current object. ( pdata - set! name vertnumber vector ) sets the data on the current object to the input vector ( pdata - ref name vertnumber ) returns the vector from the pdata on the current object returns the size of the pdata on the current object ( the number of vertices ). the name describes the data we want to access, for instance “ p ” contains the vertex positions : ( pdata - set! “ p ” 0 ( vector 0 0 0 ) ) sets the first point in the primitive to the origin ( not all that useful ) ( pdata - set! “ p ” 0 ( vadd ( pdata - ref “ p ” 0 ) ( vector 1 0 0 ) ) ) the same, but sets it to the original position + 1 in the x offsetting the position is more useful as it constitutes a deformation of the original point. ( see deforming, for more info on deformations ) pdata - ref procedures are useful, but there is a more powerful way of deforming primitives. map and fold relate to the scheme functions for list processing, it ’ s probably a good idea to play with them to get a good understanding of what these are doing. ( pdata - map! procedure read / write - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) maps over pdata arrays – think of it as a for - every pdata element, and writes the result of procedure into the first pdata name array. an example, using pdata - map to invert normals on a primitive : ( define p ( build - sphere 10 10 ) ) ( with - primitive p ( pdata - map! ( lambda ( n ) ( vmul n - 1 ) ) " n " ) ) this is more concise and less error prone than using the previous functions and setting up the loop yourself. ( pdata - index - map! procedure read / write - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) pdata - map! but also supplies the current pdata index number to the procedure as the first argument. ( pdata - fold procedure start - value read - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) this example calculates the centre of the primitive, by averaging all it ’ s vertex positions together : ( define my - torus ( build - torus 1 2 10 10 ) ) ( define torus - centre ( with - primitive my - tor


this example calculates the centre of the primitive, by averaging all it ’ s vertex positions together : ( define my - torus ( build - torus 1 2 10 10 ) ) ( define torus - centre ( with - primitive my - torus ( vdiv ( pdata - fold vadd ( vector 0 0 0 ) “ p ” ) ( pdata - size ) ) ) ) ) ( pdata - index - fold procedure start - value read - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) pdata - fold but also supplies the current pdata index number to the procedure as the first argument. sometimes retained mode primitives can be unwieldy to deal with. for instance, if you are rendering thousands of identical objects, or doing things with recursive graphics, where you are calling the same primitive in lots of different states – keeping track of all the ids would be annoying to say the least. this is where instancing is helpful, all you call is : will redraw any given object in the current state ( immediate mode ). an example : ( define myobj ( build - nurbs - sphere 8 10 ) ) ; make a sphere ( define ( render - spheres n ) ( cond ( ( not ( zero? n ) ) ( with - state ( translate ( vector n 0 0 ) ) ; move in x ( draw - instance myobj ) ) ; stamp down a copy ( render - spheres ( - n 1 ) ) ) ) ) ; recurse! ( every - frame ( render - spheres 10 ) ) ; draw 10 copies built in immediate mode primitives to make life even easier than having to instance primitives, there are some built in primitives that can be rendered at any time, without being built : ( draw - cube ) ( draw - sphere ) ( draw - plane ) ( draw - cylinder ) ( define ( render - spheres n ) ( cond ( ( not ( zero? n ) ) ( with - state ( translate ( vector n 0 0 ) ) ; move in x ( draw - sphere ) ) ; render a new sphere ( render - spheres ( - n 1 ) ) ) ) ) ; recurse! ( every - frame ( render - spheres 10 ) ) ; draw 10 copies these built in primitives are very restricted in that you can ’ t edit them or change their resolution settings etc, but they are handy to use for quick scripts with simple shapes.


a - level geography / as ocr geography / investigation paper spearman ' s rank this is a concept to find the statistical significance of the correlation between the two variables. first, a null hypothesis needs to be made. mann - whitney u test mann - whitney u test is a test for difference between 2 data sets. using a critical values table, the level of confidence in the relationship can be established, and the null hypotheses can be accepted or rejected. there are both advantages and disadvantages which accompany this statistical test for analysis of statistical data. one advantage is that it can compare two data sets that are different sizes. this makes the test much more versatile, and can be applied to a range of different data sets. secondly, the test is not based on observed values. this means that there are no assumptions made about the distribution of the data. this is particularly useful in geography because most of the data we collect will be either positively or negatively skewed. finally, mann - whitney u uses non - parametric ( non - grouped ) data. this is an advantage because the trends in the data cannot be generalised, and thus producing a more statistically sound result. it does however carry some disadvantages with it, one being the fact that it cannot be applied to more than 2 data sets at one time. this is because it is non - parametric data. if the test was done using parametric ( grouped ) data, you would be able to compare multiple data sets at once. an example of this is the student ’ s “ t ” test. this is because parametric data provides a result in proportion to the data, and can therefore be contrasted with many data sets. also, mann - whitney becomes increasingly less effective as the data sets get larger. this reduces its effectiveness because the calculation becomes too long - winded, and it takes a very long time to complete. it also reduces the precision of the result, as with a bigger sample size there is more margin for error. in conclusion, despite the obvious flaws with the test, it is a very effective way of looking at the differences between 2 pairs of data sets. five sections of investigation pragmatic = essentially safety and accessibility. for example, if a student is carrying out a river investigation they might use pragmatic sampling methods meaning only areas that were easily accessible and did not pose a risk would be studied. it is reliable and practical. random = not as one might assume randomly selecting a site or throwing a quadrat, in order to use random


pragmatic sampling methods meaning only areas that were easily accessible and did not pose a risk would be studied. it is reliable and practical. random = not as one might assume randomly selecting a site or throwing a quadrat, in order to use random sample methods either a calculator, grid or computer is needed to generate random statistics that have not been influenced by human decision. systematic = this type of technique would be used if progressional change over distance or time was being studied. a transect would be measured and data recorded at regular intervals along said transect, so that change over time or distance could be observed. for example, if a student wished to study psammosere succession, a transect might be measured from the sea to the climax environment ( woodland ) and at every 25m or so measurements would be taken. stratified = to be completed by magneto and river ' s landmass. statistics : mode most = mode the most frequent sample number. this is the sample figure which occurs the most times e. g. 7, 8, 9, 5, 4, 3, 5, 6, 7, 5, 5, 5, 5, 3, 5, 5 = mode comes from the french word " la mode " for fashion statistics : median this is the middle sample when all the samples are placed in arithmetic order. e. g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 5 = median statistic : range the area which the samples stretch from. statistics : standard deviation to describe the data regarding an infiltration rate statistically i would use the mean and the standard deviation as a measure of central tendency and dispersion. these two are always used together. the mean is simply the sum of all values of x ( infiltration rate ) divided by n ( total number of samples ) the standard deviation is more complicated and requires the use of the formula ; where x is the individual infiltration rate and x bar is the mean of x ’ s ( as above ) this is simply done by listing the value of x on a table, and subtracting x bar from each. in the next column, square the subsequent result. then add up all the values of ( x - xbar ) ² ( σ ( x - xbar ) ². divide this by n ( 100 in this case ), and then square root the answer. these methods are the most powerful and sensitive, because they include all the values of all the data. they do not exclude


a helium – neon laser or hene laser, is a type of gas laser whose gain medium consists of a mixture of helium and neon inside of a small bore capillary tube, usually excited by a dc electrical discharge. history of hene laser development the first hene laser emitted at 1. 15 μm in the infrared and was the first gas laser. however a laser that operated at visible wavelengths was much more in demand, and a number of other neon transitions were investigated to identify ones in which a population inversion can be achieved. the 633 nm line was found to have the highest gain in the visible spectrum, making this the wavelength of choice for most hene lasers. however other visible as well as infrared lasing wavelengths are possible, and by using mirror coatings with their peak reflectance at these other wavelengths, hene lasers could be engineered to employ those transitions ; this includes visible lasers appearing red, orange, yellow, and green. lasing transitions are known from over 100 μm in the far infrared to 540 nm in the visible. since visible transitions at wavelengths other than 633 nm have somewhat lower gain, these lasers generally have lower output powers and are more costly. the 3. 39 μm transition has a very high gain but is prevented from lasing in an ordinary hene laser ( of a different intended wavelength ) since the cavity and mirrors are lossy at that wavelength. however in high power hene lasers having a particularly long cavity, superluminescence at 3. 39 μm can become a nuisance, robbing power from the lasing medium, often requiring additional suppression. the best known and most widely used hene laser operates at a wavelength of 632. 8 nm in the red part of the visible spectrum. it was developed at bell telephone laboratories in 1962, 18 months after the pioneering demonstration at the same laboratory of the first continuous infrared hene gas laser in december 1960. construction and operation the gain medium of the laser, as suggested by its name, is a mixture of helium and neon gases, in approximately a 10 : 1 ratio, contained at low pressure in a glass envelope. the gas mixture is mostly helium, so that helium atoms can be excited. the excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms, exciting some of them to the state that radiates 632. 8 nm. without helium, the neon atoms would be excited mostly to lower excited states responsible for non - laser lines. a neon laser with no helium can be constructed but it is much more difficult without this means of energy


radiates 632. 8 nm. without helium, the neon atoms would be excited mostly to lower excited states responsible for non - laser lines. a neon laser with no helium can be constructed but it is much more difficult without this means of energy coupling. therefore, a hene laser that has lost enough of its helium ( e. g., due to diffusion through the seals or glass ) will most likely not lase at all since the pumping efficiency will be too low. the energy or pump source of the laser is provided by a high voltage electrical discharge passed through the gas between electrodes ( anode and cathode ) within the tube. a dc current of 3 to 20 ma is typically required for cw operation. the optical cavity of the laser usually consists of two concave mirrors or one plane and one concave mirror, one having very high ( typically 99. 9 % ) reflectance and the output coupler mirror allowing approximately 1 % transmission. commercial hene lasers are relatively small devices, among gas lasers, having cavity lengths usually ranging from 15 cm to 50 cm ( but sometimes up to about 1 meter to achieve the highest powers ), and optical output power levels ranging from 0. 5 to 50 mw. the red hene laser wavelength of 633 nm has an actual vacuum wavelength of 632. 991 nm, or about 632. 816 nm in air. the wavelength of the lasing modes lie within about 0. 001 nm above or below this value, and the wavelengths of those modes shift within this range due to thermal expansion and contraction of the cavity. frequency - stabilized versions enable the wavelength of a single mode to be specified to within 1 part in 108 by the technique of comparing the powers of two longitudinal modes in opposite polarizations. absolute stabilization of the laser ' s frequency ( or wavelength ) as fine as 2. 5 parts in 1011 can be obtained through use of an iodine absorption cell. the mechanism producing population inversion and light amplification in a hene laser plasma originates with inelastic collision of energetic electrons with ground state helium atoms in the gas mixture. as shown in the accompanying energy level diagram, these collisions excite helium atoms from the ground state to higher energy excited states, among them the 23s1 and 21s0 long - lived metastable states. because of a fortuitous near coincidence between the energy levels of the two he metastable states, and the 3s2 and 2s2 ( paschen notation ) levels of neon, collisions between these helium


- lived metastable states. because of a fortuitous near coincidence between the energy levels of the two he metastable states, and the 3s2 and 2s2 ( paschen notation ) levels of neon, collisions between these helium metastable atoms and ground state neon atoms results in a selective and efficient transfer of excitation energy from the helium to neon. this excitation energy transfer process is given by the reaction equations : - he * ( 23s1 ) + ne1s0 → he ( 1s0 ) + ne * 2s2 + δe - he * ( 21s ) + ne1s0 + δe → he ( 1s0 ) + ne * 3s2 where ( * ) represents an excited state, and δe is the small energy difference between the energy states of the two atoms, of the order of 0. 05 ev or 387 cm−1, which is supplied by kinetic energy. excitation energy transfer increases the population of the neon 2s2 and 3s2 levels manyfold. when the population of these two upper levels exceeds that of the corresponding lower level neon state, 2p4 to which they are optically connected, population inversion is present. the medium becomes capable of amplifying light in a narrow band at 1. 15 μm ( corresponding to the 2s2 to 2p4 transition ) and in a narrow band at 632. 8 nm ( corresponding to the 3s2 to 2p4 transition at 632. 8 nm ). the 2p4 level is efficiently emptied by fast radiative decay to the 1s state, eventually reaching the ground state. the remaining step in utilizing optical amplification to create an optical oscillator is to place highly reflecting mirrors at each end of the amplifying medium so that a wave in a particular spatial mode will reflect back upon itself, gaining more power in each pass than is lost due to transmission through the mirrors and diffraction. when these conditions are met for one or more longitudinal modes then radiation in those modes will rapidly build up until gain saturation occurs, resulting in a stable continuous laser beam output through the front ( typically 99 % reflecting ) mirror. the gain bandwidth of the hene laser is dominated by doppler broadening rather than pressure broadening due to the low gas pressure, and is thus quite narrow : only about 1. 5 ghz full width for the 633 nm transition. with cavities having typical lengths of 15 cm to


by doppler broadening rather than pressure broadening due to the low gas pressure, and is thus quite narrow : only about 1. 5 ghz full width for the 633 nm transition. with cavities having typical lengths of 15 cm to 50 cm, this allows about 2 to 8 longitudinal modes to oscillate simultaneously ( however single longitudinal mode units are available for special applications ). the visible output of the red hene laser, long coherence length, and its excellent spatial quality, makes this laser a useful source for holography and as a wavelength reference for spectroscopy. a stabilized hene laser is also one of the benchmark systems for the definition of the meter. prior to the invention of cheap, abundant diode lasers, red hene lasers were widely used in barcode scanners at supermarket checkout counters. laser gyroscopes have employed hene lasers operating at 0. 633 μm in a ring laser configuration. hene lasers are generally present in educational and research optical laboratories. red hene lasers have many industrial and scientific uses. they are widely used in laboratory demonstrations in the field of optics in view of their relatively low cost and ease of operation compared to other visible lasers producing beams of similar quality in terms of spatial coherence ( a single mode gaussian beam ) and long coherence length ( however since about 1990 semiconductor lasers have offered a lower cost alternative for many such applications ). a consumer application of the red hene laser is the laserdisc player, made by pioneer. the laser is used in the device to read the optical disk. see also - c. s. willet " an introduction to gas lasers " pergamon press 1974, pages 407 – 411 - a. d. white and j. d. rigden, " continuous gas maser operation in the visible ". proc ire vol. 50, p1697 : july 1962. - a. d. white, " recollections of the first continuous visible laser ". optics and photonics news vol. 22, p34 - 39 : october 2011. - javan, a., bennett, w. r. and herriott, d. r. : " population inversion and continuous optical maser oscillation in a gas discharge containing a he - ne mixture ". phys. rev. lett. 63, 106 – 110 ( 1961 ). - " sam ' s laser faq - helium - neon lasers : ". - nieb


line - of - sight propagation refers to electro - magnetic radiation or acoustic wave propagation. electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. the rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles. at low frequencies ( below approximately 2 mhz or so ) radio signals travel as ground waves, which follow the earth ' s curvature due to diffraction with the layers of atmosphere. this enables am radio signals in low - noise environments to be received well after the transmitting antenna has dropped below the horizon. additionally, frequencies between approximately 1 and 30 mhz can be reflected by the f1 / f2 layer, thus giving radio transmissions in this range a potentially global reach ( see shortwave radio ), again along multiple deflected straight lines. the effects of multiple diffraction or reflection lead to macroscopically " quasi - curved paths ". however, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects are significant. thus any obstruction between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense. therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna ( disregarding the limitations of the eye ' s resolution ) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the propagation characteristic of high - frequency radio is called " line - of - sight ". the farthest possible point of propagation is referred to as the " radio horizon ". in practice, the propagation characteristics of these radio waves vary substantially depending on the exact frequency and the strength of the transmitted signal ( a function of both the transmitter and the antenna characteristics ). broadcast fm radio, at comparatively low frequencies of around 100 mhz, are less affected by the presence of buildings and forests. radio horizon the radio horizon is the locus of points at which direct rays from an antenna are tangential to the surface of the earth. if the earth were a perfect sphere and there were no atmosphere, the radio horizon would be a circle. the radio horizon of the transmitting and receiving antennas can be added together to increase the effective communication range. antenna heights above 1, 000, 000 feet ( 189 miles ; 305 kilometres ) will cover the entire hemisphere and not increase the radio horizon. radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as : the simple formulas


increase the radio horizon. radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as : the simple formulas give a best - case approximation of the maximum propagation distance but are not sufficient to estimate the quality of service at any location. earth bulge and atmosphere effect earth bulge is a term used in telecommunications. it refers to the circular segment of earth profile which blocks off long distance communications. since the geometric line of sight passes at varying heights over the earth, the propagating radio wave encounters slightly different propagation conditions over the path. the usual effect of the declining pressure of the atmosphere with height is to bend radio waves down toward the surface of the earth, effectively increasing the earth ' s radius, and the distance to the radio horizon, by a factor around 4 / 3. this k - factor can change from its average value depending on weather. geometric distance to horizon assuming a perfect sphere with no terrain irregularity, the distance to horizon from a high altitude transmitter ( i. e., line of sight ) can readily be calculated. let r be the radius of earth and h be the altitude of a telecommunication station. line of sight distance d of this station is given by the pythagorean theorem ; since the altitude of the station is much less than the radius of the earth, if the height is given in metres, and distance in kilometres, if the height is given in feet, and the distance in miles, the actual service range the above analysis doesn ’ t take the effect of atmosphere on the propagation path of the rf signals into consideration. in fact, the rf signals don ’ t propagate in straight lines. because of the refractive effects of atmospheric layers, the propagation paths are somewhat curved. thus, the maximum service range of the station, is not equal to the line of sight ( geometric ) distance. usually a factor k is used in the equation above k > 1 means geometrically reduced bulge and a longer service range. on the other hand, k < 1 means a shorter service range. under normal weather conditions k is usually chosen to be 4 / 3. that means that, the maximum service range increases by % 15 for h in meters and d in km. for h in feet and d in miles ; but in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. ( in extreme cases k can be less than 1. ) that is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in


in meters and d in km. for h in feet and d in miles ; but in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. ( in extreme cases k can be less than 1. ) that is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in earth radius and an increase of earth bulge. in normal weather conditions, the service range of a station at an altitude of 1500 m. with respect to receivers at sea level can be found as, line - of - sight propagation as a prerequisite for radio distance measurements travel time of radio waves between transmitters and receivers can be measured disregarding the type of propagation. but, generally, travel time only then represents the distance between transmitter and receiver, when line of sight propagation is the basis for the measurement. this applies as well to radar, to real time locating and to lidar. this rules : travel time measurements for determining the distance between pairs of transmitters and receivers generally require line of sight propagation for proper results. whereas the desire to have just any type of propagation to enable communication may suffice, this does never coincide with the requirement to have strictly line of sight at least temporarily as the means to obtain properly measured distances. however, the travel time measurement may be always biased by multi - path propagation including line of sight propagation as well as non line of sight propagation in any random share. a qualified system for measuring the distance between transmitters and receivers must take this phenomenon into account. thus filtering signals traveling along various paths makes the approach either operationally sound or just tediously irritating. impairments to line - of - sight propagation low - powered microwave transmitters can be foiled by tree branches, or even heavy rain or snow. if a direct visual fix cannot be taken, it is important to take into account the curvature of the earth when calculating line - of - sight from maps. the presence of objects not in the direct visual line of sight can interfere with radio transmission. this is caused by diffraction effects : for the best propagation, a volume known as the first fresnel zone should be kept free of obstructions. reflected radiation from the ground plane also acts to cancel out the direct signal. this effect, combined with the free - space r−2 propagation loss to a r−4 propagation loss. this effect can be reduced by raising either or both antennas further from the ground : the reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain. mobile telephones although the frequencies used by mobile phones ( cell phones ) are in the line - of - sight range, they still function in cities. this


or both antennas further from the ground : the reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain. mobile telephones although the frequencies used by mobile phones ( cell phones ) are in the line - of - sight range, they still function in cities. this is made possible by a combination of the following effects : - r−4 propagation over the rooftop landscape - diffraction into the " street canyon " below - multipath reflection along the street - diffraction through windows, and attenuated passage through walls, into the building - reflection, diffraction, and attenuated passage through internal walls, floors and ceilings within the building the combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly complex, with multipath effects and extensive rayleigh fading. for mobile phone services these problems are tackled using : - rooftop or hilltop positioning of base stations - many base stations ( a phone can typically see six at any given time ) - rapid handoff between base stations ( roaming ) - extensive error correction and detection in the radio link - sufficient operation of mobile phone in tunnels when supported by split cable antennas - local repeaters inside complex vehicles or buildings other conditions may physically disrupt the connection surprisingly without prior notice : - local failure when using the mobile phone in buildings of concrete with steel reinforcement - temporal failure inside metal constructions as elevator cabins, trains, cars, ships see also - anomalous propagation - field strength in free space - knife - edge effect - non - line - of - sight propagation - over - the - horizon radar - radial ( radio ) - rician fading, stochastic model of line - of - sight propagation - christopher haslett, essentials of radio wave propagation, cambridge university press, 2008 052187565x pages 119 - 120 - mean radius of the earth is ≈6. 37 x 106 metres = 6370 km. see earth radius - r. busi : technical monograph3108 - 1967 high altitude vhf and uhf broadcasting stations, european broadcasting union brussels, 1967 - this analysis is for high altitude to sea level reception. in microwave radio link chains, both stations are high altitudes. - article on the importance of line of sight for uhf reception - attenuation levels through roofs - approximating 2 - ray model by using binomial series by matthew bazajian


. the metadata also helps avoiding commercials from being recorded along with the songs. satellite radio timetrax has developed software that can record the audio broadcast on xm satellite radio. the software saves songs as individual mp3 files after identifying the name and the artist. timetrax is both a software and hardware solution : the timetrax software can interface with any pc - compatible satellite receiver, and the adapter box is necessary to allow certain receivers to interface with a pc. the xm pcr was the first device to allow audio stream ripping from xm radio. the device itself is simple enough : an xm " can " ( the actual receiver and decoding hardware ) is enclosed in a box with a usb interface chip and audio connector. the pcr plugs into a pc usb port and line - in jack. timetrax, or some other similar software, then controls the radio and records the incoming audio. after a legal battle, the timetrax software is no longer being sold. to end the problem for good, xm discontinued the xm pcr receiver. however, timetrax almost immediately released a hardware companion product that turned virtually any device capable of receiving xm satellite radio and its primary competitor at the time, sirius satellite radio. timetrax went on to also include the ability to rip and tag music from the online music streaming services that were being provided by both xm and sirius. notably, timetrax went on to extend its technology in a seamless package for fm radio, and further, any music source. it developed this portion of its technology hardware and software offering with swedish company popcatcher. timetrax was the first company that offered music ripping ( aka audio disambiguation, ripping and tagging, de - aggregation ) for the 3 largest and widespread music distribution methods : satellite radio, internet streaming and traditional broadcast. the original timetrax software was developed by scott maclean, a canadian citizen. it went viral and a corporation and formal management team along with funding were brought in the form the enterprise around maclean ' s discovery. the company was led by business executive elliott frutkin. fm radio there are three ways of ripping songs from an fm broadcast. radio data system some fm receivers are capable of receiving a data stream known as radio data system or rds. this provides artist and title information that can be shown on the display of a compatible fm receiver. a compatible receiver, connected to the computer, can tag saved audio streams with this data. the disadvantage of rds is


prosecution in criminal cases, with business in antitrust cases, with employers in labor cases, and with the government in speech cases ". although rehnquist was often a lone dissenter in cases early on, his views would later often become the majority view of the court. professor david shapiro of harvard law school suggested that rehnquist ' s votes were guided by three basic propositions : - conflicts between an individual and the government should, whenever possible, be resolved against the individual ( this also holds for conflicts between an individual and an employer, including civil rights litigation ). - conflicts between state and federal authority should, whenever possible, be resolved in favor of the states. - questions of the exercise of federal jurisdiction should, whenever possible, be resolved against such exercise. in 1977s national league of cities v. usery, rehnquist ' s majority opinion invalidated a federal law extending minimum wage and maximum hours provisions to state and local government employees. rehnquist wrote that " this exercise of congressional authority does not comport with the federal system of government embodied in the constitution. " as chief justice, rehnquist presided over what law professor erwin chemerinsky has called a " federalist revolution, " during which the court limited federal power in cases such as new york v. united states, united states v. lopez, printz v. united states, and united states v. morrison. similarly, cato institute scholar roger pilon has said that " [ t ] he rehnquist court has revived the doctrine of federalism... only at the edges and in very easy cases. " equal protection, civil rights, and abortion rehnquist rejected a broad view of the fourteenth amendment ; he believed that it was meant only as a solution to the problems of slavery, and was misapplied when applied towards abortion rights or prisoner ' s rights. rehnquist believed that the court " had no business reflecting society ' s changing and expanding values " and argued that this was the domain of the congress. rehnquist tried to weave his view of the amendment into his opinion for fitzpatrick v. bitzer, but it was rejected by the other justices. rehnquist later extended what he said he saw as the scope of the amendment, writing in trimble v. gordon : " except in the area of the law in which the framers obviously meant it to apply – classifications based on race or on national origin ". he voted against the expansion of school desegregation plans and the establishment of legalized abortions


: " except in the area of the law in which the framers obviously meant it to apply – classifications based on race or on national origin ". he voted against the expansion of school desegregation plans and the establishment of legalized abortions, dissenting in roe v. wade, 410 u. s. 113 ( 1973 ). rehnquist expressed his views about the equal protection clause in cases like trimble v. gordon : unfortunately, more than a century of decisions under this clause of the fourteenth amendment have produced.... a syndrome wherein this court seems to regard the equal protection clause as a cat - o ' - nine - tails to be kept in the judicial closet as a threat to legislatures which may, in the view of the judiciary, get out of hand and pass ' arbitrary ', ' illogical, ' or ' unreasonable ' laws. except in the area of the law in which the framers obviously meant it to apply — classifications based on race or on national origin, the first cousin of race — the court ' s decisions can fairly be described as an endless tinkering with legislative judgments, a series of conclusions unsupported by any central guiding principle. other issues rehnquist held a restrictive view of criminals ' and prisoners ' rights, and held the view that capital punishment is constitutionally permissible. he supported the view that the fourth amendment permitted a warrantless search incident to a valid arrest. in 1977s nixon v. administrator of general services, rehnquist dissented from a decision upholding the constitutionality of an act that gave a federal agency administrator certain authority over former president nixon ' s presidential papers and tape recordings. he dissented solely on the ground that the law was " a clear violation of the constitutional principle of separation of powers. " during oral argument in duren v. missouri ( 1978 ), the court faced a challenge to laws and practices that made jury duty voluntary for women in that state. at the end of ruth ginsburg ' s oral presentation rehnquist asked her, " you will not settle for putting susan b. anthony on the new dollar, then? " rehnquist wrote the majority opinion in diamond v. diehr, 450 u. s. 175 ( 1981 ), which began a gradual trend toward overturning the ban on software patents in the united states first established in parker v. flook, 437 u. s. 584 ( 1978 ). in sony corp. of america v. universal city studios, inc., pertaining to video


overinclusive to survive equal protection analysis. in dissent, rehnquist attacked powell ' s opinion, saying : if legislative bodies are to be permitted to draw a line anywhere short of the delivery room, i can find no judicial standard of measurement which says the ones drawn here were invalid. shapiro writes that rehnquist ' s opinion implied : that there is no constitutionally significant difference between a classification that encompasses virtually no one outside the scope of its purpose and a classification so overinclusive that the vast majority of those falling within are beyond its intended scope. rehnquist ' s dissent in united states department of agriculture v. murry illuminates his view that a classification should pass muster under the rational basis test so long as that classification is not entirely counter - productive with respect to the purposes of the legislation in which it is contained. shapiro alleges that rehnquist ' s stance " makes rational basis a virtual nullity. " relations on the court rehnquist built warm personal relations with his colleagues, even with ideological opposites. justice william brennan, jr. " startled one acquaintance by informing him that ' bill rehnquist is my best friend up here. ' " rehnquist and justice william o. douglas bonded over a shared iconoclasm and love of the west. the brethren claims that the court ' s " liberals found it hard not to like the good - natured, thoughtful rehnquist ", despite finding his legal philosophy " extreme ", and that justice stewart regarded rehnquist as " excellent " and " a " team player, a part of the group in the center of the court, even though he usually ended up in the conservative bloc ". since rehnquist ' s first years on the supreme court, other justices criticized what they saw as his " willingness to cut corners to reach a conservative result ", " gloss [ ing ] over inconsistencies of logic or fact " or distinguishing indistinct cases to reach their destination. in jefferson v. hackney, for example, douglas and justice thurgood marshall charged that rehnquist ' s opinion " misrepresented the legislative history " of a federal welfare program. rehnquist did not correct what the brethren characterizes as an " outright misstatement,... [ and thus ] publish [ ed ] an opinion that twisted the facts ". rehnquist ' s " misuse " of precedents in another case " shocked " justice john paul stevens. for his part, rehnquist was often


scaling back congressional power over the states had little practical impact. chief justice rehnquist voted with the majority in city of boerne v. flores ( 1997 ) and would later refer to that decision as precedent for requiring congress to defer to the court as regards interpretation of the fourteenth amendment ( including the equal protection clause ) in a number of cases. boerne held that any statute that congress enacted to enforce the provisions of the fourteenth amendment ( including the equal protection clause ) had to show " a congruence and proportionality between the injury to be prevented or remedied and the means adopted to that end ". the rehnquist court ' s congruence and proportionality theory replaced the " ratchet " theory that had arguably been advanced in katzenbach v. morgan ( 1966 ). according to the " ratchet " theory, congress could " ratchet up " civil rights beyond what the court had recognized, but congress could not " ratchet down " judicially recognized rights. according to the majority opinion of justice anthony kennedy, which chief justice rehnquist joined in boerne : there is language in our opinion in katzenbach v. morgan, 384 u. s. 641 ( 1966 ), which could be interpreted as acknowledging a power in congress to enact legislation that expands the rights contained in § 1 of the fourteenth amendment. this is not a necessary interpretation, however, or even the best one.... if congress could define its own powers by altering the fourteenth amendment ' s meaning, no longer would the constitution be ' superior paramount law, unchangeable by ordinary means. ' the rehnquist court ' s congruence and proportionality standard made it easier to revive older precedents preventing congress from going too far [ clarification needed ] in enforcing equal protection of the laws. one of the rehnquist court ' s major developments involved reinforcing and extending the doctrine of sovereign immunity, which limits the ability of congress to subject non - consenting states to lawsuits by individual citizens seeking money damages. in both kimel v. florida board of regents ( 2000 ) and board of trustees of the university of alabama v. garrett ( 2001 ), the court held that congress had exceeded its power to enforce the equal protection clause. in both those cases, chief justice rehnquist was in the majority that held discrimination by states based upon age or disability ( as opposed to race or gender ) need satisfy only rational basis review as opposed to strict scrutiny. though the eleventh amendment by its terms applies only to


., john g. ( october 24, 2006 ). " william h. rehnquist : a remembrance ". vermont law review. retrieved august 8, 2011. - rosen, jeffrey ( 2005 ). " rehnquist the great? ". the atlantic. retrieved may 30, 2010. - it means, in direct translation to english : reindeer twig. - lane, charles. " head of the class : fresh from service in world war ii, william rehnquist went west unsure of his future. what he found on the farm changed his life, and the future of the country. ", stanford magazine, july / august 2005. accessed september 17, 2007. " so, for the brainy kid they had called " bugs " back home at suburban shorewood high school, just outside milwaukee, weather was a key criterion in selecting a college. " - christopher l. tomlins ( 2005 ). the united states supreme court. houghton mifflin. isbn 978 - 0 - 618 - 32969 - 4. retrieved october 21, 2008. - biskupic, joan. sandra day o ' connor : how the first woman on the supreme court became its most influential justice. new york : harper collins, 2005 - debbie kornmiller, " o ' connor ' s class rank an error that will not die ", arizona daily star ( july 10, 2005 ). - biskupic, joan. " rehnquist left supreme court with conservative legacy ". usa today. september 4, 2005. - william rehnquist, " a random thought on the segregation cases ", s. hrg. 99 - 1067, hearings before the senate committee on the judiciary on the nomination of justice william hubbs rehnquist to be chief justice of the united states ( july 29 – 31, and august 1, 1986 ). - 1971 confirmation hearings. - " 132 cong. rec. 23548 ( speech of senator paul sarbanes ) ". 1986. - justice william o. douglas wrote : " in the original conference there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional. those four were black, burton, minton, and myself. " see bernard schwartz, decision : how the supreme court decides cases, page 96 ( oxford 1996 ). likewise, justice felix frankfurter wrote : " i have no doubt that if the segregation cases had reached decision last term, there would have been four dissenters — vinson, reed, jackson, and clark. " ibid. -


a three - ccd camera is a camera whose imaging system uses three separate charge - coupled devices ( ccds ), each one taking a separate measurement of the primary colors, red, green, or blue light. light coming into the lens is split by a trichroic prism assembly, which directs the appropriate wavelength ranges of light to their respective ccds. the system is employed by still cameras, telecine systems, professional video cameras and some prosumer video cameras. compared to cameras with only one ccd, three - ccd cameras generally provide superior image quality through enhanced resolution and lower noise. by taking separate readings of red, green, and blue values for each pixel, three - ccd cameras achieve much better precision than single - ccd cameras. by contrast, almost all single - ccd cameras use a bayer filter, which allows them to detect only one - third of the color information for each pixel. the other two - thirds must be interpolated with a demosaicing algorithm to ' fill in the gaps ', resulting in a much lower effective resolution. the combination of the three sensors can be done in the following ways : - composite sampling, where the three sensors are perfectly aligned to avoid any color artifact when recombining the information from the three color planes - pixel shifting, where the three sensors are shifted by a fraction of a pixel. after recombining the information from the three sensors, higher spatial resolution can be achieved. pixel shifting can be horizontal only to provide higher horizontal resolution in standard resolution camera, or horizontal and vertical to provide high resolution image using standard resolution imager for example. the alignment of the three sensors can be achieved by micro mechanical movements of the sensors relative to each other. - arbitrary alignment, where the random alignment errors due to the optics are comparable to or larger than the pixel size. three - ccd cameras are generally more expensive than single - ccd cameras because they require three times as many elements to form the image detector, and because they require a precision color - separation beam - splitter optical assembly. some design goals for a prism assembly are : - that the light path lengths for the three colors are the same ( with correction for the different index of refraction of the glass at different colors ). - that the separation works regardless of the polarization of the incoming light ; this polarization is quite challenging in practice, and there are various strategies for dealing with the resulting polarization - dependent color separation. - that the output images are oriented the same way around (


separation works regardless of the polarization of the incoming light ; this polarization is quite challenging in practice, and there are various strategies for dealing with the resulting polarization - dependent color separation. - that the output images are oriented the same way around ( in the case of ccd image sensors ). in the prism assembly illustrated above, where the red light is the direct path, the blue path is reflected once and the resultant image is not laterally inverted, unlike the red and green. in cameras using vacuum tube video pickup devices this was solved by merely reversing the connections for the line scan coils ; with cmos imagers, the row or column address sequence is simply reversed. but with ccd sensors it is necessary to build a mirror image sensor for one channel. the philips prism assembly ( center right ) has all three color channels laterally inverted and can thus use three similar ccds. the concept of cameras using three image pickups, one for each primary color, was first developed for color photography on three glass plates in the late nineteenth century, and in the 1960s through 1980s was the dominant method to record color images in television, as other possibilities to record more than one color on the video camera tube were difficult. three - ccd cameras are often referred to as " three - chip " cameras ; this term is actually more descriptive and inclusive, since it includes cameras that use cmos active pixel sensors instead of ccds. camcorders with three chips were called " 3ccd " earlier and some are still called " 3mos " ( derived from 3xcmos, panasonic ) today. dielectric mirrors can be produced as low - pass, high - pass, band - pass, or band - stop filters. in the example shown, a red and a blue mirror reflect the respective bands back, somewhat off axis. the angles are kept as small as practical to minimize polarization - dependent color effects. to reduce unwanted reflections, air - glass interfaces are minimized ; the image sensors may be attached to the exit faces with an index - matched optical epoxy, sometimes with an intervening color trim filter. the philips type prism includes an air gap with total internal reflection in one light path, while the other prism shown above does not. a typical bayer filter single - chip image sensor absorbs at least two - thirds of the visible light with its filters, while in a three - ccd sensor the filters absorb only stray light and invisible light, and possibly a little more for color tuning, so that the


page : popular science monthly volume 23. djvu / 236 by gordon a. stewart. the worst of our social evils, personal wrongs, and political sins arise from the ununiform operation of our marriage and divorce laws. the loose manner in which a contract of marriage may he entered into and the reckless facility with which a marriage contract may be dissolved are a disgrace to our high civilization and professed christianity. however learned commentators and jurists may differ as to the correct definition of marriage, it is not only a partially executed agreement to marry, but is a contract continuous in its obligations governing the status of the parties, until it is dissolved by the death of one of the parties, or by one of them obtaining a divorce for some wrongful or invalidating act committed by the other. in nearly all of the states marriage is recognized as a civil contract only, and has no ecclesiastical obligation so far as society and the state are concerned. the contracting parties are subjects of the law. the person performing the ceremony by which the contract is publicly acknowledged by the parties, whether he be magistrate, parson, or layman, becomes a civil officer by authority of the law for that occasion. generally, however, the marriage contract is solemnized by a clergyman, agreeably to the rules and regulations of the religious denomination to which he belongs, and for which one or the other of the parties has a religious attachment or preference ; or, because a religious solemnization in church gives a better opportunity to gratify the desire for social rivalry and display. but perhaps most persons, especially when young and looking forward to a long future of connubial happiness, consider the act of marriage more as a religious rite than a civil contract, and hence the forms and ceremonies of the church accord more agreeably with the sentiment of love and affection than the business - like and informal words of the magistrate, who, in response to their acknowledgment of intention to marry, simply pronounces them man and wife. this sentiment, no doubt, is largely the result of a lingering belief in marriage as a divine institution and a sacrament of the church, as taught when the ecclesiastical court had exclusive jurisdiction of marriage and divorce. it is perhaps not until later, not until they have become dissatisfied with the conditions of the solemn obligation they had agreed to faithfully perform through life, that they discover it is simply a civil contract that binds them, and from which the law has generously provided unlimited means of escape. lawful marriage is the basis of the


definition from wiktionary, the free dictionary double - dip ( plural double - dips ) - ( informal ) an ice cream cone with two scoops of ice cream. - we each got double - dips with chocolate on top and strawberry on the bottom. - ( roller coasters ) a hill that levels off for a while about halfway down. - ( informal ) to dip a piece of food ( e. g. a chip ) into a communal sauce container after already having taken a bite of the food. - i don ' t mind double - dipping when eating with my family, but i ' d be embarrassed to do it when out with friends. - ( informal ) to be illegitimately compensated a second time for the same activity. - he got caught double - dipping by billing the government directly as well as the primary contractor. - 2006, wulf kansteiner, in pursuit of german memory : history, television, and politics after auschwitz - they worried about the possibility that some forced laborers, in particular jewish survivors, might be double - dipping, that is, that they might be collecting compensation for their work as forced laborers while continuing to receive payments as holocaust survivors and thus absorbing funds that should be directed toward other groups of victims... - ( informal ) to draw a government pension or benefit for one job while also working in the government at another job or to draw two pensions at the same time as a result of reaching the retirement criteria twice for the same entity. - ( entertainment industry ) to re - release a movie or tv series, sometimes as a compilation or with additional features. - ( us, finance ) to use a single debt instrument to obtain interest tax expense ( and therefore a lower tax base ) in two or more tax jurisdictions. as long as the practice follows the tax law of each jurisdiction, the practice is legal and can be likened to the use of a tax loophole. - ( softball ) to defeat a team twice in the finals. - spc ladies double dipped the sudbury storm in the nsa canadian world series.


highlighting the history of french radio astronomy. 3 : the wurzburg antennas at marcoussis, meudon and nancay orchiston, wayne, lequeux, james, steinberg, jean - louis, and delannoy, jean ( 2007 ) highlighting the history of french radio astronomy. 3 : the wurzburg antennas at marcoussis, meudon and nancay. journal of astronomical history and heritage, 10 ( 3 ). pp. 221 - 245. | pdf ( published version ) - repository staff only - requires a pdf viewer such as gsview, xpdf or adobe acrobat reader | view at publisher website : http : / / www. jcu. edu. au / school / mathphys / as... during the 1940s and 1950s ex - world war ii 7. 5m worzburg radar antennas played a crucial role in the early development of radio astronomy in a number of european nations. one of these was france, where three different antennas began to be used during the late 1940s. two of these were associated with the ecole normale superieure in paris, and were in itially sited at marcoussis, near paris, before being transferred to the nan9ay field station in 1957. the third worzburg antenna was used by staff from the institut d ' astrophysique de paris, and was installed at meudon observatory on the outskirts of paris. this paper describes the three antennas, lists the personnel involved. discusses the observations made, evaluates the significance of this research in a national and international context, and comments on their current whereabouts. | item type : | | article ( refereed research - c1 ) | reproduced with permission from journal of astronomical history and heritage | keywords : | | astronomical history ; radio astronomy | | for codes : | | 02 physical sciences > 0299 other physical sciences > 029999 physical sciences not elsewhere classified @ 100 % | | seo codes : | | 97 expanding knowledge > 970102 expanding knowledge in the physical sciences @ 100 % | | deposited on : | | 07 may 2009 15 : 59 | | last modified : | | 10 nov 2011 18 : 02 | last 12 months : 0 repository staff only : item control page


esrl science making a difference in real - time gps positioning scientists at esrl ' s global systems division ( gsd ) are known for transferring their advances in science and technology to operations and have made exciting progress with a product called noaatrop. noaatrop was developed to improve gps positioning, navigation and timing accuracy using real - time weather data. the california spatial reference center ( csrc ) at scripps institution of oceanography recently started using noaatrop for real - time engineering applications in southern california. " this is the first known operational application of a weather model being used to improve high accuracy gps surveying, " said seth gutman, noaa scientist whose years of research at esrl ' s global systems division in boulder have made this advancement possible. almost everyone has heard of gps - the satellite global positioning system. gps was developed by the u. s. department of defense to tell us basically three things - where we are, how to get where we want to be, and what time it is right now. this is commonly referred to as " pnt " which stands for positioning, navigation, and timing. gps is a " dual - use " system in that it has both military and civilian applications. to facilitate the development of civilian applications, the u. s. government makes the radio signals broadcast by the gps satellites available to every user free of fees. as a result of this policy, a multi - billion dollar industry has developed to exploit the benefits of gps for civilian applications. for example, a commercial gps navigation system in your car tells you where you are on an electronic map that is constantly updated as you move. computer software in the navigation system tells you the best route to take to get to your destination. wireless communications between your navigation system and a traffic management system tell you the best route to take to avoid delays or hazards. according to gutman, " the largest source of pnt error comes from the slowing and bending of the gps radio signals as they pass through the earth ' s atmosphere " scientists involved in using gps for very high accuracy positioning applications, like the ones at noaa ' s national geodetic survey, developed techniques to treat the atmosphere as a source of noise or measurement error and remove it to improve their gps positioning accuracy. gutman continued, " we realized that most of the " noise " actually comes from water vapor in the lower atmosphere, and that improved ways to monitor water vapor would lead to improved weather forecasts and climate monitoring. " the operational use of this new and here


continued, " we realized that most of the " noise " actually comes from water vapor in the lower atmosphere, and that improved ways to monitor water vapor would lead to improved weather forecasts and climate monitoring. " the operational use of this new and heretofore unavailable water vapor information by the national centers for environmental prediction ( figure 1 ) has resulted in substantial improvement in u. s. weather forecast accuracy in recent years. it did not take long for esrl scientists to realize that if they could use gps data to improve weather forecasts, then improved weather model assimilating gps observations could probably be used to estimate and correct for the atmospheric signal delays that are a major source of gps pnt error. to verify this, they developed noaatrop, a model that uses the esrl rapid update cycle ( ruc ) weather prediction model to calculate real - time atmospheric correctors for high accuracy gps positioning applications. figure 2 is a map of the continental u. s. highlighting three regions where the use of the noaatrop model has been independently evaluated by three universities. the table in this figure compares gps positioning accuracy using the noaatrop model with the accuracy achieved using a conventional correction method known as the saastamoinen model. this model does not use information about the atmosphere per se, but uses information about how the atmosphere changes on average over north america. the smallest improvement in real - time positioning accuracy ( about 9 % ) is seen in the southeast u. s. where moisture variability is high and terrain relief is low. the largest improvement ( about 25 % ) is seen in the western u. s. ( california ) where moisture variability is low but terrain relief is high. in between is the great lakes region ( michigan ) where terrain and moisture variability vary widely. the improvement here is better than 16 %. the ruc forecast model is reinitialized every hour using the latest observations including approximately 300 gps precipitable water vapor measurements made every half - hour over the united states. " ruc is the highest frequency noaa weather model and particularly well suited for this unique real - time application, " stated gutman. figure 3 illustrates how it works. initial tests in california using noaatrop as part of the csrc height modernization project were very positive, yielding 15 - 25 % improvement in accuracy with the greatest improvement shown in height measurements made during rapidly changing weather conditions. " from csrc ' s perspective, using noaatrop increases the accuracy and productivity of field surveys for its user community,


pashtunwal - the code of the pashtuns in the pashto language, " - wal " is a suffix that most strongly resembles " - ness " in english. pashtunwal, sometimes jokingly translated as " pashtunity ", is the traditional code of ethics and behavior for ethnic pashtuns. the pashtuns have a dubious and likely impenetrable ancient history. oral tradition post - islam is that the pashtuns are a lost tribe of israel, and will compose the most important part of the mahdi army during the end times. interestingly enough, there are a few shreds of genetic evidence to support the claim, but nothing conclusive. scattered accounts of various tribes of the region in the histories of herodotus and his predecessors seem to indicate that the ancestors of today ' s pashtuns have existed largely unchanged for thousands and thousands of years. it should be no surprise then, that an extremely tribal society based on the ideal of the warrior - poet should not fail to produce a fairly consistent and rigid code of behavior, even without the advantage of a written language. pashtunwal, sometimes called a code of honor, is passed down not just as a set of stories, but as the fabric of pashtun society. there are several general principles that show up with consistent emphasis. they are, in english alphabetical order : aitbar ; badal ; jirga ; melmastia ; nanawatey ; namus ; nang ; saz ; and tor. there are of course many, many more parts and sub - parts, some of which will be detailed along with the major points., or " to trust ", is an acknowledgement and systemization of the reality of conducting contractual business without a written language. the customs of aitbar include the public swearing of oaths, and conducting contractual business like the sale of land with respected witnesses, usually tribal elders and members of family. translates variously to " exchange ", " reciprocation ", and " retribution ", depending on the context. it is chiefly the latter with which the idea of badal in the context of pashtunwal is concerned. in fact, badal is often translated as " vengeance ". badal takes many forms, practically speaking, but is generally seen in the form of long - held grudges and feuds. there is a very strong tradition of retribution in kind, particularly for injuries or murders, and the problem


word, nang would be it. however, it ' s not untranslatable, it just requires quite a bit of illustration and explication. one ' s nang would be preserved by killing a rival ' s son in retaliation for the death of one ' s own son even if it meant escalating an exchange of badal. one ' s nang would be utterly destroyed by killing, accidentally, in the course of badal, or otherwise, a rival ' s daughter. one ' s nang would be preserved by the ritual murder or forced suicide of one ' s own daughter who sullies her own namus by sneaking off with a boy. one ' s nang would be tarnished perhaps beyond repair by covering the incident up and trying to backdate a marriage proposal with the boy ' s family. in the incident above, the boy ' s own nang would be severely damaged, and in fact, his life is probably forfeit to preserve the nang and namus of his family and avoid badal. ( for this particular instance, see " tor " below ) one ' s nang would be strengthened by accepting the nanawatey and blood money from the person who accidentally killed your brother. one ' s nang would be restored for offering nanawatey and paying the blood price for accidentally killing someone ' s brother. one ' s nang would be ruined for not carrying out badal, or, on the flipside, for letting badal drag on to the detriment of the family or tribe when one is originally at fault. also known as " swarah ", saz is compensation for murder, often known in english as blood money. it is sometimes money or other tangibles, but also often takes the form of intermarriage ; one who is penitent for murder, or wishes to go beyond nanawatey will approach the jirga and make the offer to pay saz. this is sometimes a direct offer, and sometimes the result of the jirga ' s mediation, and will be very much driven by individual circumstance and standards. the acceptance of saz by the wronged party carries with it complete forgiveness and in the case of intermarriage, usually very close future ties between the families in question. intermarriage for grievances is usually a very complex social and political game ; the severity of the grievance, the social standing of both families, the available matches, and more will all go into determining the match. in some


. intermarriage for grievances is usually a very complex social and political game ; the severity of the grievance, the social standing of both families, the available matches, and more will all go into determining the match. in some instances, the marriage of one ' s best daughter to the other ' s finest son is just barely sufficient ; in other cases, having one ' s least desirable daughter marry off to the wronged party ' s distant cousin is enough. tor literally translates as " black ", but is used in the pashto language to mean many things, including blame, accusation, wrongdoing, guilt, and shame. as a concept relating to pashtunwal, tor is the absolute and inflexible treatment of violations of namus. given that description, in a typically contradictory and paradoxical fashion, tor is situation - dependent. for example, if a couple elopes without permission, but are officially married ( usually by a sympathetic or unwitting outside mullah ) they may only face essential exile from their entire extended families, with the families both suffering a good deal of embarrassment. however, in the case of adultery or premarital relations of any sort, even between a couple who is formally betrothed, the punishment is almost always death for both, to cleanse the namus of both families and avoid badal. in the case of rape, the woman is traditionally not held responsible, though there is usually unfortunately a social stigma. instead, the rapist is handed over, usually by his own family, to the woman ' s family. the woman ' s family has, essentially, two options : they can kill him, or hand him over to the jirga, who will almost always sentence him to death in any case. if he is handed over to the jirga, his family avoids badal by disowning the son prior to his execution. if the woman ' s family kills him, the family is effectively exiled from the community. in the event that the rapist ' s family refuses to hand him over, or he flees justice, the woman ' s family has the right to kill the rapist ' s brother or father, and in some cases the entire male line. even if the rapist ' s brother or father are killed in his place, his life is still considered forfeit and it is not uncommon for the male relatives of the woman to hunt him down later. one saying regarding tor is " یوازی تو


posted aug 24, 2003 by joe otten the thing that has always puzzled me about black holes is what happens to the entropy of objects that fall into them? by its description, a single infinitely dense point seems to have a very low entropy. but if we then let a high entropy object fall into a black hole, we appear to have a contradiction to the second law of thermodynamics. this topic is an active one in the field of astrophysics and quantum gravitation. in general, however, it is required of a black hole that its event horizon always increase, much like the total entropy of a closed system ( i. e. - the universe ). this thought lead to the hypothesis that a black hole ' s entropy is proportional to its event horizon ' s surface area. this came to be the bekenstein - hawking formula : if a black hole has an entropy, then it follows all the other laws of thermodynamics and has a temperature, also. so the black hole will radiate energy. this is where things start getting fuzzy. how can something that is impossible to escape radiate anything? i ' m afraid i don ' t know much about what ' s new in that field of thought. thanks for that. there is hawking radiation, but i guess that is not what you are talking about. could it be a mistake to consider a black hole demarcated by its event horizon to be an object, and thus to apply thermodynamic principles to that object. after all the event horizon is not a physical structure and need not be in the same place from one moment to the next. ( that episode of voyager where the ship was stuck inside the event horizon of a black hole, looking for a crack to get out would have been hilarious if it had been slightly less obtuse. ) the natural answer is that the laws of physics break down in a black hole. the entropy just vanishes. entropy is a property of the universe, and all properties of the universe break down at the event horizo of a black hole. please note that not panicking ltd is not responsible for the content of any external sites listed. the content on h2g2 is created by h2g2 ' s researchers, who are members of the public. unlike edited guide entries, the content on this page has not necessarily been checked by a h2g2 editor. in the event that you consider anything on this page to be in breach of the site '


[ privatier ] wrote in to let us know about lxardoscope, his project that lets you use an arduino as hardware input for a linux - based oscilloscope display. this implementation offers two channels with about 3000 samples per second from each. he touts some of the gui options like vertical resolution between 2mv and 10v per division. that part kind of stumps us because we don ’ t see how a measurement of 10v ( or more ) can be taken using the schematic included. but you ’ re comprehension may surpass ours so do take a look yourself. he is using an arduino uno for his testing. but to get around some issues he ’ s experienced with other usb - based solutions he implemented a serial port connection instead. you ’ ll need to remove the atmega chip from the arduino board after flashing the code to it, and then build a circuit around it which includes a power source where - 2. 5v is ground and 2. 5v is vcc. all in all, you ’ ll need a 16 mhz crystal, hef4069 hex inverter, atmega8 - family microcontroller, and a few passive components to build this on a breadboard.


the sample based on a percentage click the percentage option, then type the value that represents the percentage of all the features you want to include in the sample in the text box. note : the value specified for the percentage is divided by 100. for example, if you want to sample 50 percent of the features, type 50 not. 5. to create the sample based on automatic calculation click the auto calculate option, then click the confidence level drop - down arrow to choose the confidence level for the data, click the margin of error drop - down arrow to choose the acceptable margin of error for the data, or click the acceptable error drop - down arrow and choose the acceptable level of error for the sample. to create the sample using a polygon grid click the use grid option. click the drop - down arrow in the grid parameters area to choose the polygon grid or click browse to load one. click the unique id field drop - down arrow and choose the field that contains the field you want to use to identify the grid cell. type the number of cells you want to use in the sample in the number of grids to sample text box. tip : the value you choose from the unique id field drop - down list populates the qc _ grid cell in the reviewer table. - if necessary, type descriptive text for the check results in the notes text box in the reviewer remarks area. if necessary, click the severity drop - down arrow and choose a value that indicates the priority of the check ' s results in the reviewer remarks area. the severity indicates the importance of the check result. the values range from 1 to 5, with 1 being the highest priority and 5 being the lowest. click the run data check button on the data reviewer toolbar. the features to validate dialog box appears. choose an option in the features to validate area. - selection set — the check is run on the features that are currently selected in the map. - current extent — the check is run on the current map extent, which is controlled by the map scale. - definition query — the check is run on the features that are displayed based on definition queries that have been created for the feature class. - full database — the check is run on all the features in the feature class. to run the check only on features that have been edited in a versioned workspace, check the changed features only check box. the changed features only option is available only for a versioned database. - click ok. a progress window appears while the sample is being


handwaved answer to your first question is that the national identity as a big thing likely emerged as a result of a 30 - year - war ( more specifically, peace of westphalia ), with nation - state being an efficient unit for maintaining balance of power that the westphalian system demanded. to quote from wiki : the edicts agreed upon during the signing of the peace of westphalia were instrumental in laying the foundations for what are even today considered the basic tenets of the sovereign nation - state. aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal ( as well as for the newer ones created afterwards ), the peace of westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. in earlier times, people had tended to have overlapping political and religious loyalties. now, it was agreed that the citizenry of a respective nation were subjected first and foremost to the laws and whims of their own respective government rather than to those of neighboring powers, be they religious or secular. why has national identity or being part of a country, become so important, as opposed to being part of a neighborhood, a city or the whole world? as far as why not whole world, it ' s not an easy question. the best answer probably lies in the fact that anything beyond a nation usually has has too divergent interests, and is too large to effectively govern long term absent a strong central tyrant ( see alexander ' s empire, or ghengizids ). you can see it happening in eu issues in 2011 - greeks and germans just can ' t exist as a single unit, since either one culture will feel as if they are being taken advantage of ( germans don ' t want to pay for " lazy not - working - enough greeks " social spending ), or some strong central power - which doesn ' t exist in europe - must mandate and enforce uniform rules. as far as " why not city / neighborhood " - because the modern system of the world, both military and industrial and economy, makes things much more efficient when unification synergies are realized, and make the world uniform enough ( due to literacy / printing press, among other things - thus peace of westphalia as a start ) that uniting many cities into a nation doesn ' t present that much of a conflict of interest. answer to your second question is " absolutely yes ". as a random example, plenty of immigrants from ussr to usa feel 100 % american and zero percent either soviet or russian. if you want a reference to specific example, you are reading his writing this


a bit of gyan ( knowledge ) the internet is maturing at an extremely fast rate day - by - day, and the world - wide - web ( www ) has become a central hub for information available worldwide. nowadays, communication between the far ends of the world has become trivial. the dot - com boom happened in the mid - 1990 ′ s and companies have started depending hugely on the internet since then. this has paved way to a huge number of possibilities, along with risks. companies and customers and retailers can buy and sell online and e - commerce has become substantially important because of this. what i ’ ve found is that however fast technology grows, people ’ s minds don ’ t change. no matter how secure you tend to keep your transaction between the client and server, e - commerce ’ s growth has not increased very much because of the constant fear in people ’ s minds – “ how can i trust this fellow when i cannot even see him? what if i pay online but don ’ t get my package? ”. a typical example is the huge number of credit card frauds over the decades, which has just increased the fear in people ’ s minds. each time a vulnerability is discovered on a particular website, it has been exploited and has incurred huge losses for the company hosting that website. time and again, people have tried to keep websites as secure as possible. theoretically, algorithms ( used in security ) have been proven to be secure ( till date ) and yet, attackers have always found ways and means to breach security. in my opinion, it is just plain ignorance of the designer to ignore the security aspects to make his work easier. though development of technology is rapidly increasing and we learn new things everyday, secure coding practices are not learnt in the process. this in turn leads to security holes in the implementation of software, which are then exploited by attackers causing huge losses to companies. let ’ s try to answer some simple questions : - how do you host webpages over the world - wide - web? - in most cases, web pages are accessed using the http ( s ) or ( s ) ftp protocols. if a person wants to host a website over the world - wide - web, ( s ) he has to first register his / her domain name. this means that the domain name will get mapped to a particular ip address which is reachable from anywhere in the world ( called as ‘ public ip ’ ). next, the person has to enable the website to be accessible from the machine having the assigned ip


means that the domain name will get mapped to a particular ip address which is reachable from anywhere in the world ( called as ‘ public ip ’ ). next, the person has to enable the website to be accessible from the machine having the assigned ip address, which is generally done using a web server to host his / her website. now, the website is available to anyone who either knows the public ip or the registered domain name. - what programming language can be used while implementing the same? - there are a huge number of scripting languages available, which designers can use to create websites. examples are php, jsp, asp, etc. programming constructs differ in each language, but end up doing the same things. there is also cgi ( common gateway interface ) where you can use scripting languages such as python, perl, ruby, etc. to do the same job. - what should one do to make my web application secure? - this question cannot be answered in one paragraph. anyway, i ’ ll try listing a few : - firstly, it requires a good knowledge of the exact working of the code which designers write. talking with an example, it means that knowing that “ strcpy ( ) ” function copies one string to another is not enough, but rather the programmer needs to know how exactly it copies and why it is made so. - secondly, the programmer who implements the software needs to have deep knowledge about secure coding practices – what, why and how. secure coding practices try to ensure that there are minimal security holes in software being designed, thus ensuring safety, security and stability of software. other factors such as reliability, integrity tag along if these conditions are met. now, based on the three questions answered above, we can come to a standpoint as to what factors determine how secure a website is. in decreasing order of importance and difficulty : - knowledge of the programmer. - network layout being used. - configurations being used in software. we know that the only way to access a website hosted on a public ip is through the internet. without the internet, the world - wide - web becomes a big joke. when we look at how the internet is designed, we see that networking plays a huge role. hence, the protocols being implemented during transfer of data have to be secure. no matter how secure the application is, if the networking protocols being implemented are insecure, security is threatened. this is one basic fact that all web designers have to understand. most of the devices used in the internet today


data have to be secure. no matter how secure the application is, if the networking protocols being implemented are insecure, security is threatened. this is one basic fact that all web designers have to understand. most of the devices used in the internet today, use the 5 layer hybrid protocol stack. this protocol stack is known to be insecure, and is prone to mitm attacks ( dns cache poisoning, arp spoofing, ip spoofing, etc. ) management of a website is normally done through configuration settings. these configuration settings determine how users of the website can access data and with what level of permissions. these configuration settings for the website can be divided into two parts – configurations of web server and the configurations of the user who is accessing the website. configurations of the web server mean those configurations which affect all users accessing the website, whereas user - specific configurations apply to single users accessing the website. an example of a web - server configuration is the “ directory listing ” option, where a user can list the contents of a directory accessible through the website, without a webpage displaying it. an example of a user - specific configuration is the access control being specified to each user, controlled by an acl ( access control list ). programming languages sometimes influence how these user - specific configurations are specified. can we make the world - wide - web ‘ entirely ’ secure? a simple answer would be “ entirely secure?! i don ’ t think so! ”. but there are a lot of factors to consider while answering this question. let ’ s look at some of them. firstly, the programmer implementing the software has a good knowledge of secure coding practices. he / she has to know exactly how the code is being implemented and how secure it is. this is where programming languages play an important role. some programming languages provide very high - level programming constructs to make the job easier for the programmer, but this actually blinds the programmer from the inner implementation of the constructs and how secure they are. thus security does not only rely on how the the programmer codes, but also how the code is being implemented by the compiler / interpreter of that particular programming language. the programmer has to take care of this, carefully considering the programming language that is being used and how it is actually being implemented. there isn ’ t much that can be done about the security level of the entire protocol stack. this is because if we have to modify the protocols in the protocol stack to make it secure ( below the application layer ), then


is actually being implemented. there isn ’ t much that can be done about the security level of the entire protocol stack. this is because if we have to modify the protocols in the protocol stack to make it secure ( below the application layer ), then we would have to change the firmware in every hub, switch, router and computer all around the world. for a long time, people have been changing the protocols at the application layer to secure ones ( such as ssl ), trying to prevent mitm attacks at the application layer. but then we have to understand that whatever is done on the application layer is specific only to that layer. the security mechanisms used in the application layer are totally blind to attacks happening at the lower layers. thus, if we actually would have to make the network layout totally secure, that wouldn ’ t be possible. but what we can do is to provide more encryption mechanisms at the application layer, hoping for the best. so from the network point of view, the world - wide - web is still insecure and will continue to be until the entire protocol stack can be made secure. in most of today ’ s websites, vulnerabilities arise due to insecure configurations being used. the programmer is lazy, thus leaving insecure configurations on the website, paving way for information leak and potential exploits. though this is relatively easier to handle when compared to the other factors, it is important when it comes to security of a website. the very need of security arises because of the fact – all of us are not responsible citizens. there would be no need for policemen if there were no thieves. but this is definitely not achievable, because changing hardware and software is a lot easier than changing people! there is a reason that i ’ ve said that “ knowledge of the programmer ” is more important and harder to achieve than “ making the network layout secure ”. what i mean is that it is easier to change all the hubs, switches, routers and computers all over the world to achieve security, than to strive to achieve that every programmer has to have the knowledge of secure coding practices! during my under - graduation, a professor had once said “ it is a never - ending race between designers, attackers and security experts ”. designers keep developing technology, while attackers keep finding security holes in the implementation of that technology, and security experts try to come up with workarounds to patch these holes. this seems to be true, not only with computers, but with any technology used in this world! we


the theme of 4aos is big stuff - astronomy - and small stuff - macro and microscopy - and anything else that takes my fancy in between. the title, the four ages of sand, is taken from a speech by the great douglas adams in 1998 : " there are some oddities in the perspective with which we see the world. the fact that we live at the bottom of a deep gravity well, on the surface of a gas covered planet going around a nuclear fireball 90 million miles away and think this is perfectly normal is obviously some indication of how skewed our perspective tends to be, but we have done various things over intellectual history to slowly correct some of our misapprehensions. curiously enough, quite a few of these have come from sand, so let ' s talk about the four ages of sand... " we use sand to make glass, glass to make lenses, and lenses to make telescopes. through astronomy, we discovered the universe was a very different place than we expected, and so began the first age of sand. next we used lenses to make microscopes and discovered that life itself was very different to what we had believed. then we discovered something else we can make from sand : silicon chips. the computer is the basis of the next stage in our intellectual evolution ; the third of sand. what else can we make from sand? fibre - optics. fibre - optics allowed us to connect computers together, and the fourth age of sand - the internet - was born.


for function calls, this is the name of the function. for complex expressions, the system will generate a generic name. the as keyword is optional, but only if the new column name does not match any postgresql keyword ( see appendix c ). to avoid an accidental match to a keyword, you can double - quote the column name. for example, value is a keyword, so this does not work : select a value, b + c as sum from... but this does : select a " value ", b + c as sum from... for protection against possible future keyword additions, it is recommended that you always either write as or double - quote the output column name. note : the naming of output columns here is different from that done in the from clause ( see section 184. 108. 40. 206 ). it is possible to rename the same column twice, but the name assigned in the select list is the one that will be passed on. after the select list has been processed, the result table can optionally be subject to the elimination of duplicate rows. the distinct key word is written directly after select to specify this : select distinct select _ list... ( instead of distinct the key word all can be used to specify the default behavior of retaining all rows. ) obviously, two rows are considered distinct if they differ in at least one column value. null values are considered equal in this comparison. alternatively, an arbitrary expression can determine what rows are to be considered distinct : select distinct on ( expression [, expression... ] ) select _ list... here expression is an arbitrary value expression that is evaluated for all rows. a set of rows for which all the expressions are equal are considered duplicates, and only the first row of the set is kept in the output. note that the " first row " of a set is unpredictable unless the query is sorted on enough columns to guarantee a unique ordering of the rows arriving at the distinct filter. ( distinct on processing occurs after order by sorting. ) the distinct on clause is not part of the sql standard and is sometimes considered bad style because of the potentially indeterminate nature of its results. with judicious use of group by and subqueries in from, this construct can be avoided, but it is often the most convenient alternative.


this size would have 7 - day q2 values ranging from 0. 1 to 1. 0 cfs. skelton ( 1976 ) also estimated that the 7 - day q10 would be zero for drainage basins less than 200 miles2 in this region, with about 70 % of the streams with drainage basins of 200 to 1, 000 miles2 having 7 - day q10 values of zero. the remaining 30 % would have 7 - day q10 values ranging from 0. 1 to 1. 5 cfs. data from the platte river basin for seven day low - flows at two and ten year intervals were reported in skelton ( 1970 ) and skelton ( 1976 ), and these are presented in table hy06. the slope index ( the ratio of the 7 - day q2 to 7 - day q20 ) for the platte river at agency was 73. 3, and this high value indicates extremely high variability in annual low flows and poor groundwater supply. the average slope index for ten streams within the dissected till plains region was 25 ( todd et al. 1994 ), and ranged from 8. 7 in the grand river near gallatin to 73. 3 for the platte river. channelization and watershed modifications were attributed to the wide range in slope index values within northern missouri ( todd et al. 1994 ). dam and hydropower influences smithville lake, a 7, 190 - acre impoundment on the little platte river, and mozingo lake, a 1, 000 - acre impoundment on mozingo creek, are the two largest impoundments within the basin. in 1984, there were 59 impoundments greater than two surface acres within the missouri portion of the basin, and these totaled 635 acres ( mdnr 1995 ). although no information exists on the total number of impoundments within the iowa portion of the basin, ten public impoundments totaling 1, 042 acres were identified. undoubtedly, the number of impoundments greater than two acres has increased dramatically throughout the basin since 1984 in association with pl 83 - 566, salt, earth, and other erosion control projects. concern exists on what effects these impoundments have on low flow conditions because they intercept runoff and provide little or no provisions for maintenance of stream flows. there are no hydropower facilities within the platte river basin.


about this base converter base - 2 to base - 62 are accepted. " a " stands for 10, " z " for 35, " a " ( lower - case ) for 36 and " z " ( lower - case ) for 61. decimals are supported. this is a custom function because php ' s base _ convert ( ) doesn ' t accept decimals and only goes up to base - 36. it ' s only as precise as php is, so don ' t blindly copy the smallest decimal thinking it will always be correct. is there any standard for displaying numbers higher than base - 36? i ' ve used lowercase letters to go up to base - 62, but i couldn ' t find if that ' s what is commonly done. ( then again, i guess nothing is commonly done, since anything beyond base - 16 doesn ' t really have much use, to my knowledge. ) fun game : enter your name and supply base - 36 ( or higher ) as the starting base and see what number you get in another base. my first name in base - 38 for instance returns epkco in base - 42. what ' s this about? a base is the system with which numbers are displayed. if we talk about base - n, the system has n characters ( including 0 ) available to display a number. numbers are represented with digits which are smaller than n. therefore, 3 in base - 3 is 10 : because that system doesn ' t have a " 3 ", it starts over ( 1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 100, etc. ). the base we usually use is base - 10, because we have 10 ( when including 0 ) digits until we start over again ( 8, 9, 10 ). in base - 2 ( binary ), we only have 2 characters, i. e. 0 and 1, until we start over again. following this example, the binary number 10 is 2 in our ( base - 10 ) system. does it make sense that a finite fraction ( " decimal " ) is infinite in another base? it totally does. if you want to convert 645 from base - 8 to base - 10, you do 6 * 82 + 4 * 81 + 5 * 80 = 421. after the comma you keep on decrementing the exponent, meaning that if you have 21. 35 in base - 7 you get to its base - 10 equivalent by doing 2 * 71 + 1 * 70 + 3 * 7 -


by gina trapani everyone ' s got files they ' d like to keep out the the hands of intruders or casual passerby. ever concerned you ' ll lose the thumb drive where you backed up four years of post - graduate research? every worried your 5 - year - old will accidentally open the um, grownup files just meant for mommy and daddy? worry no more. today we ' ll go over a simple way to encrypt sensitive files or entire external disk drives to protect them from prying eyes. recently - featured truecrypt is a free, open source encryption application that works on windows and linux. given the right credentials, truecrypt will create a virtual hard drive that will read and write encrypted files on the fly. huh - wha? fear not ; this ' ll make sense once we get it set up. let ' s get started. set up the encrypted volume location - download truecrypt, install and launch. - hit the " create volume " button to launch the wizard that prepares the encrypted drive location. choose " create a standard truecrypt volume " and hit next. hit the " select file " button and navigate to a location to store your encrypted files and type a name for it. i ' m going with " c : \ documents and settings \ gina \ my documents \ gtrapani. 4meonly " as shown. ( click to enlarge. ) ( that. 4meonly extension is my own creation ; your file can have any - or no - extension. ) keep in mind that this isn ' t the file you want to encrypt ; it ' s a big file container that will store the files you want encrypted all scrambled up like eggs inside it. hit next. - choose your encryption algorithm. the curious can flip through the dropdown and view info on each option, but you pretty much can ' t go wrong here ; the default aes selection will work for most purposes. ( hey, if it works for top secret government files, it probably will work for you. ) hit next. choose the size of the virtual drive - for example, 100mb, as shown. ( click to enlarge. ) yes, it ' s a pain to have to commit to a size beforehand, but the advantage here is that the file will always look like it ' s exactly 100mb, giving no hint to the actual size of its


to enlarge. ) yes, it ' s a pain to have to commit to a size beforehand, but the advantage here is that the file will always look like it ' s exactly 100mb, giving no hint to the actual size of its contents. hit next. - choose your volume password. truecrypt wants something totally badass, like 20 characters with letters and numbers mixed together, something hard to crack. the whole point here is to keep snoopers at bay, so make your password reasonably difficult to crack or guess. - format the " volume. " this part is cool : truecrypt gathers random information from your system - including the location of your mouse pointer - to format the file drive location with random data to make it impossible to read. hit the format button to go ahead with this operation, which may slow down your computer for a few seconds. ( and don ' t be scared by the word " format " ; you ' re not erasing your hard drives or anything, you ' re just formatting the drive location file - in this example, the gtrapani. 4meonly file - you just created. ) congrats! your encrypted volume location is ready for use. store and retrieve files from the encrypted volume now you ' ve got a truecrypt file that can hold all your highly - sensitive data files locked up tight as a drum. here ' s how to get to it. - from truecrypt, choose " select file " and navigate to the volume file you created above, as shown. ( click to enlarge. ) - select an available drive letter from the list in truecrypt, like z :. hit the " mount " button, and enter the volume password you created above. - if you enter the correct password, the virtual drive z : will be mounted. go to my computer and listed alongside all the other drives on your computer, there will be a new one listed " local disk z :. " drag and drop all your sensitive data to this drive and work from it as if you would any other disk. - once you ' re finished working with the data, in truecrypt, select the mounted drive ( like z : ) and hit the " dismount " button. the z : drive will no longer be available, and all you ' ll have left is the gtrapani. 4meonly file you created, which can be dropped onto a thumb drive, email