dinosaurs ' active lifestyles suggest they were warm - blooded h. pontzer, v. allen, j. r. hutchinson / plos one whether dinosaurs were warm - blooded or cold - blooded has been a long - standing question in paleobiology. now, new research on how two - legged dinosaurs walked and ran adds new evidence to the argument for warm - bloodedness, and suggests that even the earliest dinosaurs may have been warm - blooded. warm - blooded ( or endothermic ) dinosaurs — able to regulate their own body temperatures — would have been more active and could have inhabited colder climates than cold - blooded ( or ectothermic ) dinos, which would have functioned more like modern reptiles — animals that become animated only as temperatures warm. endothermic dinosaurs would have also required more energy to maintain their higher metabolic rates. evidence such as rapidly growing bones, bird - like feathers and athletic builds have led most paleontologists to believe that dinosaurs were endothermic, says paleobiologist greg erickson of florida state university in tallahassee, fla., who was not involved in the new research. but many scientists are still averse to the idea of warm - blooded dinosaurs. for example, some researchers have suggested that larger, more massive dinosaurs may have radiated much less heat than smaller dinosaurs — and thus, they could have been cold - blooded while still able to maintain relatively high body temperatures. in the new study, published today in plos one, biomechanist herman pontzer of washington university in st. louis, mo., and colleagues sought to figure out whether the lower metabolism of an ectotherm would have afforded dinosaurs the energy they needed to walk and run. to test this possibility, the team looked at two factors thought to be linked with energy requirements in modern animals : hip height and the volume of muscle used to hold up and move an animal ’ s body forward. if the limb length and active muscle volumes of dinosaurs required more energy than an ectotherm ’ s metabolism would have been able to provide, pontzer and colleagues reasoned, then the dinosaurs were likely endothermic. the team studied 13 different two - legged dinosaur species, ranging in size from tyrannosaurus to the tiny, bird - like archaeopteryx, as well as one early dinosaur relative, marasuchus. based on hip height, the results showed that the five largest dinosaurs ( including tyrannosaurus ) would have needed endothermic metabolisms just to have


" sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs " sustainability embodies " stewardship " and " design with nature, " well established goals of the design professions and " carrying capacity, " a highly developed modeling technique used by scientists and planners. the most popular definition of sustainability can be traced to a 1987 un conference. it defined sustainable developments as those that " meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs " ( wecd, 1987 ). robert gillman, editor of the in context magazine, extends this goal oriented definition by stating " sustainability refers to a very old and simple concept ( the golden rule )... do onto future generations as you would have them do onto you. " these well - established definitions set an ideal premise, but do not clarify specific human and environmental parameters for modeling and measuring sustainable developments. the following definitions are more specific : - " sustainable means using methods, systems and materials that won ' t deplete resources or harm natural cycles " ( rosenbaum, 1993 ). - sustainability " identifies a concept and attitude in development that looks at a site ' s natural land, water, and energy resources as integral aspects of the development " ( vieira, 1993 ) - " sustainability integrates natural systems with human patterns and celebrates continuity, uniqueness and placemaking " ( early, 1993 ) in review of the plurality of these definitions, the site or the environmental context is an important variable to most working definitions of sustainability. this emphasis is expressed in the following composite definition : sustainable developments are those which fulfill present and future needs ( wecd, 1987 ) while [ only ] using and not harming renewable resources and unique human - environmental systems of a site : [ air ], water, land, energy, and human ecology and / or those of other [ off - site ] sustainable systems ( rosenbaum 1993 and vieria 1993 ). these fundamental human - environmental exchanges of the community ’ s " site " were found very useful in developing critical " input - output " modeling techniques or indicators which directs the community ' s regenerative process. this selected network of a community ’ s human and environmental interrelationships were measured and placed in balance by the selected set of integrated design and planning strategies.


depression : using positive thinking what is an actionset? depression is an illness that makes a person feel sad and hopeless much of the time. it ' s different than feeling a little sad or down. depression can be treated with counseling or medicine, or both. positive thinking also can help prevent or control depression. if you would like more information, see the topic : return to topic : positive thinking, or healthy thinking, is a way to help you stay well by changing how you think. it ' s based on research that shows that you can change how you think. and how you think affects how you feel. cognitive - behavioral therapy, also called cbt, is a type of therapy that is often used to help people think in a healthy way. cbt can help you learn to replace negative thoughts with positive ones. these negative thoughts are sometimes called irrational or automatic thoughts. working on your own or with a counselor, you can practice these three steps : the goal is to have positive thoughts come naturally. it may take some time to change the way you think. so you will need to practice positive thinking every day. test your knowledge cognitive - behavioral therapy ( cbt ) is a type of therapy that can help change how you think about yourself. you need to see a counselor to do cbt. changing the way you think can help you replace negative thoughts with helpful ones. this can help you cope with depression and may help keep it from coming back. 1 maybe you weren ' t able to close a sale or get a big project done at work. or perhaps a relationship has ended. it ' s normal to feel down. but you ' ve had trouble sleeping. you can ' t enjoy many of your usual activities. and you ' re blaming yourself. " i ' m a failure at everything, " you tell yourself. the more you think about yourself in a negative way, the harder it is to feel hopeful and positive. the negative thinking makes you feel bad. and that can make you feel more depressed, which leads to more bad thoughts about yourself. it ' s a cycle that ' s hard to break. but with practice, you can retrain your brain. after all, you weren ' t born telling yourself negative things. you learned how to do it. so there ' s no reason you can ' t teach your brain to unlearn it and replace negative thinking with more helpful thoughts. positive thinking also can help you manage stress. too much stress can raise your blood pressure and make your heart work harder, which can increase


for reducing pollution in major cities. other new hydrocarbon energy frontiers include heavy oils and where oil is contained in sand and shales, contaminated and tight gas and coal - bed methane. there is lots of coal, too, particularly in the us and china. at shell we are testing an environmentally sensitive way of unlocking the large potential of oil shale in colorado using electric heaters to heat the rock formation and release light oil and gas. coal gasification offers a way of using coal more efficiently, cleanly and flexibly. the resulting “ syngas ” can fuel efficient combined cycle power plants. it can also be used, with the same technology as gas to liquids, to produce high - quality liquid fuels. the world will need these resources. but they are more carbon - intensive and increase the urgency of finding ways of tackling carbon emissions. so my vision is for “ green fossil fuels ” with much of their co2 captured and sequestrated underground or in inert materials. in the medium term, this could be cheaper, more convenient and more flexible than alternative energies. a typical one - gigawatt coal - fired power plant produces the same carbon emissions as 1. 5m cars. china alone is building about 17 of these plants a year. this is why sequestration should be a priority for power plants. one prerequisite for success is ensuring sufficient investment to access more difficult resources and undertake long - term technology development. the international energy agency estimates that meeting global energy needs will require investing more than $ 17, 000bn by 2030. given the urgent investment needs, exacting windfall taxes is counterproductive, particularly in an industry with a history of volatile prices. so, while the good news is that there is a wide variety of energy sources to deal with the energy challenge, our industry has its work cut out for it. it will have to mobilise its experience and talents but also rely on governments and consumers to recognise that we share common concerns and have to respond to changing circumstances. the writer is chief executive of royal dutch shell


. research has been focused on the neurochemical and neuroanatomical substrates that mediate cocaine ' s reinforcing effects. although a number of neurotransmitter systems are involved, there is growing evidence that cocaine ' s effects on dopaminergic neurons in the mesolimbic and / or mesocortical neuronal systems of the brain are most closely associated with its reinforcing and other behavioral effects. the initial site of action in the brain for its reinforcing effects has been hypothesized to be the dopamine transporter of mesolimbocortical neurons. cocaine action at the dopamine transporter has the effect of inhibiting dopamine re - uptake, resulting in higher levels of dopamine at the synapse. these dopaminergic pathways may mediate the reinforcing effects of other stimulants and opiates as well. a substantial body of evidence suggests that dopamine plays a major role in mediating cocaine ' s reinforcing effects, although it is clear that cocaine affects not only the dopamine but also the serotonin and noradrenaline systems. in addition to blocking the re - uptake of several neurotransmitters, cocaine use results in central nervous system stimulation and local anesthesia. this latter effect may be responsible for the neural and myocardial depression seen after taking large doses. cocaine use has been implicated in a broad range of medical complications covering virtually every one of the body ' s organ systems. at low doses, cocaine causes increases in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and body temperature. there have been suggestions that cocaine ' s cardiovascular effects can interact with ongoing behavior, resulting in increased toxicity. cocaine intoxication has been associated with cardiovascular toxicity, related to both its local anesthetic effects and its inhibition of neuronal uptake of catecholamines, including heart attacks, stroke, vasospasm, and cardiac arrhythmias. cocaine is generally taken in binges, repeatedly, for several hours or days, followed by a period in which none is taken. when taken repeatedly, chronic cocaine intoxication can cause a psychosis, characterized by paranoia, anxiety, a stereotyped repetitive behavior pattern, and vivid visual, auditory, and tactile hallucinations. less severe behavioral reactions to repeated cocaine use include irritability, hypervigilance, paranoid thinking, hyperactivity,


, anxiety, a stereotyped repetitive behavior pattern, and vivid visual, auditory, and tactile hallucinations. less severe behavioral reactions to repeated cocaine use include irritability, hypervigilance, paranoid thinking, hyperactivity, and eating and sleep disturbances. in addition, when a cocaine binge ceases, there appears to be a crash response, characterized by depression, fatigue, and eating and sleep disturbances. initially, the crash is accompanied by little cocaine craving, but as time increases since the last dose of cocaine, compulsive drug seeking can occur in which users think of little else but the next dose. nonhuman research subjects. one of cocaine ' s characteristics, as a psychomotor stimu - lant, is its ability to elicit increases in the motor behavior of animals. single low doses produce increases in exploration, locomotion, and grooming. with increasing doses, locomotor activity decreases and stereotyped behavior patterns emerge ( continuous repetitious chains of behavior ). when administered repeatedly, cocaine produces increased levels of locomotor activity, increases in stereotyped behavior, and increases in susceptibility to drug - induced seizures ( i. e., " kindling " ). this sensitization occurs in a number of different species and has been suggested as a model for psychosis or schizophrenia in humans. although sensitization to cocaine ' s unconditioned behavioral effects generally occurs, such effects are related to dose, environmental context, and schedule of cocaine administration. for example, sensitization occurs more readily when dosing is intermittent rather than continuous and when dosing occurs in the same environment as testing. learned behaviors, typically generated in the laboratory using operant schedules of reinforcement in which animals make responses that have consequences ( e. g., press a lever to get food ), generally show a rate - dependent effect of cocaine. as with amphetamine, cocaine engenders increases in low rates of responding and decreases in high rates of responding. environmental variables and behavioral context can modify this effect. for example, responding maintained by food delivery was decreased by doses of cocaine that either had no effect or increased comparable rates of responding maintained by shock avoidance. cocaine ' s effects can also be modified by drug history. although repeated administration can result in the development of sensitization to cocaine ' s effects on unlearned behaviors, repeated administration generally results in tolerance to cocaine ' s effects on schedule - controlled responding. this decrease in effect of the same


drug history. although repeated administration can result in the development of sensitization to cocaine ' s effects on unlearned behaviors, repeated administration generally results in tolerance to cocaine ' s effects on schedule - controlled responding. this decrease in effect of the same dose after repeated dosing is influenced by behavioral as well as pharmacological factors. human research subjects. a major behavioral effect of cocaine in humans is its mood - altering effect, generally believed related to its potential for abuse. traditionally, subjective effects have provided the basis for classifying a substance as having abuse potentialnd the cocaine - engendered profile of subjective effects is prototypic of stimulant drugs of abuse. thus, cocaine produces dose - related reports of " high, " " liking, " and " euphoria " ; increases in stimulant - related factors, such as increases on vigor and friendliness scale scores ; ratings of " stimulated " ; and decreases in various sedation scores. subjective effects correlate well with single intravenous or smoked doses of cocaine, peaking soon after administration and dissipating in parallel with decreasing plasma concentrations. when cocaine is administered repeatedly, tolerance develops rapidly to many of its subjective effects and the same dose no longer exerts much of an effect. this means that the user must take increasingly larger amounts of cocaine to achieve the same effect. tolerance to the cardiovascular effects of cocaine is less complete ; the result here is a potential for drug - induced toxicity, since more and more drug is taken when the subjective effects are not present but the disruptions in cardiovascular function are still present. although users of stimulant drugs claim that their performance of many activities is improved by cocaine use, the data do not support their assertions. in general, cocaine has little effect on performance except under conditions in which performance has deteriorated from fatigue. under those conditions, cocaine can bring it back to nonfatigue levels. this effect, however, is relatively short - lived, since cocaine has a half - life of less than one hour. despite substantial efforts directed toward treatment of cocaine abuse, in the mid - 1990s we are still unable to treat successfully many of the cocaine abusers who seek treatment. for many years the only approach to treating these people was psychological or behavioral. as of 1994, the most promising of these include behavioral therapy, relapse prevention, rehabilitation ( e. g., vocational, educational, and social - skills training ) and supportive psychotherapy. a major problem with these treatment approaches is related to their lack


beyond buzzwords with soa soa has had time to mature, but discussions around it are still laden with buzzwords and unrealistic expectations. learn what soa is and isn ' t with the first of a new series. a service - oriented architecture ( soa ) facilitates flexibility and cost savings for businesses, but its flexibility is also at fault for diluting the concept of soa. many technologies can be used in support of designing systems that may be described as soa, which leads to a global misunderstanding of the true spirit of soa. we often get bogged down talking about the technology, so this article is going to take a step back and explain what it ’ s really about. what soa is not soa is not any single system, technology, or application. it is an architecture, or put another way : a way to design a group of system ; a methodology. the service - oriented part speaks to the notion that systems interaction should be done via network - enabled services. most often, since they provide the most flexibility, web - based services and technologies are employed for this task. what soa is soa can be broken into two parts : it systems and the software that runs on them. in the systems design sense, soa spells out the best way to design complex systems to ensure they are multi - functional. it is at this point where many people like to compare a big erp system to soa. with a large erp system, you will have a set of servers that only interact with a database, and all the functionality is contained within that monolithic system. features and extensibility are dependent on what the vendor allows you to do. with an soa design, you can plug in features at - will, since they will interact with various “ services ” in a standard way. in reality, erp is a task, and even the largest monolithic systems usually have some extensibility built - in. we most often see soa proponents with the same erp system everyone else uses, but they have likely extended it much further. in the software engineering sense, soa is about code re - use. not in the object - oriented programming sense of re - use ; soa actually takes it much further. traditionally we might abstract common functions in software into libraries, and then share those libraries so that people don ’ t have to re - implement the same code. think of a simple banking system ’ s online credit application. one function might require that we look up the applicant


abstract common functions in software into libraries, and then share those libraries so that people don ’ t have to re - implement the same code. think of a simple banking system ’ s online credit application. one function might require that we look up the applicant ’ s ssn to see if they have other accounts. we might call this function listuseraccounts. when called, it will return a list of all past and current accounts associated with the applicant. the function contains all the logic, and knows where to look for this information. it simply returns the proper information for use by the program that called instead of requiring that software run on a single system that has access to listuseraccounts, an soa - enabled environment will provide a network - accessible service whereby many systems can access this function. in short, software functions are turned into network - aware services instead of internal functions accessible by only a few programs. the same listuseraccounts function could be used by an online banking application when a person wants to see what their account balances are. without careful design, large systems often paint themselves into a corner. soa helps designers think in such a way that avoids creating single - purpose silos, and instead creates re - usable functionality. nothing new to see here please realize that soa does not represent a silver bullet install - it - and - realize - benefits technology. it is, in effect, simply a tool that has opened eyes worldwide and allowed systems and software designers to speak a consistent language. critics of soa often claim infrastructures naturally evolve toward this type of architecture. this is absolutely correct, but soa ’ s value is that it provides a unified dictionary and set of best practices for companies to follow. best practices are often a scary concept, making businesses implement things they don ’ t really need, but the nature of soa helps alleviate the downsides of traditional “ best practices religion. ” soa, thankfully, requires businesses to design systems that map directly to their needs. implementations require that architects understand business processes as well as the capabilities of their computer systems before soa can be implemented. each implementation is different, and that does a long way toward avoiding the “ me too ” mentality too often found at it organizations around the world. that is not to say that many it shops aren ’ t grinding away implementing soa services in a haphazard fashion, just that in spite of it, the projects are sure to improve systems to some degree. the other big problem with soa is


here are the l - i - g - h - t - s to the word of god : literal interpretation, illumination by the holy spirit, grammatical principles, historical context, teaching ministry, scriptural harmony. principles of biblical interpretation ought to be determined before developing one ’ s theology, but in practice the reverse is often true. cultists in particular consistently read their deviant theologies into the biblical text instead of allowing the text to speak for itself. faith teachers are also guilty of this practice, as i document in my book “ christianity in crisis ”. in view of this growing problem, it would be productive to consider some of the primary principles of hermeneutics. before you run off because of the formidable sound of this term, however, let me quickly point out that hermeneutics is simply a “ fifty - cent ” word that describes the science of biblical interpretation. the purpose of hermeneutics is to provide the student of scripture with basic guidelines and rules for “ rightly dividing the word of truth ” ( 2 tim. 2 : 15 ). to help ensure that you will remember these principles, i ’ ve developed the acronym l - i - g - h - t - s. just remember that the science of biblical interpretation “ lights ” your path as you walk through theword. the l in lights will remind you of the literal principle of biblical interpretation. in simple terms, this means that we are to interpret the word of god just as we interpret other forms of communication — in its most obvious and literal sense. most often, the biblical authors employed literal statements to communicate their ideas ( such as when the apostle paul said of jesus, “ by him all things were created, both in the heavens and on earth ” — col. 1 : 16 ). and where the biblical writers express their ideas in literal statements, the interpreter must take those statements in a literal sense. in this way, the interpreter will grasp the intended meaning of the writer. of course, this is not to deny that scripture employs figures of speech. indeed, the biblical writers often used figurative language to communicate truth in a graphic way. and, in most cases, the meaning of such language is clear from the context. when jesus says he is “ the door ” ( john 10 : 7 ), for example, it is obvious he is not saying he is composed of wood and hinges. rather, he is the “ way ” to salvation. illumination by the holy spirit the i in lights will remind you of the illumination of scripture that can only come


for example, it is obvious he is not saying he is composed of wood and hinges. rather, he is the “ way ” to salvation. illumination by the holy spirit the i in lights will remind you of the illumination of scripture that can only come from the spirit of god. first corinthians 2 : 12 says : “ we have not received the spirit of the world but the spirit who is from god, that we may understand what god has freely given us. ” because the author of scripture — the holy spirit ( 2 pet. 1 : 21 ). — resides within the child of god ( 1 cor. 3 : 16 ), he or she is in a position to receive god ’ s illumination ( 1 cor. 2 : 9 - 11 ). and, indeed, the spirit of truth not only provides insights that permeate the mind, but also provides illumination that can penetrate the heart. the g in lights will remind you that scripture is to be interpreted in accordance with typical rules of grammar — including syntax and style. for this reason, it is important for the student of scripture to have a basic understanding of grammatical principles. it is also helpful to have a basic grasp of the greek and hebrew languages. if you do not know greek or hebrew, however, don ’ t panic. today there are a host of eminently usable tools to aid you in gaining insights from the original languages of scripture. besides commentaries, there are “ interlinear ” translations that provide the hebrew and greek text of the bible in parallel with the english text. as well, strong ’ s concordance has a number - coding system by which you can look up the greek or hebrew word ( along with a full definition ) behind each word in the english bible. moreover, there are dictionaries of old and new testament words that are keyed to strong ’ s concordance. tools such as these make it easy for the layperson to obtain insights on the original hebrew or greek of the bible without being fluent in these languages. the h in lights will remind you that the christian faith is historical and evidential ( luke 1 : 1 - 4 ). the biblical text is best understood when one is familiar with the customs, culture, and historical context of biblical times. thankfully, there are a host of excellent bible handbooks and commentaries to aid us in the process of understanding the people and places of the bible. the t in lights will remind you that even though the illumination of scripture ultimately comes through the ministry of the holy spirit, god has


host of excellent bible handbooks and commentaries to aid us in the process of understanding the people and places of the bible. the t in lights will remind you that even though the illumination of scripture ultimately comes through the ministry of the holy spirit, god has also provided the church with uniquely gifted human teachers ( eph. 4 : 11 ). therefore, as we seek to rightly interpret god ’ s word ( 2 tim. 2 : 15 ), we would do well to consult those whom god has uniquely gifted as teachers in the church ( cf. tit. 2 : 1 - 15 ). of course, following the example of the bereans ( acts 17 : 11 ), we should always make sure that what human teachers say is in line with scripture ( cf. 1 thess. 5 : 21 ). the s in lights will remind you of the principle of scriptural harmony. individual passages of scripture must always be in harmony with scripture as a whole. the biblical interpreter must keep in mind that all of scripture — though communicated through various human instruments — has a single author ( god ). and, of course, god does not contradict himself. studying the bible is the noblest of all pursuits, and rightly understanding it, the highest of all goals. the six principles listed above can help you attain this goal. and as the science of biblical interpretation continually lights your path through scripture, you will find yourself growing in your understanding of him who is the light of the world — jesus christ ( john 8 : 12 ).


a user - interface for proofs and certified software by janet bertot, yves bertot, yann coscoy, healfdene goguen and francis montagnac by making it possible to express the properties of procedures and functions, proofs assistants can be used to help develop certified software. however, these proof assistants are often complicated to use and deserve real user - interfaces to make software development feasible. since 1990, the croap team at inria sophia - antipolis has been studying the development of user - interfaces for theorem provers to reduce this level of complication. we have implemented a powerful prototype, ctcoq, that has been used successfully in the development of certified algorithms for program manipulation or polynomial mathematics. the last version of this proof environment has been released in february 1997. the semantics of programs can be mathematically described using relations between inputs and outputs or using functions from the domain of inputs to the domain of outputs. when these relations and functions are formally described, it is possible to use a computer to check mechanically some of their properties. this leads to the perspective of checking that programs fulfil a formal specification and ultimately to zero - default software. since the correction of a given program may rely on an arbitrarily complex corpus of mathematics, the system used for the verification needs to have very powerful proving capabilities. to date, only the systems known as theorem provers or proof checkers provide enough mathematical capabilities for this task. the coq proof assistant is one such proof checker ( see previous article ). it uses type theory to express the properties of functions and encode powerful mathematical tools such as recursion and algebraic structures. intuitively, the types used in a programming language like pascal or c make it possible to verify simple consistency properties between the components of a software. when using language with more expressive types, the properties that can be expressed using types can actually cover the complete specification of a software system. the ctcoq user - interface is an independent front - end for the coq proof assistant. it uses technologies from the domain of programming environments to help the proof developer in several ways. the first element taken from programming environment technology is the use of syntax directed tools. these tools use a precise description of the proof assistant ' s syntax to help in the rapid construction of syntactically correct logical sentences, specifications, and proof commands. for instance, syntax directed menus make it possible to perform transformations on expressions or commands that respect the syntactic correctness of these expressions, thus


help in the rapid construction of syntactically correct logical sentences, specifications, and proof commands. for instance, syntax directed menus make it possible to perform transformations on expressions or commands that respect the syntactic correctness of these expressions, thus reducing the time spent in correcting low - level errors. syntax aware tools also make it easier to recognize usual mathematical notations and render them using multiple - font display, in a wysiwyg fashion. these tools make semantic manipulation of data possible, with interpretation of the user ' s pointing or dragging gestures using the mouse. for instance, pointing at an expression can be interpreted guiding the proof process towards this expression. in the same realm, dragging an expression can be used to rearrange data when the algebraic properties make it possible. other tools taken from programming environments use the analysis of dependence graphs between functions, mathematical objects, and proof commands. this analysis can lead to quicker tools to help finding and correcting errors in specifications, thus making the development of completely proved software quicker. powerful analyses also make it possible to extract natural language presentation from proofs data structures, thus making the results of proof developments understandable by mathematicians and engineers outside the community of coq and ctcoq users. the ctcoq proof environment has been used successfully in the development of algorithms for symbolic computation, trajectory planning, and program partial evaluation. future research around this user - interface aims on one side at a better integration with symbolic computation and computer algebra systems and on the other side at a better use of dependency graphs to make large proof maintenance and re - engineering feasible. publication references for this research can be found at : http : / / www. inria. fr / croap / publications. html the ctcoq system can be retrieved by following the instructions found at : http : / / www. inria. fr / ctcoq / ctcoq - eng. html yves bertot - inria tel : + 33 4 9365 7739


contact : jules asher nih / national institute of mental health caption : our brains are all made of the same stuff. despite individual and ethnic genetic diversity, our prefrontal cortex shows a consistent molecular architecture. for example, overall differences in the genetic code ( “ genetic distance ” ) between african - americans ( aa ) and caucasians ( cauc ) showed no effect on their overall difference in expressed transcripts ( “ transcriptional distance ” ). the vertical span of color - coded areas is about the same, indicating that our brains all share the same tissue at a molecular level, despite distinct dna differences on the horizontal axis. each dot represents a comparison between two individuals. the aa : : aa comparisons ( blue ) generally show more genetic diversity than cauc : : cauc comparisons ( yellow ), because caucasians are descended from a relatively small subset of ancestors who migrated from africa, while african americans are descended from a more diverse gene pool among the much larger population that remained in africa. aa : : cauc comparisons ( green ) differed most across their genomes as a whole, but this had no effect on their transcriptomes as a whole. credit : joel kleinman, m. d., ph. d., nimh clinical brain disorders branch usage restrictions : none related news release : our brains are made of the same stuff, despite dna differences


what are tachyons? tachyons are hypothetical particles that can only travel faster than the speed of light. as you probably know, objects with a real number for mass can never travel at the speed of light because of einstein ' s theory of relativity. as a consequence of this theory, as a objects velocity increases its mass increases. as is it can be seen by the following formula mass = rest _ mass * 1 / sqrt ( 1 - v ^ 2 / c ^ 2 ). at the speed of light the mass becomes infinite. so, it would take an infinite amount of energy for a massive particle to reach the speed of light. these objects are sometimes called tardyons. photons can travel at the speed of light because they have no mass and their energy is e = planck ' s constant * nu ( frequency of the photon ). in order for something to travel at the speed of light it would have to have an imaginary number for its mass. an imaginary number is a number that is a multiple of the square root of a negative number. as a particle travels faster than the speed of light the denominator of mass = rest _ mass * 1 / sqrt ( 1 - v ^ 2 / c ^ 2 ) becomes imaginary, the imaginary mass would counteract this and we ( in the rest frame ) would see something that had real mass in the rest frame but something that always traveled faster than the speed of light. there have been a few experiments to find tachyons using a detector called a cerenkov detector. this detector is able to measure the speed of a particle traveling through a medium. photons travel at a slower speed inside a medium. if a particle travels though a medium at a speed that is greater than light for that medium cerenkov radiation occurs. this is analogous to the sonic boom produced when an airplane travels faster than the speed of sound in air or the shock wave at the bow of a ship. if tachyons existed you would be able to see cerenkov radiation in a vacuum. a few cerenkov experiments were conducted in a vacuum and no radiation was found, so it is generally accepted that tachyons do no exist. i hope this helped you. christina l. hebert graduate student at fermilab | last modified 12 / 11 / 1999 firstname. lastname @ example. org |


our focus will be on how film, art, literature, and music produce and represent global culture in new york city. we will study the changing venues for international art, the influence of diasporic communities, and the ways in which representations of new york city have changed since the attacks of 2001. critical examination of economic, political, and cultural processes that have defined what we mean by globalization. issues such as the political economy of film and music, the role of identity politics in literature and art, the problems of capital and labor in the global city will provice a strong historical and theoretical background for more specific investigations in our other courses. mapping the city through literature, film and new media readings and activities that will introduce students to the histories and cultures of new york as they are represented in books and on screens large and small. students will receive credit for working in a media or media - related organization. weekly blackboard entries will allow the class to talk together about their experiences. exploration and focused analysis of one form of contemporary media and its relations to globalization in order to suggest answers to one or more of the follow questions : what are the themes and values that inform works or activities that are considered " universal " or " global "? how does localization or culture identity persist in a global context? what approaches to or forms of media allow for individual or collective negotiation of the terrain or culture differences and convergences?


during a fluorescein eye stain test, a dark orange dye ( fluorescein ) is placed onto the outer surface of your eye, called the cornea. a blue light is then shone onto the eye. the dye will show any scratches, tears or foreign particles on your eye as a green color under the light. based on the staining, your doctor can identify any problems with your cornea or diagnosis certain conditions. this test is usually ordered if your doctor suspects you have damage on your cornea or foreign objects in your eye. if you wear contact lens, your doctor might do this test to see whether the contacts are damaging your cornea. you doctor may recommend a fluorescein eye stain test if he or she suspects you have abrasions, or scratches, on your cornea. the cornea is a clear surface that covers your outer eye. it is made up of cells and proteins. unlike most of your body ’ s other tissues, the cornea contains no blood vessels. it is protected and nourished by tears. it has two main functions — to protect the eye from dust, germs, and other harmful irritants ; and to permit and direct light as it enters the eye. the cornea is highly sensitive. if it becomes scratched or damaged, new cells quickly cover the injury to prevent infection from occurring. deeper scratches will take longer to heal and may cause scars. a fluorescein eye stain test can help detect corneal injuries, small foreign objects or particles in the eye, and abnormal tear production. the test may also help your doctor determine if your contact lenses are irritatingyour corneas. according to the developmental disabilities health alliance, this test has a 93 to 97 percent accuracy rate for detecting corneal problems. your ophthalmologist ( eye doctor ) will use either a small eyedropper or piece of blotting paper to place dye into your eye. he or she will ask you to blink several times to allow the dye to completely cover the surface of the cornea. blinking spreads the dye throughout your tear film — the wet surface of your eyeball that lubricates and protects the eye. the tear film is made up of water, oil, and mucus. you may feel a slight stinging sensation when the dye is first applied. after a few moments though, the dye will feel like normal liquid on the eye and will no longer be uncomfortable. the doctor will then shine a cobalt - blue light onto your eye. the combination


a slight stinging sensation when the dye is first applied. after a few moments though, the dye will feel like normal liquid on the eye and will no longer be uncomfortable. the doctor will then shine a cobalt - blue light onto your eye. the combination of this light and the dye will make any abnormalities or abrasions on the cornea appear green. from this, your ophthalmologist will be able to determine the location of any problems and evaluate the level of damage. if your eye is healthy and the cornea is undamaged, the dye will remain in the film on the surface of your eye and not cause areas to turn green. abnormal results from this test may be caused by corneal abrasions, or scratches on the surface of the eye. these abrasions may be a result of : - a poke in the eye from a fingernail, make - up brush, or other object - dust, ash, or dirt that has blown into the eye - a chemical burn - rubbing your eyes too roughly - dirty, old, or poorly - fitting contact lenses - not protecting the eyes during general anesthesia ( if they are not closed, the cornea will dry out ) - the presence of foreign bodies, such as an eyelash - other injuries or trauma to the eye in some cases, the damage could be caused by abnormal tear production ( or dry eye ). this is a condition in which there are insufficient tears to nourish and protect the eye, leading to inflammation of the cornea. your test may also reveal a blocked tear duct. this test is risk - free. however, the fluorescein dye may stain for a few days if it touches the skin around your eye. in general, there is nothing you need to do to prepare for this test. if you wear contact lens, you will be asked to take them out beforehand. after the test, your doctor will use the results to diagnosis any problems you are having with your eyes. he or she will meet with you to discuss the damage discovered on your cornea and plan any necessary treatment. treatment options may include : - removal of the foreign object from the eye - using prescription eye drops or ointment - wearing a temporary eye patch or bandage contact lens - leaving contact lenses out until the cornea has healed - taking pain medications if your injury has only affected the surface of your cornea, it should heal in about two days. if the injury has penetrated the surface of the eye, healing will take longer, depending on the cause


gurdy also frequently appears in texts and in pictures ; this is an indication that its harmonies were not dissonant when it was played together with various other instruments. the instruments played simultaneously which are mentioned in texts were arranged by the authors in various ways, and often a grouping according to certain points of view can be established. all instruments played in the same way are named one after the other, such as wind, percussion, plucked or bowed instruments. they may also be arranged according to their loudness of tone, such as loud and soft. the instruments with which the hurdy - gurdy was grouped in these lists vary. a grouping according to related tonal effects is frequently found in connection with the hurdy - gurdy. the hurdy - gurdy is often grouped with other string instruments in the lists, ( ill. 3, 24, 25 ) [ figlink ], partly separated from other bowed instruments by the plucked instruments, partly directly associated with these : " que gigue, harpen e simphonie " ; [ fn ] harpe ende symphonien " ; [ fn ] " ay [ sp ] [ a - y / macron ] auje cinfonjas farpa giga e rota " ; [ fn ] " harpes, gigues et cyfonies " ; [ fn ] " harpeors et bretons, giges et chifonie " ; [ fn ] " audivi suon di gighe e ciunfonie " ; [ fn ] " rubebes, leuths, vielles, syphonie " ; [ fn ] " symphonies, rotes, sautier " [ fn ] " cistole, rothe, syphonie " ; [ fn ] " citole i ot e viele e synphan, q ' amour novele ". [ fn ] next to this are found also instrument lists in which the individual instruments appear arranged in pairs. in these sources the hurdy - gurdy is always named together with a bowed instrument which either has drone strings, like the vielle, or which is played together with the hurdy - gurdy as a descant instrument : " de gighe sot, de simphonie " ; [ fn ] " et sifonies et vieles " ; [ fn ] " cil porte gige cil simphonie " ; [ fn ] " videln und symp


remittuntur. [ fn ] equaliter enim dividimus dupla proportione organistrum avolubili etta [ fn ] usque ad locum quo ponenda est prima littera scilicet c, et relicto primo passu vacuo et in fine alterius c posito ut diximus, iterum redimus ad ettam novenis passibus et primo passu d invenimus epogdoa proportione. similiter a d ettam novem passus facientes primo passu e ponimus, f vero a c ut g a d usque ad ettam disponimus sesquitercia proportione, a vero a d ut þ quadratum ab e invenimus sesqualtera proportione. synemenon vero equa divisione illius toni qui est inter a et þ quadratum invenimus. volens autem item alia mensura quis organistrum disponere a c viiii passus usque ad separationem chordae faciat, primus d ponit, item a d viiii passus fiant, primus e ponit, a c vero iiii passus faciat, primusque ponit f, item a c tres passus metiantur, primusque g ponit, a d quoque tres passus fiant, primusque a ponit, ab f autem iiii passus faciat, et primus b rotundum, id est synemenon ponit, ab e tres ponantur passus, primusque þ ponit quadratum, quod si adhuc c acutam que dyapason cum c gravi sonat ponere voluerit, iiii passibus a g usque in finem dimensis c supra dictam reperiet. " [ fn ] a further tuning method, in which the wheel is mentioned, also dates from the 13th century. according to this treatise as well the hurdy - gurdy is given a pythagorean tuning. " si organistrum regulariter mensurandi notitiam subtilem habere volueris, mediocritas magaga ut magna post rotam ponatur. in primis inveniat, ut


harmonize them. following this the writer remarks that these are the 16 strings of the monochord, and that the newer ones have an additional two strings. at the end of the treatise come a few remarks about the consonance of the fifth, fourth and octave. for a better overview the placements of the keys according to the individual tuning methods will be shown again. in this schematic representation the bracketed arabic numerals behind the starting note show into how many equal parts from there onwards the string is to be divided in ordered to produce the note to which the arrow points. this also indicates the note from which new notes are reached. the arrow in reverse indicates that the string is divided from the starting note to the end of the string, but that the note is not reached in the same direction, but by the transfer of a part of the division to the opposite direction [ fn ]. [ editor ' s note : the translator included some observations on this table, which have been included below. the editor cannot support, confirm or deny any of the statements and conclusions reached by the translator. ] [ translator ' s note : i have failed to see how the directions above, the schemas as given, and the note [ fn ] below correspond. the schema gec [ fn ] should give, according to the directions above, 5 / 8, for c = 1 / 2 [ sp ] of the entire length of the string, and if this length in turn is divided into four equal parts, increments of 1 / 8 of the entire string length will result. there are four of these increments from the end of the string to c, and hence the addition of one more will result in 5 / 8 for g. but g, according to the tuning directions of the first treatise, equals 2 / 3. note 1 appears to refer to this locating of g since it is the first instance of a reverse arrow and the only instance of finding any note from c. but note 1 shows the length of string from c to the end as being divided into three parts, not four. if the ' 4 ' in gec [ fn ] is changed accordingly to ' 3 ', then the result is the one desired ; for 1 / 3 of the length c - to - the - end - of - the - string is 1 / 6 of the entire length of the string. ' c ' represents 3 / 6 ( one half of the string ) and thus the addition of one more inc


of the length c - to - the - end - of - the - string is 1 / 6 of the entire length of the string. ' c ' represents 3 / 6 ( one half of the string ) and thus the addition of one more increment will make g 4 / 6 or 2 / 3. the schemata can hence be rendered serviceable if in all cases of the ' reverse arrow ' the numeral in brackets is reduced by one ( 1 ). by the way, a formula useful for translating the schemata is the following : let l = the fraction length equivalent to the starting letter ( c = 1 ) and n = the numeral in brackets and x = the fraction length equivalent to the note sought ; then if l ( n ) dx, then l - ( l / n ) = x and if xe l ( n ), then ( l / n - 1 ) + l = x example : eea ( 4 ) = ( 16 / 27 ) + 16 / 27 = 64 3 81 ] what is noteworthy about these treatises is that the tunings are all in major keys, observed by hugo reinmann. [ fn ] implicated in the use of a major tonality is however is also the use of major thirds, that is, pure thirds in the relationship 4 / 5 ( or 386. 3 cents ). compared with the pure third the pythagorean ditonus, formed from two major tones with the relationship 8 / 9 ( each 204 cents ), is 64 / 81 ( 408 cents ) too high. this third sounds dissonant in harmony since beats are formed that can clearly be heard. on instruments which were built to be played harmonically and which show an obvious major tonality, one would expect a pure tuning ; as a matter of fact however all the tuning methods preserved depict pythagorean tuning. in this however these treatises do not differ from the likewise pythagorean tuning for the monochord or for the organ [ fn ], which in the middle ages was also a drone instrument. it must be said to this however that the pythagorean tuning is not contrary to pure tuning, since it does not exclude pure thirds. rather the pythagorean tuning leads almost necessarily to pure thirds, as soon as in the chain of fifths b - flat f c g d a e b eight tones have been passed. if a ninth note e - flat is tuned to the eight notes,


against the string would not be strong enough to evoke a clear tone. the string then must lie low enough between the two end bridges so that when the other bridge is vertical the string is really shortened ( b ). this method of stringing results in a premature contact between bridge and string when the form is set upright, so that the pitch is not insignificantly changed before the bridge reaches its upright position ( c ). sliding keys offer a similar possibility to the player. the keys have wooden tangents attached to them which perform the function of shortening the string ( see page 102 ). on most hurdy - gurdies the keys can be pushed further into the keybox than is necessary to produce the desired pitch. thus the string touched by the tangent is stretched more and the pitch raised ( a ). my own attempts sometimes resulted in raising the pitch more than a semitone, especially with the higher notes. this changing of the pitch by pressure was consciously used with the hurdy - gurdy. the contemporary french instrument has two full chromatic octaves ( d ' - d ' ' ' ), in which due to lack of space, one note ( c # ' ' ' ) has been left out. the usual practice is to produce the c # ' ' ' simply by applying more pressure to the c ' ' ' key, which with some practice succeeds with amazing exactitude. " le vielleur modifie la hauteur en appuyant sur les touches " [ fn ]. on the first hurdy - gurdies to be preserved there is to be observed, besides the technique of varying the pressure on the key, yet another method of correcting the pitch. the tangents serving to shorten the string do not sit firmly in the round holes in the keys made for them ( a ). the part of the tangent that fits into the keys is also round, so that the player is able to turn the tangent back and forth ( b ), which implies a change in the pitch. with this technique the fine tuning of the individual notes on the two unison tuned melody strings of the french hurdy - gurdy is attained even today. since there are various ways of changing the pitch, an exact measurement of the individual tones is hard to achieve. at the beginning of this century ludwig riemann investigated the pitches of the various notes of a " baurenleyer " [ peasant hurdy - gurdy ] from zurich [ fn ]. he emphasizes however that the result of his investigations are subjective.


were indeed limited as to type, but these nevertheless corresponded to the earliest known forms of medieval polyphony. the term used for this music practice, ' organum ', shows that there was a connected between these polyphonic forms and the musical instruments, which can be recognized clearly in the name for the organ ( ' organum ' ) and for the hurdy - gurdy ( ' organistrum ' ). ' organum ' does not denote just the organ and the polyphonic music practice, but also, quite generally, an ' instrument '. [ fn ] if ' organum ' still had a general meaning ( instrument ) and a special meaning ( organ ) for augustine and isidor, then later authors used this term to denote just the organ. [ fn ] it was known from augustine and isidor in the early middle ages that ' organum ' was the name for the organ or another instrument. if this name was later given to a polyphonic music practice, then the connection between musical instruments and the polyphonic organa cannot be simply disregarded. the use of this name as a term for a music practice leads to the conclusion that this type of polyphony was first executed instrumentally. this is indicated for example by johannes affligemensis, who speaks of naming a particular method of playing after an instrument. [ fn ] the parallel organum accordingly was " named in view of the effect organum already known in the instrumental music : this was a characterization which, used for a choir of human voices, can only be explained in that this manner of singing was intended to imitate the instrument ( organa ) ". [ fn ] next to the thesis that parallel organa were performed solely by voices [ fn ] the opinion has also been aired that the musical instrument were only subsequently constructed so as to meet the requirements of the vocal parallel organum. [ fn ] both interpretations contradict the sources which lead to the conclusion that the term ' organum ' first indicated an instrument and then was transferred to a polyphonic choral practice with instrumental accompaniment. thus heinrich husmann attempted to explain the origin of the term ' organum ' for a choral practice as a transfer from the byzantine organ, since this had a ' mixtur ' register which sounded several pipes with parallel octaves and fifths when played on one key. since in principle this is the construction of the primitive parallel organum, its name ( in the first beginning phase ) could have been borrowed from the parallel technique of the


which sounded several pipes with parallel octaves and fifths when played on one key. since in principle this is the construction of the primitive parallel organum, its name ( in the first beginning phase ) could have been borrowed from the parallel technique of the organ of that period. " [ fn ] that this form of polyphonic choral practice has its origins in instruments is shown by the comparison of the singing with the hurdy - gurdy ' s sound : " a donc seront les voiz ohiez en semblance de chifoniez ". [ fn ] the theoretician ' s sources also speak for a participation of instruments in the execution of ' organa '. [ fn ] besides the " dyaphonia basilica " the author of the " summa musicae " mentions instrumental participation in the " organica dyaphonia. " [ fn ] the same author clearly indicates an instrumental execution of the lowest voice when he remarks that the cantus organicus goes so low that it cannot be sung. [ fn ] the anonymous iv even testifies to the performance of the drones on the organ, [ fn ] and the anonymous from st. emmeram thinks of organum as being a mixed vocal and instrumental presentation, whereby the author characterizes the instrumental tenor as being a ' burdo. ' ( see page 48 ). [ fn ] if however the term ' organum ' served to denote an instrumental practice, then the terms derived from it are also connected with instruments. [ fn ] cosuequently the term ' organisare ' can denote " to play polyphonically ', and ' organistra ' denotes the ' organ ' or ' instrument player ', [ fn ] and the term ' organicus punctus ' can be interpreted, not just literally but in reference to the instrument as ' organ point '. [ fn ] the later addition of the human voice to an instrumentally performed polyphonic music is indicated by the naming of the accompanying voice as ' vox organalis '. it was of course not just the human voice that was denoted by ' vox ', but also the voice of an instrument, so that it does not appear to be wrong to think of an instrumental voice with the ' vox organalis '. [ fn ] ernst ludwig waeltner believes that the term ' organum ' was originally not used for the entire practice, but just for that of the ' vox organalis '. the accompanying voice was


with the ' vox organalis '. [ fn ] ernst ludwig waeltner believes that the term ' organum ' was originally not used for the entire practice, but just for that of the ' vox organalis '. the accompanying voice was hence first used in connection with the instruments. only then was the term applied to the entire practice. " the adoption of the term ' organum ' indicates that the use of instruments was an important factor of this method of presentation. " [ fn ] the connection between ' organum ' as a polyphonic music practice and ' organum ' as instrument is clearest however in the term ' musica organica ' which was common in the middle ages for denoting instrumental music. [ fn ] since apparently the term ' organum ' was transferred from instruments to a certain manner of presenting polyphonic music, these instruments must have already been polyphonic. however t here was a great number of such instruments in the middle ages. therefore it can be assumed that instruments of this type were used also in the presentation of organa practice, although the sources of early polyphonic music which have been preserved do not indicate to what extent musical instruments participated. [ fn ] probably this will never be known since a strict distinction between vocal and instrumental music was not known until modern times, as for example the addition of a ' da cantare o suonare ' to many title pages of old music shows. [ fn ] even for the 16th century music the question as to whether it is to be performed instrumentally, instrumentally and vocally, or just vocally cannot be answered since there were not set rules. " music was played just how the instruments and the voices were available. " [ fn ] with instrumental accompaniment for vocal music the instruments available were played, whereby these could fulfill various functions : they could support the harmony or substitute for missing voices. [ fn ] the participation of instruments was not exhausted however in these two duties. it can no longer be established what function the individual instruments had, but the medieval instrumentarium which has been preserved in word and picture shows nevertheless such a great number of various types and forms that the conclusion seems to be justified that musical instruments were extensively used in that period. there must have been accordingly a marked instrumental practice about which however only suppositions can be made, since the preservation of instrumental music began only very late and even these sources do not usually give any information about the use of certain instruments. this may be connected with the fact that while there


function as a harmonic tonal foundation, over which it is freely improvised. the numerous instruments serve " through improvisation to increase the splendor of the organum ' s chordal pillars. it was therefore music which set large masses and means in motion in order to achieve the fullest possible sound " [ fn ]. since the musical instruments apparently already had such a great significance for the execution of parallel organum, they must have been even more in demand for the drone organum. long sustained drone tones are found in sacred music first in the drone organa of the 11th and 12th centuries. already guido of arezzo gives an example of the drone organum [ fn ] ; this type of organum is further described in a 12th century anonymous treatise [ fn ]. the constant return to the primary tone and to the fifth have a drone character in sequences, the texts of which frequently mention musical instruments [ fn ]. " both tones are so to speak drone tones and are executed as such with instrumental accompaniment " [ fn ]. as in two short tonal pieces by perotin a " dyaphonia basilica ' ( see page 47 ) is also found in a 15th century manuscript from innsbruck ( innsbruck hs. univ. ms. 457 ) [ fn ] ; in a ' organum quadruplum ' by perotin in the f of the tenor is held for over 130 measures [ fn ], and this could be performed on the hurdy - gurdy or on wind - bag instruments ( organ, bagpipes ). the thesis of the instrumentally executed tenors is also supported by the fact that the low drone of the tenor gave its name to the lowest octave on keyboard instruments. in the instrument making treatise of henricus arnaut of zwolle ( c. 1440 ), the notes of the lowest octave of a keyboard instrument are called ' barduni ' [ fn ], as was also the low unshortened string of the bowed - instrument vielle, which ran along the side of the finger - board, characterized by hieronymus de moravia as a drone string : " secunda ( chorda ), quae bordunus est aliarum, d solum facit " [ fn ]. an excellent source for sacred instrument presentation practices is provided by the organa of the saint jacob ' s liturgy of the codex calixtinus [ fn ]. this codex originated in santiago de compostela, the most important


b. this picture clearly shows the construction of the keys, which when turned 90 degrees upward simultaneously contact all three strings. the rotating keys of the hurdy - gurdy effected a simultaneous shortening of all the strings. if the instrument had several strings and all the strings could only be shortened simultaneously, the question arises as to how these strings were tuned. van waesberghe is of the opinion that all the strings were tuned to one pitch : " zoals men ziet, wordt met een draaing van de pennen de snaar ( of de gelijkgestemde snaren ) ingekort... dit ' organistrum ' kende aanvankelijk een, twee, of drie snaren die allen dezelfde toon voortbrachten " [ fn ]. [ trans : jw : " as can be seen, the string ( or strings tuned in unison ) are shortened with a turning of the keys... this ' organistrum ' knew, originally one, two, or three strings that all produced the same tone. " ] tuning all the strings to one pitch would have meant that the particular features which the hurdy - gurdy had to offer would not have been utilized. as illustration 2 shows however, the instrument was so built that mixed tones could be played, and it certainly did not correspond to the idea behind the construction to avoid such sounds by tuning the strings to the same pitch. the hurdy - gurdy had with ' organistrum ' a name derived from ' organum '. ' organum ' however denoted not only the organ, which could without doubt produce a mixture of tones [ fn ], but also a polyphonic music practice. this polyphonic organum practice was known even in spain, despite the domination of the arabs, [ fn ] and hence it is that area from which the first preserved representations of the hurdy - gurdy come. the chronicler vergilius cordubensis of spain, in his listing of the professors and departments at the university in cordoba, mentions also two music masters and expressly the type of music which they taught : " et duo magistri legebant de musica, de ista arte quae dicitur organum " [ fn ]. only one representation of the hurdy - gurdy from this period seems to depict a one - stringed instrument ( ill. 13 ) [ figlink ] ; on


] [ trans : sb : " the organistrum thus produced three tones simultaneously and could be sustained indefinitely. " ] on this hurdy - gurdy then harmonies in the sense of the fixed parallel organum were realized with the use of the keys. edmond de coussemaker considers therefore the hurdy - gurdy to be an instrument constructed for the performance of the parallel organum : " l ' instrument qui porte ce cachet de la maniere la plus frappante est ' l ' organistrum '. son nom... en est lui - meme une preuve manifeste : car ' l ' organum ' etait precisement le nom des accords formes de reunions d ' octaves, de quintes ou de quartes, ce qui indique parfaitement sa destination " [ fn ]. [ trans : sb : the instrument which demonstrates this characteristic the most strikingly is the ' organistrum '. its name... is in itself manifest proof of this : for the ' organum ' was precisely the name of the chords formed by the joining of octaves, fifths or fourths, which clearly demonstrates the purpose of the organistrum. " ] as the treatises and illustration 2 prove, the hurdy - gurdy normally had the tonal range of one octave beginning with c and including b - flat and b natural. deviations from parallel sounds were not possible for the hurdy - gurdy with rotating keys, on the other hand however the instrument already had accidentals of necessity. if one accepts the tuning of the strings in the interval of the lower fifth, or at another time the lower fourth, the following notes result : with the construction of the hurdy - gurdy which provided only these rotating keys for all three strings, the musical possibilities of the instrument were exhausted in the performance of the parallel organum. the limitations of the instrument is not due to the simultaneous shortening of all three strings, but rather to the shortening of the strings at exactly the same points, which means that the chords playable on the instrument were always similarly constructed. since the distances between keys were fixed and in each case always remained the same, no change could be brought about in the construction of individual chords. this instrument was indeed excellently suited for the presentation of a parallel organum, even without the participation of other instruments, but by its nature its tonal possibilities were so limited that its harmonies were unavoidably uniform. it could therefore not be avoided


14 june 2012, 10 : 10 bst getting ever louder in its calls for the world to get serious about climate change, the international energy agency ( iea ) is also increasingly concrete about what needs to be done. global investments in renewable energy must double by 2020 to $ 23. 9 trillion to keep global temperatures from rising beyond 2°c, says iea in its new book, energy technology perspectives 2012. and they must grow to $ 140 trillion by 2050. that ' s $ 36 trillion more than currently projected where controlling emissions is not a priority - the equivalent of $ 130 per person each year. it sounds like an enormous amount of money, but the plan more than pays for itself. by 2025, reduced spending for fossil fuels would outweigh the investment, and for every $ 1 invested, $ 3 would be saved by 2050, adding up to at least $ 100 trillion in savings. " the window of opportunity is closing rapidly on achieving the 2°c target. the investments made today will determine the energy system that is in place in 2050 ; therefore, the lack of progress in clean energy is alarming, " says iea. " continued heavy reliance on a narrow set of technologies and fossil fuels is a significant threat to energy security, stable economic growth and global welfare, as well as to the environment. " " renewable energy resources and significant potential for energy efficiency exist virtually everywhere, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. reduced energy intensity, as well as geographical and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in far - reaching energy security and economic benefits. " in april, iea released the tracking clean energy progress report, warning that despite recent progress in deploying renewable energy, it must be sped up. iea ' s 2°c scenario prioritizes the clean energy technologies that can ensure an 80 % chance of limiting long - term global temperature increase to 2°c. it starts with energy efficiency to cut energy consumption in the world economy by two - thirds before 2050. annual improvements in energy intensity must double, from 1. 2 % over the last 40 years to 2. 4 % in the coming four decades. economic incentives and more stringent standards are necessary, particularly in buildings and transportation. while more mature technologies - hydro, biomass, onshore wind and solar pv - are making sufficient progress, others lag. " particularly worrisome is the slow uptake of energy efficiency technologies, the lack of progress in carbon capture and storage and


social bases of west german politics, 1953 ( icpsr 7104 ) principal investigator ( s ) : unesco institut fur sozialwissenschaften this study, conducted in west germany prior to the federal election in september 1953, covered four main areas : politics, the respondents ' occupational background, family relations, and social relations. respondents were asked about their intended vote in 1953 and their past vote in 1949. additional questions explored the extent of the respondents ' political information and political interest, and how often and with whom they discussed politics. the occupational background section of the interview probed whether respondents had achieved their occupational goals in life. employed respondents were queried about their occupational histories and job satisfaction, while unemployed respondents were asked about their interest in entering the labor force. another portion of the study inquired about the respondents ' relationships with their families. variables assessed whether the respondents lived with relatives or shared financial support. the interview also asked about discussions between husbands and wives, and whether they shared opinions. the fourth major area covered by the study ascertained how frequently and with whom the respondents had long talks, discussed personal problems, or wrote letters. this section also surveyed the respondents ' membership and activity in voluntary associations and church - related initiatives. the personal data section of the interview covered the education, income, marital status, sex, age, and religious preference of each respondent. additional items provide information about the respondents ' geographic mobility and place of residence. these data are available only to users at icpsr member institutions. because you are not logged in, we cannot verify that you will be able to download the data. unesco institut fur sozialwissenschaften. social bases of west german politics, 1953. icpsr07104 - v2. ann arbor, mi : inter - university consortium for political and social research [ distributor ], 2006 - 08 - 15. doi : 10. 3886 / icpsr07104. v2 persistent url : http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 3886 / icpsr07104. v2 this survey was funded by : - united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization scope of study subject terms : attitudes, elections, family life, interpersonal communication, job history, job satisfaction, job security, opinions, party membership, political awareness, political participation, social contact, social networks, voter attitudes, work attitudes date of collection : universe : citizens 18 - 79 years of age in the federal republic of germany, registered in


job satisfaction, job security, opinions, party membership, political awareness, political participation, social contact, social networks, voter attitudes, work attitudes date of collection : universe : citizens 18 - 79 years of age in the federal republic of germany, registered in the community central registry of inhabitants ( " einwohnermeldekartei " ). persons living in private households and group quarters were included in the sample, as well as institutional populations. data types : survey data sample : a stratified, multistage, random sampling procedure was utilized in this study. the sample was drawn in three stages : first, the sampling points were designated, then households were chosen within each sampling point, and finally, individuals were selected within each household. weight : the study contains a weight variable ( v3 ) that produces a representative sample of citizens of the federal republic 18 - 79 years of age when used in analysis. the weight variable corrects for sex and age biases in the sample, and was constructed by comparing the age by sex distribution of the sample with the census distribution. the weighted n for this sample is 3, 256. 8. original icpsr release : 1984 - 06 - 19 - 2006 - 08 - 15 this study has been updated from osiris and now includes sas, spss, and stata setup files, a sas transport ( xport ) file, a spss portable file, and a stata system file. use any of the notification links to add this study to your rss feed ; you will then receive notification if the study is substantively updated. - citations exports are provided above. export study - level metadata ( does not include variable - level metadata ) if you ' re looking for collection - level metadata rather than an individual metadata record, please visit our metadata records page.


do radioisotope clocks need repair? testing the assumptions of isochron dating using k - ar, rb - sr, sm - nd, and pb - pb isotopes by steven a. austin, ph. d. rate ii : radioisotopes and the age of the earth : results of a young - earth creationist research initiative, ( volume ii ), l. vardiman et al., eds. ( san diego, ca : institute for creation research and the creation research society, 2005 ) the assumptions of conventional whole - rock and mineral isochron radioisotope dating were tested using a suite of radioisotopes from two precambrian rocks. amphibolite from the beartooth mountains of wyoming shows evidence of thorough metamorphism by isochemical processes from andesite by an early precambrian magma - intrusion event. a diabase sill, exposed within the wall of grand canyon at bass rapids, formed by a rapid intrusion event. the event segregated minerals gravitationally, apparently starting from an isotopically homogeneous magma. although k - ar, rb - sr, sm - nd, and pb - pb methods ought to yield concordant isochron dates for each of these magmatic events, these four radioisotope pairs gave significantly discordant ages. special allowance was made for larger - than - conventional uncertainties expressed as 2σ errors associated with the calculated “ ages. ” within a single beartooth amphibolite sample, three discordant mineral isochron “ ages ” range from 2515±110 ma ( rb - sr mineral isochron ) to 2886±190 ma ( sm - nd mineral isochron ). the diabase sill in grand canyon displays discordant isochron “ ages ” ranging from 841. 5±164 ma ( k - ar whole - rock isochron ) to 1379±140 ma ( sm - nd mineral isochron ). although significant discordance exists between the k - ar, rb - sr, sm - nd, and pb - pb radioisotope methods, each radioisotope pair appears to yield concordant “ ages ” internally between whole - rocks and minerals. internal concordance is best illustrated from the bass rapids diabase sill by the tightly constrained rb - sr whole - rock and mineral isochron “ ages ” of 1055±46 ma and 1060±24 ma, respectively


during the “ automation scare ” in the 1950s, people were intrigued yet suspicious about the power of computers. would they someday send us into permanent unemployment? could robots eventually take over the world? the original goal of artificial intelligence was to build a person out of silicone. although scientists made quick progress in building computers and robots that amazed us, they never came close to actually replicating the human brain. “ machine learning ” was first introduced 50 years ago. this concept focuses on computers ’ ability to “ learn ” not through human programming, but through experience and pattern identification. for example, machine learning allows a computer to become a masterful chess player by observing good and bad moves and learning from mistakes. while a computer looks at every possible move up to 20 to 40 moves ahead, humans use more conceptual skills to decide how to make moves. in a recent pbs nova documentary “ the smartest machine on earth, ” researchers explore powerful new tools in computing, like “ watson, ” a supercomputer with a brain, or central processing unit, that can process 500 gigabytes, or the equivalent of a million books, per second. in 2009, jeopardy producers came to ibm to size up watson ’ s abilities. you might remember when 74 - win jeopardy! champion ken jennings went head - to - cpu with watson a few years back. during watson ’ s “ training ” for the match, the scientists at ibm had to constantly expose watson to large amounts of possible answers to questions so that it would have sufficient rules and logic to come up with correct answers. having studied thousands of questions, within a few milliseconds watson analyzed every possible answer. it learned to make statistical judgments based on how pieces of evidence work together in the database of information scientists gave to it. in the end, the competition was close, but watson pulled ahead and won the show. scientists who worked with watson point out that there are two ways of building intelligence. we can either write down the recipe or let it grow by itself. it ’ s clear that we don ’ t know how to write down the recipe, according to scientists. machine learning enables computers to grow their own intelligence. scientists continue to debate the ability of machines to truly displace us. there is so much that we know that we don ’ t even realize we know, such as the fact that ice is cold and sandpaper is rough. our common sense knowledge seems too complex to program into a computer. human intelligence is deeply rooted in language and emotion. without experience or emotion, can computers


t even realize we know, such as the fact that ice is cold and sandpaper is rough. our common sense knowledge seems too complex to program into a computer. human intelligence is deeply rooted in language and emotion. without experience or emotion, can computers ever understand the world the way we do? they don ’ t connect to human cognition on an emotional level, such as the way a symphony or a play can move us. language and context are barriers for understanding. for example, figuring out the meaning of a sentence like “ i shot an elephant wearing pajamas ” is very difficult for computers. was the shooter wearing pajamas or was the elephant? was a camera or a gun used to do the shooting? of course machine learning goes far beyond winning trivia game shows. it ’ s driving a computing revolution. according to an article in wired magazine, today artificial intelligence isn ’ t trying to re - create the brain. instead, it relies on machine learning, massive data sets, sophisticated sensors, and clever algorithms to master discrete tasks. “ in short, we are engaged in a permanent dance with machines, locked in an increasingly dependent embrace. ” machine learning makes it possible to predict the weather days in advance. it lets companies like amazon or zappos suggest products for you based on what you ’ ve chosen before. it allows doctors to better diagnose medical conditions. it ’ s even helping us communicate with people through speech recognition, which was once though impossible. computers are now trained with millions of patterns of human speech, and the accuracy continues to improve. there are even apps for the ipad and iphone that you can use to quickly record something and translate it on the spot when talking to a person who speaks another language. ibm imagines a time when a computer will operate like the one in star trek — as information - seeking tools that communicates with us to ensure we get what we want. this thinking signals a shift in the way we use and accept computers in our lives, compared to the fear and suspicion we felt half a century ago.


epiphenomenalism is a position in the philosophy of mind according to which mental states or events are caused by physical states or events in the brain but do not themselves cause anything. it seems as if our mental life affects our body, and, via our body, the physical world surrounding us : it seems that sharp pains make us wince, it seems that fear makes our heart beat faster, it seems that remembering an embarrassing situation makes us blush and it seems that the perception of an old friend makes us smile. in reality, however, these sequences are the result of causal processes at an underlying physical level : what makes us wince is not the pain, but the neurophysiological process which causes the pain ; what makes our heart beat faster is not fear, but the state of our nervous system which causes the fear etc. according to a famous analogy of thomas henry huxley, the relationship between mind and brain is like the relationship between the steam - whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine and the engine itself : just as the steam - whistle is caused by the engine ’ s operations but has no causal influence upon it, so too the mental is caused by the workings of neurophysiological mechanisms but has no causal influence upon their operation. table of contents - what is epiphenomenalism? - epiphenomenalism in the 18th and 19th century - epiphenomenalism in the 20th century - arguments for epiphenomenalism - arguments against epiphenomenalism - references and further reading in the beginning epiphenomenalism was known as the doctrine of “ automatism ” or as the “ conscious automaton theory. ” the term “ epiphenomenalism ” seems to have been introduced in 1890 in william james ’ s the principles of psychology ( it occurs once in the chapter entitled “ the automaton - theory ; ” other than that james uses the terms “ automaton - theory ” or “ conscious automaton - theory ; ” see robinson 2003 ). the term “ epiphenomenon ” was used in medicine in the late nineteenth century as a label for a symptom concurrent with, but not causally contributory to, a disease ( an epiphenomenon is thus something like a secondary symptom, a mere afterglow of real phenomena ). accordingly, epiphenomenalism in the philosophy of mind holds that our actions have purely physical causes ( neurophysiological


, and its history. ” huxley argued that brute animals and ( presumably ) human beings are conscious automata : they enjoy a conscious mental life, but their behavior is determined solely by physical mechanisms. huxley was convinced that the body of humans and animals is a purely physical mechanism and that the physical processes of life are explainable in the same way as all other physical phenomena. this mechanistic conception, he held, “ has not only successfully repelled every assault that has been made upon it, but [... ] is now the expressed or implied fundamental proposition of the whole doctrine of scientific physiology ” ( huxley 1874, 200 ). already descartes had argued that non - human animals are mere mechanical automata and subject to the same laws as other unconscious matter, and huxley wholeheartedly embraced descartes ’ s defense of automatism by appeal to reflex actions ( huxley 1874, 218 ). huxley observed that a frog with certain parts of his brain extracted was unable to initiate actions but nevertheless able to carry out a range of reflex - like actions. since he thought that the partial leucotomy made sure the frog was totally unconscious, he concluded that consciousness was not necessary for the execution of reflex actions : the frog walks, hops, swims, and goes through his gymnastic performances quite as well without consciousness, and consequently without volition, as with it ; and, if a frog, in his natural state, possesses anything corresponding with what we call volition, there is no reason to think that it is anything but a concomitant of the molecular changes in the brain which form part of the series involved in the production of motion. ( huxley 1874, 240 ) huxley agreed with descartes that animals are automata, but he was unwilling to accept that they are devoid of mentality : “ sleeping dogs frequently appear to dream. if they do, it must be admitted that ideation goes on in them while they are asleep ; and, in that case, there is no reason to doubt that they are conscious ” ( huxley 1898, 125 ). huxley therefore segregated the question of consciousness from the question of the status of an automaton : animals do experience pain, but that pain is, like their bodily movements, just a result of neurophysiological processes. animals are conscious automata. in contrast to descartes, huxley argued that considerations similar to those about reflex actions in frogs also suggest that we are conscious automata. he referred


movements, just a result of neurophysiological processes. animals are conscious automata. in contrast to descartes, huxley argued that considerations similar to those about reflex actions in frogs also suggest that we are conscious automata. he referred to a case study of a certain dr. mesnet who had examined a french soldier who had suffered severe brain damage during the franco - prussian war in 1870. from time to time this soldier fell into a trance - like state in which he was able to execute a series of complex actions while apparently being unconscious : if the man happens to be in a place to which he is accustomed, he walks about as usual ; [... ] he eats, drinks, smokes, walks about, dresses and undresses himself, rises and goes to bed at the accustomed hours. nevertheless, pins may be run into his body, or strong electric shocks sent through it, without causing the least indication of pain ; no odorous substance, pleasant or unpleasant, makes the least impression ; he eats and drinks with avidity whatever is offered, and takes asafœtida, or vinegar, or quinine, as readily as water ; no noise affects him ; and light influences him only under certain conditions. ( huxley 1874, 228 ) since mesnet ’ s patient could carry out actions ordinarily performed with consciousness as initiating or coordinating element while apparently being unconscious, consciousness did not seem to be necessary for their execution. since it was impossible to prove that the patient was indeed unconscious in his abnormal state, huxley did not claim to have proven that humans are conscious automata, but he at least thought that “ the case of the frog goes a long way to justify the assumption that, in the abnormal state, the man is a mere insensible machine ” ( huxley 1874, 235 ). huxley ’ s naturalistic or mechanistic attitude towards the body convinced him that the brain alone causes behavior. at the same time, his dualism convinced him that the mental is essentially non - physical. he reconciled these apparently discordant claims by degrading mentality to the status of an epiphenomenon. most contemporary philosophers reject substance dualism and the question that plagued descartes – how can an immaterial mind whose nature is to think and a material body whose nature is to be spatially extended causally interact? – no longer arises. moreover, many philosophers even reject huxley ’ s event - dualism in favor of psychophysical event - identities.


mind whose nature is to think and a material body whose nature is to be spatially extended causally interact? – no longer arises. moreover, many philosophers even reject huxley ’ s event - dualism in favor of psychophysical event - identities. according to one version of non - reductive physicalism, for instance, every concrete mental event ( every event token ) is identical to a concrete physical event, although there are no one - one correlations between mental and physical properties ( event types ). since fear is identical to the neurophysiological event which causes the increased heart rate, fear causes the increased heart rate, too, and epiphenomenalism seems avoided. however, the charge of epiphenomenalism re - arises in a different guise. there is a forceful intuition that events cause what they cause in virtue of some of their properties. suppose a soprano sings the word “ freedom ” at a high pitch and amplitude, causing a nearby window to shatter. the singing which causes the shattering is both the singing of a high c and the singing of the word “ freedom. ” intuitively, only the former, not the latter, is causally relevant for the singing ’ s causing the shattering : “ meaningful sounds, if they occur at the right pitch and amplitude, can shatter glass, but the fact that the sounds have meaning is irrelevant to their effect. the glass would shatter if the sounds meant something completely different or if they meant nothing at all ” ( dretske 1989, 1 - 2 ). if events cause their effects in virtue of some of their properties but not in virtue of others, the question arises whether mental events ( even if they are identical to physical events ) cause their effects in virtue of their mental, their physical or both kinds of properties. if mental events cause their effects only in virtue of their physical properties, then their being mental events is causally irrelevant and mental properties are, in a certain sense, epiphenomena ( three reasons for thinking that mental properties are causally irrelevant are discussed in section 4b ). following brian mclaughlin, one can thus distinguish between event - or token - epiphenomenalism on the one hand and property - or type - epiphenomenalism on the other ( see mclaughlin 1989, 1994 ). according to the event - or token - epiphenomenalism defended by huxley, concrete physical events are causes, but mental events cannot cause anything. according to the kind of property - or type - epip


mclaughlin 1989, 1994 ). according to the event - or token - epiphenomenalism defended by huxley, concrete physical events are causes, but mental events cannot cause anything. according to the kind of property - or type - epiphenomenalism that threatens modern non - reductive physicalism, events are causes in virtue of their physical properties, but no event is a cause in virtue of its mental properties. if event - epiphenomenalism is wrong, mental events can be causes ; but if they are causes solely in virtue of their physical properties, property - epiphenomenalism is still true, and some consider this to be no less disconcerting than huxley ’ s original epiphenomenalism ( see arguments in favor of a philosophical theory typically focus on its advantages compared to other theories — that it can explain more phenomena or that it provides a more economical or a more unifying explanation of the relevant phenomena. there are no arguments for epiphenomenalism in that sense. epiphenomenalism is just not an attractive or desirable theory. rather, it is a theory of last resort into which people are pushed by the feeling that all the alternatives are even less plausible. even epiphenomenalists admit that, from the first - person point of view of a thinking and feeling subject, they don ’ t like it. why, then, do people embrace epiphenomenalism? epiphenomenalism required an intellectual climate in which two apparently discordant beliefs about the world were equally well entrenched : a dualism with respect to mind and body on the one hand and a scientific naturalism or mechanism concerning the body on the other. to most thinkers of the eighteenth and nineteenth century, it seemed obvious that human beings enjoy a mental life that resists incorporation into a purely materialist ontology. our thoughts, sensations, desires etc. just seemed to be too dissimilar from ordinary physical phenomena for them to be “ nothing but ” physical phenomena. at the same time, however, science saw the advent of a decidedly naturalistic attitude towards the human body, motivated by the successes of mechanistic physics in other areas and characterized by a desire to identify the underlying causal structure of every observed phenomenon in terms of matter and motion alone. in particular, neurophysiological research was unable to reveal any mental influence upon the brain or the body. eventually, with the demise of vitalism regarding the forces governing animate


structure of every observed phenomenon in terms of matter and motion alone. in particular, neurophysiological research was unable to reveal any mental influence upon the brain or the body. eventually, with the demise of vitalism regarding the forces governing animate life, the conception of the physical as a causally closed system, in which physical forces are the only forces, became almost universally accepted. when combined with the naturalistic assumption that human beings are a part of the physical world and governed by its laws, this left no room for any causal efficacy of our mental life. there simply seemed to be “ no gaps ” ( mclaughlin 1994, 278 ) in the causal mechanisms that could be filled by non - physical phenomena. therefore, epiphenomenalism can be regarded as the inevitable result of the attempt to combine a scientific naturalism with respect to the body with a dualism with respect to the mind. human beings are exhaustively governed by physical laws so that no non - physical causes must be invoked to explain their behavior, but since they are also subjects of non - physical minds, these minds must be causally irrelevant. whenever our trust in the causal authority of the physical is overwhelmed by our first - person experience of ourselves as creatures with an essentially non - physical mind, epiphenomenalism is waiting in the wings. this holds for huxley ’ s version of epiphenomenalism no less than for modern property - epiphenomenalism – both are driven by the idea that some of our mental life is distinct from that part of the physical that is the ultimate and only authority with regard to causation. those who defend epiphenomenalism typically do so because they fail to see how it could not be true. how could our mind make a causal difference to our physical body? this is the so - called “ problem of mental causation. ” that there is mental causation is part and parcel of our self - conception as freely deliberating agents that are the causal origins of their actions and do what they do because they have the beliefs and desires they have. yet, the how of mental causation constitutes a serious philosophical problem. its solution requires an account that shows exactly how the mental fits into the causal structure of an otherwise physical world in such a way as to exert a genuine causal influence, and any such account faces at least three difficulties. first, causation seems to require laws, but there are grounds for denying the existence of appropriate laws connecting the mental and


physical world in such a way as to exert a genuine causal influence, and any such account faces at least three difficulties. first, causation seems to require laws, but there are grounds for denying the existence of appropriate laws connecting the mental and the physical ( the “ argument from the anomaly of the mental ” ). second, causation is arguably a local or intrinsic affair, while in the case of beliefs and desires, for instance, those aspects constitutive of them insofar as they are mental are arguably relational or extrinsic ( the “ argument from anti - individualism ” ). third, we do not understand how the mental can be causally efficacious without coming into conflict with other parts of the causal structure we know ( or at least suspect ) to play an indispensable causal role in the production of physical effects ( the “ argument from causal exclusion ” ). the anomalous monism of donald davidson was one of the earliest versions of non - reductive physicalism ( see davidson 1970 ). davidson devised it to reconcile the idea that the mental is part of the physical causal network with the idea that we are autonomous agents in voluntary control of our actions. the problem is that the latter idea requires, while the former explicitly denies, that “ [ m ] ental events such as perceivings, rememberings, decisions, and actions resist capture in the nomological net of physical theory ” ( davidson 1970, 207 ). on the one hand, since cause and effect must always fall under a strict causal law, if the mental is to be causally efficacious, it must be subject to strict laws. on the other hand, we can be autonomous agents only if the mental is not part of the potentially deterministic nomological network of physics ; true autonomy requires that there be no strict laws connecting mental events with other mental events or with physical events and that the concepts necessary to describe, explain and predict actions and to ascribe attitudes not be reducible by definition or natural law to the concepts employed by physical sciences ( davidson 1970, 212 ). the exact nature of davidson ’ s argument for this “ anomaly of the mental ” is a matter of dispute, but his idea seems to be that the existence of strict psychophysical or psychological laws, together with the strict and potentially deterministic physical laws, would be at odds with the essentially holistic and rational nature of belief attributions ( davidson 1970, 219 - 221. ) if