( p \u2192 r ) | | if p then q ; if q then r ; therefore, if p then r | | disjunctive syllogism | | [ ( p \u2228 q ) \u2227 \u00acp ] q | | either p or q ; not p ; therefore, q | | constructive dilemma | | [ ( p \u2192", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5516946830053526, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:abf62f4b-025d-4eed-a076-36ebb98d1a56>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.746340"}
{"text": "p then r | | disjunctive syllogism | | [ ( p \u2228 q ) \u2227 \u00acp ] q | | either p or q ; not p ; therefore, q | | constructive dilemma | | [ ( p \u2192 q ) \u2227 ( r \u2192 s ) \u2227 ( p \u2228 r ) ] ( q \u2228 s ) | | if p then q ; and if r then s ; but either p or r ; therefore either q or s | | destructive dilemma | | [ ( p \u2192 q ) \u2227 ( r \u2192 s ) \u2227 ( \u00acq \u2228 \u00acs ) ] ( \u00acp \u2228 \u00acr ) | | if p then q ; and if r then s ; but either not q or not s ; therefore rather not p or not r | | simplification | | ( p \u2227 q ) p | | p and q are true ; therefore p is true | | conjunction | | p, q ( p \u2227 q ) | | p and q are true separately ; therefore they are true conjointly | | addition | | p ( p \u2228 q ) | | p is true ; therefore the disjunction ( p or q ) is true | | composition | | [ ( p \u2192 q ) \u2227 ( p \u2192 r ) ] [ p \u2192 ( q \u2227 r ) ] | | if p then q ; and if p then r ; therefore if p is true then q and r are true | | de morgan ' s theorem ( 1 ) | | \u00ac ( p \u2227 q ) ( \u00acp \u2228 \u00acq ) | | the negation of ( p and q ) is equiv. to ( not p or not q ) | | de morgan ' s theorem ( 2 ) | | \u00ac ( p \u2228 q ) ( \u00acp \u2227 \u00acq ) | | the negation of ( p or q ) is equiv. to ( not p and not q ) | | commutation ( 1 ) | | ( p \u2228 q ) ( q \u2228 p ) | | ( p or q ) is equiv. to ( q or p ) | | commutation ( 2 ) | | ( p \u2227 q ) ( q \u2227 p ) | | ( p and q ) is equiv. to ( q and p ) | | association ( 1 ) | | [ p \u2228 ( q \u2228 r ) ] [ ( p \u2228 q ) \u2228 r ] | | p or ( q or r )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6024280655328662, "token_count": 500, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:abf62f4b-025d-4eed-a076-36ebb98d1a56>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.747058"}
{"text": "and q ) is equiv. to ( q and p ) | | association ( 1 ) | | [ p \u2228 ( q \u2228 r ) ] [ ( p \u2228 q ) \u2228 r ] | | p or ( q or r ) is equiv. to ( p or q ) or r | | association ( 2 ) | | [ p \u2227 ( q \u2227 r ) ] [ ( p \u2227 q ) \u2227 r ] | | p and ( q and r ) is equiv. to ( p and q ) and r | | distribution ( 1 ) | | [ p \u2227 ( q \u2228 r ) ] [ ( p \u2227 q ) \u2228 ( p \u2227 r ) ] | | p and ( q or r ) is equiv. to ( p and q ) or ( p and r ) | | distribution ( 2 ) | | [ p \u2228 ( q \u2227 r ) ] [ ( p \u2228 q ) \u2227 ( p \u2228 r ) ] | | p or ( q and r ) is equiv. to ( p or q ) and ( p or r ) | | double negation | | p \u00ac\u00acp | | p is equivalent to the negation of not p | | transposition | | ( p \u2192 q ) ( \u00acq \u2192 \u00acp ) | | if p then q is equiv. to if not q then not p | | material implication | | ( p \u2192 q ) ( \u00acp \u2228 q ) | | if p then q is equiv. to either not p or q | | material equivalence ( 1 ) | | ( p \u2194 q ) [ ( p \u2192 q ) \u2227 ( q \u2192 p ) ] | | ( p is equiv. to q ) means, ( if p is true then q is true ) and ( if q is true then p is true ) | | material equivalence ( 2 ) | | ( p \u2194 q ) [ ( p \u2227 q ) \u2228 ( \u00acq \u2227 \u00acp ) ] | | ( p is equiv. to q ) means, either ( p and q are true ) or ( both p and q are false ) | | exportation | | [ ( p \u2227 q ) \u2192 r ] [ p \u2192 ( q \u2192 r ) ] | | from ( if p and q are true then r is true ) we can prove ( if q is true then r is true, if p is true ) | | importation | | [ p", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6154836113226817, "token_count": 502, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:abf62f4b-025d-4eed-a076-36ebb98d1a56>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.749377"}
{"text": "[ p \u2192 ( q \u2192 r ) ] | | from ( if p and q are true then r is true ) we can prove ( if q is true then r is true, if p is true ) | | importation | | [ p \u2192 ( q \u2192 r ) ] [ ( p \u2227 q ) \u2192 r ] | | tautology | | p ( p \u2228 p ) | | p is true is equiv. to p is true or p is true | in more formal terms, a deduction is a sequence of statements such that every statement can be derived from those before it. it is understandable, then, that this leaves open the question of how we prove the first sentence ( since it cannot follow from anything ). axiomatic propositional logic solves this by requiring the following conditions for a proof to be met : a proof of \u03b1 from an ensemble \u03c3 of well - formed - formulas ( wffs ) is a finite sequence of wffs : - \u03b2n = \u03b1 and for each \u03b2i ( 1 \u2264 i \u2264 n ), either - \u03b2i \u2208 \u03c3 - \u03b2i is an axiom, - \u03b2i is the output of modus ponens for two previous wffs, \u03b2i - g and \u03b2i - h. different versions of axiomatic propositional logics contain a few axioms, usually three or more than three, in addition to one or more inference rules. for instance, gottlob frege ' s axiomatization of propositional logic, which is also the first instance of such an attempt, has six propositional axioms and two rules. bertrand russell and alfred north whitehead also suggested a system with five axioms. for instance a version of axiomatic propositional logic due to jan lukasiewicz ( 1878 - 1956 ) has a set a of axioms adopted as follows : - [ pl1 ] p \u2192 ( q \u2192 p ) - [ pl2 ] ( p \u2192 ( q \u2192 r ) ) \u2192 ( ( p \u2192 q ) \u2192 ( p \u2192 r ) ) - [ pl3 ] ( \u00acp \u2192 \u00acq ) \u2192 ( q \u2192 p ) and it has the set r of rules of inference with one rule in it that is modu ponendo ponens as follows : - [ mp ] from \u03b1 and \u03b1 \u2192 \u03b2, infer \u03b2. the inference rule ( s ) allows us to derive the statements following the axioms or given wffs of the ensemble \u03c3. natural deductive logic edit in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6033696240250803, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:abf62f4b-025d-4eed-a076-36ebb98d1a56>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.750355"}
{"text": "| | ( 1 ) | | ( p \u2192 q ) | | a | | 3 | | ( 3 ) | | p | | a ( for raa ) | | 1, 2, 3 | | ( 5 ) | | q \u2227 \u00acq | | 2, 4, \u2227i | an example of the proof of a sequent ( a theorem in this case ) : | \u2228 \u00acp | | assumption number | | line number | | formula ( wff ) | | lines in - use and justification | | 1 | | ( 1 ) | | \u00ac ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) | | a ( for raa ) | | 2 | | ( 2 ) | | \u00acp | | a ( for raa ) | | 2 | | ( 3 ) | | ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) | | 2, \u2228i | | 1, 2 | | ( 4 ) | | ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) \u2227 \u00ac ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) | | 1, 2, \u2227i | | 1 | | ( 5 ) | | \u00ac\u00acp | | 2, 4, raa | | 1 | | ( 7 ) | | ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) | | 6, \u2228i | | 1 | | ( 8 ) | | ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) \u2227 \u00ac ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) | | 1, 7, \u2227i | | ( 9 ) | | \u00ac\u00ac ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) | | 1, 8, raa | | ( 10 ) | | ( p \u2228 \u00acp ) | | 9, dn | each rule of system l has its own requirements for the type of input ( s ) or entry ( es ) that it can accept and has its own way of treating and calculating the assumptions used by its inputs. - jennings, r. e., continuing logic, the course book of ' axiomatic logic ' in simon fraser university, vancouver, canada - zarefsky, david, argumentation : the study of effective reasoning parts i and ii, the teaching company 2002 - abductive reasoning - correspondence theory of truth - defeasible reasoning - hypothetico - deductive method - inductive reasoning - propositional calculus - retroductive reasoning | general : philosophy : eastern - western | history of philosophy : ancient - medieval - modern | portal | | lists : basic topics | topic list | philosophers | philosophies | glossary of philosophical \" isms \" | philosophical movements | publications | category listings", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5900448213227447, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:abf62f4b-025d-4eed-a076-36ebb98d1a56>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.752558"}
{"text": "philosophy : eastern - western | history of philosophy : ancient - medieval - modern | portal | | lists : basic topics | topic list | philosophers | philosophies | glossary of philosophical \" isms \" | philosophical movements | publications | category listings... more lists | | branches : aesthetics | ethics | epistemology | logic | metaphysics | philosophy of : education, history, language, law, mathematics, mind, philosophy, politics, psychology, religion, science, social philosophy, social sciences | | schools : agnosticism | analytic philosophy | atheism | critical theory | determinism | dialectics | empiricism | existentialism | humanism | idealism | logical positivism | materialism | nihilism | postmodernism | rationalism | relativism | skepticism | theism | | references : philosophy primer | internet encyclo. of philosophy | philosophical dictionary | stanford encyclo. of philosophy | internet philosophy guide | cs : dedukce da : deduktion de : deduktion es : razonamiento deductivo fr : deduction logique ko : \u110b\u1167\u11ab\u110b\u1167\u11a8\u1107\u1165\u11b8 hr : dedukcija he : \u05d3\u05d3\u05d5\u05e7\u05e6\u05d9\u05d4 hu : dedukcio nl : deductieno : deduksjon ( filosofi ) nn : deduksjonru : \u0434\u0435\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044f sl : dedukcija sv : deduktionuk : \u0434\u0435\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0456\u044f zh : | this page uses creative commons licensed content from wikipedia ( view authors ). |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5694082122207478, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:abf62f4b-025d-4eed-a076-36ebb98d1a56>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.753161"}
{"text": "methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | psychological operations ( psyop, psyops ) are techniques used by military and police forces to influence a target audience ' s emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and behavior. target audiences can be governments, organizations, groups, and individuals, and are used in order to induce confessions, or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to the originator ' s objectives. this concept has been used by military institutions throughout history, but it is only since the 20th century that it has been accorded the organizational and professional status it enjoys now. in the german bundeswehr, the zentrum operative information and its subordinated bataillon fur operative information 950 are responsible for the psyop efforts ( called operative information in german ). both the center and the battalion are subordinate to the new streitkraftebasis ( joint services support command, skb ) and together consist of about 1, 000 soldiers specialising in modern communication and media technologies. one project of the german psyop forces is the radio station stimme der freiheit ( voice of freedom ), heard by thousands of afghans. another is publication of various newspapers and magazines in kosovo and afghanistan. united kingdom edit in the british armed forces, psyops are handled by the tri - service 15 psychological operations group. united states edit - main article : psychological operations ( united states ) the purpose of united states psychological operations ( psyop ) is to induce or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to u. s. objectives. in the united states department of defense, dedicated psychological operations units exist only in the united states army. however, the united states navy also plans and executes limited psyop missions. unlike some countries, united states psyop units and soldiers of all branches of the military are prohibited by law from conducting psyop missions on domestic audiences. while united states army psyop units may offer non - psyop support to domestic military missions, they can only target foreign audiences. within the u. s. psychological operations community, the correct acronym is psyop without the \" s \" at the end, as noted in fm 33 - 1 - 1. nato references will alternately list the capability as psyop or psyops, depending on the source ' s nation of origin. during the waco siege, the fbi and batf conducted psychological operations on the men, women and children inside the mount carmel complex. this included using loud speakers to play sounds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5469270570788038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2ca16dd7-ab2e-48a6-bab8-8438e2f42ec7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.761282"}
{"text": "or psyops, depending on the source ' s nation of origin. during the waco siege, the fbi and batf conducted psychological operations on the men, women and children inside the mount carmel complex. this included using loud speakers to play sounds of animals being slaughtered, drilling noises and clips from talk shows about how david koresh was much hated. in addition, very bright, flashing lights were used at night. see also edit - psychological warfare - information warfare - psychological operations ( united states ) - 15 psychological operations group ( british armed forces ) - political warfare executive - psychological warfare division it is possible that psyops, using a combonation of the patriot act and the rave act, could engage in psychological warfare on those who produce, promote, or organize events centered around electronic music. these acts allow governmental agencies on all levels to coordinate and engage in psychological warfare against innocent civilians who use the electronic medium as a tool to create art. these acts could potentially lead to a constitutional conflict in regards to the quartering of troops as stated in the bill of rights. - psywar. org \u2014 psychological operations and black propaganda the history of psychological warfare / psyop with an extensive library of aerial propaganda leaflets. - iws \u2014 the information warfare site - u. s. \u2014 psyop producing mid - eastern kids comic book - the institute of heraldry \u2014 psychological operations - oss \u2014 development of psychological warfare ( wwii ) - clandestine radio - it : operazioni psicologiche - fi : psykologinen operaatio | this page uses creative commons licensed content from wikipedia ( view authors ). |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5231158752965868, "token_count": 328, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2ca16dd7-ab2e-48a6-bab8-8438e2f42ec7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.762494"}
{"text": "- mobile air quality studies ( maqs ) - an international project ( 2010 ) - due to an increasing awareness of the potential hazardousness of air pollutants, new laws, rules and guidelines have recently been implemented globally. in this respect, numerous studies have addressed traffic - related exposure to particulate matter using stationary technology so far. by contrast, only few studies used the advanced technology of mobile exposure analysis. the mobile air quality study ( maqs ) addresses the issue of air pollutant exposure by combining advanced high - granularity spatial - temporal analysis with vehicle - mounted, person - mounted and roadside sensors. the maqs - platform will be used by international collaborators in order 1 ) to assess air pollutant exposure in relation to road structure, 2 ) to assess air pollutant exposure in relation to traffic density, 3 ) to assess air pollutant exposure in relation to weather conditions, 4 ) to compare exposure within vehicles between front and back seat ( children ) positions, and 5 ) to evaluate \" traffic zone \" - exposure in relation to non - \" traffic zone \" - exposure. primarily, the maqs - platform will focus on particulate matter. with the establishment of advanced mobile analysis tools, it is planed to extend the analysis to other pollutants including including no2, so2, nanoparticles, and ozone.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5239695205974362, "token_count": 278, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:362fb2e5-8f10-49e6-a9f7-2a7f865bc8e3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.764215"}
{"text": "or his possessions. notice that locke and madison include among \" property \" people ' s very lives, their property in their own existence and the right to preserve that existence. other forms of property are no less important, for they are necessary to sustain our lives. if we are to live, we must also provide for food, clothing, shelter, and other needs and luxuries. we can obtain these things only through the fruits of our labor or through charity ( leaving aside the possibility of violating others ' rights through theft, either directly or by using the government as our agent to take from another and give to us ). in other words, you can talk all you want about the freedom of speech, but what good is it if you are unable to own a printing press or the paper ( or computer ) on which to write your ideas? you can pay lip service to the freedom of association, the freedom to peaceably assemble, and the freedom to practice any religion you want ( or none at all ), but what good is it if you are not permitted the opportunity to own the land on which to exercise these rights? you can have the right to keep and bear arms, but what good is it if you are not allowed to own any place to keep them? property rights are not just an academic concept or an economic expediency, they are inexorably intertwined with the human rights and freedoms we hold so dear. this is why the power of eminent domain is one of government ' s most evil, insidious powers. but, you may argue, when government invokes eminent domain to take someone ' s property, the \" takings clause \" of the fifth amendment says it must pay \" just compensation \" so that the property owner is no worse off than before the taking. the key question that must be asked is : who determines whether the compensation is \" just \"? it certainly isn ' t just to the property owners who simply desire to be left alone and remain in their homes ; otherwise, they would have simply accepted a buyout offer. so, the government has an appraisal done, oftentimes producing a lowball figure, and demands that the property owner take the offer and leave. never mind that the government - acquired appraisal may be only a fraction of what the owner could get for the property from another private party ( the government ' s claims of its offer ' s \" fair market value \" notwithstanding ). the government can offer below market value ( or reduce the value of the property", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5046827441948479, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1ce1b3ef-6af0-4974-86b2-eeb9ccc11ce8>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.792862"}
{"text": ". \u2014 friedrich august von hayek, the road to serfdom, 1944 if we wish to preserve a free society, it is essential that we recognize that the desirability of a particular object is not sufficient justification for the use of coercion. \u2014 friedrich august von hayek, the constitution of liberty, 1960 property is surely a right of mankind as real as liberty. \u2014 john adams, dissertation on the canon and the feudal law, 1765 property must be secured, or liberty cannot exist. \u2014 john adams, a balanced government ( 1790 ) in discourses on davila ( 1805 ), reprinted in 6 works of john adams ( 1851 ed. ) now what liberty can there be where property is taken away without consent? \u2014 samuel adams, the rights of the colonists, the report of the committee of correspondence to the boston town meeting, november 20, 1772 private property and freedom are inseparable. \u2014 george washington you cannot have a free society without private property. \u2014 milton friedman man is born into the universe with a personality that is his own. he has a right that is founded upon the constitution of the universe to have property that is his own. ultimately, property rights and personal rights are the same thing. the one cannot be preserved if the other be violated. \u2014 calvin coolidge, \" have faith in massachusetts, \" massachusetts senate president acceptance speech, january 7, 1914 the right of liberty means man ' s right to individual action, individual initiative and individual property. without the right to private property no independent action is possible. \u2014 ayn rand, \" the only path to tomorrow, \" 1944 the right to life is the source of all rights \u2014 and the right to property is their only implementation. without property rights, no other rights are possible. since man has to sustain his life by his own effort, the man who has no right to the product of his effort has no means to sustain his life. the man who produces while others dispose of his product, is a slave. \u2014 ayn rand, \" man ' s rights \" in the virtue of selfishness, 1964 the sacred rights of property are to be guarded at every point. i call them sacred, because, if they are unprotected, all other rights become worthless or visionary. what is personal liberty, if it does not draw after it the right to enjoy the fruits of our own industry? what is political liberty, if it imparts only perpetual poverty to us and all our posterity? what is the privilege of a vote, if the majority", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5119833348551807, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1ce1b3ef-6af0-4974-86b2-eeb9ccc11ce8>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.796315"}
{"text": "cleon skousen, the five thousand year leap ( washington, dc : national center for constitutional. studies, 1981 ), p. 173. the great and chief end, therefore, of men uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property. \u2014 john locke, two treatises of government, 1690, book ii, chapter ix, sec. 124 the supreme power cannot take from any man any part of his property without his own consent.... men therefore in society having property, they have such a right to the goods, which by the law of the community are theirs, that no body hath a right to take their substance or any part of it from them, without their own consent : without this they have no property at all ; for i have truly no property in that, which another can by right take from me, when he pleases, against my consent. hence it is a mistake to think, that the supreme or legislative power of any commonwealth, can do what it will, and dispose of the estates of the subject arbitrarily, or take any part of them at pleasure. \u2014 john locke, two treatises of government, book ii, chapter xi, sec. 138 there is, therefore, secondly, another way whereby governments are dissolved, and that is, when the legislative, or the prince, either of them, act contrary to their trust. first, the legislative acts against the trust reposed in them, when they endeavor to invade the property of the subject, and to make themselves, or any part of the community, masters, or arbitrary disposers of the lives, liberties, or fortunes of the people. \u2014 john locke, two treatises of government, 1690, book ii, chapter xix, sec. 221 whenever the legislators endeavor to take away and destroy the property of the people, or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary power, they put themselves into a state of war with the people, who are thereupon absolved from any further obedience. \u2014 john locke, two treatises of government, 1690, book ii, chapter xix, sec. 222 all men are created equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity ; among which are the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing the obtaining of happiness and safety. \u2014 george mason, first draft, virginia declaration of rights, may 1776 that all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5172723434462112, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1ce1b3ef-6af0-4974-86b2-eeb9ccc11ce8>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.799575"}
{"text": "of this common good, and to decide whether it be expedient or no. besides, the public good is in nothing more essentially interested, than in the protection of every individuals private rights, as modeled by the municipal law. \u2014 sir william blackstone, commentaries on the laws of england, 1765 it is evident that the right of acquiring and possessing property, and having it protected, is one of the natural, inherent, and inalienable rights of man. men have a sense of property : property is necessary to their subsistence, and correspondent to their natural wants and desires ; its security was one of the objects that induced them to unite in society. no man would become a member of a community, in which he could not enjoy the fruits of his honest labor and industry. the preservation of property then is a primary object of the social compact.... where is the security, where is the inviolability of property, if the legislature, by a private act, affecting particular persons only, can take land from one citizen, who acquired it legally, and vest it in another? \u2014 william paterson, associate justice of the united states supreme court and signer of the constitution, van horne ' s lessee v. dorrance, 2 u. s. ( 2 dall. ) 304, 309, 311 - 12 ( 1795 ) government is instituted to protect property of every sort ; as well that which lies in the various rights of individuals, as that which the term particularly expresses. this being the end of government, that alone is a just government which impartially secures to every man whatever is his own. \u2014 james madison, \" property, \" national gazette, march 27, 1792 government is instituted no less for protection of the property, than of the persons, of individuals. \u2014 james madison, federalist no. 54 it is sufficiently obvious, that persons and property are the two great subjects on which governments are to act ; and that the rights of persons, and the rights of property, are the objects, for the protection of which government was instituted. these rights cannot well be separated. \u2014 james madison, speech at the virginia constitutional convention, december 2, 1829 by liberty i understand the power which every man has over his own actions, and his right to enjoy the fruits of his labour, art, and industry, as far as by it he hurts not the society, or any members of it, by taking from any member, or by hindering him from enjoying what he himself enjoys. the fruits of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5247322902429528, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1ce1b3ef-6af0-4974-86b2-eeb9ccc11ce8>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.801735"}
{"text": "- geneva - u. s. and european intelligence agencies are reporting mounting evidence that russia and china have massively violated the 1972 biological and toxic weapons convention and subsequent international and bilateral agreements to control biowarfare weapons. - the convention, signed by 169 nations, prohibits the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, transfer or use of chemical and biological weapons. - all signatories with biowarfare arsenals are pledged to eliminate such weapons over 10 years. while russia and china appear to have ceased adding to their huge stockpiles of chemical weapons, both are developing new strains of highly lethal biological toxins. - according to ken alibek, a former deputy director of the top secret soviet - era biowarfare program, who defected to the west, moscow never ended its offensive biological warfare research. alibek claims russia has stockpiled many hundreds of tonnes of anthrax and plague, as well as smaller quantities of smallpox, ebola and marburg viruses, and toxins designed to attack plants and animals. russia is also developing a new strain of \" invisible \" biowarfare agents, known as bioregulators, that destroy the body ' s immune or neurological systems. - the highest - ranking defector from russia ' s biowarfare program ever to come west also claims that in 1985 former soviet leader mikhail gorbachev secretly authorized a five - year program to develop weaponized germs and viruses, some of which were mounted on multiple warheads of the large ss - 18 icbms targeted at north america. alibek also says china, which claims to have abandoned biowarfare production and eliminated stockpiles, is producing hemorrhagic viruses at lop nor in central asia and suffered two major accidents in the late 1980s that killed hundreds of people. - many toxins being developed in russia have been biologically engineered to resist antibiotics, notably a super - strain of anthrax that is apparently impervious to the anti - anthrax inoculations now being given to nato troops. - alibek and other russian defectors also confirmed the soviet union used chemical and biological weapons in afghanistan from 1980 - 89. while covering the war there, i saw numerous cases of grave injuries or death inflicted on the afghan mujahedeen by mysterious soviet weapons. after being sprayed by a fine chemical mist, or exposed to gas, people would turn black and die, bleed profusely from all body orifices, choke and vomit or become disoriented and dazed. bodies of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5022339046669528, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a5a35beb-3ec6-4ff5-a696-7992e25a3091>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.808596"}
{"text": "what is an ssl certificate? the secure sockets layer ( ssl ) protects data transferred over http using encryption enabled by a servers ssl certificate. an ssl certificate is an electronic file that uniquely identifies individuals and web sites and enables encrypted communications. an ssl certificate contains a public key and a private key. a public key is used to encrypt information and a private key is used to decipher it. when a browser points to a secured domain, an ssl handshake authenticates the server and the client and establishes an encryption method and a unique session key. they can begin a secure session that guarantees message privacy and message integrity. ssl certificates serve as a kind of digital passport or credential. typically, the \" signer \" of a certificate is a \" certificate authority \" ( ca ), such as verisign. encryption, the process of transforming information to make it unintelligible to all but the intended recipient, forms the basis of data integrity and privacy necessary for e - commerce. customers submit sensitive information and purchase goods or services via the web only when they are confident that their personal information is secure. the solution for businesses that are serious about online transactions is to implement a trust infrastructure based on encryption technology. the diagram below illustrates the process that guarantees protected communications between a web server and a client. all exchanges of ssl certificates occur within seconds, and require no action by the consumer.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6104892995650153, "token_count": 293, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fcd9cc22-0603-4b83-b0e2-026b0c2b8006>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.812093"}
{"text": "focus on any aspect of caribbean culture. papers and panels may be presented in spanish, french, and english. please send one - page abstracts as indicated below : ( french or spanish presentations ) dr. jorge roman - lagunas department of modern languages purdue university calumet 2200 169th street hammond, in 46323 - 2094 phone : 219 - 989 - 2379 fax : 219 - 746 - 9372 email : email @ example. com ( english presentations ) dr. melvin b. rahming department of english morehouse college 830 westview dr., s. w. atlanta, ga 30314phone : 404 - 572 - 3607 fax : 404 - 614 - 8545 email : firstname. lastname @ example. org for further conference details, visitwww. icclconference. org today ( may 23, 2013 ), campus principal and pro vice chancellor, professor clement sankat, will host a public lecture and launch of britain \u2019 s black debt : reparation for caribbean slavery & native genocide, a book by professor sir hilary beckles, at the daaga auditorium, university of the west indies - st. augustine at 5 : 30pm. description : since the mid - nineteenth - century abolition of slavery, the call for reparations for the crime of african enslavement and native genocide has been growing. in the caribbean, grassroots and official voices now constitute a regional reparations movement. it is a fractured, contentious and divisive call, but it generates considerable public interest. britain \u2019 s black debt is the first scholarly work that looks comprehensively at the reparations discussion in the caribbean. author hilary mcd. beckles is a leading economic historian of the region and a seasoned activist in the wider movement for social justice and advocacy of historical truth, and as such, he is uniquely positioned to explore the origins and development of reparations as a regional and international process. beckles weaves detailed historical data on caribbean slavery and the transatlantic slave trade together with legal principles and the politics of postcolonialism, and sets out a solid academic analysis of the evidence. he concludes that britain has a case of reparations to answer, which the caribbean should litigate. international law provides that chattel slavery as practised by britain was a crime against humanity. slavery was invested in by the royal family, the government, the established church, most elite families, and large public institutions in the private and public sector. citing the legal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5007746827254248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:42abdd88-9d9d-494e-a412-aea27f4c5fe4>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.836395"}
{"text": "the scary hidden stressor in her introduction to a compelling new study, \u201c the arab spring and climate change, \u201d released thursday, the princeton scholar anne - marie slaughter notes that crime shows often rely on the concept of a \u201c stressor. \u201d a stressor, she explains, is a \u201c sudden change in circumstances or environment that interacts with a complicated psychological profile in a way that leads a previously quiescent person to become violent. \u201d the stressor is never the only explanation for the crime, but it is inevitably an important factor in a complex set of variables that lead to a disaster. \u201c the arab spring and climate change \u201d doesn \u2019 t claim that climate change caused the recent wave of arab revolutions, but, taken together, the essays make a strong case that the interplay between climate change, food prices ( particularly wheat ) and politics is a hidden stressor that helped to fuel the revolutions and will continue to make consolidating them into stable democracies much more difficult. jointly produced by the center for american progress, the stimson center and the center for climate and security, this collection of essays opens with the oxford university geographer troy sternberg, who demonstrates how in 2010 - 11, in tandem with the arab awakenings, \u201c a once - in - a - century winter drought in china \u201d \u2014 combined, at the same time, with record - breaking heat waves or floods in other key wheat - growing countries ( ukraine, russia, canada and australia ) \u2014 \u201c contributed to global wheat shortages and skyrocketing bread prices \u201d in wheat - importing states, most of which are in the arab world. only a small fraction \u2014 6 percent to 18 percent \u2014 of annual global wheat production is traded across borders, explained sternberg, \u201c so any decrease in world supply contributes to a sharp rise in wheat prices and has a serious economic impact in countries such as egypt, the largest wheat importer in the world. \u201d the numbers tell the story : \u201c bread provides one - third of the caloric intake in egypt, a country where 38 percent of income is spent on food, \u201d notes sternberg. \u201c the doubling of global wheat prices \u2014 from $ 157 / metric ton in june 2010 to $ 326 / metric ton in february 2011 \u2014 thus significantly impacted the country \u2019 s food supply and availability. \u201d global food prices peaked at an all - time high in march 2011, shortly after president hosni mubarak was toppled in egypt. consider this : the world \u2019 s top nine wheat - importers are in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5325081490347404, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1c0d3286-4086-45a6-829b-9a50a0f9499f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.848575"}
{"text": "the upanishads, part 1 ( sbe01 ), by max muller,, at sacred - texts. com 1. next let a man meditate on the sevenfold saman which is uniform in itself 1 and leads beyond death. the word hinkara has three syllables, the word prastava has three syllables : that is equal ( sama ). 2. the word adi ( first, om ) has two syllables, the word pratihara has four syllables. taking one syllable from that over, that is equal ( sama ). 3. the word udgitha has three syllables, the word upadrava has four syllables. with three and three syllables it should be equal. one syllable being left over, it becomes trisyllabic. hence it is equal. 4. the word nidhana has three syllables, therefore it is equal. these make twenty - two syllables. 5. with twenty - one syllables a man reaches the sun ( and death ), for the sun is the twenty - first 2 from here ; with the twenty - second he conquers what is beyond the sun : that is blessedness, that is freedom from grief 6. he obtains here the victory over the sun ( death ), and there is a higher victory than the victory over the sun for him, who knowing this meditates on the sevenfold saman as uniform in itself, which leads beyond death, yea, which leads beyond death. 28 : 1 atmasammita is explained by the commentator either as having the same number of syllables in the names of the different samans, or as equal to the highest self. 28 : 2 there are twelve months, five seasons, three worlds, then follows the sun as the twenty - first. comm.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5162572041430623, "token_count": 363, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ff03d1eb-0e08-4c87-b202-3b0ced8d824f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.851594"}
{"text": "solar images to be made by unique x - ray telescope | tweet | solar images to be made by unique x - ray april 2, 1998 : a unique cluster of telescopes that make x - rays take a u - turn has been selected for a fourth flight to capture \" multicolored \" images that will help us understand why the sun ' s outer atmosphere is so hot. right : the sun as seen in the glow of highly ionized iron. such images are really taken in black and white. scientists assign them false colors to help in studying different images. \" one of the major objectives is to follow up on something we saw on the first flight 10 years ago, \" said dr. arthur b. c. walker ii of stanford university, the principal investigator for the chromospheric / corona spectroheliograph telescope. it will actually be a bundle of up to 19 telescopes, each taking pictures of the sun in a slightly different x - ray energy. the array is an upgrade of the multi - spectral solar telescope array ( mssta ) which flew on october 23, 1987, may 13, 1991, and november 3, 1994. the 1987 flight - which also made the september 30, 1988 cover of science magazine - returned pictures that showed where the sun ' s atmosphere was as hot as 1 million deg. k ( about 1. 8 million deg. f ) also showed spectral lines that indicated temperatures of about 700, 000 deg. k ( 1. 26 million deg f ). \" we were mystified by this, \" walker said. \" we are now convinced that there is material at about 700, 000 degrees k in the transition region and which contributes to coronal heating. \" nasa recently selected the chromospheric / corona spectroheliograph under the solar physics research program. richard hoover of nasa ' s marshall space flight center and troy w. barbee of lawrence livermore national laboratory are co - investigators with walker. their project is entitled investigation of the corona / chromosphere interface. this is the same region that will be studied by the transition region and coronal explorer ( trace ) scheduled for launch thursday evening from california. the chromospheric / corona spectroheliograph will complement trace by providing images of solar gases at temperatures as high as 5 million degrees k ( 9 million deg. f ). while the sun is more than 99. 9 percent hydrogen and helium, it carries significant quantities of carbon, iron, calcium, silicon, and other", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5295083626942049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b899863-c049-49a1-879d-ec0ca252ae61>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.863526"}
{"text": "of solar gases at temperatures as high as 5 million degrees k ( 9 million deg. f ). while the sun is more than 99. 9 percent hydrogen and helium, it carries significant quantities of carbon, iron, calcium, silicon, and other elements. heavier elements have more protons ( carbon is 6, iron is 26 ) in their nuclei than do lighter elements ( hydrogen is 1, helium is 2 ). that means that as electrons are stripped from heavier atoms, the charge of the larger number of protons is devoted to the few remaining electrons. it takes ever more energy to strip off another electron. as a result, light from energetic atoms acts like a tracer that reveals where the sun is hot and at what temperatures. this is important to dissecting activities from the sun ' s corona - its outer atmosphere - through the transition region and to the chromosphere and photosphere - the visible \" surface. \" the challenge is that the x - ray emissions are so energetic that they pass through materials rather than being reflected as visible light would be. the usual trick to making x - ray images is called grazing incidence reflection. just as light will reflect off clear glass ( or a rock will skip on a pond ) if it strikes at a shallow angle, x - rays will reflect - and be focused - if they, too, strike at an even shallower angle. several x - ray telescopes, such as, the advanced x - ray astrophysics facility use this. the mssta works by a different effect. its multi - layer mirrors comprise an ultrasmooth mirror coated by up to 100 layers of heavy elements like tungsten spaced by layers of lightweight elements like carbon. in effect, the layers work like a bragg crystal, which will reflect x - rays. everything is extremely smooth, on the order of 0. 1 nm ( a 10 billionth of a meter, or 1 / 250 millionth of an inch ). these reflect a little bit of the x - rays at the surface of each layer pair. the choice of materials and the thickness of the layers determine precisely which wavelength is making the x - rays interfere with each other reflection. in this way, the scientists can fine tune a telescope to observe in a narrow band of wavelengths ( a spectral band ) or even one wavelength. that makes it possible to measure the temperature of the solar atmosphere. to observe the sun in several wavelengths at once, several telescopes must be flown together. this unique approach makes it possible to use conventional optical layouts - like the hubble space", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5678941101736159, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b899863-c049-49a1-879d-ec0ca252ae61>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.865011"}
{"text": "wavelength. that makes it possible to measure the temperature of the solar atmosphere. to observe the sun in several wavelengths at once, several telescopes must be flown together. this unique approach makes it possible to use conventional optical layouts - like the hubble space telescope ' s ritchey chretien design - and get a much larger collecting area and brighter images than are possible grazing incidence optics of the same size. the design was invented by barbee ( and separately by scientists at ibm ) and pioneered by barbee, walker, and hoover for use in telescopes. the mssta ( right ) carries up to 19 telescopes of various sizes, each with a filter designed to admit only radiation of a specific wavelength or wavelength band, each corresponding to a specific temperature in the sun ' s atmosphere. even though each image is taken in black - and - white, each represents a different wavelength and a different temperature in the solar atmosphere. to help in studying them, scientists often give them false colors to distinguish one from the other. this is similar to a color print that is really made from four black - and - white negatives, each to print a different color. on its fourth flight, the array will include a telescope that can see fe xvii ; iron stripped of 9 of its 26 electrons. that takes temperatures up to 5 million deg. k. \" it would be a better indicator of the distribution of high - temperature gases in the solar atmosphere, \" walker said. this may also reveal small flares that may be one source of energy being pumped into the corona. for the c / cs flight, expected by early 2000 near the around the time of solar maximum. mssta will be upgraded and some new telescopes and detectors installed. as with its first two flights, the telescope will be boosted by a terrier black brant ix launched from the white sands missile range, n. m. the c / cs payload will be boosted to an altitude of 230 km ( 144 mi ) and fall then parachute back to earth for recovery. during the coast above earth ' s atmosphere, the telescope array will be pointed precisely at the sun for about 6 minutes. each telescope will take 10 to 15 full - disk images. ground - based observatories will take pictures at the same time in white light and h - alpha, and with telescopes equipped to map magnetic fields. join our growing list of subscribers - sign up for our express news delivery and you will receive a mail message every time we post a new story!!!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5586264934756323, "token_count": 504, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b899863-c049-49a1-879d-ec0ca252ae61>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.866912"}
{"text": "change assume that nations around the world would act quickly and in concert to target the problem, something political leaders say is highly unlikely. reducing greenhouse gases vigorously and quickly probably would push americans ' heating and electric bills up by 50 percent to 100 percent, said jae edmonds, a scientist and economist with the joint global change research institute, based in maryland. gasoline prices would rise between 50 cents and $ 1 a gallon, he said. whether that is a cheap or expensive price to pay for cutting emissions is a matter of perspective, he said. \" some might look at those numbers and say that ' s a pretty good buy to avoid the potential negative implications of climate change, \" he said. \" others might think those costs look high and say they ' d rather go slower. \" choosing a sufficiently aggressive plan to stave off the worst effects of climate change without dire economic consequences is a complicated balancing act, economists say, particularly because so many variables remain unknown. too vigorous a worldwide campaign could backfire, hurting economic growth and alienating key greenhouse - gas producers. but doing too little too slowly might waste a crucial opportunity to avoid potentially catastrophic impacts of global warming and to dodge greater costs in the future. the right answer, many economists suggest, is to act quickly to launch tests of potentially useful technology and programs worldwide, then rapidly scale up those that work. in mendelsohn ' s view, the most aggressive level of greenhouse - gas cuts promoted in the u. n. report is \" too radical a recommendation to be supported by mainstream economics. \" because efforts to control greenhouse gases will be effective only if all of the world ' s major producers take part, \" by starting with a crash program you ensure a lot of countries are not going to join in, \" he said. however, \" you don ' t want to get sucked into thinking the only choice is to do the crash program or nothing at all, \" he said. he suggests that a much more modest target \u2014 limiting atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases to perhaps 640 to 750 parts per million \u2014 would cost the united states a tenth as much as the most aggressive scenario outlined in the u. n. report. worldwide, the cost would fall by about half, according to the report. other scientists and economists say holding greenhouse - gas concentrations to about 550 parts per million, at somewhat higher cost, is a better option. under mendelsohn ' s scenario, average global temperatures would be expected to rise by 7 to 11 degrees fahrenheit by the end of the century, according", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5103900102558256, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b0bce63d-91f9-4373-b160-9f81b5954c13>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.885379"}
{"text": "about 550 parts per million, at somewhat higher cost, is a better option. under mendelsohn ' s scenario, average global temperatures would be expected to rise by 7 to 11 degrees fahrenheit by the end of the century, according to the u. n. panel, compared with about 3 to 6 degrees under the most aggressive program. because no one knows what temperature increase might trigger disastrous environmental problems \u2014 large sea - level rises, worsening flooding and droughts, a disruption of ocean circulation patterns \u2014 the lower range of temperature increases is generally thought to be safer. development of new technology and creative use of existing technology potentially could cut the costs of reducing emissions dramatically. because plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere when they grow, using plant fuels rather than fossil fuels effectively cuts emissions of greenhouse gases, edmonds said. if engineers are able to find efficient ways to use plants to create fuel and then capture carbon dioxide released from the smokestacks of plant - fueled power stations and pump it into storage underground, the world could potentially lower levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere while generating power. but racing too quickly toward renewable energy and other efforts to cut greenhouse - gas emissions could have problematic consequences as well, mendelsohn warned. using more nuclear power, he said, will lead to renewed concerns about what to do with nuclear waste. planting billions of acres of new crops for biofuels could lead to accelerating deforestation in places such as brazil and indonesia. and efforts to boost hydroelectric generation could result in many of the world ' s last wild rivers being dammed. david o ' reilly, the chief executive of chevron, points to a senate bill calling on the energy department to develop a plan to cut gasoline consumption by 20 percent by 2017, 35 percent by 2025 and 45 percent by 2030, largely by substituting ethanol and other renewable fuels. under the senate proposal, the amount of alternative fuels used in u. s. motor vehicles would rise to 8. 5 billion gallons by 2008 and 36 billion gallons by 2022. the problem, o ' reilly said, is that u. s. farmers cannot currently produce enough corn to make more than 15 billion gallons of fuel. producing 36 billion gallons would require huge corn imports or a massive overhaul of the u. s. agricultural economy. and chevron is not just protecting its fossil - fuels turf ; the company already produces 70 percent of the ethanol made in the united states. \" we ' re dealing with a massive economy and a massive energy infrastructure that was developed to supply this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5064648909187914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b0bce63d-91f9-4373-b160-9f81b5954c13>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.886474"}
{"text": "many faculty teaching at the introductory level use environmental themes and hazards to get their students excited about the geosciences. whether in the form of a stand - alone environmental geology or natural hazards course or as environmental content integrated into other introductory courses, these concepts are an important part of the geoscience education for many students who will never take another course in the sciences. this workshop will bring together educators from a wide variety of institutional settings and backgrounds with the common goal of sharing ideas about improving the pedagogy and environmental geology content of our introductory geoscience courses. as a part of this workshop, participants will : - share what works in their classrooms with each other. we will identify innovative teaching methods, approaches, and activities for teaching environmental geology and share ideas on how to teach in various contexts : large classes, courses with no lab component, courses in urban areas, etc. - examine where and how environmental geology topics are taught in the geoscience curriculum from introductory courses for non - majors to \" core \" geoscience courses for majors. we will discuss and develop ideas for maximizing the impact of environmental geology topics to ultimately improve undergraduate students ' experience with and knowledge of geoscience. - consider the ways that environmental geology courses and topical materials can contribute to public science literacy, particularly how to make personal and societal decisions about the range of issues facing humanity and to live responsibly and sustainably on this planet. - develop a list of best practices for integrating emerging environmental issues, recent natural disasters, and issues related to natural resources into course work and identifying how scientific data and research outcomes can inform public discourse on topical issues. - develop strategies to reach under - represented groups and expand the diversity of students who enroll in our courses. we will consider strategies for improving the overall design of an environmental geology course to maximize its appeal and effectiveness. - identify topics of high interest and need for future development as teaching modules and courses through the related integrate project, through funding from the nsf / due tues program, or through other local or national curricular initiatives. participants must arrive in bozeman in time for the first workshop event at 5 pm on saturday, june 2. ( arrive earlier if you plan to attend the optional field trips. ) the workshop will be over on wednesday evening, june 6, and participants should plan return travel on thursday, june 7 ( those who stay an extra day can attend optional local hikes ). by applying to the workshop, participants agree to do the following if accepted : - serve on a review", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5100208112831232, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:419bf21d-8fbb-43b9-9ba9-45b67784e806>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.890882"}
{"text": "when we talk about network hardware, we are commonly using the term megabit. for example, a 10 / 100 fast ethernet network card is 10 / 100 megabit. 1 gigabit ( gb ) equals 1024 megabits ( mb ). when microsoft windows displays the network transfer speed, it is displayed using megabytes ( mb ) not megabits ( mb ). one megabit ( mb ) equals 0. 125 megabytes ( mb ). there are 8 megabytes ( mb ) in 1 megabit ( mb ). theoretical transfer speed since there are 8 megabytes ( mb ) in 1 megabit ( mb ), we can determine the theoretical maximum network transfer speed in megabytes. 1 gigabit equals 1024 megabits which equals 128 megabytes. in theory, a 1 gigabit network should provide us with a transfer speed of 128 megabytes. average transfer speed on a 100 megabit network using cat - 5 / cat - 6, the average transfer rate is 8. 6 megabytes to 12. 5 megabytes. on a gigabit network ( 1024 megabit ) using cat - 5 / cat - 6, the average transfer rate is 21. 5 to 45 megabytes. on a gigabit network using cat - 5 / cat - 6, why isn ' t the average transfer rate closer to the theoretical maximum of 128 megabytes? the simple answer the simple answer is the transfer rate is typically limited by the maximum transfer rate of the computer hard drive found in the origin and / or destination computer. ideally, both the origin and destination are using a modern computer with a raid controller, ssd drives, optimal motherboard bus architecture, multi - core processor, recommended ram and recommended swap file with plenty of free space. using this configuration, you should be able to obtain an average transfer rate of 72 megabytes and greater. the complete answer on a computer network ( wan, lan, vpn, etc. ), the data transfer rate for client / server can be impacted by : - raid controller - hard drive type - motherboard bus speed - swap file setting - free disk space - free ram - flow control - auto negotiation - shared resources - cabling quality and type ( fiber, cat - 5 and cat - 6 ) - cabling length - network card driver version - network card firmware - electrical interference - protocol type and overhead - hops ( routers, switches, hubs, firewalls ) - poorly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5158362809477397, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6db3776a-9482-4548-bdb9-10671bdb3e39>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.917506"}
{"text": "winner : quantum leap quantum - dot lasers from japan ' s qd laser will make high - speed \" fiber to the home \" networks simpler, cheaper, and more power - efficient image : qd laser collecting the dots one of qd laser \u2019 s achievements, as shown in these atomic - force microscope images, was to double the dot density in its quantum - dot lasers, from 30 billion [ left ] to 60 billion [ right ] dots per square centimeter. this is part of ieee spectrum ' s special report : winners & losers 2009, the year ' s best and worst of technology. japanese start - up qd laser \u2019 s yasuhiko arakawa [ left ] and mitsuru sugawara oversaw the 15 - year effort to commercialize a temperature - stable semiconductor laser. suppose you had a dog whose personality fluctuated with the weather. on cool, crisp mornings, he \u2019 s a champ, fetching, rolling over, and shaking hands at your slightest command. but as the sun climbs higher and the day warms up, he becomes less and less responsive, and you have to ply him with doggy treats to get him to obey. and during heat waves? forget about it \u2014 he barely plays dead unless you double or triple his kibble ration. while you could excuse such behavior in fido, something remarkably similar goes on all the time with the semiconductor lasers used in cd and dvd players and in optical communications. these tiny devices are incredibly sensitive to heat. even a small rise in temperature causes the electrons within to move around faster and migrate out of the laser \u2019 s active layer \u2014 the thin slice of semiconducting material where the electrons recombine with positively charged holes to make light. as a result, the laser \u2019 s light output fluctuates, and it needs stronger and stronger electrical currents to keep lasing. at 85 \u00b0c, the device might need two or three times as much current to produce the same amount of light as at 25 \u00b0c. to get around that shortcoming, developers of semiconductor lasers must either cool them or introduce extra circuitry that maintains the device \u2019 s output even as the temperature fluctuates. but those workarounds increase both the cost of making the lasers and the power they consume. ever since this problem came to light, researchers have been hunting for a semiconductor laser that is inherently stable. one promising technology, first proposed 27 years ago, is the quantum - dot laser. such a device tightly confines the electrons and holes within many nanoscale", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.649652388584612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.945103"}
{"text": "this problem came to light, researchers have been hunting for a semiconductor laser that is inherently stable. one promising technology, first proposed 27 years ago, is the quantum - dot laser. such a device tightly confines the electrons and holes within many nanoscale blobs, or dots, of semiconducting material. with enough dots \u2014 millions or billions, that is \u2014 lasing will occur and steady output maintained, regardless of external temperature. while researchers can now grow these devices using standard molecular - beam epitaxy equipment, mass - producing them has been very tricky. the japanese start - up qd laser, of tokyo, a joint venture of fujitsu and mitsui venture capital corp., has finally succeeded. its quantum - dot lasers use inexpensive substrates made from gallium arsenide ( gaas ) and boast an industry - leading density of 60 billion dots per square centimeter [ see images, \u201d collecting the dots \u201d ]. compared with the conventional indium - phosphide lasers now used in optical networks, qd laser \u2019 s devices will consume just half the power while transmitting up to 10 gigabits of data per second at a wavelength of 1. 3 micrometers. best of all, they will generate the same output at any temperature from \u2013 40 to 100 \u00b0c. to mass - produce the gaas laser chips, qd laser has partnered with one of japan \u2019 s leading consumer - electronics firms, which will use the same production lines on which it currently cranks out conventional red lasers for dvd and cd players, video - game consoles, and other products. ( qd laser says it will reveal the name of its partner later this year. ) the initial shipments of laser chips are destined for an unnamed optical equipment vendor, which sometime this spring will begin offering the world \u2019 s first optical transceivers incorporating a quantum - dot laser. fujitsu will almost certainly buy the transceivers for use in optical lans and fiber - to - the - home networks. the quantum - dot laser has long been envisioned as a successor to the quantum - well laser, itself an improvement on earlier laser designs because it confined the injected electrons to an extremely thin layer \u2014 no more than tens of nanometers thick \u2014 of active material. that way, it required less current to induce lasing. but like the \u201d bulk \u201d semiconductor lasers it superseded, the quantum - well laser is sensitive to temperature. in the active layer of a bulk semiconductor laser, which you can picture as a fat, rectangular", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.634963550357911, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.946631"}
{"text": ", it required less current to induce lasing. but like the \u201d bulk \u201d semiconductor lasers it superseded, the quantum - well laser is sensitive to temperature. in the active layer of a bulk semiconductor laser, which you can picture as a fat, rectangular slab, the electrons and holes move in three dimensions, and that makes their interactions hard to control. in a quantum - well laser, they can move in only two dimensions, but electrostatic fields tend to build up, pulling the electrons away from the holes. in both cases, an increase in temperature makes the electrons more unruly. researchers began looking at ways to confine the electrons even further. in 1980, yasuhiko arakawa, a 28a \u00bf \u00bf year - old associate professor at the university of tokyo, had an epiphany. \u201d i thought, if we fix the position of each electron by confining it in a small box, the energy distribution will not be affected by temperature, \u201d arakawa recalled in a recent interview at his office at the university of tokyo. each \u201d box \u201d would be a semiconducting nanosize crystal into which electrons and holes would be injected. the box would effectively prevent the electrons and holes from being thermally excited to higher energy states. he presented his quantum - box laser idea at the annual meeting of the japanese society of applied physics in march 1981. then, collaborating with another professor, hiroyuki sakaki, he published a paper on the topic in the 1 june 1982 issue of applied physics letters. the two researchers followed up with a series of experiments in which they confined electrons using 30 - tesla magnets and demonstrated that the devices worked the same over a wide temperature range. \u201d but i thought it would be impossible to fabricate such nanostructures until the 21st century, \u201d arakawa says. the quantum - box laser concept didn \u2019 t exactly set the world on fire. some people found it interesting but not particularly useful, while others concluded that the boxes would be structurally unstable. his early work \u201d attracted almost no one to the field, \u201d says arakawa, now an ieee fellow. today, he adds, thousands of researchers worldwide are working to advance the field. just three years after arakawa and sakaki \u2019 s paper, a research group at france \u2019 s centre national d \u2019 etudes des telecommunications ( cnet ) noticed a strange phenomenon in the \u201d superlattices \u201d they were trying to build out of extremely thin alternating layers of indium arsenide and gallium ars", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6261338870372215, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.949580"}
{"text": "research group at france \u2019 s centre national d \u2019 etudes des telecommunications ( cnet ) noticed a strange phenomenon in the \u201d superlattices \u201d they were trying to build out of extremely thin alternating layers of indium arsenide and gallium arsenide. studying their handiwork under an electron microscope, they noticed that some of the indium arsenide had formed tiny regular blobs atop the underlying layer of gallium arsenide. each blob, it turned out, was a quantum dot. the french team didn \u2019 t actually produce lasing from their weird structure, but it was a start. in 1994, a team at the tokyo institute of technology and a collaboration of the technical university of berlin, russia \u2019 s ioffe physico - technical institute, and the max planck institute of microstructure physics independently demonstrated the first quantum - dot lasers. ( at that point, the quantum - dot versus quantum - box terminology was still in flux, with the german - russian team using the former term and the japanese using the latter. eventually, arakawa says, the world settled on quantum dot. \u201d now even i call them quantum dots, \u201d he says. ) but it \u2019 s one thing to create an experimental device in the lab and another thing to mass - produce a laser that operates reliably, can be manufactured cheaply, and performs a useful function. qd laser \u2019 s president and ceo, mitsuru sugawara, and his colleagues began chipping away at the problem of commercialization in 1994. sugawara was then a research physicist at fujitsu, aiming to develop a temperature - stable laser that emitted at 1. 3 \u00b5m, the best wavelength for optical communications. \u201d we weren \u2019 t interested in quantum dots per se, \u201d sugawara recalled in an interview last fall. like the cnet group, he and his team had been working on superlattices when they noticed quantum dots forming spontaneously, sugawara says, \u201d like water beading up on a waxed car. \u201d after realizing what they \u2019 d done, they set to work on building a laser. \u201d we knew that to produce lasing, we had to increase the density of the dots, so we started to study how to grow them intentionally, \u201d he says. five years later, in 1999, they demonstrated their first quantum - dot laser with a wavelength of 1. 3 \u00b5m. in a perfect world, the fujitsu group would have continued to make steady progress,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.617542627050095, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.950910"}
{"text": "grow them intentionally, \u201d he says. five years later, in 1999, they demonstrated their first quantum - dot laser with a wavelength of 1. 3 \u00b5m. in a perfect world, the fujitsu group would have continued to make steady progress, and a commercial quantum - dot laser would have hit the market years ago. in the real world, the it bubble burst, and corporate priorities shifted. \u201d my boss told me that if we didn \u2019 t stop our research [ on quantum dots ], he \u2019 d be fired, \u201d sugawara says. eager to keep japanese r & d on quantum - dot lasers alive, arakawa stepped in. by then his pioneering work on nanostructure devices had made him quite influential in japan \u2019 s scientific circles. in 2001 he persuaded the japanese government to include quantum - dot research in a national project on photonic networking. fujitsu participated, along with hitachi, mitsubishi, nec, and a number of other japanese companies. the fujitsu group resumed its efforts to increase the dot density, mainly by stacking the quantum - dot layers. in 2004, they built a stack of 10 layers containing 30 billion dots per layer and capable of transmitting data at 10 gb / s. \u201d at that point, we could think about starting up a venture company, \u201d sugawara says. though it had nurtured the early stages of research, fujitsu wasn \u2019 t the best place to commercialize the results, he says. the company \u2019 s main business is building high - end servers and optical networking systems for government and business customers. it has no expertise in the commodity chip - making methods that sugawara envisioned using for the quantum - dot lasers. in april 2006, fujitsu and mitsui venture capital formed qd laser, providing the start - up with an initial us $ 2 million. fujitsu agreed to let qd laser use its 40 or so patents on quantum - dot technology ; arakawa signed on as the company \u2019 s technical advisor. although qd laser \u2019 s official headquarters are in a central tokyo high - rise, most of the company \u2019 s staff, including sugawara, are based at fujitsu \u2019 s facility in atsugi, about 45 kilometers southwest of tokyo, and research goes on there and at arakawa \u2019 s labs at the university of tokyo. there are currently 30 scientists and engineers involved, including five at the university of tokyo. after its founding, the starta \u00bf \u00bf up continued to work on boosting the lasers \u2019 dot density.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5643821345381494, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.951950"}
{"text": "arakawa \u2019 s labs at the university of tokyo. there are currently 30 scientists and engineers involved, including five at the university of tokyo. after its founding, the starta \u00bf \u00bf up continued to work on boosting the lasers \u2019 dot density. \u201d we thought we could keep adding more layers, but we realized that wasn \u2019 t enough, \u201d sugawara says. using proprietary techniques, researchers at qd laser and tokyo university eventually succeeded in doubling the dot density, from 30 billion dots per square centimeter to 60 billion. sugawara brings out two atomic - force microscope images of quantum dots. the first shows a sparsely dotted surface. \u201d everyone can make this density, \u201d he says. then, pointing to the second image, which is crowded with dots, he says, \u201d but only we can make this. \u201d qd laser isn \u2019 t the first company to bring a quantum - dot laser to market. that distinction belongs to innolume, a start - up based in dortmund, germany, and santa clara, calif. since 2007 it has sold quantum - dot \u201d comb \u201d lasers, which can emit tens to hundreds of colors over a range of wavelengths. the devices are potentially suitable for optical computing, laser television, and biomedical applications. but innolume has yet to find a wide market for its products. qd laser will do better because its corporate backers have the muscle to see that it does. fujitsu has already agreed to replace the standard indium - phosphide lasers in its optical networking systems with qd laser \u2019 s gallium - arsenide lasers. but even fujitsu had to be convinced that the new devices would be as reliable as existing lasers. \u201d the communications market is very conservative, \u201d sugawara notes. to make its products more palatable to optical equipment makers like fujitsu, his company spent months tailoring the quantum - dot laser \u2019 s output power and performance so that they matched those of a conventional laser. the resulting laser can seamlessly replace an indium - phosphide laser in an optical transceiver, with no significant redesign required. with telecom giant nippon telegraph and telephone corp. adding 3 million fiber - to - the - home connections each year, sugawara thinks his company could claim 5 to 10 percent of the japanese market by 2011. qd laser is also working on lasers for long - distance communications of up to 20 kilometers. at press time, the company was wrapping up reliability tests and planned to begin selling in the spring.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.600339393767817, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.953651"}
{"text": "5 to 10 percent of the japanese market by 2011. qd laser is also working on lasers for long - distance communications of up to 20 kilometers. at press time, the company was wrapping up reliability tests and planned to begin selling in the spring. even as it tries to line up more optical equipment customers, qd laser wants to branch out into the consumer - electronics market, which buys 100 times as many lasers, or about 2 billion devices a year. that \u2019 s why the partnership with the japanese consumer electronics maker holds particular promise. back in 2006, shortly after his company was founded, sugawara visited four of the major japanese consumer - electronics makers to gauge their interest in quantum - dot lasers. three said no thanks. but the fourth, sugawara recalls, told him, \u201d we \u2019 ve been waiting for you. \u201d the partnership is unusual in japan, he adds, where there \u2019 s little overlap between the optical - communications sector and the consumer - electronics makers. \u201d we \u2019 re one of the first companies to bridge the gap, \u201d he says. for two years, qd laser engineers worked closely with the consumer electronics firm to refine the fabrication process for the laser chips. qd laser grows the 3 - inch gallium - arsenide wafers in - house and then ships them to its partner, which can print about 50 000 chips on each wafer. each 0. 3 - square - millimeter chip consists of a substrate of n - doped gallium arsenide, followed by a layer of n - doped aluminum gallium arsenide, the quantum - dot layer, and then layers of p - doped algaas and gaas. the company packages each chip in a can about 2 cm long. \u201d even though we \u2019 re a small company, we can do mass production, \u201d sugawara says. qd laser \u2019 s partner would like to start incorporating quantum - dot lasers into its cd and dvd players and other products. by varying the size and concentration of the quantum dots, you can generate different wavelengths of light. to produce red light at 650 nm, for example, you could start with a 1300 - nm quantum - dot laser and then pass it through a frequency doubler, which halves the wavelength. to make green light, you similarly start with a 1064 - nm laser and double the frequency to get a 532 - nm wavelength. quantum - dot lasers could also be used in laser tv sets, medical devices, and tiny portable projectors that fit in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5857606457843947, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.954924"}
{"text": "green light, you similarly start with a 1064 - nm laser and double the frequency to get a 532 - nm wavelength. quantum - dot lasers could also be used in laser tv sets, medical devices, and tiny portable projectors that fit in your cellphone. in the next couple of decades, arakawa says, we \u2019 ll see quantum dots showing up in quantum computers and other it devices [ for more on quantum computing, see \u201d dot to dot design, \u201d ieee spectrum, september 2007 ]. but why stop there? quantum - dot researchers have been looking at ways to use quantum dots in biochemical sensors, solar cells, and other technologies. it \u2019 s a future arakawa modestly refers to as \u201d quantum dots for everything. \u201d for more articles, go to winners & losers 2009 special report. snapshot : a laser that \u2019 s right on the dot goal : to commercialize a reliable and inexpensive semiconductor laser that \u2019 s also immune to temperature changes. why it \u2019 s a winner : these high - speed, low - power, temperature - stable lasers are equally applicable to optical networking and consumer electronics. who : qd laser, a joint venture of fujitsu and mitsui venture capital corp., and university of tokyo where : tokyo and atsugi, japan staff : 30 scientists and engineers budget : us $ 14 million when : spring 2009", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5966746800330953, "token_count": 276, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39bf3941-13df-439d-8fa6-4ff05697693e>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.955737"}
{"text": "file organization refers to the way records are physically arranged on a storage device. intel fortran supports two kinds of file organization : the default file organization is always organization = ' sequential ' for an open statement. the organization of a file is specified by means of the organization specifier in the open statement. you can store sequential files on magnetic tape or disk devices, and can use other peripheral devices, such as terminals, pipes, and line printers as sequential files. you must store relative files on a disk device. a sequentially organized file consists of records arranged in the sequence in which they are written to the file ( the first record written is the first record in the file, the second record written is the second record in the file, and so on ). as a result, records can be added only at the end of the file. sequential files are usually read sequentially, starting with the first record in the file. sequential files with a fixed - length record type that are stored on disk can also be accessed by relative record number ( direct access ). within a relative file are numbered positions, called cells. these cells are of fixed equal length and are consecutively numbered from 1 to n, where 1 is the first cell, and n is the last available cell in the file. each cell either contains a single record or is empty. records in a relative file are accessed according to cell number. a cell number is a record ' s relative record number ( its location relative to the beginning of the file ). by specifying relative record numbers, you can directly retrieve, add, or delete records regardless of their locations ( direct access ). ( detecting deleted records is only available if you specified the - vms option when the program was compiled. ) when creating a relative file, use the recl value to determine the size of the fixed - length cells. within the cells, you can store records of varying length, as long as their size does not exceed the cell size.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5185390275460737, "token_count": 399, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238dd926-dcee-4505-90cd-693e618410df>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:06.960007"}
{"text": "currently, hundreds of satellites orbit the earth, many with instruments that improve our lives and define our lifestyles. satellite - based technology makes it possible to watch our favorite television shows, navigate unfamiliar roads and plan weather - dependent activities a week ahead. satellites also collect data that aren \u2019 t as easy to explain, such as the nasa instrument to be launched this spring to measure sea surface salinity over the globe. annette decharon \u2019 s job is to explain exactly what that instrument, dubbed aquarius, will do once it \u2019 s launched in 2011 and why its mission \u2014 to collect data on salt concentrations at the ocean surface \u2014 is critical for nasa and for society as a whole. from her mission control - style desk in an office at the university of maine darling marine center in walpole, maine, decharon \u2019 s job as senior marine education scientist is to make ocean sciences more accessible for various audiences. her work with nasa / aquarius education & public outreach targets the public, students from elementary school to college, and science communicators from classroom teachers to ocean researchers. \u201c many people don \u2019 t really interact with the ocean at all, so they don \u2019 t think about how it affects them, but it \u2019 s basically the key driver of climate, \u201d says decharon, who teaches a umaine semester by the sea class and directs one of the national centers for ocean sciences education excellence ( cosee ). \u201c in all of our education and outreach programs, we really try to emphasize that point. one approach is through visualization of ocean data and concepts. this is important because the ocean is so remote that people can \u2019 t readily identify with it. but if you give them visuals that help them see the big picture and how things interact, they are more likely to believe its relevance. \u201d the educational materials decharon and her team produce help demonstrate why monitoring sea surface salinity is key to understanding what \u2019 s happening in the oceans. \u201c most people know the oceans are salty, but they don \u2019 t know that patterns of salinity change geographically and over time, \u201d she says. \u201c if there \u2019 s a lot of rain or if ice melts in a region, the sea surface will be less salty. if you get higher evaporation, seawater will be saltier. sea surface salinity changes can tell us how the water cycle is changing over the ocean. that \u2019 s important because 86 percent of global evaporation and 74 percent of global precipitation happens over the oceans. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5099735639852881, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f3bc7e0d-e12a-4727-87c9-d907f96bac11>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.016360"}
{"text": "there is no need to turn off the light during the presentation. it will be discussed in the 6 - 12 month plan. - 4. projection unit ( $ 7, 000 - $ 10, 000 ) - projection unit is another alternative. it can accept computer video output directly and has built - in projection mechanism to produce large images on an screen. ii. multimedia presentation development 1. presentation software : powerpoint 4. 0 : as in the project plan, the machines for the faculty will be bundled with microsoft office ( $ 170 academic price ). the microsoft office suite includes microsoft powerpoint 4. 0. since this presentation package will be available to everyone, and it is one of the most popular presentation packages on the market, it will be very likely the best choice for general presentation uses. 2. scanner : usage : for scanning hardcopy graphics or text into computer readable form so that they can be incorporated in the multimedia presentations, and tutorials, etc. scanner has higher resolution than most digital cameras. however, it is only useful for flat objects - mostly printed materials. suggested system : the price difference between 300 and 600 dpi scanners are insignificant ( less than $ 200 difference ) nowadays. it is recommended to acquire one of the newer models. the cost is around $ 1200 for one from hp or epson. - 600 dots per inch ( dpi ) optical resolution, 24 bit color min. - twain interface for windows - supports both windows and mac ( if possible ) 3. optical character recognization ( ocr ) software : usage : for converting scanned text images into word - processor readable text. often you will have printed material and other text, but no electronic text files, to incorporate into your project. with ocr software and a scanner, it can save you many hours of re - typing. different packages costs from $ 100 to $ 500. omnipage professional is the most popular on the market. 4. image processing software : usage : images obtained from scanning or digital camera often require retouching or re - composition before they are in the desire form. most of the scanners come in packages / bundles that include image processing software. the most popular software is adobe photoshop which costs $ 600 / $ 250 academic. a bundle that includes photoshop should be chosen if available. 5. color printing usage : occasionally, there are needs for color hard copy printout, either on paper or transparency, which can be showed to anyone who may not have a computer available all the time. a low", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5083288331870996, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:88a47275-6a4e-4c15-9cc1-99165ffabdec>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.057602"}
{"text": ". 0c is included in the suite. a free word add - on, internet assistant, is available from microsoft for creating html documents within word. v. commercial available software from physics academic software, north carolina state university comprehensive unified physics learning environment ( cuple ) cuple student version, $ 500 / 10 license, 1 cd - rom cuple developer ' s version from falcon sofware - superchemlab mac cd - rom version 1. 0 $ 300, ( by melanie cooper, clemson u. ) - exploring chemistry v cd - rom ( mac and windows ) $ 500, ( by stanley g. smith, u. of illinois and others ) - chemistry review series : general chemistry $ 40, ( by stanley g. smith ) - chemistry review series : organic chemistry $ 40, ( by stanley g. smith ) - introductory chemistry lecture package cd - rom for windows version 1. 0 $ 300, ( by iris stovall and roxy wilson, u. of illinois ) - teaching chemistry with demonstrations level 1 videodisc $ 300, ( by roxy wilson, u. of illinois and others ) - the electronic laboratory simulator ( els ) version 2. 0 for windows, $ 250 | table of contents | goals | cost summary | 1 - 6 mon. | 1 - 6 mon. price | 7 - 12 mon. | ching - wan yip, department of chemistry, wake forest university, winston - salem, nc 27109 - 7486, copyright \u00a9 1995 ching - wan yip", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5525430625725669, "token_count": 305, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:88a47275-6a4e-4c15-9cc1-99165ffabdec>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.066707"}
{"text": "by dan falk toronto \u2014 in the world of sci - fi movie geekdom, aug. 29, 1997, was a turning point for humanity : on that day, according to the \" terminator \" films, the network of u. s. defense computers known as skynet became self - aware \u2014 and soon launched an all - out genocidal war against homo sapiens. fortunately, that date came and went with no such robo - apocalypse. but the 1990s did bring us the world wide web, which is now far larger and more \" connected \" than any nation ' s defense network. could the internet \" wake up \"? and if so, what sorts of thoughts would it think? and would it be friend or foe? neuroscientist christof koch believes we may soon find out \u2014 indeed, the complexity of the web may have already surpassed that of the human brain. in his book \" consciousness : confessions of a romantic reductionist, \" published earlier this year, he makes a rough calculation : take the number of computers on the planet \u2014 several billion \u2014 and multiply by the number of transistors in each machine \u2014 hundreds of millions \u2014 and you get about a billion billion, written more elegantly as 10 to the 18th. that ' s a thousand times larger than the number of synapses in the human brain ( about 10 to the 15th ). koch, who taught for more than 25 years at caltech and is now chief scientific officer at the allen institute for brain science in seattle, is known for his work on the \" neural correlates \" of consciousness \u2014 studying the brain to see what ' s going on when we have specific conscious experiences. of course, our brains happen to be soft, wet, and made of living tissue, while the internet is made up of metal chips and wires \u2014 but that ' s no obstacle to consciousness, he says, so long as the level of complexity is great enough. ( most researchers working on artificial intelligence would agree that the \" substrate \" doesn ' t matter. that is, it makes no difference what the system is made of. most philosophers, though not all, would agree. ) in a phone interview, koch noted that the kinds of connections that wire together the internet \u2014 its \" architecture \" \u2014 are very different from the synaptic connections in our brains, \" but certainly by any measure it ' s a very, very complex system. could it be conscious? in principle, yes it can. \" of course, there ' s the tricky question", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5504692418499061, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:91e25500-23c1-460a-aebb-448e882a4c83>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.072165"}
{"text": "very different from the synaptic connections in our brains, \" but certainly by any measure it ' s a very, very complex system. could it be conscious? in principle, yes it can. \" of course, there ' s the tricky question of defining consciousness, but for our purposes it is enough to say that if an entity is conscious, then it \" feels like \" something to be that entity. humans are conscious, at least while we ' re awake. apes and monkeys, perhaps most animals, likely have some degree of consciousness. ( koch, a dog lover, does not hesitate to include our canine companions. ) how consciousness actually works is far less clear, but koch \u2014 going somewhat out on a limb \u2014 declares it to be a fundamental property of the universe, akin to energy, mass, and space. that doesn ' t mean that any physical system is automatically conscious \u2014 only that it has the potential to be conscious. it has to have sufficient complexity, and it has to be connected in just the right way. does the internet meet those criteria? \" even today it might ' feel like something ' to be the internet, \" koch says. each computer feels nothing, of course, but the totality of the internet may be more than the sum of its parts. \" that ' s true for my brain, too. one of my nerve cells feels nothing \u2014 but put it together with 100 billion other nerve cells, and suddenly it can feel pain and pleasure and experience the color blue. \" would its first instinct to be to kill off those pesky humans, as skynet was so quick to do? not necessarily. our own evolution is an ongoing struggle that began some 2 billion years ago ( if you start the clock when we were blue and green algae ). by comparison, the internet of today is more like a newborn baby. \" it may not have any of the survival instincts that we have, \" koch says. \" it did not evolve in a world ' red in tooth and claw, ' to use tennyson ' s famous expression. \" should the internet achieve consciousness, it will \u2014 at least at first \u2014 be \" utterly naive to the world. \" on the other hand, the internet has only existed for a couple of decades. \" so who knows where it will be 20 years from now. \" of course, the science fiction writers have already explored this territory \u2014 not just in shoot - ' em - ups like the \" terminator \" films, but in more cerebral works like robert j. sawyer ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5845285929799449, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:91e25500-23c1-460a-aebb-448e882a4c83>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.073269"}
{"text": "will be 20 years from now. \" of course, the science fiction writers have already explored this territory \u2014 not just in shoot - ' em - ups like the \" terminator \" films, but in more cerebral works like robert j. sawyer ' s \" www \" trilogy ( the novels are titled \" wake, \" \" watch \" and \" wonder \" ). in \" wake, \" the world wide web wakes up \u2014 and, after a bit of a learning curve, becomes the smartest entity on the planet. eerily, as koch speculated on what the internet might \" feel, \" he described a scenario straight out of sawyer ' s trilogy ( which he had not heard of until i mentioned it ). should there be a large power failure somewhere in the world, koch said, a conscious internet could experience the equivalent of \" pain. \" in \" wake \" ( published in 2009 ), the chinese government shuts down an enormous swath of the internet to cover up a particularly nasty incident that it desperately wants to hide from the rest of the world. the still - nascent webmind \" feels \" all that cutting and severing \u2014 and doesn ' t like it : not just small changes. not just flickerings. upheaval. a massive disturbance. new sensations : shock. astonishment. disorientation. and _ the \" www \" trilogy is a work of fiction, but for sawyer, it ' s a plausible picture of what lies ahead in our increasingly wired world. we can ' t pin down the date when the internet surpasses our brains in complexity, he says, \" but clearly it is going to happen at some point. \" even koch admits that he doesn ' t lose any sleep over the possibility of the internet waking up. sawyer, however, sees the web ' s continued growth as a very real potential threat. as the web grows more and more complex, at an accelerating pace, there is inevitably a \" tipping point, \" he says. \" there is a point after which you can ' t do anything about it. should we be afraid of it? absolutely. \" even if those fears prove to be unfounded, such questions are still worth pondering. if the internet doesn ' t have what it takes to become conscious, it would be useful to understand why it fails. perhaps we can even come a little closer to learning how our three - and - a - half - pound brains manage to pull it off. dan falk is a science journalist based in toronto and was a 2011 - 12 knight", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5792158621554953, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:91e25500-23c1-460a-aebb-448e882a4c83>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.074296"}
{"text": "lightning mapping array ( lma ) the sport program works with three total lightning networks. these include the lightning mapping arrays in north alabama and washington, d. c. as well as the lightning detection and ranging network at the kennedy space center. each card represents one of these networks. a green card marked as \" evaluation product, \" is being used by at least one national weather service forecast office. blue cards, marked \" research, \" exist for academic purposes and research. real - time data are available by following the link at the bottom right of the card. the overview section below describes the north alabama network, but the basic concepts are applicable to each total lightning network. real - time 2 - minute data on a 2 x 2 km grid from the north alabama lightning mapping array. figure 1 : the location of the 11 north alabama lightning mapping array sensors ( green dots and blue dot ) and communications relays ( open green circles ) across north alabama. the north alabama lightning mapping array ( nalma ) was first activated in 2001 and officially transitioned to the huntsville, alabama national weather service office in early 2003. since the initial transition, sport has successfully transitioned nalma data to three other partner forecast offices. these include the birmingham, alabama as well as morristown and nashville, tennessee weather forecast offices. in addition, sport has worked collaboratively with the lightning group here at the national space science and technology center ( nsstc ) in huntsville, alabama to provide near real - time total lightning data to partner forecast offices in melbourne, florida and sterling, virginia using networks located in those regions. sterling uses the washington d. c. lightning mapping array ( dclma ) while melbourne receives data from the kennedy space center lightning detection and ranging network ( ldar ). both of these networks are functionally similar to the nalma network and forecast applications developed for one network can be used with another. figure 2. a comparison between what a cloud - to - ground network observes in a lightning flash ( left ) versus what a total lightning network will observe in a lightning flash ( right ). note how the cloud - to - ground network only provides a single point of information. also, the cloud - to - ground network would observe nothing if the flash were solely intra - cloud. the nalma is a three - dimensional very high frequency ( vhf ) detection network of 11 vhf receivers deployed across northern alabama with a base station and receiver located at the nsstc ( figure 1 ). solid green circles indicate a vhf receiver, while open green circles are wireless relay stations. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5150676438562839, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6224495b-bf02-41e8-952b-958ff7bbdd7f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.096937"}
{"text": "high frequency ( vhf ) detection network of 11 vhf receivers deployed across northern alabama with a base station and receiver located at the nsstc ( figure 1 ). solid green circles indicate a vhf receiver, while open green circles are wireless relay stations. the blue dot is the base station and 11th sensor located at the nsstc. as of may 2009, two additional sensors located in atlanta, georgia have been added, in collaboration with researchers at georgia tech university. these are testing the effectiveness of the nalma network using long baselines in the sensor placement. figure 3. a sample of 31 thunderstorms observed by the kennedy space center lightning detection and ranging network showing the number of cloud - to - ground strikes versus total lightning observed in each storm. notice how the intra - cloud component dominates the total lightning observed in each storm. it is also interesting to note that two storms had no cloud - to - ground strikes at all, yet were still very electrically active. the nalma system locates the sources of impulsive vhf radio signals from lightning by accurately measuring the time that the signals arrive at the different receiving stations. each station records the magnitude and time of the peak lightning radiation signal in successive 80 microsecond intervals within a local unused television channel ( channel 5, 76 - 82 mhz ). typically, hundreds of sources per flash can be reconstructed, which in turn produces accurate 3 - dimensional lightning image maps ( nominally < 50 m error within a 150 km range ). the sources can be thought of as the individual stepped leaders within a lightning flash. more detailed information can be found in goodman et al. ( 2005 ). the primary advantage of nalma, and the other total lightning networks, is that the networks detect total lightning, which is the combination of both cloud - to - ground and intra - cloud lightning. figure 2 shows a rough comparison of what is detected between standard cloud - to - ground networks versus nalma or any other lightning mapping array. the importance of detecting the intra - cloud flashes is that the intra - cloud flashes typically dominate the full number of flashes in a thunderstorm ( figure 3 ). with only cloud - to - ground data, forecasters are not receiving the full breadth of knowledge of how the storm is developing. also, total lightning data are updated every 2 minutes, giving forecasters additional information about storm development in between radar volume scans. figure 4. a screen capture from awips ii showing the total lightning flash extent density ( colored contours ) versus the cloud - to - ground strike locations ( negative", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5181330784081204, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6224495b-bf02-41e8-952b-958ff7bbdd7f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.101512"}
{"text": "a question of social justice what does \u201c sustainable agriculture \u201d mean to you? if your answer is like most, you probably will begin by talking about sustainability in relation to the environment \u2013 protecting the natural ecosystem and conserving non - renewable resources. and, you will be right. if our food and farming systems are to be sustainable over time, we must maintain the health and productivity of land and must conserve water, energy, and the other natural resources upon which agricultural productivity ultimately depends. an agriculture that is not ecologically sound, quite simply, is not sustainable. the next thing most likely to come to mind is economic sustainability \u2013 if it \u2019 s not profitable, it \u2019 s not sustainable. again, you will be right, or at least partly right. in a capitalistic economy, the markets determine who gets to use land and other resources \u2013 and how they will be used. sustainable farms need not maximize profits, and farms need not generate a profit every year. but, a farming system that is not economically viable is not sustainable, no matter how ecologically sound it may be. almost everyone agrees ; our food and farming systems must be ecologically sound and economically viable if they are to be sustainable over time. even giant agribusiness corporations, such as monsanto and du pont, have sustainable agriculture programs that address environmental and economic concerns. however, there is far less agreement concerning the third essential aspect of sustainability \u2013 the question of social justice. any system of food and farming that fails to meet the needs of a society, will not be sustained by that society, no matter how ecologically benign or profitable it may appear to be. a society has physical and material needs, however, one of the most basic needs of any society is a sense of social equity or justice. any food and farming system that is not socially just does not meet this basic need, and thus, is not sustainable. a sustainable economy must meet the material needs of people by means that are perceived to be equitable and just by the society that supports it. human society is a subsystem of the larger natural ecosystem and the economy, in turn, is a subsystem of society. while some level of individual economic or material well - being is a prerequisite for a sustainable society, a society is more that a collection of individuals ; it includes also the relationships among those individuals. the sustainability of a society perhaps depends even more upon strong relationships among its members than upon strong individual members. adam smith, the father of contemporary economics, in his landmark", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5160015507939879, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2634b46b-3191-4a66-97a7-d061b95d7e55>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.111332"}
{"text": "is more that a collection of individuals ; it includes also the relationships among those individuals. the sustainability of a society perhaps depends even more upon strong relationships among its members than upon strong individual members. adam smith, the father of contemporary economics, in his landmark book, wealth of nations, wrote : \u201c no society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and miserable. \u201d distrust and dissention can arise among the rich as well as the poor \u2013 both groups being capable of dysfunctional relationships. however, distrust and dissention are inevitable consequences of substantial and persistent economic disparity among members within a society. economic disparity inevitably creates a sense of social injustice, and an unjust society is neither stable nor sustainable. distrust and dissention ultimately lead to civil unrest, which disrupts the economy and ultimately leads to exploitation and destruction of the natural ecosystem. eastern europe and sub - sahara africa provide two prime examples of the widespread ecological destruction that results from persistent social injustice. a market economy will not ensure social justice. a market economy provides for people only in relation to their willingness and ability to pay, not in relation to their basic needs. the abilities of people to earn money and to pay for food, clothing, and shelter do not necessarily match their needs. all people have a basic right to sufficient food, clothing, and shelter to ensure survival and normal physical and mental growth and development, although we are just beginning to accept this fact in america. our market economy will not ensure those rights. inevitably, equity and justice must be ensured through conscious, purposeful actions by the members of society \u2013 by our individual acts of human compassion and by our public acts, through government, to ensure the general welfare. both are necessary and neither absolves our responsibility for the other. a society that does not accept this responsibility for social justice is not sustainable. equity and justice do not require that everyone have access to the same quantity, quality, and variety of food, clothing or shelter, or that food, clothing, and shelter be equally convenient or effortless for all. equity and justice are matters of ensuring equal access to specific things to which all have equal rights \u2013 not equal access to all things. a right to safe, nutritious food, for example, does not imply a right to prime rib and artichoke hearts nor to packaged or pre - prepared foods. however, food and farming systems that do not accept responsibility of ensuring that all have adequate food, clothing, and shelter are not sustainable. each of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5479240236087676, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2634b46b-3191-4a66-97a7-d061b95d7e55>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.112744"}
{"text": "viticulture - n. : the cultivation or culture of grapes enology - n. : a science that deals with wine and wine making the v & e department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. for over one hundred years the university of california has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. the continuing excellence of the department has enabled california growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the golden state to achieve its potential and become a premier wine - producing region. eugene w. hilgard publications of professor eugene w. hilgard in the bulletin of the california agriculture experiment station eugene hilgard must have been an amazing scientist and person, but sadly most descriptions of him classify him only as \" soil scientist \". he published a significant book, soils, towards the end of his career, but he was a member of the national academy of science and the first professor of agriculture in ( and later director of ) the university ' s experiment station when it was at berkeley. although hilgard hall on the berkeley campus houses the soils department today, nothing honors his contributions to the foundations of the grape and wine industry of california. below ( marked with an * ), are the title...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.532679450949751, "token_count": 281, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b158a203-f10f-4233-baf0-aa586422600d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.223664"}
{"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( n ) burning, combustion ( the act of burning something ) \" the burning of leaves was prohibited by a town ordinance \" - s : ( n ) burn, burning ( pain that feels hot as if it were on fire ) - s : ( n ) combustion, burning ( a process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give heat and light ) - s : ( n ) electrocution, burning ( execution by electricity ) - s : ( n ) burning, burning at the stake ( execution by fire ) - s : ( n ) burning ( a form of torture in which cigarettes or cigars or other hot implements are used to burn the victim ' s skin ) - s : ( v ) burn, fire, burn down ( destroy by fire ) \" they burned the house and his diaries \" - s : ( v ) burn, glow ( shine intensely, as if with heat ) \" the coals were glowing in the dark \" ; \" the candles were burning \" - s : ( v ) burn, combust ( undergo combustion ) \" maple wood burns well \" - s : ( v ) bite, sting, burn ( cause a sharp or stinging pain or discomfort ) \" the sun burned his face \" - s : ( v ) burn, combust ( cause to burn or combust ) \" the sun burned off the fog \" ; \" we combust coal and other fossil fuels \" - s : ( v ) burn ( feel strong emotion, especially anger or passion ) \" she was burning with anger \" ; \" he was burning to try out his new skies \" - s : ( v ) burn, incinerate ( cause to undergo combustion ) \" burn garbage \" ; \" the car burns only diesel oil \" - s : ( v ) burn ( execute by tying to a stake and setting alight ) \" witches were burned in salem \" - s : ( v ) burn ( spend ( significant amounts of money ) ) \" he has money to burn \" - s : ( v ) burn ( feel hot or painful ) \" my eyes are burning \" - s : ( v ) cauterize, cauterise, burn ( burn, sear, or freeze ( tissue ) using a hot iron or electric current or a caustic agent ) \" the surgeon cauterized the wart \" - s :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6063146780265399, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b7d333b6-37c7-4c8d-b36c-b98513ee6cbd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.230827"}
{"text": "| harnessing the bacterial power of nanomagnets | nanometer - size magnets have wide - ranging uses, from directed cancer therapy and drug delivery systems to magnetic recording media and transducers. such applications require the production of nanoparticles with well - controlled size and tunable magnetic properties. the synthesis of such nanomagnets, however, often requires elevated temperatures and toxic solvents, resulting in high environmental and energy costs. metal - reducing microorganisms offer an untapped resource to produce these materials in an environmentally benign way. at the als, researchers from the university of manchester have shown that fe ( iii ) - reducing bacteria can be used to synthesize magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with high yields, narrow size distribution, and magnetic properties equal to the best chemically synthesized materials. a relatively unexplored resource for magnetic nanomaterial production is a type of subsurface microorganism capable of producing large quantities of nanoscale magnetite ( fe3o4 ) at ambient temperatures. metal - reducing bacteria live in soils deficient in oxygen and conserve energy for growth through the oxidation of hydrogen or organic electron donors, coupled to the reduction of oxidized metals such as fe ( iii ) - bearing minerals. this can result in the formation of magnetite via the extracellular reduction of amorphous fe ( iii ) - oxyhydroxides, releasing soluble fe ( ii ) and completely recrystallizing the amorphous mineral into a new phase. the manchester team developed a method for producing large quantities of highly crystalline magnetite and cobalt ferrite ( cofe2o4 ) nanoparticles using the fe ( iii ) - reducing bacterium, geobacter sulfurreducens. in particular, they demonstrated that cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with the high coercivity ( i. e., resistance to demagnetization ) important for applications can be manufactured through this biotechnological route. three samples containing increasing amounts of co in the biogenic magnetite structure were analyzed. x - ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy showed that the material is nanocrystalline. moreover, the coercivity of the samples increases with increasing co content, so that it can be tuned for specific applications. the cation distribution in the ferrite nanoparticles was investigated using x ray absorption ( xa ) and x - ray magnetic circular dichroism ( xmcd ) at the fe l", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.533408642795415, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b285fa31-c270-460d-bc87-d9f735919786>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.274199"}
{"text": "it can be tuned for specific applications. the cation distribution in the ferrite nanoparticles was investigated using x ray absorption ( xa ) and x - ray magnetic circular dichroism ( xmcd ) at the fe l2, 3 and co l2, 3 edges, measured at als beamline 4. 0. 2. an xmcd spectrum is obtained as the difference between two xa spectra measured in opposite external magnetic fields. magnetite has an inverse spinel crystal structure, which contains tetrahedral ( td ) and octahedral ( oh ) sites accommodating fe2 + and fe3 + cations. each specific cation in the spinel structure generates a unique xmcd signature determined by its valence state ( number of d electrons ), site symmetry ( i. e., td or oh ), and moment direction, which can be computed using atomic multiplet calculations. by fitting a weighted sum of these calculated spectra to the measured xmcd spectra, the site occupations of the fe cations can be obtained. the biogenic materials show a striking change with increasing co amount, namely a decrease in intensity of the leading negative peak in the fe l3 edge, which implies that co is predominantly replacing fe2 + cations in octahedral sites. similarly, the site occupancy and oxidation state of the co can be directly assessed by examining the co l2, 3 xa and xmcd spectra. the close similarity with the spectra for synthetically produced cofe2o4 thin films confirmed that the bacteria were able to suitably accommodate co in the ferrite structure with the co2 + residing primarily on oh sites. the xmcd measurements indicate a dramatic enhancement in the magnetic properties of biogenically produced nanoparticles when large quantities of co are introduced into the spinel structure, a major advance over previous biomineralization studies. inclusion of other transition metals into the spinel structure by fe ( iii ) - reducing bacteria to tailor the magnetic properties of nanoferrites could lead to a suite of materials required for different technological uses. the successful production of highly ordered crystalline nanoparticulate ferrites demonstrates the potential for scaled - up industrial manufacture of nanoparticles using environmentally benign and energy - efficient methodologies. research conducted by v. s. coker, n. d. telling, r. a. d. pattrick, c. i. pearce, j. r. lloyd, f. tuna", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.542099847022568, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b285fa31-c270-460d-bc87-d9f735919786>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.275183"}
{"text": "an error in a standard definition. genocchi was by this time quite old and in relatively poor health and peano took over some of his teaching. peano was about to teach the students about the area of a curved surface when he realised that the definition in serret ' s book, which was the standard text for the course, was incorrect. peano immediately told genocchi of his discovery to be told that genocchi already knew. genocchi had been informed the previous year by schwarz who seems to have been the first to find serret ' s error. in 1884 there was published a text based on genocchi ' s lectures at turin. this book course in infinitesimal calculus although based on genocchi ' s lectures was edited by peano and indeed it has much in it written by peano himself. the book itself states on the title page that it is : -... published with additions by dr giuseppe peano. genocchi seemed somewhat unhappy that the work came out under his name for he wrote : -... the volume contains important additions, some modifications, and various annotations, which are placed first. so that nothing will be attributed to me which is not mine, i must declare that i have had no part in the compilation of the aforementioned book and that everything is due to that outstanding young man dr giuseppe peano... peano received his qualification to be a university professor in december 1884 and he continued to teach further courses, some for genocchi whose health had not recovered sufficiently to allow him to return to the university. in 1886 peano proved that if f ( x, y ) is continuous then the first order differential equation dy / dx = f ( x, y ) has a solution. the existence of solutions with stronger hypothesis on f had been given earlier by cauchy and then lipschitz. four years later peano showed that the solutions were not unique, giving as an example the differential equation dy / dx = 3y2 / 3, with y ( 0 ) = 0. in addition to his teaching at the university of turin, peano began lecturing at the military academy in turin in 1886. the following year he discovered, and published, a method for solving systems of linear differential equations using successive approximations. however emile picard had independently discovered this method and had credited schwarz with discovering the method first. in 1888 peano published the book geometrical calculus which begins with a chapter on mathematical logic. this was", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5879425056517074, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd26223b-de5e-48e7-81d7-ea1a900196e0>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.289144"}
{"text": "systems of linear differential equations using successive approximations. however emile picard had independently discovered this method and had credited schwarz with discovering the method first. in 1888 peano published the book geometrical calculus which begins with a chapter on mathematical logic. this was his first work on the topic that would play a major role in his research over the next few years and it was based on the work of schroder, boole and charles peirce. a more significant feature of the book is that in it peano sets out with great clarity the ideas of grassmann which certainly were set out in a rather obscure way by grassmann himself. this book contains the first definition of a vector space given with a remarkably modern notation and style and, although it was not appreciated by many at the time, this is surely a quite remarkable achievement by peano. in 1889 peano published his famous axioms, called peano axioms, which defined the natural numbers in terms of sets. these were published in a pamphlet arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita which, according to were : -... at once a landmark in the history of mathematical logic and of the foundations of mathematics. the pamphlet was written in latin and nobody has been able to give a good reason for this, other than : -... it appears to be an act of sheer romanticism, perhaps the unique romantic act in his scientific career. genocchi died in 1889 and peano expected to be appointed to fill his chair. he wrote to casorati, who he believed to be part of the appointing committee, for information only to discover that there was a delay due to the difficulty of finding enough members to act on the committee. casorati had been approached but his health was not up to the task. before the appointment could be made peano published another stunning result. he invented ' space - filling ' curves in 1890, these are continuous surjective mappings from [ 0, 1 ] onto the unit square. hilbert, in 1891, described similar space - filling curves. it had been thought that such curves could not exist. cantor had shown that there is a bijection between the interval [ 0, 1 ] and the unit square but, shortly after, netto had proved that such a bijection cannot be continuous. peano ' s continuous space - filling curves cannot be 1 - 1 of course, otherwise netto ' s theorem would be contradicted. hausdorff wrote of peano ' s result in gr", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5893362776226512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd26223b-de5e-48e7-81d7-ea1a900196e0>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.290352"}
{"text": "such a bijection cannot be continuous. peano ' s continuous space - filling curves cannot be 1 - 1 of course, otherwise netto ' s theorem would be contradicted. hausdorff wrote of peano ' s result in grundzuge der mengenlehre in 1914 : - this is one of the most remarkable facts of set theory. in december 1890 peano ' s wait to be appointed to genocchi ' s chair was over when, after the usual competition, peano was offered the post. in 1891 peano founded rivista di matematica, a journal devoted mainly to logic and the foundations of mathematics. the first paper in the first part is a ten page article by peano summarising his work on mathematical logic up to that time. peano had a great skill in seeing that theorems were incorrect by spotting exceptions. others were not so happy to have these errors pointed out and one such was his colleague corrado segre. when corrado segre submitted an article to rivista di matematica peano pointed out that some of the theorems in the article had exceptions. segre was not prepared to just correct the theorems by adding conditions that ruled out the exceptions but defended his work saying that the moment of discovery was more important than a rigorous formulation. of course this was so against peano ' s rigorous approach to mathematics that he argued strongly : - i believe it new in the history of mathematics that authors knowingly use in their research propositions for which exceptions are known, or for which they have no proof... it was not only corrado segre who suffered from peano ' s outstanding ability to spot lack of rigour. of course it was the precision of his thinking, using the exactness of his mathematical logic, that gave peano this clarity of thought. peano pointed out an error in a proof by hermann laurent in 1892 and, in the same year, reviewed a book by veronese ending the review with the comment : - we could continue at length enumerating the absurdities that the author has piled up. but these errors, the lack of precision and rigour throughout the book take all value away from it. from around 1892, peano embarked on a new and extremely ambitious project, namely the formulario mathematico. he explained in the march 1892 part of rivista di matematica his thinking : - of the greatest usefulness would be the publication of collections of all the theorems now known", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5458875131642681, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd26223b-de5e-48e7-81d7-ea1a900196e0>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.291332"}
{"text": "extremely ambitious project, namely the formulario mathematico. he explained in the march 1892 part of rivista di matematica his thinking : - of the greatest usefulness would be the publication of collections of all the theorems now known that refer to given branches of the mathematical sciences... such a collection, which would be long and difficult in ordinary language, is made noticeably easier by using the notation of mathematical logic... in many ways this grand idea marks the end of peano ' s extraordinary creative work. it was a project that was greeted with enthusiasm by a few and with little interest by most. peano began trying to convert all those around him to believe in the importance of this project and this had the effect of annoying them. however peano and his close associates, including his assistants, vailati, burali - forti, pieri and fano soon became deeply involved with the work. when describing a new edition of the formulario mathematico in 1896 peano writes : - each professor will be able to adopt this formulario as a textbook, for it ought to contain all theorems and all methods. his teaching will be reduced to showing how to read the formulas, and to indicating to the students the theorems that he wishes to explain in his course. when the calculus volume of the formulario was published peano, as he had indicated, began to use it for his teaching. this was the disaster that one would expect. peano, who was a good teacher when he began his lecturing career, became unacceptable to both his students and his colleagues by the style of his teaching. one of his students, who was actually a great admirer of peano, wrote : - but we students knew that this instruction was above our heads. we understood that such a subtle analysis of concepts, such a minute criticism of the definitions used by other authors, was not adapted for beginners, and especially was not useful for engineering students. we disliked having to give time and effort to the \" symbols \" that in later years we might never use. the military academy ended his contract to teach there in 1901 and although many of his colleagues at the university would have also liked to stop his teaching there, nothing was possible under the way that the university was set up. the professor was a law unto himself in his own subject and peano was not prepared to listen to his colleagues when they tried to encourage him to return to his old style of teaching. the formulario mathematico", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.554183831923313, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd26223b-de5e-48e7-81d7-ea1a900196e0>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.292535"}
{"text": "the university was set up. the professor was a law unto himself in his own subject and peano was not prepared to listen to his colleagues when they tried to encourage him to return to his old style of teaching. the formulario mathematico project was completed in 1908 and one has to admire what peano achieved but although the work contained a mine of information it was little used. however, perhaps peano ' s greatest triumph came in 1900. in that year there were two congresses held in paris. the first was the international congress of philosophy which opened in paris on 1 august. it was a triumph for peano and russell, who attended the congress, wrote in his autobiography : - the congress was the turning point of my intellectual life, because there i met peano. i already knew him by name and had seen some of his work, but had not taken the trouble to master his notation. in discussions at the congress i observed that he was always more precise than anyone else, and that he invariably got the better of any argument on which he embarked. as the days went by, i decided that this must be owing to his mathematical logic.... it became clear to me that his notation afforded an instrument of logical analysis such as i had been seeking for years... the day after the philosophy congress ended the second international congress of mathematicians began. peano remained in paris for this congress and listened to hilbert ' s talk setting out ten of the 23 problems which appeared in his paper aimed at giving the agenda for the next century. peano was particularly interested in the second problem which asked if the axioms of arithmetic could be proved consistent. even before the formulario mathematico project was completed peano was putting in place the next major project of his life. in 1903 peano expressed interest in finding a universal, or international, language and proposed an artificial language \" latino sine flexione \" based on latin but stripped of all grammar. he compiled the vocabulary by taking words from english, french, german and latin. in fact the final edition of the formulario mathematico was written in latino sine flexione which is another reason the work was so little used. peano ' s career was therefore rather strangely divided into two periods. the period up to 1900 is one where he showed great originality and a remarkable feel for topics which would be important in the development of mathematics. his achievements were outstanding and he had a modern style quite out of place in his own time. however this feel for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5316333675573779, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd26223b-de5e-48e7-81d7-ea1a900196e0>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.293639"}
{"text": "up to 1900 is one where he showed great originality and a remarkable feel for topics which would be important in the development of mathematics. his achievements were outstanding and he had a modern style quite out of place in his own time. however this feel for what was important seemed to leave him and after 1900 he worked with great enthusiasm on two projects of great difficulty which were enormous undertakings but proved quite unimportant in the development of mathematics. of his personality kennedy writes in : -... i am fascinated by his gentle personality, his ability to attract lifelong disciples, his tolerance of human weakness, his perennial optimism.... peano may not only be classified as a 19th century mathematician and logician, but because of his originality and influence, must be judged one of the great scientists of that century. although peano is a founder of mathematical logic, the german mathematical philosopher gottlob frege is today considered the father of mathematical logic. article by : j j o ' connor and e f robertson click on this link to see a list of the glossary entries for this page list of references ( 13 books / articles ) | | mathematicians born in the same country | additional material in mactutor | honours awarded to giuseppe peano | ( click below for those honoured in this way ) | speaker at international congress | | 1897 | cross - references in mactutor other web sites | previous | | ( alphabetically ) | | next | | biographies index | | history topics | | societies, honours, etc. | | famous curves | | time lines | | birthplace maps | | chronology | | search form | | glossary index | | quotations index | | poster index | | mathematicians of the day | | anniversaries for the year | joc / efr \u00a9 december 1997 | school of mathematics and statistics | university of st andrews, scotland the url of this page is : |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5221136650687814, "token_count": 388, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd26223b-de5e-48e7-81d7-ea1a900196e0>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.294848"}
{"text": "provide the naturalistic basis for the ultimate selfish universe : nature red in tooth and claw evokes images of \u201c every man for himself, \u201d in pure randian style. in fact, herbert spencer popularized the infamous doctrine of \u201c social darwinism \u201d ( which darwin never espoused ) well before ayn rand wrote atlas shrugged. recently, however, several scientists and philosophers have been taking a second look at evolutionary theory and its relationship with ethics, and are finding new ways of realizing the project of plato, kant, and mill of deriving a fundamentally rational way of being ethical. elliot sober and david sloan wilson, in their unto others : the psychology and evolution of unselfish behavior, as well as peter singer in a darwinian left : politics, evolution and cooperation, argue that human beings evolved as social animals, not as lone, self - reliant brutes. in a society, cooperative behavior ( or at least, a balance between cooperation and selfishness ) will be selected in favor, while looking out exclusively for number one will be ostracized because it reduces the fitness of most individuals and of the group as a whole. all of this sounds good, but does it actually work? a recent study published in science by martin nowak, karen page and karl sigmund provides a splendid example of how mathematical evolutionary theory can be applied to ethics, and how in fact social evolution favors fair and cooperative behavior. nowak and coworkers tackled the problem posed by the so - called \u201c ultimatum game. \u201d in it, two players are offered the possibility of winning a pot of money, but they have to agree on how to divide it. one of the players, the proposer, makes an offer of a split ( $ 90 for me, $ 10 for you, for example ) to the other player ; the other player, the responder, has the option of accepting or rejecting. if she rejects, the game is over and neither of them gets any money. it is easy to demonstrate that the rational strategy is for the proposer to behave egotistically and to suggest a highly uneven split in which she takes most of the money, and for the responder to accept. the alternative is that neither of them gets anything. however, when real human beings from a variety of cultures and using a panoply of rewards play the game the outcome is invariably a fair share of the prize. this would seem prima facie evidence that the human sense of fair play overwhelms mere rationality and thwarts", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5461285579280064, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:854f9852-0376-4d6d-91fe-9163d5f680a7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.305136"}
{"text": "variety of cultures and using a panoply of rewards play the game the outcome is invariably a fair share of the prize. this would seem prima facie evidence that the human sense of fair play overwhelms mere rationality and thwarts the rationalistic prediction. on the other hand, it would also provide ayn rand with an argument that most humans are simply stupid, because they don \u2019 t appreciate the math behind the game. nowak and colleagues, however, simulated the evolution of the game in a situation in which several players get to interact repeatedly. that is, they considered a social situation rather than isolated encounters. if the players have memory of previous encounters ( i. e., each player builds a \u201c reputation \u201d in the group ), then the winning strategy is to be fair because people are willing to punish dishonest proposers, which increases their own reputation for fairness and damages the proposer \u2019 s reputation for the next round. this means that \u2014 given the social environment \u2014 it is rational to be less selfish toward your neighbors. while we are certainly far from a satisfying mathematical and evolutionary theory of morality, it seems that science does, after all, have something to say about optimal ethical rules. and the emerging picture is one of fairness \u2014 not egotism \u2014 as the smart choice to make.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5495926202987197, "token_count": 266, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:854f9852-0376-4d6d-91fe-9163d5f680a7>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.305770"}
{"text": "contrasting colors are used to indicate various anatomic structures in the human brain, making this high quality model perfect for beginning anatomy studies of the human brain. made of unbreakable vinyl, life - size and anatomically accurate. the human... this basic brain is medially divided, anatomically accurate, life - size and unbreakable! the structures of the brain are shown in one color, providing an introduction to the human nervous system and anatomy of the brain. structures of... this 4 - part brain is medially divided. all structures of the brain are hand - painted, numbered and identified in a product manual. the brain ' s right half can be disassembled into : - frontal with parietal lobes - brain stem with temporal and a very detailed model of the human brain which is medially divided. both halves of this brain can be disassembled into : - frontal with parietal lobes - temporal with occipital lobes - half of brain stem - half of cerebellum this midsagittally sectioned model is an original anatomic cast of a real human brain. the components of the brain ' s left half are : - frontal and parietal lobe - temporal and occipital lobe - encephalic trunk the c29 model shows a rat brain in approx. 6 - fold enlargement. sectioned medially, it can be disassembled into two halves. the right half of the model shows the structures of the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem, each of which is color - coded for... the spinal cord model illustrates the composition of the spinal cord, magnified to a scale of about 5 : 1. the spinal cord is formed by a central channel surrounded by \" gray matter \" with an outer layer of \" white matter \". the base of... this glass block brain can add a spark to any office setting. modern data and laser technologies make this filigreed masterwork possible! selected 3b models are presented in 3d inside a cube made of high - quality optical glass. an unusually elegant gift... this colorful anatomical chart details the human vegetative nervous system. not only is the function of this part of the nervous system explained on this poster but the role the vegetative nervous system plays in the function of each organ is detailed... item : vr1610uu this anatomical poster of the human nervous system comes in full colorful detail.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5018087008808587, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:23810aab-1569-4fed-b137-1cb282b216a4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.310917"}
{"text": "allergy tests are used to find the substances that are causing an allergic reaction. an allergic reaction is an immune system response to a substance in the environment known as a trigger. the healthcare professional may perform or order allergy tests on people with suspected allergies. skin testing is usually not done on children younger than age 3. it may be done on older individuals to determine the triggers that are causing allergic reactions in the person. before the procedure, a person should not take medicines, such as antihistamines, that could block a skin reaction and thus cause the test to turn out falsely negative. there are many methods of allergy testing. skin tests are used to identify specific allergens that are known to cause symptoms. the healthcare professional will select skin tests based on a person ' s particular history. test solutions are made from extracts of various inhaled, ingested, or injected substances. test solutions available include extracts from tree, grass, and weed pollens ; dust mites ; animal dander ; insect venoms ; foods ; and penicillin and penicillin derivatives. for the prick skin test, a small amount of the substance thought to cause the allergic reaction is placed on the skin. this substance is called an allergen. the skin is then pricked or scratched. this allows the substance to get under the skin ' s surface. if the person is allergic, the skin will usually get red and swell within about 20 minutes. another skin test is called an intradermal test. a small amount of the allergen is injected beneath the skin. this more sensitive test is often used when the prick test has produced a negative or uncertain result in reaction to suspected inhaled allergens. an elimination diet test may be used to diagnose food allergies. for this test, a person goes several weeks without eating any of the foods that may be causing the problem. foods are returned to the diet one at a time. if allergic symptoms come back after eating a certain food, that food is probably causing the problem. if a specific food is suspected, it can be given to the person under controlled conditions. if a reaction occurs, this food is the likely cause. the best way to test for food allergies is by using an oral food challenge. this test can be used even with small children. the suspected food is removed from the diet. after 4 to 5 days, the food should be eaten on an empty stomach. this is the best time to watch for a reaction. parents can keep a food", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5020732133948693, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:da1f6fb4-3122-4de4-bd6d-8537b64092d3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.321289"}
{"text": "science fair project encyclopedia in differential geometry, a pseudo - riemannian manifold is a smooth manifold equipped with a smooth, symmetric, ( 0, 2 ) tensor which is nondegenerate at each point on the manifold. this tensor is called a pseudo - riemannian metric or, simply, a ( pseudo - ) metric tensor. the key difference between a riemannian metric and a pseudo - riemannian metric is that a pseudo - riemannian metric need not be positive - definite, merely nondegenerate. since every positive - definite form is also nondegenerate a riemannian metric is a special case of a pseudo - riemannian one. thus pseudo - riemannian manifolds can be considered generalizations of riemannian manifolds. every nondegenerate, symmetric, bilinear form has a fixed signature ( p, q ). here p and q denote the number of positive and negative eigenvalues of the form. the signature of a pseudo - riemannian manifold is just the signature of the metric ( one should insist that the signature is the same on every connected component ). note that p + q = n is the dimension of the manifold. riemannian manifolds are simply those with signature ( n, 0 ). pseudo - riemannian metrics of signature ( p, 1 ) ( or sometimes ( 1, q ), see sign convention ) are called lorentzian metrics. a manifold equipped with a lorentzian metric is naturally called a lorentzian manifold. after riemannian manifolds, lorentzian manifolds form the most important subclass of pseudo - riemannian manifolds. they are important because of their physical applications to the theory of general relativity. a principal assumption of general relativity is that spacetime can be modeled as a lorentzian manifold of signature ( 3, 1 ). just as euclidean space can be thought of as the model riemannian manifold, minkowski space with the flat minkowski metric is the model lorentzian manifold. likewise, the model space for a pseudo - riemannian manifold of signature ( p, q ) is with the metric some basic theorems of riemannian geometry can be generalized to the pseudo - riemannian case. in particular, the fundamental theorem of riemannian geometry is true of pseudo - riemannian manifolds as well. this allows one to speak of the levi - civita connection on a pseudo - riemannian manifold along with the associated curvature tensor.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6176308856523425, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b9e1a8f8-67e4-46d6-add8-080dedfd2f12>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.356329"}
{"text": ", treatment or prevention of the disease or its nature in general. paragraph 7 deals with consent from disabled subjects. this includes people who are unable to give their consent due to a mental health disorder, mental handicap or other equivalent reason. research can only be carried out on such people if the same scientific results could not be attained using other subjects and provided that the risk of causing damage or stress is limited. furthermore, research can only be carried out if it could be expected to be directly beneficial to the participant or to other people either of the same age or with the same medical condition. even if these conditions have been fulfilled, the participant ' s legal representative, close relative, or other person closely connected with the patient must give written consent after having received the necessary relevant information. the consent has to be given in accordance to the presumed will of a participant. the provisions of article 6 also apply in that consent can be withdrawn at any time before completion of the research. finally, if the participant objects to any procedure used as part of the research, he or she must not be forced to undergo the procedure. advance directives and health care proxies the legal status of advance directives advance directives have legal status in finland according to section 8 of the act on the status and rights of patients ( no. 785 / 92 of 17 august 1992 ). section 8 of the act on the status and rights of patients deals with emergency treatment. a situation could arise whereby a patient, who is in need of emergency treatment, is unconscious or unable to express his / her will. according to section 8, doctors cannot give a treatment that is against his / her will, as expressed steadfastly and competently at some point in the past. in the sense that this section refers to the necessity to respect the previously expressed wishes of a person who is no longer able to state his / her preference regarding treatment, this can be considered as legitimising a kind of advance directive. paragraph 6. 3 of the act on the status and rights of patients can also be interpreted as involving the possible use of advance directives in substitute decision making with regard to care. there are three categories of people who can decide on behalf of a person with incapacity : - the legal representative who could be either a guardian who is entitled to represent his / her client in issues linked to the client \u2019 s person or a person appointed by the patient such as a power of attorney or continuing power of attorney in health care issues. - a family member or - another person who", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5142164946068003, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:007b5de8-e889-4299-b9b4-5d6be828c8c4>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.391351"}
{"text": "it in the law ; - information necessary for the arranging of examination and treatment of the patient may be given to another health care unit or health care professional, and a summary of the treatment provided may be given to the health care unit or the health care professional that referred the patient for treatment and to a physician possibly appointed to be responsible for the care of the patient in accordance with the patient ' s or his / her legal representative \u2019 s oral consent or consent that is otherwise obvious from the context ; and - information necessary for arranging and providing the examination and care of a patient may be given to another finnish or foreign health care unit or health care professional, if the patient, owing to a mental health disturbance, mental handicap or for a comparable reason is not capable of assessing the significance of the consent and he / she has no legal representative, or if the patient cannot give the consent because of unconsciousness or for comparable reason ; - information about the identity and state of health of a patient may be given to a family member of the patient or to other person close to the patient, if the patient is receiving treatment because of unconsciousness or for another comparable reason, unless there is reason to believe that the patient would forbid this ; and - information on the health and medical care of a deceased person provided when the person was still living may be given, upon a justified written application, to anyone who needs the information in order to find out his / her vital interests or rights, to the extent that the information is necessary for that purpose ; the acquiring party may not use or forward the information for some other purpose. section 13 of the act on the status and rights of patients ( 30. 6. 2000 / 653 ) specifically addressed the issue of confidentiality of information contained in patients \u2019 records. paragraph 13. 1 states that information contained in patients \u2019 records shall be confidential. paragraph 13. 2 states that health care professionals and other people working in or for health care units shall not disclose to outsiders information contained in a patient \u2019 s medical records without the written consent of the patient. if the patient is not capable of giving such consent, it can be given by his / her legal representative. in this act, the term \u201c outsiders \u201d refers to people other than those who are involved in the care of the patient or in carrying out tasks related to the person \u2019 s care within or on behalf of a health care unit. the obligation to respect confidentiality remains in force even when the person is no longer employed or carrying out tasks on behalf of the health care unit. end", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5369941577461529, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:007b5de8-e889-4299-b9b4-5d6be828c8c4>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.396840"}
{"text": "keynes at the border? wednesday, april 15, 2009 a common fallacy holds that imposing taxes on imports and rebating taxes on exports would stimulate the economy. a common fallacy holds that border tax adjustments \u2014 imposing taxes on imports and rebating taxes on exports \u2014 would enhance american exports and reduce imports. the reasoning behind this mistake is simple enough. a border adjustment seems to provide a subsidy to exporters and to levy a tariff on importers. border adjustment proponents, noting that international trade rules allow nations to border adjust consumption taxes such as european - style value added taxes, urge the adoption of a consumption tax in the united states so that we can border adjust and enhance our trade competitiveness. yet, such an argument ignores an essential truth about imports and exports : over the long term, exports and imports must be equal. we can think of a country like a household. purchases are paid for from the proceeds of sales, and sales are made for the purpose of additional purchases. in the long run, purchases and sales must be equal. a nation \u2019 s trade policy works the same way. over a nation \u2019 s history, the value of exports in current dollars must equal the value of imports in present value. any attempt to permanently increase exports and decrease imports is futile. what would actually happen if we border adjusted imports and exports is that exchange rate movements would offset the trade effects and the dollar would appreciate. the key variable is the real exchange rate, which determines the terms at which a country buys and sells. ( for the united states, the real exchange rate is the value of the dollar in terms of foreign currency \u2014 the nominal exchange rate \u2014 multiplied by the u. s. price level and divided by the foreign price level. ) the real exchange rate adjusts to keep the present discounted value of exports and imports equal. the adoption of a border adjustment by the united states would trigger an increase in the real exchange rate that would offset the perceived boost to exports and the perceived restraint on imports. the argument for border tax adjustments ignores an essential truth about imports and exports. imagine, for the moment, that one euro and one dollar have the same value under the current trade regime. if a firm in the united states wanted to import one euro \u2019 s worth of german chocolate, the cost of the chocolate to the importer would be one dollar. now, let \u2019 s imagine that we institute a 25 percent border adjustment. the cost of the chocolate to the importer would increase to \u20ac1. 33 ( 25 percent of 1. 33 is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5008178615270734, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6d0ccd21-0815-474f-9dc2-603fdfb99cde>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.406044"}
{"text": "photographer cannot effect many of the same processes with skillful camera technique \u2026 \u201c the intrinsic difference for me \u2026 is one of cognition. \u201d patricia vickers - rich and thomas h. rich : \u201c the association and friendship between the three of us spans more than three decades. it began when we two scientists were on the hunt for an artist who had the skills that would allow precise scientific information to be conveyed in imagery alongside the detailed scientific descriptions of the ancient marsupial, diprotodon. the condition of the specimens to be \u2018 presented, \u2019 to both the general public and to other researchers, was incomplete. what we needed was an artist able to synthesize images that combined these fragments and information from various disciplines. the images required a three - dimensional quality that drew observers in, communicating to them intimate details of anatomical form. but, more than just revealing the essence of the scientific descriptions, these images needed to challenge the viewer to ask more questions \u2026. \u201c we have, through our work together, continued to find each other \u2019 s different perspectives and approaches informative. we have been able to disagree, challenge each other and spend long hours discussing the direction of each of the projects highlighted within these chapters. we have enjoyed exploring new territory \u2014 new techniques, novel materials and subjects \u2026. [ t ] hroughout our work together, we have respected each other \u2019 s independence... \u201d in sightings, american scientist publishes examples of innovative scientific imaging from diverse research fields. \u00bb post comment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5115447990773136, "token_count": 299, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3e9d9b99-d1fb-4532-8aa1-7e5d57696070>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.412570"}
{"text": "the moravian church was founded in the 15th century, and is considered the first protestant denomination, based on the philosophies of jan hus. by the 18th century, members of the church had been forced out of their homelands in moravia and bohemia ( now part of the czech republic ), and some had ended up in herrnhut, germany. there, they set up schools where sons would be raised and educated while their parents were away doing missionary work. as the story goes, early one december some time in the mid - 19th century, a teacher at the herrnhut schools developed an art project for the students where they would use paper and glue to make a star - shaped polyhedron by attaching tall pyramids to a multifaceted geometrical solid ( image 2 ). this challenging math lesson yielded beautiful star shapes, which the students used as lanterns for christmas decorations ( tip : it worked out for them, but i wouldn ' t recommend combining fire and paper in your own home decor ). subsequently, the shape came to be known as the moravian star, and was primarily associated with advent and christmas decorations. around 1900, an industrial manufacture sprang up in herrnhut, mass - producing the star lanterns out of tin and glass. they also produced diy - type kits for people to assemble at home, out of paper punched with holes. the advent of mail - order and the increase in international travel meant that moravian stars became familiar in other parts of the world, as well, especially in the areas of pennsylvania and upstate new york where the moravian church had been going strong since the 18th century. not only is it surprising to think of a school craft project turning into an international piece of design, but it is even more surprising to realize that the complexity of the star form had only recently been understood by the most brilliant mathematicians. if we ' re going to get geometrical here, the moravian star is technically a great stellated dodecahedron, a form first identified by johannes kepler in 1619 and then again by louis poinsot ( who was unfamiliar with kepler ' s work ) in 1809 \u2014 just a few short decades before the herrnhut art project. the teacher responsible must therefore have been familiar with the most recent and complicated mathematical writings. of course, kepler and poinsot did not invent the great stellated dodecahedron, they just named and rationalized it. there is a mosaic representation of a small stellated dodecahedron ( small because its points are short, as opposed to the tall iso", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5208765666833719, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:592127b3-4ed4-4811-a88f-6746e47e5e5a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.430302"}
{"text": "poinsot did not invent the great stellated dodecahedron, they just named and rationalized it. there is a mosaic representation of a small stellated dodecahedron ( small because its points are short, as opposed to the tall isosceles points of the ' great ' version ) on the floor of san marco basilica in venice, attributed to paolo uccello in the 1450s ( image 3 ). and art and architecture from western islamic lands like morocco have been primarily based on geometrical patterns for centuries, yielding flat, two - dimensional variations on star shapes ( primarily 6 - and 8 - pointed stars ) in endless tessellations ( image 4 ), or concave three - dimensional star fragments in muqarnas ( image 5 ). perhaps this is the reason for the association of the star - shaped lanterns with moroccan design? i could find no historical moroccan, islamic or arabic lanterns shaped like a star. ( any readers know otherwise? ) while the moravian star might originally have been used as christmas decoration, it is above all a pleasing geometric form, and is now all but stripped of its religious or seasonal associations. at once complex and austere, it manages to be whimsical while also providing a pretty literal interpretation of starlight. images : 1 a ginger barber interior photographed by victoria pearson for house beautiful ; 2 herrnhuter - sterne. de ; 3 wikimedia commons ; 4 a zillij tile dado in marrakesh, via stars in symmetry, a great blog about islamic art and architecture ; 5 nasr al - molk mosque in shiraz, iran, via wikipedia ; 6 - 8 high street market ; 9 rum interior design via atsf ; 10 elements of style.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5039900096779918, "token_count": 353, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:592127b3-4ed4-4811-a88f-6746e47e5e5a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.432435"}
{"text": "significance and use 4. 1 the three test methods provide simulated abrasion conditions, which can be used to evaluate the effects on abrasion resistance of concrete, concrete materials, and curing or finishing procedures. they may also be used for quality acceptance of products and surface exposed to wear. they are not intended to provide a quantitative measurement of length of service. 4. 2 the equipment used by each of these procedures is portable and thus suitable for either laboratory or field testing. the three procedures determine the relative wear of concrete surfaces as follows : 4. 2. 1 procedure a \u2014 the revolving - disk machine operates by sliding and scuffing of steel disks in conjunction with abrasive grit. 4. 2. 2 procedure b \u2014 the dressing - wheel machine operates by impact and sliding friction of steel dressing wheels. 4. 2. 3 procedure c \u2014 the ball - bearing machine operates by high - contact stresses, impact, and sliding friction from steel balls. \u2014 diagrams of three machines meeting these specifications are shown in fig. 1, fig. 2, and fig. 3. fig. 1 revolving disks abrasion test machine fig. 2 dressing wheel abrasion test machine fig. 3 ball bearing abrasion test machine 1. 1 this test method covers three procedures for determining the relative abrasion resistance of horizontal concrete surfaces. the procedures differ in the type and degree of abrasive force they impart, and are intended for use in determining variations in surface properties of concrete affected by mixture proportions, finishing, and surface treatment. they are not intended to provide a quantitative measurement of the length of service that may be expected from a specific surface. 1. 2 the values stated in either si units or inch - pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. within the text, the inch - pound units are shown in brackets. the values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents ; therefore, each system shall be used independently of each other. 1. 3 this standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. it is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. ( warning \u2014 fresh hydraulic cementitious mixtures are caustic and may cause chemical burns to skin and tissue upon prolonged exposure. ) \u2014 other procedures are available for measuring the abrasion resistance of concrete surfaces in addition to the three procedures contained in this test method. consideration should be given to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5395540142272027, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2784a40e-6a15-4f68-9193-7ef28e1d90c2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.451869"}
{"text": "formation of large ( \u03bcm ) ice crystals near the tropical tropopause 1nasa ames research center, moffett field, ca, usa 2spec inc., boulder, co, usa 3centro de ciencias de la atmosfera, universidad nacional autonoma de mexico, circuito exterior, mexico 4harvard university, cambridge, ma, usa 5colorado research associates, boulder, co, usa 6university of colorado, boulder, co, usa abstract. recent high - altitude aircraft measurements with in situ imaging instruments indicated the presence of relatively large ( \u03bcm length ), thin ( aspect ratios of : 1 or larger ) hexagonal plate ice crystals near the tropical tropopause in very low concentrations ( < 0. 01 l\u22121 ). these crystals were not produced by deep convection or aggregation. we use simple growth - sedimentation calculations as well as detailed cloud simulations to evaluate the conditions required to grow the large crystals. uncertainties in crystal aspect ratio leave a range of possibilities, which could be constrained by knowledge of the water vapor concentration in the air where the crystal growth occurred. unfortunately, water vapor measurements made in the cloud formation region near the tropopause with different instruments ranged from < 2 ppmv to. 5 ppmv. the higher water vapor concentrations correspond to very large ice supersaturations ( relative humidities with respect to ice of about 200 % ). if the aspect ratios of the hexagonal plate crystals are as small as the image analysis suggests ( 6 : 1, see companion paper ( lawson et al., 2008 ) ) then growth of the large crystals before they sediment out of the supersaturated layer would only be possible if the water vapor concentration were on the high end of the range indicated by the different measurements ( > 3 ppmv ). on the other hand, if the crystal aspect ratios are quite a bit larger ( : 1 ), then h2o concentrations toward the low end of the measurement range ( \u2013 2. 5 ppmv ) would suffice to grow the large crystals. gravity - wave driven temperature and vertical wind perturbations only slightly modify the h2o concentrations needed to grow the crystals. we find that it would not be possible to grow the large crystals with water concentrations less than 2 ppmv, even with assumptions of a very high aspect ratio of 15 and steady upward motion of 2 cm s\u22121 to loft the crystals in the tropopause", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5406536187842998, "token_count": 506, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d0bb34a9-013e-4e5e-b816-bf8fee515d52>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.454775"}
{"text": "grow better in huge deep fermentation tank. development of submerged culture technique for cultivation of mold in large volume of liquid medium through which sterile air is forced. primary and secondary metabolites : primary and secondary metabolites primary metabolites are produced during active cell growth, and secondary metabolites are produced near the onset of stationary phase. commercial production of penicillin : commercial production of penicillin like all antibiotics, penicillin is a secondary metabolite, so is only produced in the stationary phase. industrial production of antibiotic - penicillin : industrial production of antibiotic - penicillin the industrial production of penicillin was broadly classified in to two processes namely, upstream processing downstream processingupstream processing : upstream processing upstream processing encompasses any technology that leads to the synthesis of a product. upstream includes the exploration, development and production. downstream processing : downstream processing the extraction and purification of a biotechnological product from fermentation is referred to as downstream processing. upstream processing inoculum preparation : upstream processing inoculum preparation the medium is designed to provide the organism with all the nutrients that it requires. inoculation method - submerged technique spores - major source of inoculumraw materials : raw materials carbon sources : lactose acts as a very satisfactory carbon compound, provided that is used in a concentration of 6 %. others such as glucose & sucrose may be used. nitrogen sources : corn steep liquor ( csl ) ammonium sulphate and ammonium acetate can be used as nitrogenous sources. mineral sources : elements namely potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulphur, zinc and copper are essential for penicillin production. some of these are applied by corn steep liquor. calcium can be added in the form of chalk to counter the natural acidity of csl paa - precursorfermentation process : fermentation process the medium is inoculated with a suspension of conidia of penicillium chrysogenum. the medium is constantly aerated and agitated, and the mould grows throughout as pellets. after about seven days, growth is complete, the ph rises to 8. 0 or above, and penicillin production ceasesstages in downstream processing : stages in downstream processing downstream processing is relatively easy since penicillin is secreted into the medium ( to kill other cells ), so there is no need to break open the fungal cells. however, the product needs to be very pure, since it being used as a therapeutic medical drug", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5102861151297704, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:94f28fff-2d56-4046-965c-4358ceed2f51>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.467777"}
{"text": "the quality of the air we breathe, slows climate change, and revitalizes rural communities. \u201d the report finds that achieving a 20 percent wind contribution to u. s. electricity supply would : reduce carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation by 25 percent in 2030. reduce natural gas use by 11 % ; reduce water consumption associated with electricity generation by 4 trillion gallons by 2030 ; increase annual revenues to local communities to more than $ 1. 5 billion by 2030 ; and support roughly 500, 000 jobs in the u. s., with an average of more than 150, 000 workers directly employed by the wind industry. at 20 % of electric power generation, significant growth in the manufacturing supply chain would create jobs and remedy the current shortage in parts for wind turbines. reducing the use of natural gas could save money for consumers due to the resulting downward pressure on the price of natural gas, according to awea. \u201c we must look at meeting future electric demands in a cost - effective way, \u201d said suedeen kelly, ferc commissioner. \u201c the 20 % wind scenario would only cost 2 percent more than the cost of the baseline scenario without wind. at 50 cents per month for the average ratepayer, that is a small price to pay for the climate, water, natural gas, and energy security benefits it would buy - - and it does not even count the stability provided to consumers by eliminating fuel price risk. \u201d \u201c though economic and other factors will ultimately determine our energy future, we believe the 20 percent wind scenario is feasible, but only with a major national transmission highway system. delivering power from the best windy regions to the growing urban supply requires a bigger, stronger transmission system. strong regional and interregional planning as well as broad allocation of costs will allow the united states to rely on a broader diversity of generation resources, \" said mike heyeck, senior vp of aep transmission. the report comes at an important time in wind development. in 2007, wind was one of the fastest growing sources of electricity in the nation, second only to natural gas for the third consecutive year. according to an awea report released last week, the u. s. wind energy industry continued new installations at a breakneck pace in the first quarter of 2008, putting 1, 400 megawatts ( mw ) or approximately $ 3 billion worth of new generating capacity in place - - enough to serve the equivalent of 400, 000 homes - - coupled with investment in 17 new manufacturing facilities over the past year. \u201c wind is an important part of bp alternative", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.505514186429455, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a0328182-2825-439d-ba1f-9d2e75a20890>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.476039"}
{"text": "your phone might know better than you do : just by analyzing the calling patterns, the researchers could accurately label two people as friends or nonfriends more than 95 % of the time. but the results, published online today in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences, show that the mobile phone data were better at predicting friendship than the subjects themselves. thirty - two pairs of subjects switched from calling each other acquaintances to friends in the traditionally gathered survey data. these are most likely new relationships that formed during the course of the study, say the researchers, and they left a clear signal in the mobile phone data. friends call each other far more often than acquaintances do when they are off - campus and during weekends. the pattern is so distinct that the researchers spotted budding friendships in the phone data months before the people themselves called themselves friends. finally, the team compared people \u2019 s self - reported job satisfaction with their networks of friendship at their workplaces. because the mobile phones kept track of people \u2019 s proximity to each other, the researchers had a clear measure of people \u2019 s daily contact with friends at work, not only through calls but through physical proximity. as predicted, the more contact people had with friends at their workplace, the more highly they rated their job satisfaction. and conversely, the less face - to - face contact people had with friends at work, the less they said they enjoyed it. \u2026 at mit, scientists who tracked student cellphones during the latest presidential election were able to deduce that two people were talking about politics, even though the researchers didn \u2019 t know the content of the conversation. by analyzing changes in movement and communication patterns, researchers could also detect flu symptoms before the students themselves realized they were getting sick. \u201c phones can know, \u201d said dr. pentland, director of mit \u2019 s human dynamics laboratory, who helped pioneer the research. \u201c people can get this god \u2019 s - eye view of human behavior. \u201d so far, these studies only scratch the surface of human complexity. researchers are already exploring ways that the information gleaned from mobile phones can improve public health, urban planning and marketing. at the same time, researchers believe their findings hint at basic rules of human interaction, and that poses new challenges to notions of privacy. \u201c we have always thought of individuals as being unpredictable, \u201d said johan bollen, an expert in complex networks at indiana university. \u201c these regularities [ in behavior ] allow systems to learn much more about us as individuals than we would care for. \u201d of course, companies are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5173636547177405, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2133908a-8fb9-468d-aced-e6fa3a910e53>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.484545"}
{"text": "individuals as being unpredictable, \u201d said johan bollen, an expert in complex networks at indiana university. \u201c these regularities [ in behavior ] allow systems to learn much more about us as individuals than we would care for. \u201d of course, companies are very interested in this data : cellphone providers are openly exploring other possibilities. by mining their calling records for social relationships among customers, several european telephone companies discovered that people were five times more likely to switch carriers if a friend had already switched, said mr. eagle, who works with the firms. the companies now selectively target people for special advertising based on friendships with people who dropped the service. and some of the results are downright unnerving : after analyzing more than 16 million records of call date, time and position, the researchers determined that, taken together, people \u2019 s movements appeared to follow a mathematical pattern. the scientists said that, with enough information about past movements, they could forecast someone \u2019 s future whereabouts with 93. 6 % accuracy. the pattern held true whether people stayed close to home or traveled widely, and wasn \u2019 t affected by the phone user \u2019 s age or gender. a few other interesting tidbits : - they may be making us more selfish, however. our phones can fulfill our need for human contact, making us less inclined to go out of our way to help others. - these devices can distract us so much we don \u2019 t notice the world around us \u2014 even if it contains unicycling clowns. ( to be fair, people may actually like us better when we are distracted during a conversation. ) - we \u2019 ve become so addicted to our phones that two - thirds of users report hearing \u201c phantom ringing \u201c. - we rely so much on these devices that a third of people under 30 can \u2019 t remember their home phone numbers \u2014 if they have one at all. - by stripping away the emotional information in faces and intonation, text messaging might be simulating autism. - soon there will be more \u201c booty texts \u201d than \u201c booty calls \u201d. ( iphone users are more promiscuous, by the way. ) join 25k + readers. get a free weekly update via email here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.507726065969242, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2133908a-8fb9-468d-aced-e6fa3a910e53>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.485499"}
{"text": "- efficient stoves. run by an afghan ngo called the conservation organisation for the afghan mountains ( coam ), the workshop sells them on preferential terms to local villages and it already has more orders than it can fulfil. mr scanlon wants to expand the scheme elsewhere. coam is promoting another energy - saving device, the solar kettle. it is basically a large satellite dish which reflects sun - rays onto a kettle suspended in the middle. the bigger the dish the quicker the boil - but the one they are selling for about $ 100 can make a cup of tea in 20 minutes. yet with nato forces retreating over the next two years, taking large chunks of aid money with them, there are concerns whether this tentative momentum can be maintained. the new zealand run civilian - military provincial reconstruction team ( prt ) in bamiyan is due to close early next year. catching up there are questions, too, over the future of bamiyan ' s best - known landmark - the remains of the larger of its two rock buddhas, blown up by the taliban months before the us - led invasion in 2001. the vast cave, or niche, carved into the mountainside 1, 500 years ago looms over bamiyan like a ghostly sentinel - and a permanent reminder of what happened. but the niche is in \" imminent danger of collapse \", says brendan cassar of unesco - the un ' s cultural agency - and they need funding to shore it up. security concerns are pressing in too - from districts around bamiyan where the taliban and other armed groups have become more active. buddhas in bamiyan - about 140 miles ( 230km ) northwest of kabul - built in the 6th century, when bamiyan was a holy buddhist site - in 629ad, chinese traveller xuanzang described bamiyan as a bustling centre with tens of thousands of monks - the two most prominent statues were 55m and 37m high - bodies carved out of sandstone cliffs - demolished in march 2001 after being declared idols that has had a knock - on effect on the small indigenous tourist trade here. if foreign tourists are still a fledgling species here, band - e amir national park usually attracts a steady flow of afghan visitors. but there ' s been a sharp fall in numbers this year, as the threat along the road towards bamiyan has risen. the park itself is still a long way from being managed like protected reserves elsewhere in the world. a guard with a piece of rope across the road is the gate - post.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5024312918078975, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:520ef869-a288-453f-a876-ac19b78f10a1>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.505431"}
{"text": "west lafayette, ind. - even large amounts of manufactured nanoparticles, also known as buckyballs, don ' t faze microscopic organisms that are charged with cleaning up the environment, according to purdue university researchers. in the first published study to examine buckyball toxicity on microbes that break down organic substances in wastewater, the scientists used an amount of the nanoparticles on the microbes that was equivalent to pouring 10 pounds of talcum powder on a person. because high amounts of even normally safe compounds, such as talcum powder, can be toxic, the microbes ' resiliency to high buckyball levels was an important finding, the purdue investigators said. the experiment on buckyballs, which are carbon molecules c60, also led the scientists to develop a better method to determine the impact of nanoparticles on the microbial community. \" it ' s important to look at the entire microbial community when nanomaterials are introduced because the microbes are all interdependent for survival and growth, \" said leila nyberg, a doctoral student in the school of civil engineering and the study ' s lead author. \" if we see a minor change in these microorganisms it could negatively impact ecosystems. \" the microbes used in the study live without oxygen and also exist in subsurface soil and the stomachs of ruminant animals, such as cows and goats, where they aid digestion. \" we found no effect by any amount of c60 on the structure or the function of the microbial community over a short time, \" nyberg said. \" based on what we know about the properties of c60, this is a realistic model of what would happen if high concentrations of nanoparticles were released into the environment. \" the third naturally occurring pure carbon molecule known, buckyballs are nano - sized, multiple - sided structures that look like soccer balls. nyberg and her colleagues ron turco and larry nies, professors of agronomy and ci | contact : susan a. steeves |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.544226620131532, "token_count": 421, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a45b666e-60e3-4153-8529-a347a2bc3557>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.520349"}
{"text": "questions : g to a and c to t substitutions, is this a rule? zxiong at arizvm1. ccit. arizona. edu mon apr 11 11 : 59 : 05 est 1994 being not familiar with molecular evolution. i have been troubled with some of my data in rna virus sequence. we are working on a small rna virus and nearly complete the sequence of the viral rna genome from cdna clones. rna viruses are known to be heterogenous ( quasi - species ), so it was not surprising to see nucleotide sequence variations when sequences are obtained from different clones. what was surprising was a consistent rule of sequence variaions. g is always subsituted with a a, or vice versa. c is always substituted with a t, or vice versa. but there is never a g to ( c, t ) change or vice versa. let me try to explain it a little better. we have found 16 nucleotide substitutions in about 1500 nucleotide of overlapping sequences. there are 11 c to t or t to c substitutions and 5 g to a or a to g substitutions. we have not found any other possible substituions. is there a theory describing the rule of nucleotide substitution during evolution? i feel very ignorant and hope someone can give me a pointer to how to explain my observation. any comments or suggestions are welcome. zxiong at arizvm1. ccit. arizona. edu more information about the methods", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5273702605371305, "token_count": 308, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:46fef4e6-8218-47b0-a114-75e38b50bf1a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.521910"}
{"text": "paul painter\u00b9 and lucas mcconnell\u00b2 \u00b9materials science and engineering and the energy institute \u00b2renewergy corporation, erie pa. presently, biofuels in this country usually means one of two things, ethanol ( in the u. s. principally produced from corn ) or biodiesel ( largely from oilseeds or yellow grease ). however, large - scale production of these fuels will inevitably lead to the displacement of croplands used to produce food and there will clearly be a limit on the quantity of ethanol and biodiesel that can be obtained from these sources. furthermore, although both biodiesel and ethanol have a number of attractive properties ( in addition to being derived from a renewable source ), they are not without problems ( lower energy content, clogging of fuel lines and filters because of their ability to dissolve gums and other deposits, etc. ). it would clearly be advantageous if a cheap, relatively simple method were available to produce a predominantly hydrocarbon fuel ( i. e., largely decarboxylated oils ) from feedstocks that contain high contents of free fatty acids. one source that we wish to particularly focus on is algae, for the purposes of this project being produced on by renewergy corporation. renewergy has developed a proprietary, \u201c aeroponic algalculture \u201d technique that uses a fraction of the water needed by conventional processes and a simple way of increasing surface area for light and co2 absorption. in preliminary work, we have applied kolbe electrolysis to the processing of algal oil. kolbe electrolysis of fatty ( alkanoic ) acids was the first known electrochemical synthesis. faraday had originally observed ( in 1834 ) that hydrocarbons are formed upon electrolysis of acetate solutions, but it was h. kolbe who performed the first detailed investigations of the reactions of carboxylic acids at an anode some fifteen years later. essentially, the reaction involves the electrochemical oxidative decarboxylation of carboxylic acid salts that leads to radicals, which can then combine to form simple hydrocarbons. we have found that a number of side reactions occur, but these can be advantageous in producing biofuels.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.567542811800674, "token_count": 452, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5808c6cc-13e7-4e25-8330-97fe63475956>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.524275"}
{"text": "anglican communionarticle free pass anglican communion, religious body of national, independent, and autonomous churches throughout the world that adheres to the teachings of anglicanism and that evolved from the church of england. the anglican communion is united by a common loyalty to the archbishop of canterbury in england as its senior bishop and titular leader and by a general agreement with the doctrines and practices defined since the 16th century in the book of common prayer. the roots of the anglican communion can be traced to the reformation in the 16th century, when king henry viii rejected the authority of the roman catholic pope in rome and established an independent church in england. the essential teachings of the church were first set down in the book of common prayer, compiled by thomas cranmer, and the organization of the church of england was worked out during the 16th and 17th centuries. from the time of the reformation, the church of england followed explorers, traders, colonists, and missionaries into all parts of the world. the colonial churches generally exercised administrative autonomy within the historical and creedal context of the mother church. it was probably not until the first meeting of the lambeth conference ( so called because it was held at lambeth palace, the archbishop of canterbury \u2019 s residence in london ) in 1867 that there emerged among the various churches and councils a mutual consciousness of an anglican communion. since its inception the lambeth conference, which meets every 10 years, has constituted the principal cohesive factor in anglicanism, even though its decisions are not binding and must be approved by the individual churches. beliefs and practices the beliefs and practices of the anglican communion are often said to be the middle ground between those of the roman catholic and those of the protestant churches. the communion teaches a trinitarian understanding of god and believes in jesus as the coequal and coeternal son of god who came for the salvation of humankind. the holy book of the communion is the bible, which is made up of the old testament, or hebrew bible, and the new testament. anglicans also accept the nicene creed and the apostles \u2019 creed as essential statements of their beliefs. there are only two sacraments, baptism and the eucharist, but the communion honours confirmation, ordination, marriage, reconciliation of the penitent, and unction of the sick as important religious rites. easter and christmas are two of the most important holy days in the communion, and members of the church attend weekly services. the communion \u2019 s worship service varies but often includes the eucharistic rites, prayer, the singing of psalms and hymns", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5156162330442824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6de10a04-af0f-4bb1-884b-2c1da871bbaf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.535170"}
{"text": "shoumita dasgupta, ph. d. associate professor of medicine, biomedical genetics director of graduate studies, program in genetics and genomics medical genetics course manager, boston university school of medicine ph. d. university of california, san francisco m. s. university of california, san francisco b. s. massachusetts institute of technology stanley l. robbins award for excellence in teaching the popular press has called the twentieth century \u201c the century of the gene. \u201d during this time, genetics came forward as a central discipline in biology, first with the rediscovery of the work of gregor mendel at the turn of the century, later with the elucidation of the structure of dna by jim watson and francis crick, and more recently with the development of recombinant dna technologies by paul berg and herb boyer. these scientific events revolutionized the way we thought about biological problems. mendel \u2019 s contributions led scientists to probe the genetic basis of inheritance while watson and crick helped to define the molecular nature of this inheritance. berg and boyer developed the tools that allowed scientists to manipulate these molecules of inheritance to more deeply understand their functions. each of these events has had far - reaching consequences because of the explosion of scientific inquiry it both allowed and inspired. currently, scientists of the twenty - first century are poised at the brink of another genetic revolution, this time triggered by the genome projects of organisms from microbes to humans. with the availability of this data, it has become obvious that current computational tools alone are inadequate to fully mine this immense data set. although the power of current genomic strategies is tremendous, they are not sufficient to determine gene function. consequently, scientists are seeking to ascertain gene function using two main approaches. first, there is a great effort underway to create new technologies and computational tools to allow for large scale molecular analyses of complex systems. secondly, these strategies are utilized alongside methods that take advantage of the powerful role of model organisms in helping to determine gene function, an important focus of the genetics and genomics department. this global perspective on the intricate networks that govern the machinery of life is causing a shift in the traditional paradigm of identifying the impact of individual genes on any given process. instead, the revised concept that no gene acts in isolation is more easily explored with these new genomic and bioinformatics tools. the aim of our program in establishing graduate coursework in genetics and genomics is to teach our students to apply the approaches of classical genetics and modern genomics to investigations of the heritable basis of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5263779468721106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8b5d6676-ec3a-4bf1-8a47-c5eec4e589f6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.576613"}
{"text": "new genomic and bioinformatics tools. the aim of our program in establishing graduate coursework in genetics and genomics is to teach our students to apply the approaches of classical genetics and modern genomics to investigations of the heritable basis of numerous biological traits, the relationships among genes, the regulation of their expression, and the elaborate mechanisms involved in supporting complex biological processes. we want our students to be adept at utilizing hypothesis - driven methods as well as discovery - oriented experimental design styles to explore these problems. the combination of these two tactics will allow our students to systematically and broadly make important contributions to many disciplines of biology. moreover, it is our goal that our students will also be trained to function as active members of the scientific community who can clearly communicate ideas, critically evaluate biomedical research, and mentor others in scientific scholarship. towards this end, we offer an array of courses and training opportunities that comprise the graduate program in genetics and genomics. \u201c principles of genetics and genomics \u201d is a core course that focuses on the use of genetic methods in model organisms for understanding complex biological processes. this course focuses on the ability to use genetic systems to probe these problems, and therefore heavily explores the experimental aspects of these investigations. in addition, we discuss the impact of the genome sequences on the practice of modern science. in this regard, the course will be aimed towards first year phd students in the biological sciences, but the course is open to anyone wishing to study genetic approaches to biological research. in addition, we use a case study approach to investigate the rich variety of scientific insights gained through genetic studies. as such, it is a core course that serves a diverse, interdisciplinary group of students in many fields from genetics and genomics to bioinformatics to immunology, and many others. further details on this course and our other exciting courses for graduate and medical students can be found on the course website. this course is one of the foundations for our graduate program in genetics and genomics, which is designed to bring these same approaches to an entire coordinated curriculum. our graduate program aims to bridge the disciplines of experimental biosciences with computational and genomic approaches. the program consists of laboratory rotations, advanced coursework, and journal clubs in the first year. subsequently, graduate students will focus on their thesis research, qualifying exams, and a teaching requirement. additional information on our graduate program can be found on the graduate program website. the pace of genetic advances during the last century has been unparalleled scientifically, and these discoveries have already made", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5568785496655586, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8b5d6676-ec3a-4bf1-8a47-c5eec4e589f6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.577627"}
{"text": "for my 7th grade science fair project my dad helped me test the germs on people \u2019 s hands after washing them with different brands of soap. the goal was to see which hand soap was the most effective. i got to use petri dishes and watch bacteria grow. i thought it was super impressive. well, turns out teenagers today are really raising the bar. take brittany wenger from sarasota, florida who recently won this year \u2019 s google science fair for developing a computer program that helps doctors detect breast cancer using less invasive methods. puts my science fair project to shame! the 17 - year - old ran 7. 6 million trials and spent more than 600 hours coding the computer program which she has been working on since 7th grade. she hopes to continue to scale up the program so that it can be used in hospitals across the country. brittany \u2019 s project is impressive on many levels, especially when you consider how much women and girls are underrepresented in the computer science industry. she is happy to break stereotypes that say girls aren \u2019 t interested in computer programming or science. so, what does a remarkable young woman like this see for her future? \u201c i want to be on the frontier of cancer research, finding the cures that are going to save lives and doing things with computer science that can be the technologies of the future, \u201d says brittany. \u201c i also want to be a pediatric oncologist, so i hope to intertwine my passions for research, computer science and patient care in the future. \u201d i have no doubts that brittany won \u2019 t do just that. why do you think girls continue to be underrepresented in science and computer programming fields? related from care2 : photo by richard bowen used under a creative commons license. disclaimer : the views expressed above are solely those of the author and may not reflect those of care2, inc., its employees or advertisers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5004431921472149, "token_count": 392, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c8709257-4fdf-4401-98db-43857162a527>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.596173"}
{"text": "for years now, we have been deluged with the news that the earth \u2019 s oceans are warming as a result of atmospheric changes due to the combustion of fossil fuels. typical of these was a 2005 story titled \u201c where \u2019 s the heat? think deep blue, \u201d from united press international, describing a recent paper in science by nasa climate modeler james hansen. upi \u2019 s \u201c space daily \u201d wrote that \u201c over the past ten years, the heat content of the ocean has grown dramatically. \u201d hansen \u2019 s study covered more than just the ocean surface temperature, which can fluctuate considerably from year to year. rather, by considering a much deeper layer of water ( the top 2, 500 feet ), hansen actually calculated the increasing amount of heat being stored. according to the upi story, this provided \u201c a match \u201d with computer model projections of global warming. the ocean is a huge tub that integrates and stores long - term climate changes. consequently, when computer models are based on ever - increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, the deep oceans warm, warm, and warm. like a big pot on a small burner, it takes time to start up, but once the process starts, nothing should be able to stop it. that \u2019 s the conventional wisdom of our climate models, but like the conventional wisdom on so many other aspects of life, it \u2019 s not true to nature. in the next few weeks, john lyman of the national oceanic and atmospheric administration will publish a paper in the refereed journal geophysical research letters showing that, globally, the top 2, 500 feet of the ocean lost a tremendous amount of heat between 2003 and 2005 \u2014 in fact, about 20 % of all the heat gained in the last half - century. needless to say, lyman \u2019 s figures have climate scientists scratching their heads. no computer model predicts such behavior. and further, the changes in surface temperatures haven \u2019 t corresponded ( yet? ) to the average changes at depth, although deep - water temperatures have also dropped some. nor has the sea level dropped by an amount commensurate with the cooling ( water volume varies slightly with temperature ). this last observation has led scientists to speculate that much more ice must be melting into the ocean than they normally assume \u2014 but no one has been able to find it, and it \u2019 s not for a lack of looking. there \u2019 s another hypothesis out there that has received very little attention. it has to do with the amount of carbon dioxide accumulating in the atmosphere", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5370629468495949, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:01ae20bb-ca76-4d9e-9014-6c7d5ee35304>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.629418"}
{"text": "no one has been able to find it, and it \u2019 s not for a lack of looking. there \u2019 s another hypothesis out there that has received very little attention. it has to do with the amount of carbon dioxide accumulating in the atmosphere. if carbon dioxide increases at a constant rate, basic physics \u2014 as understood since the 1860s \u2014 says that surface temperature will rise, but that the rate of heating will become lower and lower. in other words, in order for temperatures to increase at a constant rate, as has been observed since 1975, carbon dioxide would have to go up at an ever - increasing rate. but the ocean is so vast and slow to change that it takes several decades to realize the heating caused by carbon dioxide. consequently, a change in the rate of carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere wouldn \u2019 t be noticed for 30 to 60 years, depending upon whose calculations one believes. between the time atmospheric carbon dioxide was first directly measured, at mauna loa, hawaii, in 1957, and 1975, it clearly increased exponentially. and once the ocean temperature began to rise, it did so at a constant rate. then, about 30 years ago, something very peculiar began to occur. since 1975, it has been impossible to tell whether the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide is increasing at an exponential or simply a constant rate. because of the lag time required for the oceans to register the change in carbon dioxide, it may not be a surprise that an interval of cooling has been detected. the timing is about right : around 30 years. but that \u2019 s just another climate change hypothesis that time will test. be forewarned, though. as we \u2019 ve learned from the completely unexpected cooling of the deep ocean that began in 2003, we know a lot less about climate change than we think.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5236374778135986, "token_count": 364, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:01ae20bb-ca76-4d9e-9014-6c7d5ee35304>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.637527"}
{"text": "roy j. plunkett roy j. plunkett with a cable insulated with teflon and a teflon - coated muffin tin. gift of roy plunkett. courtesy hagley museum and library. from the 1930s to the present, beginning with neoprene and nylon, the american chemical industry has introduced a cornucopia of polymers to the consumer. teflon, discovered by roy j. plunkett ( 1910 \u2013 1994 ) at the dupont company \u2019 s jackson laboratory in 1938, was an accidental invention \u2014 unlike most of the other polymer products. but as plunkett often told student audiences, his mind was prepared by education and training to recognize novelty. as a poor ohio farm boy during the depression, plunkett attended manchester college in indiana. his roommate for a time at this small college was paul flory, who would win the 1974 nobel prize in chemistry for his contributions to the theory of polymers. like flory, plunkett went on to the ohio state university for a doctorate, and also like flory he was hired by dupont. unlike flory, plunkett made his entire career at dupont. reenactment of the 1938 discovery of teflon. left to right : jack rebok, robert mcharness, and roy plunkett. courtesy hagley museum and library. plunkett \u2019 s first assignment at dupont was researching new chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants \u2014 then seen as great advances over earlier refrigerants like sulfur dioxide and ammonia, which regularly poisoned food - industry workers and people in their homes. plunkett had produced 100 pounds of tetrafluoroethylene gas ( tfe ) and stored it in small cylinders at dry - ice temperatures preparatory to chlorinating it. when he and his helper prepared a cylinder for use, none of the gas came out \u2014 yet the cylinder weighed the same as before. they opened it and found a white powder, which plunkett had the presence of mind to characterize for properties other than refrigeration potential. he found the substance to be heat resistant and chemically inert, and to have very low surface friction so that most other substances would not adhere to it. plunkett realized that, against the predictions of polymer science of the day, tfe had polymerized to produce this substance \u2014 later named teflon \u2014 with such potentially useful characteristics. chemists and engineers in the central research department with special experience in polymer research and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5049090400554944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0b8f571c-a249-4c01-9b3a-6ebe34815c6d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:07.978682"}
{"text": "increasing money supply ultimately creates inflation. this theory has never succeeded ( other than possibly one questionable instance in chile ) and has demonstrably failed. the main monetarist theory apologist, milton friedman, ( whose list of dangerous devotees is headed by federal reserve chairman ben bernanke ) has excused the failures of monetarist policy by saying that all previous adherents failed because they didn \u2019 t do it enough. in other words, if something isn \u2019 t working then you need to do it more. in all previous crises, the markets imposed a limit to how far monetarist solutions could be pursued. america is getting close to this point now \u2013 every injection of stimulus having a smaller and shorter - lived effect than its predecessor with some estimates now indicating that each $ 1 of stimulatory input results in only 12 cents of additional output. that doesn \u2019 t mean that the current monetarist ideologues are ready to abandon their strategy ( it \u2019 s the only one they have ) but the realization that the naked emperors of monetarism are naked is as imminent now as it was in 1932 when hoover was forced to abandon the strategy. as, of course, was his successor, roosevelt, who added the firepower of what seemed to be unlimited leverage in a currency system that abandoned gold. the term \" double - dip \" was coined to describe the situation where recession / depression recurs because of the inability of central banks to maintain the effects of stimulatory output because of the law of diminishing returns. in the inter - war period, the weimar \u2019 s famous experiments with pursuing currency expansion to the ultimate extreme ( to try to repay its war debts and the versailles reparations ) led to the famous hyperinflation where marks became worth less than the actual cost of printing them. mr. bernanke \u2019 s complacent claims to be able to easily create inflation by harnessing the twin technologies of printing presses could well become his epitaph. this is the current german / ecb / euro zone core prescription for greece and its fellow \" gipsis \" ( greece, ireland, portugal, spain and italy ) as well as being the uk coalition \u2019 s self - prescribed foul - tasting medicine. it \u2019 s understandable that there are huge scars on the german psyche following the weimar period. however, like the monetarist inflationary theories, the tail - chasing dog on an ever - downward spiral of trying to reduce debt while gdp is being destroyed has rarely, if ever, proven successful", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5180095040094861, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:86b71d06-02c2-4677-a8b3-4ce69d80990c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.022302"}
{"text": "choices have been exhausted. whatever form it takes, if the conditions which led to the situation that caused it are changed, then it can be a base from which to achieve sustainable growth, cure dysfunctional banking and liquidate malinvestment, restoring social order at the same time. this is what happened in south east asia following the crises of 1997 and in iceland after 2007. what can we learn from our parents and grandparents? answer given below in an economic formula : ( santayana \u2019 s comments [ those not learning the lessons of history are destined to repeat them ] + mark twain \u2019 s \" history doesn \u2019 t repeat, it rhymes \" + einstein \u2019 s definition of madness [ doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results ] + hyman minsky \u2019 s observations that trying to cure debt bubbles with more debt only ends in eventual catastrophe ) = [ i \u2019 ve said many times before that liaquat ali \u2019 s \u201c lords of finance \u201d should be compulsory in schools everywhere ]. if we don \u2019 t learn lessons from 1930s parallels, there \u2019 s a very good chance that the outcomes of this decade might be > ( grim than that one was ). the author is paul gambles, managing partner and group chief investment officer, mbmg international.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5139541670000107, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:86b71d06-02c2-4677-a8b3-4ce69d80990c>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.025886"}
{"text": "the way we define things and how we name them determine how we view the world and, as a result, how we act and treat one another. modern neuroscience shows that human perceive not the thing itself but a copy, an illusion created by the human brain, a copy that is as created by mental beliefs and attitudes as much as it is generated by energies in the physical world. things are not as they appear, and how things appear can change over time. a story i heard today on the radio show \u201c this american life \u201d illustrates how powerful definitions are and what it can take to change them. \u201c 204 : 81 words, \u201d covers the history of how the american psychiatric association ( apa ) decided in 1973 that homosexuality was no longer a mental illness. it \u2019 s about both the power of a family story and a social label, artfully and informatively told by national public radio reporter alix spiegel. the story \u2019 s professional theme shows how the 81 words in american psychiatric association \u2019 s diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( dsm ) that defined homosexuality as a disease were replace by 204 that say it is not. for years, psychiatrists treated it as a disease to be cured, and psychoanalysts probed patients to see where the causes lay in family history. i assume that \u201c this american life \u201d host ira glass and his crew decided to rebroadcast the show, originally aired in 2002, because the forthcoming fifth edition of the apa \u2019 s manual, dsm - 5, to be published in 2013, is now available for public comment. comments are due april 20, 2010. the story \u2019 s family theme focuses on the power of family stories. the reporter, spiegel, is the granddaughter of a man who played an important role in revising the dsm description of homosexuality. her family \u2019 s family story was more or less single - handedly responsible for the change. the granddaughter, in telling the history, found that the true story was much more complex and her grandfather \u2019 s role much less central, though still important. i am not sure how spiegel and her family changed through her telling of the story and the consequent shattering of the myth of her grandfather. i \u2019 d like to, for family stories provide a powerful organizing device for a family and the perception of its members. a change in the narrative generally changes the characters in the future, but his is not in spiegel \u2019 s scope. my personal interest centers on how things become named \u2013 more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5782403543575656, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e6ccfaf6-8980-4070-a2cd-34da781b482e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.037992"}
{"text": "a powerful organizing device for a family and the perception of its members. a change in the narrative generally changes the characters in the future, but his is not in spiegel \u2019 s scope. my personal interest centers on how things become named \u2013 more properly how people use language to designate aspects of human experience with words that have meanings upon which people act. \u201c 80 words \u201d recalled how appalled i am at the number of psychological experiences have been labeled diseases that should be treated by drugs. about two years ago, i got into a cab on the way home from midway airport and had a conversation with an extremely articulate and bright cab driver about philosophy, politics, and, of all things, drugs. when i mentioned that the drug seller \u2019 s on the streets of the city were not necessarily the biggest causes of the country \u2019 s drug problems, and my driver took that bait. \u201c oh yeah, the real pusherboys work for the big drug companies, \u201d he said. \u201c makes the guys on the street seem like rank amateurs, \u201d i replied in agreement. turned out we had both read an article in the chicago reader that week ( 2 / 14 / 08 ) called, \u201c how shy became sick. \u201d that article and the book it profiles, christopher lane \u2019 s shyness : how normal behavior became a sickness, provides a critical bit of history on the development of the psychological profession in recent years. it convinced me that if i had been in high school in the mid 90s rather than the mid 70s, i would have been on meds. i would have been a very different person, and not for the better, though it occurs to me that i was on meds not sanctioned by the psychological profession. but that \u2019 s a different story. \u201c 204 : 81 words \u201d is well worth the hour it takes to play.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5272437634463873, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e6ccfaf6-8980-4070-a2cd-34da781b482e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.040283"}
{"text": "that may be affected by the undertaking and gather sufficient information to evaluate the eligibility of these properties for the national register. \" the regulations also specify that \" efforts to identify historic properties should follow the secretary ' s standards ( which are advisory ) and guidelines for archeology and historic preservation \" ( 36 cfr part 800. 4a ( 2 ) ). particularly, the identification efforts should be consistent with the secretary of the interior ' s standards and guidelines for identification. in accordance with 36 cfr part 800. 4a ( 1 ), the agency official shall : the federal agency has ultimate authority in making determinations on proposed undertakings under the national historic preservation act ; shpo acts as a consulting party within the process and has no regulatory authority. as part of the identification process, an agency may need to have an identification survey ( phase ia reconnaissance survey or phase i intensive survey ) conducted in the area of potential effect particularly if no information on historic properties is available for the area of potential effect and there appears to be a potential for historic properties to be located within the area of potential effect. this survey is conducted to identify cultural resources that exist within the proposed project area. the majority of cultural resources found are often determined to not be significant, and thus, no further work is needed on them. however, phase i surveys sometimes identify sites that are potentially eligible for listing on the national register. such a finding would necessitate additional archaeological investigations in the form of phase ii testing, which involves detailed research to determine the significance and integrity of the sites. if the phase ii testing results in finding national register - eligible properties, then the project moves to step 2 in the section 106 process. step 2 involves carefully examining the project to determine whether it will have an effect on the identified historic properties. an effect occurs when \" the undertaking may alter characteristics of the property that may qualify the property for inclusion in the national register. \" if an effect is found, then the federal agency and the shpo consult to determine whether the effect is adverse. an undertaking is considered to have an adverse effect when the effect on the historic property may diminish the integrity of the property ' s location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, or association. if there is an adverse effect, then the agency and the shpo consider ways to minimize the impact of the project on the resource. this is step 3. a decision should be made about what to do with the historic property. there are various ways to minimize the impact to the identified historic property that are discussed in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5188711669092778, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5ed74488-c52f-452b-9646-94b183e50361>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.072261"}
{"text": "do not know what causes non - hodgkin lymphoma and only a few risk factors for non - hodgkin lymphoma are known for sure. genderboys are two to three times more likely to develop non - hodgkin lymphoma before age 20 compared to girls. for every two girls diagnosed, about five boys are diagnosed. race and ethnicitycaucasian children are about 40 % more likely to develop non - hodgkin lymphoma compared to african american children. children with impaired immune system are more likely to develop non - hodgkin lymphoma than other children. for example, children with hiv ( the cause of aids ) or being treated to suppress the immune system after an organ transplant are more susceptible to nhl. children with these conditions are more at risk for non - hodgkin lymphoma, but they account for only a small fraction of cases. also, children with defects in their body \u2019 s ability to repair gene mutations, such as ataxia telangiectasia or fanconi anemia, are at increased risk to develop nhl. participate in research studiesresearchers are studying the causes of non - hodgkin lymphoma. if there is a research study \" open \" in cog, and your child is \" eligible \" you may be asked to participate. it is also possible that you may be asked to participate in more than one study. whether an individual is eligible for a particular study may depend on age, year of diagnosis and other information. researchers usually must limit their study to some of these characteristics to have a scientifically valid study. for example, a study might be restricted to patients diagnosed within certain years so the researchers can locate nearly all eligible families and avoid asking parents to recall events too far in the past. researchers investigating the causes of non - hodgkin lymphoma usually will interview one or both parents by telephone. during the interview, parents are asked questions about their experiences and those of their child. the purpose is to gather information that may or may not influence the risk of cancer. the researchers don \u2019 t know whether these things influence risk. they are asking the questions to find out more. sometimes, the researcher will ask for a small biological sample from you and your child, usually cheek cells, blood or hair. researchers may also ask for samples of dust or water from your home. the researchers use the information from the interviews and the samples to study whether genes or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.503589801288183, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0cf50235-edd6-401f-a8c6-1f07d3ac221a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.091948"}
{"text": "ask for a small biological sample from you and your child, usually cheek cells, blood or hair. researchers may also ask for samples of dust or water from your home. the researchers use the information from the interviews and the samples to study whether genes or exposures such as medications, radon and chemicals alone or together make some people more likely to develop cancer. researchers design various studies to improve treatment and advance the understanding of cancer and its causes. clinical trials are carefully reviewed and must be approved through a formal scientific process before anyone can be enrolled. if there is a research study \u201c open \u201d that your child is \u201c eligible for, \u201d you may be asked to allow your child to participate. it is also possible that your child will be asked to participate in more than one study. whether an individual is eligible for a particular study may depend on age, location of the cancer, the extent of the disease and other information. researchers usually must limit their study to some of these characteristics to have a scientifically valid study. further, researchers must follow exactly the same restrictions throughout the study. if your child is eligible to participate in one or more study, your doctor will discuss these with you during an initial treatment conference ( also called informed consent conference ). the doctor will describe the study, potential risks of participation, and other information you need to decide whether or not you would like your child to participate in the study. you always have the choice to participate or not in research studies. if you do choose to have your child participate in a study, you doctor will explain what type of information you will receive about the results of the study. the overall results of the research study will be published to inform the public and other researchers. no study will publish any information that identifies an individual. visit the clinical trials section of this website to learn more about the various kinds of research studies.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5028182056386972, "token_count": 374, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0cf50235-edd6-401f-a8c6-1f07d3ac221a>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.094110"}
{"text": "the u. s. military originally had a virtual monopoly of certain communications channels. it was one of the few entities to be using internet, and it used many areas of the spectrum untouched by civilian communications. however, with the digital revolution and the expansion of civilians onto the internet and increasing using of the digital spectrum, the military is finding adapting to the deprivation of these bands difficult. last year during the bandwidth auction, the portion of the spectrum used by the b - 2 bomber ' s raytheon apq - 181 radar was accidentally sold to an obscure multinational organization according to military. com. as a result, u. s. taxpayers will be footing the over $ 1b usd bill to replace the radar in the 20 remaining jets. with users demanding video - ready smartphones, high - speed mobile internet, and other emerging applications, the military is finding that the spectrum is quickly disappearing, and it \u2019 s having trouble finding areas for its own sensitive technologies. other expensive losses abound. the joint tactical information distribution system, a costly system used to get awacs targeting data to f - 22 fighter jets has \" limited supportability outside the continental u. s. \" another key issue is the steady creep of civilian communications into the spectrum used for flight - test telemetry. while there are workarounds to gather some additional information, telemetry data remains essential to testing both manned and unmanned aircraft and protecting pilots from failures. ultimately, more data takes more bandwidth - - an unalterable fact - - and to achieve higher frequencies more power is required. this places inherent limitations to the amount of data capable of being communicated over the spectrum. military designers are in a sticky situation as they can ' t compress their data, in many cases, like civilian applications. \" this is not a cell phone, \u201d said darrell ernst. \" you can ' t ask the pilot to wait while you redial. \" ernst works for the mitre corp., a member of a u. s. - european delegation trying to raise international awareness of bandwidth issues, and estimates that by 2020 the air force will need 600 mhz of spectrum for telemetry data. currently the only vacant spot suggested to them is the 5091 and 5150 mhz band. the air force is eager to occupy even this meager 59 mhz offer. states mr. ernst, \" if [ the flight - test community ] can get in there and start using it, we can be established as the primary user and it will be hard for them to throw us out. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.509202418949066, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d2363a84-c07c-40ce-97bf-c210c2e64969>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.191421"}
{"text": "people with high - level spinal cord injuries typically lose control of their arms and legs meaning they can no longer get around without some sort of adaptive assistance device. quadriplegics have long relied on a type of control system for electric wheelchairs called the sip - and - puff system. this type of control system allowed the user to move forward and backwards in an electric wheelchair by sipping a straw or blowing into it. a group of researchers at the georgia institute of technology ( git ) has devised a new method of controlling a power chair for those who no longer had functionality in their arms and legs. the new system uses the patient \u2019 s tongue to control the chair or to control the mouse cursor on a computer screen. maysam ghovanloo, an assistant professor in the school of electrical and computer engineering at git said, \" this clinical trial has validated that the tongue drive system is intuitive and quite simple for individuals with high - level spinal cord injuries to use. trial participants were able to easily remember and correctly issue tongue commands to play computer games and drive a powered wheelchair around an obstacle course with very little prior training. \" the clinical trial was conducted at the shepherd center in atlanta and involved the attachment of a small magnet, roughly the size of a grain of rice, to the tongue of the patient with a tissue adhesive. the magnet was used as a tracer to allow the magnetic field sensors to register its movements. the users of the system wore sensors that look like headphones on the head to track the magnet. the researchers say that the nerve that controls the tongue in patients with high - level spinal injury is typically not affected in the injury. software translates the movement of the magnet into motion for the chair via wireless connectivity with a computer attached to the chair. the chair motion can be controlled in a constant setting that allows the chair user to move along an arc or in a control method for new users that only allows one motion at a time. according to the researchers, the tongue drive system can be used to create as many movement commands as the user can comfortably remember.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5176466044949299, "token_count": 422, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d54afc5d-8f9f-40ed-8c35-ab85096e4658>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.196292"}
{"text": "faeces, electric eels and fruit would power conceptual communities designed by bartlett school of architecture graduate catrina stewart. the city farmhouse project proposes housing communities on stilts above clusters of public toilets, where visitors would be required to donate faeces and urine on arrival. electricity would be generated from methane gas released when the harvested excrement is broken down. faeces and urine could also be used to produce compost and water for community gardens. streetlights would be powered by fruit acid and elevators would be powered by electric eels, kept as pets by residents. other recent architecture graduate projects include an upside - down skyscraper and a tower that shoots artificial bees into the air - see all our stories about this years graduate shows here. here are some more details from catrina stewart : london city farmhouse the city farmhouse project is a prototype that looks at forming new self - sufficient communities, which integrate agriculture and housing within the city of london. the farmhouses and vertical colour gardens will be open to the public, and will rely on its colours and visitors to achieve self - sufficiency. visitors and residents will be expected to make a donation of faeces and urine when they visit the building. these will be used to produce water, compost and electricity for the farmhouses. methane gas released by the waste produced in biogas digesters can then be used directly or to produce electricity. without its public toilets the community would not be able to survive. the more visitors the building can attract the more power, food and water will be produced. new public toilets will be erected across the borough in order to collect human waste to power the farmhouses. new communities will begin to grow around the more popular public toilets, creating new farmhouses. the farmhouse project explores the use of colour to attract people to the building and entice them into using the public toilets by using the same principles used for colour in marketing and advertising. colours are therefore used less for their aesthetics and more for their functional properties. nothing in the farmhouse is disposed of, everything is recycled and reused to fuel something else. old and new technologies are used to harness energy and food from almost anything, animals are no longer used for their meat but rather as a source of energy. cows are farmed for their methane gas, electric eels are kept as pets to power the elevators in the building and fruits are used to to power the street lights.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5414587085358, "token_count": 479, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e59a5ad4-5368-43af-ad68-98add7ed0178>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.247270"}
{"text": "in 1811, joseph fourier, the 43 - year - old prefect of the french district of isere, entered a competition in heat research sponsored by the french academy of sciences. the paper he submitted described a novel analytical technique that we today call the fourier transform, and it won the competition ; but the prize jury declined to publish it, criticizing the sloppiness of fourier ' s reasoning. according to jean - pierre kahane, a french mathematician and current member of the academy, as late as the early 1970s, fourier ' s name still didn ' t turn up in the major french encyclopedia the encyclopdia universalis. now, however, his name is everywhere. the fourier transform is a way to decompose a signal into its constituent frequencies, and versions of it are used to generate and filter cell - phone and wi - fi transmissions, to compress audio, image, and video files so that they take up less bandwidth, and to solve differential equations, among other things. it ' s so ubiquitous that \" you don ' t really study the fourier transform for what it is, \" says laurent demanet, an assistant professor of applied mathematics at mit. \" you take a class in signal processing, and there it is. you don ' t have any choice. \" the fourier transform comes in three varieties : the plain old fourier transform, the fourier series, and the discrete fourier transform. but it ' s the discrete fourier transform ( dft ) that accounts for the fourier revival. in 1965, the computer scientists james cooley and john tukey described an algorithm called the fast fourier transform, which made it much easier to calculate dfts on a computer. all of a sudden, the dft became a practical way to process digital signals. to get a sense of what the dft does, consider an mp3 player plugged into a loudspeaker. the mp3 player sends the speaker audio information as fluctuations in the voltage of an electrical signal. those fluctuations cause the speaker drum to vibrate, which in turn causes air particles to move, producing sound. an audio signal ' s fluctuations over time can be depicted as a graph : the x - axis is time, and the y - axis is the voltage of the electrical signal, or perhaps the movement of the speaker drum or air particles. either way, the signal ends up looking like an erratic wavelike squiggle. but when you listen to the sound produced from that squiggle, you can clearly distinguish all the instruments in a symphony orchestra, playing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.575598744774367, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0b27cdae-7df5-46b7-81b6-0cd8f59a6b4d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.278449"}
{"text": "speaker drum or air particles. either way, the signal ends up looking like an erratic wavelike squiggle. but when you listen to the sound produced from that squiggle, you can clearly distinguish all the instruments in a symphony orchestra, playing discrete notes at the same time. that ' s because the erratic squiggle is, effectively, the sum of a number of much more regular squiggles, which represent different frequencies of sound. \" frequency \" just means the rate at which air molecules go back and forth, or a voltage fluctuates, and it can be represented as the rate at which a regular squiggle goes up and down. when you add two frequencies together, the resulting squiggle goes up where both the component frequencies go up, goes down where they both go down, and does something in between where they ' re going in different directions. the dft does mathematically what the human ear does physically : decompose a signal into its component frequencies. unlike the analog signal from, say, a record player, the digital signal from an mp3 player is just a series of numbers, representing very short samples of a real - world sound : cd - quality digital audio recording, for instance, collects 44, 100 samples a second. if you extract some number of consecutive values from a digital signal - - 8, or 128, or 1, 000 - - the dft represents them as the weighted sum of an equivalent number of frequencies. ( \" weighted \" just means that some of the frequencies count more than others toward the total. ) the application of the dft to wireless technologies is fairly straightforward : the ability to break a signal into its constituent frequencies lets cell - phone towers, for instance, disentangle transmissions from different users, allowing more of them to share the air. the application to data compression is less intuitive. but if you extract an 8x8 block of pixels from an image, each row or column is simply a sequence of eight numbers - - like a digital signal with eight samples. the whole block can thus be represented as the weighted sum of 64 frequencies. if there ' s little variation in color across the block, the weights of most of those frequencies will be zero or near zero. throwing out the frequencies with low weights allows the block to be represented with fewer bits but little loss of fidelity. demanet points out that the dft has plenty of other applications, in areas like spectroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging, and quantum computing. but ultimately, he says, \" it ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6333165060652564, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0b27cdae-7df5-46b7-81b6-0cd8f59a6b4d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.280532"}
{"text": "pastels paper \u2013 a variety of sizes, shapes, textures, colours ( sugar, crepe, tissue, card, paper plates ) used cards and magazines sellotape, glue, insulating tape different fabrics, buttons, sequins, collage materials a water tray that allows 3 or 4 children play together a sand tray that allows a number of children play together jugs, funnels, water wheels, water pump, sieve, moulds, spades, bucket / container items that float and sink assortment of items that are the same but different ( stones of different shapes, weights and sizes ) swings, slides ( learn about movement, speed, force, push - pull ), bikes and trikes ( direction and speed ), sand and water area ( volume, displacement kites ( wind, velocity ), skittles ( number, force ) taking and making opportunities to help children think logically and solve problems equipping the setting both indoors and outdoors with interesting open ended materials that offer possibilities for the children introducing mathematical language in very real contexts so that children have plenty of experience in understanding concepts of up and down ; in and out ; over and under ; more and less and so on allowing time and space for children to think, process and ask questions encouraging thinking skills by asking real and relevant questions, in constructing, the question can be asked \u2018 how many wheels do you need to build the truck? \u2019 for maths week 2012 we have been sharing ideas on promoting the following maths concepts in your service \u2013 number, pattern, shape and space, and measuring and comparisons. we hope you find these find these useful in supporting positive attitudes and confidence in maths for the children in your care. a very big thank you to the children and staff at the abc club in meath, and all the learning story participants, for the use of their photo \u2019 s, video \u2019 s and wonderful stories. when early years educators have a sound knowledge of mathematics and the benefits of play, and the connections between them, there is great potential for early childhood experiences that extend young children \u2019 s mathematical understandings and attitudes. last but not least, an important part of mathematical play is that it should be fun! \u201c we can influence young children \u2019 s keenness to learn mathematics by making the tasks we do of interest to them \u2026 by showing that we really think maths is important and fun \u201d 1 1montague - smith, ann. mathematics in nursery education. london : david fulton publishers, 2nd ed. 2003", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5601102271448193, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:846c8561-96f6-4633-b2bf-446b5139429a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.294056"}
{"text": "the original intent of this month \u2019 s column was to discuss fiber use in the smart grid, but i have found it is hard to define the smart grid. some organizations involved in it are even dropping that name for \u201c intelligent grid \u201d or something similar. one of the fiber optics association directors has been working with a major utility on a training program, and one - third of the program will be about fiber optics. the rest encompasses all the electrical issues involved in generating and delivering reliable electrical power to users and how they actually consume electrical power. fiber optics are not new to utilities. when i was in the fiber optic test equipment business in the 1980s, my first utility customer was nashville electric service. the utility was using multimode fiber to connect sensors and control equipment in substations over fiber to avoid the electrical interference and potential shock risk encountered with copper cables. i don \u2019 t spend much time talking about sensors, but fiber optics have been used in sensors for high - voltage and large current circuits since the mid - 1980s. the sensors are perfect for utilities as they operate by simply clamping them around the transmission wires and running fibers to monitoring equipment in the substation. the sensors also are capable of measuring large voltages and currents and have fast response time, all important for monitoring and controlling the utility grid. a few years later, utilities and long - distance telephone companies ( telcos ) began cooperating on long - distance fiber optic links. utilities had a valuable asset : rights - of - way, which telcos coveted. but the utilities needed communications between their facilities for voice communications and signals to control their power grid. on the other hand, telcos needed fiber optic links for their long - distance networks. by working together, the utility and the telcos both got their communications links and profited from the cooperation. a major part of the growth of utility usage of fiber optics was optical power ground wire ( opgw ), a high - voltage transmission cable with optical fiber in the center of it. it is, indeed, the perfect example of one of the advantages of optical fiber, its immunity to electrical interference. in one cable installation, power transmission and communications were both covered. today, practically every large power transmission system uses opgw. for example, the sunrise powerlink \u2014 san diego gas & electric \u2019 s ( sdg & e ) 117 - mile system under construction in southern california \u2014 is using opgw with 96 fibers inside the wire. the installation of opgw requires the skills of an electrical lineman capable of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5613647429843293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a65b79ca-8203-45a5-851b-6c394c546972>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.301071"}
{"text": "san diego gas & electric \u2019 s ( sdg & e ) 117 - mile system under construction in southern california \u2014 is using opgw with 96 fibers inside the wire. the installation of opgw requires the skills of an electrical lineman capable of splicing high - voltage wires and the skills of an outside plant fiber optic installer to splice the fibers. most splices are done on the ground, and splice closures are suspended from towers unless they are terminated inside regeneration huts or vaults along the right - of - way. besides sensing, substation controls and long - distance communications, a utility needs to monitor and control the power directly to the customer. and today, at least here in southern california where i live, that involves not only delivering power to the customer but feeding the output of many customers \u2019 photovoltaic solar - power systems ( like my 2, 500 - watt systems on the roof ) back into the grid. that means conversions to smart meters are another important piece of the power grid puzzle. some utilities, such as sdg & e, are using wireless meters that can be read by a truck driving by. others have decided to connect customers with fiber, creating their own fiber to the home networks and either offering broadband services or using their network to deliver services for others. in some areas, this entails cooperation with telcos and catv system operators and, in others, outright warfare. chattanooga, tenn., is perhaps the best example of a utility broadband network. there you can get broadband at gigabit speeds, a first in the united states, beating out google \u2019 s kansas city network. the broadband network helped chattanooga convince volkswagen to locate a new plant there, creating thousands of new jobs. when it comes to the smart grid, it \u2019 s impossible to generalize about the applications \u2014 or sometimes even define it. however, we can say it is a big field in the united states alone, with more than 2, 000 electrical utilities combining their power into the national grid, and practically every communications technology is involved. virtually every aspect of fiber optic technology is involved also - \u2014 sensing, communications and control, using all types of fiber in almost every application you can imagine. for either the fiber tech or the electrical lineman interested in the smart grid, it is likely that there are areas where your expertise is required and many others where you need to learn more. hayes is a vdv writer and educator and the president of the fiber optic association. find him at www. jimhayes. com", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5523898598847803, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a65b79ca-8203-45a5-851b-6c394c546972>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.302245"}
{"text": "capital chips ( part 2 ) this lesson printed from : posted july 30, 2002 author : council for economic education technology staff posted : july 30, 2002 updated : june 10, 2009 through the use of a historical timeline of the capital investments made by the company the resulting benefits will be examined. the benefits from the capital investments of herr foods, inc. will be related to their effect on the standard of living. then students will visit one of three websites, select an innovation / invention of their choice to analyze in terms of its impact on productivity and the standard of living. finally, the teacher will select one invention / innovation from a designated website and have students analyze it in the same economic terms as the focus of this lesson and write an essay summarizing the innovation / invention. productivity is a measurement of output resulting from the use of productive resources or inputs. it refers to the amount of output per unit of input over a period of time. an increase in productivity may mean producing the same amount with fewer inputs, producing more output with the same inputs, or a combination of the two. companies look for ways to maintain and increase the level of productivity in order to remain competitive while maintaining profits. one way of accomplishing this is through investing in capital goods such as machines, tools, and new ideas used in the production process. technological improvements in capital goods are a leading cause of increase in productivity. after completing the following activities, your students will develop a better understanding of the economics associated with productivity. in the first activity your students will explore the concepts that are connected to productivity. in the second activity your students will investigate the herr ' s potato chips, a company that is constantly working at incorporating new techniques to satisfy the customer. finally, in the third activity your students will use the internet to search for inventors and inventions. their task is to find an invention they would like to learn more about and learn how that invention improves its environment. after your students complete all three parts to this lesson they will find a series of questions that will explore what they have learned from capital chips about productivity. part 2 introduction : the students are going to take a tour of the herr ' s foods inc in this lesson. herr ' s potato chips have been on the market for the past 50 years. the company is constantly working at incorporating new techniques to satisfy the customer. the students ' job will be to see how these new techniques improve the company and benefits the customer. - point out to the students that they will learn about some actual investments in capital resources that have increased", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5329558570498341, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d14c9d0a-83e8-460a-aff1-62972ca1c865>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.306256"}
{"text": "working at incorporating new techniques to satisfy the customer. the students ' job will be to see how these new techniques improve the company and benefits the customer. - point out to the students that they will learn about some actual investments in capital resources that have increased productivity for one company in particular. they will learn how herr ' s foods, inc. increased its productivity over the years through a variety of investments in capital resources. - divide the students into 10 groups. assign each group a year ( or point on the herr ' s foods timeline ). - direct all groups to click on the first entry of the timeline and read it so that each group understands the beginnings of the herr ' s potato chip factory business. - direct the students to click on the point on the herr ' s timeline that corresponds to the date ( s ) that they were assigned. - tell the students to answer the following questions using the information they obtain from the timeline for the year assigned. - what was the capital investment, new idea, or innovation that occurred during this time frame on the herr ' s timeline? - how did this change increase the productivity of the herr ' s potato chip business? - what was the impact of this change on the consumer, producer, and worker? - direct all groups to click on the last entry of the herr ' s foods timeline and explore it so that each group has an understanding of the progress herr ' s foods, inc. has made. - at the end of this part of the lesson involving herr ' s foods lesson ( or at the end of the entire lesson ), plan to have a variety of herr ' s products for the students to enjoy. the students have now applied the concepts from the previous activity to a real - life business. next the students will get a closer look at an innovation or invention, to see how they can be used in a business.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5159556216532946, "token_count": 376, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d14c9d0a-83e8-460a-aff1-62972ca1c865>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.307026"}
{"text": "\" inexactness \" or the \" uncertainty \" principle, as formulated by physicist werner heisenberg, is an end often seen as the beginning. it reflects t. s. eliot ' s observation : \" what she gives, gives with such supple confusions that the giving famishes the craving \". in 1927, heisenberg showed that uncertainty is inherent in quantum mechanics. it is impossible to simultaneously measure certain properties \u2014 position and momentum. in the quantum world, matter can take the form of either particle or waves. fundamental elements are neither particles nor waves, but can behave as either and are merely different theoretical ways of picturing the quantum world. the profound beauty of inexactness transects science, mathematics, method, philosophy, linguistics and faith. inexactness marks an end to certainty. in seeking to measure one property more precisely and accurately, the ability to measure the other property is undermined. the act of measurement negates elements of our knowledge of the system. it undermines scientific determinism, implying that human knowledge about the world is always incomplete, uncertain and highly contingent. inexactness challenges causality. as heisenberg observed : \" ' if we know the present, then we can predict the future ', it is not the consequences, but the premise that is false. as a matter of principle we cannot know all determining elements of the present \". inexactness questions methodology. experiments can only prove what they are designed to prove. inexactness is a theory based on the practical constraints of measurement. inexactness and quantum mechanics challenge faith as well as concepts of truth and order. they imply a probabilistic world of matter, where we cannot know anything with certainty but only as a possibility. it removes the newtonian elements of space and time from any underlying reality. in the quantum world, mechanics are understood as a probability without any causal explanation. albert einstein refused to accept that positions in space - time could never be completely known and quantum probabilities did not reflect any underlying causes. he did not reject the theory but the lack of reason for an event. writing to max born, he famously stated : \" i, at any rate, am convinced that he [ god ] does not throw dice. \" but as stephen hawking later remarked in terms that heisenberg would have recognised : \" not only does god play dice, but \u2026 he sometimes throws them where they cannot be seen. \" allusive and subtle, the power", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6573948549737675, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed736ee9-2a75-4454-81c7-081d914289c1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.330450"}
{"text": "throw dice. \" but as stephen hawking later remarked in terms that heisenberg would have recognised : \" not only does god play dice, but \u2026 he sometimes throws them where they cannot be seen. \" allusive and subtle, the power of inexactness draws on its metaphorical property which has allowed it to penetrate diverse fields such as art theory, financial economics and even popular culture. at one level, heisenberg ' s uncertainty principle is taken to mean the act of measuring something changes what is observed. but at another level, intentional or unintentionally, werner heisenberg is saying something about the nature of the entire system \u2014 the absence of absolute truths, the lack of certainty and the limits to our knowledge. inexactness is linked with different philosophical constructs. nineteenth - century danish philosopher s\u00f8ren kierkegaard differentiated between objective truths and subjective truths. objective truths are filtered and altered by our subjective truths, recalling the interaction between observer and event central to heisenberg ' s theorem. inexactness is related to linguistic philosophies. in the tractatus logico - philosophicus, ludwig wittgenstein anticipates inexactness arguing that the structure of language provides the limits of thought and what can be said meaningfully. the deep ambiguity of inexactness manifests itself in other ways : the controversy over the term itself and heisenberg ' s personal history. heisenberg ' s principle is various referred to as ungenauigkeit ( meaning inexactness ), unscharfe ( blurred or lacking clarity ) or unbestimmtheit ( indeterminate ). in translation, the ambiguity and differences in meaning are accentuated. playwright michael franyn suggested : indeterminability. it was not until the publication of the 1930 english - language version of heisenberg ' s textbook, the physical principles of the quantum theory that the term uncertainty ( unsicherheit ) was used and widely adopted. in 1941, during the second world war, werner heisenberg and niels bohr, the danish physicist and his former teacher, met in occupied denmark. in michael franyn ' s 1998 play copenhagen, margrethe, bohr ' s wife, poses the essential question, which is debated in the play : \" why did he [ heisenberg ] come to copenhagen? \" the play repeats their meeting three times, each with different outcomes. as heisenberg, the character", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6562255205296045, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed736ee9-2a75-4454-81c7-081d914289c1>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.332510"}
{"text": "+ 47 67 57 21 00 + 46 21 470 35 50 cfd tutorial \u2013 rigid body modeling if you want to get started with the rigid body modeling you should be aware of that the modeling setup, mesh displacement and rigid body motions are depended on the complexity of your system. maybe a mesh displacement can be restricted to one domain, or a subdomain with sliding mesh is sufficient to model the rigid body? we will help you with these questions and will further recommend that you make a sketch of your system to decide which parts are needed to be moved, this will make the modeling of domains and interfaces in designmodeler easier. this tutorial will briefly show three different ways of how to use the rigid body 6dof solver in cfx v. 13. we hope this will be a good start if you want to begin using the final release of the cfx rigid body solver. a rigid body is a solid object that moves through a fluid without itself deforming. its motion is dictated by the fluid forces and torques acting upon it, plus any external forces as gravity and external torque. a rigid body is defined by a collection of 2d regions that form its faces. the rigid body itself does not need to be meshed. mesh motion is used to move the mesh on the rigid body faces in accordance with the solution of the rigid body equations of motion. 3 examples of the rigid body solver will be presented in the following tutorial. the tutorial is not described in detail and will only work as a guidance of how to set up a simulation that includes a rigid body. - introduction to cfd with cfx rigid body example 1 the first example shows a free drop of a thin plate or hatch. the hatch is fixed at one axis and will have a rotational motion. we have modeled a simple plate and generated a surrounding fluid domain. the hatch is enclosed in a cylindrical domain to allow rotational motion of model. see illustration of the domains in figure 1. the 2d wall boundaries which constitute the hatch surface define the rigid body. see close view in figure 2. figure 1. the computational domain consists of a box and a cylinder. the cylindrical domain encloses the rigid body, i. e. the hatch which is fixed at the x - axis. the walls, which constitute the hatch is visualized in green. a rotation of the modeled hatch will consequently rotate the cylinder. figure 2. the walls will define the rigid body. the hatch itself is not a domain. the first thing we will do is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.557206275389358, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:63a5bcac-e9d0-4895-bf37-c8b6a33cc582>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.339260"}
{"text": "walls, which constitute the hatch is visualized in green. a rotation of the modeled hatch will consequently rotate the cylinder. figure 2. the walls will define the rigid body. the hatch itself is not a domain. the first thing we will do is to insert a rigid body dialog box. to model the rigid body you need to specify the mass and the absolute values of the mass momentum of inertia for the rigid body with respect to a corresponding coordinate system - see figure 3. furthermore, you will need to define external force, torque or gravity if it is present. this can be set under the dynamic setting tab. mark of for the correct translational and rotational degree of freedom. a typical setup for a thin plate is shown in figure 3 and 4. you can read about the rigid body user interface and the definition of these settings in the ansys v. 13 help guide. figure 3. you need to set the total mass of the rigid body, and the location, in this case the plate walls named body. in addition you need to calculate the mass moment of inertia of the rigid body object. figure 4. define external forces. gravity force is always present in drop cases. for this case the thin plate will only have one degree of freedom, which is a rotational degree about the x - axis. when you have created your rigid body you can go on and define the fluid domain. in basic settings shown in figure 5 you will need to set mesh deformation to region of motion specified. this is needed only in domains where the motion of the rigid body will have an influence on the mesh boundaries. figure 5. in the basic settings tab of the rotating domain, region of motion specified needs to be activated. for this case we have divided the computational domain into two parts. the inner cylindrical domain will undergo mesh deformation when the rigid body moves, while the outer rectangular domain will remain steady, the cylindrical domain will therefore be defined as a subdomain, see figure 6 and figure 7. the remaining now is to define how the 2d boundaries shall act. figure 6. define the cylindrical domain as a subdomain. the interface between the rotating and stationary domain will be handled by the sliding mesh feature. figure 7. the subdomain will follow the rigid body motion. the modeling of mesh deformation is an important component for solving problems with moving boundaries or moving subdomains. the motion might be imposed, or might be an implicit part of a coupled fluid - structure simulation. for our case with a falling plate we want", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5563572429441841, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:63a5bcac-e9d0-4895-bf37-c8b6a33cc582>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.340333"}
{"text": "the modeling of mesh deformation is an important component for solving problems with moving boundaries or moving subdomains. the motion might be imposed, or might be an implicit part of a coupled fluid - structure simulation. for our case with a falling plate we want the mesh interface of the subdomain to slide on the interface to the rectangular and steady domain. to prevent the nodes on the subdomain interface to move relative to the local boundary frame we need to set the mesh motion of the interface to stationary. see figure 8. figure 8. the interface nodes will move relative to the local boundary frame. the mesh motion of the 2d wall boundaries which form the hatch surface, i. e. the rigid body, will follow the rigid body solution. the same setting will be applied to the subdomain as well, refer to figure 7. no special action is needed to set up the stationary domain, i. e. the rectangular domain. this domain can be modeled as usual. no consideration to mesh motion or the rigid body solver is necessary. set a proper time step for the transient analysis and you can start solving a rigid body motion. a movie of the falling hatch is shown below. rigid body example 2 in the previous example we presented a very simple case to describe the rigid body solver ; one degree of freedom and mesh displacement with stationary nodes. the problem was solved by sliding mesh and ggi at the interfaces. in the next example we will model a buoy at the water surface by use of the rigid body solver. the modeling concept is shown in figure 9. figure 9. waves that are introduced in the domain will further influence the displacement of the buoy. as for the hatch you \u2019 ll need to insert a rigid body and define its dynamics. see example in figure 10. the buoy will have tree degrees of freedom, translation in x - and y direction and rotational about z - axis \u2013 see the dynamics definition in figure 11. figure 10. the mass and moment of inertia of the buoy needs to be defined. figure 11. definition of degrees of freedom of the buoy. for this case we have two distinct mesh domains, however, we will introduce only one fluid domain. in the domain basic setting tab the multiphase of water and air is created and mesh deformation is activated. the free surface multiphase is modeled as usual. the buoy will be moved in several directions which mean that the mesh nodes will be displaced. to allow mesh deformation you need to define the mesh motion on each", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5490040988960416, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:63a5bcac-e9d0-4895-bf37-c8b6a33cc582>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.341315"}
{"text": "created and mesh deformation is activated. the free surface multiphase is modeled as usual. the buoy will be moved in several directions which mean that the mesh nodes will be displaced. to allow mesh deformation you need to define the mesh motion on each boundary. the modeled domain is shown in figure12. figure 12. mesh domains. the buoy surface is set to follow the rigid body motion, which means that the nodes will not be locally displaced. the mesh motion on the fluid fluid interfaces between the two mesh domains are set to conservative interface flux - by using this condition there is no constraint that attempts to keep the meshes on either side of the interface together. the motion of nodes in all domains adjacent to the interface influence, and are influenced by, the motion of the nodes on the interface. the definitions are shown in figure 13 and figure 14. figure 13. the 6dof solver will predict the buoy behavior. the nodes will not be locally displaced. figure 14. the nodes on the domain interface will be displaced, this will in term skew the elements. the mesh motion on the wall, symmetry and pressure outlets can be set to unspecified \u2013 no constraints on mesh motion are applied to nodes. their motion is determined by the motion set on other regions of the mesh. * a transient simulation is prescribed and the motion of the rigid body and the resulting mesh displacement is visualized in in the following movie. * a wave is introduced in the simulation \u2013 for this case the wave is induced by a specified displacement of walls. a description of how to model this displacement can be found in cfx v130 tutorial 32. rigid body example 3 a third example is to put constrain on the rigid body and mesh motion. as for the first example you may also here create a subdomain, see figure 15. the subdomain will in this case follow the rigid body motion. figure 15. the buoy domain is defined as a subdomain in this rigid body example. furthermore, we will have to change the setting of the fluid fluid interface to oppose sliding mesh between the interfaces. the mesh motion of the fluid interfaces are set as rigid body motion, thus the mesh nodes of the subdomain will not move relative to the rectangular domain. the motion constrains of the interfaces are defined in figure 16 and 17. figure 16. the motion constrains of the interface in the rectangular domain. figure 17. mesh motion and motion constraints of the interface of the subdomain. the resulting buoy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5431857977963723, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:63a5bcac-e9d0-4895-bf37-c8b6a33cc582>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.342433"}
{"text": "opposed by large sections of society. as the late christopher lasch pointed out in the true and only heaven, one of the early labor movement ' s goals was to stop and reverse the move toward \" wage slavery \". karl marx is often quoted in that matter, but his archenemy, the anarchist proudhon held similar views, even if he favored a social organization based upon small property and cooperatives. both in europe and america, the abolition of the wage system was a major theme in early socialism. as the artisan model became restricted to a few professionals and farmers became a tiny minority, this theme lost its strength, however. union ' s focus shifted to getting higher wages, better career prospects and working conditions. with the sweeping reforms enacted by european governments after wwii, the status of wage laborer became more and more comfortable, since, along with a relatively high income, it offered some security and the ability to plan long term. it had indeed become costly for a company to fire somebody without a very good reasons \u2013 the unions were ever watchful \u2013 and in france at least lay offs were subject to a prior authorization from the state. the result was that wage labor became synonymous with job security and the ability to own a house and decently feed one ' s family. this system began to unravel after the first oil shock, as companies looked for workarounds, so they could dispose of unneeded workers. of course they found them \u2013 - ironically while in france a so - called socialist held the presidency. they began to resort to fixed term contracts and interim workers. large firms, such as my home town ' s shipyard shifted their manpower to contract manufacturers, retaining only core employees. ironically, but not without reason, this move out of \" wage slavery \" was, and is, as bitterly resisted by unions and left wing parties as the spread of the wage system had been in the xixth century. the ongoing collapse of the world economy has triggered a new step in this process. many small businesses have gone under and most large companies are struggling. my home town ' s shipyard, as a contractor for which my girlfriend worked, is starved for work and is down to laying off a significant part of its core employees. the result was that a lot of people found themselves jobless \u2013 less than in america since a large part of the french manpower works for the state or one of its subsidiaries and is essentially unfirable, but quite a lot nevertheless. those people \u2013 the majority of whom with very specialized skills \u2013 - turned", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.509069662128518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c06bad1e-50fd-48eb-90f7-cf737cf372ba>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.381238"}
{"text": "sea ice is frozen seawater that floats on the ocean surface. blanketing millions of square kilometers, sea ice forms and melts with the polar seasons, affecting both human activity and biological habitat. in the arctic, some sea ice persists year after year, whereas almost all southern ocean or antarctic sea ice is \" seasonal ice, \" meaning it melts away and reforms annually. while both arctic and antarctic ice are of vital importance to the marine mammals and birds for which they are habitats, sea ice in the arctic appears to play a more crucial role in regulating climate. because they are composed of ice originating from glaciers, icebergs are not considered sea ice. most of the icebergs infesting north atlantic shipping lanes originate from greenland glaciers. global sea ice extent and concentration : what sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice sea ice regulates exchanges of heat, moisture and salinity in the polar oceans. it insulates the relatively warm ocean water from the cold polar atmosphere except where cracks, or leads, in the ice allow exchange of heat and water vapor from ocean to atmosphere in winter. the number of leads determines where and how much heat and water are lost to the atmosphere, which may affect local cloud cover and precipitation. the seasonal sea ice cycle affects both human activities and biological habitats. for example, companies shipping raw materials such as oil or coal out of the arctic must work quickly during periods of low ice concentration, navigating their ships towards openings in the ice and away from treacherous multi - year ice that has accumulated over several years. many arctic mammals, such as polar bears, seals, and walruses, depend on the sea ice for their habitat. these species hunt, feed, and breed on the ice. studies of polar bear populations indicate that declining sea ice is likely to decrease polar bear numbers, perhaps substantially ( stirling and parkinson 2006 ). ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. sea ice typically covers about 14 to 16 million square kilometers in late winter in the arctic and 17 to 20 million square kilometers in the antarctic southern ocean. the seasonal decrease is much larger in the antarctic, with only about three to four million square kilometers remaining at summer ' s end, compared to approximately seven to nine million square kilometers in the arctic. these maps provide examples of late winter and late summer ice cover in the two hemispheres. monitoring sea ice passive microwave satellite data represent the best method to monitor sea ice because of the ability", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5470071136463353, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b5246854-fe77-4d8a-96ae-2c3df064ab3d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.401735"}
{"text": "compared to approximately seven to nine million square kilometers in the arctic. these maps provide examples of late winter and late summer ice cover in the two hemispheres. monitoring sea ice passive microwave satellite data represent the best method to monitor sea ice because of the ability to show data through most clouds and during darkness. passive microwave data allow scientists to monitor the inter - annual variations and trends in sea ice cover. observations of polar oceans derived from these instruments are essential for tracking the ice edge, estimating sea ice concentrations, and classifying sea ice types. in addition to the practical use of this information for shipping and transport, these data add to the meteorological knowledge base required for better understanding climate. decline in arctic sea ice extent passive microwave satellite data reveal that, since 1979, winter arctic ice extent has decreased about 3. 6 percent per decade ( meier et al. 2006 ). antarctic ice extent is increasing ( cavalieri et al. 2003 ), but the trend is small. satellite data from the smmr and ssm / i instruments have been combined with earlier observations from ice charts and other sources to yield a time series of arctic ice extent from the early 1900s onward. while the pre - satellite records are not as reliable, their trends are in good general agreement with the satellite record and indicate that arctic sea ice extent has been declining since at least the early 1950s. in recent years, satellite data have indicated an even more dramatic reduction in regional ice cover. in september 2002, sea ice in the arctic reached a record minimum ( serreze et al. 2003 ), 4 percent lower than any previous september since 1978, and 14 percent lower than the 1979 - 2000 mean. in the past, a low ice year would be followed by a rebound to near - normal conditions, but 2002 was followed by two more low - ice years, both of which almost matched the 2002 record. taking these three years into account, the september ice extent trend for 1979 - 2004 declined by 7. 7 percent per decade ( stroeve et al. 2005 ). the year 2005 set a new record, dropping the estimated decline in end - of - summer arctic sea ice to approximately 8 percent per decade. although sea ice did not set a new record low in 2006, it did fall below normal for the fifth consecutive year. in 2007, sea ice broke all prior satellite records, reaching a record low a month before the end of melt season. through 2007, the september decline trend is now over 10 percent per decade. ( for current sea ice trends, visit nsidc", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5066819013290456, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b5246854-fe77-4d8a-96ae-2c3df064ab3d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.402788"}
{"text": "the first 2 - 3 years of life are so formative that the most fundamental and elementary ways that someone experiences and interacts with the world are set. personality changes throughout life, but less and less so. how the child deals with separation from the mother and his or her own sense of self lays a foundation for all later development. what qualities of being are required to move through the stages of development for the first 2 - 3 years of life? and what happens when some of these qualities are not fully present? basically, according to depth psychology the infant starts on a \u2018 merged with the mother state \u2019 for the first 6 months or so. from there the baby begins a process of separating and individuating from the mother until 2 - 3 years old. the merged state that the child starts with is like a childhood enlightenment. there is little sense of difference or separation. it has a blissful quality that is sometimes interrupted by physical and emotional needs. how these needs are dealt with sets an initial and immediate sense of how the world is basically or bodily. safe, nourishing or not, at a very basic or bodily level. the dominant quality and the quality required in this early stage is a type of blended merged love, where the mother \u2019 s psyche and body are shared with the infant. this makes entry into the world of conditions safe, gradual and generally pleasant. if this merged love is not present or infrequently present or somehow dimmed then the baby will experience and begin to perceive the world in a less safe and positive way at the deep level of the body. next the child begins to differentiate themselves from the mother. the quality of strength is key here because he / she is separating themselves from the merged mother. strength slowly begins to take over as the primary quality of experience, instead of the merged type of love. ideally this is not strength in a contracted form, rather it is a bright uplifting yet relaxed feeling of capability. if the merged state did not go well ( needs were not met ) then it is likely that ego has already taken on a more rigid and defensive structure. this naturally blocks out the natural feelings of goodness of reality because the child is more self focused toward a false self. it also sets the stage for the strength, which is needed to differentiate, to arise in an \u2018 egoic condition \u2019. additionally, trauma at this differentiation stage can cause the more rigid, being - blocking form of ego. trauma at these early periods is particularly damaging for obvious reasons. fundamental issues ( around separation,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5227663862271013, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cacb952f-f72e-4b60-9dec-195b705db305>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.410537"}
{"text": "differentiate, to arise in an \u2018 egoic condition \u2019. additionally, trauma at this differentiation stage can cause the more rigid, being - blocking form of ego. trauma at these early periods is particularly damaging for obvious reasons. fundamental issues ( around separation, survival, etc. ) can centralize themselves in the blueprint for living which is being formed! but let \u2019 s assume things go ideally in the merged state and differentiation happens ideally ; the baby feels strong, able and happy. the next stage involves experiencing limitation, the limitations of his / her little body in the conditional world. if the mother, and to a lesser degree the father ( most commonly ) deals with the child \u2019 s attempt to remerge in a healthy supportive way, that both loves the child but encourages them to venture out strongly, then a quality of strength and ability will be added to a quality of merged safe love at the deep level of body. if the attempt to remerge is not dealt with well the child will end up too merged with the parent or too separate and independent. if the parent clings to the child the child will stay more merged. if the parent rejects the child, then the child will be more separate. in either case the love quality of being or the strength quality of being is diminished to a type of enmeshment or separateness. in a typical \u201c softy \u201d or \u201c meany \u201d personality style. next the child individualizes and develops their own sense of individuality and personality. the primary quality here is individuality. this individuality is not based on egoic separateness ideally, but instead forms a unique personality that is fully connected to being. any number of things can happen in this stage and cause the personality to become more contracted and further away from being. the contracted form of the individuality quality is something like the personality of ego ( often called the false self ). around four years old the child enters an oedipal phase where each child develops a sense of their \u2018 boyness \u2019 or \u2018 girlness \u2019 and what this means. the child develops the ability to polarize love, and years later to romanticize love. this is furthered by the biological development. freud was absolutely correct that a sexual self sense begins to form when a child realizes their gender and begins to integrate it into their personality. this sexual self sense, unless addressed, will underlie all romantic connections to follow. of course, it will change and further events will influence one \u2019 s romantic ability, but one \u2019 s basic sense of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5527488040811013, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cacb952f-f72e-4b60-9dec-195b705db305>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.411542"}
{"text": "this release is available in french. your blood and the level of a hormone in your spit could reveal if you ' re on the point of burnout, according to research undertaken by dr. sonia lupien and robert - paul juster of the centre for studies on human stress of louis - h. lafontaine hospital and the university of montreal. in addition to professional and personal suffering, burnout puts distressed workers at further risk of physical and psychological problems if ignored. this is significant, as burnout, clinical depression, or anxiety related to the workplace affects at least 10 % of north americans and europeans, according to estimates prepared by the international labor organization. \" we hypothesized that healthy workers with chronic stress and with mild burnout symptoms would have worse physiological dysregulations and lower cortisol levels \u2013 a profile consistent with burnout, \" juster explained. cortisol is a stress hormone involved in our bodies stress response and naturally as part of our body ' s daily rhythm. cortisol levels are often high in people suffering from depression, while it tends to be low in cases of burnout. too much cortisol can be as bad as too little when it comes to both mental and physical health. chronic stress and misbalanced cortisol levels can exert a kind of domino effect on connected biological systems. the term \" allostatic load \" represents the physiological problems or ' wear and tear ' that ensue in these different systems related to risks for diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and immune problems. by looking at various factors such as insulin, sugar, cholesterol, blood pressure, and inflammation, an allostatic load index can be constructed and then used to detect problems before they occur. \" the strength of the allostatic load model is its flexible inclusion of numerous biological systems that get strained by chronic stress. complementary use of saliva samples and validated questionnaires allows us to go beyond measuring susceptibilities to, say, metabolic syndromes or heart problems, but also into the realm of mental health, \" juster said. the results of this first pilot study were obtained by testing thirty middle - aged participants. in addition to undergoing routine blood measures that assessed allostatic load, participants were instructed to collect saliva at home and during a laboratory paradigm. they also filled out questionnaires related to their current stress levels as well as symptoms of depression and burnout. this research is part of a greater effort to develop personalized medicine in this field", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5161390218307014, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e9adff26-a71c-47ec-8864-5d7a24600bc1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.416733"}
{"text": "many flying fears stem from a lack of understanding of aerodynamics, and how the aircraft stays in the air. in this article i \u2019 m going to explain the basics for you, to help you gain more knowledge on the subject and overcome your fear of flying. it \u2019 s a common misconception that the aircraft \u2019 s engines keep the plane in the air, whereas it \u2019 s actually simple aerodynamics at work. a huge jet aircraft ( such as a 435ton boeing 747 ) can glide to safety with no engine power. the probability of losing all engines on a commercial aeroplane is minuscule to say the least \u2013 but even in the unlikely event of it happening, you can still land perfectly safely. so, why have engines? the engines simply keep the aircraft in the air for a longer period of time \u2013 and provide the necessary thrust to take - off. the basics of aerodynamics are split into these four forces ; lift \u2013 thrust \u2013 weight \u2013 drag for a aircraft to fly straight, and at a constant speed, then thrust must be equal to drag, and lift must be equal to weight. sounds slightly technical i know! the lift is mainly provided by the wings, and it \u2019 s the lift that keeps the aircraft in the air. whereas thrust is important to reach your destination, it only acts as a controller of speed ( by compensating for the drag ). if thrust is less than the drag, the aircraft will slow, and descend. but, the wings are still providing lift, which in turn is keeping the plane airborne, therefore, the descent will be slow. that is the basic explanation of how a huge jet aircraft can glide \u2013 even with complete engine loss. air is a liquid? not quite.. air behaves in a very similar way to water \u2013 and the mathematical relationships are identical. therefore, flying is very similar to swimming. in fact, many aerodynamic tests are carried out underwater. i hope that all makes sense. the reason i \u2019 m sharing this with you, is that your flying fear may be related to the fear of the aircraft falling out of the sky. now you can be rest assured that this can not happen \u2013 even in the highly unlikely event of a complete loss of engine power. i will be covering the excellent reliablility of modern jet engines in future articles, so stay tuned. i \u2019 ll also be covering aerodynamics in more detail soon \u2026 \u2026", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5026536879021802, "token_count": 487, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:02d35fe7-91c2-4fa0-a2e4-0852999ecd20>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.444107"}
{"text": "| when in doubt, tell the truth. - mark twain | ( january 19, 1994 ) from russia and from america comes a new information service called \" friends and partners \" - - one of the first information systems jointly developed by citizens of these two nations. it is hoped that it will contribute towards better understanding between our nations by providing instruction on our countries and cultures, by providing a common base of information about issues affecting relations between our countries, and by providing a common ' meeting place ' where folks can find and communicate with each other. if you wish to visit, the following uniform resource locator ( url ) will allow you to connect to the world wide web server : what are the potential uses? scientists should be able to use the service to find information about funding opportunities and exchange programs, access various databases and library resources, and locate potential colleagues and co - workers. teachers and educators at all levels should be able to find and contribute interesting and up - to - date material to assist in their instruction - - making their courses more ' alive ' and more pertinent to real world issues. folks in business should be able to learn about the economic environment and opportunities in both countries as well as the rules and laws pertaining to conducting business. artists from all fields ( and their patrons ) should be able to learn about, meet and work with each other. and people from all walks of life should be able to learn more about these two nations - - so closed off from one another for so many years. the primary motivation of this service is to help introduce new friendships and partnerships between our peoples. it hopes to build upon the excellent work already being accomplished by our governments and by the various groups, centers, and institutes who have been working for so many years towards this same goal of cooperation and friendship. perhaps the only difference from other efforts is the intention to use the world wide web on the internet as the method of communicating information. the world wide web was chosen because of its ability to handle mixed media ( text, graphics, audio, etc. ), the excellent graphic and non - graphic browsers available for free on the internet, and its ability to ' integrate ' information from all of the best internet - based tools and utilities - - listservers, gophers, wais indexes, ftp archives, etc. if you do not have a www browser, you can use our ' friends ' account. telnet to solar. ncsa. uiuc. edu. at the login : prompt, enter friends and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5296479992152738, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:70ede211-87e9-42d3-9eec-712a5c2cd71e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.476874"}
{"text": "of help for telecommunications and computing assistance from various companies and from the international science foundation. we received an offer from a school principal in the northeastern u. s. to begin work on an information ' exchange ' program with russian schools. we have had offers from vienna, austria and from moscow for the establishment of ' mirror ' servers to help speed access to the material from russia and from central and east european sites. natasha is actively working to establish a mirror server in pushchino. dirk van gulik is working to establish for us an interactive ' talk - room ' ( fascinating project - - you will see! ) we have received several offers to assist with such efforts as typing, transcription, and translation. we have received several offers to provide us with photographs and slides for publishing on the server. the server should have much additional ' graphic ' material in about a week. we received a very generous offer from the city university of new york for material describing all aspects of computer - aided language activities and natural language processing ( e. g., machine translation, text data - bases, language instruction - - native and foreign - - text analysis, and the linguistic dimensions of electronic communication ). we have received several notes from people who have made very open - ended offers of help. several more suggestions and offers of assistance will be summarized and posted here in the next digest. finally, in answer to a question we have seen a few times, there is once again, we thank each of you for your interest and hope to hear from many as we begin our work together on this service. please write with your comments, criticisms, and suggestions ( and, of course, those offers of help ). pushchino, moscow region greg cole, associate director national center for supercomputing applications the university of illinois at urbana - champaign once again, we thank each of you for your interest and hope to hear from many as we begin our work together on this service. please write with your comments, criticisms, and suggestions ( and, of course, those offers of help ). write to us with your comments and suggestions. f & p quick search about friends & partners isoc ' 95 paper \u00a91996 friends and partners", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5491629368300847, "token_count": 444, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:70ede211-87e9-42d3-9eec-712a5c2cd71e>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.480023"}
{"text": "i find this fascinating.... stanford researchers ' cooling glove ' better than steroids ' \u2013 and helps solve physiological mystery, too the temperature - regulation research of stanford biologists h. craig heller and dennis grahn has led to a device that rapidly cools body temperature, greatly improves exercise recovery, and could help explain why muscles get tired. by max mcclure the rapid thermal exchange device, nicknamed ' the glove, ' creates a vacuum to draw blood to the surface of the palms. cold circulating water cools the blood, which returns to the heart and rapidly lowers the body ' s core temperature. \" equal to or substantially better than steroids \u2026 and it ' s not illegal. \" this is the sort of claim you see in spam email subject lines, not in discussions of mammalian thermoregulation. even the man making the statement, stanford biology researcher dennis grahn, seems bemused. \" we really stumbled on this by accident, \" he said. \" we wanted to get a model for studying heat dissipation. \" but for more than a decade now, grahn and biology professor h. craig heller have been pursuing a serendipitous find : by taking advantage of specialized heat - transfer veins in the palms of hands, they can rapidly cool athletes ' core temperatures \u2013 and dramatically improve exercise recovery and performance. the team is finally nearing a commercial version of their specialized heat extraction device, known as \" the glove, \" and they ' ve seen their share of media coverage. but what hasn ' t been discussed is why the glove works the way it does, and what that tells us about why our muscles become fatigued. for heller and grahn, the story starts, improbably, with a longstanding question about bears. black bears are extremely well - insulated animals, equipped with a heavy coat of fur and a thick layer of subcutaneous fat that help them maintain their body temperature as they hibernate through winter. but once spring arrives and temperatures rise, these same bears face a greater risk of overheating than of hypothermia. how do they dump heat without changing insulation layers? heller and grahn discovered that bears and, in fact, nearly all mammals have built - in radiators : hairless areas of the body that feature extensive networks of veins very close to the surface of the skin. rabbits have them in their ears, rats have them in their tails, dogs have them in their tongues. heat transfer with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5434995602106826, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:afb936b8-b01a-4b0e-b341-873ae97a6838>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.500175"}
{"text": "in radiators : hairless areas of the body that feature extensive networks of veins very close to the surface of the skin. rabbits have them in their ears, rats have them in their tails, dogs have them in their tongues. heat transfer with the environment overwhelmingly occurs on these relatively small patches of skin. when you look at a thermal scan of a bear, the animal is mostly indistinguishable from the background. but the pads of the bear ' s feet and the tip of the nose look like they ' re on fire. these networks of veins, known as avas ( arteriovenous anastomoses ) seem exclusively devoted to rapid temperature management. they don ' t supply nutrition to the skin, and they have highly variable blood flow, ranging from negligible in cold weather to as much as 60 percent of total cardiac output during hot weather or exercise. coolers and vacuums in humans, avas show up in several places, including the face and feet, but the researchers ' glove targets our most prominent radiator structures \u2013 in the palms of our hands. the newest version of the device is a rigid plastic mitt, attached by a hose to what looks like a portable cooler. when grahn sticks his hand in the airtight glove, the device creates a slight vacuum. the veins in the palm expand, drawing blood into the avas, where it is rapidly cooled by water circulating through the glove ' s plastic lining. the method is more convenient than, say, full - body submersion in ice water, and avoids the pitfalls of other rapid palm - cooling strategies. because blood flow to the avas can be nearly shut off in cold weather, making the hand too cold will have almost no effect on core temperature. cooling, grahn says, is therefore a delicate balance. \" you have to stay above the local vasoconstriction threshold, \" said grahn. \" and what do you get if you go under? you get a cold hand. \" even in prototype form, the researchers ' device proved enormously efficient at altering body temperature. the glove ' s early successes were actually in increasing the core temperature of surgery patients recovering from anesthesia. \" we built a silly device, took it over to the recovery room and, lo and behold, it worked beyond our wildest imaginations, \" heller explained. \" whereas it was taking them hours to re - warm patients coming into the recovery room, we were doing it in eight, nine minutes.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5538581555158434, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:afb936b8-b01a-4b0e-b341-873ae97a6838>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.501198"}
{"text": "the recovery room and, lo and behold, it worked beyond our wildest imaginations, \" heller explained. \" whereas it was taking them hours to re - warm patients coming into the recovery room, we were doing it in eight, nine minutes. \" but the glove ' s effects on athletic performance didn ' t become apparent until the researchers began using the glove to cool a member of the lab \u2013 the confessed \" gym rat \" and frequent coauthor vinh cao \u2013 between sets of pull - ups. the glove seemed to nearly erase his muscle fatigue ; after multiple rounds, cooling allowed him to do just as many pull - ups as he did the first time around. so the researchers started cooling him after every other set of pull - ups. \" then in the next six weeks he went from doing 180 pull - ups total to over 620, \" said heller. \" that was a rate of physical performance improvement that was just unprecedented. \" the researchers applied the cooling method to other types of exercise \u2013 bench press, running, cycling. in every case, rates of gain in recovery were dramatic, without any evidence of the body being damaged by overwork \u2013 hence the \" better than steroids \" claim. versions of the glove have since been adopted by the stanford football and track and field teams, as well as other college athletics programs, the san francisco 49ers, the oakland raiders and manchester united soccer club. the elegant muscle but what does overheating have to do with fatigue in the first place? much of the lab ' s recent research can be summed up with grahn ' s statement that \" temperature is a primary limiting factor for performance. \" but the researchers were at a loss to understand why until recently. in 2009, it was discovered that muscle pyruvate kinase, or mpk, an enzyme that muscles need in order to generate chemical energy, was highly temperature - sensitive. at normal body temperature, the enzyme is active \u2013 but as temperatures rise, some of the enzyme begins to deform into the inactive state. by the time muscle temperatures near 104 degrees fahrenheit, mpk activity completely shuts down. there ' s a very good biological reason for this shutdown. as a muscle cell increases its activity, it heats up. but if this process continues for too long, the cell will self - destruct. by shutting itself down below a critical temperature threshold, mpk serves as an elegant self - regulation system for the muscle. \" your muscle cells are saying, \" you can ' t work that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5616230446240875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:afb936b8-b01a-4b0e-b341-873ae97a6838>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.502312"}
{"text": "electrical inductance sensors are non - contact devices that measure the inductance of an electrical component or system. they consist of a wire loop or coils and are relatively inexpensive. inductance, the property of a circuit or circuit element to oppose a change in current flow, refers to the capacity of a conductor to produce a magnetic field. the standard unit of inductance is the henry ( h ). because the henry is a large unit, electrical inductance sensors often measure inductance in microhenry ( \u00b5h ) or millihenry ( mh ) levels. electrical inductance sensors contain a nickel - iron core shaft that rotates within the coil around the material. the inductance measured by an electrical inductance sensor depends on the number of turns in the coil, the type of material around which the coil rotates, and the radius of the coil. with the rotation of the shaft, displacement occurs within the coil and generates inductance. this displacement produces signals that can be measured by an inductance meter and recorded. most inductance meters are digital, hand held devices suitable for measuring inductance of very low value. the results of the inductance calculation can be plotted as a graph for future study. selecting electrical inductance sensors requires a careful analysis of product specifications and application requirements. most electrical inductance sensors have a standard accuracy variance of less than 0. 5 % when measured on full scale. for best results, an electrical inductance sensor should be able to generate an output signal of at least 4 - 20 ma. typically, a sensor \u2019 s measurement range is approximately 30 % of the coil diameter. for high precision measurements, the thickness of the coil should be at least 0. 025 inches ( in. ). electrical inductance sensors are used in many different applications. some electrical sensors are used in the automotive industry and the power industry. other electrical sensors are used in constructing planar transformers, generating electrical magnetic fields, and monitoring the inductance of an electrical component. electrical sensors such as electrical inductance sensors are widely used for detecting the presence of electrical voltage in equipments, and defective grounds.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5297219064374886, "token_count": 446, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bfe63548-3bc5-44fa-be93-553592b82423>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.506191"}
{"text": "allow companies to break their promises, have placed performance track under scrutiny. article by janet pelley. source : environmental science & technology measuring pollution prevention ( p2 ) regulatory integration : review of other states? efforts and recommendations for action ( 2000 ) [ pdf ] abstract : this report, compiled by the tellus institute for the ohio epa, offers a review of the breadth and depth of the efforts by 11 state p2 programs to measure the progress of their p2 regulatory integration activities. source : tellus institute ( for the ohio epa ) michigan clean corporate citizen ( c3 ) program abstract : this portion of the michigan department of environmental quality web site describes the clean corporate citizen ( c3 ) program and provides links to all related annual reports, application forms, and other documentation. the c3 program allows regulated establishments that have demonstrated environmental stewardship and a strong environmental ethic through their operations in michigan to be recognized as clean corporate citizens. the c3 program is built on the concept that these michigan facilities can be relied upon to carry out their environmental protection responsibilities without rigorous oversight, and should enjoy greater permitting flexibility than those that have not demonstrated that level of environmental awareness. clean corporate citizens who voluntarily participate in this program will receive public recognition and are entitled to certain regulatory benefits, including expedited permits. source : michigan department of environmental quality ( deq ) michigan department of environmental quality : regulatory integration abstract : this portion of the michigan deq environmental assistance division web site provides an overview of the agency ' s regulatory integration efforts. included are information on the agency ' s staff awards, p2 and drinking water, p2 integration tools, p2 financial assistance, and p2 field services, as well as issues of p2 revue and related links. source : michigan department of environmental quality ( deq ) national environmental performance track abstract : designed to motivate and reward facilities that go beyond compliance with regulatory requirements to attain levels of environmental performance that benefit people, communities, and the environment. source : u. s. epa ny : first lady silda wall spitzer announces green building initiatives abstract : first lady silda wall spitzer and david d. brown, executive director of the dormitory authority of the state of new york ( dasny ), today announced two important initiatives to promote the construction of green homes and state - owned buildings throughout the state. building on her effort to encourage homeowners throughout the state to incorporate simple energy reduction features into their homes, the first lady announced that the administration will offer legislation that offers a direct incentive to homeown", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5008921192947328, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cdfc0092-9385-4a5f-9e4b-531e4581c643>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.518337"}
{"text": "homes and state - owned buildings throughout the state. building on her effort to encourage homeowners throughout the state to incorporate simple energy reduction features into their homes, the first lady announced that the administration will offer legislation that offers a direct incentive to homeowners who build or renovate homes that meet green building criteria. the amount of the incentive will be based on the size of the home, with a cap of $ 10, 000 per home, and help offset the typical 5 percent increase in construction costs when \" green \" or \" sustainable \" features are incorporated. the dormitory authority announced that beginning in 2008, all new state construction projects and major renovations managed by the dormitory authority will meet leed ( leadership in energy and environmental design ) standards established by the united states green building council. the leed green building rating system is an internationally recognized program for the design, construction, and maintenance of high - performance green buildings. leed addresses all aspects of building construction and operation, including energy efficiency, land use, water conservation and re - use, indoor air quality, renewable energy, non - toxic landscaping practices, and recycling. source : dormitory authority of the state of new york ohio environmental protection agency abstract : oh epa uses innovation, quality service, and public involvement to ensure a safe and healthy environment for all ohioans. their mission is to protect the environment and public health by ensuring compliance & demonstrating stewardship. source : ohio environmental protection agency ongoing efforts by state regulatory agencies to integrate pollution prevention into their activities abstract : while the vast majority of state p2 initiatives remain focused on providing non - regulatory assistance to industry, there is an increasing effort in many states to modify regulatory programs to incorporate p2 approaches. source : u. s. epa, office of pollution prevention and toxics pollution prevention regulatory integration case studies [ pdf ] abstract : case studies provided by individuals and organizations actively working to integrate p2 into core environmental regulatory programs. includes state, national, and international projects. source : national pollution prevention roundtable pollution prevention integration and innovation ( p2i2 ) workgroup pollution prevention success stories abstract : this document highlights 26 p2 success stories spread over a wide spectrum. included are examples of successful regulatory integration. text version available at http : / / www. epa. gov / p2 / docs / p2case. txt. source : us epa small business assistance? permit primer ( wisconsin ) abstract : the permit primer is an interactive web page that helps wisconsin businesses determine which environmental permits and licenses they need. it also links users to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5177618020976495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cdfc0092-9385-4a5f-9e4b-531e4581c643>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.519436"}
{"text": "of being the chief support of darwin ' s theory, it is one of its moat serious weaknesses. \" * gertrude himmelfarb, darwin and the darwinian revolution ( 1962 ), p. 330. facts supporting evolution are not to be found in the fossils, so faith alone must suffice. \" the more one studies paleontology, the more certain one becomes that evolution based on faith alone, exactly the same sort of faith which it is necessary to have when one encounters the great mysteries of religion. \" * louis trenchard more, the dogma of evolution ( 1925 ). [ dean of graduate school of university of cincinnati, and a * darwin ' s champion and \" bulldog \" admitted the total absence of evidence from the strata for evolutionary theory. \" to say, therefore, in the admitted absence of evidence [ for evolution ], that i have any belief as to the mode in which the existing forms of life have originated would be using words in a wrong sense.. i have no right to call my opinion anything but an act of philosophical faith. \" * thomas henry huxley, discourses biological and geological ( 1896 ad. ), pp. 256 - 257. * allen deplores the sorry state of historical geology, which encompasses both paleontology ( fossil study ) and stratigraphy ( strata study ), which is supposed to provide us with evidence from the past for the evolution of plants, animals, and man. \" because of the sterility of its concepts, historical geology, which includes paleontology and stratigraphy, has become static and unproductive. current methods.. of establishing chronology are of dubious validity. worse than that, the criteria of correlationthe attempt to equate in time, a synchronize the geological history of one area with that of anotherare logically vulnerable. the findings of historical geology are suspect because the principles upon which they are based are either inadequate, in which case they should be discarded or reformulated. most of us refuse to discard or reformulate, and the result is the present deplorable state of our discipline. \" * robin s. allen, \" geological correlation anal paleoecology, \" bulletin of the geological society of america, january 1948, p. 2. a london anatomy professor summarizes it in this manner : \" paleontology, or the study of fossils, provides the really crucial evidence concerning the evolution of the hominidae in the past. however extensive and compelling it may be, the evidence for evolution", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5026240234895929, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.557429"}
{"text": ". the rocks and their fossils simply do not support evolutionary theory : * charles darwin recognized in his time that the fossil evidence was lacking for the origin of species and their transition from one species to another. but he said that later fossil discoveries would vindicate his position. yet a century of fossil exploration has failed to do that. \" darwin set aside most of the fossil evidence for evolution with the proposal that it was massively incomplete. but there were polemic rather than scientific reasons for this attitude because he insisted on gradualistic evolution which most fossils did not substantiate. but the fossil record can no longer be set aside as woefully incomplete. more than 100 years of study demand instead that the gradualistic concept be reassessed. \" * j. b. waterhouse, \" the role of fossil communities in the biostratigraphical record and in evolution, \" in * j. gray and * a. j. \" historical biogeography, plate tectonics, and the changing environment \" ( 1979 ), in proceedings of the 37th annual biology colloquium ( 1979 ), p. 249 - 250. so little paleontolgical evidence is available, that darwinism has to be read into the rocks,, not out of them! \" the record of the rocks is decidedly against evolutionists. \" * sir william dawson, geologist. the fossilized record book declares that evolution is based on faith alone. the more one studies paleontology, the more certain one becomes that evolution is based on faith alone ; exactly the same sort of faith which it is necessary to have when one encounters the great mysteries of religion. the changes that are noted as time progresses show no orderly and no consecutive evolutionary chain, and above all, they give us no clue whatever as to the cause of variations. evolutionists would have us believe that they have photographed a succession of fauna and flora, and have arranged them on a vast moving picture 51m. the evidence from paleontology is for discontinuity [ separate species ] ; only by faith and imagination is there continuity [ evolution ] of variation. \" * louis t. more, the dogma of evolution, also presented in a series of lectures delivered at princeton university. the fossil evidence provides no particular evidence in support of \" the fossil record doesn ' t even provide any evidence in support of darwinian theory except in the weak sense that the fossil record is compatible with it ; just as it is compatible with other evolutionary theories, and revolutionary theories, and special creationist theories", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5019884389692678, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.560827"}
{"text": "to make sense out of the fossil record and sketch in evolutionary sequences or unfossilized morphologies without realistic hope of obtaining specific verification within the foreseeable future. \" * donald r. griffin, \" a possible window on the minds of animals, \" american scientist, vol. 84, september - october 1978, p. 534. the geologic column theory of evolution is supposed to show gradual evolutionary progression of life forms, but it fails to do just that : five - kingdom system may appear, at first glance, to record an inevitable progress in the history of life that i have often opposed in these columns. increasing diversity and multiple transitions seem to reflect a determined and inexorable progression toward higher things. but the paleontolgical record supports no such interpretation. there has been no steady progress in the higher development of organic design. \" * stephen j. gould, natural history, 85 ( 8 ) : 37 ( 1978 ). not only christians, but scientistsand even paleontologistsare coming to the conclusion that darwin ' s theory is incorrect. \" evolution.. is not only under attack by fundamentalist christians, but is also being questioned by reputable scientists. among paleontologist, scientists who study the fossil record, there is growing dissent from the prevailing view of darwinism. \" * james gorman, \" the tortoise or the hare? \" discover, october 1980, p. the facts written in the rocks are totally separate from the theories taught by \" so the geological time scale and the basic facts of biological change over time are totally independent of evolutionary theory. \" in the years after darwin, his advocates hoped to find predictable progressions. in general, these have not been foundyet the optimism has died hard, and some pure fantasy has crept into textbooks. \" * david m. \" evolution and me fossil record \" in science, july 17, 1981, p. 289. evolutionary theory is a false science, founded on assumptions based on assumptions. \" through use or abuse of hidden postulates, of bolo, often ill - founded extrapolations, a pseudoscience has been seated. it is taking root in the very heart of biology and is leading astray many biochemists and biologists, who sincerely believe that the accuracy of fundamental concepts has been demonstrated, which is not the case. \" * p. grasse, in the evolution of living organisms ( 1977 ), p. 8. the transitional forms are just not there. \" the extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5575036002026968, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.562778"}
{"text": "has been demonstrated, which is not the case. \" * p. grasse, in the evolution of living organisms ( 1977 ), p. 8. the transitional forms are just not there. \" the extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil record persists as the trade secret of paleontology. the evolutionary trees that adorn our textbooks have data only at the tips and nodes of their branches ; the rest is inference, however reasonable, not the evidence of fossils. \" op. cit., p. 14. only the fossil record can provide past evidence of evolution, and this it does not do. \" although the fossil record forms our only direct evidence of the course of evolutionary.. history, it is notoriously incomplete. \" * j. w. valentine, \" phanerozoic taxonomic diversity : a test of alternate models, \" in science, if evolutionary theory had been correct, vast numbers of transitional species ought to have been found. \" even if a number of species were known to biology which were indeed perfectly intermediate, possessing organ systems that were unarguably transitional in the sense required by the evolutionary model of nature, to refute typology and securely validate evolutionary claims would necessitate hundreds of thousands or even thousands [ of thousands ] of different species, all unambiguously intermediate in terms of their overall biology and the physiology and anatomy of all their organ systems. \" * michael denton, in evolution : a theory in crisis ( 1985 ), p. 117. * hoffman tells us that all the arguments among the fossil hunters may have helped them understand what they are trying to accomplish, but it has not helped them accomplish it. the task before them has been to provide evidence of evolution. \" all the recent paleobiological debates have, in my opinion, contributed much to the conceptualization of paleobiological research itself, but nothing to evolutionary biology. this is not to say that paleobiologists cannot contribute to evolutionary biology. i contend only that they have not done so. \" * a. hoffman, \" paleobiology at the crossroads : a critique of some modern paleobiological research programs, \" in dimensions of darwinism ( 1983 ), p. 241. a leading expert on fossils suggests not only that transitional fossil species are not existent, but that the theory being pursued is a will - of - the - wisp that is little more than a scholastic myth : \" i conclude that instances of fossils overturning theories of relationship based on recent organisms are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5009731372676675, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.563758"}
{"text": "transitional fossil species are not existent, but that the theory being pursued is a will - of - the - wisp that is little more than a scholastic myth : \" i conclude that instances of fossils overturning theories of relationship based on recent organisms are very rare, and may be nonexistent. it follows that the widespread belief that fossils are the only or best means of determining evolutionary relationships is a myth. tracing how this myth came to be an article of faith among biologists [ an ' idol of the academy ' ] should be an interesting study in the sociology of science ; it seems to have followed, as an unquestioned corollary, from acceptance of evolution. \" * colin patterson, \" significance of fossils in determining evolutionary relationships, \" in annual review ecology and systematics ( 1981 ), p. 218. the evidence is lacking for the theory that living forms all descended from a common ancestor. \" the attempt to explain all living forms in terms of an evolution from a unique source, though a brave and valid attempt, is one that is premature and not satisfactorily supposed by present - day evidence. \" * g. kerkut, in implications of evolution ( 1977 ), p. 6. pitman provides us with an excellent summary of the problem : \" cambrian rocks exhibit an explosion of life, so termed. all kingdoms and subkingdoms are represented in the geologic record from here onward. so are all classes except vertebrates, insects, moss corals, and the extinct trilobites and graptolites. divisions of the plant kingdom, except algae and fungi, appear later. no new phylum ( a division ) has arisen for 350 million years, and there is a complete absence of transitional series between any two phyla. in excess of 5, 000 species adorn the cambrian layers. \" * michael pitman, adam and evolution ( 1984 ), p. 190. here is a companion statement : \" evolution has to explain not only persistent species but persistent kinds. as regards classification, all kingdoms and subkingdoms are represented from the cambrian onward. all classes of the animal kingdom are represented from the cambrian onward except insects ( devonian onward ) and ( perhaps ) vertebrates and moss - corals from the ordovician [ onward ]. all phyla in the plant kingdom are represented from the triassic onward except bacteria, algae, ( algae, with bacteria and fungi, occur from the pre - cambrian onward ) ; mosses and horsetails", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5525601955578726, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.565649"}
{"text": "from the ordovician [ onward ]. all phyla in the plant kingdom are represented from the triassic onward except bacteria, algae, ( algae, with bacteria and fungi, occur from the pre - cambrian onward ) ; mosses and horsetails ( silurian onward ) ; diatoms ( jurassic onward ) and flowering plants ( cretaceous onward ). as we noted earlier, orders and families ( as well as kingdoms, phyla and classes ) appear suddenly in the fossil record, with no indication of transitional forms from earlier types. the is the case even for most genera and species. index - fossil sequences such as micraster, ammonites and trilobites indicate only variation ( ' microevolution ' ). \" * op. cit., p. 236. the study of fossils reveals \" vast stretches of little or no change and one evolutionary burst that created the entire system. \" \" increasing diversity and multiple transitions seem to reflect a determined and inexorable progression toward higher things. but the paleontological record supports no such interpretation. there has been no steady progress in the higher development of organic design. we have had, instead, vast stretches of little or no change and one evolutionary burst that created the entire system. \" * stephen jay gould, \" the five kingdoms, \" in natural history, june - july 1976, p. 37. when new species did appear, they appeared suddenly, and with no links to previous species. \" new species almost always appeared suddenly in the fossil record with no intermediate links to ancestors in older rocks of the same region. \" * s. j. gould, \" evolution ' s erratic pace, \" in natural history, may 1977, p. 12. evolutionary theory is based on group preferences, rather than on any scientific data : \" i know that at least in paleoanthropology, data are still so sparse that theories heavily influence interpretations. theories have, in the past, clearly reflected our current ideologies instead of actual data. \" * david pilbeam, \" rearranging our family tree, \" in human nature june : 45 ( 1978 ). [ yale fossil experts well know that the evidence in the sedimentary rocks provides no defense against the creationist view that god created the world : \" no real evolutionist, whether gradualist or punctuationist, uses the fossil record as evidence in favor of the theory of evolution as opposed to special creation. \" * mark ridley, \" who doubts evolution? \" in new scientist, 90", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5263569256351198, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.566810"}
{"text": "\" no real evolutionist, whether gradualist or punctuationist, uses the fossil record as evidence in favor of the theory of evolution as opposed to special creation. \" * mark ridley, \" who doubts evolution? \" in new scientist, 90 : 830 - 831 ( 1981 ). ( oxford university zoologist. ) uniformitarianism vs. catastrophism the theory of uniformitarianism teaches that \" all things continue as they were from the beginning \" ( 2 peter 3 : 4 ; read 2 peter 3 : 3 - 7 ). this theory declares that all past history has been just like our own time in regard to flooding, atmospheric conditions, and orogenic ( mountain building ) activity. in contrast, creationists hold to the position that a massive cataclysm of immense proportions occurred only a few thousand years ago. that crisis was the genesis flood, recorded in genesis 8 to 9. * lyell was the first to widely champion the theory of \" opposed to the line of thinking was sir charles lyell ( 1797 - 1875 ), a contemporary of cuvier, who held that earth changes were gradual, taking place at the same uniform slowness that they are today. lyell is thus credited with the propagation of the premise that more or less has guided geological thought ever since, namely, that the present is the key to the past. in essence, lyell ' s doctrine of uniformitarianism stated that past geological progress operated in the same manner and at the same rate it does today. \" * j. h. zumberge, elements of geology, 2nd. edition, ( 1963 ), p. 200. the uniformitarian theory provides a neatly - wrapped package, inside of which is the evolutionary geologic theory : \" this is the great underlying principle of modern geology and is known as the principle of uniformitarianism.. without the principle of uniformitarianism there could hardly be a science of geology that was more than pure description. \" * william thornbury, principles of geomorphology ( 1954 ), pp. 16 - 17. \" uniformitarian thinking compels us to recognize, in the record of the rocks, the slow unfolding of diverse sequence of events whose full display is beyond our comprehension. \" * w. dickinson, \" uniformitarianism and plate tectonics, \" in science 174 : 107. ( we should here mention that there is a type of uniform pattern in nature with which we can well agree : the unalterable laws governing the natural world", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5197092687692187, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.567851"}
{"text": "dickinson, \" uniformitarianism and plate tectonics, \" in science 174 : 107. ( we should here mention that there is a type of uniform pattern in nature with which we can well agree : the unalterable laws governing the natural world. ) \" uniformitarianism is a dual concept. substantive uniformitarianism ( a testable theory of geologic change postulating uniformity of rates of material conditions ) is false and stifling to hypothesis formation. methodological uniformitarianism ( a procedural principle asserting spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws ) belongs to the definition of science and is not unique to geology. \" * stephen jay gould, \" is uniformitarianism necessary? \" american journal of science, vol. 263, march 1985, p. 223. ( harvard university. ) \" substantive uniformitarianism as a descriptive theory has not withstood the test of new data and can no longer be maintained in any strict manner. \" j. gould, \" is uniformitarianism necessary? \" in journal of paleontology, march, 1956, p. 227. it has been admitted that one reason uniformitarianism was adopted was as an attempt to explain geological evidence for the genesis flood in a totally different \" frequently the doctrine of uniformitarianism is used fruitfully to explain the anti - catastrophist viewpoint of history. \" * james w. valentine, \" the present is the key to the present, \" journal of geological education, vol. xiv, april 1986, p. 60. \" it is both easy and tempting.. to adopt a neocatastrophist attitude to the fossil record.. this is a heady wine and has intoxicated paleontologists since the day when they could blame it all on noah ' s flood. \" * derek v. alter, the nature of the stratigraphical record, p. 19. ) department of geology and oceanography, university cc \" of swansea, england. ] \" catastrophism is a fighting word among geologists. it is a theory based on divine intervention, and its adherents held that the history of the earth and life on it were moved by a series of disasters inspired by god. \" * newsweek, december but there are other scientists who object, declaring that the uniformitarian theory is totally inaccurate, when viewed in accordance with the facts : \" there are many other reasons why we should not blandly accept the doctrine of uniformitarianism. \" * e. haylmun, \" should we teach uniformitarian", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5888513037699901, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.568835"}
{"text": "the uniformitarian theory is totally inaccurate, when viewed in accordance with the facts : \" there are many other reasons why we should not blandly accept the doctrine of uniformitarianism. \" * e. haylmun, \" should we teach uniformitarianism? \" in journal of geological education, 19 ( 1971 ) p. 36. * dunbar was perhaps the leading geologic authority of the 1950s. here is his statement : \" the uprooting of such fantastic beliefs [ of the catastrophist ] began with the scottish geologist, james hutton, whose theory of the earth, published in 1785, maintained that the present is the key to the past and that, given sufficient time, processes now at work could account for all the geologic features of the globe. this philosophy, which came to be known as the doctrine of uniformitarianism, demands an immensity of time ; it has not gained universal acceptance among intelligent and informed people. \" * c. o. dunbar, historical geology, 2nd edition, ( 1960 ), p. 18. there are simply too many flaws in the uniformitarian theory. \" the hurricane, the flood, or the tsunami may do more in an hour or a day than the ordinary processes of nature have achieved in a thousand years. \" * derek v. ager, the nature of the stratigraphical record, p. 49. in fact, there are serious - minded scientists today who believe that catastrophic conditions have indeed occurred in the past. of late there has been a serious rejuvenation of catastrophism in geologic thought. this defies logic ; there is no science of singularities. if catastrophe is not a uniform process, there is no rational basis for understanding the past. for those who would return us to our babylonian heritage of ' science ' by revelation and possibility, we must insist that the only justifiable key to the past is probability and the orderliness of natural process ; if uniformity is not the key, there is no key in the rational sense, and we should pack up our boots and go home. \" * b. w. brown, \" induction, deduction, and irrationality in geologic reasoning, geology, vol. 2, september 1974, p. there are scientists who are anxious to get rid of the uniformitarian concept, declaring it to be foolishness : accepting the principle of the rare event as a valid concept made it even more desirable to retire the term ' uniformitarianism. ' \" * p. \" significance of the rare event in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5504669613150109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.569864"}
{"text": "of the uniformitarian concept, declaring it to be foolishness : accepting the principle of the rare event as a valid concept made it even more desirable to retire the term ' uniformitarianism. ' \" * p. \" significance of the rare event in geology, \" in bulletin of the american association of petroleum geologists, 51 ( 1967 ) p. 2205. \" substantive uniformitarianism as a descriptive theory has not withstood the test of new data and can no longer be maintained in any strict manner. \" * s. gould, \" is uniformitarianism useful, \" in journal of geological education, 15 ( 1967 ) p. 150. \" conventional uniformitarianism, or ' gradualism, ' i. e., the doctrine of unchanging change, is verily contradicted by all post - cambrian sedimentary data and the geotectonic histories of which these sediments are the record. \" * p. \" uniformitarianism is a dangerous doctrine, \" in paleontology, 30 ( 1956 ) p. \" the present is the key to the past \" is the definition of \" the present is the key to the past.. no causes whatever have from the earliest time.. to the present, ever acted, but those now acting : and they have never acted with different degrees of energy from that which they now exert. \" * r. moors, the earth we live on ( 1911 ), pp. 145 - 146. even this standard definition of uniformitarianism is ridiculed by it seems unfortunate that uniformitarianism, a doctrine which has so important a place in history of geology, should continue to be misrepresented in introductory texts and courses by ' the present is the key to the past, ' a maxim without much credit. \" * j. valentine, \" the present is the key to the present, \" in journal of geological education, 14 ( 1966 ) p. 59 - 60. \" the present does not provide a complete key to the past, for we cannot find good samples today of all phenomena found in the ancient world. \" * robert h. dots and \" roger l. batten, evolution of the earth ( 1971 ), p. 210. there are scientists who recognize that the uniformitarianism view is too simplistic. for, indeed, how dare anyone try to specify what the world has been like through all past time? from a purely scientific point of view, it is unwise to accept uniformitarianism as unalterable dogma.. ( one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6055312692832682, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.570820"}
{"text": "the past in terms of climate. \" * robert h. dolt and * roger l batten, evolution of the earth ( 1971 ), p. 298. there is evidence of massive geological catastrophes at some time in \" the diatomite fossil beds in santa barbara county, california, contain striking evidence of a sudden catastrophe. fish fossils are heavily matted together in foot - thick layers so well preserved they retain a fish odor when a fragment is broken. \" there are many indications that the fish were suddenly trapped. the fossils show wide open gasping mouths, fins widely spread, back fiercely arched, body twisted, and head back. many fossil fish are partly on end through bedding planes of the rock. \" a. von fange, \" time upside down, \" in creation research society quarterly, june 1974, p. 22 also see crsq, 6 ( 3 ) : 129 - 135 ). \" over an area of more than 10, 000 sq. miles fish remains are found bearing unequivocally marks of violent death. the figures are contorted, contracted, curved ; the tail in many cases is bent around to the head, the spines stick out, the fins are spread to the full. \" * h. miller, old red sandstones, pp. 221. consider this violation of uniformitarian theory : \" the recent report of the discovery of a fossil skeleton of a baleen whale in a diatomaceous earth quarry in lompoc, california, should be of unusual interest to \" ' the whale is standing on end in the quarry and is being exposed gradually as the diatomite is mined. only the head and a small part of the body are visible as yet. the modern baleen whale is 80 to 90 feet long and has a head of similar size [ to the one just discovered ], indicating that the fossil may be close to 80 feet long. ' \" no comment was made concerning the implications of such a unique discovery. however, the fact that the whale is ' standing on end, ' as well as the fact that it is buried in diatomaceous earth, would strongly suggest that it was buried under very unusual and rapid catastrophic conditions. the vertical orientation of the whale is also very similar to observations of vertical tree trunks extending through several successive coal seams. such phenomena cannot easily be explained by uniformitarian theories, but fit readily into a historical framework based upon the recent and dynamic universal flood described in genesis. \" larry s. helmick, \" whale skeleton found in diatomaceous", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5410166979599746, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.572871"}
{"text": "successive coal seams. such phenomena cannot easily be explained by uniformitarian theories, but fit readily into a historical framework based upon the recent and dynamic universal flood described in genesis. \" larry s. helmick, \" whale skeleton found in diatomaceous earth quarry, \" in creation research society quarterly, june 1977, p. 70. in graphic terms ( and one long sentence! ), a scientist lists a number of examples of catastrophes that can suddenly and unexpectedly occur : \" hurricanes of global magnitude, of forests burning and swept away, of dust, stones, fire, and ashes falling from the sky, of mountains melting like wax, of lava flowing from riven ground, of boiling sea, of bituminous rain, of shaking ground and destroyed cities, of humans seeking refuge in caverns and fissures of the rock in the mountains, of oceans upheaved and falling on the land, of tidal waves moving toward the poles and back, of land becoming sea by submerging and the expanse of sea fuming into desert, islands born and others drowned, mountain ridges leveled and others rising, of crowds of rivers seeking new beds, of sources that disappeared and others that became bitter, of great destructions in the animal kingdom, of decimated mankind, of migrations, of heavy clouds of dust covering the face of the earth for decades, of magnetic disturbances, of changed climates, of displaced cardinal points and altered latitudes, of disrupted calendars and of sundials and water clocks that point to changed length of day, month, and year, mountains springing from plains and other mountains leveled, strata folded and pressed together and overturned and moved and put on top of other formations, melted rock flooding enormous areas of land with miles - thick sheets, ocean and lake shores tilted or raised or lowered as much as a thousand feet, whales cast out of oceans onto mountains. \" * immanuel velikovsky, earth in upheaval ( 1955 ). so - called \" index fossils \" are the key to all geologic stratigraphic dating. yet, as we have observed earlier in this chapter, they constitute a woefully inadequate means of dating rocks. there simply is no reliable method of dating an \" index fossil, \" yet that is a fact which most geologists and paleontologists refuse to consider. here are admissions by experts that it is index fossils, and the theory behind them, which are the basis of fossil and strata dating : the fossils are dated by the fossils : \" in each sedimentary strat", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5572321948690842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.573830"}
{"text": "beginning of the 19th century, fossils have been and still are the best and most accurate method of dating and correlating the rocks in which they occur. \" * derek ager, \" fossil frustrations, \" new scientist, november 10, 1983, p. 425. only the fossils are considered : \" the character of the rocks themselves, their composition, or their mineral contents have nothing to do with settling the question as to the particular system [ age level ] to which the new rocks belong. the fossils alone are the means of correlation. \" * henry shaler williams, geological biology ( 1895 ), p. 38. 6. circular reasoning \" circular reasoning \" is a method of false logic, by which \" this is used to prove that, and that is used to prove this. \" it is also called \" reasoning in a circle. \" over a hundred years ago it was described by the phrase, circulus in probando, which is latin for \" a circle in a proof. \" there are several types of circular reasoning found in support of evolutionary theory. one of these is the geological dating position that \" fossils are dated by the type of stratum they are in, while at the same time the stratum is dated by the fossils found in it. \" an alternative evolutionary statement is that \" the fossils and rocks are interpreted by the theory of evolution, and the theory is proven by the interpretation given to the fossils and rocks. \" in other chapters, we will find that circular reasoning is also used in regard to other evolutionary \" proofs, \" such as the origin of life, genetics, and mutations. the theory of natural selection is almost totally dependent on circular reasoning. as we will see below, geologists admit that this circular reasoning exists as a fundamental pillar of geological faith. for example, in a 1979 interview with * dr. donald fisher, the state paleontologist for new york, luther sunderland, asked him : \" how do you date fossils? \" his reply : \" by the cambrian rocks in which they were found. \" sunderland then asked him if this was not circular reasoning, and * fisher replied, \" of course ; how else are you going to do it? \" science newsletter, december 1986, p. 6. ) \" the rocks do date the fossils, but the fossils date the rocks more accurately. stratigraphy cannot avoid this kind of reasoning.. because circularity is inherent in the derivation of time scales. \" * j. e. o ' rourke, \" pragmat", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5235725656139474, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.576023"}
{"text": "date the fossils, but the fossils date the rocks more accurately. stratigraphy cannot avoid this kind of reasoning.. because circularity is inherent in the derivation of time scales. \" * j. e. o ' rourke, \" pragmatism versus materialism in stratigraphy, \" american journal of science, january 1976. the paleontology director of the field museum in chicago admits the problem exists. \" the charge that the construction of the geologic scale involves circularity has a certain amount of validity. \" * david m. raup, \" geology and creationism, \" field museum of natural history bulletin, march 1983, p. 21. ager bemoans the problem : \" it is a problem not easily solved by the classic methods of stratigraphical paleontology, as obviously we will land ourselves immediately in an impossible circular argument if we say, firstly that a particular lithology [ theory of rock strata ] is synchronous on the evidence of its fossils, and secondly that the fossils are synchronous on the evidence of the lithology. \" * derek v. ager, the nature of the stratigraphic record ( 1973 ), p. 62. but the experts have no clear - cut answer for extricating themselves from this dilemma, which * kitts says is caused by an acceptance of evolutionary theory : \" but the danger of circularity is still present. for most biologists the strongest reason for accepting the evolutionary hypothesis is their acceptance of some theory that entails it. there is another difficulty. the temporal ordering of biological events beyond the local section may critically involve paleontological correlation, which necessarily presupposes the nonrepeatability of organic events in geologic history. there are various justifications for this assumption but for almost all contemporary paleontologists it rests upon the acceptance of the evolutionary hypothesis. \" g. kitts, \" paleontology and evolutionary theory, \" in evolution, september 1974, no solid replies to the dilemma have been forthcoming : \" the intelligent layman has long suspected circular reasoning in the use of rocks to date fossils and fossils to date rocks. the geologist has never bothered to think of a good reply, feeling the explanations are not worth the trouble as long as the work brings results. this is supposed to be hard - headed pragmatism. \" * j. e. o ' rourke, \" pragmatism versus materialism in stratigraply, \" american journal of science, january 1976,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5306421764544376, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.577031"}
{"text": "brings results. this is supposed to be hard - headed pragmatism. \" * j. e. o ' rourke, \" pragmatism versus materialism in stratigraply, \" american journal of science, january 1976, p. 48. * west explains that the theory is based on the interpretation of fossils, and the fossil interpretation is based on the theory : \" contrary to what most scientists write, the fossil record does not support the darwinian theory of evolution because it is this theory ( there are several ) which we use to interpret the fossil record. by doing so, we are guilty of circular reasoning if we then say the fossil record supports this theory. \" * ronald r. west, \" paleontology and uniformitarianism, \" compass, may 1968, p. 218. the theory explains the rock strata and their contents, and they in turn explain the theory : material bodies are finite, and no rock unit is global in extent, yet stratigraphy aims at a global classification. the particulars have to be stretched into universals somehow. here ordinary materialism leaves off building up a system of units recognized by physical properties, to follow dialectical materialism, which starts with time units and regards the material bodies as their incomplete representatives. this is where the suspicion of circular reasoning crept in, because it seemed to the layman that the time units were abstracted from the geological column, which has teen put together from rock units. \" * j. e. o ' rourke, \" pragmatism versus materialism in stratigraphy, \" american journal of science, january 1978, p. 49. the sequences of which creatures are ancestors and which are descendants both provesand is proven bythe theorized age and sequence of rock \" the prime difficulty with the use of presumed ancestral - descendant sequences to express phylogeny is that biostratigraphic data are often used in conjunction with morphology in the initial evaluation of relationships, which leers to obvious circularity. \" * b. schaeffer, * m. k hecht and * n. eldredge, \" phylogeny and paleontology, \" in * dobzhansky, * hecht and * steere ( eds. ), evolutionary biology, vol. 6 ( 1972 ), p. 39. according to * north, first came the theory that the strata had to be in a certain order, thus deciding the age of the fossils in it. then came the theory that the fossils in the rocks", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5761588176167067, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.579040"}
{"text": ". 6 ( 1972 ), p. 39. according to * north, first came the theory that the strata had to be in a certain order, thus deciding the age of the fossils in it. then came the theory that the fossils in the rocks decided the age of the strata they were in. \" the paleontological time - scale rests squarely on the law of superposition [ which fossil strata is placed on top of which ]. from this unassailable foundation, the paleontologist became for more than a century the arbiter of all stratigraphic organization. but for geologists, the law of superposition presupposes the existence of decipherable geological sections, and every geological section must have a top and a base. [ every fossil strata must be identifiable, and have a top and a bottom. ] the paleontological succession was pieced together from hundreds of such sections, the tops and bases of which had been established by geologists on the ground. \" the paleontologists ' wheel of authority turned full circle when he put this process into reverse and used his fossils to determine tops and bottoms for himself. in the course of time he came to rule upon stratigraphic order, and gaps within it, on a world - wide basis. \" * f. k north, \" the geological time - scale, \" in royal society of canada special publication, 8 : 5 ( 1984 ). ( the order of fossils is determined by the rock strata they are in, and the strata they are in are derided by their tops and bottomswhich are deduced by the fossils in them. ) the ages are dated by the fossils, which is the basis for evolution, which is the determinate of the ages : \" the geologic ages are identified and dated by the fossils contained in the sedimentary rocks. the fossil record also provides the chief evidence for the theory of evolution, which in turn is the basic philosophy upon which the sequence of geologic tees has been erected. the evolution - fossil - geologic age system is thus a closed circle which comprises one interlocking package. each goes with the other. \" henry m. morris, the remarkable birth of planet earth ( 1972 ), pp. 7877. it cannot be denied that it is all one big circle : \" it cannot be denied that, from a strictly philosophical standpoint, geologists are here arguing in a circle. the succession of organs has been determined by a study of their remains buried in the rocks, and the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5325975184090368, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.580507"}
{"text": "it is all one big circle : \" it cannot be denied that, from a strictly philosophical standpoint, geologists are here arguing in a circle. the succession of organs has been determined by a study of their remains buried in the rocks, and the relative ages of the rocks are determined by the remains of organisms that they contain. \" * r. h. article \" geology, \" encyclopedia britannica, vol. 10, ( 14th ad. ; 1958 ), p. 168. strata dating cannot avoid reasoning in a circle. ( because, at the heart of it, the dating comes from a theory, instead of facts! ) \" the rocks do date the fossils, but the fossils date the rocks more accurately. stratigraphy cannot avoid this kind of reasoning, if it insists on using only temporal concepts, because circularity is inherent in the derivation of time scales. \" * j e. o ' rourke, \" pragmatism versus materialism in stratiqraphy, \" american journal of science, january 1976, p. 53. * azar utters a cry for help. \" are the authorities maintaining, on the other hand, that evolution is documented by geology and on the other hand, that geology is documented by evolution? isn ' t this a circular argument? \" * larry azar, \" biologists, help! \" bioscience, november 1978, p. 714. you have just completed go to the next chapter in this series,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5056247957372625, "token_count": 298, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:04d89606-4302-4696-8ac3-748d8b468c02>", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.582292"}
{"text": "words. | | \u03c9 | | \u03c9 | | omega | | omegha | | o as in got | | o as in pole | combinations of letters some letters are pronounced differently when they appear in combination with other letters. | \u03b1\u03b9 | | e as in pet | | \u03b1\u03c5 | | af or av ( depending on next letter ) | | \u03b5\u03c5 | | ef or ev ( depending on next letter ) | | \u03bf\u03c5 | | oo as in moon | | \u03bc\u03c0 | | b at start of word, mb in middle of word | | \u03bd\u03c4 | | d at start of word, nd in middle of word | | \u03b3\u03ba | | g as in go at start of word, ng in middle of word | | \u03b3\u03b3 | | ng as in singer | an exception to these is that if the first vowel of any of these two - vowel combinations has an accent mark on it, or if the second vowel has two dots over it, the two vowels are treated separately, and not combined as in the table. thus for example \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bbo\u03b9 ( worry beads ) is pronounced ' kombol - oh - ee '. greek is a strongly stressed language, even more so than english. the stress is very important, so it is normally marked with an accent over the vowel. ancient greek used three different accents, while modern greek uses only one. in ancient greek, words starting with a vowel or an r had a special sign called a breathing mark. this looked like an apostrophe and was positioned over the first letter, although printers often put it in front of the first letter. a right - facing mark ( like a backwards 9 ) was called a ' rough breathing mark ' and indicated that there was a ' h ' sound before the vowel. a left - facing mark ( like a 9 ) was called a ' smooth breathing mark ' and indicated that there was no ' h ' sound. in modern greek, the ' h ' sound is no longer pronounced at the start of any word, but the breathing marks were still used for historical reasons until about 1970, when they were officially dropped from the language. in ancient greek, in some cases when iota appeared after another vowel ( a diphthong ), it was written using a special little iota under the vowel instead. this was called an iota subscript. these do not occur in modern greek.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5022308725764854, "token_count": 492, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c8db14b0-da04-4e56-87db-7b87ce5683b5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.593741"}
{"text": "neurosis \u2013 the most frequent violation of mental health. he brings not only the patient discomfort. however, modern medicine can successfully treat it, but it is best to avoid the development of neurosis. what is neurosis? neurosis \u2013 a violation of health, which makes adaptation of the organism to conditions of living environment, distorts human perception of events and leads to the development of nervous system diseases. often decreases efficiency and a sense of joy to life. violates the patient ' s ability to communicate with others and to purposeful activity. in a healthy person there is no such things as irritability, aspiration complain, fear of something, inability to concentrate, fatigue in the absence of intensive work. but in these cases we are talking about is not neurosis, but about coming features. they occur in 70 % of the people. if some of these diseases are observed for a long time or are particularly strong, then we perceive them as an illness or neurosis, or any somatic disease. neurosis sometimes manifests itself in another way : can cause violations of the digestive system in the form of stomach pains or cramps. can also manifest palpitation or feeling of heaviness in the heart. sometimes in neurosis there are headaches, sweating, trembling, feeling of weakness, trouble breathing. one sign of neurosis may be a violation of the sexual ability. dr. josyann abisaab is full of insight into the issues. scientists have found that neurosis occurs in 16 % of women and 8 % of men. in addition, it was found that heavy neurosis occurs in 10 % of people, and neurosis mild to moderate suffer up to 20 % of the people. easy neurosis times occurs in each of us. remember, whether you do not have to return to his apartment, from which you left a few minutes ago in order to make sure you shut it or put out the light on or off the gas. at the same time understand the futility of his actions and knew that the house is all right. however, in such cases, we are not talking about neurosis, but of passing nervousness. how to protect yourself from neurosis? many people believe that they must strictly adhere to certain principles in life. these guidelines are so stringent that they impose on the person significant limitations, often unnecessarily. if a person is prone to neurosis, can not withstand its own", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5735921150009584, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0da1d5a7-40b1-46cd-872a-d184c1402c3c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.663459"}
{"text": "people believe that they must strictly adhere to certain principles in life. these guidelines are so stringent that they impose on the person significant limitations, often unnecessarily. if a person is prone to neurosis, can not withstand its own principles, his inner conflict arises. warning neurosis actually is the ability to rights to avoid ' the origin of internal conflict. \" great importance for the prevention of neurosis and has a correct way of life. experience shows that the various troubles, because of which it may be a neurosis, we easier to confront, if you are in good condition. good physical condition promotes mental health. in addition, the proper division of time devoted to work, leisure, entertainment and well as nutrition \u2013 all of it is acceptable for the prevention of neurosis. for a man prone to neurosis, is very harmful alcohol consumption, smoking, black coffee craze. and in conclusion i would like to add. external factors themselves may not lead to a neurosis. most often depends on the person, how they will act on it. and more so depends on it, will the impact of these factors to the emergence of neurosis. if you want to avoid this disease, you should get rid of those traits of your character, that obstruct your life and contribute to the creation of unsolvable situations, otherwise you should seek medical advice immediately.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5292870442333362, "token_count": 288, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0da1d5a7-40b1-46cd-872a-d184c1402c3c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.664052"}
{"text": "people the world over speak of the \" space age \" as beginning with the launching of the russian sputnik on 4 october 1957. yet americans might well set the date hack at least to july 1955 when the white house, through president eisenhower ' s press secretary, announced that the united states planned to launch a man - made earth satellite as an american contribution to the international geophysical year. if the undertaking seemed bizarre to much of the american public at that time, to astrophysicists and some of the military the government ' s decision was a source of elation : after years of waiting they had won official support for a project that promised to provide an invaluable tool for basic research in the regions beyond the upper atmosphere. six weeks later, after a statement came from the pentagon that the navy was to take charge of the launching program, most americans apparently forgot about it. it would not again assume great importance until october 1957. every major scientific advance has depended upon two basic elements, first. imaginative perception and, second, continually refined tools to observe, measure. and record phenomena that support, alter, or demolish a tentative hypothesis. this process of basic research often seems to have no immediate utility, hut, as one scientist pointed out in 1957, it took samuel langley ' s and the wright brothers ' experiments in aerodynamics to make human flight possible, and hans bethe ' s abstruse calculations on the nature of the sun ' s energy led to the birth of the hydrogen bomb. just as isaac newton ' s laws of gravity, motion, and thermodynamics furnished the principles upon the application of which the exploration of outer space began and is proceeding. in space exploration the data fed back to scientists from instrumented satellites have been of utmost importance. the continuing improvement of such research tools opens up the prospect of greatly enlarging knowledge of the world we live in and making new applications of that knowledge. in the decade before sputnik. however, laymen tended to ridicule the idea of putting a man - made object into orbit about the earth. even if the feat were possible, what purpose would it serve except to show that it could be done? as early as 1903, to be sure. konstantin tsiolkovskiy, a russian scientist, had proved mathematically the feasibility of using the reactive force that lifts a rocket to eject a vehicle into space above the pull of the earth ' s gravity. twenty years later romanian - born hermann oberth had independently worked out similar formulas, but before", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5393935488184387, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.707786"}
{"text": "had proved mathematically the feasibility of using the reactive force that lifts a rocket to eject a vehicle into space above the pull of the earth ' s gravity. twenty years later romanian - born hermann oberth had independently worked out similar formulas, but before the l950s, outside a very small circle of rocket buffs, the studies of both men remained virtually unknown in the english - speaking world. neither had built a usable rocket to demonstrate the validity of his theories, and, preoccupied as each was with plans for human journeys to the moon and planets, neither had so much as mentioned an unmanned artificial satellite. 1 indeed until communication by means of radio waves had developed far beyond the techniques of the 1930s and early l940s, the launching of an inanimate body into the heavens could have little appeal for either the scientist or the romantic dreamer. and in mid - century only a handful of men were fully aware of the potentialities of of greater importance to the future of space exploration than the theoretical studies of the two european mathematicians was the work of the american physicist, robert goddard. while engaged in post - graduate work at princeton university before world war i, goddard had demonstrated in the laboratory that rocket propulsion would function in a vacuum, and in 1917 he received a grant of $ 5, 000 from the smithsonian institution to continue his experiments. under this grant the smithsonian published his report of his theory and early experiments, method of reaching extreme altitudes. in 1918 he had successfully developed a solid - fuel ballistic rocket in which, however, even the united states army lost interest after the armistice. convinced that rockets would eventually permit travel into outer space, goddard after the war had continued his research at clark university, seeking to develop vehicles that could penetrate into the ionosphere. in contrast to tsiolkovskiy and oberth, he set himself to devising practical means of attaining the goal they all three aspired to. in 1926 he successfully launched a rocket propelled by gasoline and liquid oxygen, a \" first \" that ranks in fame with the wright brothers ' kitty hawk flights of 1903. with the help of charles lindbergh after his dramatic solo transatlantic flight. goddard obtained a grant of $ 5, 000 from daniel guggenheim and equipped a small laboratory in new mexico where he built several rockets. in 1937, assisted by grants from the daniel and florence guggenheim foundation, he launched a rocket that reached an altitude of 9, 000 feet. although not many people in the united states knew much about his work, a few had followed it as closely as his secretiveness", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5654187261167276, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.709419"}
{"text": "assisted by grants from the daniel and florence guggenheim foundation, he launched a rocket that reached an altitude of 9, 000 feet. although not many people in the united states knew much about his work, a few had followed it as closely as his secretiveness allowed them to ; among them were members of the american interplanetary space society, organized in 1930 and later renamed the american rocket society. with the coming of world war ii goddard abandoned his field experiments, but the navy employed him to help in developing liquid propellants for jato, that is, jet - assisted takeoff for aircraft. when the nazi \" buzz \" bombs of 1943 and the supersonic \" vengeance \" missile - the \" v - 2s \" that rained on london during 1944 and early 1945 - awakened the entire world to the potentialities of rockets as weapons, a good many physicists and military men studied his findings with attention. by a twist of fate, goddard, who was even more interested in astronautics than in weaponry, died in 1945, fourteen years before most of his countrymen acknowledged manned space exploration as feasible and recognized his basic contribution to it by naming the government ' s new multi - million - dollar experimental station at beltsville, maryland, \" the goddard space flight center. \" 3 ( photo courtesy of mrs. robert h. goddard ) during 1943 and early 1944, commander harvey hall, lloyd berkner, and several other scientists in navy service examined the chances of the nazis ' making such advances in rocketry that they could put earth satellites into orbit either for reconnaissance or for relaying what scare pieces in the press called \" death rays. \" while the investigators foresaw well before the first v - 2 struck britain that german experts could build rockets capable of reaching targets a few hundred miles distant, study showed that the state of the art was not yet at a stage to overcome the engineering difficulties of firing a rocket to a sufficient altitude to launch a body into the ionosphere. the region between 50 and 250 miles above the earth ' s surface. in the process of arriving at that conclusion members of the intelligence team, like tsiolkovskiy and oberth before them, worked out the mathematical formulas of the velocities needed. once technology had progressed further, these men knew, an artificial earth - circling satellite would be entirely feasible. more important, if it were equipped with a transmitter and recording devices, it would provide an invaluable means of obtaining information about outer space. 4 at the end of the war, when most americans wanted to forget", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5457430937341465, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.710556"}
{"text": "satellite would be entirely feasible. more important, if it were equipped with a transmitter and recording devices, it would provide an invaluable means of obtaining information about outer space. 4 at the end of the war, when most americans wanted to forget about rockets and everything military, these men were eager to pursue rocket development in order to further scientific research. in 1888 simon newcomb, the most eminent american astronomer of his day, had declared : - \" we are probably nearing the limit of all we can know about astronomy. \" in 1945, despite powerful new telescopes and notable advances in radio techniques, that pronouncement appeared still true unless observations made above the earth ' s atmosphere were to become possible. only a mighty rocket could reach beyond the blanket of the earth ' s atmosphere ; and in the united states only the armed services possessed the means of procuring rockets with sufficient thrust to attain the necessary altitude. at the same time a number of officers wanted to experiment with improving rockets as weapons. each group followed a somewhat different course during the next few years, but each gave some thought to launching an \" earth - circling spaceship, ' ' since, irrespective of ultimate purpose, the requirements for launching and flight control were similar. the character of those tentative early plans bears examination, if only because of the consequences of their rejection. \" operation paperclip. \" the first official army project aimed at acquiring german know - how about rocketry and technology, grew out of the capture of a hundred of the notorious v - 2s and out of interrogations of key scientists and engineers who had worked at the nazi ' s rocket research and development base at peenemuende. hence the decision to bring to the united states about one hundred twenty of the german experts along with the captured missiles and spare parts. before the arrival of the germans, general donald putt of the army air forces outlined to officers at wright field some of the nazi schemes for putting space platforms into the ionosphere ; when his listeners laughed at what appeared to be a tall tale, he assured them that these were far from silly vaporings and were likely to materialize before the end of the century. still the haughtiness of the germans who landed at wright field in the autumn of 1945 was not endearing to the americans who had to work with them. the navy wanted none of them, whatever their skills. during a searching interrogation before the group left germany a former german general had remarked testily that had hitler not been so pig - headed the nazi team might now", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5402782088359722, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.711915"}
{"text": "americans who had to work with them. the navy wanted none of them, whatever their skills. during a searching interrogation before the group left germany a former german general had remarked testily that had hitler not been so pig - headed the nazi team might now be giving orders to american engineers ; to which the american scientist conducting the questioning growled in reply that americans would never have permitted a hitler to rise to power. 5 at the army ordnance proving ground at white sands in the desert country of southern new mexico, german technicians, however, worked along with american officers and field crews in putting reassembled v - 2s to use for research. as replacing the explosive in the warhead with scientific instruments and ballast would permit observing and recording data on the upper atmosphere. the army invited other government agencies and universities to share in making high - altitude measurements by this means. assisted by the german rocketeers headed by wernher von braun, the general electric company under a contract with the army took charge of the launchings. scientists from the five participating universities and from laboratories of the armed services designed and built the instruments placed in the rockets ' noses. in the course of the next five years teams from each of the three military services and the universities assembled information from successful launchings of forty instrumented v - 2s. in june 1946 a v - 2, the first probe using instruments devised by members of the newly organized rocket sonde research section of the naval research laboratory, carried to an altitude of sixty - seven miles a geiger - counter telescope to detect cosmic rays, pressure and temperature gauges, a spectrograph, and radio transmitters. during january and february 1946 nrl scientists had investigated the possibility of launching an instrumented earth satellite in this fashion, only to conclude reluctantly that engineering techniques were still too unsophisticated to make it practical ; for the time being, the laboratory would gain more by perfecting instruments to be emplaced in and recovered from v - 2s. as successive shots set higher altitude records, new spectroscopic equipment developed by the micron waves branch of the laboratory ' s optics division produced a number of excellent ultraviolet and x - ray spectra, measured night air glow, and determined ozone concentration. 6 in the interim the army ' s \" bumper \" project produced and successfully flew a two - stage rocket consisting of a \" wac corporal \" missile superimposed on a v - 2. after each launching, an unofficial volunteer panel of scientists and technicians, soon known as the upper atmosphere rocket research panel, discussed the findings. indeed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5079764312402968, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.713360"}
{"text": "two - stage rocket consisting of a \" wac corporal \" missile superimposed on a v - 2. after each launching, an unofficial volunteer panel of scientists and technicians, soon known as the upper atmosphere rocket research panel, discussed the findings. indeed the panel coordinated and guided the research that built up a considerable body of data on the nature of the upper atmosphere. nevertheless, because the supply of v - 2s would not last indefinitely, and because a rocket built expressly for research would have distinct advantages, the nrl staff early decided to draw up specifications for a new sounding rocket. although the applied physics laboratory of the johns hopkins university. under contract with the navy ' s bureau of ordnance and the office of naval research, was modifying the \" wac corporal \" to develop the fin - stabilized aerobee research rocket, nrl wanted a model with a sensitive steering mechanism and gyroscopic controls. in august 1946 the glenn l. martin company won the contract to design and construct a vehicle that would meet the nrl requirements. 7 four months before the army ordnance department started work on captured v - 2s, the navy bureau of aeronautics had initiated a more ambitious research scheme with the appointment of a committee for evaluating the feasibility of space rocketry. unmistakably inspired by the ideas of members of the navy intelligence team which had investigated nazi capabilities in rocketry during the war, and, like that earlier group, directed by the brilliant harvey hall, the committee embarked upon an intensive study of the physical requirements and the technical resources available for launching a vessel into orbit about the earth. by 22 october 1945, the committee had drafted recommendations urging the bureau of aeronautics to sponsor an experimental program to devise an earth - orbiting \" space ship \" launched by a single - stage rocket, propelled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, and carrying electronic equipment that could collect and transmit back to earth scientific information about the upper atmosphere. here was a revolutionary proposal. if based on the speculative thinking of navy scientists in 1944, it was now fortified by careful computations. designed solely for research, the unmanned instrumented satellite weighing about two thousand pounds and put into orbit by a rocket motor burning a new type of fuel should he able to stay aloft for days instead of the seconds possible with vertical probing rockets. nazi experts at peenemuende, for all their sophisticated ideas about future space flights, had never thought of building anything comparable. 8 the recommendations to the bureau of aeronautics quickly led to exploratory contracts with the jet propulsion laboratory of the california institute of technology and the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5161979498038286, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.714681"}
{"text": "unit of the douglas aircraft company and a forerunner of the rand corporation of california. 11 like the scientists of the bureau of aeronautics committee, project rand mathematicians and engineers declared technology already equal to the task of launching a spaceship. the ship could be circling the earth, they averred, within five years, namely by mid - 1951. they admitted that it could not be used as a carrier for an atomic bomb and would have no direct function as a weapon, but they stressed the advantages that would nevertheless accrue from putting an artificial satellite into orbit : \" to visualize the impact on the world, one can imagine the consternation and admiration that would be felt here if the united states were to discover suddenly that some other nation had already put up a successful satellite. \" 12 officials at the pentagon were unimpressed. theodore von karman, chief mentor of the army air forces and principal author of the report that became the research and development bible of the service, advocated research in the upper atmosphere but was silent about the use of an artificial satellite. nor did vannevar bush have faith in such a venture. the most influential scientist in america of his day and in 1946 chairman of the joint army and navy research and development board. bush was even skeptical about the possibility of developing within the foreseeable future the engineering skills necessary to build intercontinental guided missiles. his doubts, coupled with von karman ' s disregard of satellite schemes, inevitably dashed cold water on the proposals and helped account for the lukewarm reception long accorded them. 13 still the veto of a combined navy - army air forces program did not kill the hopes of advocates of a \" space ship. \" while the navy and its contractors continued the development of a scale model 3, 000 - pound - thrust motor powered by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, project rand completed a second study for the army air forces. but after mid - 1947, when the air force became a separate service within the newly created department of defense, reorganization preoccupied its officers for a year or more, and many of them, academic scientists believed, shared general lemay ' s indifference to research not immediately applicable to defense problems. at buaer, on the other hand, a number of men continued to press for money to translate satellite studies into actual experiments. unhappily for them, a technical evaluation group of civilian scientists serving on the guided missiles committee of the defense department ' s research and development board declared in march 1948 that \" neither the navy nor the usaf has as yet established either a military or a scientific", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5383639208849649, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.719102"}
{"text": "- ray and ultraviolet wavelengths, equipment which would later supply answers to questions about the nuclear composition of solar radiation. equally valuable was the development of an electronic tracking device known as a \" single - axis phase - comparison angle - tracking unit, \" the antecedent of \" minitrack, \" which would permit continuous tracking of a small instrumented body in space. when the next to last viking, no. 11, rose to an altitude of 158 miles in may 1954, the radio telemetering system transmitted data on cosmic ray emissions, just as the viking 10, fired about two weeks before, had furnished scientists with the first measurement of positive ion composition at an altitude of 136 miles. 21 this remarkable series of successes achieved in five years at a total cost of less than $ 6 million encouraged nrl in 1955 to believe that, with a more powerful engine and the addition of upper stages, here was a vehicle capable of launching an earth satellite. an \" earth circling satellite \", 1951. essential though this work was to subsequent programs, the naval research laboratory in the late l940s and the l950s was hampered by not having what john p. hagen called \" stable funding \" for its projects. hagen, head of the atmosphere and astrophysics division., found the budgetary system singularly unsatisfactory. nrl had been founded in 1923, but a post - world - war - ii reorganization within the navy had brought the office of naval research into being and given it administrative control of the laboratory ' s finances. onr allotted the laboratory a modest fixed sum annually, but other navy bureaus and federal agencies frequently engaged the laboratory ' s talents and paid for particular jobs. the arrangement resembled that of a man who receives a small retainer from his employer but depends for most of his livelihood on fees paid him by his own clientele for special services. nrl ' s every contract, whether for design studies or hardware, had to be negotiated and administered either by onr or by one of the permanent navy bureau - in atmospheric research, it was by the navy bureau of aeronautics. the cancellation of a contract could seriously disrupt nrl functioning, as the years 1950 to 1954 illustrated. 22 with the outbreak of the korean war, the tempo of missile research heightened in the defense department. while the navy was working on a guided missile launchable from shipboard and a group at nrl on radio interferometers for tracking it, rocketeers at redstone arsenal in alabama were engaged in getting the \" bugs \" out of a north american aviation engine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5439140707841109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.722215"}
{"text": "navy was working on a guided missile launchable from shipboard and a group at nrl on radio interferometers for tracking it, rocketeers at redstone arsenal in alabama were engaged in getting the \" bugs \" out of a north american aviation engine for a ballistic missile with a 200 - mile range, and rand was carrying on secret studies of a military reconnaissance satellite for the air force. in june 1952 nrl got approval for the construction of four additional vikings similar to viking no. 10 to use in ballistic missile research, but eleven months later buaer withdrew its support and canceled the development contract for a high - performance oxygen - ammonia engine that was to have replaced the less powerful viking engine ; this cancellation postponed by over three years the availability of a suitable power plant for the first stage of the future vanguard rocket. similarly in 1954 lack of funds curtailed an nrl program to design and develop a new liquid - propelled aerobee - hi probing rocket. at the request of the western development division of the air force in july 1954, the laboratory investigated the possible use of an improved viking as a test vehicle for intercontinental ballistic missiles, icbms. the study, involving a solution of the \" reentry problem, \" that is, how to enable a missile ' s warhead to return into the atmosphere without disintegrating before reaching its target, produced the design of an m - i0 and m - 15 viking, the designations referring to the speeds, measured by mach number, at which each would reenter the atmosphere. but the air force later let the development contracts to private industry. 23 in these years the department of defense was unwilling to spend more than token sums on research that appeared to have only remote connection with fighting equipment. the creation of the national science foundation in may 1950 tended to justify that position, for one of the new agency ' s main functions was to encourage and provide support for basic research chiefly by means of grants - in - aid to american universities. the mission of the army, navy, and air force was national defense, that of the foundation the fostering of scientific discovery. it was a responsibility of the foundation to decide what lines of fundamental research most merited public financial aid in their own right, whereas other federal agencies must by law limit their basic research to fields closely related to their practical missions. while the foundation ' s charter forbade it to make grants for applied research and development - the very area in which the military would often have welcomed assistance - any government department could ask the national academy of sciences for help on scientific problems", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5292210633555661, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.723428"}
{"text": "to their practical missions. while the foundation ' s charter forbade it to make grants for applied research and development - the very area in which the military would often have welcomed assistance - any government department could ask the national academy of sciences for help on scientific problems. the academy, founded in 1863 as a self - perpetuating body advisory to but independent of the government, included distinguished men in every scientific field. when its executive unit, the national research council, agreed to sponsor studies for federal agencies, the studies sometimes involved more applied than pure research. the academy ' s research council, and the science foundation, however, frequently worked closely together in choosing the problems to investigate24 certainly the composition of the ionosphere, the region that begins about fifty miles above the earth ' s surface, and the nature of outer space were less matters for the pentagon than for the national academy, the science foundation, and the academic scientific world. indeed, the panel of volunteers which analyzed the findings from each instrumented v - 2 shot and later appraised the results of aerobee, viking, and aerobee - hi flights contained from the first some future members of the academy. among the participants over the years were homer j. stewart and william h. pickering of cal tech ' s jet propulsion laboratory, milton w. rosen, homer e. newell, jr., and john w. townsend, jr., of nrl, and james a. van allen of the applied physics laboratory of the johns hopkins university and later a professor at the state university of iowa. under van allen ' s chairmanship, the panel on upper atmosphere rocket research came to be a strong link between university physicists and the department of defense, a more direct link in several respects than that afforded by civilian scientists who served on advisory committees of the dod ' s research and development board. 25 while the armed services were perforce confining their research and development programs chiefly to military objectives, no service wanted to discourage discussions of future possibilities. in the autumn of 1951 several doctors in the air force and a group of physicists brought together by joseph kaplan of the university of california, los angeles, met in san antonio, texas, for a symposium on the physics and medicine of the upper atmosphere. the participants summarized existing knowledge of the region named the \" aeropause, \" where manned flight was not yet possible, and examined the problems of man ' s penetrating into that still unexplored area. the papers published in book form a year later were directly instrumental, kaplan believed, in arousing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.530566094786825, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.727430"}
{"text": "effects of the radiation from outer space upon living cells. in communications, john r. pierce, whose proposal of 1952 gave birth to telstar a decade later, 28 discussed the utility of a relay for radio and television broadcasts. data obtainable in the realm of geodesy. according to major john o ' keefe of the army map service, would throw light on the size and shape of the earth and the intensity of its gravitational fields, information which would be invaluable to navigators and mapmakers. the meteorologist eugene bollay of north american weather consultants spoke of the predictable gains in accuracy of weather forecasting. perhaps most illuminating to the nonscientifically trained reader was homer e. newell ' s analysis of the unknowns of the ionosphere which data accumulated over a period of days could clarify. confusing and complex happenings in the atmosphere, wrote newell, were \" a manifestation of an influx of energy from outer space. what was the nature and magnitude of that energy? much of the incoming energy was absorbed in the atmosphere at high altitudes. from data transmitted from a space satellite five hundred miles above the earth, the earth - hound scientist might gauge the nature and intensity of the radiation emanating from the sun, the primary producer of that energy. cosmic rays. meteors, and micrometeors also brought in energy. although they probably had little effect on the upper atmosphere, cosmic rays, with their extremely high energies, produced ionization in the lower atmosphere. low - energy particles from the sun were thought to cause the aurora and to play a significant part in the formation of the ionosphere. sounding rockets permitted little more than momentary measurements of the various radiations at various heights, but with a satellite circling the earth in a geomagnetic meridian plane it should be possible to study in detail the low - energy end of the cosmic ray spectrum, a region inaccessible to direct observation within the atmosphere and best studied above the geomagnetic poles. batteries charged by the sun should be able to supply power to relay information for weeks or months. contrary to what an indifferent public might have expected from rocket \" crackpots, \" the document noted that \" to create a satellite merely for the purpose of saying it has been done would not justify the cost. rather, the satellite should serve useful purpose - purposes which can command the respect of the officials who sponsor it, the scientists and engineers who produce it, and the community who pays for it. \" the appeal was primarily to the scientific community, but the intelligent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5447455769863802, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.730323"}
{"text": ", the satellite should serve useful purpose - purposes which can command the respect of the officials who sponsor it, the scientists and engineers who produce it, and the community who pays for it. \" the appeal was primarily to the scientific community, but the intelligent layman could comprehend it. and its publication in an engineering journal in february 1955 gave the report a diversified audience. 29 a number of men in and outside government service meantime had continued to pursue the satellite idea. in february 1952 aristid v. grosse of temple university, a key figure in the manhattan project in its early days, had persuaded president truman to approve a study of the utility of a satellite in the form of an inflatable balloon visible to the naked eye from the surface of the earth. aware that wernher von braun, one of the german - born experts from peenemuende, was interested, the physicist took counsel with him and his associates at redstone arsenal in huntsville, alabama. fifteen months later grosse submitted to the secretary of the air force a description of the \" american star \" that could rise in the west. presumably because the proposed satellite would be merely a show piece without other utility, nothing more was heard of it. 30 a series of articles in three issues of collier ' s, however, commanded wide attention during 1952. stirred by an account of the san antonio symposium as kaplan described it over the lunch table, the editors of the magazine engaged wernher von braun to write the principal pieces and obtained shorter contributions from kaplan, fred l. whipple, chairman of the harvard university department of astronomy, heinz haber of the air force space medicine division, the journalist willy ley, and others. the editors ' comment ran : \" what are we waiting for? \", an expression of alarm lest a communist nation preempt outer space before the united states acted and thereby control the earth from manned space platforms equipped with atomic bombs. on the other hand, von braun ' s articles chiefly stressed the exciting discoveries possible within twenty - five years if america at once began building \" cargo rockets \" and a wheel - shaped earth - circling space station from which american rocket ships could depart to other planets and return. perhaps because of severe editing to adapt material to popular consumption, the text contained little or no technical data on how these wonders were to be accomplished ; the term \" telemetry \" nowhere appeared. but the articles, replete with illustrations in color, and a subsequent walt disney film fanned public interest and led to an change of letters between von braun", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5210712883260749, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.731668"}
{"text": "on how these wonders were to be accomplished ; the term \" telemetry \" nowhere appeared. but the articles, replete with illustrations in color, and a subsequent walt disney film fanned public interest and led to an change of letters between von braun and s. fred singer, a brilliant young physicist at the university of maryland. 31 at the fourth congress of the international astronautics federation in zurich, switzerland, in summer 1953, singer proposed a minimum orbital unmanned satellite of the earth, mouse, based upon a study prepared two years earlier by members of the british interplanetary society who had predicated their scheme on the use of a v - 2 rocket. the upper atmosphere rocket research panel at white sands in turn discussed the plan in april 1954, and in may singer again presented his mouse proposal at the hayden planetarium ' s fourth space travel symposium. on that occasion harry wexler of the united states weather bureau gave a lecture entitled, \" observing the weather from a satellite vehicle. \" 32 the american public was thus being exposed to the concept of an artificial satellite as something more than science fiction. by then, commander george hoover and alexander satin of the air branch of the office of naval research had come to the conclusion that recent technological advances in rocketry had so improved the art that the feasibility of launching a satellite was no longer in serious doubt. hoover therefore put out feelers to specialists of the army ballistic missile agency at huntsville. there von braun, having temporarily discarded his space platform as impractical, was giving thought to using the redstone rocket to place a small satellite in orbit. redstone, a direct descendant of the v - 2, was, as one man described it, a huge piece of \" boiler plate. \" sixty - nine feet long, seventy inches in diameter, and weighing 61, 000 pounds, its power plant using liquid oxygen as oxidizer and an alcohol - water mixture as fuel. a new redstone engine built by the rocketdyne division of north american aviation, inc., and tested in 1953 was thirty percent lighter and thirty - four percent more powerful than that of the v - 2. 33 if commander hoover knew of the futile efforts of buaer in 1947 to get army air forces collaboration on a not wholly dissimilar space program, that earlier disappointment failed to discourage him. and as he had reason to believe he could now get navy funds for a satellite project, he had no difficulty in enlisting von braun ' s interest. at a meeting in washington arranged by frederick c. durant,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5389231548481782, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.733961"}
{"text": "\" orbiter was to be built largely from existing hardware. 36 during the spring of 1953 the united states national committee drafted a statement which the international council later adopted, listing the fields of inquiry which igy programs should encompass - oceanographic phenomena, polar geography, and seismology, for example, and, in the celestial area, such matters as solar activity, sources of ionizing radiations, cosmic rays, and their effects upon the atmosphere. 39 army ballistic missile agency, huntsville, alabama. at this point it is necessary to examine the course scientific thought had been taking among physicists of the national academy and american universities, for in the long run it was their recommendations that would most immediately affect governmental decisions about a satellite program. this phase of the story opens in spring 1950, at an informal gathering at james van allen ' s home in silver spring, maryland. the group invited by van allen to meet with the eminent british geophysicist sydney chapman consisted of lloyd berkner, head of the new brookhaven national laboratory on long island, s. fred singer, j. wallace joyce, a geophysicist with the navy buaer and adviser to the department of state, and ernest h. vestine of the department of terrestrial magnetism of the carnegie institution. as they talked of how to obtain simultaneous measurements and observations of the earth and the upper atmosphere from a distance above the earth, berkner suggested that perhaps staging another international polar year would be the best way. his companions immediately responded enthusiastically. berkner and chapman then developed the idea further and put it into form to present to the international council of scientific unions. the first international polar year had established the precedent of international scientific cooperation in 1882 when scientists of a score of nations agreed to pool their efforts for a year in studying polar conditions. a second international polar year took place, in 1932. berkner ' s proposal to shorten the interval to 25 years was timely because 1957 - 1958, astronomers knew, would be a period of maximum solar activity. 37 european scientists subscribed to the plan. in 1952 the international council of scientific unions appointed a committee to make arrangements, extended the scope of the study to the whole earth, not just the polar regions, fixed the duration at eighteen months, and then renamed the undertaking the international geophysical year, shortened in popular speech to igy. it eventually embraced sixty - seven nations. 38 in the international council of scientific unions the national academy of sciences had always been the adhering body for the united states. the council", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5023970709015996, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.737064"}
{"text": "undertaking the international geophysical year, shortened in popular speech to igy. it eventually embraced sixty - seven nations. 38 in the international council of scientific unions the national academy of sciences had always been the adhering body for the united states. the council itself, generally called icsu, was and is the headquarters unit of a nongovernmental international association of scientific groups such as the international union of geodesy and geophysics. the international union of pure and applied physics, the international scientific radio union, and others. when plans were afoot for international scientific programs which needed governmental support, americans of the national academy naturally looked to the national science foundation for federal funds. relations between the two organizations had always been cordial, the foundation often turning for advice to the academy and its secretariat, the national research council, and the academy frequently seeking financing for projects from the foundation. at the end of 1952 the academy appointed a united states national committee for the igy headed by joseph kaplan to plan for american participation. the choice of kaplan as chairman strengthened the position of men interested in the upper atmosphere and outer space. during the spring of 1953 the united states national committee drafted a statement which the international council later adopted, listing the fields of inquiry which igy programs should encompass - oceanographic phenomena, polar geography, and seismology, for example, and, in the celestial area, such matters as solar activity, sources of ionizing radiations, cosmic rays, and their effects upon the atmosphere. 39in the course of the year the science foundation granted $ 27, 000 to the igy committee for planning, but in december, when hugh odishaw left his post as assistant to the director of the bureau of standards to become secretary of the national committee, it was still uncertain how much further support the government would give igy programs. foundation resources were limited. although in august congress had removed the $ 15, 000, 000 ceiling which the original act had placed on the foundation ' s annual budget, the appropriation voted for fy 1954 had totaled only $ 8 million. in view of the foundation ' s other commitments, that sum seemed unlikely to allow for extensive participation in the igy. in january 1954 the national committee asked for a total of $ 13 million. scientists ' hopes rose in march when president eisenhower announced that, in contrast to the $ 100 million spent in 1940 on federal support of research and development, he was submitting a $ 2 - billion research and development budget to congress for fy 1955. hope turned to gratification in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5025916098208298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.738233"}
{"text": "of his associates to his room at the hotel majestic to review the pros and cons, to make sure, as one man put it. that the proposal to csagi was not just a \" pious resolution \" such as newton could have submitted to the royal society. the group included joseph kaplan, u. s. national committee chairman, hugh odishaw, committee secretary, athelstan spilhaus, dean of the university of minnesota ' s institute of technology. alan h. shapley of the national bureau of standards, harry wexler of the weather bureau, wallace joyce, newell, and singer. the session lasted far into the night. singer outlined the scientific and technical problem - the determination of orbits, the effects of launching errors, the probable life of the satellite, telemetering and satellite orientation, receiving stations, power supplies, and geophysical and astrophysical applications of data. newell, better versed than some of the others in the technical difficulties to be overcome, pointed out that satellite batteries might bubble in the weightless environment of space, whereupon spilhaus banged his fist and shouted : \" then we ' ll get batteries that won ' t! \" singer ' s presentation was exciting, but the question remained whether an artificial body of the limited size and weight a rocket could as yet put into orbit could carry enough reliable instrumentation to prove of sufficient scientific value to warrant the cost ; money and effort poured into that project would not be available for other research, and to attempt to build a big satellite might be to invite defeat. both berkner and spilhaus spoke of the political and psychological prestige that would accrue to the nation that first launched a man - made satellite. as everyone present knew, a. n. nesmeyanov of the soviet academy of sciences had said in november 1953 that satellite launchings and moon shots were already feasible ; and with tsiolkovskiy ' s work now recognized by western physicists, the americans had reason to believe in russian scientific and technological capabilities. in march 1954 moscow radio had exhorted soviet youth to prepare for space exploration, and in april the moscow air club had announced that studies in interplanetary flight were beginning. very recently the u. s. s. r. had committed itself to igy participation. while the american scientists in september 1954 did not discount the possible russian challenge, some of them insisted that a satellite experiment must not assume such emphasis as to cripple or halt upper atmosphere research by means of sounding rockets. the latter was an established", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5226848631627228, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.740587"}
{"text": ". while the american scientists in september 1954 did not discount the possible russian challenge, some of them insisted that a satellite experiment must not assume such emphasis as to cripple or halt upper atmosphere research by means of sounding rockets. the latter was an established useful technique that could provide, as a satellite in orbit could not, measurements at a succession of altitudes in and above the upper atmosphere, measurements along the vertical instead of the horizontal plane. nevertheless at the end of the six - hour session, the group unanimously agreed to urge csagi to endorse an igy satellite project. 41 during the csagi meeting that followed, the soviet representatives listened to the discussion but neither objected, volunteered comment, nor asked questions. on 4 october csagi adopted the american proposal : \" in view, \" stated of the great importance of observations during extended periods of time of extra - terrestrial radiations and geophysical phenomena in the upper atmosphere, and in view of the advanced state of present rocket techniques, csagi recommends that thought be given to the launching of small satellite vehicles, to their scientific instrumentation, and to the new problems associated with satellite experiments, such as power supply, telemetering, and orientation of the vehicle. 42 what had long seemed to most of the american public as pure jules verne and buck rogers fantasy now had the formal backing of the world ' s most eminent scientists. thus by the time the united states committee for the igy appointed a feasibility panel on upper atmosphere research, three separate, albeit interrelated, groups of americans were concerned with a possible earth satellite project : physicists, geodesists, and astronomers intent on basic research ; officers of the three armed services looking for scientific means to military ends ; and industrial engineers, including members of the american rocket society, who were eager to see an expanding role for their companies. the three were by no means mutually exclusive. the dedicated scientist, for instance, in keeping with theodore von karman ' s example as a founder and official of the aerojet general corporation, might also be a shareholder in a research - orientated electronics or aircraft company, just as the industrialist might have a passionate interest in pure as well as applied science, and the military man might share the intellectual and practical interests of both the others. certainly all three wanted improvements in equipment for national defense. still the primary objective of each group differed from those of the other two. these differences were to have subtle effects on vanguard ' s development. although to some people the role of the national academy appeared to be that of a johnny", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5390539995388148, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:53543d36-5492-46ab-8c85-e726ec7b3caa>", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.741821"}
{"text": "corporate social responsibility ( csr ) refers to the relationship of corporations with society as a whole, and the need for corporations to align their values with societal expectations in order to avoid conflict and reap tangible benefits. multinational enterprises ( mnes ) are an important part of the international economy. through international direct investment, they bring substantial benefits to home and host countries in the form of productive capital, managerial and technological know - how, job creation and tax revenues. at the same time, public concerns remain about the social, economic and environmental impact of mne activities on the societies in which they operate. these concerns have led to a proliferation of initiatives at the company, industry, national and global levels, including the development of codes of conduct, monitoring and reporting initiatives, and social labelling schemes covering a broad range of issues, including labour standards. among these are three key multilateral initiatives aimed at encouraging corporations to make a positive contribution to economic and social progress, and to minimize and resolve the difficulties to which their operations may give rise. the ilo ' s tripartite declaration of principles concerning multinational enterprises and social policy is the universal basic reference point for social responsibility in the world of work. it sets out principles, developed through tripartite dialogue, in the fields of employment, training, working conditions, and industrial relations. the effect given by governments, employers and workers ' organizations and multinational enterprises ( mnes ) to the principles of the declaration is monitored through a periodic survey. the ilo has also produced a useful guide to the tripartite declaration that offers practical suggestions on building relationships in global markets among business, government and labour that balance the goals of profitability, the protection of workers ' rights and socio - economic development. the oecd ' s guidelines for multinational enterprises ( pdf 1. 75 mb ) are recommendations from governments to multinational enterprises. they set out voluntary principles and standards for responsible business conduct, consistent with domestic and international laws, in areas such as human rights, information disclosure, employment and industrial relations, environmental stewardship, combating bribery, consumer rights, science and technology, competition and taxation. countries adhering to the guidelines are required to set up a national contact point ( ncp ) that is responsible for promoting the guidelines and contributing to the resolution of issues that arise in relation to the implementation of the guidelines in specific cases. ncps are expected to operate in accordance with the core criteria of visibility, accessibility, transparency and accountability. the labour program participates in canada ' s national contact point, an interdepartmental committee", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5031612105825464, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c1ce217f-e342-41a7-b026-099441222dda>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.745372"}
{"text": "in moscow, drivers reported an average delay of two - and - a - half hours when asked to report the length of the worst traffic jam they experienced in the past three years. but they \u2019 re not alone. cities everywhere are battling an increase in demand and an inability to build sufficient infrastructure to cope. for example, in the u. s., as population grew nearly 20 % between 1982 and 2001, traffic jumped 236 %. the recent ibm commuter pain study ( us ) paints a grim picture of metropolitan - area commuters in many cities struggling to get to and from work each day, often with negative consequences. for example, 57 percent of all respondents say that roadway traffic has negatively affected their health, but that percentage soars to 96 percent in new delhi and 95 percent in beijing. ibm commuter pain index ibm compiled the results of the survey into an index that ranks the emotional and economic toll of commuting in each city on a scale of one to 100 \u2015 with 100 being the most onerous. the index reveals a tremendous disparity in the pain of the daily commute from city to city. for example, the commute in beijing is four times more painful than the commute in los angeles or new york, and seven times more painful than the commute in stockholm, according to the index. here \u2019 s how the cities stack up : the survey was conducted to better understand consumer thinking toward traffic congestion as the issue reaches crisis proportions nationwide and higher levels of auto emissions stir environmental concerns. these events are impacting communities around the world, where governments, citizens and private sector organizations are looking beyond traditional remedies like additional roads and greater access to public transportation to reverse the negative impacts of increased road congestion. improving mobility for the 21st century ibm chairman samuel j. palmisano addresses members of the intelligent transportation society of america about the opportunities for a smarter transportation system. traffic systems are part of a larger system rethinking how we get from point a to point b means applying new technology and new policies to old assumptions and habits. it means improving the drivers ' experience, not just where and when they drive. and it could lead to advances in the cars we drive, the roads we drive them on, and the public transit we might take instead. for example, seeing a city ' s traffic in a consolidated, real - time view can help anticipate problems, alleviate congestion and decrease emergency - response times. ibm intelligent transportation ( us ), a compliment to the intelligent operations center for smarter cities, enables advanced analysis of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.504529539354412, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:734c7e20-62cd-41a3-a2f3-a946b8e2f69c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.754511"}
{"text": "in rural and developing areas of africa, there is a lack of expected comforts that other areas of the world take for granted, such as light and energy. sometimes building or receiving these necessities help to stimulate communities and raise the quality of life for families. to help encourage these struggling areas, undergraduate students from the university of kwazulu - natal, school of electrical, electronic and computer engineering, in south africa, will be designing and building a solar photo - voltaic lamp that is portable and suitably priced for rural households. the lamp will have additional functions such as an am / fm radio and the capability to charge mobile phones. with further enhancement, it would also be capable of including a miniature multi - media device. the project will involve 4th year students at the university. the work of the students will be guided and mentored by ieee member edward chikuni, along with a senior academic, who will insure that they learn design skills and other necessary knowledge associated with their degree program. most importantly, students will learn to work in teams and serve their community. they will collaborate with \u201c family literacy project, \u201d a non - profit organization with strong activities in education and literacy among rural dwellings. the university students will interact with high school students at qalimfundo primary school for feedback on the project. at the beginning of 2011, data will be collected from rural areas to determine the specifications of the lamp design. during the students first semester, they will work in groups to come up with conceptual designs to compare with one another. by the end of 2011, a detailed prototype and design should be ready. the construction and deployment of these lamps will happen in 2012, when the project is evaluated and refined through government participation. the ultimate goal of this project is to enhance the educational experience of rural families, and encourage students to serve these communities with their engineering backgrounds. with more available access to the functions of the lamp, young children can start, from a young age, to learn and increase their literacy. in turn, it will empower them to find greater opportunities for more educational endeavors.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5436205308184643, "token_count": 422, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:30c299ed-981e-4ac3-992f-7c03f2b5d2d9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.763800"}
{"text": "presentation : \" the aging workforce : challenges and opportunities \" by susanne bruyere and judy young workplace considerations for employees with non - visible disabilities people with disabilities comprise a significant percentage of our society. when we think about \" disability \" we often picture obvious disabilities such as someone who uses a wheelchair or who is blind. but actually a large proportion of individuals with disabilities actually have non - visible disabilities such as learning disabilities or psychiatric impairments. these individuals have a unique set of needs and issues, as well as potential challenges they may encounter in the workplace. this program will explore society ' s view of people with non - visible disabilities and how that can be reflected in the workplace. it will also explore issues around defining disability, disclosure, and confidentiality in the workplace. specifically, this program will enable participants to : \u2022 explore issues around defining what a disability can be and increase their knowledge about different types of disabilities ; \u2022 consider what affects the decision to disclose a disability and what the employer ' s obligations and options are for responding and addressing the needs of an employee who is disclosing having a non - visible disability ; \u2022 discuss how to navigate performance management issues that involve someone with a non - visible disability ; and \u2022 learn best practices around interacting and communicating with employees with disabilities and how to create a disability inclusive workplace. this informational seminar provides basic information pertaining to eligibility for and claiming the earned income tax credit as well as information pertaining to the veterans administration benefits using lecture, powerpoint and opportunity for question and answer. online polling will be used to test participant knowledge. a preparatory reading assignment will be provided and is required. home | about edi | contact us 201 dolgen hall, ithaca, new york 14853 - 3201 voice : 607 - 255 - 7727 | fax : 607 - 255 - 2763 | tty : 607 - 255 - 2891 cornell university | ilr school | employment and disability institute", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.523155615823984, "token_count": 390, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:32aa5517-aad2-40d1-bb07-aacf334f5b4e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.769648"}
{"text": "tuesday, june 10, 2008 leckey on pluralism in the history of canadian civil marriage posted by mary l. dudziak profane matrimony is an essay by robert leckey, mcgill university - faculty of law. it appeared in the canadian journal of law and society ( 2006 ). here ' s the abstract : recent debates over same - sex marriage prompt reflection more generally on the competing norms regulating marriages. two supremacy claims emerged in the debates, one that religious traditions provide the supreme law of marriage, another that civil marriage is entirely secular and its supreme law is the canadian charter of rights and freedoms. this paper identifies similarities in these claims. both wrongly ascribe an internal uniformity to cultural communities. referring to historical amendments to marriage law, the paper argues that both claims are unfaithful to the canadian tradition of marriage law. amendments to the prohibited degrees of relationship and the introduction of federal divorce legislation show the federal parliament to have developed a civil or profane marriage in conscious opposition to religious forms. since the 1880s, marriage law has been periodically altered on the basis that it is wrong in a plural, secular society to impose religious views on nonbelievers. parliament has not simply followed top - down norms, but also regarded social practice as a source of marriage norms. past instances of law reform indicate a rich political tradition of argument and contestation, one in which the churches have not maintained consistently that the civil law of marriage should mirror religious rules. civil marriage and religious marriage are not, as claimed by the standard bearers of the charter, unrelated. they stand instead in a constantly adjusting relationship of tension and difference.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5043004526800893, "token_count": 331, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f8c66cc8-4ba1-48ea-ba91-be47fca6e03b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.917505"}
{"text": "ture. the authors that have treated of it. its relation to the art of gram - the use of it in the matter of speech, consists in the words, either written message in use amongst the terials of writing, whether the paper by changing of their places. ters, by changing their powers. the use of this amongst the jewes and romanes. the key - character. are requisite to the intended mea - barbarous words, and such as shall not seeme to be of any signification. how all the letters may be expressed by any five, three, or two of them. of writing with a double alphabet. how from these two last wayes together, there may be contrived the best kind of se - ters then are required to the words of it. the use of this amongst the jews and ring any letter - characters. how to ex - presse any sense, either by points, or lines, first invention of these. of those that signifie things and notions, as hierogly may be legible to all nations and langua - ges. the benefit, and possibility of this. sing, by signes and gestures, which may ons, either by qualities, as the impressi - on of imagination, and the sensitive spe - cies ; or by spirituall substances, as bodies, whether inanimate, as arrows, bullets, or animate, as men, beasts, the species of sound. of tunes and musicall notes, without any articulate sound. cret and swift informations by the species of sight, which are either fabulous, or smokes. their antiquity. the ture man - ner of using them to this purpose. that these were meant in nuntius inani - matus.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5383066327979764, "token_count": 368, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:670f6f76-6e59-4485-af59-6e1fd68ff21f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.932658"}
{"text": "to form poisonous chlorine gas that can cause burning and watering of eyes, as well as burning of the nose and mouth. bleach \u2013 see sodium hypochlorite diethanolamine ( dea ) \u2013 listed as a suspected carcinogen by the state of california, this chemical is a skin and respiratory toxicant and a severe eye irritant. used in a wide range of household cleaning products. d - limonene \u2013 this chemical is produced by cold - pressing orange peels. the extracted oil is 90 % d - limonene. it is a sensitizer, a neurotoxin, a moderate eye and skin irritant, and can trigger respiratory distress when vapours are inhaled by some sensitive individuals. there is some evidence of carcinogenicity. d - limonene is the active ingredient in some insecticides. it is used as a solvent in many all - purpose cleaning products, especially \u2018 citrus \u2019 and \u2018 orange \u2019 cleaners. also listed on labels as citrus oil and orange oil. ethoxylated nonyl phenol \u2013 nonyl phenols are hormone disruptors and some contain traces of ethylene oxide, a known human carcinogen. they are eye and skin irritants. used in laundry detergents and other cleaning products. formaldehyde \u2013 in lab tests, formaldehyde has caused cancer and damaged dna. formaldehyde is also a sensitizer, with the potential to cause asthma. several laboratory studies have shown it to be a central nervous system depressant. exposure to formaldehyde may cause joint pain, depression, headaches, chest pains, ear infections, chronic fatigue, dizziness and loss of sleep. while formaldehyde naturally occurs in the human body in minute amounts, it is estimated that 20 per cent of people exposed to it will experience an allergic reaction. used in a wide range of products, including some furniture polishes. formaldehyde may be released by other chemicals, eg. quaternium 15. fragrance \u2013 fragrance on a label can indicate the presence of up to 4, 000 separate ingredients, most of which are synthetic. many compounds in fragrance are human toxins and suspected or proven carcinogens. in 1989, the us national institute of occupational safety and health evaluated 2, 983 fragrance chemicals for health effects. they identified 884 of them as toxic substances. synthetic fragrances are known to trigger asthma attacks. the us environmental protection agency found that 100 % of perfumes contain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.501814492344241, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:09d5eb61-ed34-4b1e-b357-4c4a62c97b34>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.942533"}
{"text": "institute of occupational safety and health evaluated 2, 983 fragrance chemicals for health effects. they identified 884 of them as toxic substances. synthetic fragrances are known to trigger asthma attacks. the us environmental protection agency found that 100 % of perfumes contain toluene, which can cause liver, kidney and brain damage as well as damage to a developing fetus. symptoms reported to the fda from fragrance exposure have included headaches, dizziness, rashes, skin discoloration, violent coughing and vomiting, and allergic skin irritation. clinical observations by medical doctors have shown that exposure to fragrances can affect the central nervous system, causing depression, hyperactivity, irritability, inability to cope, and other behavioral changes. fragrance is a common skin irritant. methylene chloride \u2013 methylene chloride is a carcinogen, a neurotoxin and a reproductive toxin. on inhalation, it can cause liver and brain damage, irregular heartbeat, and even heart attack. it is a severe skin and moderate eye irritant. used in stain removers. monoethanolamine \u2013 this chemical may cause liver, kidney and reproductive damage, as well as depression of the central nervous system. inhalation of high concentrations \u2013 when cleaning an oven for example \u2013 can cause dizziness or even coma. the chemical can also be absorbed through the skin. it is a moderate skin irritant, and a severe eye irritant. found in many cleaning products, including oven cleaners, tub and tile cleaners, laundry pre - soaks, floor strippers and carpet cleaners. morpholine \u2013 this corrosive ingredient can severely irritate and burn skin and eyes, and can even cause blindness if splashed in eyes. it can cause liver and kidney damage, and long - term exposure can result in bronchitis. it reacts with nitrites ( added as a preservative in some products, or present as a contaminant ) to form carcinogenic nitrosomines. morpholine is a moderate to severe eye, skin and mucous membrane irritant. used as a solvent in a number of cleaning products, including some furniture polishes and abrasive cleansers. naphthalene \u2013 this registered pesticide is listed as a suspected carcinogen in california and is most commonly found in mothballs, and some other pest repellants, as well as in deodorizers. as a reproductive toxin, it is transported across the place", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5043477303250843, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:09d5eb61-ed34-4b1e-b357-4c4a62c97b34>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.943645"}
{"text": "registered pesticide is listed as a suspected carcinogen in california and is most commonly found in mothballs, and some other pest repellants, as well as in deodorizers. as a reproductive toxin, it is transported across the placenta and can cause blood damage. it can cause liver and kidney damage, and corneal damage and cataracts. skin exposure is especially dangerous to newborns. parabens \u2013 parabens are hormone disruptors. widely used in cleaning products as preservatives, paraben is usually preceded by the prefixes methyl -, ethyl -, butyl -, or propyl. parabens may cause contact dermatitis in some individuals paradichlorobenzene \u2013 this highly volatile registered pesticide is in the same chemical class as ddt. it is a suspected carcinogen, and may cause lung, liver and kidney damage. it is used in mothballs and some washroom deodorizers and urinal blocks. phosphoric acid \u2013 extremely corrosive, it can severely irritate and burn the skin and eyes. breathing vapours can make the lungs ache, and it may be toxic to the central nervous system. found in some liquid dishwasher detergents, metal polishes, some disinfectants, and bathroom cleaners, especially those that remove lime and mildew. sodium dichloroisocyanurate dihydrate \u2013 this corrosive chemical is a severe eye, skin and respiratory irritant. it may cause liver and gastrointestinal damage, and may be toxic to the central nervous system. it will react with bleach to form poisonous chlorine gas that can cause burning and watering of eyes, as well as burning of the nose and mouth. it is found in some toilet bowl cleaners and deodorizers, as well as industrial detergents and some institutional dishwashing detergents. sodium hypochlorite ( bleach ) \u2013 a corrosive chemical, sodium hypochlorite is an eye, skin and respiratory irritant, as well as a sensitizer. it is especially hazardous to people with heart conditions or asthma, and can be fatal if swallowed. it may be a neurotoxin and toxic to the liver. found in a wide range of household cleaners. sodium lauryl sulfate ( sls ) \u2013 used as a lathering agent. this chemical is a known skin irritant", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5037182492731278, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:09d5eb61-ed34-4b1e-b357-4c4a62c97b34>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.944616"}
{"text": "some elements of a window interface contain collections of items, for example rows of buttons, lists of filenames, and groups of menu items. such elements are known in the capi as collections. in most collections, items may be selected by the user - - for example, a row of buttons. collections whose items can be selected are known as choices. each button in a row of buttons is either checked or unchecked, showing something about the application ' s state - - perhaps that color graphics are switched on and sound is switched off. this selection state came about as the result of a choice the user made when running the application, or default choices made by the application itself. the capi provides a convenient way of producing groups of items from which collections and choices can be made. the abstract class provides a means of specifying a group of items. the subclass provides groups of selectable items, where you may specify what initial state they are in, and what happens when the selection is changed. subclasses of used for producing particular kinds of grouped elements are described in the sections that follow. all the choices described in this chapter can be given a print function via the keyword. this allows you to control the way in which items in the element are displayed. for example, passing the argument would capitalize the initial letters of all the words of text that an instance of a choice displays. some of the examples in this chapter require the functions which were introduced in creating common windows.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5423116186108686, "token_count": 301, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7221b702-b5e1-48e6-bcba-348b013f6d0f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.947213"}
{"text": "of their democratic ways. no citizen was above the law \u2013 laws were posted in the agora for all to see \u2013 or was exempt from being a part of the legal process. in fact, athenians considered it a duty and a privilege to serve on juries. both the city law courts and senate were located in the agora to demonstrate the open, egalitarian nature of athenian life. the athenian democratic process, whereby issues were discussed in a forum and then voted on, is the basis for most modern systems of governance. ultimate brainstorm session scientific theory also got its start in the agora, where the city ' s greatest minds regularly met informally to socialize. socrates, plato and aristotle all frequented the athenian agora, discussed philosophy and instructed pupils there. aristotle, in particular, is known for his contributions to science, and may have developed his important theories on the empirical method, zoology and physics, among others, while chatting in the agora ' s food stalls or sitting by its fountains. hippocrates, the father of modern medicine and its hippocratic oath, and pythagoras, a mathematician who developed the geometric theory of a triangle ' s sides, were both highly public figures who taught and shared ideas in their own hometown agoras. - last week : how qin shi huang changed the world - next week : how the battle of actium changed the world - gallery : the seven ancient wonders of the world - top 10 ancient capitals more from livescience. com", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5044320859409979, "token_count": 304, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c67fd24-606f-4892-bdc8-f7099a440dbd>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.958819"}
{"text": "overview of the nervous system anatomy of the brain congenital and hereditary disorders neurological disorders in the newborn inflammatory and infectious disorders seizures and epilepsy the nervous system is a complex, sophisticated system that regulates and coordinates the body ' s basic functions and activities. it is made up of two major divisions, including the central nervous system ( consisting of the brain and spinal cord ) and the peripheral nervous system ( consisting of all other neural elements ). the central nervous system controls thought, behavior, and movement. the peripheral nervous system relays information to the central nervous system for transmitting messages to muscles and glands. in addition to the brain and spinal cord, principal organs of the nervous system include the eyes, ears, sensory organs of taste, sensory organs of smell, and sensory receptors in the skin, joints, muscles, and other parts of the body. the nervous system is vulnerable to various disorders. because of its complexity and the high technology used in evaluation and treatment of its disorders, the branches of medicine, physician specialists, and clinical services that manage it are as numerous and varied as the disorders and conditions. pediatric neurologists and neurosurgeons specialize in the management and treatment of neurological conditions that only affect children - from newborns to adolescents. the information on this web page is provided for educational purposes. you understand and agree that this information is not intended to be, and should not be used as, a substitute for medical treatment by a health care professional. you agree that lucile salter packard children ' s hospital is not making a diagnosis of your condition or a recommendation about the course of treatment for your particular circumstances through the use of this web page. you agree to be solely responsible for your use of this web page and the information contained on this page. lucile salter packard children ' s hospital, its officers, directors, employees, agents, and information providers shall not be liable for any damages you may suffer or cause through your use of this page even if advised of the possibility of such damages.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5223085499207059, "token_count": 403, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e4718f95-afce-41c9-99eb-cc61c528134e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.973581"}
{"text": "concerning the hydrothermal system, they are best used in conjunction with other data ( mineral stability, other stable isotopes ). in comparison with sulfides from other meteorites, the delta 34s of the pyrite from alh 84001 is enriched in 34s. this signature implies that the planetary body represented by alh 84001 experienced processes capable of fractionating s isotopes that were not functional on asteroidal bodies represented by chondrite and achondrite meteorites. as was noted previously, the terrestrial delta 34s exhibits a wide variability. in particular, the large negative values in terrestrial delta 34s has been attributed, in many cases, to the bacterial reduction of sulfate to sulfide. the positive delta 34s measured in the alh 84001 pyrite therefore suggests that the sulfur in this hydrothermal sulfide was not processed by bacteria in a manner analogous to terrestrial processes. the positive delta 34s measured in the alh 84001 pyrite may be attributed to several different processes that may be functioning on the martian surface or in the shallow martian crust : model 1 : assuming that the delta 34s in the fluid was essentially 0, the pyrite may be enriched in delta 34s by ph, temperature, and fo2 conditions during precipitation. the ph and the fugacity of oxygen may be approximated using the delta 34s data presented here, delta 13c data on the carbonates, a relatively low sigma s, a temperature of precipitation of ~ 100\u00b0c and the coexistence of pyrite and carbonate. making these assumptions, precipitation occurred in a reduced and moderately alkaline environment with the dominant sulfur - bearing species in solution being hs -. at higher temperatures ( ~ 700\u00b0c ) as suggested by [ 7, 9 ], the delta 34s of pyrite in the stability fields of carhonate + pyrite will not have values that approach + 5 to + 8. model 2 : the above interpretation makes the assumption that the delta 34s in the fluid was equal to 0. at more acidic conditions than suggested above ( but at the same reducing conditions ), delta 34s will not be strongly fractionated during pyrite precipitation from an aqueous solution. therefore, under these conditions, the pyrite will approximate the delta 34s in the fluid. there are several potential processes that can generate positive delta 34s in the fluid under these ph and fo2 conditions : ( 2a ) previous isotopic studies of snc meteor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5168801972020811, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bccae671-f765-40b4-9299-ad77496383ea>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.985000"}
{"text": "was not a dominant species in the solution. therefore, the extent of sulfur isotopic fractionation during pyrite precipitation from the hydrothermal solution was moderate, at alkaline conditions ( delta 34sfluid < delta 34spyrite ), to minor at low ph conditions ( delta 34sfluid = delta 34spyrite ) this suggests two different models for the generation of positive delta 34s in the pyrite. if the pyrite precipitated at low temperature ( 100\u00b0 - 150\u00b0c ) reducing conditions and high ph ( < 9 ), a delta 34sfluid equal to 0 would precipitate pyrite with delta 34spyrite between 5 and 8. under more acidic conditions, the delta 34sfluid will be equal to that of the pyrite. this requires the positive delta 34sfluid signature to be produced prior to pyrite deposition. the positive delta 34s in the fluid may be attributed to upper atmospheric processes, impact processes, or low - temperature weathering reactions enriching the soil in 34s. these components may then be leached and their delta 34s signature transported to the location of precipitation. this process requires isotopic communication between the hydrothermal system and the martian surface. if the isotopic signature of the sulfide reflects communication with surfacial - atmospheric processes, it may constrain additional aspects of martian atmosphere evolution. references : ohmoto h. and rye r. o. ( 1979 ) in geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits ( ed. barnes h. l. ), pp. 509 - 567. pillinger c. t. ( 1984 ) geochim. cosmochim. acta, 48, 2739 - 2766. monster j. et al. ( 1965 ) geochim. cosmochim. acta, 29, 773 - 779. kaplan i. r. and hulston j. r. ( 1965 ) geochim. cosmochim. acta, 30, 479 - 496. paterson b. a. et al. ( 1994 ) lunar and planetary science xxv, 1057 - 1058. kerridge j. f. and kaplan i. r. ( 1978 ) proc. lunar planet. sci. conf. 9th, 1687 - 1709. mittlefehldt d. w. ( 1994 ) meteoritics, 29, 214 - 221. romanek c.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5009608629790406, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bccae671-f765-40b4-9299-ad77496383ea>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.986855"}
{"text": "what is lupus lupus is a chronic, autoimmune disease that can damage any part of the body ( skin, joints, and / or organs inside the body ). chronic means that the signs and symptoms tend to last longer than six weeks and often for many years. in lupus, something goes wrong with your immune system, which is the part of the body that fights off viruses, bacteria, and germs ( \" foreign invaders, \" like the flu ). normally our immune system produces proteins called antibodies that protect the body from these invaders. autoimmune means your immune system cannot tell the difference between these foreign invaders and your body \u2019 s healthy tissues ( \" auto \" means \" self \" ) and creates autoantibodies that attack and destroy healthy tissue. these autoantibodies cause inflammation, pain, and damage in various parts of the body. - lupus is also a disease of flares ( the symptoms worsen and you feel ill ) and remissions ( the symptoms improve and you feel better ). lupus can range from mild to life - threatening and should always be treated by a doctor. with good medical care, most people with lupus can lead a full life. - lupus is not contagious, not even through sexual contact. you cannot \" catch \" lupus from someone or \" give \" lupus to someone. - lupus is not like or related to cancer. cancer is a condition of malignant, abnormal tissues that grow rapidly and spread into surrounding tissues. lupus is an autoimmune disease, as described above. - lupus is not like or related to hiv ( human immune deficiency virus ) or aids ( acquired immune deficiency syndrome ). in hiv or aids the immune system is underactive ; in lupus, the immune system is overactive. - our research estimates that at least 1. 5 million americans have lupus. the actual number may be higher ; however, there have been no large - scale studies to show the actual number of people in the u. s. living with lupus. - it is believed that 5 million people throughout the world have a form of lupus. - lupus strikes mostly women of childbearing age ( 15 - 44 ). however, men, children, and teenagers develop lupus, too. - women of color are 2 - 3 times more likely to develop lupus. - people of all races and ethnic groups can develop lupus. - more than 16, 000 new cases of lupus are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5328478018803321, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d367294d-5a52-4508-a8f4-7c99101d72c7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:08.989612"}
{"text": "functions in lisp | column tag : | | lisp listener \" functions in lisp \" by andy cohen, human factors engineering, hughes aircraft, mactutor contributing editor as you may recall from the first installment of the lisp listener, a procedure is a description of an action or computation. a primitive is a predefined or \" builtin \" procedure ( e. g. \" + \" ). as in forth, lisp can have procedures which are defined by the programmer. defun, from define function, is used for this purpose. the syntax for defun in experlisp is as follows : ( defun functionname ( symbols ) ( all sorts of computations which may or may not use the values represented by the symbols ) ) the function name is exactly that. whenever the name is used the defined procedure associated with that function name is performed. the symbols are values which may or may not be required by the procedures within the defined function. if required, the values must follow the function name. when given, these values are assigned to the symbol. this is similar to the way values are assigned to a symbol when using setq. it is easier to see how defun works when observed within an example : ; ( defun reciprocal ( n ) ( / 1 n ) ) the word \" reciprocal \" is the function name and the numbers following are the values for which the reciprocal ( 1 / n ) are found. after the list containing defun is entered and the carriage return is pressed the function and it ' s title are assigned a location in memory. the function name is then printed in the listener window. ; ( defun square ( x ) ( * x x ) ) ; ( defun cubed ( y ) ( * y ( * y y ) ) ; ( defun average ( w x y z ) ( / ( + w x y z ) 4 ) ) ; ( average 2 3 4 5 ) you might recognize \" average \" from last month ' s lisp listener. one might imagine using defined functions inside other defined functions. if it was possible to have variables which have the same values in each procedure, then the version of lisp used has what is called dynamic scoping. in this context the values of the variable are determined by the lisp environment which is resident when the procedure is called. experlisp, however, is lexically scoped. that means that variable values are local to each procedure. two defined procedures can use the same labels for variables,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5460497341938202, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ed9dd59-1ad8-422d-be1a-e1d062d262b6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.001516"}
{"text": "by the lisp environment which is resident when the procedure is called. experlisp, however, is lexically scoped. that means that variable values are local to each procedure. two defined procedures can use the same labels for variables, but the values will not be considered as the same. each variable is defined locally. this is in accordance to the common lisp standard. lexical scoping makes it easier to debug someone elses ' ' programs. if you don ' t know what i mean yet, don ' t worry. this subject will come up again in more detail later. if no values are required by the defined function then \" nil \" or an empty list must follow the function name. ; ( defun line ( ) the empty list obviously contains no atoms ( i ' ll describe the above function, \" line \" later in the section on bunnies ). it is synonymous to the special term nil, which is considered by lisp as the opposite of t or true. nil is used in many other contexts. ; ( cddr ' ( one two ) ) in the above, the first cdr returns \" two \". the second cdr returns nothing, hence \" nil \". the values of true and false are returned by procedures called predicates. while nil represents a false condition, anything other then nil, including \" t \", is generally considered true. please note that i used lowercase letters in the above. experlisp recognizes both upper and lowercase. i ' ve been using uppercase only to make it clear within the text when i ' m referring to lisp equal is a predicate which checks the equality of two arguments. note the arguments can be integers or symbols. if the two arguments are equal then \" t \" is returned. if they are not equal then \" nil \" is returned. ; ( equal try try ) ; ( equal 6732837 6732837 ) ; ( equal 6732837 6732833 ) ; ( equal first second ) atom checks to see if it ' s argument is a list or an atom. remember, the single quote is used to indicate that what follows is a not evaluated as in the case of a list. symbols are evaluated. ; ( atom ( a b c d ) ) in the first of the above ' thing is an atom due to the single quote. in the second, thing is considered a symbol. a symbol is evaluated and contains a value or values as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5218936960587833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ed9dd59-1ad8-422d-be1a-e1d062d262b6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.002958"}
{"text": "evaluated. ; ( atom ( a b c d ) ) in the first of the above ' thing is an atom due to the single quote. in the second, thing is considered a symbol. a symbol is evaluated and contains a value or values as a list. in the third, ( a b c d ) is obviously a list. listp checks if it ' s argument is a list. ; ( listp ' ( 23 45 65 12 1 ) ) ; ( setq babble ' ( wd ihc wi kw ) ) one interesting observation is that nil is both an atom and a list, ( ) = nil. therefore atom and listp both return true for nil. when one needs to know if a list is empty, null does the job. ; ( null ( x y z ) ) numberp checks if the argument that follows is or represents a number rather than a string. ; ( setq fifty - six ' ( 56 ) ) now for a real slick one. member tests whether or not an argument is a part of a list. an easy demonstration follows : ; ( member ' bananas ( apples pears bananas ) ) ; ( apples pears bananas ) ; ( member ' grapes ( apples pears bananas ) ) when the argument is a member, then the contents of the list are given. if not then nil is returned. member also checks symbols of lists. ; ( setq fruit ' ( apples grapes pears ) ) ; ( member ' grapes fruit ) ; ( apples grapes pears ) ; ( member ' banana fruit ) evenp tests to see if an integer is even and minusp checks if an integer is negative. oddp and plusp are not needed since they are simply opposite of the first two. ; ( evenp ( - 806 35 ) ) ; ( minusp ( - 34 86 ) ) in the second and fourth examples above the lists contained within are calculated prior to memberp evaluation. ( 806 - 35 = 771 & 34 - 86 = - 52. there ' s a few more simple predicates such as not, <, >, and zerop. i ' ll discuss them along with conditionals next month. now for something completely different. if you ' ve ever learned logo, the concept of bunny graphics should sound familiar. as mentioned last month, the bunny is expertelligence ' s version of the turtle. all one needs to do in order to make a bunny move is to tell it to. forward x initially moves the bunny", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5725712740086067, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ed9dd59-1ad8-422d-be1a-e1d062d262b6>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.004086"}
{"text": "bright light at night could up depression risk, mouse study suggests latest depression news wednesday, nov. 14 ( healthday news ) - - a new study suggests that when the sun goes down, you might end up happier and better able to learn new things if you turn down all the lights - - even your computer screen. unfortunately, the research was done just with mice. but because they share the same set of special light - activated cells in their eyes that humans have - - known as iprgcs - - it may be that the comparisons could apply to people. those cells, called intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, are stimulated by bright light, which affects the brain ' s mood, memory and learning centers, the researchers said. \" expose yourself to bright light in the day and avoid it at night, \" suggested study co - author samer hattar, an associate professor of biology and neuroscience at johns hopkins university, in baltimore. \" that will keep the iprgcs that affect mood from being activated. \" the research was published online in the nov. 14 in the journal nature. hattar said the research team was initially interested in whether seasonal affective disorder ( sad ) - - a form of depression people sometimes experience in the lower - light winter months - - applied to mice. they exposed mice to an alternating cycle of 3. 5 hours of light and then 3. 5 hours of darkness. the mice got depressed. how do you know that a mouse is sad? they take less interest in sugar and move less in the cage, and they have trouble learning and remembering, hattar explained. when the mice were given prozac ( fluoxetine ), a commonly prescribed antidepressant, their symptoms went away. to understand the role of the retina ' s neurological circuits in affecting mood, memory and learning, the researchers studied animals that didn ' t have the specialized iprgc cells. without them, the irregular light schedule did not impair mood and cognitive ( thinking ) function, even though their vision and general light detection ability remained intact. this showed that light affects learning and mood directly through these special photosensitive retinal cells, hattar said. the researchers created light - exposure patterns for the mice that allowed the scientists to rule out the possibility that circadian rhythm and sleep disruption were responsible for the changes in mood and learning ability they observed. circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24 - hour cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness in an", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5182181243260593, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:32446cfb-c04e-4991-a019-eebec1d9459d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.033765"}
{"text": "out the possibility that circadian rhythm and sleep disruption were responsible for the changes in mood and learning ability they observed. circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24 - hour cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness in an organism ' s environment, according to the u. s. national institutes of health. one expert questioned whether the mice ' s normal circadian rhythm was indeed maintained. \" perhaps even though the overall sleep timing pattern remained intact, the quality of their sleep deteriorated, \" suggested tony tang, an adjunct professor in the department of psychology at northwestern university, in evanston, ill. tang also found an important difference between how humans are exposed to light at night in modern life and how the reaction of mice to light was tested during the research. \" in the current study, the poor mice ended up having bright lights shining on them while they slept ; but for humans in the past century, we ' ve stayed up while we kept lights on, and then turned the lights off when we sleep, \" he said. scientists note that research with animals often fails to provide similar results in humans. study co - author hattar said the study should be replicated in human subjects. \" but even if it comes out not as clear as it did in mice, i think there will be some benefit for people to turn down their lights at night. i don ' t think there is any harm in it. \" copyright \u00a9 2012 healthday. all rights reserved. sources : samer hattar, ph. d., associate professor, biology and neuroscience, johns hopkins university, baltimore ; tony tang, ph. d., adjunct professor, department of psychology, northwestern university, evanston, ill. ; nov. 14, 2012, nature online get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox free!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5300204728398512, "token_count": 371, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:32446cfb-c04e-4991-a019-eebec1d9459d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.034584"}
{"text": "interactive java tutorials refractive index determination oblique illumination is sometimes utilized as an alternative to the becke line test to determine whether the refractive index of a specimen is higher or lower than that of the surrounding medium. this interactive tutorial explores how variations in the refractive index of a specimen and its surrounding medium alter visibility in the microscope when utilizing oblique illumination techniques. the tutorial initializes with a specimen having a refractive index of 1. 15 positioned in a surrounding medium of refractive index 1. 33 ( representing water or lightly buffered aqueous saline solution ), and being illuminated with off - axis light rays originating from the lower left - hand side of the tutorial window. in order to operate the tutorial, translate the specimen ( refractive index value ) slider between values of 1. 0 and 1. 5. as the slider is moved from right to left, the specimen appearance is altered in the eyepiece view window. to change the refractive index of the surrounding medium, move the surround ( refractive index value ) slider to the right or left ( this slider also has a range of refractive indices between 1. 0 and 1. 5 ). translating the surround slider will also affect specimen appearance and visibility, as discussed below. the two sliders are interactive and positioning of one slider will affect the range of motion of the other. in situations where the specimen is mounted in a medium of lower refractive index, shading that results from the anaxial illumination will appear on the side opposite to that from which the light enters the specimen, and vice versa, as illustrated in figure 1. for both diagrams presented in figure 1, two equal sized oblique light rays are depicted entering the specimen through the surrounding medium at the same angle of incidence. at point a on the left - hand diagram, the light is spread over a larger area of the specimen than at point b, so that the area near point a on the specimen appears darker than the area near point b. under these conditions, one side of the specimen will appear shaded or somewhat darker than the other side when viewed through the microscope eyepieces ( represented by points a ' and b ' in the upper left portion of figure 1 ). this is the case when the specimen refractive index is higher than that of the surrounding medium. the opposite effect occurs when the specimen has a lower refractive index than that of the surrounding medium ( see the right - hand side of figure 1 ). in this case, the shaded or darker side", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5853000391549992, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:34972ce5-3120-43af-a5f0-66855b128dd7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.047117"}
{"text": "index is higher than that of the surrounding medium. the opposite effect occurs when the specimen has a lower refractive index than that of the surrounding medium ( see the right - hand side of figure 1 ). in this case, the shaded or darker side of the specimen will be on the side that is nearest to the oblique light sector stop. when the specimen and the surrounding medium have identical refractive indices, then the specimen will be transparent ( or invisible ) and will have no refractive effects on the oblique illumination. the sensitivity of this refractive index determination technique is highly dependent on the condenser focal length, the iris diaphragm position, and the geometry of sector stops ( if employed ). in general, the best results are obtained when the condenser is carefully focused and an even field of illumination is achieved. matthew j. parry - hill and michael w. davidson - national high magnetic field laboratory, 1800 east paul dirac dr., the florida state university, tallahassee, florida, 32310. back to oblique illumination questions or comments? send us an email. \u00a9 1998 - 2013 by michael w. davidson and the florida state university. all rights reserved. no images, graphics, scripts, or applets may be reproduced or used in any manner without permission from the copyright holders. use of this website means you agree to all of the legal terms and conditions set forth by the owners. last modification : thursday, jun 15, 2006 at 03 : 39 pm access count since july 22, 2002 : 24065 for more information on microscope manufacturers, use the buttons below to navigate to their websites :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5872097369715631, "token_count": 326, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:34972ce5-3120-43af-a5f0-66855b128dd7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.048952"}
{"text": "the entire physical universe is made up of pure energy and vibration. when you have the insight to see everything as vibration, the nature of the universe is revealed to you. light is vibration. the entire electromagnetic wave spectrum of visible light produces different colors. colors are simply waves vibrating at different frequencies. on one end of the spectrum you have red, on the other end you have violet. red has the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency, violet has the shortest wavelength and the highest frequency. there are two kinds of electrical lighting that you can find when you visit an electronic store. warm light and cool light. warm light contains a greater mixture of lower frequency color waves such as yellow and orange. cool light contains a greater mixture of higher frequency color waves such as green and blue. light is crucial in its environmental effect upon work, play, rest and other life activities. it controls stimulation, relaxation and energy level. since warm light is more relaxing than cool light, you might decide to use it for the ambience it creates. have you ever used only warm lights in a room and thought that you could make the place more relaxing or stimulating simply by increasing or decreasing the light intensity? but it doesn \u2019 t work that way. increasing the light intensity of warm light does not make it a lot more stimulating. higher energy levels require higher rate of vibration. it is not the magnitude but the frequency of the vibration that determines it \u2019 s energy level. is it any wonder that blue flame is hotter than yellow flame? health is vibration. cold, damp and dark places with lack of airflow are breeding grounds for bacteria, whereas sunny places with abundance of airflow eliminate unhealthy micro organisms. the second type of environment is healthier than the first because it is high vibration while the other is low vibration. although sunlight is biologically beneficial, too much of it causes heatstroke. the energy turns from being constructive to destructive. the key here is balance. too much of something beyond the rightful amount causes instability. this is what all sickness and disease does. it seeks to weaken or destabilize vibration. the more vibrant and stable a person is, the more alive and constructive he / she are. the more lackluster and unstable he / she is, the less alive and / or the more ( self ) destructive. ever wonder why you have always been told to drink warm water and not to drink cold one when you were sick? when the body is sick, there are things within that are clogging up the system and slowing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6619777928248545, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:69d20b89-c15e-4207-9e40-3818e27f33f2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.054401"}
{"text": "the more ( self ) destructive. ever wonder why you have always been told to drink warm water and not to drink cold one when you were sick? when the body is sick, there are things within that are clogging up the system and slowing down some functions. the body needs energy to move the sickness out of the body or to destroy it. that is why your doctor advices you to drink plenty of water. it is the medium that your blood cells use to mobilize their work. more water and oxygen gives your body the much needed resources it needs in getting rid of the sickness. your impulse of coughing out phlegm and blowing out mucus is your bodies act of expelling the bad stuff from your body, which means you are on the road to recovery. warm water is high vibration whereas cold water is low vibration. cold water removes the precious energy needed for recovery, whereas warm water supplies it. one supports your recovery rate while the other sabotages it. sound is vibration. bassy music is low vibration and energetic music is high vibration. we enjoy listening to different types of music because we like to experience different ranges of emotion. the variety of feelings in life makes it fun and meaningful. high energy dance music appeal to younger people because they are highly energetic and expressive. slower and emotional entrancing music is what we desire to hear when we want to be moved in a deep and sensual way. we want time to slow down and come to a standstill the experience to be like an eternal moment. chemical is vibration. alcohol and earl grey tea are opposite in terms of vibration. although stress and anxiety is a form of high vibration, it is undesirable because the vibration is incoherent and disorderly. alcohol lowers vibration. that \u2019 s why people drink to relax and distress. but drinking consumes more than the natural amount of alcohol that the body is supposed to take. therefore it causes instability as well. drivers who drink have impaired judgment and reaction rate are more susceptible to accidents. people who are above the need of alcohol to relax have chosen more intelligent means of doing so. earl grey tea acts as a stimulant that counters the effects of alcohol to a certain extent to \u201c sober \u201d you up. the vibration of our \u201c bodies \u201d at every level, physical and non - physical, has a profound influence on our ability to attract positive experiences. the higher your vibration, the more of a \u201c magnet \u201d you become as a result of the thoughts you hold in your mind.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5493314663333668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:69d20b89-c15e-4207-9e40-3818e27f33f2>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.055527"}
{"text": "bodies \u201d at every level, physical and non - physical, has a profound influence on our ability to attract positive experiences. the higher your vibration, the more of a \u201c magnet \u201d you become as a result of the thoughts you hold in your mind. by holding only thoughts of the \u201c things \u201d you wish to manifest into your experience, and keeping your vibrations high in the ways we discussed previously, you will find your wishes will manifest much more quickly. when you learn to see everything as vibration different in terms of rate and stability, you will understand what you need in order to obtain the desired effect in any situation. it is all about balancing vibrations. there are lots more aspects of physical reality than those mentioned here where this principle is applied to. once you are aware of this principle and always think in terms of vibration, you can understand practically everything that happens in the physical world. this is one of the governing dynamics that allows you to make sense of everything. having this awareness is like seeing the world in code, like the matrix. - persistence of will manifests what you desire - affecting probable outcomes with your mind - casting magic spells and intention manifestation - shared reality - cooperative mental creation - actively defend your beliefs against conflict - mentally uniting with your desire by giving thanks for it - speaking your intention gives it more power - letting extremes guide you to balance of mind - purchasing the best things in life for yourself - everything is formed by vibration and geometry", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6012946837426869, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:69d20b89-c15e-4207-9e40-3818e27f33f2>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.056146"}
{"text": "the bar coding of finished products is an effective and widespread tool for managing inventory and distribution, expediting work - in - process and simplifying warranty fulfillment. what has not been practical is the tracing and tracking of individual parts that are internal to finished goods. these are the critical components that determine, after all, whether products perform or fail. there are several reasons why individual parts have not been marked until recently. key among them has been the limitation inherent in traditional marking, specifically the inability to withstand common manufacturing processes such as heat treating, mechanical abrasion and chemical baths. but this didn ' t mean there was not a need for this technology. roger schellhorn, quality coordinator at john deere ( waterloo, iowa ), was looking for a system that would code individual internal parts. \" our first priority was to achieve individual parts traceability throughout the production line, \" he explains. \" we wanted to put a pedigree on parts, and assign quality data to individual items. we ' ve always been able to correlate quality data with a particular group of parts, but before recently, there had been no way to marry quality data with individual parts. \" the company considered numerous systems for achieving individual part traceability, including optical character recognition ( ocr ). \" our biggest objection, \" says mr. schellhorn, \" was the miles \u2014 literally miles \u2014 of wiring that would have been required. it looked to us like an upkeep nightmare. \" then he found a new marking technology referred to as bumpy barcoding ( bbc ) by its supplier, mecco marking systems, ( ingomar, pennsylvania ). bbc indents a high - integrity 3d mark into metal, plastic and composite materials. indented bbc marks are expressed by highs and lows in surface height, rather than variations in black and white. indented bbc readers use differences in height, rather than contrast, to distinguish the bars and spaces of the code being read. this allows bumpy bar codes to be read where no contrast is available, ( for example, when a part is exiting a heat treating cycle and the surface is dark. ) the mark, which is permanent, can be made through indent marking, die stamping, or roll marking on virtually any material of less than rockwell 45c. materials do not have to be perfectly flat or smoothmachined ; in fact, only highly reflective materials ( such as polished stainless steel ) are problematic. marks can also be incorporated easily with most casting, forging", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5005272832731321, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:66807b91-f60f-4e97-8b9b-50454265752a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.060638"}
{"text": "of less than rockwell 45c. materials do not have to be perfectly flat or smoothmachined ; in fact, only highly reflective materials ( such as polished stainless steel ) are problematic. marks can also be incorporated easily with most casting, forging or injection molding processes. in all cases, the mark becomes a design feature of the part. bbc marking withstands annealing, heat treating, and abrasive treatments, and is scannable after many coating processes as well. the service life of the mark equals that of the part itself. john deere introduced bumpy barcoding technology at its waterloo engine works. the company ' s first application for mecco ' s bumpy bar code technology was connecting rods. each connecting rod is split into two pieces during machining and must be reformed as a matched set. the system allows absolute verification that each rod and rod cap are a matched set. \" now, if we would develop a problem with connecting rods, we could instantly identify the shift when it was produced, the individual machine involved, the specific quality measurement data generated, and the operator who was on duty, \" says mr. schellhorn. \" we can respond quickly and appropriately to any problem, but more importantly, we can respond proactively as well. the mecco system purchased by john deere includes a mecco sp202 computer controlled marking system and fixed base reader. to accommodate deere ' s requirement for a very fast cycle time, the system was engineered with three stations : two marking heads, and one fixed scanner, which was manufactured by sensis corp. the first station provides human - readable marking, the second indents the bbc marking ; the third station scans and verifies the integrity of the marks. fixturing, which was designed jointly by mr. schellhorn and mecco engineering vice president jim speicher, includes automated parts handling. the bbc is created by a chisel stylus that strikes the material surface and creates a bar about 1 / 8 inch in length. the reader is unique in that it reads both bumpy bar codes and traditional black and white printed bar codes, an advantage for users of both technologies. the reader is also distinctive in its use of a proprietary error detection algorithm, which makes misreading a virtual mathematical impossibility. bbc readers integrate readily with pcs, plcs, robots and other factory data equipment. they also plug into portable data terminals, which transfer data into a computer by saving it in memory for subsequent downloading, or by transmission via", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.522732759576735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:66807b91-f60f-4e97-8b9b-50454265752a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.061635"}
{"text": "or its treatment influence language development, the researchers tested babies on their ability to tell languages apart. they recruited 85 6 - month - old babies, 21 of whom had moms with depression and 32 of whom had moms with depression who had been treated during pregnancy with sris. at 6 months and 10 months, the babies heard recordings of the english syllable \" da \" and the hindi syllable \" da. \" to a native english speaker, these sounds are virtually indistinguishable, but they are subtly different : hindi speakers make their \" da \" sound by touching the tongue to their top teeth, while english speakers make their \" da \" by touching the tongue to the roof of the mouth behind the teeth. in a second experiment, the same babies watched silent videos of people speaking either english or french. normally, babies can tell the languages apart by mouth movements only until about 8 months of age. in both cases, researchers determined if babies could tell the difference between the languages by playing one and then switching to the other. they then measured if the babies looked longer at the new sound or not. if they did, the researchers knew they could tell the difference. if they didn ' t, it was because the new stimulus seemed the same as the old, and thus didn ' t attract the babies ' attention. [ photos : how babies learn ] depression and development the results revealed that kids of healthy, non - medication - taking moms could generally tell the languages apart at 6 months of age, but lost the ability at 10 months of age, as expected. but babies of moms with depression responded differently. when moms had received sri treatment, the babies displayed unusual maturity in their discrimination patterns : they failed to discriminate between different languages at 6 months old. a second experiment that involved playing vowels and consonants for fetuses of 36 weeks gestation found that the early maturation began even then. in fetuses of moms taking sris, recognition of native consonants was advanced. ( researchers measured recognition by tracking each fetus ' s heart rate. ) likewise, babies of depressed moms showed changes from the norm. these babies seemed to have a longer - than - usual sensitive period of language development. they could still differentiate between different languages at 10 months of age. in other words, sri treatment seems to accelerate a baby ' s attention to their own language, while unmedicated depression seems to delay that attention. researchers don ' t yet know whether this effect has any real - world consequences for how babies learn to speak", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5250604438604115, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9beb20d5-e11f-4662-ba0d-45438e5c3966>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.068080"}
{"text": "you might have seen photographers framing photos with their hands before taking a snap. but with the new prototype shooter dubbed ubi - camera, you will be able to use your hands to frame the photo as well as shoot it at the same time. the miniature camera is currently under development at the institute of advanced media arts and sciences. according to the video, \u201c when you draw a picture or take a photo, you sometimes form a rectangle with your hands to decide the composition. with this camera, you can take a photo using the exact same motion. you attach this device to your index finger, and form a rectangle with your finger like this ( see above ). you take the photo by using the rectangle as the viewfinder \u2026. when you push hard with your thumb, the shutter is pressed \u201d. the ubi - camera comes equipped with a range sensor, and it detects the distance between the camera and the photographer \u2019 s face, and determines the framing. \u201c when you take a photo with your face close to the camera, you get a wide - angle shot \u2026. and if you move it further away, you can take a close up shot \u201d. its lens has a fixed focal length, and you will be able to zoom in on something on your pc. although you won \u2019 t get that great feeling of holding a real camera when you are using the ubi - camera ( will also look a bit silly ), there is no need for viewfinders and displays for the new system. so we are expecting it to arrive with a low price tag. but the system is still in the development stage and needs much work to be done on it. \u201c here, the camera has a wired connection to a pc, but we \u2019 d like to make a stand - alone camera that can be freely used outside. also, the range sensor currently uses infrared, so it sometimes doesn \u2019 t detect your face properly, or it can be affected by light from the surroundings. so we \u2019 d like to use the camera to measure the distance as well, through face recognition. that would enable the system to be used more precisely \u201d.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5023546813634289, "token_count": 433, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d6b172ea-2104-40ab-a9a6-0fdde8883c53>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.070246"}
{"text": "radiosurgery, also called stereotactic radiosurgery, is a very precise form of therapeutic radiology. even though it is called surgery, radiosurgery does not involve actual surgery. rather, very focused beams of radiation ( gamma rays, x - rays, or protons ) are used to treat cancerous tissues without a surgical incision or opening. radiosurgery is called \" surgery \" because it is a one - session radiation therapy treatment that creates a similar result as an actual surgical procedure. radiosurgery works in the same manner as other types of therapeutic radiology : it distorts or destroys the dna of tumor cells, causing them to be unable to reproduce and grow. the tumor will shrink in size over time. for blood vessel lesions such as an arteriovenous malformation ( avm ), the blood vessels eventually close off after treatment. there are three types of radiosurgery. each type uses different equipment and radiation sources. radiosurgery types include : click image to enlarge - cobalt60 systems ( gamma knife ). cobalt60 systems use cobalt as a source for gamma rays. this type of system is commonly referred to as the gamma knife. the gamma knife is not really a knife at all. it uses beams of highly - focused gamma rays to treat small - to medium - size lesions, usually in the brain. many beams of gamma radiation join to focus on the lesion under treatment, providing a very intense dose of radiation in a safe manner. the gamma knife is used primarily to treat small and medium lesions in and around the brain, such as brain tumors, arteriovenous malformations ( abnormal connections between arteries and veins ), as well as functional problems such as trigeminal neuralgia. during gamma knife treatment, the equipment remains stationary ( does not move ). gamma knife treatment generally involves these steps : - head frame placement. in order to keep the head from moving during treatment, a box - shaped frame is attached to the head. pins designed specifically for this purpose fasten the head frame to the skull. the head frame also is a guide to focus the gamma ray beams to the exact location of the lesion being treated. - tumor location imaging. once the head frame is in place, the exact location of the lesion to be treated will be determined using computed tomography ( ct scan ) or magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ). - radiation dose planning. after the ct or mri scan has been completed, the radiation therapy team will determine the treatment plan.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5398083532320566, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:700aebbf-9a32-46e9-8325-e8278ab20abc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.078178"}
{"text": "the lesion to be treated will be determined using computed tomography ( ct scan ) or magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ). - radiation dose planning. after the ct or mri scan has been completed, the radiation therapy team will determine the treatment plan. the results of the imaging scan, along with other information, will be used by a medical physicist to determine the best treatment. - radiation treatment. after being positioned for the treatment, a type of helmet with many hundreds of holes in it is placed over the head frame. these holes help to focus the radiation beams on the target. treatment will last a few minutes up to a few hours, depending on the type and location of the area being treated. generally, only one treatment session is required for a lesion. - linear accelerator ( linac ) systems. linear accelerator ( linac ) systems use high - energy x - rays to treat large tumors or other lesions outside of the brain. some common types of linac systems include cyberknife, x - knife, novalis, and peacock. in addition to not using radioactive material to produce the radiation, linac systems also differ from the gamma knife in that the machinery moves around the patient during treatment. for this reason, linac systems are able to treat larger tumors and larger affected areas than the gamma knife. areas other than the brain can be treated with a linac system. linear accelerator systems may also be used for external beam radiation therapy. treatment steps with a linac system are generally the same or similar to the treatment steps used for the gamma knife. - proton beam therapy. proton beam therapy is a type of particle beam radiation therapy. rather than using rays of radiation, such as gamma rays or x - rays, particle beam therapy uses particles such as protons or neutrons. proton beam therapy is the most widely - used type of particle beam therapy. proton beam therapy is useful in treating tumors or lesions that are small and / or have an irregular shape. the radiation dose can be more closely controlled with these systems, because the proton beam can be controlled to allow it to deposit its energy almost completely in the tumor or lesion being treated. other forms of radiation lose energy as they enter body tissues on their way to the tissue under treatment. because the depth of the proton beam can be controlled so precisely, less damage occurs to normal tissues surrounding the area under treatment. proton beam therapy may be used for radiosurgery procedures or for fractionated radiotherapy ( several smaller doses of radiation over a certain period of time ). there are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5363860191991583, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:700aebbf-9a32-46e9-8325-e8278ab20abc>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.079420"}
{"text": "wearing this watch in 1978 on board of the soyuz - 31 mission. it was the first analogue quartz wrist - watch generation from the ruhla factory and was very similar to the ruhla cal. 24 mechanical. this is presumably the only watch besides the nii electric that was specifically designed for spaceflight and actually used for that purpose. history of creation : story by vladimir \u0430. dzhanibekov, twice the hero of soviet union, pilot - cosmonaut of ussr : september of 1985. \" salute e 7 \" station. it is midnight in moscow. it is also our local time. maintenance work going on... ice age. the flood at the station has already pasted. victor savinyh is cozily sleeping in a sleeping - bag in front of me. the \" deaf \" circuits without communication with center are going. - i wonder where we are flying? - i ' m asking almost in sleep, - above clouds i assume... falling asleep i idly thinking that it would be great to have a watch with globe like the one at on the central stand. or, with a map on the dial. but to have it on my hand... and without need to leave the warm sleeping bag to check... and soon getting back in again thinking that i was right and we were actually over clouds and under clouds were waters of the atlantic ocean... all right,.. water is there where clouds are. why our planet called the earth and not the water?.. this was the way the idea of \" cosmonavigator \" was born that salyut - 7 rescue was a classic bit of flying by dzhanibekov. he had to dock the spacecraft to a tumbling station with no beacon, just a laser rangefinder, sharp eyes and november 2004 yuri shargin has tested his private shturmanskie based on a poljot 31681 movement ( complication variant of the famous 3133 ) in space expedition. gallery of space related watches unknown watch used during a spacewalk for all the writing and the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5206407524535803, "token_count": 428, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:201a15ae-24a5-4d76-bc21-68a494ce2473>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.136364"}
{"text": "macgregor campbell, consultant here ' s a freaky twist on a classic illusion. thomas papathomas, a vision researcher at rutgers university in new brunswick, new jersey, has created a new variation on the hollow - mask illusion - where viewers find it difficult to distinguish whether they are seeing a mask ' s interior or its exterior. papathomas ' s version uses both a hollow mask and a hollow torso, each inverted from the other so that when the head is concave, the torso is convex, and vice - versa. as the torso and head rotate, in the same direction, they appear to rotate oppositely to one another, resulting in the head appearing to twist unnaturally. papathomas calls this the \" exorcist illusion, \" referring to a famous scene in the 1973 horror movie, the exorcist, in which a girl possessed by the devil twists her head around a full 360 degrees. this illusion requires no satanic involvement however. a constantly rotating hollow mask - or torso - appears to rotate in one direction when the exterior is facing the viewer, and the opposite direction when the interior faces the viewer. since the brain and the torso are inverted from one another, when one appears to rotate clockwise, the other seems to rotate anticlockwise. papathomas created this illusion for the neural correlate society ' s 2012 illusion of the year contest.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5220410024619693, "token_count": 286, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0d6a923e-78c7-4b5a-9666-0f7308077362>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.150555"}
{"text": "the nobel prize in chemistry 1969 derek barton, odd hassel derek harold richard barton was born on 8 september 1918, son of william thomas and maude henrietta barton. in 1938 he entered imperial college, university of london, where he obtained his b. sc. hons. ( 1st class ) in 1940 and ph. d. ( organic chemistry ) in 1942. from 1942 to 1944 he was a research chemist on a government project, from1944 - 1945 he was with messrs. albright and wilson, birmingham. in 1945 he became assistant lecturer in the department of chemistry of imperial college, from 1946 - 1949 he was i. c. i. research fellow. in 1949 he obtained his d. sc. from the same university. during 1949 - 1950 he was visiting lecturer in the chemistry of natural products, at the department of chemistry, harvard university ( u. s. a. ). in 1950 he was appointed reader in organic chemistry and in 1953 professor at college. in 1955 he became regius professor of chemistry at the university of glasgow, in 1957 he was appointed professor of organic chemistry at imperial college, which position he still in 1950, in a brief paper in experientia entitled \" the conformation of the steroid nucleus \", professor barton showed that organic molecules in general and steroid molecules in particular could be assigned a preferred conformation based upon results accumulated by chemical physicists, in particular by odd hassel. having chosen a preferred conformation, it was demonstrated that the chemical and physical properties of a molecule could be interpreted in terms of that preferred conformation. in molecules containing fixed rings, such as the steroids, there resulted a simple relationship between configuration and conformation, such that configurations could be predicted once the possible conformations for the products of a reaction could be analysed. thus the subject \" conformational analysis \" had begun. barton later determined the geometry of many other natural product molecules using this method. conformational analysis is useful in the elucidation of configuration, in the planning of organic synthesis, and in the analysis of reaction mechanisms. it will be fundamental to a complete understanding of enzymatic processes. prof. barton was invited to deliver the following special lectures : 1956, max tischler lecturer at harvard university ; 1958, first simonsen memorial lecturer of the chemical society ; 1961, falk - plaut lecturer, columbia university ; 1962, aub lecturer at harvard medical school ; renaud lecturer at michigan state university ; inaugural 3 m ' s lecturer, university of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5070758777592106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:098348af-da9d-471b-83db-d7d4258351e7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.178054"}
{"text": "ridgewood high school teacher lauded by nj inventors hall of fame a few years ago, using blackberry juice and titanium dioxide, a non - toxic ingredient found in powdered sugar, ridgewood \" high school ( rhs ) science teacher lillian labowsky and her students began making dye - sensitized nanocrystalline solar cells with enough \" juice \" to power a calculator. three years after labowsky began the project, which was funded through a national science foundation ( nsf ) program that paired graduate students and grade school teachers to promote science education, it is clear labowsky did not just help her students make power - she also empowered them to invent. for her involvement in the innovative two - year project, labowsky has received accolades from both the state and the \" district. the physics and chemistry teacher was recently recognized by the board of education ( boe ) for the 2012 \" advancement of invention \" award she received from the new jersey inventors hall of fame ( njihof ) in \" october. she was one of only 25 scientists in the state, including three nobel prize laureates, to be inducted in the hall of fame. labowsky was nominated for the award by a stevens institute of technology graduate who helped her with the nsf program project. she was chosen because, according to the njihof, her teaching is \" inspiring the next generation of scientists. \" in a press release, her passion for science was deemed of \" special note \" and called \" inspiring \" by njihof president les avery. it was a high honor worthy of a teacher whose students, when contacted, spoke of her obvious passion and enthusiasm. it was also not the first time nobel prize winners have been closely associated with labowsky, who said she was inspired to teach by her yale university thesis adviser john fenn, winner of the 2002 nobel prize in chemistry. \" it is my goal to try to inspire young scientists just as [ professor ] fenn inspired me, \" said labowsky, who attended fenn ' s nobel prize ceremony. while labowsky is no longer participating in the nsf program because of a two - year limitation, the solar cell project \" is still going strong, \" she said. it has been integrated into her curriculum and expanded into a larger nanotechnology project. \" i hope this project will serve as an enriching real world connection for my students, \" she said. \" we will continue to make blackberry juice solar cells to run small electronics as we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5088615739621681, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aff44f94-4608-4063-a033-00d764e2acac>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.190957"}
{"text": "last modified : april 18, 2002 this information was provided by an unrestricted educational grant from integral pet associates, llc. clinically, a pet scan can locate metabolic defects in the human body often before they have caused structural damage. it can do this with high sensitivity and reliability. this is a great advantage in deciding treatment courses and in diagnosing various conditions. since pet accurately and sensitively measures function or physiology in the human body it can detect problems before they cause irreversible damage to tissues. it may also detect response to treatment earlier than many other techniques, such as ct or mri scans. the areas in which pet is making critical contributions are cancer, heart disease, and neurology. pet can detect active tumors in the body with very high sensitivity. active tumors have a high metabolism and therefore high demand for glucose. in this way malignant tumors may be distinguished from benign tumors and hidden tumors may be found. also the response of tumors to treatment ( surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy or gene - therapy ) may be seen and measured earlier by pet than many other techniques. successfully treated tumors are destroyed physiologically often long before there is significant shrinkage of tumor volume. in this way stressful treatments can be assessed and completed earlier than might otherwise be possible. blood flow and glucose metabolism in the muscles of the heart may be accurately measured by pet. these measurements are made by imaging the distribution of intravenously injected radiolabeled ammonia ( blood flow ) and glucose ( metabolism ). areas of low blood flow but normal metabolism in the heart muscle indicate heart muscle that may be repaired by restoring blood flow ( repairing the appropriate coronary artery ), while areas of matched low blood flow and metabolism may already be irreversibly damaged and so require other treatments. in addition blood flow in the heart may be measured at rest and after exercise to detect partly obstructed arteries in the heart responsible for angina. seizures or epilepsy often start from a single focus of abnormal tissue in the brain. when the frequency and intensity of seizures do not respond well to medication, surgery may provide permanent relief. in any event, injection of a tiny amount of radiolabeled glucose is used to image the metabolism of the brain by pet. if you were to have a seizure around the time of glucose injection the seizure focus would be an area of intense metabolism ( and uptake ). between seizures the focus shows up as an area of decreased metabolism in the brain. brain trauma often results in subtle changes in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5280912671612025, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ee62865e-cd73-41c5-9c6f-51cc4d14a4bc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.263821"}
{"text": "the missing key to physics, esp, intelligence, aging... as you know the discoveries of nikola tesla have been purposefully minimized in the media, college curriculums, and in the history books. well, there was another absolutely brilliant scientist whose discoveries are on a par with tesla ' s, but his work was very diligently minimized before it ever received widespread attention, and that scientist ' s name was albert roy davis. it may seem presumptuous to compare any scientist to tesla, but if there is one that you can compare to him, in my opinion, it ' s albert roy davis. in 1936 davis discovered that the north and south poles of magnetism are two separate energies with exact opposite effects on all matter. the north pole energy spins counterclockwise and causes matter to contract, and the south pole energy spins clockwise and causes matter to expand. davis and his associate, walter c. rawls, jr., found that this discovery had incredible implications in many areas of research. it is the key to understanding the \" new physics \", the physics of ufo ' s. modern physics considers the two poles to be a singular form of energy, not two separate energies. magnetism is the foundation of physics. if you ' ve ever heard richard c. hoagland talk about the \" russian physics \", let me tell you this : the russians knew nothing of this \" new physics \" until they adopted davis ' discovery. it is the key to tapping into the true potential of the human mind. davis and rawls discovered that north pole magnetism can be used to dramatically increase our intelligence and our psychic abilities. it is the key to understanding the legends of giants in ancient history, and the 2 - 3 foot beings as well. davis and rawls discovered that north pole exposed animals grew into much smaller, physically weaker adults. south pole exposed animals grew into much larger, physically stronger adults. it is the key to aging. davis and rawls discovered that both north pole and south pole exposed animals lived much longer than animals with no magnetic exposure.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5848647415581976, "token_count": 421, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a6a92512-456a-44ea-9720-ba5675179fcd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.311944"}
{"text": "reference sedation for this procedure. sperm collection. sperm are collected by means of masturbation or by taking sperm from a reference testicle opens new window through a small incision. this procedure is done when a blockage prevents sperm from being ejaculated or when there is a problem with sperm development. sperm may have been collected and frozen at an earlier time. then the sperm are thawed on the day the eggs are collected. fertilization and embryo transfer. the eggs and sperm are placed in a glass dish and incubated with careful temperature, atmospheric, and infection control for 48 to 120 hours. about 2 to 5 days after fertilization, the best fertilized eggs are selected. one to three are placed in the uterus using a thin flexible tube ( catheter ) that is inserted through the cervix. those remaining may be frozen ( cryopreserved ) for future attempts. pregnancy and birth. any reference embryos opens new window that implant in the uterus may then result in pregnancy and birth of one or more infants. what to expect after treatment overall, in vitro fertilization ( ivf ) - related injections, monitoring, and procedures are emotionally and physically demanding of the female partner. superovulation with hormones requires regular blood tests, daily injections ( some of which are quite painful ), frequent monitoring by your doctor, and harvesting of eggs. these procedures are done on an outpatient basis and require only a short recovery time. you may have cramping during the procedure. you may be advised to avoid strenuous activities for the remainder of the day or to be on bed rest for a few days, depending on your condition and your doctor ' s recommendation. why it is done in vitro fertilization may be a treatment option if : - a woman ' s reference fallopian tubes opens new window are missing or blocked. - a woman has severe reference endometriosis opens new window. - a man has low sperm counts. - reference artificial or intrauterine insemination opens new window has not been successful. - unexplained infertility has continued for a long time. how long a couple chooses to wait is influenced by the female partner ' s age and other personal factors. - a couple wants to test for inherited disorders before embryos are transferred. ivf can be done even if a : - woman has had a reference tubal ligation opens new window reversal surgery that was not successful. - woman does not have fall", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5121201167652726, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:21cc6a40-80ad-4447-a9b5-bb2b4b28db5a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.359307"}
{"text": "as one - year olds play, they start to recognize patterns and understand shapes. they begin to sort familiar objects by one characteristic, such as whether they are \" hard \" or \" soft. \" they may enjoy filling and emptying containers. they notice that night is followed by day, and that socks go on feet before shoes. they know that when an object is hidden, it is still there. many can also do simple insert puzzles when the puzzle pieces show whole objects. between 18 - 24 months, some children will begin to use a few number words without understanding quantity ( e. g., imitates a simple counting rhyme ). some children may also begin to understand the words \" one \" and \" two \" ( e. g., distinguishes \" one \" or \" two \" from many ; identifies pairs of items as \" two ; \" identifies three or more items as \" many \" rather than as \" one \" or \" two ; \" asks for \" one \" or \" two \" of something ; knows age ; responds appropriately to the request, \" take just one, \" or \" give me two. \" ). between 18 - 24 months, a few children will begin to nonverbally and mentally determine that one item added to another makes \" two, \" and that one item taken away or subtracted from \" two \" makes \" one. \" between 12 and 18 months, the average child understands that when an object is completely hidden, it is still there ( \" object permanence \" ), and can be recovered. ( some children may understand this between 18 - 24 months. ) during the first half of this year, some children will even be able to recover an object that has been hidden in one place, and then visibly moved to a second position and re - hidden. ( the average child will establish such \" object permanence \" during the second half of this year. ) during the first half of this year, the average child will also be able to recover an object that has been covered with one item, and then covered with something else while remaining in the same position between 18 and 24 months, some children will informally identify and play with solid objects ( e. g., picks out a familiar object by touch when that object is placed in a bag with two other objects ). between 12 - 24 months, children are typically able to work simple \" insert \" puzzles ( e. g., completes a three - piece simple puzzle where pieces are whole objects ). also, children can remove a part from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5250251886716084, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:22d50ccc-d881-41ca-97f6-a1372a5c5f64>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.392336"}
{"text": "two other objects ). between 12 - 24 months, children are typically able to work simple \" insert \" puzzles ( e. g., completes a three - piece simple puzzle where pieces are whole objects ). also, children can remove a part from a toy ( e. g., a wheel ) and replace it. finally, children can build three - dimensional structures using one type of item ( e. g., a cube ). between 12 - 18 months, children adjust their reach based on the distance and size of an object ( e. g., accurately reaches and closes hand around an item instead of missing the object or closing hand before contact ). children also adjust their grasp of an object based on its weight ( i. e., no longer grasps all items tightly or allows arm to drop when given heavy items ). some children at 12 - 18 months believe that a cracker broken into many pieces is more food than the same type of cracker that is whole. ( the average child believes this between 18 - 24 months. ) some children during the second half of this year will explore objects by filling and emptying containers ( e. g., with sand or water ). during the second half of this year, a few children begin to develop a sense of time through participation in routine daily activities ( e. g., knows about when it is time to eat, nap time, etc. ). children ' s sense of time develops gradually over the next several years. between 12 - 18 months, some children recognize that there is an order to the day ( e. g., mommy comes to get me after storytime ). the average child sees daily patterns by the second half of this year. in the second half of the year, some children show a greater understanding of daily time sequence ( e. g., time to eat, nap time, etc. ). during the second half of the year, some children notice patterns in the environment ( e. g., day follows night, patterns in carpeting or clothing, etc. ). they also use the terms, \" tomorrow, \" and \" yesterday. \" in the second half of this year, some children show interest in patterns or sequence ( e. g., attempts to follow patterns with stringing beads, magnetic shapes, peg boards ). between 18 - 24 months, some children can classify, label and sort familiar objects by a known group ( e. g., hard v. soft, large v. small, heavy v", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5328594505164945, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:22d50ccc-d881-41ca-97f6-a1372a5c5f64>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.394500"}
{"text": "solar electrical power is the particular conversion of sunshine into electricity, either straight making use of photovoltaics ( pv ), and / or indirectly utilizing concentrated solar electric power ( csp ). commercial concentrated solar force vegetation were 1st developed within the 1980s. the actual 354 mw segs csp installing the components is actually the biggest solar electrical power plant throughout the globe, placed within the mojave desert of california. some other big csp plants include the actual solnova solar power station ( 150 mw ) plus the andasol solar electric power station ( 150 mw ), both throughout spain. the actual 214 mw gujarat solar park inside india, is actually the entire globe s biggest photovoltaic plant. solar force typically is the conversion of sunshine into electricity. sunshine is converted straight into electricity applying photovoltaics ( pv ), or simply indirectly with concentrated solar force ( csp ), that normally concentrates the actual sun ' s stamina that would boil water that is afterward used to provide energy. other technologies furthermore exist, for instance stirling engine dishes which incorporate a stirling cycle motor to electrical power a generator. photovoltaics were initially chosen to power little and also medium - sized applications, from the calculator driven by a single solar mobile that would off - grid homes driven by a photovoltaic range. a parabolic trough consists of the linear parabolic reflector which concentrates light onto a receiver placed over the reflector ' s focal line. the recipient is a tube positioned right above the entire center associated with the parabolic mirror and also is actually filled with a functioning liquid. the particular reflector is actually built to follow the actual sun during the entire daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. parabolic trough systems provide the ideal land - use factor of any solar development. the actual segs vegetation within california not to mention acciona ' s nevada solar one near boulder city, nevada are generally representatives of this development. compact linear fresnel reflectors happen to be csp - plants which employ countless thin mirror strips instead of parabolic mirrors to be able to focus sunshine onto two tubes alongside working liquid. this particular has the advantage which flat mirrors will likely be chosen that are much cheaper compared to parabolic mirrors, and additionally that more reflectors will be put within the exact same amount of space, permitting more of the available sunshine in order to be chosen. focusing linear fresnel reflectors can certainly be utilized in either big or even more compact plants. for more information, check out : pre", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5514323570101705, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:219a7c65-e194-42a6-a8bf-51873343b562>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.411834"}
{"text": "when we exercise, our heart rates increase, and when we sleep, they drop. but sometimes, when we ' re working during the day and minding our business, our heart skips a beat. during any 24 - hour period, in fact, one - fifth of adults may experience this phenomenon and not know it. when extra beats happen in quick succession, the heart can enter a chaotic state, leading to a condition known as arrhythmia, which is treated with daily medication or, in more severe cases, electrical pulses that return the heart to normalcy. teresa chay is a biophysicist who suffers from arrhythmia. she developed the condition as a child after rheumatic fever damaged two heart valves. surgery seven years ago replaced the valves, but she still takes daily medication and occasionally needs to rush to the hospital for electrical pulse treatment. since her surgery, chay has studied arrhythmia. using supercomputers at the pittsburgh supercomputing center, she has developed a mathematical model that explains why arrhythmia begins and why it stops when electric shocks are applied. her goal, like other researchers in this field, is providing a foundation for developing better drugs to control arrhythmia. currently, the drugs are not always effective, and in some cases, for reasons not well understood, rather than controlling arrhythmia they can trigger it and kill you. researcher : teresa chay, university of pittsburgh. hardware : cray c90 software : user developed code keywords : arrhythmia, heart, heart rate, electrical pulse treatment, anti - arrhythmic drugs, ion channels, sudden cardiac death, atrial fibrillation, erratic beating, chaotic state, nonlinear dynamics, chaos theory, bifurcation analysis, coexistence theory, reentrant arrhythmia, self beating, quiescent state, sinus node. related material on the web : more information about dr. chay and her research, from the community of science web server. projects in scientific computing, psc ' s annual research report. references, acknowledgements & credits", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5561050506058217, "token_count": 442, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8eff25c8-cc65-4e9f-a78f-4933c86afaf6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.416053"}
{"text": "final results ( phase 1, 2 and 2b ) the data that is gathered constitutes an important collection of information on the currents that form within the system and between the system and the surrounding areas, and on the chemical and physical characteristics of the column of water. this knowledge provides a reference framework for the interpretation of analytical data regarding the movement of masses of water and the transport of matter and polluting substances inside the network of canals. the expansion of the system under observation has also made it possible to validate the two - dimensional model of the finite elements for the lagoon \u2013 available to insula \u2013 that simulates the propagation of a wave from the inlets at the outer margins of the city ( technical report \u201c d2 \u201d ) and that provides the surrounding conditions for the two - dimensional link - node model of the inner canals. with the uninterrupted acquisition of time - based series of chemical and physical parameters, the periodicity of some processes was also investigated. in particular, the series of turbidity values made it possible to assess the phenomenon of the re - suspension of sediment from the bottom of the canals over a more extended span of time. the study highlighted how the primary factor in determining the turbidity of the waters inside the system is the circulation of motor boats and depends on the intensity of the traffic, of the water head and the tide conditions. an estimate of the flow of sedimentation made by placing five traps across a more extended area has made it possible to compare different canal systems. the data relative to the entire monitoring period highlights a distinct differentiation of the flow of sediment, in relation to the different hydrodynamic conditions in the five canals under observation. however, the evolution over time of the flow in the different sites is similar, with relatively low values in winter, followed by a progressive increase in the flow in the springtime. the results confirm the strict relationship between the hydrodynamic characteristics of each single canal, the quality of the material that collects on the bottom, and the intensity of the metabolic processes. as seen in a preliminary manner during phase 1, the sedimentation traps, jointly with the constant measuring of the turbidity, are an effective system for studying the variations in the phenomena of sediment re - suspension and transport within the network of canals in the historic city centre of venice. the investigation makes it possible to explore the mechanisms of sedimentation, an aspect that is particularly interesting to insula : the objective is to predict the rate of sedimentation of the materials in the canals,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5246035445273518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e10cfd37-04db-4d01-9af2-dcd4d9c9d1ce>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.471525"}
{"text": "of canals in the historic city centre of venice. the investigation makes it possible to explore the mechanisms of sedimentation, an aspect that is particularly interesting to insula : the objective is to predict the rate of sedimentation of the materials in the canals, and hence to program dredging operations. the results of the analyses on the water samples taken during the measuring campaigns, confirm the importance of determining the concentration of suspended particles for the evaluation of the transport of solids and heavy metals in the canals of venice. the dissolved species of nitrogen and phosphorus, in particular ammonia and orthophosphate, constitute a very precise tracer of the qualitative variations of a column of water, that are introduced as a result of the draining of waste water, or the route of the water and the length of time they stay in the system. these results further highlight the fundamental role of circulation in establishing the behaviour of contaminants from the urban waste inside the system. at the close of phase 2, on the basis of the results acquired during the study, a methodological protocol ( or specification ) was drafted, describing appropriate monitoring methodologies for assessing possible variations, over a relatively short span of time, in the quality of the water in the canal networks of the historic city centre ( icaro project, phases 1 and 2 \u2013 results and methodologies, january 2004 ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5433266769963345, "token_count": 273, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e10cfd37-04db-4d01-9af2-dcd4d9c9d1ce>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.475843"}
{"text": "| rediff india abroad home | all the sections | what is 3g spectrum? how does it help you? rediff business desk | september 29, 2006 it ' s boom time for mobile phones in india. and people are looking forward to more information, faster data access and multimedia services through their mobile phones. 3g technology is here to turn this dream into reality. it ' s a technology anxiously awaited by telecom operations and subscribers in india. how long do you have to wait? not very long! india is all set to launch 3g mobile telephone services by june 2007. according to telecom regulatory authority of india chairman nripendra misra, a total of 32. 5 mhz is available for allocation within the next 6 - 9 months. trai has also recommended auctioning 200 mhz for broadband wireless access services like wimax ( worldwide interoperability for microwave access ) and has proposed a national frequency management board to oversee spectrum availability and its efficient use. he hopes that the allocated spectrum would be enough for the next two years and said trai would recommend freeing up more spectrum for those who lose out in this auction. so what is 3g spectrum all about? read on. what is spectrum? radio spectrum refers to a range of radio frequencies. the bandwidth of a radio signal is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies of the signal. for example, in the case of a voice signal having a minimum frequency of 200 hertz ( hz ) and a maximum frequency of 3, 000 hz, the bandwidth is 2, 800 hz ( 3 khz ). the amount of bandwidth needed for 3g services could be as much as 15 - 20 mhz, whereas for 2g services a bandwidth of 30 - 200 khz is used. hence, for 3g huge bandwidth is required. how is 3g different from 2g and 4g? while 2g stands for second - generation wireless telephone technology, 1g networks used are analog, 2g networks are digital and 3g ( third - generation ) technology is used to enhance mobile phone standards. 3g helps to simultaneously transfer both voice data ( a telephone call ) and non - voice data ( such as downloading information, exchanging e - mail, and instant messaging. the highlight of 3g is video telephony. 4g technology stands to be the future standard of wireless devices. currently, japanese company ntt docomo and samsung are testing 4g communication. how will 3g services help you? 3g services will enable video broadcast and data - intensive services such as stock transactions, e", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5091867245170552, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:38ba47ea-6e9c-483a-9a11-0e6791c274db>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.493024"}
{"text": "s the physician, now published in many languages. moreover, according to ibn al - nadim, al - farabi, a well - known philosopher and scientist, was from the faryab province of afghanistan. before the taliban gained power, the city of kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern afghan music, especially during the nauroz - celebration. kabul in the middle part of the twentieth century has been likened to vienna during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. the tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is potent in political terms. men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, they would assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders ( khans ). in theory, under islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler ' s call ( ulul - amr ). heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. religiously, afghans are over 99 % muslims : approximately 74 - 80 % sunni and 19 - 25 % shi ' a ( estimates vary ). up until the mid - 1980s, there were about 30, 000 to 150, 000 hindus and sikhs living in different cities, mostly in jalalabad, kabul, and kandahar. the economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million ( out of a total of an estimated 29 million ). as of 2005, the official unemployment rate is at 40 %. the number of non - skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300, 000 per annum. the nation ' s economy began to improve since 2002 due to the infusion of multi - billion us dollars in international assistance and investments, as well as remittances from expats. it is also due to dramatic improvements in agricultural production and the end of a four - year drought in most of the country. the real value of non - drug gdp increased by 29 % in 2002, 16 % in 2003, 8 % in 2004 and 14 % in 2005. as much as one - third of afghanistan ' s gdp comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production. opium production in afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5100956598745341, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:614d4011-e6f4-4920-9cf1-28daafad9f38>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.557269"}
{"text": "photonics : sensing on the way published online 01 august 2012 hollow optical fibers containing light - emitting liquids hold big promises for biological sensing applications schematic illustration of a hollow fiber. the chemiluminescent liquid in the core ( yellow ) is guided through the fiber, also with help of further hole structures ( dark blue ). processing biological samples on a small substrate the size of a computer chip is becoming a common task for biotechnology applications. given the small working area, however, probing samples on the substrate with light can be difficult. to address this issue, xia yu and co - workers at the a * star singapore institute of manufacturing technology have now developed an optical fiber system that is able to deliver light to microfluidic chips with high efficiency1. \u201c our compact optical fibers are designed for use with high - throughput detection systems, \u201d says yu. \u201c they are ideal for use in space - restrictive locations. \u201d a common way of probing biological samples is by light. in this method, the sample is excited by an external light source and the light emitted in response is detected, which provides a unique fingerprint of the substance. conventional techniques are able to deliver light to samples and probe the response, but they are not very efficient at probing a small sample volume. a solution to this is to use optical fibers that are able to guide light to small spaces. the drawback with this technique, however, has been that it can be difficult to insert the external probe light into the optical fiber with sufficient efficiencies. yu and her co - workers have now circumvented this problem by using optical fibers with a hollow core ( see image ). the empty hollow core can be filled with liquids \u2014 in this case, with chemiluminescent solutions. the liquid is important to promote the transport of light through the core. in addition, these solutions consist of two liquids that when brought together initiate a chemical reaction that emits light. if such a solution is placed directly within the hollow core the problem of coupling light into the fiber is circumvented. this not only avoids external light sources but also promotes an established technology. \u201c the use of chemical luminescence is a common technique for a variety of detection assays in biology, \u201d says yu. \u201c by incorporating the emission mechanism into optical fibers, we can use it as a light source for sensing applications in microfluidics systems. \u201d first tests for such sensing applications are already underway, although some challenges remain. for example, there", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5765448282431834, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:512b4ec2-ba1a-4c6f-8ec8-d09831c1eed6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.565431"}
{"text": "career : propagation systems for generation of chromosomally stable human embryonic stem cells ( virginia commonwealth university ) raj rao and members of his research group at virginia commonwealth university have developed a new material free of animal components that produces stable, non - tumor - forming stem cells. traditionally, human stem cell growth systems involve the use of animal - derived components. these elements raise the risk of genetic mutations and the spread of disease in new cells. development of stable, non - tumor - forming, disease - free stem cells will advance stem cell therapies to treat human diseases. human stem cells have gained enormous interest as potential sources for regenerative biomedical therapies and model systems for studying early human development. however, the process is labor intensive and can result in nonuniform, unstable human stem cell cultures. in addition, traditional stem cell growth systems lead to a mixture of stem cells. some of these networks develop into normal tissues and cells, while others form cancers. stem cell cancers are typically some of the hardest to treat. rao ' s findings will enable investigators to use well - defined materials to manufacture stem cells that are disease free, stable and non - tumor forming. researchers re - create fish hair cell sensors and musclesresearch areas : engineering locations : virginia research could have a significant impact on bioengineered replacement materialsresearch areas : engineering locations : virginia", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5501209778749814, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c3d30909-2709-4627-8e0a-45dc8a445fb3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.566987"}
{"text": "\u2022 select site currency select a currency for use throughout the site physical database design. the morgan kaufmann series in data management systems elsevier science and technology, june 2007, pages : 448 the rapidly increasing volume of information contained in relational databases places a strain on databases, performance, and maintainability : dbas are under greater pressure than ever to optimize database structure for system performance and administration. physical database design discusses the concept of how physical structures of databases affect performance, including specific examples, guidelines, and best and worst practices for a variety of dbmss and configurations. something as simple as improving the table index design has a profound impact on performance. every form of relational database, such as online transaction processing ( oltp ), enterprise resource management ( erp ), data mining ( dm ), or management resource planning ( mrp ), can be improved using the methods provided in the book. the first complete treatment on physical database design, written by the authors of the seminal, database modeling and design : logical design, 4th edition. includes an introduction to the major concepts of physical database design as well as detailed examples, using methodologies and tools most popular for relational databases today : oracle, db2 ( ibm ), and sql server ( microsoft ). focuses on physical database design for exploiting b + tree indexing, clustered indexes, multidimensional clustering ( mdc ), range partitioning, shared nothing partitioning, shared disk data placement, materialized views, bitmap indexes, automated design tools, and more! 1 introduction to physical database design 2 basic indexing methods 3 query optimization and plan selection 4 selecting indexes 5 selecting materialized views 6 shared - nothing partitioning 7 range partitioning 8 multidimensional clustering 9 the interdependence problem 10 counting and data sampling in physical design exploration 11 query execution plans and physical design 12 automated physical database design 13 down to the metal : server resources and topology 14 physical design for decision support, warehousing, and olap 16 distributed data allocation appendix a a simple performance model for databases appendix b technical comparison of db2 hadr with oracle data guard for database disaster recovery lightstone, sam s. sam lightstone is a senior technical staff member and development manager with ibm ' s db2 product development team. his work includes numerous topics in autonomic computing and relational database management systems. he is cofounder and leader of db2 ' s autonomic computing r & d effort. he is chair of the ieee data engineering work", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.531144095594191, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a5e8dc97-3a53-475b-85d4-7324fd27e959>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.572350"}
{"text": "product development team. his work includes numerous topics in autonomic computing and relational database management systems. he is cofounder and leader of db2 ' s autonomic computing r & d effort. he is chair of the ieee data engineering workgroup on self managing database systems and a member of the ieee computer society task force on autonomous and autonomic computing. in 2003 he was elected to the canadian technical excellence council, the canadian affiliate of the ibm academy of technology. he is an ibm master inventor with over 25 patents and patents pending ; he has published widely on autonomic computing for relational database systems. he has been with ibm since 1991. teorey, toby j. toby j. teorey is a professor in the electrical engineering and computer science department at the university of michigan, ann arbor. he received his b. s. and m. s. degrees in electrical engineering from the university of arizona, tucson, and a ph. d. in computer sciences from the university of wisconsin, madison. he was general chair of the 1981 acm sigmod conference and program chair for the 1991 entity - relationship conference. professor teorey ' s current research focuses on database design and data warehousing, olap, advanced database systems, and performance of computer networks. he is a member of the acm and the ieee computer society. tom nadeau is the founder of aladdin software ( aladdinsoftware. com ) and works in the area of data and text mining. he received his b. s. degree in computer science and m. s. and ph. d. degrees in electrical engineering and computer science from the university of michigan, ann arbor. his technical interests include data warehousing, olap, data mining and machine learning. he won the best paper award at the 2001 ibm cascon conference.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5258313165397683, "token_count": 374, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a5e8dc97-3a53-475b-85d4-7324fd27e959>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.573033"}
{"text": "chemical technology news from across rsc publishing. nanofactories monitor bacteria communication 03 march 2010 scientists in the us have developed a microdevice that investigates how bacteria communicate with each other to enhance their resistance to drugs. bacteria communicate in a process called quorum sensing, in which they secrete small signalling molecules called autoinducers. when bacteria produce a quorum, their resistance to drugs is enhanced. william bentley and co - workers from the university of maryland have developed bio - inspired nanoscale factories that capture bacteria, deliver a drug right on the surface of the bacteria and test their responses. ' the overall goal is to understand how pathogens communicate with each other to make a more formidable team than each individual cell. we ' re trying to break down what exactly a quorum is and how it works ', explains bentley. microdevice could help develop the next generation of antimicrobials the nanofactories assemble themselves on a chitosan coated electrode within a microfluidic device. they contain multiple modules that each perform a different function, including targeting and capturing bacteria cells, sensing raw materials in the vicinity and converting the raw materials into autoinducer molecules and transporting these back to the bacteria cell surface. bentley used bacteria cells that were specially constructed to express a fluorescent protein in response to autoinducer signalling, which could be easily seen. the autoinducer molecules made by the nanofactories triggered the quorum sensing response of the bacteria, causing them to express the fluorescent protein. ' we ' re developing tools that enable rapid, cost - effective assembly of complex biological systems on devices so that the device can interrogate what the biology is doing ', bentley adds. michael shuler, an expert in bioengineering at cornell university, ithaca, us, called the concept of nanofactories ' highly intriguing and novel '. he said that while applying the technique to the capture of quorum sensing bacteria was important for controlling some types of bacteria without antibiotics, the most exciting thing for him was the potential of the nanofactories to be integrated with microfluidics or other nanotechnologies. in the future bentley hopes that increasingly complex biological systems could be assembled to recreate the environment that bacteria see. he hopes to use the method to study other systems including epithelial and cancer cells. enjoy this story? spread the word using the ' tools ' menu on the left or add a comment to the chemistry world blog. link to journal article biological nanofactories facilitate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5763036649937622, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:eedbf89b-7026-4cd1-989f-3214da02a91c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.601749"}
{"text": "filed under : computers often, when people talk about the future of user interaction with computers, the go - to reference is steven spielberg \u2019 s \u2018 minority report. \u2019 but those dreams of gesture - based computing find users waving their hands in the air with no tactile feedback at all, and anyone who has typed on both an iphone and a blackberry can tell you a little physical feedback is always welcome. an experimental system being developed at gifu university in japan marries that sort of hand gesture - based experience with 3 - d displays and haptic feedback to create an experience that more closely resembles manipulating objects in the real world. the hiro iii requires that you strap your fingertips into a robot hand, which has fingers that simulate the texture of real surfaces to provide a sense of weight to your on - screen interactions. for example, if you \u2019 re running your hand across a jagged surface, the hiro iii will appropriately recreate that feeling. when combined with a 3 - d display, the experience should be quite immersive. the system has obvious applications for controlling robot arms, as well as for simulating surgical and diagnostic procedures for medical students. check out the video of hiro iii in action after the break. [ from : engadget ] continue reading in hiro iii, researchers see scientific breakthrough, we see feel - o - vision in hiro iii, researchers see scientific breakthrough, we see feel - o - vision originally appeared on switched on wed, 30 jun 2010 11 : 00 : 00 est. please see our terms for use of feeds. read | permalink | email this | comments", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5225288247827684, "token_count": 324, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d1811a19-c380-45a1-8e7a-d3b27f9fed68>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.609479"}
{"text": "may 26, 2000 iowa city, iowa - - long - term exposure to radon in the home is associated with lung cancer risk and presents a significant environmental health hazard, according to a study led by researchers at the university of iowa college of public health. the iowa radon lung cancer study, funded by the national institute of environmental health sciences, included investigators from the ui, st. john ' s university in collegeville, minn. and the university of kansas. the results are published in the june 1 issue of the american journal of epidemiology. from 1993 to 1997, the researchers studied 1, 027 iowa women - - 413 who were newly diagnosed with lung cancer and 614 \" controls \" - - ages 40 to 84 who had lived in their homes for the past 20 years or more. the women studied in both groups included smokers as well as nonsmokers. women were studied because they typically have less occupational exposures to substances that may cause lung cancer, and historically have spent more time in the home. the researchers found that close to 60 percent of the basement radon concentrations for both the lung cancer cases ( study participants with lung cancer ) and the control group ( participants without lung cancer ) exceeded the u. s. environmental protection agency action level for radon of 4 picocuries per liter ( pci / l ). the researchers found that 33 percent of living areas for the lung cancer cases, and 28 percent of the living areas for the control group, exceeded the epa ' s action level of 4 pci / l. even at the epa action level of 4 pci / l, an approximate 50 percent excess lung cancer risk was found among the women in the study after correcting for the impact of smoking, according to charles lynch, ui professor of epidemiology and the study ' s principal investigator. \" what this indicates is that residential radon exposure is a significant cause of lung cancer, \" lynch said. at least four radon detection devices were placed in different areas in each of the study subjects ' homes for one year. the researchers linked these multiple home radon measurements, as well as estimates on radon exposure outside the subjects ' homes, with the subjects ' past mobility history - - where and how much time they had spent outside or inside their homes or in the workplace, for example. with this information, the researchers were able to determine actual detailed exposure estimates for each study participant. \" this study incorporated the most sophisticated radon exposures analysis ever performed in a residential epide", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5059010722612334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:487c4046-a9ea-410f-844b-6e6991a9ee1d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.625461"}
{"text": "june 4, 2005 autism therapy is bedeviled by unpredictable outcomes. even with the best behavioral treatments, which are the only ones to have been scientifically demonstrated to work - - says laura schreibman, professor of psychology and director of the autism research program at ucsd - - some children improve dramatically, some only somewhat and others not at all. many families try one thing after another, losing precious months before hitting on the therapeutic method best suited for their autistic child. given the importance of early intervention, schreibman said, \" we need to get it right the first time. \" a new study coauthored by schreibman and recent doctoral graduate michelle sherer successfully matches autistic children with an appropriate therapy. published in the june issue of the american psychological association ' s journal of consulting and clinical psychology, the study is the first to develop and test a predictive profile of children likely to respond to a particular treatment, in this case pivotal response training. prt is a child - directed behavioral intervention developed by schreibman and uc santa barbara colleague robert l. koegel. focused on improving a child ' s motivation and responsiveness, prt targets language skills, play skills and social behaviors that can be generalized to a natural, non - lab setting. the researchers began by examining data from 28 children who had participated in previous investigations of prt. characteristics of the poorest and most exceptional responders were used to develop the predictive profile. children expected to do well with prt were those who showed a moderate to high interest in toys, were tolerant of another person in close proximity, and, relative to those with poor outcomes, had fewer non - verbal stimulatory behaviors ( flapping or rocking, for example ) and more verbal self - stimulatory behaviors ( squeaking or other nonsensical sounds ). a prospective study followed : six new participants were selected - - three who were predicted to respond to prt and three who were not. each prospective responder was matched to a non - responder on iq, language age and symptom severity. two boys and girl, the responders ranged in chronological age from 3 years, 0 months to 3 years, 5 months. the non - responders were likewise two boys and a girl, aged chronologically from 3 years, 1 month to 5 years, 10 months. the children received 90 minutes of one - on - one prt four to five times a week by trained, advanced psychology students who were", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5063672421600776, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d86fc7a5-5a83-4ff5-99f1-52fdb5909edc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.635676"}
{"text": "likewise two boys and a girl, aged chronologically from 3 years, 1 month to 5 years, 10 months. the children received 90 minutes of one - on - one prt four to five times a week by trained, advanced psychology students who were blind to the hypothesis of the study. after five weeks, prt treatment was stopped for the non - responders because they failed to show any improvement, and it was ethically indefensible to continue. they were referred to other programs. ( the non - responders ' slightly higher chronological age did not appear to be a factor. in fact, the youngest child of this group was among the poorest performing. ) responders received a total of six months, or approximately 190 hours, of treatment. as predicted, they made significant gains on several measures. children \" r1 \" and \" r2, \" for example, began the study with no functional communication. by the second month, both were talking during and outside of treatment sessions. skeptics might charge that the profile developed by sherer and schreibman merely picks out children who will improve with any and all behavioral treatment. an important insight, however, the authors write, is provided by the non - responders who were discontinued from the study. \" nr1, \" for instance, who did not derive any benefit from prt, made great gains with another method - - suggesting the profile is specifically predictive for outcomes with prt. subsequent research led by schreibman is confirming this finding. \" this is just a start in the right direction. it is one profile for one therapy, \" said schreibman, author of autism and the forthcoming the science and fiction of autism ( harvard university press, nov. 2005 ). \" we in the autism community know there is no one - size - fits - all approach. to reduce outcome variability, we need to continue finding predictor variables and to develop a full inventory of tailored treatments. \" schreibman ' s lab is currently working on adapting its prt profile so that it can more easily be used in schools and other real - world environments. the authors urge further research to develop profiles for all other behavioral therapies. the study was supported by a grant from the national institute of mental health. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5069364032056948, "token_count": 509, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d86fc7a5-5a83-4ff5-99f1-52fdb5909edc>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.636924"}
{"text": "july 26, 2012 excitation of neurons depends on the selected influx of certain ions, namely sodium, calcium and potassium through specific channels. obviously, these channels were crucial for the evolution of nervous systems in animals. how such channels could have evolved their selectivity has been a puzzle until now. yehu moran and ulrich technau from the university of vienna together with scientists from tel aviv university and the woods hole oceanographic institution ( usa ) have now revealed that voltage - gated sodium channels, which are responsible for neuronal signaling in the nerves of animals, evolved twice in higher and lower animals. these results were published in cell reports. the opening and closing of ion channels enable flow of ions that constitute the electrical signaling in all nervous systems. every thought we have or every move we make is the result of the highly accurate opening and closing of numerous ion channels. whereas the channels of most lower animals and their unicellular relatives cannot discern between sodium and calcium ions, those of higher animals are highly specific for sodium, a characteristic that is important for fast and accurate signaling in complex nervous system. surprising results in sea anemones and jellyfish however, the researchers found that a group of basal animals with simple nerve nets including sea anemones and jellyfish also possess voltage - gated sodium channels, which differ from those found in higher animals, yet show the same selectivity for sodium. since cnidarians separated from the rest of the animals more than 600 million years ago, these findings suggest that the channels of both cnidarians and higher animals originated independently twice, from ancient non - selective channels which also transmit calcium. since many other processes of internal cell signaling are highly dependent on calcium ions, the use of non - selective ion channels in neurons would accidently trigger various signaling systems inside the cells and will cause damage. the evolution of selectivity for sodium ions is therefore considered as an important step in the evolution of nervous systems with fast transmission. this study shows that different parts of the channel changed in a convergent manner during the evolution of cnidarians and higher animals in order to perform the same task, namely to select for sodium ions. this demonstrates that important components for the functional nervous systems evolved twice in basal and higher animals, which suggests that more complex nervous systems that rely on such ion - selective channels could have also evolved twice independently. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. note : if no author is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5379766019338168, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:67baeb57-a18c-4b01-8bb0-8558a00d3c52>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.640534"}
{"text": "lived long ago. fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks. paleontology the scientific study of life in the past, especially through the study of fossils. sauropod one of the two types of saurichian dinosaurs, widespread during the jurassic and cretaceous periods. sauropods were plant - eaters and often grew to tremendous size, having a stout body with thick legs, long slender necks with a small head, and long tails. sauropods included the apatosaurus ( brontosaurus ) and brachiosuarus. sedimentary rock a rock that is formed when sediment, such as sand or mud, becomes hard. sedimentary rocks form when sediments are collected in one place by the action of water, wind, glaciers, or other forces, and are then pressed together. limestone and shale are sedimentary rocks. stegosaurus or stegosaur any of several plant - eating dinosaurs of the jurassic and cretaceous periods. stegosaurus had a spiked tail and an arched back with a double row of large, triangular, upright, bony plates. although stegosaurs grew to 20 feet ( 6. 1 meters ) in length, they had tiny heads with brains the size of a walnut copyright \u00a9 2002, 2003 houghton - mifflin company. all rights reserved. used with permission. return to article behind the scenes hot sites & cool books", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5239602880221268, "token_count": 270, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2adbea19-6442-400d-895e-a52d103f9c60>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.647586"}
{"text": "in a. d. 79 mount vesuvius erupted, annihilating the cities of pompeii and herculaneum and killing thousands who did not evacuate in time. to avert a similar fate for present - day naples, which lies six miles west of the still active vesuvius, as well as for the cities near volatile mount etna in sicily, a novel laser system could soon forecast volcanic eruptions up to months in advance. current methods to predict eruptions have downsides. seismometers can monitor tremors and other ground activity that signal a volcano ' s awakening, but their readings can prove imprecise or complicated to interpret. scanning for escaping gases can reveal whether magma is moving inside, but the instruments used to analyze such emissions are often too delicate and bulky for life outside a laboratory. \" you have to collect samples from the volcano, bring them to a lab, and often wait through backlogs of weeks to months before analysis, \" explains frank tittel, an applied physicist at rice university. a more promising technique for early detection focuses on changes in carbon isotopes in carbon dioxide. the ratio between carbon 12 and carbon 13 is roughly 90 to one in the atmosphere, but it can differ appreciably in volcanic gases. a ratio change by as little as 0. 1 part per million could signal an influx of carbon dioxide from magma either building under or rising up through the volcano. lasers can help detect this change : carbon 12 and 13 absorb light at slightly different mid - infrared wavelengths. the lasers must continuously tune across these wavelengths. previously investigators used lead - salt lasers, which require liquid - nitrogen cooling and thus are impractical in the field. furthermore, they are low - power devices, generating less than millionths of a watt, and can emit frequencies in an unstable manner. other isotope scanning techniques are similarly lab - bound. tittel and other scientists in the u. s. and britain, in partnership with the italian government, have devised a volcano - monitoring system around a quantum - cascade laser. such a semiconductor laser can produce high power across a wide frequency. moreover, they are rugged and do not require liquid - nitrogen cooling, making them compact enough to fit inside a shoe box. the researchers first tried out their device on gas emissions from nicaraguan craters in 2000. the new field tests will check its performance and accuracy in harsh volcanic locales. dirk richter, a research engineer at the national center for atmospheric research in boulder, colo., says it would prove", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5521981901608282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9309d171-e9f0-44a8-9de3-926e353cd4e3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.655423"}
{"text": "on gas emissions from nicaraguan craters in 2000. the new field tests will check its performance and accuracy in harsh volcanic locales. dirk richter, a research engineer at the national center for atmospheric research in boulder, colo., says it would prove difficult to design a system \" to work in one of the worst and most challenging environments possible on earth, \" but \" if there ' s one group in the world that dares to do this, that ' s frank tittel ' s group. \" if the instrument works, the plan is to deploy early - warning systems of lasers around volcanoes, with each device transmitting data in real time. false alarms should not occur, because carbon isotope ratios in magma differ significantly from those in the crust. the changes that the laser helps to detect also take place over weeks to months, providing time to compare data from other instruments, as well as ample evacuation notice. \" our system aims at avoiding a catastrophe like the vesuvius eruption, \" says team member damien weidmann, a physicist at the rutherford appleton laboratory in oxfordshire, england. field tests for the prototype are planned for the spring of 2005 in the volcanic alban hills region southeast of rome, near the summer home of pope john paul ii, as well as for volcanic areas near los alamos, n. m. this article was originally published with the title volcanic sniffing.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5340274936178518, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9309d171-e9f0-44a8-9de3-926e353cd4e3>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.656540"}
{"text": "if astronomy and outerspace interest you, then this activity set will fascinate you. you ' ll learn about the planets, stars, sun, moon, and even rockets - all through fun, hands - on experiments. activities include using balloons and chemically powered rockets to study rocket propulsion, building a telescope and star map to investigate the stars and constellations, assembling a model of the solar system to about the planets that share it, and more. once you work through all the activities, you will understand how earth \u2019 s axis and revolution around the sun causes the seasons, how the moon \u2019 s rotation around earth gives us the phases of the moon, how meteorites formed the craters on the moon, how meteoroids become falling stars, and so much more. includes a full - color, 32 - page experiment book to guide your space exploration. ages 8 and up. warning : choking hazard \u2014 children under 8 yrs. can choke or suffocate on uninflated or broken balloons. adult supervision required. keep uninflated balloons from children. discard broken balloons at once. - launch three types of rockets - build a telescope and star map - model the solar system - investigate the revolution and rotation of earth - swing a moon sling - find the man in the moon - recreate lunar and solar eclipses - learn about falling stars - discover how the universe is expanding", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5286339419289667, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ed799365-aaf6-44a3-9da2-8f42750a83fe>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.658558"}
{"text": "an instrument to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level. generally, mean sea level is used for the reference level. mid - level cloud ( bases generally 2000 - 8000m ), made up of grey, puffy masses, sometimes appearing in parallel waves or bands. an indicatorof mid - level instability. altocumulus can take on various forms such as aclenticularis, ac undulatus, ac castellanus, altocumulus ' mackerel sky '. a middle level cloud with vertical development that forms from altocumulusclouds. it is composed primarily of ice crystals in its higher portions andcharacterised by its turrets, protuberances or crenulated tops. mid - level cloud composed of water droplets and ice crystals. usuallygives the sun a watery or dimly visible appearance. a local wind that flows up the side of valleys due to increased heating alongthe valley walls. often the anabatic wind results in cumulus clouds along theridges either side of the valley. see also katabatic winds. a device used to measure wind speed. the departure of an element from its long - term average for the locationconcerned. for example, if the average maximum temperature for melbourne in june is 14 degrees and on one particular day the temperature only reaches 10 degrees, than the anomaly for that day is - 4. a large scale atmospheric circulation system in which the winds rotate anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere ( clockwise in northern hemisphere ). anticyclones are areas of high atmospheric pressure and are generallyassociated with light winds and stable weather conditions. interchangeablewith high pressure system. rotation in the opposite sense as the earth ' s rotation, i. e., anticlockwise in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6128497476394181, "token_count": 360, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f2052ca-130e-43ae-ae93-421e6e25982d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.665239"}
{"text": "the history of pressure measurement 1594 galileo galilei, born in pisa ( italy ), obtains the patent for a machine to pump water from a river for the irrigation of land. the heart of the pump was a syringe. galileo galilei found that 10 meters was the limit to which the water would rise in the suction pump, but had no explanation for this phenomenon. scientists were then devoted to find the cause for this. 1644 evangelista torricelli ( rorr ). italian physicist, filled a tube 1 meter long, hermetically closed at one end, with mercury and set it vertically with the open end in a basin of mercury. the column of mercury invariably fell to about 760 mm, leaving an empty space above its level. torricelli attributed the cause of the phenomenon to a force on the surface of the earth, without knowing, where it came from. he also concluded that the space on top of the tube is empty, that nothing is in there and called it a \" vacuum \". 1648 blaise pascal, french philosophei physicist and mathematician, heard about the experiments of torricelli and was searching for the reasons of galileo ' s and torricelli ' s findings. he came to the conviction that the force, which keeps the column at 760 mm, is the weight of the air above. thus, on a mountain, the force must be reduced by the weight of the air between the valley and the mountain. he predicted that the height of the column would decrease which he proved with his experiments at the mountain puy de dome in central france. from the decrease he could calculate the weight of the air. pascal also formulated that this force, he called it \" pressure \", is acting uniformly in all directions. 1656 offo von guericke, born in magdeburg / germany. torricellis conclusion of an empty space or \" nothingness \" was contrary to the doctrine of an omnipresent god and was thus attacked by the church. guericke developed new air pumps to evacuate larger volumes and staged a dramatic experiment in magdeburg by pumping the air out of two metal hemispheres which had been fitted together with nothing more than grease. 8 horses at each hemisphere were not strong enough to separate them. 1661 robert boyle. an anglo - irish chemist, used \" j \" - shaped tubes closed at one end to study the relationship between the pressure and volume of trapped gas and stated the law of x v = k ( p : pressure, v : volume,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5401764534662774, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7d3e2cec-8320-49ff-9c12-b11bc2f24ce0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.686209"}
{"text": "robert boyle. an anglo - irish chemist, used \" j \" - shaped tubes closed at one end to study the relationship between the pressure and volume of trapped gas and stated the law of x v = k ( p : pressure, v : volume, k : constant ) which means that if the volume of a gas at a given pressure is known, the pressure can be calculated if the volume is changed, provided that neither the temperature nor the amount of gas is changed. 1820 almost 200 years later, joseph louis gay - lussac. french physicist and chemist, detects that the pressure increase of a trapped gas at constant volume is proportional to the temperature. 20 years later, william thomson ( lord kelvin ) defines the absolute temperature mechanical measurement technologies 1843 lucien vidie, french scientist, invented and built the aneroid barometer, which uses a spring balance instead of a liquid to measure atmospheric pressure. the spring extension under pressure is mechanically amplified on an indicator system. employing the indicator method of vidie, eugene bourdon ( founder of the bourdon sedeme company ) patented 1849 the bourdon tube pressure gauge for higher pressures. electrical measurement technologies 1930 the first pressure transducers were transduction mechanisms where the movements of diaphragms, springs or bourdon tubes are part of an electrical quantity. pressure diaphragms are part of a capacitance. the indicator movement is the tap of a potentiometer. 1938 the bonded strain gauges were independently developed by e. e. simmons of the california institute of technology and ac. ruge of massachuseffs institute of technology. simmons was faster to apply for a patent. 1955 the first foil strain gauges came up with an integrated full resistor bridge, which, if bonded on a diaphragm. see opposite stress in the center and at the edge. 1965 the bonding connection of the gauges to the diaphragm was always the cause for hysteresis and instability. in the 1960 ' s, statham introduced the first thin - film transducers with good stability and low hysteresis. today, the technology is a major player on the market for high pressure. 1973 william r. poyle applied for a patent for capacitive transducers on glass or quartz basis, bob bell of kavlico on ceramic basis a few years later in 1979. this technology filled the gap for lower pressure ranges ( for which thin film was not suited ) and is today, also with resist", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5462515928369858, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7d3e2cec-8320-49ff-9c12-b11bc2f24ce0>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.687296"}
{"text": "##cers on glass or quartz basis, bob bell of kavlico on ceramic basis a few years later in 1979. this technology filled the gap for lower pressure ranges ( for which thin film was not suited ) and is today, also with resistors on ceramic diaphragms, the widest spread technology for the sensor age 1967 honeywell research center, minneapolis / usa, 1967 : art r. zias and john egan applied for patent for the edge - constrained silicon diaphragm. 1969. hans w. keller applied for patent for the batch - fabricated silicon sensor. the technology is profiting from the enormous progresses a modern sensor typically weighs 0. 01 grams. if all non - cristalline diaphragms have inherent hysteresis, the precision limit of this item is not detectable by todays means. 2000 the piezoresistive technology is the most universal one. it applies for pressure ranges from 100 mbar to 1500 bar in the absolute, gauge and differential pressure mode. the slow spread of the technology in high volume applications for non - benign media resulted from the inability of us - companies to develop a decent housing. in 30 years, keller has perfected it at costs comparable to any other technology. for more information, please contact... keller at www. keller - druck. com for details of pressure sensors suppliers, click here... home - website - search - suppliers - links - new products - catalogues - magazines problem page - applications - how they work - tech tips - training - events - jobs - register", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5484331749365634, "token_count": 322, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7d3e2cec-8320-49ff-9c12-b11bc2f24ce0>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.687888"}
{"text": "zooplankton community dynamics ballast water transport as a taxonomic and numeric ' filter ' zooplankton data collected from ballast tanks at the beginning and end of 25 voyages showed an overall decline in total zooplankton abundance during a voyage. mortality within tanks could be caused by a number of factors, including : - lack of settlement substrate - exposure to toxic substances - physiological stress caused by changes in physical conditions in addition, the duration of a voyage or the age of the ballast water is also an important factor, as mortality within tanks appears to increase with time. for example, our data indicated that : \u2022 on short voyages ( < 10 days ) survival of zooplankton is unpredictable, but typically high ( both increases and decreases in abundance were recorded ). \u2022 on long voyages ( 16 - 22 days ) there were large declines in survivorship ( > 95 % decrease in abundance in all cases. this an important finding because in order to survive, establish, and thus achieve a successful ballast - mediated invasion, an organism must be delivered in adequate densities to increase the chances of encountering a mate and reproducing. this means that shorter coastwise voyages, where survivorship is more variable and the final densities are relatively higher pose a greater ' invasion threat ' than do longer voyages. though these data bring us closer to identifying predictors of overall zooplankton survivorship, identifying individual taxonomic groups that are more likely to become successful invaders remains elusive. survivorship varied both between taxonomic groups and within taxonomic groups for different voyages. thus, we still do not fully understand the extent to which particular taxonomic groups are better able to survive transport in ballast tanks than others. these data strongly point to the need for rigorous ballast water management policies across the board to effectively handle the release of domestic ballast water, particularly that portion of it which has only been subject to short - term transport.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5070793405093355, "token_count": 385, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:92e01543-dc7c-4c93-93c8-34dc4304db73>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.690008"}
{"text": "high energy mystery lurks at the galactic centre particle physics and astronomy research council posted : september 22, 2004 a mystery lurking at the centre of our own milky way galaxy - an object radiating high - energy gamma rays - has been detected by a team of uk astronomers working with international partners. their research, published today ( september 22nd ) in the journal astronomy and astrophysics, was carried out using the high energy stereoscopic system ( h. e. s. s. ), an array of four telescopes, in namibia, south - west africa. the galactic centre harbours a number of potential gamma - ray sources, including a supermassive black hole, remnants of supernova explosions and possibly an accumulation of exotic ' dark matter ' particles, each of which should emit the radiation slightly differently. the radiation observed by the h. e. s. s. team comes from a region very near sagittarius a *, the black hole at the centre of the galaxy. according to most theories of dark matter, it is too energetic to have been created by the annihilation of dark matter particles. the observed energy spectrum best fits theories of the source being a giant supernova explosion, which should produce a constant stream of radiation. dr. paula chadwick of the university of durham said, \" we know that a giant supernova exploded in this region 10, 000 years ago. such an explosion could accelerate cosmic gamma rays to the high energies we have seen - a billion times more energy than the radiation used for x - rays in hospitals. but further observations will be needed to determine the exact source. \" professor ian halliday, chief executive of the particle physics and astronomy research council ( pparc ) which funds uk involvement in h. e. s. s. said ; \" science continues to throw out the unexpected as we push back the frontiers of knowledge. \" halliday added \" the centre of our galaxy is a mysterious place, home to exotic phenomena such as a black hole and dark matter. finding out which of these sources produced the gamma - rays will tell us a lot about the processes taking place in the very heart of the milky way. \" however, the team ' s theory doesn ' t fit with earlier results obtained by the japanese / australian cangaroo instrument or the us whipple instrument. both of these have detected high - energy gamma rays from the galactic centre in the past ( observations from 1995 - 2002 ), though not with the same precision as h. e. s. s, and they were unable to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5262294097363269, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9273b4cc-460c-4f23-b257-27a7da9567ba>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.725705"}
{"text": "us whipple instrument. both of these have detected high - energy gamma rays from the galactic centre in the past ( observations from 1995 - 2002 ), though not with the same precision as h. e. s. s, and they were unable to pinpoint the exact location as h. e. s. s. has now done, making it harder to deduce the source. these previous results have different characteristics to the h. e. s. s. observations. it is possible that the gamma - ray source at the galactic centre varies over the timescale of a year, suggesting that the source is in fact a variable object, such as the central black hole. the h. e. s. s. team hopes to unravel the mystery with further observations of the galactic centre over the next year or two. the full array of four telescopes will be inaugurated on september 29th 2004, see the h. e. s. s. collaboration the high energy stereoscopic system ( h. e. s. s. ) team consists of scientists from germany, france, the uk, the czech republic, ireland, armenia, south africa and namibia. the h. e. s. s. array over the last few years, the h. e. s. s. collaboration have been building a system of four telescopes in the khomas highland region of namibia, to study very - high - energy gamma rays from cosmic particle accelerators. the telescopes, known as cherenkov telescopes, image the light created when high - energy cosmic gamma rays are absorbed in the atmosphere, and have opened a new energy domain for astronomy. the h. e. s. s. telescopes each feature mirrors of area 107 square metres, and are equipped with highly sensitive and very fast 960 - pixel light detectors in the focal planes. construction of the telescope system started in 2001 ; the fourth telescope was commissioned in december 2003. observations were being made even while the system was being built, first using a single telescope, then with two and three telescopes. while only the complete four - telescope system provides the full performance, the first h. e. s. s. telescope alone was already superior to any of the instruments operated previously in the southern hemisphere. among the first targets to be observed with a two - telescope instrument was the galactic centre. ares 1 - x patch the official embroidered patch for the ares 1 - x rocket test flight, is available for purchase. this beautiful one piece set features the apollo program emblem surrounded by the individual mission logos. the official", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5218844376040643, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9273b4cc-460c-4f23-b257-27a7da9567ba>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.726815"}
{"text": "home \u203a sparknotes \u203a chemistry study guides \u203a review of gases \u203a gases review test don ' t seem to have. please try a different browser. scroll through the page to review your answers. the correct answer is your incorrect answers ( if any ) are highlighted in if you ' d like to take the test over again, click the reset button at the end of the test. which of the following is a correct interpretation of the ideal gas law? what is the correct relationship between an isolated container of gas doubles in pressure and triples in volume. by what factor does t change? if the volume of a gas is doubled at constant temperature, the factor by which the pressure increases is : a barometer filled with an unknown liquid has a height of 1 m at 1 atm. during stormy weather, the height of the column is observed to rise to 1. 3 m. what is the atmospheric pressure? which of the following are possible units of r? what are the conditions of stp? a container contains 32 grams of gas and 2 grams of gas. if the total pressure of the vessel is 16 atm, what is the partial pressure of the as the average radius of a population of gas molecules increases, how does the factor b of van der waals all of the following are properties of an ideal gas except : the ideal gas law is most valid under these conditions : for the van der waals equation : for the equation pv = nrt, the value of t must be expressed in : which of the following is not a si unit a sample of gas has a volume of 22. 4 l at a temperature of 273 k. how many moles are in the sample? the volume of a sample of gas expands five times at constant pressure. by what factor has the absolute the following reaction produces a sample of gas occupies 100 l at stp. if the absolute temperature is halved while all other conditions are constant, what will be the final volume? of a sample of at 300 k. a closed jar contains 2 moles of and 3 moles of. what is the ratio of the partial pressure of over the total pressure in the jar? the rate of effusion of gas a is four times that of gas b. what is the density of a certain gas at stp is 1. 43 g / l. what is the identity of the gas? one end of a mercury manometer is open to the atmosphere ( tm = 760mmhg ). the other end is connected to a 1 mol sample of that is at 273", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5451757687910938, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1475843b-afe3-4a21-b409-9b1d07231153>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.733412"}
{"text": "43 g / l. what is the identity of the gas? one end of a mercury manometer is open to the atmosphere ( tm = 760mmhg ). the other end is connected to a 1 mol sample of that is at 273 k and occupies 22. 4 l. what is the height of the the maxwell - boltzmann distribution graph plots : james the giant has big shoes to fill. his shoes have a total area of in contact with the ground. unfortunately, james ' feet are not so big. barefoot, his weight is spread over. what is the ratio of the pressure he exerts on the ground barefoot over the pressure he exerts with his shoes on? the \" air \" in airbags is generated via the decomposition of solid a sample of an ideal gas is compressed at constant temperature. what happens to the average kinetic energy of the molecules? a piston compresses a gas at constant temperature. initially the gas occupied 1 l and was at a pressure of 1 atm. after compression, the gas occupies 0. 1 atm. what is the pressure of the compressed gas? a collaborator from a foreign country reports that the value of has probably used units of \" woozle \" for which of the following variables : avogadro ' s number is : the following maxwell - boltzmann distribution plot was measured for two gases a and b at the same a rigid container holds a mixture of gases. within this mixture, the partial pressure of is 400 torr. if an additional quantity of gas is injected into the container such that the total pressure of the container rises by 760 torr, what is the change in the partial pressure of? assume that the temperature of the container ' s contents stays constant. if the pressure of a gas doubles and the temperature quadruples, by what factor does the volume change? which of the following are possible units for pressure? the following maxwell - boltzmann distribution plot was measured for a gas at two temperatures a and b : for the following calculation of, the molar mass ( mm ) should be expressed in what units? by what significant numerical value are boltzmann ' s constant ( k ) and the gas constant ( r ) related? the pressure of a gas is tripled while the volume is halved. by what factor does the temperature increase? the gas constant r : one end of a manometer is sealed off to a vacuum. the other end of the manometer is connected to a pressurized gas. the height of the liquid column is indicative of :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5440114183530904, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1475843b-afe3-4a21-b409-9b1d07231153>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.734611"}
{"text": "what factor does the temperature increase? the gas constant r : one end of a manometer is sealed off to a vacuum. the other end of the manometer is connected to a pressurized gas. the height of the liquid column is indicative of : a sample of and a sample of both have a temperature of 330 k. what is the ratio of the average kinetic energy of the over that of the the density of a gas at stp is 0. 089 g / l. what is the molar mass of the gas? the following maxwell - boltzmann distribution plot was measured for two gases a and b at temperatures gaseous methane ( ) burns completely in gaseous oxygen to produce carbon dioxide gas and water liven up your study sesh with one of these playlists! enjoy the tunes! this expertly - crafted playlist is brought to you by chris pine and zoe saldana heat up the red carpet! auntie sparknotes can help! click here for simple, sexy makeup tricks! see every single look from the met gala! we already dib ' sed genghis khan. travel back in time! from super cute to super bad! what do you think? when you don ' t look like j - law. what did star trek get wrong? get our free nook reading apps when your books and teachers don ' t make sense, we do. \u00a92013 sparknotes llc, all rights reserved", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5267620346164987, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1475843b-afe3-4a21-b409-9b1d07231153>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.735308"}
{"text": "knol dl, loisel p, van mechelen w. multidisciplinary rehabilitation for subacute low back pain : graded activity or workplace intervention or both? a randomized controlled trial. spine. 2007 ; 32 : 291 - 298. chou r, qaseem, snow v, casey d, cross jt jr., shekelle p, et al. diagnosis and treatment of low back pain : a joint clinical practice guideline from the american college of physicians and the american pain society. ann intern med. 2007 ; 147 : 478 - 491. chou r, loeser jd, owens dk, rosenquist rw, et al. american pain society low back pain guideline panel. interventional therapies, surgery, and interdisciplinary rehabilitation for low back pain : an evidence - based clinical practice guideline from the american pain society. spine. 2009 ; 34 ( 10 ) : 1066 - 77. | review date : 7 / 23 / 2011 | reviewed by : david zieve, md, mha, medical director, a. d. a. m. health solutions, ebix, inc. ; and c. benjamin ma, md, assistant professor, chief, sports medicine and shoulder service, ucsf department of orthopaedic surgery. the information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. a licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. call 911 for all medical emergencies. links to other sites are provided for information only - - they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. \u00a9 1997 - a. d. a. m., inc. any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5001367002660217, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5c979335-eec9-49c8-a27e-5ae3dd01c71b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.742606"}
{"text": "| the gaging station near soldiers summit is one of more than 100 facilities located along streams in utah. originally manually read, many stations are now automated and stream flow information is posted on the internet. | history is filled with examples of how mankind measures almost everything. property is measured by acreage. mankind measures money in dollars, pounds, pesos, etc time is measured in hours, days, years, decades and centuries. mankind also measures water. as water is piped into a home from a municipal system, a district or city measures consumption by the gallon based on a meter that has been set in the line. in most cases, the transmission line leading to the meter and the water consumption measuring device belong to the controlling entity. the line from the meter to the residence and inside the structure belong to the individual property owner. however, the state owns the water. the service district, the city, the county and private residents are basically paying for the system that delivers the water and for the right to use the liquid. the average home in the united states uses less than 10, 000 gallons of water per month, according nationally compiled data. average residential consumption represents a small factor in the scheme of water matters. a debate continues to rage in certain circles in the world community as to whether fresh, clean water should be a human right or a commodity that is bought and sold to the highest bidder. the issue is an age old question, but one with more meaning as the world ' s population grows by leaps and bounds while fresh water is a finite natural resource. official estimates vary, but it is generally accepted that less than2 percent of the world ' s supply of the natural resource is fresh water. the rest is salt water in the oceans. of the 2 percent, more than half is locked up in ice on the two polar caps. a limited amount of fresh water is produced annually, with the evaporation and precipitation cycle being fairly predictable on a global basis. water is deceiving. a small space can contain a significant amount of water, yet a large lake or reservoir full to capacity can be depleted quickly by the agricultural and municipal uses. for example, lake superior is considered to be the greatest of the great lakes because of its size and depth. lake superior is 350 miles long and 160 miles wide, with a depth of more than 1, 300 feet. lake superior has the storage capability to cover the continental united states with one foot of water. the u. s. mainland has 3, 608, 787 square miles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.534854165260689, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b84c5a2b-a362-4345-89c4-ca00f3961593>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.759512"}
{"text": "is intended to enable the selected eligible applicants to implement scientifically - based reading programs that help all students achieve reading mastery by the end of grade 3. trfi places specific emphasis on the importance of scientifically based reading research \u2013 research that applies rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain valid knowledge relevant to reading development, reading instruction and reading difficulties. the evaluation focuses on activities that occurred primarily during the 2005 - 2006 school year. for additional information about trfi please see tea ' s reading first page. technology immersion pilot ( tip ) the purpose of tip is to explore the impact of technology immersion on student progress by providing students in grantee campuses with a wireless mobile computing device and other appropriate learning technologies that have been shown to improve student achievement. the primary goal of tip is to increase the academic progress of participating students by immersing the campus with appropriate innovative technologies including, but not limited to, wireless mobile computing devices, integrating software, online formative assessment tools, and online resources. evaluation reports were delivered to the agency in december at the conclusion through the 2007 - 2008 school year. for additional information, please see tea ' s tip page. career and technology education ( cte ) grant program the texas legislature established career and technology education goals for all texas students in secondary schools. texas education code ( tec ) section 29. 181 mandates that each public school student shall master the basic skills and knowledge necessary for : 1 ) managing the dual roles of family member and wage earner ; and 2 ) gaining entry - level employment in a high - skill, high - wage job or continuing the student ' s education at the postsecondary level. for additional information about cte in texas, please see tea ' s cte page. page last modified on 2 / 28 / 2011.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5221289042596295, "token_count": 359, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9cfc05a8-b996-42b2-a8d9-02040a354f80>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.786650"}
{"text": "barrier to entry for people who may have a new innovative idea and who want to turn these ideas into a commercial product within a reasonable time to market. with an in \u2010 house 3d printer, quirky is able to shorten and simplify the product development process and enable people with good product ideas to be able to rapidly and efficiently create working prototypes that can be held and tested, thus eliminating a major stumbling block in the way of bringing their product to market. today quirky designs and develops a number of new consumer products from scratch every single week. the quirky model is a natural response to the economic pressures of today \u2019 s downturn, the demographic changes that represent new opportunities in both home and foreign markets, and societal changes that are pressuring the way we consume resources. the implications of the quirky model for western national economies may also be significant in the years ahead. if the deepening of the recession continues to hit manufacturing capacity, 3d printing may be able to offset some of the loss by bypassing the traditional capital \u2010 intensive process, enabling the speedy development of a wide range of innovative products. the value & differentiation here in both the \u2018 istore \u2019 trend and the quirky trend is in the content and the development of user communities of designers and innovators who are now able to produce for themselves. in both cases, 3d printing represents the hardware enabler \u2013 the consumer value is in the fast and relatively easy realization of a new idea into a working prototype and even real product. 3. more companies are engaging across the supply chain we will increasingly see 3d printing as an enabler for companies to engage across the supply chain. 3d printing will increasingly be used as a distribution solution where parts are made to order, without the need to hold stock near to the consumer. this is having a profound impact already in the small number of application areas using 3d printing on a daily basis such as lamp shades and iphone covers. with the rise of 3d printing service bureaus, and now even cloud \u2010 based 3d printing services, making parts on \u2010 demand and nearer to the consumer will continue to make supply chains increasingly lean and efficient in the coming years. the potential benefits of this tool \u2010 less and inventory \u2010 free supply chain include lower material consumption, less waste, lower carbon footprint, reduced capital investment, mitigated risk, and the ability to easily differentiate your product from the rest. 4. desktop 3d printers are proliferating in office environments we can expect an expanding penetration of desktop 3d printers into more offices and smaller offices thanks to the rapidly increasing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.517307138330986, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:02ff5420-a013-4ae8-a738-4aa32cf2eec7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.799822"}
{"text": "baked clay, v. 33. the clay counts as one with the iron so that he is made of fourmetals. however, temple man, i. e. the metallic messiah, consists of only three metals : gold, silver, and bronze ( or copper ). these same three were also in the tabernacle of moses \u2019 time, exodus 25 : 3, 31 : 4 ; 35 : 5. the four metals of nebuchadnezzar \u2019 s statue depict four successive world empires, symbolizing man \u2019 s ungodly earthly rule until the last days, daniel 2 : 34, 35. and just as man \u2019 s rule is summed in one man of various metals, so too god \u2019 s forthcoming reign is portrayed by a single metallic messiah of three metals. see also solomon \u2019 s cyborg messiah. \u2018 messiah \u2019 is a transliteration of mashiach, which means the anointed or anointed one. jewish kings were anointed by having olive oil \u2013 symbolizing illumination \u2013 poured on their heads so that they might know how to rule their nation. solomon himself was anointed in this manner, i kings 1 : 39, and had prayed for an \u201c understanding mind \u201d to know how to rule, 3 : 9, and it was granted him, 3 : 12. jewish kings were seen as sitting on the divine throne and ruling on god \u2019 s behalf according to i chronicles 29 : 23 : \u2018 then solomon sat on the throne of yahweh..., \u2019 and also 28 : 5 where king david says that god \u2018 has chosen my son solomon to sit on the throne of the kingdom of yahweh, \u2019 and that kingdom was national israel. but king messiah \u2013 the metallic messiah \u2013 is or will be anointed with the divine spirit that he may know how to rule the entire world, not national israel only.. no proof of silver walls? concerning the information directly above, someone wrote to another website claiming there was no proof that solomon overlaid any walls with silver, totally ignoring i chronicles 29 : 4. yet all the bible translations i \u2019 ve consulted, both jewish and non - jewish, include this verse with its silver walls. let us ask and answer, therefore : is it likely that the \u201c houses \u201d ( i. e., cells ) in v. 29 : 4 above were silver plated? yes, and here is why. a potent indicator of their existence is that they follow the pattern ( heb., tabnit )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5051158777722742, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:828f8fec-de90-45d7-b531-179d551d2d0a>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.827343"}
{"text": ", and the correlation of the silver sockets and silver cells is one of them. the temple \u2019 s foundation was of limestone blocks, not silver. finally, i have shown that the temple wasalso in the hidden form of the levite high priest ; and by law all priests were of the tribe of levi. in malachi 3 : 3 the lord rebukes the priesthood saying that he \u2018 will purify the sons of levi ( of corruption ) and refine them as gold and silver \u2019. since the central portion of the temple \u2019 s interior was gold plated, it is perfectly fitting that its cell walls should be silver plated, symbolizing the priests themselves becoming as \u2018 gold and silver \u2019 by attaining inward attributes of holiness after being purged of moral corruption. 1 mitsnepheth ( heb. ), the headgear of the high priest, is often translated as miter, but a more fitting word is turban. mitsnepheth ( from the root sanip ) may refer to something that fits around the head, such as a crown or tiara, but also to something that is wound around it, such as bandage or turban ( see first kings 20 : 32 in the tanakh by jps or the niv ). the common priests wore a migbaah, usually translated as bonnet or cap, from the root term gibaah, meaning a hill or small hill, either of which resembles an inverted bowl. see gesenius \u2019 hebrew - chaldee lexicon, etc. 2 this room, a cube of 20 cubits, was the counterpart of the \u201c holy of holies \u201d ( heb. kodesh kodashim ) of the mosaic tabernacle, but the book of first kings calls it debir, instead, from the hebrew root dbr, meaning to speak, according to various hebrew language references, and which is commonly translated as shrine, most holy place, oracle, etc. debir is a fitting name because from here temple man speaks, thus providing further confirmation that this room symbolizes the head, which includes the throat and mouth ( the stairway is the neck - throat, and the mouth is the top of the stairway ). oracle is the closest english equivalent to debir because it may refer to the response of a deity, the place where the deity speaks, or to a prophet or priest who speaks for the deity. and it also implies that temple man may symbolize a prophet, or possibly even god himself.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5101066524782245, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:828f8fec-de90-45d7-b531-179d551d2d0a>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.829515"}
{"text": "the system by which nerve receptors in skin, muscle, ligament and joint tissue relay information to the brain about body position sense, where this information is quickly processed and movement strategies are formulated and executed using nerve signals to muscles. ', ' ', 250 ) \" onmouseout = hideddrivetip ( ) ; > proprioceptive system. previous research has suggested that patients with ankle instability who underwent wobble board training experienced significantly fewer recurrent sprains during a follow - up period than those who did not follow the training programme. important safety notice the articles on this web site are provided for general information only and should not be used as a basis for diagnosis or treatment. all exercises and information featured on this web site should only be practised under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional 02 - 23 - 2009, 06 : 13 pm i noticed andy murray hampered by his ankle again today, he did manage to win with a retirement in the final set by his oponent, looks bad for the rest of the week though! 02 - 26 - 2009, 12 : 37 pm now reported andy has a virus and has suffered with it since the australian open! he has pulled out of the quarters in dubai now, rest a while andy and get 100 % fit again before playing tennis again!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5942974452365872, "token_count": 260, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:00b14d5d-1673-45b2-802f-160f36350f67>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.834141"}
{"text": "all procedures in the verilog hdl are specified within one of the following four statements : - - initial construct - - always construct the initial and always constructs are enabled at the beginning of a simulation. the initial construct shall execute only once and its activity shall cease when the statement has finished. in contrast, the always construct shall execute repeatedly. its activity shall cease only when the simulation is terminated. there shall be no implied order of execution between initial and always constructs. the initial constructs need not be scheduled and executed before the always constructs. there shall be no limit to the number of initial and always constructs that can be defined in a module an initial block consists of a statement or a group of statements enclosed in begin... end or a signle statement, which will be executed only once at simulation time 0. if there is more than one block they execute concurrently and independently. the initial block is normally used for initialisation, monitoring, generating wave forms ( eg, clock pulses ) and processes which are executed once in a simulation. an example of initialisation and wave generation is given below clock = 1 ' b0 ; / / variable initialization begin / / multiple statements have to be grouped alpha = 0 ; # 10 alpha = 1 ; / / waveform generation # 20 alpha = 0 ; # 5 alpha = 1 ; # 7 alpha = 0 ; # 10 alpha = 1 ; # 20 alpha = 0 ; an always block is similar to the initial block, but the statements inside an always block will repeated continuously, in a looping fashion, until stopped by $ finish or $ stop. note : the $ finish command actually terminates the simulation where as $ stop. merely pauses it and awaits further instructions. thus $ finish is the preferred command unless you are using an interactive version of the simulator. one way to simulate a clock pulse is shown in the example below. note, this is not the best way to simulate a clock. see the section on the forever loop for a better method. initial clock = 1 ' b0 ; / / start the clock at 0 always # 10 clock = ~ clock ; / / toggle every 10 time units initial # 5000 $ finish / / end the simulation after 5000 time units tasks and functions can bu used to in much the same manner but there are some important differences that must be noted. a function is unable to enable a task however functions can enable other functions. a function will carry out its required duty in zero simulation time. within a function, no event, delay", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5378483408271391, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2dc62b9f-398e-47e8-9d87-d0375daf0011>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.837638"}
{"text": "the same manner but there are some important differences that must be noted. a function is unable to enable a task however functions can enable other functions. a function will carry out its required duty in zero simulation time. within a function, no event, delay or timing control statements are permitted. in the invocation of a function their must be at least one argument to be passed. functions will only return a single value and can not use either output or inout statements. functions are synthesysable. disable statements canot be used. function canot have numblocking statements. module function _ calling ( a, b, c ) ; input a, b ; input a, b ; myfunction = ( a + b ) ; assign c = myfunction ( a, b ) ; tasks are capable of enabling a function as well as enabling other versions of a task tasks also run with a zero simulation however they can if required be executed in a non zero simulation time. tasks are allowed to contain any of these statements. a task is allowed to use zero or more arguments which are of type output, input or inout. a task is unable to return a value but has the facility to pass multiple values via the output and inout statements. tasks are not synthesisable. disable statements can be used. reg clock, red, amber, green ; parameter on = 1, off = 0, red _ tics = 350, amber _ tics = 30, green _ tics = 200 ; / / initialize colors. initial red = off ; initial amber =", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5170500258797541, "token_count": 319, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2dc62b9f-398e-47e8-9d87-d0375daf0011>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.838220"}
{"text": "ulbrich : glossary abrasion : a roughening or scratching of a surface due to abrasive wear. on aluminum parts, also known as a rub mark or traffic mark. abrasion - resistant steels ( ar ) : a family of steel products developed for those applications involved in sliding and / or impact abrasion. abrasive wear : the removal of material from a surface when hard particles slide or roll across the surface under pressure. the particles may be loose or may be part of another surface in contact with the surface being worn. contrast with adhesive wear. accelerated corrosion test : a test conducted under controlled conditions that are considerably more severe than those natural conditions whose effects are presumably being investigated. the advantages of such a test is the relatively short time required. results are useful for qualitative comparisons, but are not reliable for predicting anticipated life in actual service. accordion reed steel : hardened, tempered, polished and blued or yellow flat steel with dressed edges. carbon content about 1. 00 %. material has to possess good flatness, uniform hardness and high elasticity. acid steel : steel melted in a furnace with an acid bottom and lining and under a slag containing an excess of an acid substance such as silica. acid - brittleness : brittleness resulting from pickling steel in acid ; hydrogen, formed by the interaction between iron and acid, is partially absorbed by the metal, causing acid brittleness. age - hardening : a process of aging that increases hardness and strength and usually decreases ductility. ( see precipitation heat treatment ) air - hardening steel : a steel containing sufficient carbon and other alloying elements to harden fully during cooling in air or other gaseous mediums from a temperature above its transformation range. such steels attain their martensitic structure without going through the quenching process. additions of chromium, nickel, molybdenum and manganese are effective toward this end. the term should be restricted to steels that are capable of being hardened by cooling in air in fairly large sections, about 2 in. or more in diameter. aircraft quality : denotes material for important or highly stressed parts of aircraft for other similar purposes ; such materials are extremely high quality requiring closely controlled, restrictive and special practices in their manufacture. aging : a process generally accelerated by temperature, wherein changes in mechanical properties occur in certain metals. these changes generally raise room temperature hardness, tensile and yield strength, while lowering ductility. aisi : american iron and steel institute. published steel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5701048006507619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b0e5e007-1e3a-4733-9cae-b375addf603a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.895182"}
{"text": ". aging : a process generally accelerated by temperature, wherein changes in mechanical properties occur in certain metals. these changes generally raise room temperature hardness, tensile and yield strength, while lowering ductility. aisi : american iron and steel institute. published steel products manual to stainless and heat resisting steels which provides information concerning tolerances, chemical analysis, definitions of technical terms and other related subjects which have been developed in the manufacture and use of stainless steels. alclad : composite sheet produced by bonding either corrosion - resistant aluminum alloy or aluminum of high purity to base metal of structurally stronger aluminum alloy. the coatings are anodic to the core so they protect exposed areas of the core electrolytically during exposure to corrosive environment. alloy : a material that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical elements of which at least one is a metal ( i. e. steel is an alloy of carbon in iron ; stainless steel is an alloy of carbon, chromium and sometimes nickel in iron. ) alloying elements : those elements in alloys which are deliberately added during melting and refining to enhance the properties of that alloy. alloy steel : an iron - based mixture is considered to be an alloy steel when manganese is greater than 1. 65 %, silicon over 0. 5 %, copper above 0. 6 %, or other minimum quantities of alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, or tungsten are present. an enormous variety of distinct properties can be created for the steel by substituting these elements in the recipe. alpha brass : a copper - zinc alloy containing up to 38 % of zinc. used mainly for cold working. alpha bronze : a copper - tin alloy consisting of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. commercial forms contain 4 or 5 % of tin. this alloy is used in coinage, springs, turbine, blades, etc. alpha iron : the polymorphic form of iron, stable below 1670\u00b0f, has a body centered cubic lattice, and is magnetic up to 1410\u00b0\u00b0f. aluminizing : forming an aluminum or aluminum alloy coating on a metal by hot dipping, hot spraying, or diffusion. annealing : a process involving heating to a temperature at or above critical and cooling at a controlled rate, usually applied to induce softening. the process could alter mechanical properties, physical properties or micro structure. anodizing : ( aluminum adic oxide coating ) a process of coating aluminum by anodic treatment resulting in a thin film of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.602308734074875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b0e5e007-1e3a-4733-9cae-b375addf603a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.896315"}
{"text": "controlled rate, usually applied to induce softening. the process could alter mechanical properties, physical properties or micro structure. anodizing : ( aluminum adic oxide coating ) a process of coating aluminum by anodic treatment resulting in a thin film of aluminum oxide of extreme hardness. a wide variety of dye - colored coatings are possible by impregnation in process. aod ( argon oxygen decarburization ) : this term refers to both the process and the vessel that is used for the process in which hot metal from an electric furnace is refined to a chemical specification by blowing a mixture of gases ( a combination of inert gas and oxygen ) under the hot metal surface. the result removes carbon from ferroalloys to achieve a certain chemical specification. the economics of this process have indicated that this method is ideally suited for producing stainless, plus high and low - alloy steels. arc furnace : an arc furnace is a melting device that gets its heat - generating capacity from the introduction of an electric arc to a charge of scrap materials and ferroalloys. this caused the melt - down to a liquid state known as \" hot metal \". arc welding : a group of welding processes wherein the metal or metals being joined are coalesced by heating with an arc, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. astm : american society for testing materials is a voluntary standards development system. it is a non - profit organization which provides a forum for producers, users, consumers, and those having a general interest to meet on common ground and write standards for materials, products, systems and services. austempering : quenching a ferrous alloy from a temperature above the transformation range, in a medium having a rate of heat abstraction high enough to prevent the formation of high - temperature transformation products, and then holding the alloy, until transformation is complete, at a temperature below that of pearlite formation and above that of martensite formation. automatic gauge control : using hydraulic roll force systems, steelmakers have the ability to control precisely their steel sheet ' s gauge ( thickness ) while it is traveling at more than 50 miles per hour through the cold mill. using feedback or feed - forward systems, a computer ' s gap sensor adjusts the distance between the reduction rolls of the mill 50 - 60 times per second. these adjustments prevent the processing of any off - gauge steel sheet.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5468279586312734, "token_count": 493, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b0e5e007-1e3a-4733-9cae-b375addf603a>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.897543"}
{"text": "the rio principles, their implementation by all governments and to the wssd 2020 goal. these are essential to achieving a sustainable future and green livelihoods. rio + 20 must reaffirm the central role of sustainable development in the international agenda and revive public trust in sustainable development as a policy that can finally make a positive breakthrough. it is necessary to acknowledge that certain industries, which cannot fulfill these principles, cannot be part of a sustainable future. clear criteria need to be developed to encourage sustainable investments into chemical industry that will help to phase out unsustainable chemical production. 7 saicm overarching policy strategy, para 15 ( b ) ( i ) 8 strategic approach to international chemicals management ( saicm ), overarching policy strategy, paragraph 13 commitment to the chemical management objectives to ensure intergenerational equity two decades after the rio earth summit, babies are born pre - polluted with hundreds of manmade toxic chemicals present in their small bodies. the developing foetus is contaminated by chemicals bio - accumulated in the mother? s body and that readily cross over the placental barrier. newborns take more in through breast milk or formula, and as they grow are exposed to hazardous chemicals through residues in their food, indoor and outdoor air pollution, and through household products and contaminated house dust. 9 many of the synthetic chemicals they are exposed to are persistent and bio - accumulative, remaining in the human body long after exposure. there are still no regulatory approaches to assess the combined impacts of the chemical soup to which children are exposed. the unique vulnerability of children to hazardous chemicals was recognised by the intergovernmental forum on chemical safety, the word health organisation ( who ), the united nations children? s fund ( unicef ) and unep 10 when they identified a growing number of children? s health impacts from chemical exposure. these include asthma, birth defects, ( eg, hypospadias ), behavioural disorders, learning disabilities, autism, cancer, dysfunctional immune systems, neurological impairments, and reproductive disorders. 11 the who has estimated that three million children under the age of five die every year due to environmental hazards. 12 all children, both in the developing and developed world, are affected by exposure to hazardous chemicals. in 2004, the european union? s ministerial conference on children? s environmental health concluded that reducing exposure to hazardous chemicals could save the lives of many children. for rio + 20, to achieve real sustainability, the impacts of our chemical activities, products, and waste on future generations must be addressed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5009514161166335, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0d2a00ff-0f25-4f5d-85a2-706fd2afc6a5>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:09.994430"}
{"text": "the lack of adequate toxicity assessment, labeling, government regulation or environmental monitoring ; and despite the saicm requirement for publically available information about all stages of a chemical? s life - cycle, including in products. there is huge uncertainty regarding the health impacts and toxicity of nanoparticles. 33 without mandatory labelling and registration of nano - products, no one, not even governments, knows which products contain nanoparticles. surveys show that many companies do not conduct risk assessments. 34 yet both in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that manufactured nanoparticles, now in widespread commercial use, pose new toxicity risks 35 including asbestos - like pathogenicity and the onset of mesothelioma in test mice, 36 and granulomas, lesions, cancer or blood clots. 37 there is evidence that some nanoparticles can cross the placenta, posing particular risks to developing embryos. 38 nanoparticles have been shown to have a potential for biomagnification and bioaccumulation in the environment, 39 and a recent study provides clear evidence that nanoparticles 33 nel a, xia t, li n ( 2006 ) toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel. science vol 311 : 622 - 627 ; oberdorster g, et al., ( 2005 ).? principles for characterising the potential human health effects from exposure to nanomaterials : elements of a screening strategy?. particle and fibre toxicology 2 : 8. 34 helland a et al., ( 2008 ) risk assessment of engineered nanomaterials : a survey of industrial approaches. environ. sci. technol. 42 : 640? 646 ; helland a. et al., ( 2008 ) precaution in practice : perceptions, procedures, and performance in the nanotech industry. j ind ecol 12 ( 3 ) : 449 - 458. 35 for example see ashwood p, thompson r, powell j. 2007. fine particles that adsorb lipopolysaccharide via bridging calcium cations may mimic bacterial pathogenicity towards cells. exp biol med 232 ( 1 ) : 107 - 117 ; brunner t, et al., ( 2006 ) in vitro cytotoxicity of oxide nanoparticles : comparison to asbestos, silica, and the effect of particle solubility. environ sci technol 40 : 4374 - 4381 ; limbach l,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5252381119876421, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0d2a00ff-0f25-4f5d-85a2-706fd2afc6a5>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.040525"}
{"text": "in vitro cytotoxicity of oxide nanoparticles : comparison to asbestos, silica, and the effect of particle solubility. environ sci technol 40 : 4374 - 4381 ; limbach l, wick p, manser p, grass r, bruinink a, stark w. 2007. exposure of engineered nanoparticles to human lung epithelial cells : influence of chemical composition and catalytic activity on oxidative stress. environ sci technol 41 : 4158 - 4163 ; long t, saleh n, tilton r, lowry g, veronesi b. 2006. titanium dioxide ( p25 ) produces reactive oxygen species in immortalized brain microglia ( bv2 ) : implications for nanoparticle neurotoxicity. environ sci technol 40 ( 14 ) : 4346 - 4352. 36 poland c, duffin r, kinloch i, maynard a, wallace w, seaton a, stone v, brown s, macnee w, donaldson k. 2008. carbon nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity display asbestos - like pathogenic behaviour in a pilot study. nat nanotechnol, published online : 20 may 2008 ( doi : 10. 1038 / nnano. 2008. 111 ) ; takagi a, hirose a, nishimura t, fukumori n, ogata a, ohashi n, kitajima s, kanno j. 2008. induction of mesothelioma in p53 + / - mouse by intraperitoneal application of multi - wall carbon nanotube. j toxicol sci 33 : 105 - 116. 37 ballestri m, baraldi a, gatti a, furci l, bagni a, loria p, rapana r, carulli n, albertazzi a. 2001. liver and kidney foreign bodies granulomatosis in a patient with malocclusion, bruxism, and worn dental prostheses. gastroenterol 121 ( 5 ) : 1234? 8 ; gatti a. 2004. biocompatibility of micro - and nano - particles in the colon. part ii. biomaterials 25 : 385 - 392 ; gatti a, rivasi f. 2002. biocompatibility of micro - and nanoparticles. part i : in liver and kidney. biomaterials 23 : 2381?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5113209199745125, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0d2a00ff-0f25-4f5d-85a2-706fd2afc6a5>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.042246"}
{"text": "assist risk assessment for some years. it is likely that nanotechnology will do little to redress the systemic causes of poverty, hunger or pollution, and developing countries may even disproportionately bear nano - risks, by hosting manufacturing that wealthy countries reject, or becoming dumping grounds for waste. rio + 20 outcomes must ensure the precautionary principle is applied throughout the life cycle of manufactured nanomaterials, and that global governance and assessment processes for nanomaterials are transparent, inclusive, equitable and driven by sustainability. rio + 20 outcomes must ensure consumers? and workers? right - to - know and right - to - choose in respect to nanotechnologies and nanomaterials be respected, as well as a country? s right to reject particular applications or uses of nanotechnologies and nanomaterials. in conclusion - in this time of increasing globalisation, there is a growing acceptance of the need for a social license and community consent for industrial activities, including new and emerging technologies, to go forward. this is critical for a sustainable future and for the protection of the environment, intergenerational equity and basic human rights. taking into account agenda 21 requirements, industries must function within these parameters and have no right to operate 40 jonathan d. judy, jason m. unrine, & paul m. bertsch, evidence for biomagnification of gold nanoparticles within a terrestrial food chain, environ. sci. technol., 2011, 45 ( 2 ), pp 776? 781 41 sijie lin, jason reppert, qian hu, joan s. hudson, michelle l. reid, tatsiana a. ratnikova, apparao m. rao, hong luo & pu chun ke, uptake, translocation, and transmission of carbon nanomaterials in rice plants, communciations cellular uptake 2009, 5, no. 10, www. small - journal. com 42 recommendations of the royal society and the royal academy of engineering, uk ( 2004 ). nanoscience and nanotechnologies. available at http : / / www. royalsoc. ac. uk / unless they satisfy social needs and meet the requirements for a safe, toxic - free environment. with the added pressure on the planet posed by climate change and world population, the limits of sustainability in a? business as usual? model have been reached. the urgency has never been greater for sound chemical management, environmental protection and social", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5027667452635309, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0d2a00ff-0f25-4f5d-85a2-706fd2afc6a5>", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.051056"}
{"text": "nowhere i could go directly, since straight ahead of me was the crate, board securely fixed to board. and though i discovered a gap between the boards, which made me howl for joy in all my ignorance, it wasn \u2019 t even big enough to stick my tail through, and all my apish strength couldn \u2019 t make it any wider. later i was told i made unusually little noise, which led everyone to believe i would either soon die or else \u2013 assuming i survived the first, critical period - would prove to be very tamable. i survived. dull sobbing, the painful search for fleas, apathetically licking a coconut, banging my head against the wall of the crate, and sticking my tongue out at anyone who came near me - this is how i first behaved in my new life. but my one prevailing feeling was that i had no way out. of course today i have to rely on human words to describe what i felt then as an ape, so my portrayal is bound to be distorted, but even if i can no longer attain my old apish truth, at least my depiction is very much in that spirit, there \u2019 s no doubt about that. i had always had so many ways out, and now there was none. i was trapped. my freedom of movement couldn \u2019 t have been more restricted if they had nailed me down. and why? you can scratch between your toes until you start to bleed and not discover the reason. press yourself so close against the bar of the cage until it nearly slices you in two and you won \u2019 t find the answer. i had no way out, so i had to invent one : otherwise i was doomed. if i had stayed staring at the wall of that crate i would have inevitably died a miserable death. but that \u2019 s where hagenbeck & co think apes should be, and so i stopped being an ape. a beautifully clear train of thought i must have somehow hatched out with my belly, since apes think with their belly. i \u2019 m afraid that you may not understand exactly what i mean by a way out, which i mean in the most ordinary and fullest sense of the phrase. i am deliberately avoiding the word freedom, because i don \u2019 t mean this grand feeling of freedom on all sides. as an ape i may have known it, and i \u2019 ve met humans who yearn for exactly that. but i myself have never asked for freedom, neither then nor now. as an aside : freedom is something people deceive themselves with far", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5109026199439881, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:72f9ddd6-3864-49f3-bb73-4f91346ea00a>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.307610"}
{"text": "lofty purpose began to dawn on me. no one promised me they would open the bars if i acted like them. after all, promises aren \u2019 t made for seemingly impossible tasks. but when such tasks are accomplished nevertheless, the promises are made after the fact, and exactly where you would have looked for them in vain before. except there wasn \u2019 t much about these men that truly tempted me. had i been a follower of the grand freedom i mentioned earlier, i \u2019 m sure i would have chosen the sea over the way out i saw in the gloomy faces of these people. but in any case i spent a long time observing before i ever had thoughts like that, and it was the only accumulated observations that first pushed me in a specific direction. imitating people was so easy. within a few days i was able to spit. we would spit at each other in the face, with the only difference that i licked my face clean afterward, and they didn \u2019 t. soon i was smoking a pipe like an old salt, and if i pressed my thumb into the bowl to boot, the whole steerage would cheer ; except it took me a long time to understand the difference between an empty pipe and one that had been fully stuffed. the whiskey bottle caused me the most difficulty. the smell was sheer torture, i forced myself with all my strength, but it took weeks to overcome my aversion. strangely, the people took these internal struggles more seriously than anything else about me. while i don \u2019 t distinguish the people in my memory, there was one who kept coming back, alone or with his chums, day or night, at the oddest hours. he \u2019 d stand outside my cage with the bottle and instruct me. he didn \u2019 t understand me, but he wanted to solve the riddle of my being. he would slowly uncork the bottle and look at me, to check whether i had understood ; i confess that i always watched him with wild - eyed attention - all too eager, in fact - no human teacher on earth would find such a student of people. after the bottle was uncorked, he would hold it to his mouth ; i would follow with my eyes, from the bottle to his throat. he would nod, pleased with his pupil, and place the bottle to his lips. delighted with my gradual discovery, i would shriek and scratch myself all over, wherever i felt the urge. he liked that \u2013 then he \u2019 d tilt the bottle back and take a swallow, and i was so", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5073218450266128, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:72f9ddd6-3864-49f3-bb73-4f91346ea00a>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.315487"}
{"text": "be taken to an institution. fortunately he was released soon thereafter. but i wore out many more teachers, even several at once. when i became surer of my own abilities, and the press began to follow my progress and my future began to shine, i hired my own tutors, had them set up in five adjacent rooms, and learned from all of them at once, constantly jumping from one room to the next. what progress! how the rays of knowledge penetrated my waking brain from all sides! i will not deny it : it made me happy. but i must also confess that i did not overvalue my achievement, neither then nor especially today. through an unprecedented exertion i managed to acquire the education of your average european, which might not mean a thing in itself, but at least it helped me out my cage, at least it provided me with this way out, this human way. i slipped off into the bush, so to speak - the human bush. i had no other choice, assuming that freedom was never an option. looking over my development and its purpose up to this point, i neither complain nor am i fully content. i half - sit, half - lie in my rocker, my hands in my pockets, a bottle of wine on the table, and look out the window. if i have company i show them the proper hospitality. my agent sits in the anteroom ; if i ring then he steps in and listens to what i have to say. i perform nearly every evening, and my success could hardly be greater. if i come home late after a banquet, a scientific society, or a friendly evening at someone \u2019 s house, a small, half - trained chimpanzee is waiting for me and i have my pleasure with her in the manner of apes. i don \u2019 t wish to see her by day, as her eyes have the insanity of the befuddled half - tamed animal, which i alone can recognize, and which i cannot bear. by and large i have accomplished what i set out to accomplish. it cannot be said it wasn \u2019 t worth the effort. nor am i asking for any human judgment ; all i wish to do is disseminate knowledge, i only report, and that is all i have done for you tonight, esteemed members of the academy : i have reported, and nothing more.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5107467343806412, "token_count": 481, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:72f9ddd6-3864-49f3-bb73-4f91346ea00a>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.318819"}
{"text": "aluminum standards and data provides definitions for welding and brazing : welding is the \" joining of two or more pieces of aluminum by applying heat or pressure, or both, with or without filler metal to produce a localized union through fusion or recrystallization across the interface \". brazing is the \" joining of metals by fusion of nonferrous alloys that have melting points above 425 degrees c ( 800 degrees f ) but lower than those of the metals being joined. this may be accomplished by means of a torch ( torch brazing ), in a furnace ( furnace brazing ), or by dipping a molten flux bath ( dip or flux brazing ). \" according to the asm specialty handbook : aluminum and aluminum alloys : \" brazing, by definition, employs filler metal having a liquidus above 450 degrees c ( 840 degrees f ) and below the solidus of the base metal. brazing is distinguished from soldering by the melting point of the filler metal : solders melt below 450 degrees c ( 840 degrees f ). brazing differs from welding in that no substantial amount of the base metal is melted during brazing. thus the temperatures for brazing aluminum are intermediate between those for welding and soldering. also, brazed aluminum assemblies generally are between welded and soldered assemblies in strength and resistance to corrosion \" since soldering is done below 450 degrees c ( 840 degrees f ), aluminum filler alloys are not used in soldering aluminum. instead, solders for aluminum alloys are often zinc, tin, cadmium and lead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5379309891528641, "token_count": 314, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f049bcb0-e1fe-4191-b6bb-715b491d5a7b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.325590"}
{"text": "the one world vision is the ultimate stage of a conceptual evolution that started decades ago. this evolution produced several paradigm shifts that combine how we comprehend our world, and, as a result, how we try to deal with it. through the 70s and 80s, a technical understanding of impacts like acidification, eutrophication or stratospheric ozone loss prompted command and control approaches at the local and multilateral level, in the form of substance bans and compliance controls. in its 1987 report - our common future - the world commission on environment and developmentproclaimed the interdependency of human development and environmental progress, captured in the notion of sustainable development, and nurtured the elaboration of the 1992 rio summit \u2019 s agenda 21. it encouraged a system and life - cycle understanding of waste, carbon dioxide and other emissions and of overconsumption of water, fuels and other non - renewable resources. environmental progress could be achieved, despite society \u2019 s development and economic growth, through strategies of system redesign for eco - efficiency. economic growth could decouple from its negative environmental impacts thanks to business foresight, voluntary initiatives and covenants. innovation and new behaviors would spread through well - functioning and free markets with only light government interference. this new worldview was summed up in the \u201c three pillars : ecology - society - economy \u201d scheme. because of its complexity, it demands performance indicators that monitor behavior change and progress by businesses and other actors. thus, corporate social responsibility and public - private partnerships became the preferred modes of business action, shaped in dialogues with stakeholders and monitored through schemes like the global reporting initiative, the carbon disclosure project, the dow jones sustainability and other governance and accountability indexes. this ladder of expanding worldviews is embedded in the core of the one world vision. one world weaves together quality of life, equity and enhancement of our human and natural capitals. it relies on interdependent, purposeful, innovative individuals to achieve these ideals through the efficiency of markets. sustainable development, instead of being an \u201c end - of - pipe \u201d or \u201c add - on \u201d, becomes an integral part of the core business strategy. the one world vision is making its way into consumer values. a number of surveys show that concerns about social and environmental issues are on most people \u2019 s minds, in all countries. they express a willingness to take action and select products and suppliers based on their alignment with corporate responsibility principles. they also want products and services that perform and give good value while being rated as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5359844717519322, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e6afaa1b-4b71-43a1-b0a9-c82a62fdeffa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.333380"}
{"text": "issues are on most people \u2019 s minds, in all countries. they express a willingness to take action and select products and suppliers based on their alignment with corporate responsibility principles. they also want products and services that perform and give good value while being rated as more sustainable. nonetheless, only about 1 in 5 people go all the way to adjust lifestyle, behavior and purchasing decisions. most feel they cannot evaluate the sustainability merits on their own or they lack the purchasing power to afford a premium for environmental quality. support from governments to provide practical rules and education is essential to turn this willingness into trust in environmental claims and action. while numerous think tanks and international summits have articulated the ideas around sustainability and green growth, our political systems have difficulty coping with such a holistic, high - level and constantly - evolving notion. they are set to maintain a harmonious society where every individual is able to satisfy its own needs and desires without harming the human rights of others. rooted in the 19th century, this principle is based on an abundance of resources and confidence in education, science and technology to break through limits of scarcity. it relies on commerce and contracts to create and distribute wealth and thus ensure social peace. citizens delegate their power through the election of representatives who are expected to satisfy the interests of their electors through action, legislation and compliance. this vote is both a sanction of the performance of outgoing representatives and a support of the action plans of candidate representatives. this political system is naturally committed to rather personal, local and immediate interests and concerns. endangered species and unborn generations do not vote. even though inaction, now, may increase the probability of remote, irreversible future damage, it is practically impossible to allocate, today, the level of resources that would prevent an uncertain crisis, tomorrow. this requires a sufficient number of concerned citizens to elect representatives committed to such danger prevention and mitigation plans. the climate negotiations show, so far, that national delegates need to operate within the mandate of their domestic legislators and stick to local and near - present strategies rather than accept binding global, long - term emission ceilings based on predictive science. despite a rapid evolution of the concepts and ideal of sustainable development, progress on the ground, for real people and their environment, remains slow and difficult.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5083878129638251, "token_count": 460, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e6afaa1b-4b71-43a1-b0a9-c82a62fdeffa>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.334485"}
{"text": "- achieving sustainable site design through low impact development practices - balancing security / safety and sustainability objectives - extensive vegetative roofs - life - cycle cost analysis ( lcca ) - low impact development technologies - mold and moisture dynamics - retrofitting existing buildings to improve sustainability and energy performance - sustainable laboratory design - sustainable o & m practices - water conservation extensive vegetative roofs last updated : 11 - 27 - 2012 within this page the intent of this guide is to provide information regarding the state of the art of vegetative roof design and construction. vegetative roofs, also known as green roofs, are thin layers of living vegetation installed on top of conventional flat or sloping roofs. we have chosen to use the word \" vegetative \" rather than the word \" green \" in this guide because a non - vegetative roof could be considered to be environmentally \" green \" without being vegetative. for example, due to it being white and therefore mitigating heat gain within the building and reducing heat island contribution, a white non - vegetative roof might be considered as being \" green \" or environmentally friendly. in other words, \" green \" has too broad of a connotation to be clear for use in this guide, and we recommend that the industry adopt the nomenclature \" vegetative, \" rather than the overly broad \" green. \" vegetative roofs are divided into two categories : 1 ) extensive vegetative roofs, which are 6 inches or shallower and are frequently designed to satisfy specific engineering and performance goals, and 2 ) intensive vegetative roofs, which may become quite deep and merge into more familiar on - structure plaza landscapes with promenades, lawn, large perennial plants, and trees. with respect to the vegetative overburden, this guide addresses only the more shallow extensive vegetative roofs. figure 1. four seasons hotel, boston, ma. designed by roofscapes, installed in 2004. in 2009 apex green roof began maintaining the roof. system depth : 4 inches the challenge in designing extensive vegetative roofs is to replicate many of the benefits of vegetative open space, while keeping them light and affordable. thus, the new generation of vegetative roofs relies on a marriage of the sciences of horticulture, waterproofing, and engineering. the most common 4 extensive vegetative roof cover in temperate climates is a single un - irrigated 3 - to 4 - inch layer of lightweight growth media vegetative with succulent plants and herbs. in most climates", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.500851586598548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:916e34f9-6d1b-454c-b1f8-e251b9662b20>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.385862"}
{"text": "the heating season. one must take into consideration, however, the added cost of vegetative roofs. the comparison to be made is whether adding more insulation would be a more cost - effective solution. vegetative roofs are potential energy savers, but the degree to which they do so is unclear at this time. the impact is highly dependent upon climate conditions and the insulation level of the underlying roof. for the most part, vegetative roofs have very little impact on building energy consumption for a new building built to modern energy codes ( with high levels of roof insulation ). some retrofit applications, however, can result in non - trivial savings of both air - conditioning and heating. vegetative roofs may provide significant cooling savings in the summer and some heating savings in the winter. but the research to date is not clear on the subject of the quantification of savings in real - world applications. the bottom line on energy might be summed up by this quote from joe lstiburek in footnote 3 to his building science insight 052, \" seeing red over green roofs : \" \" the assumptions are pretty important. green roofs save energy compared to uninsulated roofs or poorly insulated roofs or even better, black poorly insulated roofs. once you have more than r - 20 in a roof assembly, that is, you meet the code, things pretty much don ' t matter. in other words, go above r - 20, and make green roof decisions for other reasons than energy. see ' potential energy savings of various roof technologies ' by s. ray and l. glicksman presented at buildings xi conference, and check out figure 9. note that grass, even when it is green, has a greater solar absorptance than a white membrane. the real effect of the grass comes from the evaporation of water. but that takes water, and you might not always have some. if you want to do the water evaporation thing, you probably could do as good a job by sprinkling the top of a white reflective roof. when the grass goes brown, forget about any energy benefit ; also, be very worried about fire. \" 6. reducing sound reflection and transmission vegetative roofs have important acoustical benefits, especially for higher frequency sounds. the added weight of a vegetative roof results in an increased degree of sound insulation. vegetative roofs can absorb a portion of the sound that otherwise bounces off hard roofing surfaces. see the referenced ghent university study for more information.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5180135357149983, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:916e34f9-6d1b-454c-b1f8-e251b9662b20>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.392963"}
{"text": "assembly does not include a root barrier. most epdm and asphaltic membrane manufacturers require a root barrier. it is recommended that a root barrier protect all membranes. - have a track record of use as waterproofing in buried applications. - have manufacturer - approved details suitable for the conditions on the project. - one source warranty from waterproofing through vegetation. worldwide, modified bituminous membranes, pvcs and hot fluid - applied rubberized asphalts are the most common. many of these installations have now been in place for over 30 years. interfacing of different systems is challenging and requires careful thought and attention to detail. where possible, the designer should consider the use of a single manufacturer for the interfacing systems. when joining systems of differing manufacturers, issues arise related to compatibility of products, warranty extents, long - term durability, and detailing concerns that could be avoided with a single manufacturer. selection of membranes for waterproofing would prioritize systems compatible with a fully adhered waterproofing membrane, protection course, root barrier, drainage layer, moisture - resistant insulation, aeration layer, moisture - retention layer, reservoir layer, and filter fabric layer. preferably, these components are installed above the membrane in a protected membrane roof assembly ( pmr ) often referred to as an inverted roof membrane assembly ( irma ) as follows : if the deck is reinforced concrete, use reinforced, minimum 215 mil thick hot fluid - applied rubberized asphalt, applied directly to the deck, in a protected membrane roof assembly ( pmr ) often referred to as an inverted roof membrane assembly ( irma ). many waterproofing experts recommend this membrane as the premiere waterproofing product, especially where there is an overburden ( planting or paving ) that is expensive to remove and where the spaces beneath are of importance. the use of an adhered membrane prevents leaks from migrating laterally from the course of entry. if the deck is a steel deck, appropriate roof substrate sheathing ( i. e., gypsum based boards, plywood ) may be secured to the metal deck and the fully reinforced rubberized asphalt membrane applied to the surface. in many cases, the joints between substrate boards will need to be pre - detailed with rubberized asphalt membrane and appropriate reinforcing prior to the full membrane application ). odor management during installation should be a consideration in the use of this system. a second choice would be two layers of modified bituminous rubberized asphalt cold - applied self adhering ( use low", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5080647005861273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:916e34f9-6d1b-454c-b1f8-e251b9662b20>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.401338"}
{"text": "reinforcing prior to the full membrane application ). odor management during installation should be a consideration in the use of this system. a second choice would be two layers of modified bituminous rubberized asphalt cold - applied self adhering ( use low voc cold adhesive or there could be adverse effect on plants ) membrane, set in liquid rubberized asphalt with aromatic isocyanurate polyol liquid waterproofing membrane. a third choice would be cold liquid - applied polyurethanes. these systems are fully bonded to the deck. a fourth choice would be a composite thermoplastic waterproofing membrane with an active polymer core and sealed seams. note that some asphalt - modified polyurethanes exhibit variable permeance due to thickness variations in installation : too thin can lead to osmotic permeance and blistering. too thick can lead to exotherming. conventional ( non pmr ) configurations are sometimes employed with the insulation below the membrane. in these instances where the designer prefers the conventional configuration, membrane preferences should be either 80 mil reinforced pvc or 90 mil reinforced epdm with all seams sealed and taped. unlike irma roofs these systems have the drawback that they do not position the roof membrane directly over a permanent or semi - permanent substrate and typically do not provide insulating assemblies that are highly resistant to water and physical damage. these roof designs cannot prohibit or highly discourage the entrapment of water within the roof assembly and the membrane and insulation design is not conducive to in - place reuse or recycle in future roof iterations. a conventional configuration may be somewhat more desirable in warmer climates, where the addition of a vapor retarder below the insulation would not be required. see the discussion below, under insulation regarding vapor barriers. note that as of this writing a conventional configuration is required by some insurance underwriters. the first objective is to design to avoid leaks. construction oversight must find constructed leaks. existing roof substrates must be inspected for leaks. the easiest leaks to find are when a membrane is fully bonded to a concrete substrate, as it is nearly impossible for the leak to travel horizontally under the membrane. although some membrane manufacturers assert that their waterproofing membrane products perform simultaneously as root barriers, a root barrier should always be installed over a waterproofing membrane with vegetation above. matrix of waterproofing systems ( in order of preference ) | reinforced hot fluid - applied rubberized asphalt | | modified bitumen set in liquid rubberized asphalt | | composite the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5159693294565948, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:916e34f9-6d1b-454c-b1f8-e251b9662b20>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.402428"}
{"text": "voltage ( hv ) testing : hv testing may take less time to perform compared to lv testing. also, areas immediately adjacent to elements such as drains can be tested. the membrane must be dry. laps may be more difficult to test than with lv testing. as a result, white epdm may be difficult to test, as well as black epdm. care must be taken not to damage the membrane due to the high voltage. tests must be run and baseline readings taken to calibrate the equipment to prevent damage. for more information on leak detection systems, refer to the wbdg resource page on membrane integrity testing. 4. root barrier typically, root barriers are in the form of hdpe ( high density polyethylene ) or reinforced pvc. depending upon the selection of plants, this membrane is between 10 mils to 30 mils thick. if there are laps they should be thermally fused. in the case of certain highly aggressive plants, a minimum 60 \u2013 mil thick hdpe with welded seams should be utilized. bamboo should not be used on a vegetative roof, due to the rhizomes ( tips ) that can penetrate many root barriers. in some cases, the manufacturer of the mb protection course will infuse this layer with a root - inhibiting chemical, such as copper hydroxide. however, there is some evidence that, over time, these chemicals will breakdown, which reduces effectiveness, and leach off the roofs into the receiving runoff. copper hydroxide root barriers are banned in several european countries and canada. insulation should be located above the membrane, at least in cold climates or with high - humidity occupancies. in cold climates and with high humidity occupancies the need for a vapor retarder below the insulation would thereby create two vapor retarders ( the waterproofing and the vapor retarder below the insulation ). it is recommended to avoid two vapor retarders because any water that might get between them would be trapped and not be able to dry outward or inward. it is suggested that the designer either perform a dew point analysis or refer to the nrca roofing and waterproofing manual for design calculations to determine if a vapor retarder below the insulation is required. the safest route is to locate the insulation above the waterproofing membrane in a protected roof membrane ( prm ) or \" irma \" configuration, thereby avoiding the issues related to double vapor barriers. when necessary, multi - level drains to capture water", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5087045435901305, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:916e34f9-6d1b-454c-b1f8-e251b9662b20>", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.409940"}
{"text": "method for saturated water permeability of granular drainage media [ falling - head method ] for green roof systems. - e2397 standard practice for determination of dead loads and live loads associated with green roof systems. - e2398 standard test method for water capture and media retention of geocomposite drain layers for green roof systems. - e2399 standard test method for maximum media density for dead load analysis of green roof systems. - e2432 standard guide for general principles of sustainability relative to buildings. - future astm e2777 draft by work group 25385 with a working title of, wk 25385 \u2014 standard guide for vegetative ( green ) roof systems. - future astm standard by work group 29304 with a working title of, wk 29304 \u2014 standard guide for selection of roofing / waterproofing membrane systems for vegetative ( green ) roof systems. this is a draft standard and subject to change. fm global standards - approval standard # 4477 for vegetative roof systems ( pdf 122 kb ) - approval standard # 4470 for single - ply, polymer - modified bitumen sheet, built - up roof ( bur ) and liquid - applied roof assemblies for use in class 1 and non - combustible roof deck construction ( pdf 171 kb ) - loss prevention data sheet 1 - 28 wind design - loss prevention data sheet 1 - 28r roofing systems - loss prevention data sheet 1 - 29 roof deck securement and above deck roof components - loss prevention data sheet 1 - 34 hail damage - loss prevention data sheet 1 - 35 green roof systems ( pdf 1. 19 mb ) - loss prevention data sheet 1 - 54 roof loads for new construction ( pdf 3. 28 mb ) products and systems building envelop design guide : roofing systems federal green construction guide for specifiers : - 07 10 00 ( 07100 ) dampproofing & waterproofing - 07 33 63 ( 02930 ) vegetated roof covering - 07 50 00 ( 07500 ) membrane roofing - 07 55 63 ( 07530 ) vegetated protected membrane roofing masterspec\u00ae section 32 95 00 ( 02940 ) vegetated roof assemblies note that the evaluations sheets make for a good manual, except that it has a major flaw ; it refers only to conventional roofing systems, not to waterproofing systems. non - commercial organizations that can provide current lists of vegetated roof service providers and are a useful source", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5009104590461216, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:916e34f9-6d1b-454c-b1f8-e251b9662b20>", "chunk_index": 27, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.425517"}
{"text": "what if everything you thought you knew about education was wrong? what if students learn more quickly on their own, working in teams, than in a classroom with a teacher? what if tests and discipline get in the way of the learning process rather than accelerate it? those are the questions sugata mitra has been asking since the late 1990s, and for which he was awarded the $ 1 million ted prize on tuesday, the first day of the ted2013 conference. mitra, professor of educational technology at newcastle university, won the prize for his concept of \" self organizing learning environments, \" an alternative to traditional schooling that relies on empowering students to work together on computers with broadband access to solve their own problems, with adults intervening to provide encouragement and admiration, rather than top - down instruction. mitra ' s work with students in india has gained wide attention and was the focus of a 2010 ted talk on his \" hole in the wall \" experiment, showing the potential of computers to jump - start learning without any adult intervention. coming to education trained as a physicist, mitra said he was encouraged by his boss to start teaching people how to write computer programs. when he bought his first personal computer, he was surprised to find that his 6 - year - old son was able to tell him how to fix problems he had operating the machine. he thought his son was a genius, but then heard his friends saying the same thing about their children. thinking about children living in slums in new delhi, he said, \" it can ' t be possible that our sons are geniuses and they are not. \" mitra set up a publicly accessible computer along the lines of a bank atm, behind a glass barrier, and told children they could use it, with no further guidance. they soon learned to browse the web in english, even though they lacked facility in the language. to prove the experiment would work in an isolated environment, he set up another \" hole in the wall \" computer in a village 300 miles away. after a while, \" one of the kids was saying we need a faster processor and a better mouse. \" when the head of the world bank came to see the experiment, mitra said he encouraged him to go to the new delhi slum and see for himself. after spending time with the children, bank president james wolfensohn \" came back and put his hand on my shoulder and said, ' how much? ' \" mitra said he received $ 1. 5 million, which allowed him to press on with experiments", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5060141150631361, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:18b6f5d7-3b0a-4841-bd7c-2b51ea5859cf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.451325"}
{"text": "most active stories - unification of ypsilanti and willow run school districts fast approaching - roundabout construction near costco will soon be underway - issues of the environment : prescribed ecological burns - controversial 413 east huron development project wins ann arbor city council approval - local cyclists organize ' ride of silence ' in ann arbor, ypsilani fri december 21, 2012 why some kids have an inflated sense of their science skills originally published on fri december 21, 2012 8 : 49 pm if you ' re a student at the halfway point of the academic year, and you ' ve just taken stock of your performance, perhaps you have reason to feel proud of yourself. but a recent study suggests some of the pride you feel at having done well \u2014 especially in science \u2014 may be unfounded. or at least your sense of your performance may not be a very accurate picture of how good you actually are. a massive analysis of some 350, 000 students at nearly 14, 000 schools in 53 countries has uncovered a paradox : students in many countries that are mediocre at science have an inflated sense of how good they are. first the good news : the united states isn ' t among the worst offenders. students in countries such as thailand, jordan, mexico and brazil seem to be worse than u. s. students when it comes to science knowledge, but they have even higher levels of self - esteem when it comes to their beliefs about how good they are at science. but compared to countries such as new zealand, australia, sweden, japan, south korea and great britain, american students appeared to have an inflated sense of their science abilities. students in those other countries were better when it came to scientific knowledge than american students, but it was the americans who had the higher opinion of themselves as students of science. the study, published in the journal of cross - cultural psychology, focused on the academic performance of 15 year - old students. it was conducted by eva van de gaer, aletta grisay, wolfram schulz and eveline gebhardt. the paradox between performance and students ' impression of their performance has been noted before. the paper proposes an explanation for it : the reference group effect. the study argues that countries have very different standards when it comes to science education. in countries with elite science education standards, you can be a very good science student but, since you measure yourself against an elite standard of performance, you think of yourself as mediocre. on the other hand, if you live in a country with average (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5218536150511279, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5485179-69f1-4cdb-9aa4-c36ac7f79111>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.480276"}
{"text": "with elite science education standards, you can be a very good science student but, since you measure yourself against an elite standard of performance, you think of yourself as mediocre. on the other hand, if you live in a country with average ( or mediocre ) science standards, you might be just a decent student, but compared to general expectations of how good students are supposed to be, you feel like a genius. in an interview, schulz offered me an analogy. he asked me to think about a person who was 5 - foot - 10 in china and a person who was the same height in the netherlands. the dutch, on average, are taller than the chinese. \" the person would in china probably think of themselves as a tall person, \" schulz said. \" if you go to the netherlands, such a person would rather say, ' ah, i ' m a short person, ' because you compare yourself to those who surround you. \" the same thing happens with science education, he said. students in countries with elite science standards are much more likely to think of themselves as mediocre, whereas students in countries with mediocre standards are much more likely to think of themselves as elite. schulz works at the australian council for educational research, which studies educational issues in science, mathematics and reading. schulz told me the reference group effect could potentially be a double - edged sword : in terms of preparing students for competition with one another, it makes good sense to get a realistic sense of how good you actually are compared to, say, your peers in south korea. on the other hand, schulz said, there was also something to be said for having an inflated sense of your own abilities. \" for motivating students to take up science studies, how you perceive yourself is actually more important than how much you know, \" he said. \" if your general belief ( is ) you ' re not that good at science, that might have this powerful effect of saying, ' ah, i ' d better stay away from it in the future. ' \" steven inskeep, host : next, let ' s talk about the power of positive, or not - so - positive, thinking. not long ago on this program, we heard some research suggesting that student performance in class may be affected by what their teachers think of them. if the teacher gives off signals that the student is not a great student, the student will do worse. if the teacher gives off signals that the student", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5367700356399261, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5485179-69f1-4cdb-9aa4-c36ac7f79111>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.483614"}
{"text": "heard some research suggesting that student performance in class may be affected by what their teachers think of them. if the teacher gives off signals that the student is not a great student, the student will do worse. if the teacher gives off signals that the student is good, the student may well do better. npr ' s shankar vedantam joins us regularly to talk about social science research. he ' s been looking into a related finding. hi, shankar. shankar vedantam, byline : hi, steve. inskeep : you ' re also looking into what students think about themselves. what did you find? vedantam : well, i ' m looking at something that looks like a paradox. so if you went to any school and you generally asked students, what subjects are you good at? the students who say they ' re good at science are generally, going to be the students who actually are good at science. the students who say they ' re good at math are generally, going to be good at math. vedantam : right? and educators have known for a long time that if you ask students what they ' re good at, it ' s a usually reliable predictor to what they ' re actually good at. inskeep : sure. they ' re getting grades, and they know what they ' re comfortable with, right. vedantam : now, it turns out, however, that this relationship between beliefs and performance breaks down at an international level. inskeep : what do you mean, it breaks down at an international level? vedantam : well, researchers recently tracked about 350, 000 students in about 14, 000 schools, across 53 countries - massive, massive study. and it turned out that if you looked at individual countries and individual schools, this link between belief and performance held in each school, and in each country. however, when you compared students between countries, the relationship didn ' t hold. so let me give you an example. students in the united states, for example, performed less well in science than students in new zealand or australia or sweden or japan or korea or great britain. but when you asked the students, how good do you think you are at science? students in the united states say they are better at science than students in those other countries. inskeep : ok, so why would that be? vedantam : so i spoke with wolfram schulz ; he ' s a researcher at the australian council for educational research. and he told me this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5398884039865329, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5485179-69f1-4cdb-9aa4-c36ac7f79111>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.485423"}
{"text": "students in those other countries. inskeep : ok, so why would that be? vedantam : so i spoke with wolfram schulz ; he ' s a researcher at the australian council for educational research. and he told me this is the result of a psychological illusion ; which is, when you ask someone to judge themselves, the way they do it is they compare themselves with those who are immediately around them, right? the problem is, people have different reference groups in different countries. vedantam : so if you look at somebody who is 5 foot, 10 inches tall, in china ; and somebody who is 5 foot, 10 inches tall, in the netherlands ; they ' re the same height. but if you ask them, are you tall or short? they ' re probably going to give you very different answers in those two countries. wolfram schulz : the person would, in china, probably think of themselves as a tall person. so you go to the netherlands ; such a person would, rather, say ah, i ' m actually a short person - because you compare yourself to those who surround you. vedantam : so it ' s, you know, the little pond, big pond effect. and when you apply that to educational systems, it looks like some countries have more elite standards when it comes, for example, to science education. if you ' re a very good student in one of those countries, you ' re surrounded by lots of students who are really, really good. so you feel average. on the other hand, if you ' re in a country with lower standards, you could be decent. but when you compare yourself to those around you, you feel like a genius. inskeep : so does that mean we should change our expectations? vedantam : well, you know, like many of the findings of the social scientists, steve, this one ' s complicated. and it ' s complicated because if students want to compete in a global marketplace, then yes, you actually want to have a very clear picture of how good you actually are. but there ' s a catch - 22 here. it isn ' t always helpful to have a perfectly accurate picture of how well you can do. and this is especially true, schulz told me, when it comes to the subject of motivation. schulz : how you perceive yourself is actually more important than how much you know. if your general belief - you ' re not that good at science - that might have this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5370929610502634, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5485179-69f1-4cdb-9aa4-c36ac7f79111>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.487324"}
{"text": "##hulz told me, when it comes to the subject of motivation. schulz : how you perceive yourself is actually more important than how much you know. if your general belief - you ' re not that good at science - that might have this powerful effect of saying, i ' ll better stay away from it in the future. you know? inskeep : so being more brutally realistic about how good we are at science, might actually make us worse at science. vedantam : well, the catch - 22, steve, is that believing you are better than you actually are, can lull you into a sense of overconfidence when it comes to actual performance. but at the same time, believing that you ' re actually very good can motivate you to try a difficult subject that you might not have tried otherwise. and so what i take away from the study is that false beliefs are neither always a good thing, or always a bad thing. they ' re a tool. and what educators and parents need to do is to use the tool depending on the context - because false beliefs might help you when it comes to preparation ; they might not be helpful when it comes to performance. inskeep : shankar, thanks very much. vedantam : thanks, steve. inskeep : npr ' s shankar vedantam. he ' s on twitter @ hiddenbrain. you can also follow this program @ nprgreene, @ nprinskeep and @ morningedition. transcript provided by npr, copyright npr.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.538490895256859, "token_count": 315, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5485179-69f1-4cdb-9aa4-c36ac7f79111>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.488422"}
{"text": "hacked wiimote used as water level sensor. we ' ve all been entertained by wiimote hackery in the past, but i for one can never tire of the new inventions constantly being cooked up by clever sausages like this guy. using the wiimote and an led light, william luxemburg from the delft university of technology in the netherlands knocked together a water - level sensor, measuring evaporation. as you can see from the picture, a tub of water with a wiimote pointing at a plastic boat is a simple and cost - effective way to achieve the same \u2014 or even better \u2014 results that pressure sensors costing $ 500 or more can produce. of course, it wasn ' t merely a wiimote trained at a boat in a tub of water, which solved luxemburg ' s dilemma. he re - programmed the wiimote ' s output, and as it can sense movement better than a lot of other devices out there ( closer than 1mm accuracy, as wired points out ), when it was connected wirelessly to a laptop he was able to receive real - time information on what the water level was doing in the tub. luxemburg doesn ' t sound like he ' s going to stop there however. he ' s intrigued by what else a wiimote could be used on, if programmed the right way. \" if you have a structure that collapses and you have wiimotes on the building, you could see how fast it falls \" that sort of information is priceless to the right party, and considering wiimotes cost just $ 40, don ' t be surprised if you hear of plenty more innovative uses for nintendo ' s little remote. source - gizmodo", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5412302370152512, "token_count": 350, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:18563a77-63ab-4c75-9061-65a99d5aa9a7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.519104"}
{"text": "learn something new every day more info... by email information traveling across a computer network or another type of telecommunications network typically comes in packets. packets are smaller, \" bite - sized \" pieces of a larger chunk of information. although telecommunication technology is generally reliable and seamless from the end - user ' s point of view, that is only because the computer does the dirty work. it constantly sifts through the packets, looking for fraudulent and corrupt data, discarding it when found. a burst error is a string of corrupt data, measured as the length between \u2014 and including \u2014 the first and last error signals. for example, imagine sending a packet containing all of the letters of the alphabet, a through z. if the recipient ' s computer \" opens \" the packet and finds that the first letter in the sequence is \" q \" and the last letter in the sequence is \" r, \" that is a burst error. the \" burst \" of data in the packet is corrupt. although in the example the first and last letters are defined as corrupt, that does not mean that every letter within the packet is damaged. imagine that every other letter is as it should be ; only position one, \" a, \" and position 26, \" z, \" have been damaged. the number of correct bits of information between the damaged ends is called the guard band. in this case, the guard band would be 24, because there are 24 correct letters separating the two damaged ones. measuring the length of a burst error is simple. it is defined as the number of individual bits separating the very first occurrence of the error from the last occurrence, including the initial and final incorrect bits. in the previous example, the length of the burst error would be 26. the causes of a burst error can vary widely. it is not always possible to measure them accurately. generally, this corruption can occur through any number of sources, including signal degradation, packet loss, other types of network failure, or sending failure on the part of the computer. in networking, as in the real world, sometimes things go wrong. fortunately, most forms of networking provide built in error - checking mechanisms, allowing a receiving computer to compare the actual received data against an impression of the data that was sent, allowing it to recognize whether something has gone wrong along the way.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6127663857268075, "token_count": 468, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:387c10d5-b18a-4363-880e-d1cc5b368edd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.535351"}
{"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - not : noncombatant. - prevocalic form of nona - - used in the sense of not, to negate the meaning of the word to which it is prefixed. gnu webster ' s 1913 - a prefix used in the sense of not ; un - ; in - ; as in nonattention, or non - attention, nonconformity, nonmetallic, nonsuit. - from latin nona ( \" nine \" ). ( wiktionary ) - middle english, from old french, from latin non, not ; see ne in indo - european roots. ( american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition ) \u201c small change breakfast tips 1. make oatmeal with milk non - or low - fat for more protein. \u201d \u201c the role of non - nuclear means of deterrence to effectively prevent conflict and increase stability in troubled regions is a vital issue. \u201d \u201c if a teacher can show, by presenting months of collected evidence, that a student has earned less than an \" a, \" then a non - \" a \" grade should certainly happen. \u201d \u201c rape and sexual violence are used not just as weapons of war around the world but as forms of coercion and a way to instill fear and used as bribes for female students in classrooms, a way to severely marginalize and control women, even in non - conflict areas. \u201d \u201c something larger that truly is a \" happening \" at all, simply that, and no less remarkable for it \u2014 the mass effort to throw off the non - \" happenings \" that circumscribe all our lives to unambitious, repetitive cycles. \u201d \u201c here are a few \" non - \" categories with suggestions for each to get you started : \u201d \u201c still, fitch classified the use of asbe standards and non - \" big four \" auditors as \" key weakness indicators \" for several companies. \u201d \u201c to hear more from scaling green ' s communicating energy lecture series at solar power international 2011 spi, please listen what these solar energy leaders had to say on the national solar jobs census 2011 and the solyndra non - \" scandal \" at scaling green. \u201d \u201c late last week, news broke that 75 probationary non - \" tenured \" teachers who were improperly fired under then - dcps chancellor michelle rhee would be re - instated. \u201d \u201c repeatedly claiming his abject non - success to be their number one priority", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5470930960965918, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b6a6db01-b2f8-4f86-82a0-da976798d422>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.540471"}
{"text": "lantern ( sometimes also spelled jack o ' lantern ) is typically a carved pumpkin. it is associated chiefly with halloween. typically, the top is cut off, and the inside flesh then scooped out ; an image, usually a monstrous face, is carved onto the outside surface, and the lid replaced. during the night, a candle is placed inside to illuminate the effect. the term is not particularly common outside north america, although the practice of carving lanterns for halloween is. in folklore, an old irish folk tale tells of jack, a lazy yet shrewd farmer who uses a cross to trap the devil. one story says that jack tricked the devil into climbing an apple tree, and once he was up there, jack quickly placed crosses around the trunk or carved a cross into the bark, so that the devil couldn ' t get down. another myth says that jack put a key in the devil ' s pocket while he was suspended upside - down. another version of the myth says that jack was getting chased by some villagers from whom he had stolen from, when he met the devil, who claimed it was time for him to die. however, the thief stalled his death by tempting the devil with a chance to bedevil the church - going villagers chasing him. jack told the devil to turn into a coin with which he would pay for the stolen goods ( the devil could take on any shape he wanted ) ; later, when the coin / devil disappeared, the christian villagers would fight over who had stolen it. the devil agreed to this plan. he turned himself into a silver coin and jumped into jack ' s wallet, only to find himself next to a cross jack had also picked up in the village. jack had closed the wallet tight, and the cross stripped the devil of his powers ; and so he was trapped. in both myths, jack only lets the devil go when he agrees never to take his soul. after some time, the thief died, as all living things do. of course, his life had been too sinful for jack to go to heaven ; however, the devil had promised not to take his soul, and so he was barred from hell as well. jack now had nowhere to go. he asked how he would see where to go, as he had no light, and the devil mockingly tossed him an ember that would never burn out from the flames of hell. jack carved out one of his turnips ( which was his favorite food ), put the ember inside it, and began endlessly wandering the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5087448361408854, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fc3769ea-f601-4373-a40e-d275736e2153>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.556769"}
{"text": "someone saying negative things about the harry potter series practically elicits the same reaction as cursing motherhood, apple pie, and baseball - - how dare anyone question something, anything, that motivates children to read? reading is a wholesome activity. reading is good. reading is fundamental. reading is the foundation for a literate, democratic society. reading is the cornerstone of learning. reading is all that and more. the act of reading, as well as what we have access to read, is largely bound to cultural expectations and tastes. intrinsic, dominant social values - - generally class - based ideals - - permeate the literature we consume as readers and as buyers. moreover, these same values and ideals link to the place of the book and of literacy in a society. with the current dominance of television, film / video, and the internet in our students \u2019 lives, some suggest that the power of the mass media \u2019 s influence in north america bodes poorly for the printed word. rather than lament the death of the book or the demise of young people \u2019 s reading skills in the mass media age as many do, i want to argue here that educators need to examine our own and our students \u2019 reading practices and preferences with the hope of discovering how literacy can straddle the real and the presumed divides between elite and mass cultural aesthetics that exist in society. in this context, then, harry potter \u2019 s real magic - - both as a literary figure and as a media icon - - is that the character bridges the loftier reaches of fiction and the lower realms of commercial enterprise. because of his ability to span literature and consumerism, harry is both delightful and disturbing in the messages he sends to youngsters. consequently, the boy wizard becomes a pivotal element for showing students how contemporary reading and writing practices must include print and electronic forms. a tale of two harrys to truly comprehend the complexity in media literacy, we have to take an interdisciplinary approach that embraces the fields of cognition, education, media theory, and literacy studies. this is because the act of reading makes certain demands upon the individual, especially in the mass media age. as media theorist joshua meyrowitz writes in no sense of place, \" a medium that is in short supply or that requires a very special encoding or decoding skill is more likely to be exploited by an elite class that has the time and the resources to gain access to it \" ( 16 ). in this passage, meyrowitz quintessentially describes the current state of reading", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.528955455874437, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.598809"}
{"text": "or decoding skill is more likely to be exploited by an elite class that has the time and the resources to gain access to it \" ( 16 ). in this passage, meyrowitz quintessentially describes the current state of reading. given the heavy influence of electronic media in our society, book reading is a channel that is often given short shrift. reading is a medium that depends upon finely developed encoding and decoding skills. as for reading being a codified skill made the most of by an elite class, the 1996 and 1998 naep reading and writing scores show an increasing gap between students in wealthier districts and those in poorer districts. likewise, meyrowitz \u2019 s question of the access to reading material directly connects to the intersection of mass media and social class. educators cannot overlook that book publishing is a multi - billion - dollar medium that generally depends upon short runs and big hits in the marketplace. this means book selections are resource driven, particularly in the young adult fiction market. if publishers can \u2019 t make a profit on a manuscript, then even the best ideas rarely go forward. while books are often elevated to a higher status than is television or movies, many teachers tend to forget that what we all read depends greatly upon publishing concerns. what teachers and students have access to in print is usually decided upon by large publishing houses that market books and by agents who frequently develop ancillary marketing deals for popular authors. all of this leads to the trouble with that popular boy magician, harry potter. if teachers are astute, the trouble with harry can be seen in any bookstore. the problem is not with the harry potter book series. harry potter the literary figure is a terrific motivator for children ( and adults ) to read, regardless of their socioeconomic class. the potter story line mixes elements of high and low cultural tastes into an appealing blend that crosses class lines. author j. k. rowlings deftly blends the qualities of highbrow literary fiction - - strong character development, emphasis on basic philosophical, psychological or social issues, and heroic figures - - with the social stratification and action - drama sequences that reflect lower class entertainment. the collapsing of high and low cultural taste is not the trouble with harry, though. the trouble is with harry potter the commercialized figure. this harry potter is an incredible temptation for children ( and for well - intentioned adults ) to purchase cheap plastic \" harry \" eyeglasses, halloween costumes, mouse pads, key chains, telephone calling cards, posters, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5474551882123182, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.599943"}
{"text": "the commercialized figure. this harry potter is an incredible temptation for children ( and for well - intentioned adults ) to purchase cheap plastic \" harry \" eyeglasses, halloween costumes, mouse pads, key chains, telephone calling cards, posters, and other sundry items placed around bookstore end caps and center aisle kiosks. instructors should not forget the tons of harryphernalia soon to follow once the upcoming movie is released. harry potter lunch boxes, thermos containers, and book bags loom on the horizon. a recent trip to the local drugstore showed me that even reach toothpaste is game for harry \u2019 s image. in short, more harry, more harryphernalia, more money. in these instances, harry potter the boy wizard of mass marketing becomes a much more ambiguous representative for the benefits of reading. consequently, educators must ask the question, does the rise of this harry potter mean more children will be reading, more adolescents will be developing the love of language, and more students will be learning literacy skills? the trouble with harry, then, is there are actually two harrys - - one who promotes children ' s literacy skills and one who shills for any number of cheap consumer products. frequently these two harrys are conflated in the real world, and their conflicting purposes are sometimes overlooked by well - intentioned teachers. while many educators push to motivate their students to read and figure that if harry motivates kids toward stronger literacy skills, then they are all for harry. yet, some forget that the hows and whys behind a person ' s reading sometimes are equally as important as the act of reading itself. how carefully and how critically a reader interprets the information presented to him or her in a given context is frequently as important as being able to read. moreover, why someone chooses a particular selection to read or why someone finds a book appealing regularly reflects back to how a text is presented in the marketplace. these points are especially salient when acts of reading connect to media literacy. how and why we read information presented to us through the mass media can make the difference between naive and critical decision - making. understanding media literacy in educational contexts teachers and administrators sometimes forget that reading is not necessarily a transferable act - - the reading strategies used in language arts or english will not always cross disciplinary boundaries, for instance. likewise, reading a book for pleasure is not quite the same process as reading for course work. readers select information quite differently depending upon the situation in which they are reading.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5117861527625673, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.601092"}
{"text": "used in language arts or english will not always cross disciplinary boundaries, for instance. likewise, reading a book for pleasure is not quite the same process as reading for course work. readers select information quite differently depending upon the situation in which they are reading. more importantly for this discussion, the act of reading print - based texts differs in varying degrees from reading other media texts. literacy theorists sherry macaul, jackie giles, and rita rodenberg note the technological shift in literacy reflects a range of innovations \" from the ways in which information is accessed and viewed to the processes and mediums by which messages are constructed and represented \" ( 53 ). therefore, in our media - affected culture, literacy is not a one - size for all situation ; as we have directly seen with the rise of computer technology, literacy is protean. a child can be highly literate in one subject area, yet nearly illiterate in another. clearly with respect to the degree of mass media influence and the volume of information bits streaming into their homes, most north american children and teenagers are woefully media illiterate. for all the viewing and message receiving these young adults do, a large number of them possess rudimentary levels of media literacy. what does it mean to be media literate? being media literate means we have created knowledge structures - - schema - - to interpret or provide a perspective on the media messages that surround us. we cannot compare the cognitive processes involved in reading versus watching television or film, as they are not equivalent skills. more than the cognitive domain that dominates the traditional, academic \" reading / writing \" notions of literacy, though, media literacy spans emotional, aesthetic, and moral domains as well. consequently, the schema media literate people generate function more like a multi - dimensional scale than the hierarchical scaffolding model generally associated with literacy studies. these media knowledge structures emerge when we actively engage in various media experiences and test those new media experiences against the skills and information we have gleaned elsewhere, such as from parents or family members, schools, religious institutions, or other authority figures. prior media experiences can even provide the skills and information one needs to analyze current situations. so, regardless of how old we are, people continually generate new mental representations to accommodate changes in our media use. therefore, our worldviews as well as children ' s and teenagers ' worldviews are constructed and reconstructed through media use. that is why media literacy has become equally important as academic literacy in north american classrooms. great numbers of educators", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5586593161349851, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.602293"}
{"text": "media use. therefore, our worldviews as well as children ' s and teenagers ' worldviews are constructed and reconstructed through media use. that is why media literacy has become equally important as academic literacy in north american classrooms. great numbers of educators believe the myth that students are highly media literate because of their large amounts of media consumption. media educators ladislaus semali and ann watts pailliotet suggest otherwise ; instead of children becoming increasingly more literate, these media - distorted boundaries \" between school and home, fact and fiction, narrative and live reporting are confusing \" ( 14 ). this is because youngsters, even the most media - savvy adolescents, are still building the multi - dimensional schema they need to develop the broad overall perspective people use to separate the superficial from the meaningful. usually, children and teenagers operate with very limited knowledge structures about the media ; they tend to focus on the recognition of surface information like song lyrics, television characters, actors ' or characters ' names, and so on. this surface information pattern closely models the basic sets of facts we find in reading textbooks or newspapers. that means children and others who can recite the entire harry potter ensemble or who can recall a book passage from memory may be strong readers or recallers of general information, and may be considered highly literate in the conventional sense. yet their media literacy functions at a very low level, perhaps bordering on media aliteracy in that the surface knowledge is apparent but deeper levels of knowledge are missing. educators must note that well - developed cognitive domains alone do not best serve a truly media literate person. many juveniles do not yet display an adequate degree of reflexivity about their role as interpreters of media information to demonstrate they understand the full range of emotional, visual, and moral value manipulation that occurs through the crafting and editing of messages ( potter 5 - 9 ). as such, it is conceivable that the harry potter many adolescent readers fell in love with in the literary series can, and most likely will, change dramatically as the young wizard ' s image moves to film and to a local fast - food restaurant near them in the future. however, inexpert student media users do not always see the changes one media representation has over another, particularly if the shifts involve a beloved character. they often miss the multiple layers of meaning that exist in media messages. this is because the youngsters ' analytical, evaluative, synthesizing, abstracting, and inferencing abilities are not as finely", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5461833801509751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.603550"}
{"text": "shifts involve a beloved character. they often miss the multiple layers of meaning that exist in media messages. this is because the youngsters ' analytical, evaluative, synthesizing, abstracting, and inferencing abilities are not as finely honed as they need to be. therefore, scores of young media consumers tend to be more susceptible in automatically accepting the prevailing ideas, morals, attitudes, and explanations presented by the media. in all probability, the harry potter found in movies and commercials will correspond to recognized or desired personal characteristics familiar to children and teens, which in turn will establish an opening for advertisers and others to shape youngsters ' attitudes about new film stars and products. this process, known as canalization, subtly influences people ' s attitudes by making them more receptive to a product through linking that product to our emotional needs ( potter 271 ). hence it is highly plausible that through the media push caused by the film and its subsequent commercialization of all things potter, the clever boy wizard will become a pitchman for any number of products directed at young consumers. without more finely attuned media literacy practices, in all likelihood, scores of young adults will conflate the harry potter of literature with the harry potter of commercialism without developing the awareness needed to separate the types of media exposure the two harrys offer them. harry works his magic again : transforming the boy wizard into a study in media literacy this leads us to how harry potter the literary character can teach educators ways to introduce media literacy to our students, regardless of their ages. teachers know harry potter has the power to reach children and stimulate their conventional literacy skills. students reading the harry potter book series engage in a wide range of sensory stimulation, as they layer their own images upon the sentences j. k. rowlings produced. writing and reading teachers clearly see how rowlings ' s characters and stories can train young readers in the left - brain linguistic and analytical patterns they need to develop strong, sustained reading and writing abilities. working through various scenes in the tomes, students develop creativity and analytic thinking as they interact with the storyline. moreover, while reading these books, students who are active in the reading process internalize sequential speech or syntactic structures, all of which become important foundations for future learning. then, too, through rowlings ' s series young readers learn the conventions of the written texts, such as punctuation, capitalization, pagination, and paragraphing. these elements are not necessarily found in broadcast media, and items like", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5569235541679755, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.604753"}
{"text": "then, too, through rowlings ' s series young readers learn the conventions of the written texts, such as punctuation, capitalization, pagination, and paragraphing. these elements are not necessarily found in broadcast media, and items like punctuation and capitalization take on new forms in cybermedia. from a cognitive perspective, one of the greatest concerns teachers should have with harry potter becoming a media icon connects to students developing stronger right - brain patterns, such as relying more upon holistic visual or verbal cues like color, motion, and sound effects instead of text - based cues to determine required information from a storyline ( healy 210 - 11 ). as a movie or commercial image, harry potter feeds upon the right hemisphere of the brain ' s need for novelty and for understanding the story ' s global context ( healy 124 - 25 ). therefore, children and teenagers who become dependent solely upon the film or commercial versions of harry potter without the connection to rowlings ' s books will most likely capture the narrative ' s gist, but they may miss the more interesting or important details connected to really understanding the tale. the danger in this is some students become untrained in the art of pursuing meaning and reflection in their reading and writing. in these instances, students will not grasp foreshadowing techniques like asking questions of what will happen next in the plot nor will they make mental connections to prior learned information. these are critical reading skills that do transfer to written communication, and educators need to discover ways to enhance these abilities in students whose primary leisure activity is television or film viewing. secondary areas to consider as harry potter moves toward film, video, advertising, and television are the types of effects the change from literary figure to media icon will elicit in young or adolescent viewers. media influence is a two - stage process, displaying immediate and long - term effects. immediate effects occur during exposure to a message or directly thereafter. some of these outcomes temporarily tend to reinforce or extend an individual ' s schema. for instance, after seeing the harry potter movie, young viewers may adopt attitudes or behaviors that correspond to the hero or heroine. alternatively, children may have heightened emotions connected to what happens to harry or his friends for a short period during or slightly after the film. in these situations, youngsters may want to dress like or act like harry or one of the characters for a period of time. other outcomes, though, depend upon long term exposure to messages that people internalize as cultural or personal beliefs. for the sake of argument, let", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5290293468755571, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.605992"}
{"text": "image. especially in advertising contexts, this ready - made trust between young reader and character can be exploited in ad copy to make suspect claims. a second faulty reasoning method, the ecological fallacy, can also emerge. in this setting, a message would show a viewer that there is a causal relationship between two items merely because they occur simultaneously. for instance, the successful release of another harry potter book coincides with a blockbuster opening for the harry potter film. there may be a number of reasons for the book and the movie doing well that do not account for the simultaneous release, such as the time of year both are released or the amount of advertising dollars spent to create a pent - up desire for youngsters to purchase the new book or to see the movie. sophisticated media users can detect the ecological fallacy ; unsophisticated users generally do not. many children and adolescents may not recognize all the underlying reasons as to why the book and film are huge successes and may want to see coincidences where there may not be any. similarly, in these situations, inexperienced thinkers also may fall prey to post hoc fallacies. they may assume just because something preceded an event - - such as the movie being released before the book - - it is the cause of whatever transpired. certainly the \" bandwagon \" fallacy also can come to the fore in this context. if news reports, advertisements, and word - of - mouth reflects that everyone - - or seemingly everyone - - is watching, reading or buying harry potter, then inexperienced media consumers become easy targets for these powerful messages. children and teens are particularly susceptible to bandwagon fallacies because their range of experiences with media messages and real life interactions are limited. the bandwagon effect is particularly successful with those who have a lack of self - esteem and want to be like others. to many young minds, if everyone is seeing the movie, purchasing the book, or buying harryphernalia, the possibility of being left out of this consuming frenzy may play upon his or her self - worth. without solid media literacy skills to dismantle bandwagon messaging techniques, adolescents remain especially susceptible to feeling like the odd one out if they do not purchase the latest item or see the hottest movie or buy the latest fashion. lastly, the distinct variations between the two harrys may create intentional fallacies, which is the idea that what the message maker ' s intended meaning is what the viewers take it to be. many times the media will construct intentional fallacies to shape our ideas about a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.560719654063107, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.608397"}
{"text": "distinct variations between the two harrys may create intentional fallacies, which is the idea that what the message maker ' s intended meaning is what the viewers take it to be. many times the media will construct intentional fallacies to shape our ideas about a product or a program. usually, though, there is some degree of separation between the message ' s encoded meaning and how the audience decodes it. for instance, with the harry potter book series, the author intends the message to be a child ' s fantasy and the publisher intends for the book to be a huge seller. however, the readers may have a variety of different and unexpected uses for the book. for instance, readers may share or exchange copies of their books with others, thus reducing the numbers of copies sold. or, adults might hold harry potter costume parties, where parents and their friends dress up like the characters of the book. some parents might read the book aloud and tape their readings for younger children who cannot yet read. these uses subvert the original intentions of the book. children, too, can be shown how they might challenge media - generated intentional fallacies with their own multiple uses of the harry potter movie. with the film, the producers intend viewers to visit a theater, rent, or purchase the movie. they do not expect the audience to share or dub the vcr tapes or dvd discs for friends. nor are the film ' s creators interested in how children and teenagers appropriate new meanings for the scenes, such as using the movie ' s language, characters or situations as a secret code to describe school, family or neighborhood relationships. however, there is much more for us to consider with the two harrys than the types of logical traps they can set for students. the shift from harry potter the literary character to harry potter the media icon should also have educators questioning how the change will further desensitize young readers ' relationships with the printed word. j. k. rowlings ' books instill a sense of wonderment and surprise in young adults, as many teachers and parents can attest. like the numerous media studies that repeatedly show watching even a single television program - - especially if violence and aggression are featured - - lowers children ' s sensitivity toward these actions, highly entertaining television shows, videos or movies filled with spectacular special effects also reduce viewers ' impressions toward low impact programming. reading and writing are very low impact programming forms. both depend upon great skill in encoding and decoding messages in a particular context and the entertainment level is rooted much more deeply in one ' s special", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5882318423407098, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.609447"}
{"text": "effects also reduce viewers ' impressions toward low impact programming. reading and writing are very low impact programming forms. both depend upon great skill in encoding and decoding messages in a particular context and the entertainment level is rooted much more deeply in one ' s special interests. therefore, it is entirely plausible that for many youngsters a harry potter movie filled with incredible computer generated graphics or fantastic special effects will be far more entertaining and impressive than reading the series or writing about what they have read or seen. rather than believe children and teenagers will turn to the movie version of harry potter because the story is easier to consume, though, educators need to realize that the amazing technological effects connected to the portrayal of a boy wizard will desensitize these viewers to the acts of reading and writing. this is a far more subtle use of the media desensitizing viewers than perhaps many are accustomed to, and one that directly affects how youngsters connect to the printed word. more than what the hogwarts academy expected : using the magic of harry potter to teach media literacy in grades 6 - 12 the standard approach to instilling media literacy in children or teenage consumers is to inoculate them. inoculation simply refers to the repeated exposure of audience ' s attitudes to various messages and claims with the purpose of making media claims less effective. however, inoculation is generally an unsophisticated approach to developing media literacy. media outlets spend millions on psychographic and demographic information to subvert most inoculation techniques, and advertisers and programmers use inoculation to sway consumers and viewers toward specific products. so the activities educators would most likely line up to combat media messages more than likely pale in comparison to what skilled corporate manipulators do on a daily basis. instead of inoculating students to create media literacy, teachers might achieve more by using media commercialization as a significant learning experience for their classes. this is where the two harry potters emerge as central figures. students can use their prior experience with the harry potter of literary fame to shape their current media knowledge structures. with the flood of harryphernalia in bookstores and shopping malls, teachers can ask students to become critical thinkers about their own media consumption using the following writing exercise. using excerpts of the film, commercials featuring the harry potter characters, or news stories related to the movie, have students analyze their potential for consumerism. the teacher writes ten ideas on the board related to media influence - - for instance, opinion creation, opinion change, reinforcement, emotional reactions,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.529323904567927, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.610492"}
{"text": "the harry potter characters, or news stories related to the movie, have students analyze their potential for consumerism. the teacher writes ten ideas on the board related to media influence - - for instance, opinion creation, opinion change, reinforcement, emotional reactions, imitation, nutrition, instant gratification, materialism, and blame. students then determine what characteristics would need to be present in the film, commercial, or news story to influence them to see the movie, buy the product, or pay attention to the television story. this is akin to developing foreshadowing techniques in conventional literacy. to facilitate the next phase in the assignment, teachers fill the board with the class ' s responses. stepping back to examine what students generated is an important stage in encouraging students to develop reflexivity. teachers should ask students to rank which attributes would influence them the most. once this activity is finished, students write a short profile explaining how they might lower the probability of these attributes influencing children and teenagers to overconsume. to extend the reflection, teachers can have students probe their own reactions to harry potter that put them at risk for indiscriminate spending on harryphernalia. in journals or in class discussion, students can question more deeply into those effects that play upon youngsters ' self - esteem and how those influences shape a person ' s reasons for succumbing to media messages. beyond having students study their own habits as media consumers, teachers can motivate their classes to think about the indirect media effects on others using harry potter. in this instance, students generate examples where their friends formed an opinion based on media messages about harry potter without ever being exposed to the original event ( book or film, for instance ). then after sharing these student - produced situations related to others, the instructor asks the class what their opinion is on harry potter found in the book, the movie, and the commercial. using the chalkboard, the teacher puts forward all the student opinions. once the class has finished airing its opinions, the teacher should ask whether the class ' s opinions are based on overheard media messages or from them being directly exposed to the book, the film, or the commercials. students are then asked to write about what conditions changed their opinions about harry potter. afterward, students should classify whether these conditions are connected to direct or indirect exposure to the media event. the point of this exercise is to show how discussing whether people are most affected by direct or indirect exposure to the media, which helps students discover the complexity of the media effects process. using media", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5509456417118774, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.611550"}
{"text": "are connected to direct or indirect exposure to the media event. the point of this exercise is to show how discussing whether people are most affected by direct or indirect exposure to the media, which helps students discover the complexity of the media effects process. using media commercialization as a significant learning experience for reading, writing, and thinking suggests teachers need to show students how to adapt to new learning frameworks. far too frequently, inexperienced users misinterpret media schemas as real world schemas, and the consequences generally run from the embarrassing to the dangerous. with children and teenagers, a lack of awareness connected to their misinterpreting media schema for real world schema can create anything from social faux pas to poor decision - making. again, most students ' familiarity with the harry potter book series allows instructors to work with their classes to enhance the students ' sensitivity to media schemas. as a class, teachers should have students select a chapter of one harry potter book to read as a group. students take turns reading the passages, and while one student is reading, the others should take notes about the schemas. for character schemas, students would list the central figures and briefly describe them. to explain the narrative schema present in the chapter, students need to jot down the important events that occur. likewise, to determine setting schema, students write two or three things that take place in the setting and two or three items that would never occur in the setting. students identify thematic schema in the chapter by briefly summarizing what was the chapter ' s moral or intended moral. finally, to discover the chapter ' s rhetorical schema, students list the author ' s purpose for writing this chapter. was rowling trying to entertain, to inform, to persuade, to fantasize, or to achieve a number of purposes? students repeat this schema identification activity again, this time while watching a ten to fifteen minute portion of the harry potter movie. lastly, the teacher should show about ten to fifteen minutes of television advertisements for harryphernalia, and students once more categorize the schema. upon completing the three exercises, the class discusses its findings. students should be asked what, if any, schematic elements stayed the same across the examples. what schematic elements differed? students need to consider whether a change in media generated a change in the schematic elements. students also should talk about whether the media schemas and genres affect how people receive messages ( adapted from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5779444613089693, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.612798"}
{"text": "the examples. what schematic elements differed? students need to consider whether a change in media generated a change in the schematic elements. students also should talk about whether the media schemas and genres affect how people receive messages ( adapted from potter 89 ). these activities illustrate how teachers can work with students to reduce their levels of mindless exposure to any media material, whether print or electronic. students discover ways to hone their media reading skills, and they learn that their passive reading of the media leads to media effects clouding their thinking far more pervasively than usual. instead of making claims in their argument - - e. g., that parents or some other authority should control media messages directed toward children, a common byproduct of inoculation - - youngsters who become active readers of the media determine how to negotiate the information presented to them. this is an especially important ability for those young people who form parasocial relationships with media characters based on the character ' s attractiveness or sociability. passive media readers rarely consider how storylines and contexts shape a character ' s likability or personality ; therefore, these viewers are regularly affected by hypermnesia. active media readers, however, question storylines and contexts as well as external media messages sent by advertisers and news reports about these characters. consequently, these children and teenagers develop the analytical skills that allow them to separate the entertainment qualities from whatever informational content exists. as they increase their analytical skills through repeated media literacy exercises, students expand their abilities to recognize how a change in medium can make a difference in how a message is constructed and received. in other words, students discover how to be \" situationally sensitive \" ( simons, morreale, and gronbeck 76 ) toward mass media messages. teachers who draw upon cross - media comparisons in their assignments do well in showing students how the same information is presented differently through various genres. using the activities presented earlier in this paper, instructors help students understand the ways in which a message affects viewers. to extend this idea into students ' writing, teachers can have the class keep a journal related to all the harry potter news stories, radio jingles, internet ads, and television commercials they see for two weeks. students write down what elements of the messages appeal to them - - colors, sounds, melodies, graphics, and so on. at the end of the two week period, have students write harry potter messages for different media - - a newspaper article, a radio or television ad, a billboard", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5561136635933445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.615983"}
{"text": "messages appeal to them - - colors, sounds, melodies, graphics, and so on. at the end of the two week period, have students write harry potter messages for different media - - a newspaper article, a radio or television ad, a billboard, a short scene from the next movie, or a news report for a local station on the harry potter phenomenon. the process teaches students that writing effective media messages is sometimes difficult. since successful media messages depend upon a number of artistic qualities to appeal to viewers, students learn about the aesthetic dimension of the media ( adapted from potter 381 ). the class quickly discovers that those elements that work best in one medium often will not transfer. consequently, students must learn how to work with various linguistic, aural, and visual aspects to create expert sounding media messages. developing media literacy frameworks for young adults requires educators to move beyond the usual inoculation or academic literacy approaches. instructors must think of literacy with a much wider goal in mind, as reading and writing have become far more complex in the information age. just as instructors present critical thinking skills in reading and writing, they must also now include critical viewing to the literacy mix. since youngsters have constructed basic media literacy frameworks by the time they enter school, teachers need to help them move toward advanced abilities so children learn not to take media information at face value. this suggests that literacy is, indeed, rooted in both social and technological practices, as educational theorist b. c. bruce notes ( 303 ). students ' early learning experiences are grounded in commingled forms and representations of sound, animation, moving images, and electronically generated meanings ( macaul et al. 55 ). these practices affect how students react to the printed word in academic settings. therefore, teachers must come to terms with an expanded view of literacy that encompasses these influences upon reading and writing. mass media and media commercialization do not have to destroy traditional notions of literacy. students who understand that informational flow patterns shift with a change in medium may better understand a society that is becoming increasingly media - saturated. even though teachers are incorporating media literacy activities in their classes, academic literacy skills should not suffer, as students still are able to use reading and writing to test new ideas and propose new knowledge structures even though the characters or images they use for inquiry are different. the result of merging print and electronic literacy abilities may be that students move toward developing an integrated notion of reading and writing across multiple media genres as well as becoming more media savvy. pleasure and literacy before concluding, let me", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5323348411045061, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.617809"}
{"text": "for inquiry are different. the result of merging print and electronic literacy abilities may be that students move toward developing an integrated notion of reading and writing across multiple media genres as well as becoming more media savvy. pleasure and literacy before concluding, let me suggest that harry potter stories do bring many people who are young and old a great sense of pleasure. but, as media scholars lawrence grossberg, ellen wartella, and d. charles whitney suggest, \" [ p ] leasure is a deceptively simple notion [... ] it is in fact a very complex phenomenon, and we actually know very little about the mechanisms of the production of pleasure \" ( 253 ). so much of what defines pleasure is emotionally generated. yet we should not forget that pleasure is also economically and culturally situated. whether one reads to escape the mundane, to reinforce one ' s self through identification with a character, to live vicariously through another ' s experiences, to feel catharsis, or for any number of other reasons, all bear some connection to a media product - - the book. if pleasure relates to traditional literacy, then why not have pleasure link up with media literacy to interrogate what we see on television, through an advertisement, or in a film? harry potter can teach reading and writing instructors how to bring media literacy into their classrooms through the introduction of pleasure. educators recognize the young magician ' s power to charm children and teenagers into developing a love of words. schoolteachers and others, however, must also realize the boy wizard can cast many unwanted spells upon young audiences as a media pitchman. ultimately, the trouble with harry is that until teachers and students recognize that he sends a number of messages beyond his literary self - - and we all must learn how to address these messages to function in various situations - - in most writing classes literacy will remain segregated between a privileged print and a mass electronic form. a parallel example of hypermnesia would be how late - twentysomethings bond around the values and images linked to the brady bunch. for a short period in the late 1980s - early 1990s, there was brady material across all media. my college students during that time could not only recite the entire brady bunch theme song, but could reel off lengthy passages from episodes and arcane facts about the program. similarly, i see my current group of college students display hypermnesia over the simpsons television program. based on these two phenonmena, a similar occurrence with harry potter should be expected. the classroom exercises are designed for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5462466052463886, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.618857"}
{"text": "about the program. similarly, i see my current group of college students display hypermnesia over the simpsons television program. based on these two phenonmena, a similar occurrence with harry potter should be expected. the classroom exercises are designed for grades 6 - 12. all activities can be adjusted to meet the demands of class size, student demographics, and teacher or departmental expectations for grade level performance. my purpose is not to create a one - size - fits - all approach to introducing media literacy. rather, i hope to generate a context in which teachers adapt the ideas here for their own classroom activities. since there is little advertising done in advance of the harry potter movie, i suggest interested teachers look in local pharmacies, grocery stores, and bookstores to note the wide array of items carrying the harry potter image that are available for purchase. a recent issue of vanity fair magazine ( http : / / www. epicurious. com ) devoted its main story to the upcoming harry potter phenomenon. these conditions can be explained as parental comments, friends ' comments, newscasters ' comments, or other attitudes displayed by institutions such as church, school, government, sports, and so on. w. james potter defines various media schema as character schema ( stereotypical images that viewers instantly recognize ), narrative schema ( storytelling formulas that cue viewers to the genre ), setting schema ( places that influence viewer expectations ), thematic schema ( character behaviors that interact with the first three schemas to provide viewers with a moral to the story ), and rhetorical schema ( the primary contribution of the story - - whether to inform, entertain, persuade, create a fantasy, and so on ) ( 74 ). bruce, b. c. \" literacy technologies : what stance should we take? \" journal of literacy research ( 29 ) 1997 : 289 - 309. healy, jane m. endangered minds : why children don ' t think - - and what we can do about it. new york : touchstone, 1990. grossberg, lawrence, ellen wartella, and d. charles whitney. mediamaking : mass media in a popular culture. thousand oaks, ca : sage, 1998. macaul, sherry l., jackie k. giles, and rita k. rodenberg. \" intermediality in the classroom : learners constructing meaning through deep viewing. \" intermediality : the teacher ' s handbook of critical media literacy. ed. ladislaus semali and ann watts pailliotet. boulder, co", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5449972241709891, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.619888"}
{"text": "##nberg. \" intermediality in the classroom : learners constructing meaning through deep viewing. \" intermediality : the teacher ' s handbook of critical media literacy. ed. ladislaus semali and ann watts pailliotet. boulder, co : westview, 1999. meyrowitz, joshua. no sense of place : the impact of electronic media on social behavior. new york : oxford up, 1985. potter, w. james. media literacy. 2nd ed. thousand oaks, ca : sage, 2001. semali, ladislaus m, and ann watts pailliotet. intermediality : the teacher ' s handbook of critical media literacy. boulder, co : westview, 1999. simons, herbert, joanne morreale, and bruce gronbeck. persuasion in society. thousand oaks, ca : sage, 2001. u. s. department of education. naep 1996 : trends in writing. office of educational research and improvement. national center for educational statistics. washington, dc : 1999. \u2014. naep 1998 : trends in writing. washington, dc : 2000. citation format : penrod, dane. \" the trouble with harry : a reason for teaching media literacy to young adults. \" the writing instructor. 2001. http : / / www. writinginstructor. com / penrod. html ( date accessed ). review process : diane penrod ' s essay was accepted for publication following blind, peer review.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5304020782767538, "token_count": 300, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.620577"}
{"text": "origin : modl : so named ( 1789 ) by m. h. klaproth ( see tellurium ), its discoverer, after uranus, recently ( 1781 ) discovered planet + - ium see uranium in american heritage dictionary 4 noun symbol u origin : new latin uranium origin :, after uranus, uranus ; see uranus. word history : some chemical elements, such as ytterbium and berkelium, derive their names from the places they were discovered, but the element uranium owes its name to an earlier scientific discovery, that of the planet uranus. sir william herschel, who discovered uranus in 1781, wanted to name the planet georgium sidus, \u201c the georgian planet, \u201d in honor of george iii ; others called it herschel. eventually convention prevailed and the planet came to be called uranus, like mercury and pluto the name of a heavenly deity in classical mythology. this god, called ouranos in greek ( latinized as uranus ), was chosen because he was the father of saturn ( greek kronos ), the deity of the planet next in line, who himself was the father of jupiter ( greek zeus ), the deity of the next planet. the name of this new planet uranus was then used in the name of a new chemical element discovered eight years later by m. h. klaproth. klaproth, a german scientist, gave it the latin name uranium in honor of the discovery of uranus. uranium passed into english shortly thereafter, being first recorded in the third edition of the encyclopedia britannica, published in 1797. learn more about uranium", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5147833213065275, "token_count": 335, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9b785506-cfa9-4e88-afe2-9348439e2c51>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.627065"}
{"text": "these \" death - traps \", in earthquake - prone areas. so, we reach to the, rather, strange conclusion that the thousands of deaths caused by quakes is a political problem! among the people that helped the state to propagate or use this multi - story - building \" solution \" to the problem of housing ordinary people, a prominent place is held by le corbusier ( 1887 - 1965 ). le corbusier was born in switzerland and at the age of 43 he became a french citizen. he was quite \" enamored \" to the nazis, and he was an admirer of henry ford and the... general motors! his contribution to humanity : part of the misery that the extraterrestrial man observed during his trip on the surface of the earth. unfortunately, this contribution to misery and quake - induced deaths has not been adequately recognized, if at all, by historians, engineers, and intellectuals. how could, a rather not very competent architect, create such \" havoc \", almost single - handed? my estimate : the cause is a strange tendency of humans, especially of ladies, to feel that it is de rigueur to be modern, to follow the fashion, etc. [ whether this tendency is innate or acquired, does not matter. what matters, is that it is so prevalent ]. le corbusier and his creations were the epitome of... modernity. maybe, that was why le corbusier became a french citizen ; to be at the center of modernity, fashion, etc. aside from this rather droll, yet valid, explanation, there is a more sinister one : the greed of the portland cement industry and the automobile industry in the \" democratic \" nations and authoritarianism in the non - democratic nations ( the soviets, hitler, etc ). let us take the case of greece : around 79 years ago, between 1932 and 1933, what happened at the \" exarchia square \" in athens helped decide the fate of the city concerning its buildings and consequently helped decide the way of the life of its inhabitants. in 1932 the construction of one of the first steel - reinforced concrete multi - story buildings, designed by a young greek architect, started to take place at the north - eastern corner of the \" exarchia square \". [ parenthesis : \" the athens neighborhood of ' exarchia ' is considered the scene of the anarchic scene in greece ( today ). the core of the neighborhood is a tiny triangular park (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5030027268352613, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc97bad-6647-4ff2-93fb-b552e8228ff8>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.653474"}
{"text": "also, there is another, rather \" vulgar \" development that refutes the above argument. for example, there are greek immigrants, admittedly not very numerous, who after having been \" successful \" by climbing the social ladder from dishwashers in new york or frankfurt to restaurateurs, they then build summer - houses back in their home villages, usually mimicking, architecturally, swiss chalets, thus occupying two times their... allotted domicile space on the face of the earth. an additional objection to the proliferation of the one - story home, possibly by ecologists this time, might be that this is a boon for the proliferation of the automobile, le corbusier ' s fervent vision. wrong! this problem had been solved around the turn of the 20th century. the solution : the steel wheel on a steel rail. that is : mass transportation by trains, light - rail and the streetcar. a solution, which was \" erased \" by the general motors et al in the 1930s and 1940s. finally, for some people, storing humans vertically towards heaven in tall buildings in mega - cities, is a way to make humanity \" more productive and efficient \". in the \" special issue \" on \" better cities \" of the \" scientific american \" magazine, for september 2011, ( page 38 ), luis m. a. bettencourt and geoffrey b. west write : \" what we can say with certainty,..., is that increased population [ in cities ] promotes more intense and frequent social interactions... as well as economic pressures that weed out inefficiencies. in a city with high rents, only activities that add substantial value can be profitable. these economic pressures push urbanites to come up with new forms of organizations, products and services that carry more value added. in turn, higher profitability, excellence and choice tend to attract more talent to the city, pushing rents higher still, fuelling the need to find yet more productive activities... \" about \" weed out inefficiencies \", \" rents \", \" economic pressures \", \" value added \", and \" profitability \", no comment is necessary. however, given that the majority of \" educated \" people in the west, and probably the writers of the above excerpt, consider the foundation of their culture and of their social thought to be the product of the city of athens around 2, 500 years ago ( see martin bernal ' s \" black athena \" ), it is a bit of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5083126964414342, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc97bad-6647-4ff2-93fb-b552e8228ff8>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.659265"}
{"text": "writers of the above excerpt, consider the foundation of their culture and of their social thought to be the product of the city of athens around 2, 500 years ago ( see martin bernal ' s \" black athena \" ), it is a bit of a contradiction to ignore the fact that the area covered by the city of athens, at that time, around the acropolis, is the same area covered today by a few dozen taverns, peddling \" moussaka \" to the tourists. how come such \" wisdom \" came out of a postage - stamp city, not a mega - city? furthermore, to invent the wheel or the transistor is the easy part. to understand the human nature is the hard one. also, it is even harder to survive in a concrete multi - story building that was hit by an earthquake. a possible outline of action by the ordinary people of turkey and greece to solve the deadly problem of the quake could be as follows : - both peoples should ignore their respective governing elites. any action by both peoples should be at the grassroots level, in a pareconish way. - dialogue and cooperation between the two peoples should be the cardinal basis for finding a solution. - immediate and very close contact among the civil engineers and the civil engineering schools of both countries. - honest evaluation of the history of concrete in relation to quakes. - if the ordinary men and women of turkey and greece, with the help of the universities and of the engineers of both countries, decide that the solution rests on the design of a one - story house of lightweight materials, then a long - range program should be made for the initiation of a process of replacing the existing tall structures with the new low lightweight ones, recycling almost all of the materials of the existing buildings. obviously, this will take many decades, maybe about a half century. as already mentioned, this is only an outline by a single individual. there are more than 80 million turks and greeks capable to start thinking about the problem. one additional benefit of such a program could be that it will evolve into a political and social contact between the two peoples that will allow them to live in peace and dignity. also, it is possible that in the future this program could involve and the peoples at the rim of the mediterranean basin ; syria, lebanon, palestine, egypt, libya, algeria, tunisia, morocco, etc. the turks and the greeks can, of course, appeal to the rest of the world for cooperation and involvement in such a project. however, the massachusetts institute of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5385025891735338, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc97bad-6647-4ff2-93fb-b552e8228ff8>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.660444"}
{"text": "syria, lebanon, palestine, egypt, libya, algeria, tunisia, morocco, etc. the turks and the greeks can, of course, appeal to the rest of the world for cooperation and involvement in such a project. however, the massachusetts institute of technology and the university of illinois should definitely be involved in this turko - greek project. especially, the university of illinois, which has the best school of civil engineering in the world. the history of the university of illinois in relation to quakes is quite interesting. part of this history are nathan m. newmark, hardy cross, and fazlur r. khan. all three were among the most brilliant minds of the contemporary science of the world. - newmark ( 1910 - 1981 ) was the head of the civil engineering department of the u of illinois, at urbana, for 17 years. his work had a lot to do with earthquakes. all his life he tackled the most difficult engineering problems, even the design of structures to withstand a nuclear explosion, and gave brilliant solutions. he is famous for the quake - resistant design of the skyscraper \" torre latinoamericana \" in mexico city. he was awarded the national medal of science and numerous other awards. - cross ( 1885 - 1959 ) was the originator, in 1936 at the u. of illinois, of what is known to all the civil engineers of the world as the \" cross method \", a tool that helped them tremendously in the design of structures, especially of multi - story concrete structures. - khan ( 1929 - 1982 ) \" was a native of bangladesh... [ he ] is considered as one of the greatest geniuses in the history of civil engineering... khan ' s revolutionary design of a skyscraper is that the most economical way to build a skyscraper is the one in which it is built with thin solid walls as a tube... \" [ this from my znet commentary, \" of pyramids and skyscrapers \", of september 30, 2001 ]. the wtc twin towers were designed on the basis of khan ' s revolutionary method. all these three great engineers devoted their life to solve technical problems for the erection of multi - story buildings. the opposite of what is proposed here. yet, what could their reaction be to such a proposal for a low light - weight building? i would like to think that, ultimately, they would agree that losing the lives of the hundreds of thousands of ordinary people in multi - story concrete buildings has not been seriously examined by the engineering profession and that something should be done.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5319328394299354, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc97bad-6647-4ff2-93fb-b552e8228ff8>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.662377"}
{"text": "- weight building? i would like to think that, ultimately, they would agree that losing the lives of the hundreds of thousands of ordinary people in multi - story concrete buildings has not been seriously examined by the engineering profession and that something should be done. all three were serious and extremely rational individuals. of these three, i had the chance to meet only newmark, a polite, gentle, and honest person. about khan it was written that he was a \" technical genius with a sensitivity for people and the places in which they must live and work \". khan himself said : \" i like to think myself a citizen of the world. if we don ' t have a sense of compassion on a world basis and on a man - to - man basis, we ' re never going to get out of the wars we ' re in \". about cross i do not know much. yet, i am apt to think that he was not different from the other two. it seems that these three exceptional individuals, in relation to quakes, had fallen to what might be called the \" robert oppenheimer trap \". after oppenheimer tried to rationalize his involvement with the nukes, he said that he could not resist the feeling of \" a technically sweet solution \"! my guess is that, today, all three would agree to the solution presented here. [ parenthesis : here is a rough outline of a possible solution for an one - story light - weight building : 1. construction of a concrete wall as a \" base \" of the building. concrete?! yes, concrete. even of plain concrete, without steel reinforcement. however, the height of the wall should not exceed 4 feet ( 1. 20 meters ). this low wall will give the building a solid base, as a quasi \" ballast \", which can withstand mainly wind forces. this 4 - feet high ballast - wall, even if it fails ( which is improbable ), will not trap people under it, because of its small height. 2. the floor should be a concrete slab ( plain or with minimal steel reinforcement ) that is monolithically connected to the low wall, forming thus a box - like lower part of the building. this will be beneficial to the building even if there is liquefaction. ( transformation of the soil into a liquid, for a fraction of the duration of the quake. ) 3. the remaining 6 feet, to gain the total height of 10 feet of the building, should be a lightweight construction, resembling a cage, made", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5189007014965319, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc97bad-6647-4ff2-93fb-b552e8228ff8>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.663879"}
{"text": "( transformation of the soil into a liquid, for a fraction of the duration of the quake. ) 3. the remaining 6 feet, to gain the total height of 10 feet of the building, should be a lightweight construction, resembling a cage, made of steel members, thus securing that the upper part of the walls and the roof will not kill people by falling on them. the steel to be used, mostly by recycling, is already used today as reinforcement in the slabs and columns of the traditional concrete structures, which are going to be demolished. 4. the steel cage, of the upper part of the structure, should be covered on the outside and the inside with a thin \" skin \" of fiber - reinforced concrete of a thickness of only half inch. strange as it sounds, there has been experience with such \" thin \" fiber - reinforced materials for decades. students in most civil engineering schools in the us take part in an annual competition of building... canoes out of such a \" skin \". 5. the low concrete wall of 4 feet and the space between the outer \" skin \" and the inner \" skin \" should be thermally insulated ( preferably with local, or recycled, or newly invented material ). this is only an outline of a solution by a single person. there could be hundreds of better ones from thousands of others ; turks, greeks, mit, the u. of illinois, and so on. end of the parenthesis. ] it should be pointed out that no architects should be involved in this project. my experience with greek architects, in relation to quakes is... terrifying. i feel that prof. christopher alexander, already mentioned above, has been saying similar things for years, if not about quakes, at least about the \" offerings \" of architacts to humanity. here is a deadly exercise in aesthetics by le corbusier. to make buildings more beautiful he introduced the notion of the \" pilotis \". that is, he let the building stand on stilts, by eliminating the walls of the ground floor and left only the concrete columns. also, he said the less numerous columns the better. there are two multi - story apartment buildings on le corbusier stilts, not far from my place. during the big quake of 1981 in athens they were hit severely and all the concrete stilts were almost destroyed. the state with the help of its engineering \" commissars \" allowed the \" repair \" of the damage. today, more than 40 families ( about 160", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5079326729778977, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5fc97bad-6647-4ff2-93fb-b552e8228ff8>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.666304"}
{"text": "about it was that the community, his people, did not get any benefits from the patents. raju often asks, how is it possible for american companies to come into our country, steal our knowledge and make money off of it? he was also concerend why the indian government did not protect the neem emulsion through patents themselves. this is a question that many intellectual property disputes have to answer. there is an increasing awareness in india of the commodification of neem will lead to the expropriation by multinational corporations, like w. r. grace ( shiva, vandana \" piracy by patent : the case of the neem tree, \" in the case of the global economy : and for a turn toward the local, edited by jerry mander and edward goldsmith, sierra club : san francisco, 1996, p. 154 ). on indian independence day in 1995, farmers in from karnataka rallied outside the district office to challenge the demands for made by multinational corporations for intellectual property rights. as part of their protest, the farmers carried twigs and branches from the neem tree as a symbol of their collective indigenous knowledge of the properties of the neem ( shiva : 154 ). the united states, on the other hand, states that what they are doing will help the indian economy. india is not against sharing its information about the neem tree ' s virtues, but it is against countries and corporations that intend to stop india ' s present use of it. another issue is whether the neem tree is patenable, since it is a product of nature, which shows that it is not a result of innovation and discovery. the problem is that w. r. grace does not have a patent on the tree itself, but rather on the process of making the emulsion. they believe that this process is a discovery because it entails manipulation yielding greater and better results. in other words, discovery seems to have both old and new definitions. the problem is over the use of novel scientific advances on traditional indian techniques. according to vandana shiva, the director of the research foundation for science, technology and natural resource policy in india, \" corporate processes are supposedly novel advances on indian techniques \" ( shiva : 152 ). she goes on to state that the reluctance of scientists in india to patent agricultural and pharmaceutical inventions may be a result of their recognition that the bulk of work had already been accomplished by generations of anonymous, indian experimenters ( shiva : 153 ). for example, \" dr. r p singh of the indian agricutural", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5220485776092441, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:657007ec-4ef7-493f-a112-97105acfdcd4>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.693282"}
{"text": ". another party involved is the business community ( like w. r. grace ) that needs intellectual property rights to encourage development in foreign countries because it gives more incentive to the business owners that their property or \" inventions \" will be protected. they believe that the result of researching and development in foreign countries can lead to a greater public good because of the new discoveries of medicines and other innovations that will result. another forum for dispute surrounding the neem tree is the convention on biological diversity ( cbd ) that took place in 1992 at the united nations conference on environment and development. article 15 of the convention states bio - assets are the property of the sovereign states in which they are from. in other words, they are not the property of the world at large. india ' s claim is that what the western world is calling discoveries is actually an indigenous method that they have been suing for years. they say that it is a bio - asset that is protected under article 15 of the convention. while cbd emphasizes the rights of sovereign nations over biological resources, such as the neem tree, it still calls for the acceptance of intellectual property rights. what this means is the cbd calls for governments, such as india, to provide the proper patents or other forms of protection on the life forms and include pharmaceutical products. another wto dispute that relates to the trips agreement is a case that involves india, as well. this case is regarding basmati rice. india feels that because the united states has granted a patent for basmati rice, that it is violating the trips agreement. they say that basmati rice is exclusively associated with india and pakistan. they want the united states to take away their patent on the rice because they felt it is an indigenous product of their country. india ' s problem with the neem tree is similar to the basmati case because they have realized the importance for creating laws that conserve bio - assets and control piracy. they feel that protecting their assets through patents may protect them from other companies like rice tec that took advantage of the nonexistent indian laws. indian farmers want to protect their cultural heritage. it seems the best way to do it is to change their philosophical attitude that natural resources should not be patented in order to protect and preserve india ' s biodiversity and also to conform to international laws and agreements like the trips agreement. according to shiva, there has been a new alliance of farmers and scientists to formulate an alternative form of intellectual property rights - what they term collective intellectual property rights ( cipr ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5170183595011505, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:657007ec-4ef7-493f-a112-97105acfdcd4>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.696644"}
{"text": "/ / www. thirdworldtraveler. com / globalization / war _ against _ nature _ vfts. html. ). the issue of nationalism, in the wake of colonialism plays a vital role in the case of the neem tree. indians do not want to lose their rights to their own indigenous resources to a western power. they will do everything to protect their rights. they are now an independent nation, or are they? in the new global village, it is hard to say. they see american companies and the wto dictating what they can and cannot do with the neem tree. the trips agreement is essentially the globalization of western patent laws as instruments to conquest. it can be seen as a different form of colonialism. an interesting story is that the word \" patents \" is derived from \" letter patents. \" according to vandana shiva, one of india ' s leading activists and founder of the research foundation for science, technology and ecology, letter patents were the open letter granted by the european sovereigns to conquer lands or to obtain monopolies on imports. for example, christopher columbus used a letter patent issued by queen isabel and king ferdinand, for his right to conquest the america ' s ( vandana shiva : war against nature and the people of the south ). 26. trans - boundary issues : no 27. rights : yes 28. relevant literature mander, jerry, and edward goldsmith eds., the case against the global economy : a turn towards the local, san francisco : sierra club books, 1996. national research council, neem : a tree for solving global problems : report of an ad hoc panel of the board of science and technology for international devlopment, washington d. c. : national academy press, 1992. shiva, vandana, biodiversity : social and ecological perspectives, london : zed books, 1991. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -, biopiracy : the plunder of nature and knolwedge, massacusetts : south end press, 1997. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -, ecology and the politics of survival : conflicts over natural resources in india, in association with j. bandyopadhyay, japan : united nations university press, 1991. graphics : from www. neemfoundation. org", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.509694922708723, "token_count": 486, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:657007ec-4ef7-493f-a112-97105acfdcd4>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.702917"}
{"text": "incidents and offenses the uniform crime reporting program collects data about both single - bias and multiple - bias hate crimes. for each offense type reported, law enforcement must indicate at least one bias motivation. a single - bias incident is defined as an incident in which one or more offense types are motivated by the same bias. a multiple - bias incident is defined as an incident in which more than one offense type occurs and at least two offense types are motivated by different biases. - in 2007, 2, 025 law enforcement agencies reported 7, 624 hate crime incidents involving 9, 006 offenses. - there were 7, 621 single - bias incidents that involved 8, 999 offenses, 9, 527 victims, and 6, 962 offenders. - the 3 multiple - bias incidents reported in 2007 involved 7 offenses, 8 victims, and 3 known offenders. ( see tables 1 and 12. ) an analysis of the 7, 621 single - bias incidents reported in 2007 revealed the following : - 50. 8 percent were racially motivated. - 18. 4 percent were motivated by religious bias. - 16. 6 percent resulted from sexual - orientation bias. - 13. 2 percent stemmed from ethnicity / national origin bias. - 1. 0 percent were prompted by disability bias. ( based on table 1. ) offenses by bias motivation within incidents of the 8, 999 single - bias hate crime offenses reported in the above incidents : - 52. 5 percent stemmed from racial bias. - 16. 4 percent resulted from religious bias. - 16. 2 percent were motivated by sexual - orientation bias. - 14. 0 percent were prompted by ethnicity / national origin bias. - 0. 9 percent resulted from biases against disabilities. ( based on table 1. ) in 2007, law enforcement agencies reported that 4, 724 single - bias hate crime offenses were racially motivated. of these offenses : - 69. 3 percent were motivated by anti - black bias. - 18. 4 percent stemmed from anti - white bias. - 6. 0 percent were a result of bias against groups of individuals consisting of more than one race ( anti - multiple races, group ). - 4. 6 percent resulted from anti - asian / pacific islander bias. - 1. 6 percent were motivated by anti - american indian / alaskan native bias. ( based on table 1. ) hate crimes motivated by religious bias accounted for 1, 477 offenses reported by law enforcement. a breakdown of the bias motivation of religious - biased offenses showed : - 68. 4 percent were anti -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5178573075459816, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6423a06b-2900-463c-9ccd-4e2803bf3093>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.708268"}
{"text": "previous | session 117 | next | author index | block schedule s. j. edberg ( jpl / caltech ) this poster serves to introduce a series of posters discussing space interferometry mission planetquest ( sim planetquest ) science prospects and plans across a wide range of astrophysics. sim is being designed and built for nasa ' s navigator program, an element of the astronomical search for origins and planetary systems theme in the science mission directorate. it will be the first optical interferometer in space dedicated to precision astrometry. even though sim planetquest has undergone a significant redesign since last year, the principle parameters of the instrument and anticipated results from its flight have changed little. with astrometric modes yielding 1 microarcsecond and 4 microarcsecond measurements, sim offers the opportunity to investigate a wide variety of phenomena. from effects due to planetary gravitation within the solar system to investigating the emission phenomena of quasars and agns, sim will provide breakthrough science. sim astrometry will provide positions, parallaxes ( distances ), and proper motions with unprecedented accuracies for thousands of stars. searches for earth - like planets will be made. investigations of other planetary systems are possible, including the masses and orbits of their planets. characterizations of stellar masses, from brown dwarfs to stellar - mass black holes and across the h - r diagram are planned. combined with ground - based observations, sim observations of machos should yield the masses of the microlensing objects for the first time. the ages of globular clusters will be determined and the milky way ' s mass and its distribution will benefit from the study of halo and tidal tail stars. sim measurements of the motions of local group galaxies will enable tests of models of this system. quasar jets will be investigated and quasars themselves can be used to tie down a significantly improved celestial reference frame. this work was performed for the jet propulsion laboratory, california institute of technology, sponsored by the national aeronautics and space administration. if you would like more information about this abstract, please follow the link to http : / / planetquest. jpl. nasa. gov / sim / sim \\ _ index. cfm. this link was provided by the author. when you follow it, you will leave the web site for this meeting ; to return, you should use the back comand on your browser. previous | session 117 | next bulletin of the american astronomical society, 37 # 4 \u00a9 2005. the american astronomical soceity.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.528124689965862, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:25c234cb-e520-44ac-8580-df4a7639b976>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.722201"}
{"text": "fact check : uk report criticizing wind is off base a recent report being circulated in the united kingdom casts some doubt on wind ' s ability to serve as a reliable source of electricity generation. not surprisingly, its assertions seem largely questionable or off the mark. stated in general terms, they are as follows : allegation : wind turbines will generate on average 30 % of their rated capacity over a year. fact : first, a conventional utility power plant uses fuel, so it will normally run much of the time unless it is idled by equipment problems or for maintenance. an average capacity of 40 % to 80 % is typical for conventional plants. a wind plant is \" fueled \" by the wind, which blows steadily at times and not at all at other times. although modern utility - scale wind turbines typically operate 65 % to 90 % of the time, they often run at less than full capacity. therefore, an average capacity of 25 % to 40 % is common, although they may achieve higher average capacities during windy weeks or months. while average capacity is almost entirely a matter of equipment reliability for a fueled power plant, it is not for a wind plant \u2014 for a wind plant, it is a matter of economical turbine design. with a very large rotor and a very small generator, a wind turbine would run at full capacity whenever the wind blew and would have a 60 - 80 % average capacity \u2014 but it would produce very little electricity. the most electricity per dollar of investment is gained by using a larger generator and accepting the fact that the average capacity will be lower as a result. wind turbines are fundamentally different from fueled power plants in this respect. second, the average capacity for wind turbines in the u. s. has improved consistently ( 15 % every two years on average ) and is in the 30 % + range - - see analysis by utility consulting firm black & veatch here ( see specifically figures 5 - 4 and 5 - 5 ). allegation : while wind proponents say \" the wind is always blowing somewhere, \" sometimes it is calm throughout the united kingdom. fact : first, the statement \" the wind is always blowing somewhere \" applies to geographic areas quite a bit larger than the united kingdom. the area covered by the midwest independent system operator, which runs the utility system throughout several states in the upper midwest, for example, is five times the size of the u. k. a number of studies by the government, system operators, and utilities in the united states indicate that when wind resources are aggregated over a large geographic area,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5215266360186134, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:50e118b1-8bd5-49cd-bffb-ba8eb9c8f2cc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.784246"}
{"text": "in the upper midwest, for example, is five times the size of the u. k. a number of studies by the government, system operators, and utilities in the united states indicate that when wind resources are aggregated over a large geographic area, nearly the entire energy output of the wind plants can be counted on for meeting power system capacity needs. second, no individual power plant operates 100 % of the time. predictability is what is needed for the utility system as a whole to deliver electricity reliably, and wind farms are generally quite predictable, because their output can be forecast and because that output changes slowly over time compared with conventional power plants that can suffer instantaneous outages. a noteworthy example of this advantage of wind ' s predictability occurred in february 2011, when millions of electricity consumers in the state of texas experienced rolling blackouts because of the sudden loss of over 50 fossil - fired power plants totaling over 7, 000 megawatts ( mw ). at the same time, wind plants continued to produce the approximately 3, 500 mw they had been forecast and scheduled to produce, enough to power millions of typical homes. large coal and nuclear power plants frequently break down with no warning, taking 1, 000 mw or more offline instantaneously. that is very difficult for grid operators to deal with - - they must maintain expensive, fast - acting reserves 24 / 7 / 365, as such an outage can occur at any time. in contrast, changes in wind output occur gradually and are usually predictable, allowing grid operators to use slow - acting, non - spinning reserves that typically cost 40 times less than the fast - acting reserves needed for other power plants. additionally, because the variability of wind energy is smaller than other sources of variability on the power system, particularly the large variability of electric demand, most of wind \u2019 s variability is canceled out so that adding wind to the grid only slightly increases aggregate power system variability. allegation : periods of low wind are frequent in the united kingdom, occurring on average every six days and lasting for an average of five hours at a time. fact : that data indicates that low winds occur about 3 % of the time. that \u2019 s amazingly low \u2013 certainly not worth complaints! the 3 % low wind time is considerably less than expected from a wind plant in a high - performing project in a great wind resource area, which is estimated to be at least 10 % of the time. allegation : during periods of peak demand in the u. k., wind farms were producing only 6 %", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5233593567162503, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:50e118b1-8bd5-49cd-bffb-ba8eb9c8f2cc>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.785354"}
{"text": "plant in a high - performing project in a great wind resource area, which is estimated to be at least 10 % of the time. allegation : during periods of peak demand in the u. k., wind farms were producing only 6 % of their rated capacity ( due to low winds ). fact : this may be true - - in the u. s., wind farms normally generate somewhere between 10 % and 40 % of their rated capacity during periods of peak electricity demand. as mentioned earlier, though, the power system is designed to draw on a variety of different types of power plants, and no power plant operates 100 % of the time. allegation : the u. k. ' s pumped hydro storage capacity is not enough to rely on during periods when the winds are low. fact : this is essentially irrelevant. european countries like denmark, spain, ireland, and germany have successfully integrated very large amounts of wind energy without having to install new energy storage resources. in the u. s., numerous peer - reviewed studies have concluded that wind energy can provide 20 % or more of our electricity without any need for energy storage. how is this possible? the secret lies in using the sources of flexibility that are already present on the electric grid. every day, grid operators constantly accommodate variability in electricity demand and supply by increasing and decreasing the output of flexible generators \u2013 power plants like hydroelectric dams or natural gas plants that can rapidly change their level of generation. thus, the water kept behind a dam or the natural gas held in a pipeline may be thought of as a form of energy storage, with operators using this energy when it is needed and \" storing \" it when it is not. grid operators use these same flexible resources to accommodate any variability introduced by wind energy. a tremendous amount of flexibility is already built into the power system. demand for electricity can vary by a factor of three or more depending on the time of day and year, which nationwide translates into hundreds of thousands of megawatts of flexibility that are already built into the power system. because these power plants and other sources of flexibility have already been built, it is almost always much cheaper to use this flexibility than to build new sources of flexibility like energy storage facilities. while continuing advances in energy storage technology can make it more economically competitive as a provider of utility system flexibility, it is important to remember that resources like wind energy can already be cost - effectively and reliably integrated with the electric utility system without energy storage. fact sheet : wind energy and energy storage fact sheet : wind power", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5346908434178163, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:50e118b1-8bd5-49cd-bffb-ba8eb9c8f2cc>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.786433"}
{"text": "the bickersons battle over alpha meet betty and bart bickerson, husband and wife quality analysts who work at different companies. betty and bart argue about everything. they argue whether grey is a color. they argue whether tomato is a fruit. they argue whether the chicken came before the egg, and whether the egg tastes better fried, scrambled, or poached. but their relationship didn \u2019 t get really rocky until they started to argue about what alpha level, also called the significance level, to use for a hypothesis test. note : the alpha level is the criterion against which you compare the p - value to determine whether a difference is statistically significant. the alpha level option for the 2 - sample t test in the minitab assistant is shown below : the alpha level : how low do you go? listen in as betty and bart squabble over what alpha level to use when comparing the mean before and after a process change. bart : \" well, betty, i think i \u2019 m going to raise the alpha level for the test. kick it up a notch from 0. 05 to 0. 10. \" betty : \" that \u2019 s funny, bart. if anything, i was going to lower it a notch - - down to 0. 01. why would you ever want to raise the level of risk? \" bart : \" i want to boost the power of the test to detect a difference. if i use a higher alpha, i can be more certain i \u2019 m going to find a significant difference between the process means, if it \u2019 s really there. \" betty : \" but if you raise alpha, you \u2019 re also going to be less certain that any significant shift in the process mean that you find is really true \u2014 and not just a statistical fluke \u2014 a random error. you ' ll increase the risk of ' false - positives. ' \" bart : \" but betty, by lowering alpha, you \u2019 ll increase the risk of ' false - negatives. ' the last thing i want is to miss a possible effect on the process mean. even after i raise alpha to 0. 1, the risk of falsely finding a significant result will only be 10 %. \" betty : \u201c well, bart, i don \u2019 t want to mistakenly conclude there \u2019 s a significant process change when there \u2019 s really not. that \u2019 s worse in my book. \" betty straightened her posture and adjusted the \u201c quality counts \u201d button on her lapel. betty : \u201c and if i find a significant difference, i \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.532828710209999, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c84b462d-e54e-44d4-aa78-a25e485dab0c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.812032"}
{"text": "a significant process change when there \u2019 s really not. that \u2019 s worse in my book. \" betty straightened her posture and adjusted the \u201c quality counts \u201d button on her lapel. betty : \u201c and if i find a significant difference, i \u2019 ll be 99 % confident in my results \u2014 you \u2019 ll only be 90 % confident. \u201d bart : \u201c you don \u2019 t need to be sooo worried about reporting a significant effect that \u2019 s not there. \u201d betty : \u201c and you don \u2019 t need to be sooooooo paranoid about missing a significant effect. \u201d bart : \u201c i \u2019 m not paranoid, you \u2019 re paranoid. \u201d betty : \u201c well at least i don \u2019 t snore like a leaf blower stuck in full throttle. \u201d bart : \u201c and at least i don \u2019 t crack my toes in bed. \u201d can statistical therapy save this relationship? it was time for betty and bart to see a statistical therapist. after years of data analysis, dr. sigma freud fully understood what constituted normality - - and what didn ' t. dr. freud listened patiently to betty and bart spar over the alpha level. after they had temporarily run out of lung capacity, she turned to betty. dr. freud : \" your fear of incorrectly concluding that a result is significant, when it \u2019 s really not, is completely justified. in fact, we have a special name for that faux pas in statistics, it \u2019 s called a type 1 error. \" betty smiled and tried not to look too smug. dr. freud : \" and just as you say, betty, you can reduce the chance of making a type i error by lowering the alpha level for a hypothesis test. \" dr. freud turned to bart. dr. freud : \" and bart, your concern is completely valid as well. if a hypothesis test does not reveal a significant difference, but a difference does indeed exist, we call that a type ii error. and one way to help guard against it is to raise the alpha level. \" was it betty \u2019 s imagination, or was bart \u2019 s normally concave chest starting to puff up a bit? dr. freud : \" so both of your concerns are valid. this push - pull dynamic of risk is a natural part of any healthy statistical relationship. what we need do is to find a way to balance those competing risks. \" betty : \" how can do we do that? \" dr. freud : \u201c you know, what about just going with the default alpha level of 0. 05?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5466488870099919, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c84b462d-e54e-44d4-aa78-a25e485dab0c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.813042"}
{"text": ". what we need do is to find a way to balance those competing risks. \" betty : \" how can do we do that? \" dr. freud : \u201c you know, what about just going with the default alpha level of 0. 05? that \u2019 s what most couples would do. you ' d be 95 % confident that any shift in the process mean that you find is real. \u201d betty : \u201c hmmm. sometimes i do wish we \u2019 d never clicked the arrow to see the options for alpha. life was simpler. \u201d bart shook his head. bart : \u201c too many things have been said. we can \u2019 t go back now. \u201d why two rights don ' t make a wrong dr. freud : \u201c ok. let \u2019 s take a step back and delve a little deeper. why don \u2019 t you both tell me more about the projects you \u2019 re working on. betty, let ' s start with you. \u201d betty : \" i work for a medical device company. we ' ve developed a new implant device for patients. we ' re excited because it might really improve patient outcomes. but it ' s more costly than the current device. before we put it into production, we want to be doubly sure that the difference in patient outcomes is really there. \" dr. freud : \" so if you find a difference in outcomes - - specifically, an improved outcome with the new device - - and that difference really doesn ' t exist, the consequences could be very severe. \" betty : \" absolutely. if the new device doesn ' t improve outcomes, and we don ' t realize it, we ' d waste a lot of money producing it. patients would also have to pay more for something that didn ' t really offer a real improvement over the current implant device. \" dr. freud : \" well betty, in your case, the consequences of a type i error are more severe than a type ii error. so you ' re doing exactly what you should be by lowering the alpha level. now, bart, what about you? \" bart : \" i work in an automotive plant. one of our parts suppliers has been raising prices. we want to switch to another supplier that offers the same part at a lower price. but before we do that we need to compare key dimensions of the part to make sure there ' s no difference. we don ' t want to sacrifice quality for reduced cost. \" dr. freud : \" so if you don ' t find a difference in the dimensions in the part between the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5179215635152257, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c84b462d-e54e-44d4-aa78-a25e485dab0c>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.813984"}
{"text": "compare key dimensions of the part to make sure there ' s no difference. we don ' t want to sacrifice quality for reduced cost. \" dr. freud : \" so if you don ' t find a difference in the dimensions in the part between the two suppliers, and a difference really does exist, the consequences could be very severe. \" bart : \" absolutely. if the dimensions are off, and we don ' t realize it, we could lose a lot of money with increased scrap rates. overall product quality could also drop, and we might lose customers. \" dr. freud : \" well bart, in your case, the consequences of a type ii error seem to be more severe than a type i error. so you ' re doing exactly what you should be by raising the alpha level. \" betty / bart ( together ) : \" you mean we ' re both right?! \" dr. freud : \" absolutely! now how about a little hug? \" the bickersons embraced, overjoyed at finally understanding the alpha level. betty : \u201c i \u2019 m so glad i suggested coming here! \u201d bart : \u201c me, too! but, actually, didn ' t i suggest coming here? \u201d betty : \u201c no, bart, i \u2019 m sure it was my idea. \u201d bart : \u201c au contraire, betty... \" moral of the story most of the time, you can leave the default alpha level ( 0. 05 ) alone. unless you \u2019 re in a situation like betty or bart. if you need statistical therapy, check out the minitab assistant ( open minitab and choose assistant ). it \u2019 s like having a statistical therapist built right into the analysis itself. if you ' d prefer a real, live statistical therapist to personally help you design or analyze your quality improvement project, check out mentoring by minitab trainers. kangaroo photo by pascal vuylskeker and dedicated to greg fox, our blogger at - large in sydney.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5256880558757653, "token_count": 399, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c84b462d-e54e-44d4-aa78-a25e485dab0c>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.816612"}
{"text": "manoj nair of the national oceanic and atmospheric administration has devised a new possible method of detecting a deadly tsuami long before the wave crests to dangerous heights. and, in a bit of good news, much of it is already in place. in a new study in next month \u2019 s earth, planets, and space, nair modeled the massive 2004 tsunami in the indian ocean and found that a tsunami picking up steam as it moves across the ocean emits a tiny electromagnetic signature of of about 500 millivolts. that \u2019 s enough to have an effect on the communication cables that stretch across the ocean floor, carrying internet messages and phone calls. the electromagnetic signal \u201c is very small compared to a 9 - volt battery, but still large enough to be distinguished from background noise on a magnetically quiet day, \u201d said nair [ daily camera ]. nair says this kind of system could be a lower - cost alternative to the bottom pressure arrays that directly measure large movements of water. \u201c what we argue is that this is such a simple system to set up and start measuring, \u201d nair says. \u201c we have a system of submarine cables already existing. the only thing we probably need is a voltmeter, in theory \u201d [ wired. com ]. oleg godin, one of nair \u2019 s research partners, said any small improvement could make a huge difference. \u201c if you detect tsunamis in the deep ocean \u2014 and that \u2019 s what we \u2019 re working on \u2014 meaning far from shore, you have hours, certainly tens of minutes, to warn people, \u201d he said. \u201c if people are well educated, a 15 - minute warning is enough to save everybody \u201d [ daily camera ]. 80beats : south pacific tsunami kills more than 100 people 80beats : geologists find one cataclysmic tsunami in every 600 years of thai dirt 80beats : haiti earthquake may have released 250 years of seismic stress image : flickr / epugachev", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5248805423848224, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d92d22cd-5a95-40a9-8916-07fba0df37b8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.832641"}
{"text": "reading : how can teachers prepare kids for a connected world? ] pitts - wiley \u2019 s work correlates strongly to the research jenkins has been doing on weaving more varieties of media into the classroom in order to make the learning experience more participatory, creative, multidisciplinary, and therefore meaningful to students. he teamed up with wyn kelley a melville scholar from mit, and a team of educational experts to design a curriculum around moby dick that would build in remixing, reinterpretation, and multimedia elements. they tested their new curriculum in six different schools. \u201c we want to raise a generation of kids who have a mouse in one hand and a book in the other, \u201d said jenkins. to do that the curriculum focuses on melville as a master mash - up artist of 19th century culture ; his book includes shakespeare plays, the bible, whaling culture and more. from there, the door is open for classes to discuss how remixed elements are allusions and what happens to a text when an author incorporates the work of others. \u201c culture matters, history matters, the goal is to foster old fashioned close reading, \u201d jenkins said. a typical assignment might ask students to take one page of moby dick, highlight words they don \u2019 t know, define terms, draw pictures and share with one another. the idea is to focus closely in order to incite curiosity about the whole. and to let students creatively express their opinions and thoughts about the book, hopefully with a better understanding of what their own remixing might add to the broader cultural body of work around moby dick. if this sounds a little messy and confusing \u2013 it is. that was the feedback teachers gave jenkins \u2019 team when they piloted these participatory learning strategies in the classroom. teacher \u2019 s felt uncertain whether learning was taking place in this non - linear style. one teacher came to realize that if a student could get a purchase on the text anywhere, they understood how much more there is to learn about the book. \u201c that \u2019 s a different kind of learning outcome than we usually get when we convince people they \u2019 ve exhausted a book, that they \u2019 ve gotten it, when they \u2019 ve only touched it superficially, \u201d jenkins said. he sees the goal as both teaching something about moby dick in the moment as well as fostering a community of readers who know that reading melville in high school english doesn \u2019 t mean they \u2019 ve conquered it. [ related reading : how do we define and measure ' deeper learning '?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5046335767340681, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:efc27b01-c282-48f6-871e-447dc270b163>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.842547"}
{"text": "about moby dick in the moment as well as fostering a community of readers who know that reading melville in high school english doesn \u2019 t mean they \u2019 ve conquered it. [ related reading : how do we define and measure ' deeper learning '? ] \u201c we may be romanticizing what people got out of moby dick in the traditional classroom, \u201d jenkins said. \u201c this is just taking ownership over that and allowing students to pursue their passion and interests. \u201d piloting this curriculum jenkins \u2019 team found that it worked less effectively when teachers used it more traditionally. \u201c the closer we got to traditional school, the more they shut down, \u201d jenkins said. \u201c no curriculum is idiot proof. you have to get teachers who understand the participatory mindset. \u201d the other part of the project, flows of reading, helps encourage participation around literature and models an expanded approach to literacy and the reading and writing that make up the discipline. the digital book allows readers to follow hyperlinks, enjoy embedded video content, and add to an online space for related work. it broadens the model beyond moby dick and applies it to reading at all age levels from a wordless picture book to the hunger games and lord of the rings. it offers four pathways or ways to view a text. motives for reading this pathway and assorted material address the idea that people read various kinds of textual content for all kinds of reasons. reading a website may be different from reading a book, but they both require literacy and are appropriate at different points. this pathway explores how seemingly different kinds of reading might be more akin than they seem. adaptation and remixing while the book encourages students to elaborate and create material based on parts of a text that speak to them, this section also discusses appropriate and respectful adaptation and remixing. it brings in the ethics of attribution and fair use. negotiating cultural spaces this pathway discusses the various identities that each person brings to reading whether it is gender, ethnicity, specific experiences or anything else that shapes the reading process. continuities and spaces these are \u201c the spaces where your imagination can go wild, \u201d said erin reilly, who led the effort to create flows. this pathway explores how to creatively share stories and layer upon the original. throughout the research and implementation of this project jenkins and reilly knew they \u2019 d need to think about assessment. they brought in dan hickey from indiana university to help develop assessments that are immediate and happen as part of the learning process. the state standards are a minimum, reilly and jenkins maintain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5201571777051405, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:efc27b01-c282-48f6-871e-447dc270b163>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.843686"}
{"text": "last wednesday the national academy of sciences held a press conference in washington, dc, to introduce its newly completed report on priorities for the coming decade in solar and space physics. daniel baker of the university of colorado chaired the committee that wrote the report. thomas zurbuchen of the university of michigan was the vice chair. together, they summarized the report \u2019 s highlights for the assembled reporters, scientists, and bureaucrats. like its counterparts in astronomy and planetary science, the latest solar and space physics decadal survey is more than just a shopping list of missions and facilities. its authors begin by defining their field in a broad and inspiring way : we live on a planet whose orbit traverses the tenuous outer atmosphere of a variable magnetic star, the sun. this stellar atmosphere is a rapidly flowing plasma \u2014 the solar wind \u2014 that envelops earth as it rushes outward, creating a cavity in the galaxy that extends to some 140 astronomical units ( au ). there, the inward pressure from the interstellar medium balances the outward pressure of the solar plasma forming the heliopause, the boundary of our home in the universe. earth and the other planets of our solar system are embedded deep in this extended stellar atmosphere or \u201c heliosphere, \u201d the domain of solar and space physics. the report goes on to review past and present accomplishments in solar and space physics before defining the four overarching goals that guided the committee members as they drew up their final recommendations : - determine the origins of the sun \u2019 s activity and predict the variations in the space environment. - determine the dynamics and coupling of earth \u2019 s magnetosphere, ionosphere, and atmosphere and their response to solar and terrestrial inputs. - determine the interaction of the sun with the solar system and the interstellar medium. - discover and characterize fundamental processes that occur both within the heliosphere and throughout the universe. as i listened to baker and zurbuchen \u2019 s presentation, it became clear that two other overarching considerations informed the report. the first is a conceptual emphasis on viewing earth \u2019 s aurorae, the solar wind, coronal mass ejections, and other heliospheric phenomena as part of a single system. it will be interesting to see whether this systemic view becomes manifest in journals, conferences, and courses. i, for one, have tended to think of solar physics as belonging more to astronomy than to heliospheric physics. the second consideration is a realistic and \u2014 to use baker \u2019 s word \u2014 responsible approach to costs. the committee", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.557485944376937, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dfeab920-d146-490d-b528-0a5dc3071873>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.852839"}
{"text": "courses. i, for one, have tended to think of solar physics as belonging more to astronomy than to heliospheric physics. the second consideration is a realistic and \u2014 to use baker \u2019 s word \u2014 responsible approach to costs. the committee retained aerospace corp, a nonprofit consultancy based in el segundo, california, to carry out an independent cost appraisal and technical evaluation ( cate ) of potential missions. for the most part, the total cost of the committee \u2019 s recommended suite of programs lies within the budget envelope that nasa provided the committee for the years 2013 \u2013 22. physicists who remember chuckling when they first encountered the zeroth law of thermodynamics might be amused to learn that the committee \u2019 s first recommendation is also numbered zero \u2014 for good reason. as nasa and nsf, the other principal sponsor of heliospheric research, look to future missions and facilities, the committee recommends that they first complete their current program. among the lineup is solar probe plus ( shown here in an artist \u2019 s impression ). the ambitious mission, whose price tag is $ 1. 4 billion, aims to fly as close as possible to the sun to determine how the solar corona is heated and how the solar wind is accelerated. diversify, realize, integrate, venture, educate the committee \u2019 s second recommendation, numbered 1. 0, is to implement an initiative that goes by the acronym drive ( for \u201c diversify, realize, integrate, venture, educate \u201d ). as far as i can tell, drive aims to reorganize and reinvigorate the way researchers and their students practice heliospheric science. surprisingly, given its high priority, drive is not expensive. the committee projects that the initiative will cost at most about $ 50 million a year. to fulfill the goals embodied by its name, drive seeks to make research opportunities more accessible to universities through small and mid - sized missions, including the shoebox - sized spacecraft called cubesats. funding the analysis and interpretation of data adequately is a key element of drive, as is fostering interdisciplinary approaches to heliospheric research. indeed, the committee urges nasa and nsf to establish heliospheric science centers, where observers, theorists, and modelers can work together to solve the grand challenges of solar and space physics. when baker and zurbuchen introduced drive, it sounded somewhat woolly to me. now, having read the drive section of the report, i think it \u2019 s a bold and worth", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5419926811108418, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dfeab920-d146-490d-b528-0a5dc3071873>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.853912"}
{"text": "work together to solve the grand challenges of solar and space physics. when baker and zurbuchen introduced drive, it sounded somewhat woolly to me. now, having read the drive section of the report, i think it \u2019 s a bold and worthwhile model that could be profitably emulated in other fields, such as green energy or neuroscience. but to be effective, drive will probably need a light administrative structure. accelerate and expand the heliophysics explorer program! recommendation 2. 0 seeks to revitalize nasa \u2019 s explorer program of modestly sized and priced spacecraft. begun in 1958, the program, according to the committee, is \u201c arguably the most storied scientific spaceflight program in nasa \u2019 s history. \u201d despite its success, which includes three nobel prizes, funding for the explorer program fell in 2004 and has languished since. to quote the report : the medium - class ( midex ) and small - class ( smex ) missions of the explorer program are ideally suited to advancing heliophysics science and have a superb track record for cost - effectiveness. since 2001, 15 heliophysics explorer mission proposals have received the highest category of ranking in competition selection reviews, but only 5 have been selected for flight. thus there is an extensive reservoir of excellent heliophysics science to be accomplished by explorers. because midex and smex missions are comparatively cheap, developing and launching more of them would not require a big outlay. the committee recommends that nasa augment the current explorer program for solar and space physics by $ 70 million per year. in addition to more money for the explorer program, the committee also recommends establishing a faster, more nimble way of accommodating missions of opportunity \u2014 that is, missions that are conceived in response to new technologies, new scientific knowledge, or new partnership opportunities with other space agencies. nasa : let academia lead space science perhaps by coincidence, a commentary by baker appeared in nature two weeks before his committee released its report. entitled \u201c nasa : let academia lead space science, \u201d the commentary urged the space agency to fund more missions that are small enough in scope that university - based principal investigators ( pis ) can develop and lead them. whether baker \u2019 s fellow committee members endorsed his commentary is not clear. they do, however, evidently share his belief in the merits of pi - led missions. recommendation 3. 0 calls for nasa to transform its solar terrestrial probes program from a large, centrally directed program to \u201c a moderate - sized, competed, pi - led mission line that is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.502448942967741, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dfeab920-d146-490d-b528-0a5dc3071873>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.855063"}
{"text": "share his belief in the merits of pi - led missions. recommendation 3. 0 calls for nasa to transform its solar terrestrial probes program from a large, centrally directed program to \u201c a moderate - sized, competed, pi - led mission line that is cost - capped at approximately $ 520 - million per mission. \u201d the stp program aims to elucidate the physics of the sun \u2019 s influence on earth, on the other bodies in the solar system, and on the interstellar medium. to avoid the risk that a competitive free - for - all would omit important aspects of stp science, the committee outlined three kinds of missions that it would like to see fly : - imap ( interstellar mapping and acceleration probe ) to characterize the zone where the sun \u2019 s magnetohydrodynamic influence ceases to prevail in the solar neighborhood. - dynamic ( dynamical neutral atmosphere ) to study how earth \u2019 s ionosphere and thermosphere influence, and are influenced by, processes that occur at lower and higher altitudes. - medici ( magnetosphere energetics, dynamics, and ionospheric coupling ) to determine how the magnetosphere - ionosphere - thermosphere system responds to solar and magnetospheric forcing. the committee \u2019 s enthusiasm for modest missions is not unbridled, however. in the committee \u2019 s view, tackling the problem of how and why the sun varies is a job for large, integrated missions. nasa \u2019 s living with a star program already includes the solar probe plus and the radiation belt storm probes missions. recommendation 4. 0 is for geospace dynamics constellation, a set of six formation - flying spacecraft that will characterize how the energy of geomagnetic storms is deposited and transformed in earth \u2019 s atmosphere. recharter the national space weather program in march 1989 a geomagnetic storm caused the collapse of hydro - quebec \u2019 s electricity grid. five months later another geomagnetic storm shut down electronic trading on toronto \u2019 s stock exchange. anticipating such storms \u2014 or space weather \u2014 and predicting their effects is more important, now that the world \u2019 s electrical infrastructure has expanded, the number of earth - orbiting satellites has increased, and telecommunications have become economically and socially more important. the current solar cycle, the 24th since records began in 1755, is set to peak next year. to monitor the cycle \u2019 s activity, the us relies on a set of spacecraft, such as the solar and heliospheric observatory, whose principal purpose is basic research", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5122486628189389, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dfeab920-d146-490d-b528-0a5dc3071873>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.856169"}
{"text": "should you choose to learn bsl using makaton principles, the vocabulary stages are as follows : mum, dad, brother, sister, drink, drink of water, biscuit, dinner x2, food, toilet, bed, chair, table, washbasin, bath, shower, house, home, car, bus, i, me, you, where, what, here, there, to sleep, to drink, to eat x2, to look, to see, to stand, to get up, to sit, to wash x2, to bath, to shower, to go, to come x2, to give x2, more, good x2, ok, bad, please, thank you, hello, good morning, goodbye. man, lady, boy, girl, baby, bread, butter, egg, chapatti, dal, rice, yoghurt, noodles, milk, tea, coffee, juice, sugar, cake, jam, ice cream, knife, to cut with knife, fork, spoon, plate, cup, door, window x2, fire, radiator, tv, lamp, phone, to phone, dog, cat, bird, tree, flower, book, teddy, doll, bricks, ball, and, hot x2, cold, clean, dirty. chocolate, crisps, sweet, cigarette, banana, orange, apple, fish, rabbit, chicken, horse, cow, pig, sheep, butterfly, boat, train, plane, bike, to have, to run, to walk, to kick, to dig, to ride, to ride a horse, to ride a bike, to swim, to jump, to jump off, to jump on, to jump over, to climb x2, to fall off, to fall over, to smoke, big, small, little, up, down, my, your, mine, yours, sorry, now. teacher, boss, friend, children, name, school, work, outside, cupboard, pen, pencil, paper, scissors, picture, sand, water, string, paint, key, box x2, to put, to create, to do, to sew x2, to cook x2, to sing, to play, to know, to think, to work, to read, to write, to draw, to paint, to colour, to cut, to teach, to build x2, to create, to break, we x2, us x2, they x2", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5232855135053615, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fdca5ca2-7b92-41c5-92c4-fed6fe7de470>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.868318"}
{"text": ", to think, to work, to read, to write, to draw, to paint, to colour, to cut, to teach, to build x2, to create, to break, we x2, us x2, they x2, them x2, in x2, on, under. nurse, doctor, milkman, milkwoman, postman, postwoman, policeman, policewoman, police officer, firefighter, ambulanceman, ambulancewoman, shop, supermarket, road, garden, blaze, postbox, money, bag, letter, stamp, time, watch, to carry, to throw, to catch, to stop, to help x2, to like, to want, to love, to quarrel, quick, fast, slow, happy, sad, difficult, easy, hard, soft, strong, heavy, clever, angry, frightened, to be patient, trouble, mistake, but. country, town, sea, cinema, disco, holiday, to start, to end x2, to bring, to ask, to talk, to listen, to hear, can, to forget, to grow x2, same, different, new, old, beautiful, smart, nice, kind, our x2, ours x2, their x2, theirs x2, another, with, who, which, colour, black, blue, brown, green, orange, red, white, yellow. 1 - 10, how, how much, how many, how old, many, a lot, some, few, time, hour, today, tomorrow, yesterday, next week, last week, next year, last year, long time ago, saturday, sunday, night, day, when, always, again, late, early, before, after, wages, to buy, to save, careful, expensive, sun, rain, wind, snow, stars, moon, sky, snowman. to choose, to win, to dance, to find, to understand, to remember, birthday, party, present, balloon, photo, camera, mirror, radio, newspaper, video camera, video tape, video recorder, music, stereo x2, audio tape, cassette player, cd, computer, first, last, next, over, through, near x2, between, lucky, hungry, thirsty, worried, true, why, because. deaf, blind, communication problem, medicine, tablet, injection, operation, sick, ill, pain, dead x2, hearing aid x2", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5780619708006218, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fdca5ca2-7b92-41c5-92c4-fed6fe7de470>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.869093"}
{"text": "grief is a natural process, an intense fundamental emotion, a universal experience which makes us human. it is a process that entails extremely hard work over a period of many painful months or years. people grieve because they are deprived of a loved one ; the sense of loss is profound. the loss of a spouse, child or parent affects our very identities \u2014 the way we define ourselves as a husband, wife, parent or offspring. moreover, grief can arise from the survivor ' s sudden change in circumstances after a death and the fear of not knowing what lies ahead. the death of someone close can be a life - changing experience. if you are the primary caregiver of someone you love, this experience can affect every aspect of your life for some time. it is natural to grieve the death of a loved one before, during and after the actual time of their passing. the process of accepting the unacceptable is what grieving is all about. if someone has had a prolonged illness or serious memory impairment, family members may begin grieving the loss of the person ' s \" former self \" long before the time of death. this is sometimes referred to as \" anticipatory grief. \" anticipating the loss, knowing what is coming, can be just as painful as losing a life. family members may experience guilt or shame for \" wishing it were over \" or seeing their loved one as already \" gone \" intellectually. it is important to recognize these feelings as normal. ultimately, anticipatory grief is a way of allowing us to prepare emotionally for the inevitable. preparing for the death of a loved one can allow family members to contemplate and clear unresolved issues and seek out the support of spiritual advisors, family and friends. and, depending on the impaired person ' s intellectual capacity, this can be a time to identify your loved one ' s wishes for burial and funeral arrangements. a death that happens suddenly, unexpectedly, is an immeasurable tragedy. this type of loss often generates shock and confusion for loved ones left behind. incidents such as a fatal accident, heart attack, or suicide can leave family members perplexed and searching for answers. in these cases, family members may be left with unresolved issues, such as feelings of guilt that can haunt and overwhelm a grieving person. these feelings may seem to take over your life at first. but over time it is possible to get past these thoughts and forgive yourself and your loved one. give yourself plenty of time ; it ' s virtually", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.54654802760707, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2f3c8007-862f-4e62-8c80-dd1efe18acfc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.899711"}
{"text": "- safe \u201d plastic covers to doorknobs. consider installing a home security system or monitoring system designed to keep watch over someone with dementia. also available are new digital devices that can be worn like a watch or clipped on a belt that use global positioning systems ( gps ) or other technology to track a person \u2019 s whereabouts or locate him if he wanders off.. put away essential items such as the confused person \u2019 s coat, purse or glasses. some individuals will not go out without certain articles. have your relative wear an id bracelet and sew id labels in their clothes. always have a current photo available should you need to report your loved one missing. consider leaving a copy on file at the police department or registering the person with the alzheimer \u2019 s association safe return program ( see resources ). tell neighbors about your relative \u2019 s wandering behavior and make sure they have your phone number. the loss of bladder or bowel control often occurs as dementia progresses. sometimes accidents result from environmental factors ; for example, someone can \u2019 t remember where the bathroom is located or can \u2019 t get to it in time. if an accident occurs, your understanding and reassurance will help the person maintain dignity and minimize embarrassment. establish a routine for using the toilet. try reminding the person or assisting her to the bathroom every two hours. schedule fluid intake to ensure the confused person does not become dehydrated. however, avoid drinks with a diuretic effect like coffee, tea, cola, or beer. limit fluid intake in the evening before bedtime. use signs ( with illustrations ) to indicate which door leads to the bathroom. a commode, obtained at any medical supply store, can be left in the bedroom at night for easy access. incontinence pads and products can be purchased at the pharmacy or supermarket. a urologist may be able to prescribe a special product or treatment. use easy - to - remove clothing with elastic waistbands or velcroo closures, and provide clothes that are easily washable. agitation refers to a range of behaviors associated with dementia, including irritability, sleeplessness, and verbal or physical aggression. often these types of behavior problems progress with the stages of dementia, from mild to more severe. agitation may be triggered by a variety of things, including environmental factors, fear and fatigue. most often, agitation is triggered when the person experiences \u201c control \u201d being taken from him. reduce caffeine intake, sugar and junk food. reduce noise, clutter or the number of persons", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5150879967298584, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:31aebd14-2236-4454-92bb-00085c62402b>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.947421"}
{"text": "of things, including environmental factors, fear and fatigue. most often, agitation is triggered when the person experiences \u201c control \u201d being taken from him. reduce caffeine intake, sugar and junk food. reduce noise, clutter or the number of persons in the room. maintain structure by keeping the same routines. keep household objects and furniture in the same places. familiar objects and photographs offer a sense of security and can suggest pleasant memories. try gentle touch, soothing music, reading or walks to quell agitation. speak in a reassuring voice. do not try to restrain the person during a period of agitation. keep dangerous objects out of reach. allow the person to do as much for himself as possible \u2014 support his independence and ability to care for himself. acknowledge the confused person \u2019 s anger over the loss of control in his life. tell him you understand his frustration. distract the person with a snack or an activity. allow him to forget the troubling incident. confronting a confused person may increase anxiety. repetitive speech or actions ( perseveration ) people with dementia will often repeat a word, state - ment, question or activity over and over. while this type of behavior is usually harmless for the person with dementia, it can be annoying and stressful to caregivers. sometimes the behavior is triggered by anxiety, boredom, fear or environmental factors. provide plenty of reassurance and comfort, both in words and in touch. try distracting with a snack or activity. avoid reminding them that they just asked the same question. try ignoring the behavior or question and distract the person into an activity. don \u2019 t discuss plans with a confused person until immediately prior to an event. you may want to try placing a sign on the kitchen table, such as, \u201c dinner is at 6 : 30 \u201d or \u201c lois comes home at 5 : 00 \u201d to remove anxiety and uncertainty about anticipated events. learn to recognize certain behaviors. an agitated state or pulling at clothing, for example, could indicate a need to use the bathroom. seeing a loved one suddenly become suspicious, jealous or accusatory is unsettling. remember, what the person is experiencing is very real to them. it is best not to argue or disagree. this, too, is part of the dementia \u2014 try not to take it personally. if the confused person suspects money is \u201c missing, \u201d allow her to keep small amounts of money in a pocket or handbag for easy inspection. help them look for the object and then distract them into another activity. try to learn where the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5118745670047393, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:31aebd14-2236-4454-92bb-00085c62402b>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.948690"}
{"text": "personally. if the confused person suspects money is \u201c missing, \u201d allow her to keep small amounts of money in a pocket or handbag for easy inspection. help them look for the object and then distract them into another activity. try to learn where the confused person \u2019 s favorite hiding places are for storing objects, which are frequently assumed to be \u201c lost. \u201d avoid arguing. take time to explain to other family members and home - helpers that suspicious accusations are a part of the dementing illness. try nonverbal reassurances like a gentle touch or hug. respond to the feeling behind the accusation and then reassure the person. you might try saying, \u201c i see this frightens you ; stay with me, i won \u2019 t let anything happen to you. \u201d restlessness, agitation, disorientation and other troubling behavior in people with dementia often get worse at the end of the day and sometimes continue throughout the night. experts believe this behavior, commonly called sundowning, is caused by a combination of factors, such as exhaustion from the day \u2019 s events and changes in the person \u2019 s biological clock that confuse day and night. increase daytime activities, particularly physical exercise. discourage inactivity and napping during the day. watch out for dietary culprits, such as sugar, caffeine and some types of junk food. eliminate or restrict these types of foods and beverages to early in the day. plan smaller meals throughout the day, including a light meal, such as half a sandwich, before bedtime. plan for the afternoon and evening hours to be quiet and calm ; however, structured, quiet activity is important. perhaps take a stroll outdoors, play a simple card game or listen to soothing music together. turning on lights well before sunset and closing the curtains at dusk will minimize shadows and may help diminish confusion. at minimum, keep a nightlight in the person \u2019 s room, hallway and bathroom. make sure the house is safe : block off stairs with gates, lock the kitchen door and / or put away dangerous items. as a last resort, consider talking to the doctor about medication to help the agitated person relax and sleep. be aware that sleeping pills and tranquilizers may solve one problem and create another, such as sleeping at night but being more confused the next day. it \u2019 s essential that you, the caregiver, get enough sleep. if your loved one \u2019 s nighttime activity keeps you awake, consider asking a friend or relative, or hiring someone, to take", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5031042216890833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:31aebd14-2236-4454-92bb-00085c62402b>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T10:10:10.949753"}