{"text": "below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 467 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research 13 conclusions and recommendations : an agenda for the next decade when president roosevelt announced in 1937 that \u201c one third of our nation are ill housed, ill clad, ill nourished, \u201d our country was galvanized into action. yet today, when careful population studies tell us that as many as one third of american adults will suffer a diagnosable mental disorder sometime in their life and that 20 percent have a mental disorder at any given time, there is little alarm. the institute of medicine ' s committee on prevention of mental disorders believes that strong action is warranted, and with this report it calls on the nation to mount a significant program to prevent mental disorders. although research on the causes and treatment of mental disorders remains vitally important \u2014 and indeed major advances are leading to better lives for increasing numbers of people \u2014 much greater effort than ever before needs to be directed to prevention. public health experience has shown that when a critical mass of knowledge regarding a specific health problem accumulates and a core group of expert researchers have been identified, the time is ripe for launching a larger, coordinated research and training endeavor. the committee believes that such a moment has arrived for the field of mental health. opportunities now exist to effectively exploit existing knowledge to launch a promising research agenda on the prevention of mental disorders. therefore the committee strongly recommends that an enhanced research agenda to prevent mental disorders be initiated and supported across all relevant federal agencies, including, but not limited to, the departments of health and human services, education, justice, labor, defense, and ocr for page 468 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research housing and urban development, as well as state governments, universities, and private foundations. this agenda should facilitate development in three major areas : building the infrastructure to coordinate research and service programs and to train and support new investigators. expanding the knowledge base for preventive interventions. conducting", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5330387806539232, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.334754"} {"text": "application of definitions has made it virtually impossible to assess the current activities and expenditures in preventive intervention research ; ( 2 ) duplication of research activities and the lack of piggybacking of smaller projects onto larger ones contribute to waste of dollars and time, and, at the same time, gaps in research go undetected ; ( 3 ) agencies conduct research or provide interventions for mental disorders ( including addictions ), educational disabilities, criminal behavior, and physical disorders as though these were separate conditions, whereas, more often than not, coexisting disorders or problems occur ; and ( 4 ) agencies have different strengths ; for example, some are better at applying rigorous research methodologies to intervention programs, whereas others are better at reaching out into communities and forging alliances. in arriving at its recommendations about coordination, the committee reviewed various alternatives. the decisions to be made include ( 1 ) how best to coordinate the various relevant activities, ( 2 ) where the coordination function should reside within the federal government, and ( 3 ) staffing and funding issues. the structure and function of the coordination mechanism are inextricably intertwined, so decisions 1 and 2 above cannot be readily separated. staff and funding should be attached to the coordination mechanism wherever it is located. four alternatives were considered regarding where the coordination function should reside. although the committee does express a preference for coordination at the highest possible level, it believes that establishing a successful coordination mechanism across federal departments is more important than the details of where it is housed. initially, the committee considered the model of putting a coordination role in one agency, such as the national institute of mental health ( nimh ) or the national institutes of health ' s ( nih ) office of disease prevention. locating the coordination role in a single agency is a natural way to keep coordination close to the science, because the personnel in nimh or the director ' s office at nih are likely to be more closely connected to the scientific network than those higher in the government. although single agencies have mediated coordination among other parts of the same department and even among branches of different executive departments in the past, the breadth and extent of the need for multiagency collaboration in this case make a single agency lead seem unrealistic. one possible exception is the centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ), which has a public health mandate for ocr for page 470 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research prevention activities and considerable experience in working collaboratively with federal, state, and local agencies. coordination from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5162959751012263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.337455"} {"text": "and prevention ( cdc ), which has a public health mandate for ocr for page 470 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research prevention activities and considerable experience in working collaboratively with federal, state, and local agencies. coordination from an office within one department that serves as an umbrella over several relevant agencies is a second alternative. the office of the assistant secretary for health within the department of health and human services ( dhhs ) already contains an office for disease prevention and health promotion. this office could be charged with forming a subcommittee or task group to focus specifically on the coordination of research aimed at preventing mental disorders and substance abuse. these preventive efforts share many features with other disorders already subject to coordination within this office, but the involvement of the criminal justice system, the educational system, child and spousal protective services, civilian and military family support services, and other nonmedical services necessarily encompasses activities in an even broader array of federal agencies. many of these services are housed in entirely separate cabinet departments. the committee thus believes that coordination at the departmental level is preferable to coordination by a single agency ( with the possible exception of cdc ), but the nature of the problem may well necessitate a higher - level coordination mechanism. as a third alternative, the committee considered models developed within congress, such as the physician payment review commission ( pprc ) and the prospective payment assessment commission ( propac ), for which appointments are made by an independent body \u2014 the office of technology assessment. the question regarding these models is how well they would work in the prevention field, where many of the activities center on coordination of ongoing programs conducted within the executive branch. as a fourth alternative, the committee considered other successful models \u2014 the ongoing white house conferences, various presidential commissions, and the office of science and technology policy ( ostp ) \u2014 within the white house. ostp was originally created by president eisenhower to focus national attention on science ; after being disbanded, it was reestablished by president ford upon the recommendation of the national academy of sciences ( 1974 ). this model has three components : ( 1 ) an office having coordinating responsibility regarding national science policy, ( 2 ) an individual who serves as the president ' s science advisor, and ( 3 ) a council with expertise in a broad range of scientific matters. the advantages of having a coordination structure under the white house are that it is at a natural level for coordinating activities of different cabinet departments and that it places a premium on interagency cooperation, which the committee believes is an essential element. o", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5168218809640969, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.338597"} {"text": "matters. the advantages of having a coordination structure under the white house are that it is at a natural level for coordinating activities of different cabinet departments and that it places a premium on interagency cooperation, which the committee believes is an essential element. ocr for page 471 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research the committee thus leans toward the establishment of an overarching federal council, operated out of the white house office of science and technology policy or another coordinating office within the executive office of the president, to coordinate preventive intervention research. it recognizes that research and services related to the prevention of mental disorders have high relevance to the many other agendas and priorities of congress and the president. these include the lack of high - quality education, deteriorating cities, drug problems, the lack of housing, poverty, and the lack of universal health care. mental disorders contribute to these problems and vice versa ; therefore the ultimate solutions must be broad in scope. adequate staffing and resources are essential to successful coordination of prevention research regardless of where it is located in the federal government. moreover, the quality of leadership and extent of commitment among agencies are often far more important than the precise location of a coordination office. leadership and commitment cannot be fully controlled, no matter how careful the plans may be. the competence of the particular individuals chosen to lead the effort and the politics of the day often determine whether interagency coordination is truly successful or merely an effort that consumes staff time and wastes increasingly scarce federal dollars. despite these caveats, the committee nonetheless believes that a coordinating committee at the highest possible level with adequate staffing is necessary to weave together disparate federal activities in many different departments. the committee strongly recommends that a mechanism be created to coordinate research and services on prevention of mental disorders across the federal departments. one model for accomplishing this would be the establishment of a national scientific council on the prevention of mental disorders by congress and / or the president. such an overarching federal council could be operated out of the white house office of science and technology policy or another coordinating office within the executive office of the president. this council should formulate policies regarding preventive intervention research, evaluation of prevention services, knowledge exchange, coordination of interagency research efforts, and training. because prevention activities span different departments, the members of the council should be appointed after soliciting nominations from a wide constituency who are willing to use the definitions and rigorous methodological criteria developed in this report to foster policies that will reduce the onset of mental disorders and related", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.505798066030293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.352214"} {"text": "span different departments, the members of the council should be appointed after soliciting nominations from a wide constituency who are willing to use the definitions and rigorous methodological criteria developed in this report to foster policies that will reduce the onset of mental disorders and related problems. members should include \u2014 as equal partners \u2014 ex - officio high - level representatives of relevant federal agencies, including but not limited to the departments of ocr for page 472 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research health and human services, justice, labor, education, defense, and housing and urban development, as well as representatives from state agencies, private foundations, universities, and the public at large. a broad range of disciplines, including medicine ( pediatrics, child psychiatry, psychiatry, primary care ), psychology, nursing, social work, public health, sociology, and epidemiology, should be represented. the council should meet regularly to coordinate collaborative research across public and private agencies and should monitor the standards for rigorous methodological approaches to preventive intervention research. terms on the council for nonfederal representatives should be limited. to provide ongoing executive leadership, the chair of the council should be appointed by the president. other leadership positions could be selected from the nonfederal representatives. the council should have its own paid staff, including a coordinator with staff, who operates out of an office of prevention of mental disorders. the office should oversee and coordinate the daily operations of preventive intervention activities in all areas that are related to mental health across the federal government. the staff of the office should be responsible to the council. the council should report regularly, at least once a year, to the congress and the president. the committee also strongly recommends that congress encourage the establishment of offices for prevention of mental disorders at the state level. the current number of such offices is small even though the states have resources for prevention available to them through the state block grants. a mechanism to encourage the development of state offices would be a requirement attached to the block grants, and as health care reform is developed other possibilities may occur. the functions of these offices should be similar to those of the proposed national scientific council on the prevention of mental disorders. states that do establish such offices should, as a group, elect representatives to the national scientific council. agencies must be required to identify their funded programs for the prevention of mental disorders, separately accounting for universal, selective, and indicated preventive interventions, using the definitions developed in this report. congress should ask for separate accounting of these different kinds of preventive interventions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5109866965475636, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.354455"} {"text": "or psychosocial factors. nimh should support a series of prospective studies on well - defined general populations under the age of 18 to provide initial benchmark estimates of the prevalence and incidence of mental disorders and problem behaviors in this age group. these epidemiological investigations should be oriented toward diagnosis but also should record a range of symptomatology, so that future changes in the diagnostic system, or developmental changes in individuals, do not preclude understanding of the development of psychopathology throughout this age range and into adult life. these prospective studies also should be oriented toward identification of modifiable risk factors in this age group with the explicit goal of recommending modifiable targets for preventive interventions in the future. a population laboratory should be established with the capacity for conducting longitudinal studies over the entire life span in order to generate understanding as to how risk factors and developmental transitions combine to influence the development of psychopathology. the primary goal of this laboratory should be the enhancement of knowledge for prevention and the development of new knowledge for the implementation of preventive intervention trials. special attention should be paid to developmental transitions, such as childhood to adolescence, adolescence to adult - ocr for page 477 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research hood, entry into marriage, and loss of a spouse ; precursor signs and symptoms, prodromal periods, age periods just prior to when a specific mental disorder is most likely to occur ; and the effects of race, ethnicity, and gender. well - designed preventive intervention research trials might be conducted with these populations during the follow - up, as long as the goal of obtaining benchmark estimates of epidemiological data, especially in regard to developmental transitions, is not threatened. the population laboratory could be established as a branch in the intramural program of nimh, although there are advantages to making it a multiagency project funded through agreements among dhhs agencies such as the centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ), substance abuse and mental health administration ( samhsa ), national institute on drug abuse ( nida ), national institute on alcohol abuse and alcoholism ( niaaa ), national institute of mental health ( nimh ), national institute of child health and human development ( nichd ), and maternal and child health bureau ( mchb ), and departments such as the departments of justice, education, and defense. it could also be established as a unit outside the federal government funded through a special mechanism. an extragovernmental advisory", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5107335348192739, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.391425"} {"text": "and maternal and child health bureau ( mchb ), and departments such as the departments of justice, education, and defense. it could also be established as a unit outside the federal government funded through a special mechanism. an extragovernmental advisory panel, including experts in epidemiology, psychopathology, and prevention, should be formed to provide continuing scientific oversight to the population laboratory. data from investigations of the population laboratory should be made available in anonymous form in a regular and timely fashion. whenever possible, research proposals relevant to the knowledge base for preventive interventions should explicitly state this connection, such as identification of potentially modifiable risk factors and possible avenues for preventive interventions. this requirement should be applied across all federal agencies, and especially to research proposals funded from the additional support recommended by this committee. this clarification of relevance to prevention will help decrease confusion regarding definitions of prevention research and lead to findings relevant to preventive interventions. treatment intervention research conducted under rigorous methodological standards that is directly relevant to preventive intervention research should continue to be supported \u2014 but not from the prevention research budget. the criteria for \u201c direct relevance \u201d should be reviewed by prevention researchers. collaboration between treatment researchers and prevention researchers should be fostered. principles from treatment research can and should be borrowed for use in prevention. specialty areas in treatment research that are likely to yield payoffs for preventive intervention research include clinical psychopharmacology, cognitive - behavior therapy, and applied behavior analysis. ocr for page 478 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research research should continue to be supported to determine which risk and protective factors are similar and which ones are different for treatment and prevention of a variety of mental disorders. identifying potentially modifiable factors that are unique to first onset of a disorder increases possibilities for prevention. research should be supported to study the effects of social environments, such as families, peers, neighborhoods, and communities, on the individual and the effects of context on the onset of various mental disorders. researchers working on relevant research in the core sciences should be encouraged to participate in activities such as forums and colloquia with preventive intervention researchers. a comprehensive, descriptive inventory of the activities in which the public engages to promote psychological well - being and mental health should be developed and supported. this catalog of mental health promotion activities is expected to be substantial. preliminary efforts should also be made to craft outcome criteria for these activities that could be used in rigorous evaluations down the road. funding the committee recommends that $ 6. 5 million be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5361057665975614, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.392913"} {"text": ". this catalog of mental health promotion activities is expected to be substantial. preliminary efforts should also be made to craft outcome criteria for these activities that could be used in rigorous evaluations down the road. funding the committee recommends that $ 6. 5 million be budgeted each year for the next five years for risk research on the complex interaction between biological and psychosocial risk and protective factors. this would augment the research base for those mental disorders furthest along the continuum in the understanding of etiology, emphasizing the identification of malleable risk factors that would augur well for further preventive intervention research. a child epidemiological study should be budgeted at a minimum of $ 2. 5 million per year over the next five years, and a population laboratory should be budgeted at $ 5 million per year over the next five years. over a two - year period, $ 1 million should be allocated to catalog mental health promotion activities and to craft outcome criteria. conducting well - evaluated interventions the knowledge base for some mental disorders is now advanced enough that preventive intervention research programs, targeted at risk factors for these disorders, can rest on sound conceptual and empirical foundations. increased methodological rigor in all research trials, demonstration projects, and service program evaluations should be required. wherever ocr for page 479 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research possible, the standards developed in this report, including hypothesis - driven randomized controlled trials and assessment of multiple outcome measures over time, should be instituted. the concept of risk reduction, including the strengthening of protective factors, should be used as the best available theoretical model for guiding interventions to prevent the onset of mental disorders. other models for preventive interventions should continue to be explored ; for example, as more becomes known about the mechanisms that link the presence of causal risk factors and absence of protective factors to the initial onset of symptoms, the possibilities for intervention may be increased. universal preventive interventions should continue to be supported in the areas of prenatal care, immunization, safety standards such as the use of seat belts and helmets, and control of the availability of alcohol. these programs decrease brain injury and mental retardation, which are conditions associated with mental disorders. although the main benefit of these interventions is the prevention of physical illness or injury, they may reduce the incidence of mental disorders as well. more evaluation is needed to assess their impact on mental disorders. research on selective and indicated interventions targeting high - risk groups and individuals should be given high priority. many of the programs described", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5030012818044228, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.401887"} {"text": "$ 20 million above the fy 1993 level of support in years one, two, and three, with an additional $ 5 million ( from $ 20 million to $ 25 million ) in year four and year five. support for new specialized prevention research centers is budgeted at $ 2 million per year in years one and two, $ 5 million in year three, and $ 8 million per year in years four and five. ( the nimh pircs receive, on average, $ 500, 000 for core support per year. ) some of this support could come from reallocation and more prudent use of federal resources that currently are available for prevention in a broad sense. for example, huge demonstration projects are rarely warranted ; scaling up from confirmatory and replication trials to large - scale field trials is a more cautious and constructive use of resources. finding out the effectiveness of programs before they are widely disseminated is likely to save money in the long term. the support that is requested in this report is not necessarily new money, but it is new for the field of preventive intervention research for mental disorders. much of the support should come from a wide array of federal agencies already supporting prevention services that currently lack rigorous evaluation. a final word there could be no wiser investment in our country than a commitment to foster the prevention of mental disorders and the promotion of mental health through rigorous research with the highest of methodological standards. such a commitment would yield the potential for healthier lives for countless individuals and the general advancement of the nation ' s well - being. even with the support of the federal government, the effort will not be easy. there will be no \u201c magic bullet. \u201d no single prevention strategy or method of changing people ' s life - style, behavior, or environment will work across the broad range of risk factors and mental disorders that will be encountered. a program designed to prevent one public health problem will not exactly fit the needs and goals of another. dedication to prevention service programs will not necessarily bring success without a corresponding commitment to rigorous evaluation to determine the effectiveness of these services. no single agency can accomplish the task outlined above. overall, the effort will require the cooperation of numerous federal, state, and local agencies, universities, foundations, researchers, and communities. ocr for page 484 reducing risks for mental disorders : frontiers for preventive intervention research hardly a family in america has been untouched by mental illness. the need for effective preventive intervention programs is clear. it is equally clear that to obtain such programs we need to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5020767591407725, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.418976"} {"text": "the plasma spray \u2013 physical vapor deposition ( ps - pvd ) rig at nasa ' s glenn research center uses new technology to create super thin ceramic coatings. here, bryan harder, the lead for the ps - pvd, installs a sample in the rig. image credit : nasa turbines, or rotary engines that create power, have a multitude of uses. they are used in machines that perform work on earth and are essential components of airplanes. currently, most turbines are built using metallic based components, and these metal components require cooling to avoid reaching their thermal limits. new, more efficient engine technology requires components that can survive higher temperatures and reduced cooling. silicon based ceramic components show great potential for use in advanced, higher efficiency engines, as they are capable of withstanding higher temperatures and weigh less than metal components. however, when unprotected, these silicon based ceramic components react and erode in turbine engine environments due to the presence of water vapor. new coating processing technology is being pioneered at nasa glenn ' s research center in cleveland. the technology is used to protect advanced silicon based ceramic engine components that are being developed for future engines. this coating processing technology will enable more complex and thinner coatings than are currently possible. this is important for coating turbine blades, which need to endure engine environments and stress conditions, while still remaining smooth to avoid the disruption of airflow. this coating processing technology, called plasma spray \u2013 physical vapor deposition ( ps - pvd ), has the potential to radically improve the capabilities of ceramic composite turbine components. \" ps - pvd technology is really necessary for the integration of silicon - based ceramic airfoil components into turbine engines. the use of these silicon - based ceramics as engine airfoil components would increase engine operation temperature, which translates into higher efficiencies, \" says bryan harder, the lead for the ps - pvd facility at glenn. plasma spray \u2013 physical vapor deposition the ps - pvd rig uses a system of vacuum pumps and a blower to remove air from the chamber, reducing the pressure to one torr ( 1 / 760th of normal atmospheric pressure ). image credit : nasa it has been known for decades that enveloping metals and other substances, such as silicon based ceramic components, with a ceramic coating can protect them. but there is new, cutting - edge technology that can create ceramic coatings in an extremely precise, uniform fashion \u2014 the coatings can be controlled to a thickness of ten microns ( a micron is one - millionth of a meter ). this technology is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.548891869616693, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.545873"} {"text": "new, cutting - edge technology that can create ceramic coatings in an extremely precise, uniform fashion \u2014 the coatings can be controlled to a thickness of ten microns ( a micron is one - millionth of a meter ). this technology is made possible by glenn ' s plasma spray \u2013 physical vapor deposition ( ps - pvd ) facility. the plasma spray \u2013 physical vapor deposition ( ps - pvd ) coater was completed at glenn in 2010. created in collaboration with sulzer metco, the ps - pvd rig is one of only two such facilities in the u. s. a. and one of four in the entire world. the ps - pvd rig, which is currently a research and development facility, uses a state of the art processing method of creating thin ceramic coatings. planning began for the facility in 2007, and construction began in 2008 ( previously constructed infrastructure was reused and is now the base for the new rig ). the rig is nearing completion of its capabilities testing and assessment phase. a team of five, led by bryan harder, a materials research engineer, has put the rig through its paces. the rig will soon begin supporting the supersonic project within nasa ' s aeronautics research mission directorate at glenn. eventually, the rig could be of service to many other areas and projects within glenn, other nasa centers and governmental entities, and private industry partners. \" when you have something that has broad capabilities like this, it really allows us to work with a lot of different areas, which is a great thing, \" says bryan harder. super thin ceramic coatings ceramic powder is pumped into the ps - pvd rig. it will be transformed inside the chamber to become a thin, precise, accurate ceramic coating. image credit : nasa the plasma spray - physical vapor deposition ( ps - pvd ) rig creates thin, extremely precise ceramic coatings. these coatings are created on metal, ceramic, or other appropriate materials. \" to create these coatings, ceramic powder is injected into a very high power plasma flame under a vacuum. during operation, the plasma is approximately 7 feet long and 3 feet wide. the ceramic material is vaporized within the plasma, and condenses onto the target component, \" says bryan harder. the coatings can be single or multilayer, and they protect the components from environmental and thermal impact. the extremely high heat and the vacuum within the chamber allow the ceramic coating to be precisely applied, creating durable, long - lasting, effective coatings. \" if you can reduce the thickness, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5143397006554968, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.547923"} {"text": "and they protect the components from environmental and thermal impact. the extremely high heat and the vacuum within the chamber allow the ceramic coating to be precisely applied, creating durable, long - lasting, effective coatings. \" if you can reduce the thickness, and still provide an effective barrier layer \u2014 you can reduce the weight, you can reduce your cost. there are a lot of benefits that come from this technology, \" harder says. inside the chamber within the ps - pvd, an extremely hot plasma flame is created. the plasma can reach a temperature of 10, 000 degrees celsius \u2014 ten times hotter than a candle flame. image credit : nasa located at glenn, the plasma spray \u2013 physical vapor deposition ( ps - pvd ) is installed in a dedicated room. a large, blimp - shaped chamber is made of stainless steel. the exterior metal, which is welded to a second sheet of stainless steel beneath, has cool water pumped through it to keep the chamber from getting too warm. inside the chamber is a steel arm which holds a plate made of a nickel - based superalloy. this plate holds the component that will be coated. several feet away from this plate is the torch, where the ceramic powder is injected into the plasma. once the chamber is closed, a system of vacuum pumps and a blower remove air from the chamber, reducing the pressure to one torr ( 1 / 760th of normal atmospheric pressure ). then, helium and argon gases are introduced to the torch. an arc is created between the anode and cathode inside the chamber, ionizing the gases and creating the high temperature plasma. the plasma, which can grow to seven feet in length, can be observed through one of three portals on the side of the rig. its steady, fierce, concentrated glow resembles a lightsaber from the star wars movies. once the vacuum and plasma are stable, the ceramic powder is introduced to the torch. the plasma immediately begins to change colors. depending on which ceramic powder is introduced, the plasma dramatically erupts into oranges, yellows, aquas, purples and blues. the gas stream moves at a speed of mach 2 \u2014 a rate of more than 2, 000 feet per second. as the ceramic powder and the plasma blast the arm and plate where the component being coated is attached, the plasma appears to envelop the component and splash around it. the plasma, which appeared like a lightsaber, seems to morph into the effect of the undulating stream of magic that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5221152156737585, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.549159"} {"text": "and plate where the component being coated is attached, the plasma appears to envelop the component and splash around it. the plasma, which appeared like a lightsaber, seems to morph into the effect of the undulating stream of magic that occurs when harry potter ' s wand meets with lord voldemort ' s wand, in the harry potter movies. inside the ps - pvd, ceramic powder is introduced into the plasma flame. the plasma vaporizes the ceramic powder, which then condenses to form the ceramic coating. image credit : nasa the entire process is over in about five minutes. the plasma is extinguished and the exhaust system clears the chamber. the pressure is returned to normal atmospheric conditions, and then the chamber can be opened. the newly - coated component glows red hot and must cool down for an hour before it can be handled. the plasma within the chamber can reach a scorching 10, 000 degrees celsius \u2014 ten times hotter than a candle flame. after the sample cools, it will be tested and evaluated to ensure the coating is an effective barrier. and then the sample \u2014 be it a small test button or an essential component of a supersonic aircraft \u2014 is ready to go. the front, sides and inside of the sample can be coated \u2014 a capability never previously available from vapor deposition techniques. \" the ps - pvd allows us to do things that you can ' t do anywhere else, \" harder says. this newly developed technology could have myriad applications, both within nasa and with potential industry partners. the potential applications are only beginning to be discovered \u2014 from membrane technology to fuel cells to ion conductors and beyond. the rig is a game - changing technology ; glenn is maturing and developing a technology that doesn ' t exist elsewhere, while making direct contributions to the nasa mission. \" this is new ground, \" bryan harder says. \" this was only developed in the last couple of years \u2026 and we don ' t even know the limits of what it [ ps - pvd ] is capable of. \" - tori woods, sgt inc. nasa ' s glenn research center", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5260690780499433, "token_count": 427, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.550120"} {"text": "scientists have kept a close watch on the dazzling northern lights on earth and other planets in our solar system, but now they have the chance to explore the auroras of alien planets orbiting distant stars, a new study suggests. auroras on earth occur when charged particles from the sun are funneled to the planet ' s poles and interact with the upper atmosphere, sparking spectacular light shows. similar processes have been observed on other planets in the solar system, with jupiter ' s auroras more than 100 times brighter than those on earth, scientists said. now, scientists are finding evidence of aurora displays on exoplanets for the first time. researchers used the low - frequency array radio telescope based in the netherlands to observe radio emissions most likely caused by powerful auroras from planets outside of our solar system. \" these results strongly suggest that auroras do occur on bodies outside our solar system, and the auroral radio emissions are powerful enough \u2014 100, 000 times brighter than jupiter ' s \u2014 to be detectable across interstellar distances, \" study lead author jonathan nichols of the university of leicester in england said in a statement. jupiter ' s auroras are caused by an interaction of charged particles shot from its volcanic moon, io, and the rotation of the planet itself. the gas giant turns on its axis once every 10 hours, dragging its magnetic field along for the ride, and effectively creating a whirl of electricity at each of the planet ' s poles. space news from nbcnews. com teen ' s space mission fueled by social media - buzz aldrin ' s vision for journey to mars - giant black hole may be cooking up meals - watch a ' ring of fire ' solar eclipse online - teen ' s space mission fueled by social media auroras akin to earth ' s have been spotted on saturn. but these newest findings show that auroras on exoplanets probably aren ' t formed from charged particles traveling on the solar wind. instead, the auroras on the dim, \" ultracool dwarf \" stars and \" failed stars \" known as brown dwarfs that nichols studied probably behave more like jupiter ' s northern and southern lights. by studying these radio emissions, scientists will gain more insight into the strength of a planet ' s magnetic field, how it interacts with its parent star, whether it has any moons and even the length of its day. the new research is detailed in a recent issue of the astrophysical journal. - saturn ' s aurora - the movie - aurora guide : how the northern lights work ( infographic ) -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5103254429536495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.555878"} {"text": "psychology introduction 2 available in 2013 | callaghan campus | | semester 2 | previously offered in 2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007, 2006, 2005, 2004 this course continues on from psyc1010 by introducing some additional key areas in psychology, including - sensation and perception, - motivation and emotion, - learning, and - memory and cognition. where psyc1010 focussed on how the world around us influences our thoughts and behaviour, psyc1020 looks at the internal mechanisms of behaviour. the course forms part of a sequence of courses that have been approved by the australian psychology accreditation council. the course cannot be counted with psyc1030. | objectives | | the course will : 1. introduce some key areas in psychology that control behaviour which include sensation and perception, motivation and emotion, learning and memory and cognition. 2. demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the research / scientific approach and the content of the course. 3. demonstrate competence in report writing for science in psychology at an introductory level. 4. demonstrate competence skills in data collection, manipulation, graphing and reporting at an introductory level. 5. develop the ability to report and discuss psychology in a clear and concise manner and using a professional style. as a consequence of studying this course students will build their : 4. library and research skills 5. research / data collection / measurement skills 7. problem solving skills 8. critical evaluation skills | content | | psychology is the science of mind and behaviour. psyc1020 provides an introduction to some of the classic and contemporary concepts, theories, and evidence in psychology. psyc1020 is focused on the mechanisms of behaviour. psyc1020 includes the following four modules : 1. biological mechanisms of behavioural emotion 3. sensation and perception 4. memory and cognition | assumed knowledge | | psyc1010 recommended | | modes of delivery | | internal mode | | contact hours | | laboratory : for 1 hour ( s ) per week for full term lecture : for 3 hour ( s ) per week for full term | timetables | | 2013 course timetables for psyc1020 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5326334450975339, "token_count": 438, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.562811"} {"text": "disabled. further, the rtos kernel must be simple, so there is a limit on the longest non preemptible code path through the kernel. \u2022 protect against priority inversions priority inversion infamously plagued the mars pathfinder project in july 1997. it is a condition where a low priority task prevents a higher priority task from completing its work. priority inheritance is a technique for preventing priority inversions by assigning the priority of a blocked higher priority task to the lower priority thread doing the blocking until the blocking task completes ( see fig 3 ). \u2022 guaranteed availability for many systems, guaranteeing resource availability is critical. for example, a heart monitor that loses connectivity may fail to trigger an alarm \u2013 with dire consequences for the patient. time partitioning addresses resource starvation by enforcing cpu budgets and preventing processes or threads from monopolising cpu cycles. two time partitioning approaches are possible : fixed and adaptive. with fixed partitioning, the system designer divides tasks into partitions, allocating a portion of cpu time to each. no task in any partition may consume more than that partition ' s percentage of cpu time. adaptive partitioning enforces resource budgets, but when cpu cycles are available, it uses a dynamic scheduling algorithm to reassign them from partitions that are not using them those which can benefit from extra processing time. \u2022 monitor, stop, and restart processes safeguards against process failures cascading through the system and self healing capabilities are crucial to a highly dependable os. devices that require availability or safety guarantees may implement hardware based high availability solutions, as well as a software watchdog. a software watchdog monitors the system and performs multistage recoveries or clean shutdowns as required. this process must be self monitoring and resilient to internal failures ; if it is stopped abnormally, it must reconstruct its own state immediately and completely by handing over to a mirror process. it ' s the os, it ' s the vendor device manufacturers can improve their products ' chances of success by paying careful attention to the os. devices that cannot be allowed to fail and reboot are best served by a microkernel rtos, as this architecture is best - suited for ensuring system dependability and can support a full range of features and capabilities. an rtos from a supplier with a track record of successful safety and security certifications can help reduce the costs associated with obtaining fda, mdd and other certifications. justin moon is product manager, medical, for qnx software systems. qnx software systems ltd this material is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5234714921546819, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.575414"} {"text": "the memory problems that many women experience in their 40s and 50s as they approach and go through menopause are both real and appear to be most acute during the early period of post menopause. that is the conclusion of a study which appears today in the journal menopause. \" women going through menopausal transition have long complained of cognitive difficulties such as keeping track of information and struggling with mental tasks that would have otherwise been routine, \" said miriam weber, ph. d. a neuropsychologist at the university of rochester medical center ( urmc ) and lead author of the study. \" this study suggests that these problems not only exist but become most evident in women in the first year following their final menstrual period. \" the study followed 117 women, who were grouped into categories based on criteria established in 2011 by the stages of reproductive aging workshop + 10, which consisted of an international consortium of researchers. study participants took a variety of tests assessing their cognitive skills, reported on menopause - related symptoms such as hot - flashes, sleep disturbance, depression and anxiety, and gave a sample of blood to determine current levels of estradiol ( an indicator of estrogen levels ) and follicle stimulating hormone. results were analyzed to determine if there were group differences in cognitive performance, and if these differences were due to menopausal symptoms. the study grouped participants into four stages : late reproductive, early and late menopausal transition, and early post menopause. the late reproductive period is defined as when women first begin to notice subtle changes in their menstrual periods, such as changes in flow amount or duration, but still have regular menstrual cycles. women in the transitional stage experience greater fluctuation in menstrual cycles - from a difference of 7 days or more in the early phase of transition to 60 days or longer in the later phase. hormone levels also begin to fluctuate significantly during this time. this transition period can last for several years. the researchers also evaluated women in early post menopause, defined as the first year after which a woman experienced her last menstrual period. the study participants were assessed with a comprehensive battery of tests to evaluate a variety of cognitive skills. these included tests of attention, verbal learning and memory, fine motor skills and dexterity, and \" working memory \" - or the ability to not only take in and store new information, but also manipulate it. these tests are similar to daily tasks such as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5244694931907221, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.583985"} {"text": "introduction to rocks and minerals examine the characteristics of common rocks and minerals and learn identification procedures. find out all about the physical properties of minerals including hardness, luster and color as well as the chemical compositions of important rock - forming minerals. information in the video is accurate, but narration is somewhat monotone. run time 03 : 34. dr. loopy ' s blinding you with science # 9 : rocks and minerals this is another in the blinding you with science series i produced to help elementary students learn science concepts. in this episode dr. loopy and his friends use music, comedy and parody to teach students about different types of rocks and minerals. run time 25 : 00. rocks don ' t roll : the science of rocks and minerals this is a clip from a longer video i produced in my blinding you with science series. the series is designed to help elementary students with science concepts. this is a musical parody about rocks and minerals. run time 06 : 34. differences between rocks & minerals a general difference between rocks and minerals is that minerals are chemical substances, while rocks are made from volcanoes and bodies of water. discover how granite and igneous rocks are formed with information from a science teacher in this video. vincent van gogh part 1 van gogh was born in 1853 in groot \u2014 zundert, a small village in the southern netherlands near the belgian border. the oldest son of a protestant minister, young van gogh was moody, quiet, introverted, but he grew up with a love of nature and the arts. van gogh attended school as a young boy, but at the age of sixteen he left home for the hague to work as an apprentice to an uncle, a dealer at goupil and co., an international art firm. van gogh subsequently worked for the firm in london and pa math trick for your fingers - easy multiplication a quick way for students to learn basic multiplication using their fingers. goes fast so you may need to watch it a couple of times. students will love it. learn how to count in sign language for small children i absolutely love the signing time videos made for babies and toddlers to learn sign language. my toddler learned how to sign through these videos way before he could talk which made it possible for him to communicate rather then throw tantrums. in this video you learn how to count through sign. run time 0 : 31. chanting and enchanting animals - chap. 2 / 6 ecuador as a country has among the largest diversity of frog and toad species in the world. discover through this film", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5227332751087372, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.609450"} {"text": "vi touch and vision in this episode of the human senses, they explore the two most highly used senses, touch and vision. in this video they test the amazing things we do with our eyes, how we can instantly spot attractive people in a crowded room, and how our eyes guide us around the world with astonishing accuracy. when it comes to touch they reveal why we love the feel of some things and loath others. discover what our skin a glacier investigation from dragonfly tv. deborah and brittani live in juneau, alaska, which is home to 38 glaciers flowing from the gigantic juneau ice field. the girls love being outside, especially in the short alaskan summers, so they decided to check out a glacier up close at the mendenhall glacier visitor center. the center has cool exhibits that explain the science behind glaciers - like the fact that a glacier is a river of ice that moves because of its own weight and that the mendenhall glacier receives abo king minus is a cute video to introduce or review basic subtraction. the animations are great, and fun. any early elementary child will love this one! how to teach children to read : favorite children ' s authors learn about popular authors for children ' s books from a professional librarian, debbie noah, in this children ' s video. parents, this video is a great tool to use to help you choose great books that your children will love. how to teach children to read : favorite children ' s authors : part 2 learn about favorite authors of children ' s books from a professional librarian in this free children ' s video with expert : debbie noah. this is a great video for helping parents to choose reading material that young children will love. interview with phyllis reynolds naylor ( part 3 ) in this section phyllis reynolds naylor, winner of the aspca roger caras award, answers the question, \" shiloh is included on the recommended book list for many school districts and is assigned reading for many students each year. what are your thoughts about the wide appeal of shiloh and the impact you have made with this book for countless children... and animals? \" in her answer happy about the impact the books have had. she also commented that one teacher told her how children who have been abu lois ehlert interview lois ehlert ' s unique children ' s books, such as color zoo, reflect her creative and curious mind. in this exclusive video interview, lois ehlert discusses her early love for art and how she continually strives to create highly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5092243372006242, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.612750"} {"text": "distinct bands that ran in right angles to each other ( that is, plaid ). marbles are assumed to be children \u2019 s toys, and indicate that the stone building was used by young people as well as adults. a domino tile was also found. fragments of ceramic pipes were found in both rooms ; both african and european american men and women smoked pipes during this time period. a small number of coins were also uncovered. the stone building artifacts are similar to the array of objects recovered from excavations in the winter kitchen in the basement of the main house ( price and hastings 1998 ), some of which have been interpreted as representing ritualistic caches intentionally placed beneath the cellar floorboards. both yielded similar types of decorations and types of vessels, which were not restricted to serving containers but also included plates, saucers, and cups. both excavations recovered marbles, sewing pipes, buttons, and sewing thimbles ( scott 2001 : 23 ). this similarity in artifacts suggests that the stone building, for at least part of its life, was the summer kitchen for white haven. while the archeological excavations indicate that cooking and laundry - related activities were carried out in the stone building, the artifact assemblages do not specifically identify the people carrying out the activities as african americans. other archeological investigations of early 19th century kitchens have not identified any definitive archeological assemblage as having african american ethnic origins. while we know from written sources that african americans are likely to have used this kitchen, we don \u2019 t expect a direct correlation between artifact assemblages and cultural backgrounds. given the dates for the artifacts, and the historical information about the people living at white haven, it is reasonable to conclude that the activities in the summer kitchen were carried out by enslaved african americans. we do not know whether the enslaved african americans who worked there also lived in the stone building, but there is no evidence to suggest that they did not. there is little nineteenth century documentation about housing for the enslaved at white haven. grant ordered that a group of slave cabins \u201c by the barn \u201d be demolished after the end of the civil war. the stone building, near the main house, was left intact. certainly, the range of artifacts found suggests that, even if people did not sleep there, a wide range of personal domestic activities were carried out in the stone building, including child care, mending, and food preparation for personal consumption. investigations at the stone building on the white haven plantation have provided us with a better understanding of the organization of labor at a mid - nineteenth century plantation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5118875913126658, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.630250"} {"text": "june 1, 2004 the iceman cometh to u - m ann arbor, mich. \u2014 no air - conditioning, frozen or refrigerated foods, iced drinks or ice cream. that ' s just a sampling of how drastically different our lives and diets would be if there was no refrigeration. \" it was not so very long ago, \" said janice longone, curator of culinary history at the university of michigan ' s clements library, \" that meat was preserved primarily by drying or salting, that milk could be preserved only in the form of butter and cheese, that fresh fruits and vegetables were only available seasonally in areas where they were grown. \" and then came ice and icehouses followed by mechanical refrigeration. it is that history of american ingenuity that longone illustrates in the exhibition \" the iceman cometh... and goeth \" at the clements library june 8 through september. \" throughout history, the wealthy and powerful had icehouses and ice available to them in limited quantities, \" longone said. \" but it took that american ingenuity to make ice available to all. the democratization of ice was largely due to a couple of 19th century yankee businessmen. \" the exhibition explores the history of the american ice industry from new england pond ice harvesting to the introduction of mechanical refrigeration. it includes : \u2014 the story of the ice king, frederic tudor, and his collaborator nathaniel wyeth. \u2014 the 1803 book by thomas moore, \" an essay on the most eligible construction of ice - houses. \" \u2014 the tools, equipment and methods of natural ice harvesting and its distribution, including the successful arrival in 1833 of a ship carrying ice from boston to calcutta, crossing the equator twice. \u2014 the manufactured ice industry and how it revolutionized food and eating in america. \u2014 the introduction of mechanical refrigerators, with the millionth frigidaire sold by 1929 and the millionth general electric refrigerator by 1931. \u2014 icehouses, ice cards, icemen, iceboxes, tools of the trade, advertising. \" the use ( or overuse ) of ice and refrigeration is one of the features of american life most commented upon by visitors to our shores, \" longone said. \" this exhibition makes use of the diverse resources of the clements library to explain the whys and hows of this phenomenon of our culture. \" the exhibit can be viewed at the clements library mon. - fri. 1 - 4 : 30 p. m.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.533949846455239, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.636761"} {"text": "one of the first things every freebsd user wishes to configure on his computer is e - mail access. however, a look in the mail section of the ports collection yields an amazing 148 applications dealing with e - mail. to make matters worse, some claim to be muas, mtas, pop3 clients, or imap4 servers. these descriptions are not helpful if you are unfamiliar with these terms and just want to be able to send and receive e - mail. in this article, i ' ll give a \" readers digest \" version of some important e - mail concepts, with references to additional information. then i ' ll walk you through the steps of configuring your freebsd system to send and retrieve e - mail, as well as configuring pine. ever since networks were invented, people have wanted a method of sending messages to each other. this led to the development of many messaging programs, most of which were proprietary, meaning you could only send a message to someone who used the same messaging system. early messaging systems allowed you to send a message directly to another person ' s computer. however, this method doesn ' t work if the other computer is turned off or there is a problem with the physical connection between the two computers. most messaging systems prefer to have all users send their messages to a centralized server for storage ; since this server is always available, it can act like a post office. if a user has a mailbox on that server, he can periodically check his mailbox to see if he has received any messages. as the need for messaging grew, standards were developed to allow users to send messages to any user, regardless of the messaging system they used. one of these standards was x. 400 ; another was smtp, which became the standard used on the internet. two interesting points of views on these standards can be found at x. 400 - the better internet and x. 400 is dead, long live x. 400. unless you work at a company that uses an internal x. 400 messaging system, you probably use smtp to send e - mail. the e - mail addresses you are used to seeing are actually smtp addresses and look like this : firstname. lastname @ example. org you ' ll note that an smtp address looks similar to a web address, except it has a @ instead of the first period. the internet already uses dns ( the domain name system ) to locate a computer ' s ip address. when an administrator sets up a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5130462962737654, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.664147"} {"text": "that an smtp address looks similar to a web address, except it has a @ instead of the first period. the internet already uses dns ( the domain name system ) to locate a computer ' s ip address. when an administrator sets up a mail server, he will create an mx ( mail exchange ) record in his dns database to indicate which computer in his network is the mail server. the name to the left of the @ indicates the name of a user ' s mailbox on that mail server. when the internet messaging standard was being developed, it was decided to use the centralized server ( post office ) approach where users would check their mailboxes. the internet uses tcp / ip, so new tcp / ip protocols needed to be created. remember from last week that protocols define the rules of communication and that each tcp / ip protocol has an associated port number and at least one rfc which describes its operation. smtp ( simple mail transfer protocol ) describes the communications between mail servers. its port number is 25, and its behavior is described in rfc 821. as its name implies, smtp merely transfers mail from one server to another until it reaches the correct mail server. in order to ensure that the message makes it into the right mailbox on that server, pop3 ( post office protocol 3 ) is used. pop3 uses port number 110 and is defined by rfcs 1734, 1957, 2449, and std0053 ( standard 53 ). pop3 is also responsible for the management of the mailboxes on a mail server. pop3 will not let a user retrieve the messages in their mailbox until they have been authenticated. if you are unfamiliar with the commands used by pop3 and smtp, try the smtp with telnet tutorial. this tutorial shows how you yourself can issue smtp and pop3 commands to send and receive e - mail. these are the same commands that are usually issued by messaging systems and e - mail programs. one other term you may come across is imap4 ( internet message access protocol version 4 ). imap4 is similar to pop3, but with extra features. pop3 assumes that a user will download all of the mail in their mailbox so the copy on the mail server can be deleted ; the user will then disconnect from the mail server to read his e - mail \" offline. \" with imap4, a user can download just the headers of his e - mail so he can decide which messages", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.524992293564583, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.665085"} {"text": "can be deleted ; the user will then disconnect from the mail server to read his e - mail \" offline. \" with imap4, a user can download just the headers of his e - mail so he can decide which messages he wants to retrieve at this time ; he can also delete messages directly at the mail server without having to download them first. messaging software is usually divided into two separate components : the mta ( message transfer agent ) and the mua ( message user agent ). the mta runs on the mail server and understands both smtp and pop3. therefore, it is able to send messages to other smtp mail servers, receive messages from other smtp mail servers, and store messages in the appropriate user mailboxes. sendmail is the most common mta in use on the internet and comes bundled and ready to go on your freebsd system. exim, postfix, and qmail are examples of other mtas that you can build using freebsd ' s ports collection. the mua is used by users to compose and read e - mail messages. some muas have a pop3 client built - in, meaning you can check for new mail using the mua ; some do not, and will only display e - mail you ' ve retrieved using a separate pop3 client. muas differ widely in their features ; which mua to use is a matter of personal preference. there are dozens of muas in the ports collection ; some of the most popular are mutt, pine, and xfmail. so, how do all these components work together when you send an e - mail message? you use your mua ( for example, pine ) to create an e - mail message ; pine will pass the message to the mta ( sendmail ), who will query dns to find the address of the smtp server hosting the mailbox of the user you are sending the message to. sendmail will then use smtp commands to transfer the message to that mail server. that mail server will use pop3 to put the message in the correct mailbox. your recipient will use pop3 commands to retrieve the message and will use their favorite mua to read the message and possibly compose a reply to it. let ' s look at the configuration of a freebsd system that will be using sendmail ( the mta ), fetchmail ( the pop3 client ), and pine ( the mua ). let ' s assume a very", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5008273898638199, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.665995"} {"text": "the popular sense of the word. all estimates, by definition, are subject to statistical \u2018 error \u2019 but in this context the word refers to the uncertainty inherent in any process or calculation that uses sampling, estimation or modelling. most revisions reflect either the adoption of new statistical techniques or the incorporation of new information which allows the statistical error of previous estimates to be reduced. only rarely are there avoidable \u2018 errors \u2019 such as human or system failures and such mistakes are made quite clear when they do occur. household final consumption expenditure estimates published in consumer trends are a component of the gdp expenditure approach. however, the preliminary estimate for gdp is produced based on the gdp output approach. historic experience shows that the output approach provides the best timely approach to measuring gdp growth. gdp growth according to the expenditure and income approaches is therefore brought into line with that recorded by output. further quarterly national accounts, quarterly sector accounts and financial accounts tables are available in the united kingdom economic accounts. details of the policy governing the release of new data are available from the press office. view the latest podcasts on youtube code of practice national statistics are produced to high professional standards set out in the uk statistics authority ' s code of practice for official statistics. they undergo regular quality assurance reviews to ensure that they meet customer needs. they are produced free from any political interference. for information about the content of this publication, contact gareth clancy. tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1633 45 5889. other customer enquiries ons customer contact centre tel : 0845 601 3034 international : + 44 ( 0 ) 845 601 3034 minicom : 01633 815044 fax : 01633 652747 post : room 1. 101, government buildings, cardiff road, newport, south wales np10 8xg. tel : 0845 604 1858 ( 8. 30am \u2013 5. 30pm weekdays ). details of the policy governing the release of new data are available by visiting www. statisticsauthority. gov. uk / assessment / code - of - practice / index. html or from the media relations office email : email @ example. com | gareth clancy | | + 44 ( 0 ) 1633 455889 | | household expenditure, | | firstname. lastname @ example. org |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5817146989754141, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.690071"} {"text": "that the shoulder \u201c pops out and in \u201d frequently with activities. the wide range of problems that contribute to shoulder instability can be defined in several ways, including : in fact, the severity, direction and mechanism all influence how the shoulder should best be treated, so all of these factors must be considered. severe shoulder instability, manifested by frequent dislocations and subluxations during normal activities of daily living are less likely to resolve without surgery, but are also most difficult to treat. a subset of patients who may not improve with surgery are those who voluntarily or willfully dislocate their shoulders regularly, or those who are not willing or not able to undergo the appropriate postoperative rehabilitation. dislocations and subluxations can also occur in people without any inciting event. this is called atraumatic instability, and can be more difficult to treat. many people who suffer from atraumatic instability are usually also \u201c double jointed \u201d or \u201c ligamentously lax \u201d in other joints. because the shoulder is the joint in the human body with the largest range of motion ( i. e. it is relatively less stable anyway ), the extra laxity or give in the shoulder can predispose it to subluxation or dislocation. the most common direction for dislocation and subluxation ( instability ) to occur is to the front of the shoulder ( anterior dislocation ). anterior dislocations and subluxations are frequently associated with a disruption of the stabilizing ligaments at the front edge of the glenoid ( this ligament tear is termed a \u201c bankart lesion \u201d ), but can occur in the absence of any discrete injury as well. true posterior dislocations are rare, and are usually the result of seizures or major trauma. posterior subluxation, however, can occur after repetitive athletic trauma, particularly in weight lifters and contact athletes in sports such as hockey, lacrosse, and football. persons who have atraumatic instability due to laxity of their shoulder ligaments may sublux or dislocate their shoulder in more than one direction ; this is called \u201c multidirectional instability \u201d or \u201c mdi \u201d. multidirectional instability is usually related more to an inherent elasticity in the connective tissues around the shoulder joint, and not to a discreet injury to any particular ligaments of the shoulder capsule. physical therapy is the mainstay of treatment for mild multidirectional instability ( mdi ). more severe mdi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5028170692761421, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.723618"} {"text": "overview - spellread build it! software spellread for smart table software extends the proven success of the spellread program into collaborative technology with three games for the smart tablet interactive learning center. each of the games draws on content derived from spellread and presents it in an interactive, engaging format for additional practice, effective with or without the implementation of the spellread program. the games leverage spellread ' s phonics activities to help students practice building, pronouncing, and identifying words, and are easily integrated into any reading curriculum. when combined with the spellread program, spellread for smart table extends the program into a blended learning solution. the games offer additional practice with words and word parts presented in the spellread program and can supplement the learning that is already taking place in this established, proven - effective program. spellread for smart table software is also appropriate for use alongside any classroom reading curriculum or intervention program, as it reinforces phonemic awareness, phonics, word - building, pronunciation, and word identification skills. the use of the smart table encourages engaged, collaborative, small - group learning. the smart table is optimized for multitouch functionality and can interpret up to 120 distinct touches, whether from fingers, elbows, styluses, or other implements, enabling its use as assistive technology for students with physical limitations. once the software is loaded onto the smart table, the applications allow two to four students to compete or collaborate in interactive, touch - controlled games. each game includes three levels of difficulty, and features appealing visual design and movement as well as audio cues. a classroom integration guide pdf includes game play instructions, word lists, and tips for integrating the games into spellread or any reading intervention program. a progress monitoring module within the teacher area enables teachers to create student users and groups. progress monitoring data includes time which words built, pronounced, and identified were correct, and which were incorrect. teachers determine the level of difficulty yfor each session. the levels reflect the phases in spellread. level a focuses on one - syllable words, level b focuses on two - syllable ywords, and level c focuses on three - syllable words. smart table activities in spellread build it! students compose words using cards with vowel and consonant sounds or syllables. the game can be played competitively, with individual scores and stars awarded to individual players for speed, or cooperatively, with a cumulative team score and bonus points awarded when all players submit correct answers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.511549906095299, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.755787"} {"text": "do you want to know more about parkinson ' s? pdf ' s materials provide information about symptoms, medications, resources & more. news in brief people who are carriers of the genetic mutation in a gene known as gba have at least five times the normal risk of developing parkinson \u2019 s disease ( pd ), according to a report in the october 22, 2009, issue of the new england journal of medicine. mutations in the same gene, which provides instructions for producing the enzyme glucocerebrosidase, have been shown to cause the rare disorder known as gaucher \u2019 s disease. clinicians had long noticed an association between gaucher \u2019 s disease and pd. in rare cases, people with gaucher \u2019 s disease developed pd - like symptoms ; more recently, scientists noted that relatives of people with gaucher \u2019 s disease had an increased incidence of pd. gaucher \u2019 s disease develops when both copies of the gba gene are mutated. normally a person has two working copies of the gene. a mutation in one copy of the gene causes no symptoms and was long thought to be harmless. these and other observed links between the diseases prompted lead investigator ellen sidransky, m. d., of the national human genome research institute to study how frequently people with pd carry the genetic mutations known to cause gaucher \u2019 s disease. dr. sidransky organized a consortium of 64 researchers at 16 institutions around the world, who were already analyzing the genetics of people with pd. in total, the study involved about 10, 000 people. the researchers focused on studying two common variants of the gba gene, from among the nearly 300 mutations identified by scientists ( and carried by about one in 100 americans ). in an ethnically diverse group of 5, 691 people with pd, they found that 3. 2 percent of the group had at least one of these variants, compared to 0. 6 percent in a similar group of healthy people. since mutations in the gba gene are more common among ashkenazi jews ( one in 15 people is a carrier ), researchers studied this sub - group and found the incidence of one or more of these variants was 15. 3 percent in people with pd and 3. 4 percent in healthy people. since these tests only focused on two common gba mutations, the scientists also examined the full gene in 2, 000 non - ashkenazi individuals living with parkinson \u2019 s. they found that nearly seven percent of people with pd had a gba gene mutation. still, this limited test missed nearly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5024855199622386, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.765375"} {"text": "posted by bruce kahl on december 10, 1999 in reply to : re : \" push the envelope \" posted by arthur smith on december 10, 1999 : : i will accept the premise that \" push the envelope \" : : originated with airline pilots, but i would like to : : know in exactly what context : the actual practical : : mechanics of flying as in the use of the controls : : relative to a certain aspect of aircraft performance, : : the theory of flight as in aerodynamics or the : : efficiency with which the aircraft performs relative : : to outside forces, or some other practical : : explanation? this expression comes out of the us air force test pilot program of the late 1940 ' s. the envelope refers to a plane ' s performance capabilities. the limits of the planes ability to fly at speeds and altitudes and under certain stresses define what is known as its performance envelope. it ' s an \" envelope \" in the sense that it contains the ranges of the plane ' s abilities. \" pushing the envelope \" is a good example of how jargon - - the specialized or technical vocabulary of a group or profession - - gradually enters general usage. \" pushing the envelope \" comes from the jargon of test pilots, and has actually been around since the end of the second world war. the \" envelope \" involved is a sort of visual metaphor for the technical limits of a high - performance aircraft. a graph of such an aircraft ' s performance would appear as a rising slope as the craft approaches its limits of speed and stress, then fall off rapidly ( putting it mildly ) when the plane exceeds its capacity and the pilot loses control. safety, relatively speaking, lies within these limits, or \" inside the envelope. \" a pilot who \" pushes the envelope \" and tries to exceed the known capabilities of the aircraft risks what engineers delicately term \" catastrophic system failure, \" otherwise known as a crash. because \" pushing the envelope \" had such a esoteric origin, it took a best - selling book - - tom wolfe ' s \" the right stuff \" in 1979 - - and later the popular movie \" top gun \" to introduce it to the general public. since then it has begun to crop up in increasingly non - technical contexts, to the point where it is now a currently trendy metaphor for simply \" pushing it, \" or testing the limits of what is permissible in a given situation.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5511782850220428, "token_count": 482, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.793550"} {"text": "history of mathematics from : ( michael a. stueben ) in the interest of historical accuracy let it be known fibonacci ' s daughter was not named \" bunny. \" michael rolle was not danish, and did not call his william horner was not called \" little - jack \" by his the \" g \" in g. peano does not stand for \" grand. \" rene descartes ' middle name is not \" push. \" isaac barrow ' s middle name is not \" wheel. \" there is no such place as the university of wis - cosine, and if there was, the motto of their mathematics department would not be \" secant ye shall find. \" although euler is pronounced oil - er, it does not follow that euclid is pronounced oi - clid. franklin d. roosevelt never said \" the only thing we have to sphere is sphere itself. \" fibonacci is not a shortened form of the italian name that is actually spelled : f i bb ooo nnnnn aaaaaaaa it is true that august mobius was a difficult and opinionated man. but he was not so rigid that he could only see one side to every question. it is true that johannes kepler had an uphill struggle in explaining his theory of elliptical orbits to the other astronomers of his time. and it is also true that his first attempt was a failure. but it is not true that after his lecture the first three questions he was asked were \" what is elliptical? \" what is an orbit? \" and \" what is a planet? it is true that primitive societies use only rough approximations for the known constants of mathematics. for example, the northern tribes of alaska consider the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle to be 3. but it is not true that the value of 3 is called eskimo pi. incidentally, the survival of these tribes is dependent upon government assistance, which is not always forthcoming. for example, the canadian firm of tait and sons sold a stock of defective compasses to the government at half - price, and the government passed them onto the northern natives. hence the saying among these peoples : \" he who has a tait ' s is lost. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5523134817678015, "token_count": 462, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.806084"} {"text": "dna typing is an invaluable forensic tool for associating biological evidence with its true source. generally dna technology affords the forensic scientist the ability to effectively eliminate individuals who have been falsely associated with a biological sample and to substantially reduce the number of potential contributors to a few ( if not one ) individuals. when it was initially developed, dna typing was used predominately to compare an evidence profile directly with the profile from a reference sample ( s ). many of these one - to - one comparisons have been extremely useful in assisting to solve crimes. more than a decade ago the capability of dna typing was substantially expanded by the creation of dna databases that contain profiles from convicted felons ( and now arrestees as well ) and profiles from evidence from unsolved cases ( 1 ). the dna profiles contained within the forensic indices can be compared, and candidate matches can be investigated further. indeed, dna database searching has become another routine way to develop new and often strong investigative leads. the success stories of dna database search leads are well known for identifying suspects ( ultimately perpetrators ) and are being used increasingly in post - conviction exoneration cases. initially, database searching was applied to direct profile comparisons to generate investigative leads. however, in 2003 \u2013 2004 the forensic science service demonstrated that the database searching capabilities could be expanded by employing indirect comparisons via an approach known as familial searching ( 3 ). this type of search led to the identification of craig harman through an association with a first - order relative \u2019 s dna profile housed in the united kingdom dna database. the crime involved the heart attack death of a motorist due to a brick thrown through the windshield of the victim \u2019 s truck from a bridge above the roadway. a direct comparison of the dna profile from the brick and profiles in the national database did not result in any candidate matches. however, 25 similar dna profiles were identified, and at the top position on the list of candidates was a relative of craig harman. harman voluntarily submitted a reference sample, and his dna profile was a direct match with that of the evidence. he subsequently pleaded guilty to manslaughter. \" there is good a priori reason to believe that familial searching would have some success. according to the bureau of justice statistics correctional populations in united states, 1996 report, at least 42. 8 % of inmates had close relatives who also have been incarcerated. \" anecdotally, familial searching had been carried out previously to the harman case for years in one -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5081671642010177, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.849823"} {"text": "parent or offspring of the true source of the evidence. use of familial searching can constitute a powerful law enforcement tool that should increase the number of suspects ( and thus perpetrators ) identified through forensic dna technology, and advocates say it already is a legitimate way to develop investigative leads ( 3 ). anecdotally, it appears that the use of familial dna searching in the uk that results in a conviction may be on a performance par with the use of codis to produce offender hits that result in conviction ( 3 ). bieber et al. ( 4 ) suggested that familial search analysis could increase the cold hit rate up to 40 %. even with its success in identifying true perpetrators via indirect associations in a dna database search, familial searching is not without its critics, who contend that familial searching simply is an invasion of privacy and merely a genetic fishing expedition by law enforcement. while those against familial searching acknowledge that convicted criminals should lose some privacy rights, they assert that relatives of convicted felons do not have an expectation of a reduced right to privacy. critics claim that these searches are even more troubling since they constitute an increased discriminatory scrutiny of the low - income and ethnic groups that are overrepresented in the database ( 6 ) the recent identification in california via familial searching of a serial killer suspect shows that this investigative tool could be beneficial to underprivileged groups ( 7 ). for more than 30 years, a serial murderer \u2014 the grim sleeper \u2014 in los angeles remained unidentified. the majority of victims were young african american females ( that clearly represented a low - income, minority population group ). yet familial searching linked franklin via his son who was entered into the california database for a felony weapons charge in recent years. to ensure that the association was a viable lead, the dna laboratory also typed the evidence and the son for y strs. barring mutation, a father passes his y str chromosome intact to his son. given the discrimination power afforded by current y str profiling kits is around 0. 999, most false indirect associations can be eliminated ( 9 ). thus, when using a y str match threshold, rarely would an investigator be incorrect in following up the lead provided by the dna association. the two y str profiles were the same, which strongly supports a paternal relationship between the source of the dna evidence and franklin ' s son. franklin ' s dna profile was a direct match to evidence", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5036068867995889, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.851855"} {"text": "what is proper action regarding partial matches or potential associations? - if a state or jurisdiction desires to implement familial searching, what are the best practices to apply? with regard to the last question, software is needed that effectively searches databases based on the best - performing parameters. the proposed practices for identifying associations with their false - positive and false - negative rates should be understood ( 12 ). when possible, y str typing should be performed ( for male relatives ) ( 11 ) in conclusion, there is unequivocal evidence that familial searching will increase the cold hit rate and help solve more cases. most states legislatively authorized codis to be utilized for \" criminal identification \" purposes. the means used to achieve that purpose are seldom specifically described in the empowering statutes. california and colorado each implemented familial dna searching without legislative assistance ( 3 ). the \" grim sleeper \" case shows that familial dna searching can be used solely for \" criminal identification \" purposes ( see reference 20 for an extended discussion of this topic ( 14 ) ). the prediction is that as more successes such as the grim sleeper case are reported, more laboratories will seek to use familial searching. if familial searching is to be implemented it should be performed in a well - thought - out, robust manner. there are some models to follow, and the laboratory should work closely with its legal counterparts to develop an effective plan. editor ' s note : learn more about familial searches to solve crimes at the 21st international symposium on human identification, which is being held october 11 \u2013 14, 2010, in san antonio, texas. a panel discussion on october 14 will explore the details of familial searching and focus on the controversy behind the policy. panelists will include bruce budowle, institute of investigative genetics ; rockne harmon, alameda county district attorney \u2019 s office ( retired ) ; jennifer luttman, federal bureau of investigation ; chris maguire, forensic science service ; and sonia suter, george washington law school.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5203605382789614, "token_count": 417, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.853679"} {"text": "for some women, genes may influence pressure to be thin genetics may make some women more vulnerable to the pressure of being thin, a study led by michigan state university researchers has found. from size - zero models to airbrushed film stars, thinness is portrayed as equaling beauty across western culture, and it \u2019 s an ideal often cited as a cause of eating disorder symptoms in young women. the researchers focused on the potential psychological impact of women buying into this perceived ideal of thinness, which they call thin - ideal internalization. changes in self - perception and behavior, caused by this idealization, can lead to body dissatisfaction, a preoccupation with weight and other symptoms of eating disorders. \u201c we \u2019 re all bombarded daily with messages extoling the virtues of being thin, yet intriguingly only some women develop what we term thin - ideal internalization, \u201d said jessica suisman, lead author on the study and a researcher in msu \u2019 s department of psychology. \u201c this suggests that genetic factors may make some women more susceptible to this pressure than others. \u201d to explore the role of genetic factors in whether women \u201c buy in \u201d to the pressure to be thin, the idealization of thinness was studied in sets of twins. more than 300 female twins from the msu twin registry, ages 12 - 22, took part in the study. suisman and colleagues measured how much participants wanted to look like people from movies, tv and magazines. once the levels of thin idealization were assessed, identical twins who share 100 percent of their genes were compared with fraternal twins who share 50 percent. the results show that identical twins have closer levels of thin idealization than fraternal twins, which suggests a significant role for genetics. further analysis shows that the heritability of thin idealization is 43 percent, meaning that almost half of the reason women differ in their idealization of thinness can be explained by differences in their genetic makeup. in addition to the role of genes, findings showed that influences of the environment are also important. the results showed that differences between twins \u2019 environments have a greater role in the development of thin ideal internalization than wider cultural attitudes, which women throughout western societies are exposed to. \u201c we were surprised to find that shared environmental factors, such as exposure to the same media, did not have as big an impact as expected, \u201d suisman said. \u201c instead, non - shared factors that make co - twins different from each other had the greatest impact. \u201d although the study did not look at", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.514296771481242, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.857413"} {"text": "by michael mann and gavin schmidt on this site we emphasize conclusions that are supported by \u201c peer - reviewed \u201d climate research. that is, research that has been published by one or more scientists in a scholarly scientific journal after review by one or more experts in the scientists \u2019 same field ( \u2018 peers \u2019 ) for accuracy and validity. what is so important about \u201c peer review \u201d? as chris mooney has lucidly put it : [ peer review ] is an undisputed cornerstone of modern science. central to the competitive clash of ideas that moves knowledge forward, peer review enjoys so much renown in the scientific community that studies lacking its imprimatur meet with automatic skepticism. academic reputations hinge on an ability to get work through peer review and into leading journals ; university presses employ peer review to decide which books they \u2019 re willing to publish ; and federal agencies like the national institutes of health use peer review to weigh the merits of applications for federal research grants. put simply, peer review is supposed to weed out poor science. however, it is not foolproof \u2014 a deeply flawed paper can end up being published under a number of different potential circumstances : ( i ) the work is submitted to a journal outside the relevant field ( e. g. a paper on paleoclimate submitted to a social science journal ) where the reviewers are likely to be chosen from a pool of individuals lacking the expertise to properly review the paper, ( ii ) too few or too unqualified a set of reviewers are chosen by the editor, ( iii ) the reviewers or editor ( or both ) have agendas, and overlook flaws that invalidate the paper \u2019 s conclusions, and ( iv ) the journal may process and publish so many papers that individual manuscripts occasionally do not get the editorial attention they deserve. thus, while un - peer - reviewed claims should not be given much credence, just because a particular paper has passed through peer review does not absolutely insure that the conclusions are correct or scientifically valid. the \u201c leaks \u201d in the system outlined above unfortunately allow some less - than - ideal work to be published in peer - reviewed journals. this should therefore be a concern when the results of any one particular study are promoted over the conclusions of a larger body of past published work ( especially if it is a new study that has not been fully absorbed or assessed by the community ). indeed, this is why scientific assessments such as the arctic climate impact assessment ( acia ), or the intergovernmental panel on climate change ( ipcc ) reports", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5041238768512322, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.886912"} {"text": "a new study that has not been fully absorbed or assessed by the community ). indeed, this is why scientific assessments such as the arctic climate impact assessment ( acia ), or the intergovernmental panel on climate change ( ipcc ) reports, and the independent reports by the national academy of sciences, are so important in giving a balanced overview of the state of knowledge in the scientific research community. there have been several recent cases of putatively peer - reviewed studies in the scientific literature that produced unjustified or invalid conclusions. curiously, many of these publications have been accompanied by heavy publicity campaigns, often declaring that this one paper completely refutes the scientific consensus. an excellent account of some of these examples is provided here by dr. stephen schneider ( stanford university ). perhaps the most publicized recent example was the publication of a study by astronomer willie soon of the harvard university - affiliated harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics and co - authors, claiming to demonstrate that 20th century global warmth was not unusual in comparison with conditions during medieval times. indeed, this study serves as a prime example of one of the \u201c myths \u201d that we have debunked elsewhere on this site. the study was summarily discredited in articles by teams of climate scientists ( including several of the scientists here at realclimate ), in the american geophysical union ( agu ) journal eos and in science. however, it took some time the rebuttals to work their way through the slow process of the scientific peer review. in the meantime the study was quickly seized upon by those seeking to sow doubt in the validity behind the scientific consensus concerning the evidence for human - induced climate change ( see news articles in the new york times, and wall street journal ). the publication of the study had wider reverberations throughout the academic and scientific institutions connected with it. the association of the study with the \u201c harvard \u201d name caused some notable unease among members of the harvard university community ( see here and here ) and the reputation of the journal publishing the study was seriously tarnished in the process. the editor at climate research that handled the soon et al paper, dr. chris de frietas, has a controversial record of past editorial practices ( see this \u2018 sidebar \u2019 to an article in scientific american by science journalist david appell ). in an unprecedented ( to our knowledge ) act of protest, chief editor hans von storch and 3 additional editors subsequently resigned from climate research in response to the fundamental documented failures of the editorial process", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5529981655896579, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.887937"} {"text": "journal geophysical research letters ( grl ) which publishes over 1500 papers per year. it can be conservatively estimated that they publish no more than 70 % of the papers received, and thus probably process over 2000 papers per year. that gives each of the typically 8 or so editors of the journal almost a paper per day to evaluate. while grl publishes many excellent papers and provides an important forum to the research community for rapid publication of important results, occasionally, poor papers slip through the net. these two papers were authored by douglass and collaborators ( douglass et al, 2004a ; 2004b ) the first with fred singer as a co - author and the second with both singer and michaels. both papers * * * argue that recent atmospheric temperatures have been cooling, rather than warming, based on the analysis of data over a selective ( 1979 - 1996 ) time interval that eliminates periods of significant warming both before and after, and using a controversial satellite - derived temperature record whose robustness has been called into question by other teams analysing the data. an excellent discussion of both papers is provided by tim lambert. another relevant grl paper was the article by legates and davis ( 1997 ) which criticized the use of \u201c centered correlations \u201d common to numerous \u201c detection and attribution \u201d studies supporting the detection of human influence on recent climate change. they argued that correlations could increase while observed and simulated global means diverge. however, as pointed out in the chapter on detection and attribution in ipcc ( 2001 ) *, centered correlations were introduced for precisely this reason : to provide an indicator that was statistically independent of global mean temperature changes. as noted by the ipcc, \u201c if both global mean changes and centered pattern correlations point towards the same explanation of observed temperature changes, it provides more compelling evidence than either of these indicators in isolation \u201d. again, a basic logical flaw in the authors \u2019 criticism of past work was not caught in peer review. next, we consider the paper by soon et al ( 2004 ) published in grl which criticized the way temperature data series had been smoothed in the ipcc report and elsewhere. true to form, contrarians immediately sold the results as \u2018 invalidating \u2019 the conclusions of the ipcc, with the lead author willie soon himself writing an opinion piece to this effect. once again, a few short months later, a followup article was published by one of us ( mann, 2004 ) that invalidated the soon et al ( 2004 ) conclusions, demonstrating ( with links to supporting matlab", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5367488612585796, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.891193"} {"text": "opinion piece to this effect. once again, a few short months later, a followup article was published by one of us ( mann, 2004 ) that invalidated the soon et al ( 2004 ) conclusions, demonstrating ( with links to supporting matlab source codes and data ) how ( a ) the authors had, in an undisclosed manner, inappropriately compared trends calculated over differing time intervals and ( b ) had not used standard, objective statistical criteria to determine how data series should be treated near the beginning and end of the data. it is unfortunate that a followup paper even had to be published, as the flaws in the original study were so severe as to have rendered the study of essentially no scientific value. there are other examples of studies that have even been published in high quality venues that were heavily publicized at the time, but in retrospect were flawed ( though not as egregiously as the examples above ). for instance, fan et al ( 1998 ), on the size of the carbon sink in the continental us, rebutted by schimel et al. ( 2000 ). or the solar - cycle length / climate correlation described by friis - christensen and lassen ( 1991 ) whose seeemingly impressive correlation for the latter half of the 20th century disappears if you don \u2019 t change the averaging scheme half way along ( laut, 2003 ; damon and laut, 2004 ). the current thinking of scientists on climate change is based on thousands of studies ( google scholar gives 19, 000 scientific articles for the full search phrase \u201c global climate change \u201d ). any new study will be one small grain of evidence that adds to this big pile, and it will shift the thinking of scientists slightly. science proceeds like this in a slow, incremental way. it is extremely unlikely that any new study will immediately overthrow all the past knowledge. so even if the conclusions of the shaviv and veizer ( 2003 ) study discussed earlier, for instance, had been correct, this would be one small piece of evidence pitted against hundreds of others which contradict it. scientists would find the apparent contradiction interesting and worthy of further investigation, and would devote further study to isolating the source of the contradiction. they would not suddenly throw out all previous results. yet, one often gets the impression that scientific progress consists of a series of revolutions where scientists discard all their past thinking each time a new result gets published. this is often because only a small handful of high - profile studies in a given field are known by the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5200049906236943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.892209"} {"text": "often gets the impression that scientific progress consists of a series of revolutions where scientists discard all their past thinking each time a new result gets published. this is often because only a small handful of high - profile studies in a given field are known by the wider public and media, and thus unrealistic weight is attached to those studies. new results are often over - emphasised ( sometimes by the authors, sometimes by lobby groups ) to make them sound important enough to have news value. thus \u201c bombshells \u201d usually end up being duds. however, as demonstrated above, even when it initially breaks down, the process of peer - review does usually work in the end. but sometimes it can take a while. observers would thus be well advised to be extremely skeptical of any claims in the media or elsewhere of some new \u201c bombshell \u201d or \u201c revolution \u201d that has not yet been fully vetted by the scientific community. * note added 1 / 21 / 05 : it has come to our attention that legates and davis ( 1997 ) were similarly rebutted in a separate publication by wigley et al ( 2000 ). * * note added 1 / 21 / 05 : mckitrick and michaels have published an errata correcting the degrees / radians error in cr 27, 265 - 268 which now shows that latitude correlates much better with temperature trends than any economic statisitic. * * * note added 1. 25. 05 : chip knappenberger correctly points out that the the second douglass et al paper doesn \u2019 t actually make the claim that the atmosphere is cooling. we therefore withdraw that specific comment, but note that the comment concerning the selective use of data series and time periods stands. benestad, r. e., are temperature trends affected by economic activity? comment on mckitrick & michaels., climate research, 27, 171 - 173, 2004. damon, p. e. and p. laut, pattern of strange errors plagues solar activity and terrestrial climate data, eos, 85, p. 370. 2004 douglass, d. h., pearson, b. d., and s. f. singer, altitude dependence of atmospheric temperature trends : climate models versus observation, geophys. res. lett., 31, l13208, doi : 10. 1029 / 2004gl020103, 2004. douglass, d. h., pearson, b. d., and s. f. singer, knappenberg, p.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5431623685974492, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.893148"} {"text": "schmidt, j. severinghaus, a. j. weaver, and j. zachos, cosmic rays, carbon dioxide, and climate, eos, 85,, 38, 41, 2004. schimel, d., melillo, j., tian, h., mcguire, a. d., kicklighter, d., kittel, t., rosenbloom, n., running, s., thornton, p., ojima, d., parton, w., kelly, r., sykes, m., neilson, r. and rizzo, b., contribution of increasing co2 and climate to carbon storage by ecosystems in the united states, science 287 : 2004 - 2006, 2000 shaviv, n, and j. veizer, celestial driver of phanerozoic climate?, gsa today, 13,, 4 - 10, 2004. soon, w., d. r. legates, and s. l. baliunas, estimation and representation of long - term ( > 40 year ) trends of northern - hemisphere gridded surface temperature : a note of caution, geophys. res. lett., 31,, l03209, doi : 10. 1029 / 2003gl019141, 2004. soon, w., and s. baliunas, proxy climatic and environmental changes over the past 1000 years, climate research, 23, 89 - 110, 2003. soon, w., s. baliunas, c, idso, s. idso and d. r. legates, reconstructing climatic and environmental changes of the past 1000 years, energy and environment, 14, 233 - 296, 2003. wigley, t. m. l, santer, b. d and k. e. taylor, k. e., correlation approaches to detection, geophys. res. lett.,, 27, 2973 - 2976, 2000.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5418411398387717, "token_count": 412, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.894612"} {"text": "keba keba is japanese for gaudy tawdry and it is the title of artist takashi murakami ' s first picture book for children, with a story written by pop musician yujin kitagawa. this bright, colorful book, appropriate for readers of all ages, features both japanese and english texts and emerges at a pivotal time for america ' s scrutiny of japan ' s self - expression. murakami is both an artist and an intellectual ; he has written on and created works employing the concept he calls \" superflat, \" which is to say, \" completely westernized. \" murakami has speculated that \" the world of the future might be like japan is today - - super flat. \" murakami ' s art is inspired both by animation and children ' s culture. but while he has created stuffed animals and monstrously sized inflatable characters, keba keba is his first work intended for children. as the book begins, we meet keba keba - - a round, colorful, exeedingly generous, though friendless creature. keba keba gives his yellow to a baby chicken who has been bullied, his favorite color red to the sad sun, his blue to the crying sky, and the rest of his colors to some frail, unhappy flowers. while keba keba is giving his colors away to the colorless strangers, he becomes thinner and more faint - - but at the same time incredibly happy. in fact, kitagawa ' s story continuously emphasizes keba keba ' s wonderful feelings. yet murakami uses a climactic, wordless illustration encompassing two full pages to show keba keba in shades of grey. his eyes are closed, he is thin, exhausted - - super - flat. fashion designer marc jacobs, whose comments are featured on keba keba ' s book jacket, says that this story is a lesson about the need to give generously and selflessly in order to receive true joy. certainly this is one message children can absorb. but it ' s also possible to see the book as offering a more cautionary tale for contemporary youth. the story ends with a colorful world, but kebakeba is not in this world anymore. and he never does make any friends. sources : brehm, margrit. \" takashi murakami : a lesson in strategy ( morphed double - loop. \" the japanese experience inevitable. ed. margrit brehm. germany, hatje cantz verlag", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5134627222351529, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.898047"} {"text": "cr - 39 is transparent in visible spectrum and is almost completely opaque in the ultraviolet range. it has high abrasion resistance, in fact the highest abrasion / scratch resistance of any uncoated optical plastic. cr - 39 is about half the weight of glass and index of refraction only slightly lower than that of crown glass, making it an advantageous material for eyeglasses and sunglasses lenses. a wide range of colors can be achieved by dyeing of the surface or the bulk of the material. cr - 39 is also resistant to most of solvents and other chemicals, to gamma radiation, to aging, and to material fatigue. it can withstand the small hot sparks from welding. it can be used continuously in temperatures up to 100 \u00b0c and up to one hour in 130 \u00b0c. in the radiation detection application, raw cr - 39 material is exposed to proton recoils caused by incident neutrons. the proton recoils cause tracks, which are enlarged by an etching process in a caustic solution of sodium hydroxide. the enlarged tracks are counted under a microscope ( commonly 200x ), and the number of tracks is proportional to the amount of incident neutron radiation. effect of alpha - particle energies on cr - 39 line - shape parameters using positron annihilation technique. ( polyally diglycol carbonate ) jul 01, 2006 ; polyally diglycol carbonate \" cr - 39 \" is widely used as etched track type particle detector. doppler broadening positron...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5465050600321236, "token_count": 306, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.904916"} {"text": "if and only if - \" material equivalence \" redirects here, in logic and fields that rely on it such as mathematics, is a logical connective between statements which means that the truth of either one of the statements requires the truth of the other. thus, either both statements are true, or both are false. to put it another way, the first statement will always be true when the second statement is, and will only be true under those conditions. in writing, common alternative phrases to \" if and only if \" include iff, q is necessary and sufficient for p, p is equivalent to q, p precisely if q, p precisely ( or exactly ) when q, p exactly in case q, and p just in case q. many authors regard \" iff \" as unsuitable in formal writing ; others use it freely. the statement \" ( p iff q ) \" is equivalent to the statement \" not ( p xor q ) \" or \" p = = q \" in computer science. in logic formulas, logical symbols are used instead of these phrases ; see the discussion of notation. the truth table of p iff q ( also written as p \u2194 q ) is as follows : p \u2194 q | | t | | | f | | | f | | | t | the corresponding logical symbols are \" \u2194 \", \" \" and \" \u2261 \", and sometimes \" iff \". these are usually treated as equivalent. however, some texts of mathematical logic ( particularly those on first - order logic, rather than propositional logic ) make a distinction between these, in which the first, \u2194, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while is used in reasoning about those logic formulas ( e. g., in metalogic another term for this logical connective is exclusive nor. in most logical systems, one proves a statement of the form \" p iff q \" by proving \" if p, then q \" and \" if q, then p \" ( or the inverse of \" if p, then q \", i. e. \" if not p, then not q \" ). proving this pair of statements sometimes leads to a more natural proof, since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly. an alternative is to prove the disjunction \" ( p and q ) or ( not - p and not - q ) \", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts \u2014 that is, because \" if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6011913223963705, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.910922"} {"text": "alternative is to prove the disjunction \" ( p and q ) or ( not - p and not - q ) \", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts \u2014 that is, because \" iff \" is truth - functional, \" p iff q \" follows if p and q have both been shown true, or both false. origin of the abbreviation usage of the abbreviation \" iff \" first appeared in print in john l. kelley book general topology its invention is often credited to the mathematician paul halmos the difference between if, only if, and iff - madison will eat pudding if the pudding is a custard. ( equivalently : if the pudding is a custard, then madison will eat it ) - madison will eat pudding only if the pudding is a custard. ( equivalently : if madison is eating pudding, then it must be a custard ) - madison will eat pudding if and only if ( iff ) the pudding is a custard. ( equivalently : if the pudding is a custard, then madison will eat it. and if madison is eating pudding, then it must be a custard. ) sentence ( 1 ) states only that madison will eat custard pudding. it does not, however, preclude the possibility that madison might also have occasion to eat bread pudding. maybe she will, maybe she will not - the sentence does not tell us. all we know for certain is that she will eat custard pudding. sentence ( 2 ) states that the only pudding madison will eat is a custard. it does not, however, preclude the possibility that madison will refuse a custard if it is made available, in contrast with sentence ( 1 ), which requires madison to eat any available custard. sentence ( 3 ), however, makes it quite clear that madison will eat custard pudding and custard pudding only. she will eat all such puddings, and she will not eat any other type of pudding. a further difference is that \" if \" is used in definitions ( except in formal logic ) ; see more below. a sentence that is composed of two other sentences joined by \" iff \" is called a biconditional. \" iff \" joins two sentences to form a new sentence. it should not be confused with logical equivalence which is a description of a relation between two sentences. the biconditional \" a iff the sentences a,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5829656777161626, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.913842"} {"text": "called a biconditional. \" iff \" joins two sentences to form a new sentence. it should not be confused with logical equivalence which is a description of a relation between two sentences. the biconditional \" a iff the sentences a, describing a relation between the states of affairs a describe. by contrast \" a is logically equivalent to b \" mentions both sentences : it describes a relation between those two sentences, and not between whatever matters they describe. the distinction is a very confusing one, and has led many a philosopher astray. certainly it is the case that when a is logically equivalent to b, \" a iff b \" is true. but the converse does not hold. reconsidering the sentence : - madison will eat pudding if and only if it is custard. there is clearly no logical equivalence between the two halves of this particular biconditional. for more on the distinction, see w. v. quine ' s mathematical logic, section 5. one way of looking at \" a if and only if b \" is that it means \" a if b \" ( b implies a ) and \" a only when b \" ( not b implies not a ). \" not b implies not a \" means a implies b, so then we get two way implication. in philosophy and logic, \" iff \" is used to indicate definitions, since definitions are supposed to be universally quantified biconditionals. in mathematics and elsewhere, however, the word \" if \" is normally used in definitions, rather than \" iff \". this is due to the observation that \" if \" in the english language has a definitional meaning, separate from its meaning as a propositional conjunction. this separate meaning can be explained by noting that a definition ( for instance : a group is \" abelian \" if it satisfies the commutative law ; or : a grape is a \" raisin \" if it is well dried ) is not an equivalence to be proved, but a rule for interpreting the term defined. ( some authors, nevertheless, explicitly indicate that the \" if \" of a definition means \" iff \"! ) here are some examples of true statements that use \" iff \" - true biconditionals ( the first is an example of a definition, so it should normally have been written with \" if \" ) : - a person is a bachelor iff that person is a marriageable man who has never married. - \" snow is white \" ( in english ) is true if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6141890846506689, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.915153"} {"text": "of a definition, so it should normally have been written with \" if \" ) : - a person is a bachelor iff that person is a marriageable man who has never married. - \" snow is white \" ( in english ) is true iff \" schnee ist wei\u00df \" ( in german ) is true. - for any p, q, and r : ( p & q ) & r iff p & ( q & r ). ( since this is written using variables and \" & \", the statement would usually be written using \" \u2194 \", or one of the other symbols used to write biconditionals, in place of \" iff \" ). - for any real numbers x and y, x = y + 1 iff y = x\u22121. other words are also sometimes emphasized in the same way by repeating the last letter ; for example orr for \" or and only or \" ( the exclusive disjunction the statement \" ( a iff b ) \" is equivalent to the statement \" ( not a or b ) and ( not b or a ), \" and is also equivalent to the statement \" ( not a and not b ) or ( a and b ) \". it is also equivalent to : not [ ( a or b ) and ( not a or not b ) ], or more simply : which converts into : which were given in verbal interpretations above. more general usage is used outside the field of logic, wherever logic is applied, especially in mathematical discussions. it has the same meaning as above : it is an abbreviation for if and only if, indicating that one statement is both necessary and sufficient for the other. this is an example of mathematical jargon. ( however, as noted above, if, rather than iff, is more often used in statements of definition. ) the elements of x are all and only the elements of y is used to mean : \" for any z in the domain of discourse, z is in x if and only if z is in y. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5975846566130012, "token_count": 412, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.915849"} {"text": "artificial \" skin \" materials can sense pressure chicago ( reuters ) - new artificial \" skin \" fashioned out of flexible semiconductor materials can sense touch, making it possible to create robots with a grip delicate enough to hold an egg, yet strong enough to grasp the frying pan, u. s. researchers said on sunday. scientists have long struggled with a way to make robotic devices capable of adjusting the amount of force needed to hold and use different objects. the pressure - sensitive materials are designed to overcome that challenge. \" humans generally know how to hold a fragile egg without breaking it, \" said ali javey, an electrical engineer at the university of california berkeley, who led one of two teams reporting on artificial skin discoveries in the journal nature materials. \" if we ever wanted a robot that could unload the dishes, for instance, we ' d want to make sure it doesn ' t break the wine glasses in the process. but we ' d also want the robot to be able to grip a stock pot without dropping it, \" javey said in a statement. javey ' s team found a way to make ultra tiny \" nanowires \" from an alloy of silicon and germanium. wires of this material were formed on the outside of a cylindrical drum, which was then rolled onto a sticky film, depositing the wires in a uniform pattern. sheets of this semiconductor film were then coated with a layer of pressure - sensitive rubber. tests of the material showed it was able to detect a range of force, from typing on a keyboard to holding an object. a second team led by zhenan bao, a chemical engineer at stanford university in california, used a different approach, making a material so sensitive it can detect the weight of a butterfly resting on it. bao ' s sensors were made by sandwiching a precisely molded, highly elastic rubber layer between two electrodes in a regular grid of tiny pyramids. \" we molded it into some kind of microstructure to incorporate some air pockets, \" bao said in a telephone interview. \" if we introduce air pockets, then these rubber pieces can bounce back. \" when this material is stretched, the artificial skin measures the change in electrical activity. \" the change in the thickness of the material is converted into an electrical signal, \" she said. eventually, the teams hope artificial skin could be used to restore the sense of touch in people with prosthetic limbs, but scientists will first need a better understanding of how to integrate the system ' s sensors with the human nervous system. javey ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5205638475833194, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.919709"} {"text": "may 19, 2008 a vaccine created by university of rochester medical center scientists prevents the development of alzheimer ' s disease - like pathology in mice without causing inflammation or significant side effects. vaccinated mice generated an immune response to the protein known as amyloid - beta peptide, which accumulates in what are called \" amyloid plaques \" in brains of people with alzheimer ' s. the vaccinated mice demonstrated normal learning skills and functioning memory in spite of being genetically designed to develop an aggressive form of the disease. the rochester scientists reported the findings in an article in the may issue of molecular therapy, the journal of the american society of gene therapy. \" our study demonstrates that we can create a potent but safe version of a vaccine that utilizes the strategy of immune response shaping to prevent alzheimer ' s - related pathologies and memory deficits, \" said william bowers, associate professor of neurology and of microbiology and immunology at the medical center and lead author of the article. \" the vaccinated mice not only performed better, we found no evidence of signature amyloid plaque in their brains. \" alzheimer ' s is a progressive neurodegenerative disease associated with dementia and a decline in performance of normal activities. hallmarks of the disease include the accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brains of patients and the loss of normal functioning tau, a protein that stabilizes the transport networks in neurons. abnormal tau function eventually leads to another classic hallmark of alzheimer ' s, neurofibrillary tangle in nerve cells. after several decades of exposure to these insults, neurons ultimately succumb and die, leading to progressively damaged learning and memory centers in the brain. the mice that received the vaccines were genetically engineered to express large amounts of amyloid beta protein. they also harbored a mutation that causes the tau - related tangle pathology. prior to the start of the vaccine study, the mice were trained to navigate a maze using spatial clues. they were then tested periodically during the 10 - month study on the amount of time and distance traveled to an escape pod and the number of errors made along the way. \" what we found exciting was that by targeting one pathology of alzheimer ' s - - amyloid beta - - we were able to also prevent the transition of tau from its normal form to a form found in the disease state, \" bowers said. the goal of the vaccine is to prompt the immune system to recognize amyloid beta protein and remove it. to create the vaccine, bowers and the research group use a herpes virus that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5206978287820256, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.969498"} {"text": "form found in the disease state, \" bowers said. the goal of the vaccine is to prompt the immune system to recognize amyloid beta protein and remove it. to create the vaccine, bowers and the research group use a herpes virus that is stripped of the viral genes that can cause disease or harm. they then load the virus container with the genetic code for amyloid beta and interleukin - 4, a protein that stimulates immune responses involving type 2 t helper cells, which are lymphocytes that play an important role in the immune system. the research group tested several versions of a vaccine. mice were given three injections of empty virus alone, a vaccine carrying only the amyloid beta genetic code, or a vaccine encoding both amyloid beta and interlueikin - 4, which was found to be the most effective. \" we have learned a great deal from this ongoing project, \" bowers said. \" importantly, it has demonstrated the combined strengths of the gene delivery platform and the immune shaping concept for the creation of customized vaccines for alzheimer ' s disease, as well as a number of other diseases. we are currently working on strategies we believe can make the vaccine even safer. \" bowers expects the vaccine eventually to be tested in people, but due to the number of studies required to satisfy regulatory requirements, it could be three or more years before human trials testing this type of alzheimer ' s vaccine occur. grants from the national institutes of health supported the study. in addition to bowers, authors of the molecular therapy article include maria e. frazer, jennifer e. hughes, michael a. mastrangelo and jennifer tibbens of the medical center and howard j. federoff of georgetown university medical center. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5283860159798764, "token_count": 399, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.970300"} {"text": "apr. 14, 2011 scientists at queen \u2019 s university belfast have pioneered a new needle - free test to take the sting out of medicine testing in premature babies. the research will not only lead to greater accuracy in prescribing, but will also significantly reduce the trauma of such tests for newborn infants and their families. in the first published research project worldwide on this new approach to testing medicines in children, the findings were announced in the us medical journal pediatrics. the study, which involves the use of blood spots obtained from a simple heel - prick, took place in the belfast hospital for sick children and the school of pharmacy at queen \u2019 s. the research was carried out by a team from the university \u2019 s school of pharmacy in partnership with the regional neonatal unit in the royal maternity hospital. it was funded by the health and social care research and development office ( hsc r & d ) and action medical research. principal investigator, queen \u2019 s professor of pharmacy practice james mcelnay said : \u201c this type of testing will obviously reduce the discomfort of medicine testing in these vulnerable patients. what is even more important, however, is that it will ensure maximum accuracy in calculating the most appropriate dose of a medicine for a sick child. \u201c some 80 per cent of infants in intensive care in hospitals receive medicines which have not been appropriately tested or licensed for use in such young patients, and the dosage is usually calculated based on licensed doses for adults or older children. sizable blood samples are then required to measure the concentrations of the drug in the infant \u2019 s bloodstream. \u201c our work opens up opportunities for using the same approach to study other medicines which are used in this manner in children, and we are currently studying a number of these. \u201d the queen \u2019 s study involved the antibiotic metronidazole. the research team used single drops of blood collected on blotting paper from premature infants who were receiving the medicine as part of their routine care. the \u2018 spots \u2019 were dried, analysed in the university \u2019 s school of pharmacy, and the results used to develop dosage guidance for doctors. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. - m. suyagh, p. s. collier, j. s. millership, g. iheagwaram, m. millar, h. l. halliday, j. c. mcelnay. metronidazole population ph", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5075203154976319, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.972890"} {"text": "aug. 9, 2012 the sought - after equanimity of \" living in the moment \" may be impossible, according to neuroscientists who ' ve pinpointed a brain area responsible for using past decisions and outcomes to guide future behavior. the study, based on research conducted at the university of pittsburgh and published august 9 in the professional journal neuron, is the first of its kind to analyze signals associated with metacognition - - a person ' s ability to monitor and control cognition ( a term cleverly described by researchers as \" thinking about thinking. \" ) \" the brain has to keep track of decisions and the outcomes they produce, \" said marc sommer, who did his research for the study as a university of pittsburgh neuroscience faculty member and is now on the faculty at duke university. \" you need that continuity of thought, \" sommer continued. \" we are constantly keeping decisions in mind as we move through life, thinking about other things. we guessed it was analogous to working memory, which would point toward the prefrontal cortex. \" sommer predicted that neuronal correlates of metacognition resided in the same brain areas responsible for cognition, including the frontal cortex - - a part of the brain linked with personality expression, decision making, and social behavior. sommer worked with paul g. middlebrooks, who did his research for the study at pitt before he received his pitt phd in neuroscience in 2011 ; middlebrooks is now a postdoctoral fellow at vanderbilt university. the research team studied single neurons in vivo in three frontal cortical regions of the brain : the frontal eye field ( associated with visual attention and eye movements ), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( responsible for motor planning, organization, and regulation ), and the supplementary eye field ( sef ) involved in the planning and control of saccadic eye movements, which are the extremely fast movements of the eye that allow it to continually refocus on an object. to learn where metacognition occurs in the brain, subjects performed a visual decision - making task that involved random flashing lights and a dominant light on a cardboard square. participants were asked to remember and pinpoint where the dominant light appeared, guessing whether they were correct. the researchers found that while neural activity correlated with decisions and guesses in all three brain areas, the putative metacognitive activity that linked decisions to bets resided exclusively in the sef. \" the sef is a complex area [ of the brain ] linked with motivation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5386179663442439, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.977042"} {"text": "neural activity correlated with decisions and guesses in all three brain areas, the putative metacognitive activity that linked decisions to bets resided exclusively in the sef. \" the sef is a complex area [ of the brain ] linked with motivational aspects of behavior, \" said sommer. \" if we think we ' re going to receive something good, neuronal activity tends to be high in sef. people want good things in life, and to keep getting those good things, they have to compare what ' s going on now versus the decisions made in the past. \" sommer noted that defining such concepts related to metacognition, like consciousness, has been difficult for decades. he sees his research and future work related to studying metacognition as one step in a systematic process of working toward a better understanding of consciousness. by studying metacognition, he says, he reduces the big problem of studying a \" train of thought \" into a simpler component : examining how one cognitive process influences another. \" why aren ' t our thoughts independent of each other? why don ' t we just live in the moment? for a healthy person, it ' s impossible to live in the moment. it ' s a nice thing to say in terms of seizing the day and enjoying life, but our inner lives and experiences are much richer than that. \" so far, patients with mental disorders have not been tested on these tasks, but sommer is interested to see how sef and other brain areas might be disrupted in these disorders. \" with schizophrenia and alzheimer ' s disease, there is a fracturing of the thought process. it is constantly disrupted, and despite trying to keep a thought going, one is distracted very easily, \" sommers said. \" patients with these disorders have trouble sustaining a memory of past decisions to guide later behavior, suggesting a problem with metacognition. \" funding for this research was provided by the university of pittsburgh, the joint university of pittsburgh - carnegie mellon university center for the neural basis of cognition, the national institute of mental health, and the alfred p. sloan foundation. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. - paul g. middlebrooks, marc a. sommer. neuronal correlates of metacognition in primate frontal cortex. neuron, 2012 ; 75 ( 3 ) : 517 doi : 10. 1016 / j. neuron", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5479290168358499, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.979019"} {"text": "things. emotional response, and trauma, must be seen in relative not absolute terms. themodel helps remind us that the other person ' s perspective is different to our own, whether weare the one in shock, or the one helping another to deal with their upset. the study of death and dying is actually known as thanatology ( from the greek word ' thanatos ' meaning death ). elisabeth kubler - ross is accordingly sometimes referred to as athanatologist, and she is considered to have contributed significantly to the creation of thegenre of thanatology itself. elisabeth kubler - ross ' s seminal book was on death & dying, published in 1969, in whichshe explained her now classically regarded ' five stages of grief '. the book and its ideas werequite revolutionary at the time, reflecting kubler - ross ' s outspoken and bold approach, whichis paradoxical given the sensitivity and compassion of her concepts. was a catalyst. she opened up and challenged previously conservative ( sweep itunder the carpet, don ' t discuss it, etc ) theories and practices relating to death and bereavement, and received an enormously favourable response among carers, the dying andthe bereaved, which perhaps indicates the level of denial and suppression that had earlier characterised conventional views about the subject - particularly in the western world, wheredeath is more of a taboo than in certain other cultures. as stated, and important to emphasise, kubler - ross ' s five stages of grief model wasdeveloped initially as a model for helping dying patients to cope with death and bereavement, however the concept also provides insight and guidance for coming to terms with personaltrauma and change, and for helping others with emotional adjustment and coping, whatever the cause. this has probably helped her ideas to spread and to enter ' mainstream ' thinking. and her ideas have now become synonymous with emotionalresponse to trauma, and to grief support and counselling, much likemaslowis fundamentallyassociated with motivational theory ; kolb with learning styles, and gardner with multiple intelligence. as with much other brilliant pioneering work, the kubler - ross model is elegantly simple. thefive stages of grief modelis summarised and interpreted below. this kubler - ross five stages and terminology are featured here with permission from theelisabeth kubler ross foundation, which is gratefully acknowledged. please look at the twowebsiteswww. ekrfoundation. org,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.578634186090617, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.985892"} {"text": "tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is a form of vitamin c that \u2019 s been modified to be more lipid soluble. this modification allows it to better penetrate the skin. the problem with most topical forms of vitamin c is they \u2019 re water soluble and can \u2019 t make it through the lipid - rich skin barrier to reach the dermis of skin where they could have maximal benefits. tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is able to successfully penetrate the epidermis and move to the layer underneath called the dermis. it \u2019 s in the dermis that collagen, a protein that gives skin its youthful firmness and ability to resist wrinkles, is made. vitamin c has a variety of benefits for health and for maintaining healthy, youthful skin. it functions as an antioxidant, helping to offset oxidative damage that degrades collagen and leads to wrinkles and saggy skin. when skin is exposed to ultraviolet light from the sun, a sequence of events occurs that leads to free radical production. these free radicals damage skin cell membranes and activate enzymes that break down collagen and elastin, two most important proteins that keep skin firm and youthful. vitamin c has the ability to donate electrons to free radicals so they aren \u2019 t as damaging to cellular structures. vitamin c isn \u2019 t a substitute for sunscreen, but it does provide extra protection against oxidative damage that can lead to premature aging and skin cancer. another benefit of vitamin c is it stimulates collagen production. since collagen provides skin with the support it needs to stay firm and youthful, this helps to reduce wrinkles and skin sagging. a study published in the archives of otolaryngology and head and neck surgery found that participants who used topical vitamin c for three months experienced a decrease in fine lines and wrinkles and an improvement in skin texture. this was confirmed by a similar study published in the journal dermatologic surgery. topical vitamin c also appears to be effective for lightening excessive skin pigmentation and improving the appearance of stretch marks. it also reduces redness and inflammation after laser surgery. despite the benefits of vitamin c, it has drawbacks. some forms can \u2019 t penetrate the epidermis and reach the dermis where it can stimulate collagen production. plus, vitamin c is unstable and loses its effectiveness quickly, especially if exposed to air or light. tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is more stable than other vitamin c preparations", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5201455286710572, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.991109"} {"text": "the dermis where it can stimulate collagen production. plus, vitamin c is unstable and loses its effectiveness quickly, especially if exposed to air or light. tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is more stable than other vitamin c preparations, and is lipid - soluble, which allows it to reach the dermis of the skin where it can stimulate collagen production. most vitamin c preparations remain on the surface of the skin where they guard against oxidative damage but have little effect on collagen production. tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is able to move into the dermis where it can offer additional anti - aging benefits by stimulating collagen production. it also stimulates the production of glycosaminoglycans, compounds present naturally in skin that bind and hold on to water. levels of glycosaminoglycans decline with age and may account for some of the skin changes that occur as skin matures. is tetrahexydecyl sulfate safe? like most forms of vitamin c, tetrahexyldecyl sulfate is safe. the environmental working group classifies it as a low hazard cosmetic ingredient. most forms of topical vitamin c cause skin irritation and redness, but tetrahexyldecyl sulfate is less irritating than other forms, although people with sensitive skin may experience mild burning and irritation. some manufacturers of cosmetic and skin care products add tetrahexyldecyl sulfate to their products due to its antioxidant and anti - aging benefits. some types of products that contain this ingredient include facial moisturizers, eye creams, sunscreens, lip gloss, foundation and anti - aging products of all types. it \u2019 s often combined with other antioxidants like vitamin e, retinols or peptides for additional anti - aging benefits. all in all, tetrahexyldecyl sulfate is a form of vitamin c that \u2019 s more stable and better able to penetrate skin to reach the dermis. by reaching the dermis, it can stimulate collagen production to help give skin greater firmness and resiliency. in addition, it helps to protect against damage due to sun exposure, lighten pigmented areas, treat stretch marks and improve skin texture. it does this safely and with minimal skin irritation. cosmetic \u2019 s cop. \u201c tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate \u201d environmental working group. \u201c tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate \u201d arch. otolar", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5059923124619538, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.992032"} {"text": "the voyager 1 has found its way into the far reaches of space, specifically to the edge beyond which scientists believe lies interstellar space. this area is within our solar bubble, and is referred to as a \u201c magnetic highway for charged particles. \u201d the findings were detailed earlier today at the american geophysical union, which took place in san francisco. the magnetic highway detailed in the announcement is explained thusly : the connection betwixt the sun \u2019 s magnetic field lines and interstellar magnetic field lines lets high energy particles from beyond our heliopsphere \u201c zoom in, \u201d while letting low - energy particles \u201c zoom out. \u201d when voyager goes beyond these fields into interstellar space, it is believed the occasion will be marked by a change in the direction of the lines. one of the project \u2019 s scientist edward stone offered this statement. \u201c although voyager 1 still is inside the sun \u2019 s environment, we now can taste what it \u2019 s like on the outside because the particles are zipping in and out on this magnetic highway. we believe this is the last leg of our journey to interstellar space. our best guess is it \u2019 s likely just a few months to a couple years away. the new region isn \u2019 t what we expected, but we \u2019 ve come to expect the unexpected from voyager. \u201d voyager has been traipsing around the outer layer of the heliosphere for years, 5. 5 of which were spent with stable solar wind. over time \u2013 and rather suddenly \u2013 the solar wind decreased, eventually to zero. says scientists, if one were to look at the charged particle ( solar wind ) information, it would seem that the voyager is already beyond the heliosphere. other data doesn \u2019 t indicate this, however, and so for the time being, it \u2019 s still a matter of patience.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5116303073521206, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:34.993855"} {"text": "related topics : opengl transformation updates : the mathml version is available here. a computer monitor is a 2d surface. a 3d scene rendered by opengl must be projected onto the computer screen as a 2d image. gl _ projection matrix is used for this projection transformation. first, it transforms all vertex data from the eye coordinates to the clip coordinates. then, these clip coordinates are also transformed to the normalized device coordinates ( ndc ) by dividing with w component of the clip coordinates. therefore, we have to keep in mind that both clipping ( frustum culling ) and ndc transformations are integrated into gl _ projection matrix. the following sections describe how to build the projection matrix from 6 parameters ; left, right, bottom, top, near and far boundary values. note that the frustum culling ( clipping ) is performed in the clip coordinates, just before dividing by wc. the clip coordinates, xc, yc and zc are tested by comparing with wc. if each clip coordinate is less than - wc, or greater than wc, then the vertex will be discarded. then, opengl will reconstruct the edges of the polygon where clipping occurs. in perspective projection, a 3d point in a truncated pyramid frustum ( eye coordinates ) is mapped to a cube ( ndc ) ; the range of x - coordinate from [ l, r ] to [ - 1, 1 ], the y - coordinate from [ b, t ] to [ - 1, 1 ] and the z - coordinate from [ n, f ] to [ - 1, 1 ]. note that the eye coordinates are defined in the right - handed coordinate system, but ndc uses the left - handed coordinate system. that is, the camera at the origin is looking along - z axis in eye space, but it is looking along + z axis in ndc. since glfrustum ( ) accepts only positive values of near and far distances, we need to negate them during the construction of gl _ projection matrix. in opengl, a 3d point in eye space is projected onto the near plane ( projection plane ). the following diagrams show how a point ( xe, ye, ze ) in eye space is projected to ( xp, yp, zp ) on the near plane. from the top view of the frustum, the x - coordinate of eye space, xe is mapped to xp, which is calculated by using the ratio of similar triangles ; from the side", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5101412552617732, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.000420"} {"text": "yp, zp ) on the near plane. from the top view of the frustum, the x - coordinate of eye space, xe is mapped to xp, which is calculated by using the ratio of similar triangles ; from the side view of the frustum, yp is also calculated in a similar way ; note that both xp and yp depend on ze ; they are inversely propotional to - ze. in other words, they are both divided by - ze. it is a very first clue to construct gl _ projection matrix. after the eye coordinates are transformed by multiplying gl _ projection matrix, the clip coordinates are still a homogeneous coordinates. it finally becomes the normalized device coordinates ( ndc ) by divided by the w - component of the clip coordinates. ( see more details on opengl transformation. ) therefore, we can set the w - component of the clip coordinates as - ze. and, the 4th of gl _ projection matrix becomes ( 0, 0, - 1, 0 ). next, we map xp and yp to xn and yn of ndc with linear relationship ; [ l, r ] \u21d2 [ - 1, 1 ] and [ b, t ] \u21d2 [ - 1, 1 ]. then, we substitute xp and yp into the above equations. note that we make both terms of each equation divisible by - ze for perspective division ( xc / wc, yc / wc ). and we set wc to - ze earlier, and the terms inside parentheses become xc and yc of the clip coordiantes. from these equations, we can find the 1st and 2nd rows of gl _ projection matrix. now, we only have the 3rd row of gl _ projection matrix to solve. finding zn is a little different from others because ze in eye space is always projected to - n on the near plane. but we need unique z value for the clipping and depth test. plus, we should be able to unproject ( inverse transform ) it. since we know z does not depend on x or y value, we borrow w - component to find the relationship between zn and ze. therefore, we can specify the 3rd row of gl _ projection matrix like this. in eye space, we equals to 1. therefore, the equation becomes ; to find the coefficients, a and b, we use the ( ze, zn ) relation ; ( - n, - 1 ) and ( -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5360410117615014, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.001295"} {"text": "projection matrix like this. in eye space, we equals to 1. therefore, the equation becomes ; to find the coefficients, a and b, we use the ( ze, zn ) relation ; ( - n, - 1 ) and ( - f, 1 ), and put them into the above equation. to solve the equations for a and b, rewrite eq. ( 1 ) for b ; substitute eq. ( 1 ' ) to b in eq. ( 2 ), then solve for a ; put a into eq. ( 1 ) to find b ; we found a and b. therefore, the relation between ze and zn becomes ; finally, we found all entries of gl _ projection matrix. the complete projection matrix is ; this projection matrix is for a general frustum. if the viewing volume is symmetric, which is and, then it can be simplified as ; before we move on, please take a look at the relation between ze and zn, eq. ( 3 ) once again. you notice it is a rational function and is non - linear relationship between ze and zn. it means there is very high precision at the near plane, but very little precision at the far plane. if the range [ - n, - f ] is getting larger, it causes a depth precision problem ( z - fighting ) ; a small change of ze around the far plane does not affect on zn value. the distance between n and f should be short as possible to minimize the depth buffer precision problem. constructing gl _ projection matrix for orthographic projection is much simpler than perspective mode. all xe, ye and ze components in eye space are linearly mapped to ndc. we just need to scale a rectangular volume to a cube, then move it to the origin. let ' s find out the elements of gl _ projection using linear relationship. since w - component is not necessary for orthographic projection, the 4th row of gl _ projection matrix remains as ( 0, 0, 0, 1 ). therefore, the complete gl _ projection matrix for orthographic projection is ; it can be further simplified if the viewing volume is symmetrical, and.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5496399149639123, "token_count": 449, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.002137"} {"text": "try to determine if they repeated the first mistake or contained a new one. answer choice ( b ) has a problem similar to that of the original sentence. it says, the reason being, which is a wordy phrase. ( c ) contains a new problem : the word participating is a gerund, but should be a noun. ( d ) repeats the original mistake, repeating the phrase but for her being ; it also introduces a new problem by using the strange phrase participation - willing. only ( e ) neither repeats the original problem nor contains a new one. step # 5 covers cheap tricks that can help you eliminate answers when all else fails. since we aren \u2019 t stumped on this question, we \u2019 ll skip the cheap tricks for now, and discuss them at the end of the chapter. 6. plug your answer back into the sentence to make sure it works. sounds good. this step shouldn \u2019 t normally cause you to reevaluate your work ; it \u2019 s just a quick check to make sure the answer choice actually sounds okay in the context of the sentence. sat ii is a registered trademark of the college entrance examination board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. \u00a92006 sparknotes llc, all rights reserved.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5318031603031478, "token_count": 261, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.008351"} {"text": "cognitive learning i : understanding effective thinking this chapter will help you answer the following questions about your learners : \u2022 how can i teach my learners to become good thinkers? \u2022 what cognitive learning strategies can help my learners remember what i teach? \u2022 what cognitive learning strategies can help my learners improve their comprehension of what they read? \u2022 which is more important to how much my learners are able to learn : prior knowledge or intelligence? \u2022 how can i use the information processing model of thinking to better understand how learning occurs? \u2022 what are some ways of getting and holding my learners \u2019 attention? \u2022 what teaching strategies can i use to enhance my learners \u2019 reception, availability, and activation of the information i present? \u2022 do my learners have to learn in orderly, sequential ways or can they use different sources of information simultaneously to construct their own meanings? boricp05. doc - 2 \u2022 is my learners \u2019 intelligence fixed, or is it made up of many specific abilities that i can improve through instruction? in this chapter you will also learn the meanings of these terms : automaticity cognitive strategies comprehension monitoring decay theory declarative knowledge displacement theory domain - specific knowledge dual - coding theory elaboration general knowledge immediate memory information processing model interference theory keyword method long - term memory metacognition organization parallel distributed processing model procedural knowledge propositional networks rehearsal schema theory working memory boricp05. doc - 3 many years ago in the village of gidole in southern ethiopia, there lived an old man and his three sons. the old man knew that he had only a few more years to live and he wanted to make sure that his property and possessions were left in good hands. he decided that he would leave all his worldly goods to the most intelligent of his three sons. the problem... [ continues ] cite this essay ( 2010, 10 ). learning. studymode. com. retrieved 10, 2010, from http : / / www. studymode. com / essays / learning - 457243. html \" learning \" studymode. com. 10 2010. 10 2010 < http : / / www. studymode. com / essays / learning - 457243. html >. \" learning. \" studymode. com. 10, 2010. accessed 10, 2010. http : / / www. studymode. com / essays / learning - 457243. html.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5084562625652548, "token_count": 491, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.043010"} {"text": "gone are the days when fred haise, of the apollo 13 crew, could remark on how his urine looked as if a golden string of glittering stars as they passed out of the evacuation chamber of the space capsule in which he \u2019 d just relieved himself. or at least gone are the days when bill paxton in the character of haise could say something like that in a movie and be accurate. these days our astronauts drink the water recycled from their pee \u2014 and find clever new uses for their poop too. on the international space station, they use an automated system to remove extract water from waste for use once more. on the private mars shot that will launch in 2018, inspiration mars, they will use a simpler, but perhaps more elegant, method : a technique called forward osmosis. water likes to move to diffuse concentrations whenever possible from high to low, in an effort to even things out. so when it \u2019 s confronted with a solution that contains a solution with a high concentration of salt, which has a high osmotic potential, this ticks water off and it will move toward that higher concentration to balance things out. so when urine, which contains lots of water, of course, is put into in a chamber it will pass through the membrane, leaving behind all of the other stuff that makes up urine, leaving the water purified and the salty solution diluted and ready to, yick, drink. i \u2019 m sure that any remnant salty taste from the diluted solution will provide the astronauts plenty of reminder of where their water came from ( their pee ). the forward osmosis method was tested on the last space shuttle flight, atlantis in 2011. the problem is, the results showed that in microgravity osmosis worked at only about half the efficiency it does here on earth, something the mission \u2019 s engineers will have to work out. the inspiration mars people recently announced that these bags of water and waste will be used in an entirely novel way, to line the space capsule to protect it from cosmic rays. a quote from a mission member in a new scientist article on the subject points out that nuclei block cosmic radiation and that water has about three times the amount of nuclei that are found in metals. and since the nuclei block rather than absorb radiated particles, the water won \u2019 t become irradiated, keeping it safe to drink. so lining the capsule with bags of water that the crew can also drink should be an efficient and elegant solution to both staving off cosmic radiation and dehydration among the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5279071367832557, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.052794"} {"text": "one of our most valuable resources is the water beneath our feet. - something you canit see and may not even know is there! ground water is the part of precipitation that seeps down through the soil until it reaches rock material that is saturated with water. ground water slowly moves underground, generally at a downward angle ( because of gravity ), and may eventually seep into streams, lakes, and oceans. most of the void spaces in the rocks below the water table are filled with water. but rocks have different porosity and permeability characteristics, which means that water does not move around the same way in all rocks. when water - bearing rocks readily transmit water to wells and springs, they are called aquifers. wells can be drilled into the aquifers and water can be pumped out. precipitation eventually adds water ( recharge ) into the porous rock of the aquifer. the rate of recharge is not the same for all aquifers, though, and that must be considered when pumping water from a well. pumping too much water too fast draws down the water in the aquifer and eventually causes a well to yield less and less water and even run dry. ground water is an important natural resource, especially in those parts of the country that donit have ample surface - water sources, such as the arid west. it provides about 38 percent of the water delivered by water departments for use in our homes, businesses, and industries and provides drinking water for the 99 percent of the rural population who supply their own water from their own wells.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5054663612488299, "token_count": 318, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.062297"} {"text": "to control and eliminate the world \u2019 s nuclear arsenals. to preserve its nuclear deterrent, china, like russia, could build up its nuclear forces or adopt a launch - on - warning posture. china could also decide to keep open the option of building up by refusing constraints on fissile material production. the united states is seeking an international treaty prohibiting further production of fissile material for nuclear weapons, partly as a way to place some controls on the nuclear - weapon programs of the undeclared nuclear states - india, israel, and pakistan. china \u2019 s agreement to this treaty is essential, both because of its own nuclear arsenal and because its participation will be needed to gain that of india and, in turn, pakistan. if and when the united states and russia continue to cut their deployed nuclear weapons to roughly the numbers held by the smaller nuclear powers - china, britain, and france - it will become necessary to include these countries in negotiating deeper cuts. but in response to u. s. defenses, china could hamstring this process by refusing to accept limits on its deployed arsenal. finally, because both russia and china are potential suppliers of nuclear and missile technologies to other countries, their participation in international nonproliferation efforts is crucial. but the ill will that missile defense deployments could cause may make both russia and china less willing to cooperate with the west on restricting transfers of sensitive technology to other countries, or to participate in other nonproliferation initiatives. thus the overall result of u. s. deployment of national missile defenses and high - altitude theater defenses could well be that nuclear reductions and other irreversibility measures grind to a halt and that the united states and russia become locked in at high levels of deployed weapons, while retaining their ability to rapidly build more. the other nuclear weapon states would then refuse to become involved in nuclear arms reductions. creating such barriers to deep nuclear reductions and disarmament, which the nuclear weapon states are obligated to pursue under the nuclear non - proliferation treaty ( npt ), would become increasingly unacceptable to the 180 non - nuclear - weapon state members of the npt. over time, this discontent could weaken the international nonproliferation regime. these potential costs to u. s. security might be worth risking if the missile threat were greater and defenses were a more effective means of countering this threat. but this is not the case. there is no missile threat from developing countries that justifies national missile defenses, and there may never be. there are more effective means of addressing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5256662261360013, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.075076"} {"text": "exploring the field of cancer genomics can give a researcher without a sturdy footing in bioinformatics a bad case of information overload. but the potential payoff is high. cancer researchers have been amassing data on small mutations, copy number variations, epigenetic changes, expression level differences, and clinical features for a number of cancer types since long before the first whole cancer genome sequence ( of an acute myeloid leukemia ) was completed in 2008. that means researchers diving into the fray today will have more \u2014 and higher quality \u2014 information at their fingertips than ever before. yet navigating it won \u2019 t be easy, says william hahn, an associate professor of medicine who studies a number of cancers at the dana - farber cancer institute in boston. \u201c it \u2019 s a huge challenge to know what \u2019 s out there and how to use it. \u201d much of the available genomic data comes from a handful of large international collaborations. the cancer genome atlas ( tcga ), a project of the national cancer institute and the national human genome research institute, oversees the generation of genomic data from quality - controlled samples, most of which have been analyzed using multiple platforms. the uk cancer genome project houses a data collection called cosmic, the single most comprehensive catalog of somatic mutations in the world. casting an even wider net, the international cancer genome consortium ( icgc ) is a one - stop - shopping portal through which you can access data from its 12 member countries, as well as from the tcga and cosmic databases. once you \u2019 ve got the data, the trick is to know what they can and cannot tell you, says hahn. but whatever type of data you search for, he cautions, your in silico analyses should be considered hypothesis - generating. at the end of the day, you have to go back to the lab or into the clinic to validate them. the scientist surveyed freely available data, visualization, and analysis portals for cancer genome information to bring you a start - up guide for integrating the approach into your work. is my favorite gene mutated in cancer? a good starting point is to check for known mutations and other aberrations in your gene of interest. the icgc data portal offers several search routes. enter a gene name, ncbi accession number, or ensembl gene id in the gene search field, click through to the gene report, and under mutation summary you \u2019 ll find the mutations and copy number changes detected and their frequency in the tumors analyzed to date. the cosmic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5284142633382637, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.089165"} {"text": "acid. alternatively, because mutationasssessor is also a stand - alone tool, you can enter your mutation of interest in the text box on its site to obtain a similar output table. what are the genes and pathways that are associated with a tumor type? many cancer researchers are looking beyond individual genes to map gene networks. one way to do this is with regulome explorer, a set of tools developed by the institute for systems biology in seattle, washington, and md anderson cancer center at the university of texas in houston that provides a wide - ranging view of connections between mutations, expression level changes, and clinical outcomes. the tool is currently loaded with three tcga data sets, with plans to add more in the next 6 months. to explore networks in which a gene might be involved, select the first tool on the portal page, all pairs significance tests, which looks for pairwise associations. the new window that opens shows a graphical representation of a breast cancer data set, but you can load one of the others by going to the data menu and clicking select. in the dialog box on the right, enter your gene of interest in the label field under feature 1. under feature 2, choose the type of genomic change and the gene for which you want to find associations, then click filter. or, you can leave both boxes in feature 2blank, and view all the genomic associations ; mousing over a line tells you the change associated with your gene of interest. you can do the same analysis of data with a different list of cancer types in mskcc \u2019 s cbio portal. just enter your gene \u2014 say, trim2 \u2014 in the gray field, as before, and click submit. after you select the tumor type and click view cancer study details, you can review the network of known gene interactions and pathways involving the gene under the network tab. you can mouse over a gene, represented as a node, to see a color - coded wheel summarizing its mutation, expression, and copy number status. ( the color for each alteration is under the legend tab. ) of course, many gene networks are unknown. a tool called dendrix predicts whether genes share a pathway by using an algorithm that searches for genes mutated in a mutually exclusive pattern. to run dendrix, upload two text files to a server at ccmbweb. ccv. brown. edu / dendrix \u2014 one listing all the genes mutated in samples of a particular tumor type ( for example, a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5144018311634224, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.092738"} {"text": "run dendrix, upload two text files to a server at ccmbweb. ccv. brown. edu / dendrix \u2014 one listing all the genes mutated in samples of a particular tumor type ( for example, a tcga data set ), and the other listing just the genes you want to analyze. leave out genes mutated at very high frequency, which skew the results, says fabio vandin, a bioinformatician who developed dendrix with colleagues at brown university. the completed analysis will be e - mailed to you, usually within a day, as a text file readable via a platform called cytoscape. what are the clinical associations with genomic changes? \u201c when you submit to journals these days, there \u2019 s quite a good chance the referees will say, \u2018 what does this gene mutation do in the clinic to patients? \u2019 \u201d says markus bredel of the university of alabama at birmingham, who studies gene mutations that correlate with short survival times for patients with glioblastoma. several university - operated visualization tools can address this question. oncoprints at mskcc cbio portal show survival curves associated with genomic alterations in the survival tab. alternatively, the university of california santa cruz cancer genomics browser lets you probe associations between an array of clinical parameters and genomic data for many data sets. click on cancer genomics browser at the top of the menu on the left to be directed to the list of data sets. after choosing a data set, click on the heatmap box in the tab that appears on the right to view genomic and clinical heat maps. you can explore associations between a clinical feature and genomic changes by clicking the features button above the clinical heat map. this opens a window in which you can create two patient groups based on various differences, say, in age at diagnosis. select student \u2019 s t - test from the statistic drop - down menu and hit generate statistics to view all the statistically significant genomic differences between the groups : red bars and green bars indicate that genomic variation is more likely in group 1 or group 2, respectively. you can zoom in to get genomic data from individual samples, which are arranged vertically above the corresponding chromosomal position, says jing zhu, who manages the ucsc cancer genomics browser. she encourages researchers who want more information about these clinical parameters to contact her team at firstname. lastname @ example. org.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5087777818233439, "token_count": 505, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.093697"} {"text": "hydroinformatics is the rapidly developing field in which information technology is applied to address water - related issues such as flood estimation and rainfall - runoff modeling. this book is a thorough overview of all the latest developments in this increasingly vital discipline. hydroinformatics is an emerging subject that is expected to gather speed, momentum and critical mass throughout the forthcoming decades of the 21st century. this book provides a broad account of numerous advances in that field - a rapidly developing discipline covering the application of information and communication technologies, modelling and computational intelligence in aquatic environments. a systematic survey, classified according to the methods used ( neural networks, fuzzy logic and evolutionary optimization, in particular ) is offered, together with illustrated practical applications for solving various water - related issues. these include, but are not limited to, flood estimation, rainfall - runoff modelling, rehabilitation of urban water networks, estimation of ocean temperature profiles, etc. particular attention is also given to certain aspects of the most recent technological progress in hydroinformatics including the development of protocols for model integration and of computer architectures for modern modelling systems. invited contributions were obtained from leading international experts - including academics, hydrological practitioners and industrial professionals - such that this edited volume constitutes an authoritative source of reference material and is essential reading for active workers in this field.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5213422040930584, "token_count": 259, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.121149"} {"text": "patanjali, author of the yoga sutra, presented in the second chapter of his book five ethical precepts called yamas. the yamas were designed as a basic guideline for living a life of personal fulfillment that also benefits society. the consequence of not following these teachings, according to patanjali, is our continued suffering. the first yama is known as ahimsa, which is typically translated as \u201c nonviolence \u201d or the avoidance of violence. ahimsa refers to physical violence as well as the violence of thoughts and words. in this way, it is believed that our negative thoughts about ourselves and others can be as powerful and damaging as physical attempts to harm. ahimsa, in its entirety, refers to the total rejection of inflicting pain or harm \u2013 whether it be by thought, word or deed \u2013 to any and all living creatures. the practice of ahimsa includes constant vigilance and observation of ourselves when interacting with others, taking note of our thoughts and our intentions. ahimsa prohibits the killing or injuring of living beings as it is believed that violence brings about negative karma. to practice non - injury, one must be harmless in mind, mouth and hand ; one must replace hatred with love and cultivate forgiveness. ahimsa is sacrifice but it is also power and strength. himsa is translated as violence or injury. there are many forms of himsa including contempt toward others, prejudice, unreasonable dislike, hatred, abuse, harsh or rude speech, discourtesy, and lies. these must all be discarded in order to practice ahimsa. one must not wound others or their feelings, whether it be by action, words or even the tone of voice. all forms of harshness should be avoided. in fact, even the approval of another \u2019 s harsh actions and the failure to relieve another \u2019 s pain or to help another in distress is seen as himsa. to practice ahimsa, you must accept the insults and criticisms, rebukes and assaults of others without acting in retaliation or causing offense. even under the greatest of provocation, you still must refrain from thinking evil thoughts, harboring anger and even cursing. practicing ahimsa requires bravery and fearlessness. it is not for the weak. ahimsa is the perfection of forgiveness. understandably, beginning in the practice of ahimsa is not easy. start by controlling the physical body first. when faced with your own thoughts of hatred or revenge, do not act on them. when faced with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5165343755697767, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.126724"} {"text": "effective therapy involves more than mere talk and venting. true healing is achieved by finding the roots of our deep - seated ailments. in psychotherapy counseling, the therapist guides their client towards uninhibited emotional disclosure. numerous studies have shown that emotional disclosure strengthens the immune system by increasing the levels of cd4 cells and natural killer cells and improves the health of individuals afflicted with rheumatoid arthritis, asthma and other conditions. in psychotherapy, also referred to as counseling, psychosocial therapy, therapy or talk therapy, a mental health professional assists a client with personal growth, behavioral issues, or mental health problems. therapy involves treatment of emotional and mental disorders by talking about issues in an individual ' s life with a psychologist, psychiatrist or other trained professional. psychotherapists perform a holistic analysis of their clients ' situation and implement coping strategies. the psychotherapist observes a client ' s behavior, emotions and thoughts until a pattern is identified. upon recognition of their typical or repetitive behavioral responses, clients are then able to implement changes. psychotherapy treatment may help patients with a number of issues. common issues include : psychotherapy enables patients to : - relationship issues - addiction and noxious habits - emotional problems - sexual problems - substance abuse - family conflicts - uncover the reasons for their condition so that they can better address it - identify and modify thoughts or behaviors that negatively impact their life - sharpen communication skills - learn more effective coping and problem - resolution skills - practice setting reasonable goals - explore experiences and relationships - increase their self - love and love for others - improve their self - confidence and self - esteem - heal old wounds - remove psychological blocks psychotherapy may be short - term or consist of numerous sessions over the course of several years. prospective clients may choose between individual, group, couples or family sessions. research has shown that psychotherapy coupled with medication provides greater benefit to patients than medication alone. benefits of psychotherapy include : - a novel perspective on a complex problem - effectiveness in depression relapse prevention - greater affordability than anti - depressant medication in the short run - efficacy in treating mood disorders that is comparable to anti - depressant drug treatment - outperformance of mood stabilizers in the treatment of bipolar depression - longer - lasting results than medication - maintenance of a high level of psychosocial functioning - reduction of mental health symptoms, such as anger, depression, and desperation - long - range benefits for post - traumatic stress syndrome following trauma - alleviation of mental", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5304368909940216, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.152203"} {"text": "- lasting results than medication - maintenance of a high level of psychosocial functioning - reduction of mental health symptoms, such as anger, depression, and desperation - long - range benefits for post - traumatic stress syndrome following trauma - alleviation of mental health symptoms - combating specific conditions such as depression - increased self - awareness and a better understanding of one ' s values and goals - honing skills for improving relationships in this intensive, long - term therapy, counselors help clients examine feelings, events, and memories from the past in order to shed light on present behaviors and emotions. patients usually attend several weekly psychoanalytical sessions for extended periods of time. in this form of treatment, the psychotherapist helps clients become cognizant of any unconscious influence that past experiences may have on their present lives by way of thoughts, emotions or behaviors. some techniques employed in this typically brief treatment include analyzing actions and thoughts, confronting behavior and beliefs, resolving conflicts, and re - visiting the past. clients are asked to put the new skills to work between sessions or make entries in a diary and are assigned homework exercises. cognitive behavioral therapy ( cbt ) the emphasis cbt is on the modification of negative, unhealthy thought patterns and behaviors that affect physical and emotional well - being. this is often achieved through desensitization, also known as exposure therapy. desensitization is a process in which clients confront the situations that trigger traumatic reactions, discomfort, fear or anxiety and learn to overcome their responses. in cognitive therapy, patients are taught to identify and modify cognitive distortions. cognitive distortions are considered habitual, faulty thinking patterns which give rise to behaviors and emotions that are unhelpful, unrealistic, self - destructive or self - defeating. to reduce the likelihood that symptoms will resurface, patients practice the skills learned in their everyday lives. this type of psychoanalytical treatment tends to focus more on the present and future than on past conflicts or issues. cbt has proven a successful treatment of several mental health issues including : - post - traumatic stress disorder - obsessive - compulsive disorder - panic attacks - suicidal behavior - anger management - stress management marital and family therapy marital psychotherapists assist couples in resolving their difficulties jointly. in family therapy, the objective is family functioning, and the sessions are attended by more than one family member at the same time. family therapy is useful in several situations including : - problems with siblings or relatives - children acting out - parenting difficulties -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.50373254496795, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.153247"} {"text": "one of the big questions \u2014 and there are many \u2014 that occupy killam scholar and kinesiology researcher walter herzog is why a muscle generates more force after it is stretched than a muscle that has not changed length. at the heart of this question is the understanding of how our muscles work. if herzog and his lab are correct, a new model may be needed. researcher tim leonard is looking for answers. he \u2019 s been part of herzog \u2019 s lab for most of his adult life. he started his undergraduate degree at the university of calgary when he was 17. since then, he \u2019 s enjoyed a successful, productive and well - decorated academic career. leonard is the only individual to win the canadian society of biomechanics award for his master \u2019 s degree and for his phd. he also won the western area association of grad studies award ( an association of american and canadian universities from the prairies ) and the university of calgary \u2019 s j. b. hyne research innovation award. these awards recognize innovative research as well as the innovative use of technology. to study the question of stretched muscle force, leonard had to devise a way to measure the contractile force of a single myofibril, the microscopic building blocks of our muscles. but how do you grab, stretch and measure the spring of something that is only a few microns long? the challenge led leonard to upstate new york and cornell university, where he found the facilities necessary to construct his nanotechnology micro levers. \u201c it \u2019 s kind of one of these things you \u2019 d see in a science fiction movie, \u201d says leonard. \u201c you ' ve got people working in these super - clean rooms, dressed up in these puffy suits with slippers on their feet, and masks so they don \u2019 t contaminate the air with their hair or skin cells. \u201d leonard points out that he didn \u2019 t invent the process he used to create his silicon - nitride cantilevers. the real genius was adapting the existing technology to fit his needs. \u201c i really just said, \u2018 these should be what i need them to be \u2019 and for me it was really just a stepping stone to get to the actual science and so maybe that \u2019 s what the awards were for. \u201d the cantilevers are incredibly tiny and need to be stored and carried in a sealed case, since the force of wind created just by walking across the room would be enough to snap them instantly. on the microscope slide, the levers become a powerful", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5253626313232423, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.174239"} {"text": "the cantilevers are incredibly tiny and need to be stored and carried in a sealed case, since the force of wind created just by walking across the room would be enough to snap them instantly. on the microscope slide, the levers become a powerful tool and helped to suggest that there is another actor at work in the stretched muscle contraction problem \u2014 titin, the largest known natural protein. despite its size, and the fact that we have a lot of it in our muscles, bio - mechanists aren ' t exactly sure what titin does. \u201c people have looked at it as a spring, or like a big slinky, that helps keep the proteins lined up, \u201d say leonard. \u201c but over the last few years there \u2019 s been evidence that titin is not just a passive molecular spring, but that it may actually contribute to active sources. \u201d leonard thinks that titin could partially contribute to the increase in force in a stretched muscle. \u201c if titin is actually producing a little bit of what we could call active force, that \u2019 s quite novel. \u201d \u201c quite novel \u201d is a polite way of saying that leonard \u2019 s award - winning research \u2014 as part of herzog \u2019 s team \u2014 will likely change or at least amend our understanding of how our muscles contract. \u201c i think we could argue that instead of muscle being a two - filament structure, that maybe there \u2019 s a third filament, which is titin, and that titin plays a role that \u2019 s not purely passive. \u201d understanding the role that titin plays in active force production may one day further our understanding of how diseases like cerebral palsy can be more effectively treated, or how we can more effectively train our athletes to go faster, higher and stronger.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5253709790944718, "token_count": 358, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.175058"} {"text": "ilo 2012 global estimate of forced labour - fact sheet jun 04 2012 download right click \" save as \" forced labour is the term used by the international community to denote situations in whichthe persons involved \u2013 women and men, girls and boys \u2013 are made to work against theirfree will, coerced by their recruiter or employer, for example through violence or threats ofviolence, or by more subtle means such as accumulated debt, retention of identity papersor threats of denunciation to immigration authorities. - caring for trafficked persons : guidance for health providers facilitator \u2019 s guide - caring for trafficked persons / cuidados para la salud y la trata de personas - iom 2011 case data on human trafficking - iom understanding and counteracting trafficking - iom the causes and consequences of evidence from the iom human trafficking database re - trafficking - iom manual human trafficking and legalization of criminal profits. russian. - iom manual on thb crimes typologies. russian. - iom moscow cis executive committee ct seminar 2010 russian - iom international conference. \u201c improvement of international cooperation in counteracting human trafficking \u201d russian - iom trafficking of men belarus and ukraine - iom ungift caring for trafficked persons - iom sactap 10 questions about human trafficking", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5609905009735073, "token_count": 267, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.183441"} {"text": "bielefeld university is one of germany ' s strongest research universities within a focussed spectrum of transdisciplinary fields encompassing not only the humanities and social sciences but also the natural and technological sciences. one confirmation of this is given by the excellence initiative with which the german federal and state governments are promoting top - level research in germany. bielefeld university has been hosting a centre of excellence on cognitive interaction technology ( citec ) and a graduate school in history and sociology ( bghs ) since 2007. citec is receiving 6. 5 million euros a year ; bghs more than one million. following the first two phases ( 2006 and 2007 ) of this the most renowned and strongly funded research programme, these two institutions contribute to making bielefeld one of the successful universities. it ranks third place in north rhine - westphalia. citec - cognitive interaction technology technology that understands the vision guiding scientists working at citec is to build technology that understands. future machines should adapt to human beings rather than - as before - human beings having to adapt to machines. and these range from everyday tools to robots. machines have to meet the basic preconditions of interacting naturally with human beings and adapting their abilities flexibly to changing surroundings. these are the basic principles, and pioneering research on cognitive interaction technology is the necessary way to achieve this. one aspect is the search for the fundamental architectural principles of cognitive interaction between human beings and machines. this challenge can only by met through interdisciplinary cooperation between the greatest range of different disciplines. citec brings together scientists working in the faculties of biology, linguistics and literary studies, physics, psychology and sports science, and technology. individuality, creativity and personal initiative - at the bielefeld graduate school in history and sociology these attributes are strongly emphasized. 160 doctoral candidates of history and sociology study and research here together under one roof. they profit from the broad thematic variety bghs has to offer. the staging of media potrayals, social changes, and historical and political processes of change are some of their main research fields. however, uncommon dissertation intentions are also welcome here at bghs. for example, the relationship between the church and dancing or the functions and symbolism of tattoos. the graduate school considers itself as a researching community of doctoral candidates and professors. that is also what the bottom - up principle stands for, which emphasizes personal initiative and codetermination of the doctoral candidates. they organize workshops and conferences of their own and have an influence on the content of teaching. this is how a culture of creativity", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5373443276380163, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.187048"} {"text": "/ / bookshop. usq. edu. au / contact / ) khalil, t 2000, management of technology : the key to competitiveness and wealth creation, mcgraw - hill, boston, ma. students must have internet access. beder, s 1996, the nature of sustainable development, 2nd edn, scribe publications, newham, victoria. beder, s 1998, the new engineer, macmillan education, australia. dorf, rc 2001, technology, humans and society : towards a sustainable world, academic press, san diego. johnston, s, gostelow, p & jones, e 1999, engineering and society : an australian perspective, 2nd edn, harper educational, pymble. various web sites will be cited in the more dynamic components of this course. student workload requirements | description | | marks out of | | wtg ( % ) | | due date | | notes | | assignment 1 | | 500 | | 50 | | 23 apr 2012 | | 2 hour closed examination | | 500 | | 50 | | end s1 | | ( see note 1 ) | - student administration will advise students of the dates of their examinations during the semester. important assessment information there are no attendance requirements for this course. however, it is the students ' responsibility to study all material provided to them or required to be accessed by them to maximise their chance of meeting the objectives of the course and to be informed of course - related activities and administration. requirements for students to complete each assessment item satisfactorily : to satisfactorily complete an assessment item a student must achieve at least 50 % of the marks or a grade of at least c -. students do not have to satisfactorily complete each assessment item to be awarded a passing grade in this course. refer to statement 4 below for the requirements to receive a passing grade in this course. penalties for late submission of required work : if students submit assignments after the due date without ( prior ) approval of the examiner then a penalty of 5 % of the total marks gained by the student for the assignment may apply for each working day late up to ten working days at which time a mark of zero may be recorded. no assignments will be accepted after model answers have been posted. requirements for student to be awarded a passing grade in the course : to be assured of receiving a passing grade in a course a student must obtain at least 50 % of the total weighted marks for the course. method used to combine assessment results to attain final", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5017785858638956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.224481"} {"text": "thatis what researcher mary pat moyer, phd, professor of surgery, envisions based on her studies of neural and other stem cells with colleagues at the university of texas medical branch at galveston and the university of texas at austin. cellular spare parts may lead to help for spinal cord injury, brain damage stem cells are the immature, or precursor, form of cells that will go on to differentiate into brain cells, nervous system cells, liver, bone marrow and other types of cells. \" stem cells are fascinating, \" dr. moyer said. \" if you put them into one kind of cellular dsoili they grow into one kind of cell, and if you put them into another soil, they grow into another kind. they can be bred for specific purposes. \" dr. moyer and colleagues hope their studies of the cells will one day enable surgeons to \" fill in the neural blanks, \" for example, of patients who have suffered spinal cord injury or brain damage, or who live with parkinsonis disease or a host of other diseases and disorders. \" we want to categorize bunches of cells, test them for safety and preserve them, \" dr. moyer said. \" it is a similar concept to blood banking. when a certain type of cell is needed, it will be available for use. \" current work on the project is funded by incell corp. of san antonio and the center for human cell biotechnology at the health science center. return to index", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5326962033985323, "token_count": 297, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.227502"} {"text": "approval and legitimacy to the commercialisation of nature. \u201c we are awaiting the redd national strategy and outcomes of rio + 20 in order to broaden implementation of the redd + programme in other locations \u201d, aristides muhate of envirotrade confirmed when interviewed by us at one of the company \u2019 s camps on may 23rd, 2012. in fact, envirotrade has a further two projects in addition to the nhambita one, which operate with the same objective of selling carbon : one in the zambezi delta region and one in the maconia district of the quirimbas archipelago in cabo delgado province in northern mozambique. envirotrade is actively developing plans for a further two large - scale redd + projects. the nhambita redd + project might be copied in other areas of mozambique. members of the mozambican government as well as international representatives, including zambian ex - president kenneth kaunda, have visited the project, which could also serve as a model to be copied outside mozambique in other african countries. what is redd... the idea behind reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation is that developed countries wishing to reduce their emissions should receive financial compensation for doing so. thanks to photosynthesis, trees absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, which means they serve as a sort of \u201c sponge \u201d absorbing pollution. the redd concept is marketed as a way of preserving forests, stopping climate change, protecting biodiversity, eradicating poverty and financing communities. however, according to the united nations, redd could lead to \u201c locking up forests \u201d, \u201c loss of land \u201d, \u201c conflict over resources \u201d, \u201c the concentration of power in the hands of elites \u201d, \u201c new risks for the poor \u201d and could \u201c marginalise the landless \u201d. ( 8 ) many sectors in civil society warn of the risk that redd projects could result in massive takeovers of land and constitute a way of colonising forests. the redd + legal framework in mozambique work on developing the redd national strategy started in 2009. with the technical support of the amazonas sustainable foundation and indufor ( brazil ), the ministry for coordination of environmental action ( micoa ) and the ministry for agriculture ( minag ) held provincial meetings in maputo to present the redd + programme. however, during these meetings the information given basically centred on the benefits and opportunities for mozambique in implementing redd +, thus creating expectations concerning income among participants. the negative aspects of redd +", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5155659808046751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.274171"} {"text": "this summer at our annual biome camp for elementary students, i had a chance to get back into the classroom for a couple of weeks. i chose to focus on what happens when land and water meet. our studies culminated with the island in a kiddie pool above. but first... i wanted each child to experience subtracting the piece of clay from the middle of the land and placing it on a blank dish to make their own lake and island when they added the water. potter ' s clay was inexpensive and easy to manipulate. however, the clay dried and shrunk on the paper plates we put it on. i am sure that even the most nostalgic parent tossed the product that came home. next time, i will use ceramic plates and let the children wash them as part of the process. it is all about the experience not the product. then, we took it to a more abstract representation by drawing our land and waterforms on watercolor paper and painting the water with blue watercolor. the land was made by painting with watered down glue and sprinkling sand on it. the result was lovely and worthy of a frame. we repeated the two steps with the gulf / peninsula, cape / bay, and isthum / strait. as a final event, we created the island above. i did it with a small group of seven students. it would be difficult with a larger group unless you had a bigger pool and more clay. the first task was to flatten the big block of clay i put in the center. as i turned around looking for the right tool for the job, the children solved our problem with their feet. it was quite effective. then, we molded it and created the land and water forms we had learned about. i love it when the nomenclature is used in context of a project. \" i ' ll make a peninsula over here. \" they wanted a volcano since we had read about how volcanoes can create islands in the ocean. we sprinkled sand on the beach and brought in moss for the vegetation. the final step was to add blue food coloring to the water and stand back to admire it! we followed up the lessons with the landform mat and the imaginary island puzzle from mandala. we also collaborated to make a big island with brown paper on a large blue sheet of paper. it became 3d with paper boats, bridges and docks.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5216130264915276, "token_count": 483, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.283915"} {"text": "picture of red tide taken from the noaa research vessel ron brown click on image for full size courtesy of noaa robots watch out for poisonous plankton! news story originally written on january 30, 2003 tiny plankton that live in the sea may look harmless but certain types are able to kill fish, poison seafood and even choke swimmers. now robots have been developed to search the seas for the dangerous plankton! plankton spend most of their life floating in ocean water. they cannot swim like fish, but instead float wherever the currents take them. the harmful types of plankton are single - celled, microscopic creatures called algae that photosynthesize like plants. most types of algae are very important for life in the sea because they are food for animals like clams, fish and whales. however, a few types of algae have poisons within them that are harmful to other creatures. when the dangerous types of algae grow so fast that they darken the ocean water with a reddish cloud called a red tide, they are dangerous to animals that eat them. when people eat seafood that ate the poisonous algae, they get sick too. special underwater robots have been released into the gulf of mexico to look for dangerous algae. the robots are called autonomous underwater vehicles, or auvs. they look like small airplanes that glide underwater. they carry sensors to detect algae and record salinity and temperature of the water so that scientists can study when the red tides form. researchers hope that with the information from their robots and satellite images, they will be able to warn people living near the coast if a giant cloud of algae is in the ocean near them. shop windows to the universe science store! our online store on science education, classroom activities in the earth scientist specimens, and educational games you might also be interested in : about 70 % of the earth is covered with water. over 97 % of that water is found in the oceans. everyone who has taken in a mouthful of ocean water while swimming knows that the ocean is really salty! dissolved... more it was another exciting and frustrating year for the space science program. it seemed that every step forward led to one backwards. either way, nasa led the way to a great century of discovery. unfortunately,... more the space shuttle discovery lifted off from kennedy space center on october 29th at 2 : 19 p. m. est. the weather was great as discovery took 8 1 / 2 minutes to reach orbit. this was the united states ' 123rd... more a moon was discovered orbiting the asteroid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5097844729717524, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.308212"} {"text": "the basic forces in nature contemporary physics education project the interactions in the universe are governed by four forces ( strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravitational ). physicists are trying to find one theory that would describe all the forces in nature as a single law. so far they have succeeded in producing a single theory that describes the weak and electromagnetic forces ( called electroweak force ). the strong and gravitational forces are not yet described by this theory. table courtesy of university of guelph, guelph, ontario ( cananda ) shop windows to the universe science store! cool it! is the new card game from the union of concerned scientists that teaches kids about the choices we have when it comes to climate change \u2014 and how policy and technology decisions made today will matter. cool it! is available in our online store you might also be interested in : the neutrino is an extremely light particle. it has no electric charge. the neutrino interacts through the weak force. for this reason and because it is electrically neutral, neutrino interactions with... more some ideas are used throughout the sciences. they are \" tools \" that can help us solve puzzles in different fields of science. these \" tools \" include units of measurement, mathematical formulas, and graphs.... more mechanics is the term used to refer to one of the main branches of the science of physics. mechanics deals with the motion of and the forces that act upon physical objects. we need precise terminology... more the interactions in the universe are governed by four forces ( strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravitational ). physicists are trying to find one theory that would describe all the forces in nature as... more when the temperature in the core of a star reaches 100 million degrees kelvin fusion of helium into carbon occurs. oxygen is also formed from fusion of carbon and helium together when the temperature is... more a plot of the binding energy per nucleon vs. atomic mass shows a peak atomic number 56 ( iron ). elements with atomic mass less then 56 release energy if formed as a result of a fusion reaction. above this... more there are several experiments where nuclear fusion reactions have been achieved in a controlled manner ( that means no bombs are involved!! ). the two main approaches that are being explored are magnetic... more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6864915697987488, "token_count": 472, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.317756"} {"text": "learn something new every day more info... by email during the early part of the 20th century, instrument makers created the electric double bass, a stringed instrument that has a built - in sound amplifier with electronic controls. musicians also call this instrument the electric upright bass to avoid confusing it with the bass guitar. double bass is the musical octave played by this instrument, which is one octave below the cello, or single bass. resembling a giant violin, the original double bass is an acoustic stringed instrument. as early as the 1950s, different designs for the electric double bass appeared on the market. two main styles have survived in to the 21st century. one design is a smaller version of the classic acoustic double bass. it keeps the basic shape of the original acoustic double bass, but it usually is no larger than 75 percent of the normal size of the acoustic instrument. the second design, known as a stick bass, retains only the post that hold the instrument \u2019 s strings and electronics. in addition to the increased sound volume the amplifier provides, both of these designs offer musicians advantages over the traditional instrument. the electric versions have less weight and bulk, making them easier to transport. they also give musicians the option of positioning the instrument on a stand during practice and performances, which can reduce the physical stress experienced by bass players, who normally keep the instrument upright by leaning their bodies forward. an electric double bass has four or five strings. they commonly are made of lightweight steel. before play, each of these strings must be tightened properly using screws at the top of the handle to reduce any slack that would distort the instrument \u2019 s sound. one plays this instrument with a bow or a pick. the tonal range, or voice, for the double bass and the electric double bass is the lowest of all stringed instruments. musicians who play the electric double bass find all of their music on the bass clef of a music score. the actual notes bassists play are one octave below the lowest note on the bass clef. in classical compositions, the musical part for an electric double bass is similar to that of the percussion instruments, such as drums. accomplished bassists who play the amplified instrument are able to take advantage of its enhanced capabilities and contribute lower - range notes to a composition ' s harmony. in jazz performances, an electric double bass often plays solos that accentuate the composition \u2019 s melody.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5237309561136674, "token_count": 483, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.325426"} {"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - n. the act or state of expecting ; expectation : tense with expectancy, i waited for my name to be called. - n. the state of being expected. - n. something expected. - n. an expected amount calculated on the basis of actuarial data : a life expectancy of 70 years. - n. expectation or anticipation ; the state of expecting something - n. the state of being expected - n. something expected or awaited - n. an expectation - n. something expected ( as on the basis of a norm ) \u201c university of michigan at ann arbor, who has studied health inequalities and reproductive patterns, points out that healthy life expectancy is short for african americans and women depend on extended family networks for support. \u201d \u201c there ' s too much of \u2026 what i call an expectancy culture of things being provided. \u201d \u201c because of that, there ' s what we call the expectancy effect. \u201d \u201c life expectancy is only longer because fewer babies die ; people who reach 65 live about the same number of years as they used to. \u201d \u201c the increase in life expectancy is very small by comparison. \u201d \u201c if he ' s extremely obese and a smoker, his life expectancy is 60, a difference of 21 years. \u201d \u201c at the extremes, the gap in life expectancy is wide : there is a nearly 18 - year difference in life expectancy between black men and asian / pacific islander women ( 69. 4 vs. 86. 9 years ). \u201d \u201c doing screening tests on patients whose life expectancy is extremely limited because of cancer is just not a cost - effective thing to do, \" said dr. allen lichter, ceo of the american society of clinical oncology, who wasn ' t involved in the research. \u201d \u201c calculating life expectancy is a tough task that requires analyzing extensive information about how people died and how old they were, as well as statistical modeling to predict how long people born today will live if current trends continue. \u201d \u201c hispanics, life expectancy is nearly two years lower in puerto rico, more than two years lower in cuba, and more than four years lower in mexico, according to world health organization figures. \u201d these user - created lists contain the word \u2018 expectancy \u2019. all words that could come in handy in stories. favorites from crim, civpro, and contracts - a little entertainment to make finals a little more bearable looking for twee", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5691220279752408, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.338464"} {"text": "anaphylaxis is an acute, life - threatening hypersensitivity reaction, involving the whole body, which is usually brought on by something eaten or injected. the term anaphylaxis is often used only for a severe allergic reaction affecting the whole body. a second term, non - allergic anaphylaxis, may be used to describe identical reactions that are not caused by allergy, but involve other mechanisms in the body. the clinical diagnosis and management are identical, whatever the cause of the anaphylaxis. anaphylaxis is a medical emergency that develops rapidly and can be fatal. a few or all of the following symptoms, often developing in this order, may be experienced : - itching of the lips, tongue and palate, swelling of the lips, tongue and throat - swelling of the eyelids, itchy, watery eyes - generalized itching, flushing, swelling of the skin, and hives ( urticaria ) - increased heart rate - abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea - difficulty in breathing due to throat swelling, wheezing and asthma - a sense of impending doom - collapse, loss of consciousness, weakness and faintness caused by a drop in blood pressure. severe initial symptoms can develop within minutes following an encounter with an allergen, and usually reach peak severity within 3 - 30 minutes. sometimes there can be a second phase reaction, 1 \u2013 8 hours after the initial anaphylaxis. 1. anaphylaxis caused by an allergen after a first encounter with an allergen, for example a bee sting, the allergic person can develop a particular type of antibody known as immunoglobulin e ( ige ). this antibody is unique in that it attaches to cells in the body called mast cells and cells in the bloodstream known as basophils. the next time the individual is stung by a bee, the allergy antibodies attached to the cells react to the bee venom. this binding of the antibodies to cells and basophils with the bee venom allergen causes the release of chemicals, including histamine, into the bloodstream. the systemic allergic reaction that follows is called anaphylaxis. the whole body is involved. the reactions can be mild, and only involve the skin ( hives or welts, redness of the skin and generalized itching ), to severe ( severe shortness of breath and / or unconsciousness with loss of blood pressure )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5188919192342495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.354125"} {"text": "service learning, a form of civic engagement, is defined as a credit - bearing educational experience that involves students participating in organized service activities that meet identified community needs, then reflecting on the service to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility. y. it is experiential education. learning occurs through a cycle of action and reflection. service learning improves students ' depth in a field of knowledge, and improves self - directed lifelong learning. it is faith and mission in action. participants in service learning make connections to the mission of the university as it seeks to promote justice in the world. they care for the common good, promote spiritual growth, find common humanity in diversity through personal connections, promote the preferential option for the poor, live catholic social teaching, and develop values. it is citizenship development. \u25cf requires reflection on issues that concern the community \u25cf promotes a commitment to improve conditions in the world \u25cf seeks to increase community / political engagement \u25cf desires reciprocity \u25cf develops leadership it promotes ethical and moral development. \u201c judging the quality of a college education by asking if students see the connection between what they learn and how they live, looking for the deeper significance, for the moral dilemmas of and the ethical responses. the college succeeds if it \u2019 s graduates are inspired by a larger vision, using the knowledge that have acquired to form values and advance the common good. \u201d ( boyer, page 296 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5102490246402671, "token_count": 293, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.387464"} {"text": "emphasize that we are talking about the \" acquired immune response \" antigen - - any agent ( molecule ) that binds to components of the immune response - - lymphocytes and their receptors - - antibodies and the immunogen - - any agent capable of inducing an immune response. this distinction is probably most clear when discussing the situation of a hapten and its carrier. hapten - - is antigenic but not immunogenic unless it is attached to a carrier molecule of some sort which supplies the immunogenicity. requirements for immunogenicity : foreignness - - note the example of the rabbit immunized with its own serum albumin vs. the rabbit immunized with guinea pig serum albumin. how do you prove that the rabbit unable to respond to its own albumin is still immunocompetent? note also that it is possible for self \" antigens \" to be immunogenic. thus the foreignness requirement can be overcome. when this happens it results in autoimmunity. high molecular weight - - note that these are general categories and that there are some exceptions. how could you make a small \" non - immunogenic \" molecule \" immunogenic \"? chemical complexity - - what is meant by the term \" homopolymer \"? how can you make a non - complex molecule more complex? note the discussion about the immunogenicity of the different levels of protein complexity and its discussion in fig. 3. 1. degradability - - most protein antigens need to be processed and presented by antigen presenting cells. the digested fragments become bonded to \" mhc \" proteins ( or mhc antigens ) on the surface of the apc and this whole complex then binds to t - cells. carbohydrate antigens are not processed or presented. they can bind to b - cells directly and activate them to produce antibody. other requirements for immunogenicity : - - the number and quality of the genes for the mhc proteins vary in a population of animals and this will affect the ability of the individual animal to develop an immune response. individual animals can also vary with regard to their repertoire of t and b cell antigen receptors. dose and route of the antigen - - too low or too high a dose of antigen can actually induce a state of tolerance or non - responsiveness in the animal. the route of immunization can cause very different responses - - for instance antigens that come in contact with mucous membranes generally induce iga antibodies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.553719230975563, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.392077"} {"text": "a dose of antigen can actually induce a state of tolerance or non - responsiveness in the animal. the route of immunization can cause very different responses - - for instance antigens that come in contact with mucous membranes generally induce iga antibodies, whereas intramuscular and intravenous immunization often induces igg and igm responses. please study fig. 4. 12 on page 51 which describes the kinetics of an antibody response to an one antigen. pay particular attention to the terms which are either in the figure, in the text or which are described in lecture : this figure is intimately related to the clonal selection theory described in figure 1. 1 on page 4. review the structure of the antibody molecule ( fig. 4. 3, pg. 42 ). particularly note where variable regions of both the light chain and the heavy chains come together. the antigen binding site is formed by the association of the vheavy and the vlight domains. since these are protein domains it would follow that the conformation of these domains determines this antigen binding function. thus we should expect that particular amino acids in certain areas of the domain would play a large role in binding to antigen. ( see if you can figure out what they are trying to show you in figures 4. 4, 4. 5 and 4. 6. in these figures they are trying to diagram which amino positions actually bind to the antigen epitope in the binding site ). the section of the antigen which actually binds to the the antibody binding site is called the epitope of the antigen. this is also called the antigenic determinant of the antigen. the antibody binding site is sometimes called the paratope or the idiotope or the idiotype. t - cells and b - cells can recognize and react to different epitopes even if they are on the same study table 3. 1 on page 31. much of this table can be summarize by these simple statements : b - cells recognize and bind to free antigen in solution. b - cell epitopes are exposed and easily accessible. t - cells recognize and bind to antigen that has been processed and presented in the context of mhc on antigen presenting cells. please read this over. note that an immune response can be mounted to just about any kind of molecule. this has important implications for autoimmunity and tolerance. note also that the binding of epitopes to their paratopes is non - covalent. this section starts off with a discussion about toxin and tox", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5754132831549789, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.393079"} {"text": "about any kind of molecule. this has important implications for autoimmunity and tolerance. note also that the binding of epitopes to their paratopes is non - covalent. this section starts off with a discussion about toxin and toxoid. what is the difference? then they go on to describe what is meant by cross - reacting antigens. essentially what they are saying here is that there are many examples of totally unrelated antigens that have small parts or epitopes ( or antigenic determinants ) in common. thus an immune response to one such antigen can cause the production of antibodies that react with the second antigen. such antigens can be call heterophile antigens. likewise, the antibodies made to such antigens are often called heterophile antibodies. please note the examples given with regard to : human blood group a antigen and pneumococcal capsule polysaccharide human blood group b antigen and e. coli polysaccharide antigens i ' d also like to mention the relationship between streptococcus pygenes m - protein and human heart muscle antigenic similarity between horse - red - blood cell antigens and epstein - barr virus we ' ll have a short discussion about adjuvants.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5391277685078113, "token_count": 258, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.393594"} {"text": "examining the relationship between cholesterol and cancer does hdl - c have a protective role? by genna rollins an inverse relationship between cholesterol levels and cancer mortality and incidence has been noted in many studies. however, there has been conflicting evidence and few large, long - term prospective trials to clarify whether the association is causal or due to reverse causality. now, new research that addresses this question has been published and is described in this issue of strategies. a series of studies dating back to the 1980s found an association between low circulating levels of total cholesterol and increased cancer incidence and mortality. this inverse relationship largely had been attributed to reverse causality, meaning that undiagnosed cancer triggered lower serum cholesterol levels. however, there was conflicting evidence, so researchers had not been able to entirely exclude the possibility that low total cholesterol levels in some way led to cancer. for instance, one study found an association between low cholesterol levels and elevated cancer incidence even after excluding the first 6 years of follow - up, while another found a small but persistent association between low cholesterol levels and modestly increased cancer mortality after excluding the first 5 years of follow - up. in addition to the questions about total cholesterol, little was known about any association between high - density lipoprotein cholesterol ( hdl - c ) and cancer risk. however understanding these relationships is important in the context of current cardiovascular disease ( cvd ) prevention strategies, according to demetrius albanes, md, senior investigator at the national cancer institute. \u201c these findings about total cholesterol from well - conducted studies were troubling in that public health recommendations related to cardiovascular disease have lowering serum cholesterol as a key component, \u201d he explained. albanes was the senior investigator of a recent study that prospectively examined the cholesterol - cancer association ( cancer epidemiol biomarkers prev 2009 ; 18 : 2814 - 21 ). albanes and his colleagues evaluated the relationship between serum total cholesterol and hdl - c and risk of overall and site - specific cancer among more than 29, 000 participants in the alpha - tocopherol, beta - carotene cancer prevention ( atbc ) study. atbc tested whether \u03b1 - tocopherol or \u03b2 - carotene supplementation would reduce the incidence of lung or other cancers in a population of middle - aged male smokers in finland. baseline fasting serum cholesterol levels were available from virtually all participants ( 99.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5054241305117643, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.418757"} {"text": "digitalization of creative content and pervasiveness of internet as a medium for content distribution has an unwelcome spinoff in the form of online piracy where copyrighted content is indiscriminately distributed over the internet leading to immense loses to stakeholders ( movies, brands, musics, publishing, etc. ) online piracy in a nutshell means illegal uploading and / or downloading and misrepresentation of copyrighted material ; movies, brands, music, etc. any form of piracy ( online or street piracy ) of copyrighted material cheats the copyright holders of their rightful and fair compensation for their efforts. films are illegally recorded by camcorder in theaters. the recorded content is replicated and burned into cds and distributed worldwide in a matter of days. alternatively the illegally recorded movies are distributed via internet as downloadable files using streaming sites, p2p services, and cyberlockers or third party file - sharing services. these are offered to be downloaded free and result in immense losses to movie production fraternity. the exclusive legal right to reproduce, publish, sell, or distribute the matter and form of something ( as a literary, musical, or artistic work ) is called copyright. copyright, a form of intellectual property law, protects original works of authorship including literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works, such as poetry, novels, movies, songs, computer software, and architecture. the effects of counterfeiting and piracy on india \u2019 s entertainment industry published in march 2009 by united states - india business council ( usibc ) and prepared by ernst and young india, claims that as much as rs. 16, 000 crores are lost due to piracy. alongside, as many as 80, 000 jobs are lost directly as a result of theft and piracy, afflicting india \u2019 s entertainment industry. the president of usibc, ron summers used the opportunity to suggest stronger legal means to tackle piracy. he said, \u201c we strongly support passage by india of optical disc legislation that will thwart piracy in this important industry. we are pleased to stand shoulder to shoulder with counterparts in india to help protect jobs and revenues that are now being needlessly lost to piracy. \u201d an effective strategy to combat online piracy should identify and target the following components of online piracy : enforcement efforts together with speedy resolution of copyright infringement cases in the court system to penalise and curtail online piracy. customer awareness programs - it requires a very delicate balance of education, coercion and awareness to bring down piracy. the more popular faci", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5147037503655505, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.446580"} {"text": "page element undergoes a value change or some other significant event, dynamically manipulate its brightness for a second or so. responded - one - second mutation when a page element undergoes a value change or some other significant event, dynamically mutate its shape for a second or so. - one - second motion incrementally move an element from point - to - point, or temporarily displace it, to communicate an event has occurred. - blinkieblinkpattern when an element is blinking - highlight highlight elements by rendering them in a consistent, attention - grabbing, format. - lazy registration accumulate bits of information about the user as they interact, with formal registration occurring later on. - direct login authenticate the user with an xmlhttprequest call instead of form - based submission, hashing in the browser for improved security. - host - proof hosting server - side data is stored in encrypted form for increased security, with the browser decrypting it on the fly. - timeout implement a timeout mechanism to track which clients are currently active. - heartbeat have the browser periodically upload heartbeat messages to indicate the application is still loaded in the browser and the user is still active. - autosave autosave un - validated forms to a staging table on the server to avoid users losing their work when their session expires if they get called away from their desk while filling out a long form. - unique urls use a url - based scheme or write distinct urls whenever the input will cause a fresh new browser state, one that does not depend on previous interaction. development practices ( 8 ) - dom inspection use a dom inspection tool to explore the dynamic dom state. - traffic sniffing diagnose problems by sniffing web remoting traffic. - data dictionary visualize dom tags in a table format, with a row for each attribute. ( contributed pattern ) - simulation service develop the browser application against \" fake \" web services that simulate the actual services used in production. - service test build up automated tests of web services, using http clients to interact with the server as the browser normally would. - system test build automated tests to simulate user behaviour and verify the results.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5567842022126468, "token_count": 449, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.457797"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia a just war describes a war that satisfies a set of moral or legal rules. though in origin a catholic doctrine, francisco de vitoria based his arguments on reason and so put the tradition on a more universal basis. the rules applied may be ethical, religious, or formal ( such as international law ). the rules classically cover the justification for the war ( jus ad bellum ) and the conduct of the participants in the war ( jus in bello ). just war theory has ancient roots. cicero discussed this idea and its applications. augustine of hippo and thomas aquinas later codified a set of rules for a just war, which today still encompass the points commonly debated, with some modifications. in modern language, these rules hold that to be just, a war must meet the following criteria before the use of force : ( jus ad bellum ) - war can only be waged for a just cause, such as self - defense against an armed attack. - war can only be waged under legitimate authority. usually the constitution and the laws of a nation state specify the institutions and personnel authorized to make war decisions. the u. n charter authorizes the security council to make the international community ' s war decisions. citizens at their own will cannot attack another country without the permission of the legitimate authority. conversely, in a democratic nation state, statesmen with legitimate authority will need to convince citizens that their course of action is legal and proper. - war can only be waged with the right intention. correcting a suffered wrong is considered a right intention, while material gain is not. thus a war that would normally be just for all other reasons would be made unjust by a bad intention. right intention requires that democratic statesmen accept the decision of their nations ' courts and electorates on the legitimacy and the justice of their action. - war can only be waged with a reasonable chance of success. it is considered unjust to meaninglessly waste human life and economic resources if defeat is unavoidable. - war must be waged with proportionality in mind. the suffering which existed pre - war should not be overshadowed by the suffering the war may cause. - war can only be waged as a last resort. war is not just until all realistic options which were likely to right the wrong have been pursued. - just war conduct should be governed by the principle of discrimination. the acts of war should be directed towards the inflictors of the wrong, and not towards civilians caught", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.538716946246039, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.485157"} {"text": "just until all realistic options which were likely to right the wrong have been pursued. - just war conduct should be governed by the principle of discrimination. the acts of war should be directed towards the inflictors of the wrong, and not towards civilians caught in circumstances they did not create. the prohibited acts include bombing civilian residential areas that include no military target and committing acts of terrorism or reprisal against ordinary civilians. some theologians believe that this rule forbids weapons of mass destruction of any kind, for any reason ( such as the use of an atomic bomb ). - just war conduct should be governed by the principle of proportionality. the force used must be proportional to the wrong endured, and to the possible good that may come. the more disproportional the number of collateral civilian deaths, the more suspect will be the sincerity of a belligerent nation ' s claim to justness of a war it initiated. - torture, of combatants or of non - combatants, is forbidden. - prisoners of war must be treated respectfully. - many throughout history have considered conscription an unjust means, e. g. the condition of proportionality is often misunderstood. a quote from ambrosius may well clarify it. taking an example of a traveler coming to the aid of a fellow traveler who has been attacked by a robber he says \" at the same time, the christian should use no more force than necessary to subdue the attacker, for that person too is someone for whom christ died. charity thus justifies the resort to force in defense, not in self but of the other ; yet at the same time it limits the force that can be used against the evildoer to what is necessary to end the evil. \" hence minimum force is used here in the ethical sense of minimum harm. it is not in conflict with the powell doctrine of overwhelming force. if overwhelming force in the military sense produces less harm then it can be seen as minimum force in the ethical sense used by just war theorists. just war theorists - cicero ( 106 bc \u2013 43 bc ) - augustine of hippo ( 354 - 430 ) - st. thomas aquinas ( 1225 - 1274 ) - stanislaw of skarbimierz ( 1360 - 1431 ) - francisco de vitoria ( 1492 - 1546 ) - francisco suarez ( 1548 - 1617 ) - hugo grotius ( 1583 - 1645 ) - baron von pufendorf ( 1632 \u2013 1694 ) - emerich de vattel ( 1714 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5260037665367849, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.486089"} {"text": "welcome to http : / www. handsonuniverse. org / activities / explorations / tactile - moonphases / try this instead : link to alternate page with thumbnails linked to larger images. see project. http : / / analyzer. depaul. edu / see _ project / these images are set for high contrast that suits the needs of individuals who are blind and visually impaired. print then copy the images onto swellform paper, then process through a swellform graphics machine ( http : / / analyzer. depaul. edu / see _ project / bm030507. htm ). the result will be tactile images to sense by touch rather than through sight. see project is funded by nasa ideas. you may notice that some images appear larger or smaller than others. the moon ' s orbit brings it sometimes as close as 55 earth radii, and other times as far as 65 earth radii. what difference does distance make in the apparent size of our moon? take a look at two full moon pictures taken on different dates. these pictures are mosaics constructed from images taken with univ. of chicago yerkes observatory rooftop telescope - south ( meade 8 inch, f / 6. 3, sbig st8 ccd ). number of moon refers to day in cycle. moon images were taken during a variety of cycles. questions or comments? mailto : email @ example. com? subject = project see : moon phases links to jpg files, png files, link to fts files for display / manipulation with hands - on universe image processing software. explorations * hands - on universe * see project", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5522939855404507, "token_count": 344, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.503125"} {"text": "museum in a box - minibeast boxes are currently available each school term for set loan periods of three weeks. museum in a box can be sent to and collected from any educational institution within new south wales. the minibeasts box is a resource designed specifically for early childhood. the topic was chosen to complement children ' s fascination with creatures that they find in their environment. it includes a great variety of ' treasures ' - real insects and spiders embedded in resin, a large model ant, insect finger puppets, handmade silk butterfly wings, a specially created wooden ladybug puzzle, posters and books. - 8 real insects and spiders embedded in clear plastic - a large ant model, great for investigating body parts and as a drawing stimulus ' magnetic minibeasts ', 3 sets of magnetic minibeasts with a magnet board - the ' food game ' ; designed as a simple introduction to food webs - the ' what am i? ' game ; a simple classification activity - 2 silk butterfly wing dress - ups, made especially for the box - a handmade original wooden ladybird puzzle, a sensory delight! - a shiny green dung beetle hand puppet - 12 finger puppets just for fun! - minibeast posters and reference books - teachers notes and a box journal karen player, manager museum outreach", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.505189623713659, "token_count": 263, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.510017"} {"text": "this advice changed my view of the world. not only did i realize that being a teenager with a y - chromosome can ' t be easy either, it also explained why my male classmates were suddenly developing interests in things like special relativity or scanning tunnel microscopes ( nobel prize ' 86 ). it made also sense they were usually very irritated if a girl attempted to join them : all that was just suppressed hormones, the poor guys *. it further revealed a deep connection between general relativity and potatoes that hadn ' t previously occurred to me. most disturbingly however, it labeled general relativity as unsexy, a fact that has bothered me ever since. over the course of years i moreover had to notice that general relativity is a subject of great mystery to many, it ' s a word that has entered the colloquial language as the incomprehensible and ununderstandably complicated result of a genius ' brain. my physics teacher notably told me when getting tired of my questions that there are maybe three people in the world who understand general relativity, thereby repeating ( as i found out later ) a rumor that was more than half a century old ( see wikipedia on the history of general relativity ). special and general relativity is also the topic i receive the most questions about. the twin paradox for example still seems to confuse many people, and only a couple of days ago i was again confronted with a misunderstanding that i ' ve encountered repeatedly, though its origin is unclear to me. the twin paradox is not a paradox, so the explanation seems to go, because it doesn ' t take into account general relativity. that ' s plain wrong. the twin paradox is not a paradox because it doesn ' t take into account acceleration ( unless your spacetime allows closed timelike loops you will have to accelerate one of the twins to get them to meet again which breaks the symmetry ). the problem is that for reasons i don ' t know many people seem to believe special relativity is about constant velocities only, possibly a consequence of bad introductionary textbook. that is not the case. heck, you can describe acceleration even in newtonian mechanics! to make that very clear : - the difference between special and general relativity is that the former is in flat space, whereas the latter is in a ' general ', curved space. - flat space does not mean the metric tensor is diagonal with the entries ( - 1, 1, 1, 1 ), this is just the case in a very specific coordinate system. flat space means the curvature tensor identically", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6147238273204919, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.516548"} {"text": "', curved space. - flat space does not mean the metric tensor is diagonal with the entries ( - 1, 1, 1, 1 ), this is just the case in a very specific coordinate system. flat space means the curvature tensor identically vanishes ( which is independent of the coordinate system ). - of course one can describe accelerated observers in special relativity. that leads me now directly to the equivalence principle, the cornerstone of general relativity. googling ' equivalence principle ' it is somehow depressing. wikipedia isn ' t wrong, but too specific ( the equivalence principle doesn ' t have anything to do with standing on the surface of the earth ). the second hit is a nasa website which i find mostly confusing ( saying all objects react equally to gravity doesn ' t tell you anything about the relation of gravitational to inertial mass ). the third and fourth hits get it right, the fifth is wrong ( the locality is a crucial ingredient ). so here it is : - the equivalence principle : locally, the effects of gravitation ( motion in a curved space ) are the same as that of an accelerated observer in flat space. that is what einstein explains in his thought experiment with the elevator. if you are standing in the elevator ( that is just a local patch, theoretically infinitesimally small ) you can ' t tell whether you are pulled down because there is a planet underneath your feet, or because there is a flying pig pulling up the elevator. this website has two very nice mini - movies depicting the situation. if you could make your elevator larger you could however eventually distinguish between flat and curved space because you could measure geodesic deviation, i. e. the curvature. if you think of particles, the equivalence principle means that the inertial mass is equal to the gravitational mass, which has been measured with impressive precision. but the above formulation makes the mathematical consequences much clearer. to formulate your theory, you will have to introduce a tangential bundle on your curved manifold where you can deal with the ' local ' quantities, and you will have to figure out how the cuts in this bundle ( tensors ) will transform under change of coordinates. if you want your theory to be independent of that choice of coordinates it will have to be formulated in tensor equations. next thing to ask is then how to transport tensors from one point to the other, which leads you to a ' covariant ' derivative. the equivalence principle is thus a very central ingredient of general relativity and despite its simplicity the base of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6456424507451883, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.517609"} {"text": "thing to ask is then how to transport tensors from one point to the other, which leads you to a ' covariant ' derivative. the equivalence principle is thus a very central ingredient of general relativity and despite its simplicity the base of a large mathematical apparatus, it ' s the kind of insight every theoretical physicist dreams of. it gives you a notion of a ' straightest line ' in curved space ( a geodesic ) on which a testparticle moves. this curve most notably is independent of the mass of that particle : heavy and light things fall alike even in general relativity ( well, we already knew this to be the case in the newtonian limit ). for a very nice demonstration see the video on the nasa website. please note that this holds for pointlike testparticles only, it is no loger true for extended or spinning objects, or for objects that significantly disturb the background. the equivalence principle however is not sufficient to give you einstein ' s field equations that describe how space is curved by its matter content. but that ' s a different story. it remains to be said all this is standard textbook knowledge and general relativity is today not usually considered a large mystery. there are definitely more than 3 people who understand it. we have moved on quite a bit since 1905. general relativity is sexy. though i doubt there ' s more than three people in the world who really understand potatoes. * in the more advanced stages of confusion they start referring to physical theories as women. josh, this one ' s for you.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6331732673259411, "token_count": 313, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.518221"} {"text": "savingseveryone ' s better off when savings are made simple search alphabetically for the term you are looking for. - account balance - this is the amount of money in an account. this could be a credit balance ( money you own ) in a savings account or a debit balance ( money you owe ) in a current account. - aer stands for the annual equivalent rate and shows what the interest rate would be if interest was paid and added to the capital balance each year. the higher the aer, the better the return you will receive. - assets are things that a person or company owns, such as a house or money. - atm stands for automated teller machine. they are known as cash machines and can be found in many public places. they allow you to check your balance and take out money from your current account by using your cash or debit card and entering your pin ( personal identification number ). - this means bankers \u2019 automated clearing services and it \u2019 s simply a way to electronically process financial transactions. it is a uk scheme and there are also bacs direct debits and bacs direct credits. - this is the amount of money in an account. a positive balance refers to the amount you have in your savings account. a negative balance refers to the amount you owe, for example an overdraft on a current account. - bank of england base rate - by bank of england base rate we mean the bank of england \u2019 s official dealing rate ( the official bank rate ) as set by the monetary policy committee. - a beneficiary is an individual that has the right of enjoyment from the funds in the account and this remains with them throughout the period the money is deposited. - a bond is a savings account which will earn interest over a specified period of time. bonds have a defined term ( usually between one to five years ), after which the bond will mature and you can access your money. learn about fixed term bonds - a budget is a financial plan drawn up for an individual or family to work out how much money is coming in and going out each month. a budget would usually cover a period of one month, although it can be longer. you can use our budget planner to work out what you can afford. - this is the amount of money saved or invested in your savings account. - capital balance - this is the amount of money saved or invested in your savings account. - cash isa - an individual savings account ( isa ) is a savings account where you don \u2019 t pay tax on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.505125274011316, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.529927"} {"text": "upon the ground floor. what he calls the first floor ( or, more commonly, first storey, not forgetting the penultimate e! ) is what we call the second floor, and so on up to the roofwhich is covered not with tin, but with slate, tiles or leads. he does not take a paper ; he takes in a paper. he does not ask his servant, is there any mail for me? but are there any letters for me? for mail, in the american sense, is a word that he seldom uses, save in such compounds as mail - van, mail - train and mail - order. he alwaus speaks of it as the post. the man who brings it is not a letter - carrier but a postman. it is posted, not mailed, at a pillar - box, not at a mail - box. it never includes postal - orders but only post - cards, never money - orders, but only postal - orders or postoffice - orders. 2 the englishman dictates his answers, not to a typewriter, but to a typist ; a typewriter is merely the machine. if he desires the recipient to call him by telephone he doesnt say, phone me at a quarter of eight, but ring me up at a quarter to eight. and when the call comes he says are you there? when he gets home, he doesnt find his wife waiting for him in the parlor or living - room, 3 but in the drawing - room or in her sitting - room, and the tale of domestic disaster that she has to tell does not concern the hired - girl but the scullery - maid. he doesnt bring her a box of candy, but a box of sweets. he doesnt leave a derby hat in the hall, but a bowler. his wife doesnt wear shirtwaists, but blouses. when she buys one she doesnt say charge it, but put it down. when she orders a tailor - made suit, she calls it a costume or a coat - and - skirt. when she wants a spool of thread she asks for a reel of cotton. 4 such things are bought, not in the department - stores, but at the stores, which are substantially the same thing. in these stores calico means a plain cotton cloth ; in the united states it means a printed cotton cloth. things bought on the instalment plan in england are said to be bought on the hire - purchase plan or system ; the instal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5351319138912967, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.574245"} {"text": ". in these stores calico means a plain cotton cloth ; in the united states it means a printed cotton cloth. things bought on the instalment plan in england are said to be bought on the hire - purchase plan or system ; the instalment business itself is the credit - trade. goods ordered by post ( not mail ) on which the dealer pays the cost of transportation are said to be sent, not postpaid or prepaid, but postfree or carriage - paid. an englishman does not wear suspenders, but braces. suspenders are his wifes garters ; his own are sock - suspenders. the family does not seek sustenance in a rare tenderloin but in an underdone undercut or fillet. it does not eat beets, but beet - roots. the wine on the table, if white and german, is not rhine wine, but hock. yellow turnips, in england, are called swedes, and are regarded as fit food for cattle only ; when rations were short there, in 1916, the saturday review made a solemn effort to convince its readers that they were good enough to go upon the table. the english, of late, have learned to eat another vegetable formerly resigned to the lower fauna, to wit, american sweet corn. but they are still having some difficulty about its name, for plain corn in england, as we have seen, means all the grains used by man. some time ago, in the sketch, one c. j. clive, a gentleman farmer of worcestershire, was advertising sweet corn - cobs as the most delicious of all vegetables, and offering to sell them at 6s. 6d. a dozen, carriage - paid. chicory is something else that the english are unfamiliar with ; they always call it endive. by chicken they mean any fowl, however ancient. broilers and friers are never heard of over there. neither are crawfish, which are always crayfish. 5 the classes which, in america, eat breakfast, dinner and supper, have breakfast, dinner and tea in england ; supper always means a meal eaten late in the evening. no englishman ever wears a frock - coat or prince - albert, or lives in a bungalow ; he wears a morning - coat and lives in a villa or cottage. his wifes maid, if she has one, is not ethel, or maggie but robinson, and the nurse - maid who looks after his children is not lizzie but nurse", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.511852267802112, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.575331"} {"text": "bungalow ; he wears a morning - coat and lives in a villa or cottage. his wifes maid, if she has one, is not ethel, or maggie but robinson, and the nurse - maid who looks after his children is not lizzie but nurse. 6 so, by the way, is a trained nurse in a hospital, whose full style is not miss jones, but nurse jones or sister. and the hospital itself, if private, is not a hospital at all, but a nursing - home, and its trained nurses are plain nurses, or hospital nurses, or maybe nursing sisters. and the white - clad young gentlemen who make love to them are not studying medicine but walking the hospitals. similarly, an english law student does not study law, but reads the law. if an english boy goes to a public school, it is not a sign that he is getting his education free, but that his father is paying a good round sum for it and is accepted as a gentleman. a public school over there corresponds to our prep school ; it is a place maintained chiefly by endowments, wherein boys of the upper classes are prepared for the universities. what we know as a public school is called a board school or council school in england, not because the pupils are boarded but because it is managed by a school board or county council. the boys in a public ( i. e., private ) school are divided, not into classes, or grades, but into forms, which are numbered, the lowest being the first form. the benches they sit on are also called forms. an english boy whose father is unable to pay for his education goes first into a babies class ( a kindergarten is always a private school ) in a primary or infants school. he moves thence to class one, class two, class three and class four, and then into the junior school or public elementary school, where he enters the first standard. until now boys and girls have sat together in class, but hereafter they are separated, the boy going to a boys school and the girl to a girls. he goes up a standard a year. at the third or fourth standard, for the first time, he is put under a male teacher. he reaches the seventh standard, if he is bright, at the age of 12, and then goes into what is known as the ex - seventh. if he stays at school after this he goes into the ex - ex - seventh. but many leave the public elementary school at the ex - seventh and go into the secondary school, which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5108482522733542, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.576497"} {"text": "london corporation. an englishman writes ltd. after the name of a limited liability ( what we would call incorporated ) bank or trading company, as we write inc. he calls its president its chairman or managing director. its stockholders are its shareholders, and hold shares instead of stock in it. the place wherein such companies are floated and lootedthe wall street of londonis called the city, with a capital c. bankers, stock - jobbers, promoters, directors and other such leaders of its business are called city men. the financial editor of a newspaper is its city editor. government bonds are consols, or stocks, or the funds. 9 to have money in the stocks is to own such bonds. as englishman hasnt a bank - account, but a banking - account. he draws cheques ( not checks ), not on his bank but on the bankers. 10 in england there is a rigid distinction between a broker and a stock - broker. a broker means, not a dealer in securities, as in our wall street broker, but a dealer in second - hand furniture. to have the brokers11 in the house means to be bankrupt, with ones very household goods in the hands of ones creditors. for a city man to swindle a competitor in england is not to do him up or to do him, but to do him in. when any english business man retires he does not actually retire ; he declines business. 12 tariff reform, in england, does not mean a movement toward free trade, but one toward protection. the word government, meaning what we call the administration, is always capitalized and plural, e. g., the government are considering the advisability, etc. vestry, committee, council, ministry and even company are also plural, though sometimes not capitalized. a member of parliament does not run for re - election ; he stands. he does not make a campaign, but a canvass. 13 he does not represent a district, but a division or constituency. he never makes a stumping trip, but always a speaking tour. when he looks after his fences he calls it nursing the constituency. at a political meeting ( they are often rough in england ) the bouncers are called stewards ; the suffragettes used to delight in stabbing them with hatpins. a member of parliament is not afflicted by the numerous bugaboos that menace an american congressman. he knows nothing of lame ducks, pork barrels, gag - rule, junkets, pulls, gerrymanders,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5354626899431647, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.581955"} {"text": "them with hatpins. a member of parliament is not afflicted by the numerous bugaboos that menace an american congressman. he knows nothing of lame ducks, pork barrels, gag - rule, junkets, pulls, gerrymanders, omnibus - bills, snakes, niggers in the woodpile, salt river, crow, bosses, ward heelers, men higher up, silk - stockings, repeaters, steam - rollers, ballot - box stuffers and straight and split tickets ( he always calls them ballots or voting papers ). he has never heard, save as a report of far - off heresies, of direct primaries, the recall, or the initiative and referendum. a roll - call in parliament is a division. a member speaking is said to be up or on his legs. when the house adjourns it is said to rise. a member referring to another in the course of a debate does not say the gentleman from manchester, but the honorable gentleman ( written hon. gentleman ) or, if he happens to be a privy councillor, the right honorable gentleman, or, if he is a member of one of the universities, or a member of one of the learned professions, the honorable and learned gentleman. if the speaker refers to a member of his own party he may say my honorable friend. in the united states a pressman is a man who runs a printing press ; in england he is a newspaper reporter, or, as the english usually say, a journalist. 14 this journalist works, not at space rates, but at lineage rates. a printing press is a machine. an editorial in a newspaper is a leading article or leader. an editorial paragraph is a leaderette, or par. a newspaper clipping is a cutting. a pass to the theatre is an order. the room - clerk of a hotel is the secretary. a real - estate agent or dealer is an estate - agent. the english keep up most of the old distinctions between physicians and surgeons, barristers and solicitors. a barrister is greatly superior to a solicitor. he alone can address the higher courts and the parliamentary committees ; a solicitor must keep to office work and the inferior courts. a man with a grievance goes first to his solicitor, who then instructs or briefs a barrister for him. if that barrister, in the course of the trial, wants certain evidence removed from the record, he moves that it be struck out, not stricken out, as an american lawyer would say. only barristers may become judges", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5204971847578546, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.582926"} {"text": "and in general the englishman has a much less keen sense of the points of the compass than the american. he knows the east end and the west end, but he never speaks of the north - east corner of two streets. when an englishman boards a bus, in fact, it is not at a corner at all, but at a crossing, though he is familiar with such forms as hyde park corner. the place he is bound for is not three squares or blocks away, but three turnings. square, in england, always means a small park. a backyard is a garden. a subway is always a tube, or the underground. but an underground passage for pedestrians is a subway. english streets have no sidewalks ; they always call them pavements or foot - paths or simply paths. an automobile is always a motor - car or motor. auto is almost unknown, and with it to auto. so is machine. an englishman always calls russet, yellow or tan shoes brown shoes ( or, if they cover the ankle, boots ). he calls a pocketbook a purse, and gives the name of pocketbook to what we call a memorandum - book. his walking stick is always a stick, never a cane. by cord he means something strong, almost what we call twine ; a thin cord he always calls a string ; his twine is the lightest sort of string. when he applies the adjective homely to a woman he means that she is simple and home - loving, not necessarily that she is plain. he uses dessert, not to indicate the whole last course at dinner, but to designate the fruit only ; the rest is ices or sweets. he uses vest, not in place of waistcoat, but in place of undershirt. similarly, he applies pants, not to his trousers, but to his drawers. an englishman who inhabits bachelor quarters is said to live in chambers ; if he has a flat he calls it a flat, and not an apartment, which term he reserves for a single room. 18flat - houses are often mansions. the janitor or superintendent thereof is a care - taker or porter. the scoundrels who snoop around in search of divorce evidence are not private detectives, but private enquiry agents. the englishman is naturally unfamiliar with baseball, and in consequence his language is bare of the countless phrases and metaphors that it has supplied to american. many of these phrases and metaphors are in daily use among us, for example, fan, rooter, blea", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5169974627661726, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.585647"} {"text": "naturally unfamiliar with baseball, and in consequence his language is bare of the countless phrases and metaphors that it has supplied to american. many of these phrases and metaphors are in daily use among us, for example, fan, rooter, bleachers, batting - average, double - header, grand - stand - play, charley - horse, pennant - winner, gate - money, busher, minor - leaguer, glass - arm, to strike out, to foul, to be shut out, to play ball, on the bench, on to his curves and three strikes and out. the national game of draw - poker has also greatly enriched american with terms that are either quite unknown to the englishman, or known to him only as somewhat dubious americanisms, among them, cold - deck, kitty, full - house, jack - pot, four - flusher, ace - high, pot, penny - ante, divvy, a card up his sleeve, three - of - a - kind, to ante up, to stand pat, to call ( a bluff ), to pony up, to hold out, to cash in, to go it one better, to chip in and for keeps. but the englishman uses many more racing terms and metaphors than we do and he has got a good many phrases from other games, particularly cricket. the word cricket itself has a definite figurative meaning. it indicates, in general, good sports - manship. to take unfair advantage of an opponent is not cricket. the sport of boating, so popular on the thames, has also given colloquial english some familiar terms, almost unknown in the united states, e. g., punt and weir. contrariwise, pungy, batteau and scow are unheard of in england, and canoe is not long emerged from the estate of an americanism. 19 the game known as ten - pins in america is called nine - pins in england, and once had that name over here. the puritans forbade it, and its devotees changed its name in order to evade the prohibition. 20 finally, there is soccer, a form of football that is still relatively little known in the united states. what we call simply football is rugby or rugger to the englishman. the word soccer is derived from association ; the rules of the game were established by the london football association. soccer is one of the relatively few english experiments in portmanteau words. another is to be found in bakerloo, the name", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5164454139080675, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.586641"} {"text": ". the word soccer is derived from association ; the rules of the game were established by the london football association. soccer is one of the relatively few english experiments in portmanteau words. another is to be found in bakerloo, the name of one of the london underground lines, from baker - street and waterloo, its termini. but though the english talk of racing, football, cricket and golf a great deal, they have developed nothing comparable to the sporting argot used by all american sporting reporters. when, during the war, various american soldier nines played baseball in england, some of the english newspapers employed visiting american reporters to report the games, and the resultant emission of wild and woolly technicalities interested english readers much more than the games themselves. an english correspondent, greatly excited, sent me the following report from the times of may 26, 1919 : the pastime was featured by the heavy stick work of wallace, former harvard university man, who slammed out a three - bagger and a clean home - run in three trys with the willow. the brand of twirling for both teams was exceptionally good, and the fielding not at all bad considering the chances the a. e. f. boys have had to practise since crossing the deep to join the bigger game over here. for the first three frames both teams hung tough and allowed no scoring, and both shawenecy and thomas appeared to have everything necessary, with shawenecy holding the edge. fourth innings netted a brace for the home lads. ives clouted one to centre and richards let the sphere slip ; eagle watched four bad ones go by, and, after ives was tagged trying to steal home, was pushed over for the first tally when williams leaned against one for two sacks. shawenecy went bad here and gave storey a free ticket, and wallace came through with a three station bingle that shoved williams and storey across. brown ended the agony by missing three. in the sixth, cambridge made an effort to close the gap when shawenecy kissed the leather for a bingle. richards picked a double, and myers followed up with a safe swat which brought the count within one. looked good for another after myers swiped the second stop, but thorngate and hart both carved the breeze. oxford wasnt going to let them feel too good about it though, so they slipped up a few more to convince the crowd it wasnt visitors day. eagle went to first on myers error. gammell took a stroll, and both were", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.50268130655741, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.587617"} {"text": "such american fer natur and are born, live, die and go to heaven without the aid of either the uplift or the chautauqua. in music the english cling to an archaic and unintelligible nomenclature, long since abandoned in america. thus they call a double whole note a breve, a whole note a semibreve, a half note a minim, a quarter note a crotchet, an eighth note a quaver, a sixteenth note a semi - quaver, a thirty - second note a demisemiquaver, and a sixty - fourth note a hemidemisemiquaver, or semidemisemiquaver. if, by any chance, an english musician should write a one - hundred - and - twenty - eighth note he probably wouldnt know what to call it. this clumsy terminology goes back to the days of plain chant, with its longa, brevis, semi - brevis, minima and semiminima. the french and italians cling to a system almost as confusing, but the germans use ganze, halbe, viertel, achtel, etc. i have been unable to discover the beginning of the american system, but it would seem to be borrowed from the german. since the earliest times a great many of the music teachers in the united states have been germans, and some of the rest have had german training. in the same way the english hold fast ( though with a gradual slacking of the grip of late ) to a clumsy and inaccurate method of designating the sizes of printers types. in america the simple point system makes the business easy ; a line of 14 - point type occupies exactly the vertical space of two lines of 7 - point. but the english still indicate differences in size by such arbitrary and confusing names as brilliant, diamond, small pearl, pearl, ruby, ruby - nonpareil, nonpareil, minion - nonpareil, emerald, minion, brevier, bourgeois, long primer, small pica, pica, english, great primer and double pica. they also cling to a fossil system of numerals in stating ages. thus, an englishman will say that he is seven - and - forty, not that he is forty - seven. this is probably a direct survival, preserved by more than a thousand years of english conservatism, of the anglo - saxon seofan - and - feowertig. he will also say that he weighs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5421229217401673, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.590370"} {"text": "that he is forty - seven. this is probably a direct survival, preserved by more than a thousand years of english conservatism, of the anglo - saxon seofan - and - feowertig. he will also say that he weighs eleven stone instead of 154 pounds. a stone is 14 pounds, and it is always used in stating the heft of a man. he employs such designations of time as fortnight and twelve - month a great deal more than we do, and has certain special terms of which we know nothing, for example, quarter - day, bank - holiday, long - vacation, lady day and michaelmas. per contra, he knows nothing whatever of our thanksgiving, arbor, labor and decoration days or of legal holidays, or of yom kippur. finally, he always says a quarter to nine, not a quarter of nine. if it is 8. 35 he usually says that it is five - and - twenty minutes to nine. but he never inverts any other number ; it is twenty - three minutes to and twenty - seven minutes past. he rarely says fifteen minutes to ; nearly always he uses quarter to. he never says a quarter hour or a half hour ; he says a quarter of an hour and half an hour. in english usage, to proceed, the word directly is always used to signify immediately ; in american a contingency gets into it, and it may mean no more than soon. in england quite means completely, wholly, entirely, altogether, to the utmost extent, nothing short of, in the fullest sense, positively, absolutely ; in america it is conditional, and means only nearly, approximately, substantially, as in he sings quite well. an englishman does not say i will pay you up for an injury, but i will pay you back. he doesnt look up a definition in a dictionary ; he looks it out. he doesnt say, being ill, i am getting on well, but i am going on well. he doesnt use the american different from or different than ; he uses different to. he never adds the pronoun in such locutions as it hurts me, but says simply, it hurts. he never catches up with you on the street ; he catches you up. he never says are you through? but have you finished? he never uses to notify as a transitive verb ; an official act may be notified, but not a person. he never uses gotten as the perfect participle of get ; he", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5347117382938461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.591327"} {"text": ", told me that the two things which most impeded her first communications with untraveled americans, even above the gross differences between english and american pronunciation and intonation, were the complete absence of the general utility adjective jolly from the american vocabulary, and the puzzling omnipresence and versatility of the verb to fix. in english colloquial usage jolly means almost anything ; it intensifies all other adjectives, even including miserable and homesick. an englishman is jolly bored, jolly hungry or jolly well tired ; his wife is jolly sensible ; his dog is jolly keen ; the prices he pays for things are jolly dear ( never steep or stiff or high : all americanisms ). but he has no noun to match the american proposition, meaning proposal, business, affair, case, consideration, plan, theory, solution and what not : only the german zug can be ranged beside it. 26 and he has no verb in such wide practise as to fix. in his speech it means only to make fast or to determine. in american it may mean to repair, as in the plumber fixed the pipe ; to dress, as in mary fixed her hair ; to prepare, as in the cook is fixing the gravy ; to bribe, as in the judge was fixed ; to settle, as in the quarrel was fixed up ; to heal, as in the doctor fixed his boil ; to finish, as in murphy fixed sweeney in the third round ; to be well - to - do, as in john is well - fixed ; to arrange, as in i fixed up the quarrel ; to be drunk, as in the whiskey fixed him ; to punish, as in ill fix him ; and to correct, as in he fixed my bad latin. moreover, it is used in all its english senses. an englishman never goes to a dentist to have his teeth fixed. he does not fix the fire ; he makes it up, or mends it. he is never well - fixed, either in money or by liquor. 27 the american use of to run is also unfamiliar to englishmen. they never run can hotel, or a railroad ; they always keep it or manage it. the english use quite a great deal more than we do, and, as we have seen, in a different sense. quite rich, in american, means tolerably rich, richer than most ; quite so, in english, is identical in meaning with exactly so. in american just is almost equivalent to the english quite, as in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5172321359424507, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.593406"} {"text": "as in to feel good, to be treated good, to sleep good, but also as a reinforcement to other adjectives and adverbs as in i hit him good and hard and i am good and tired. of late some has come into wide use as an adjective - adverb of all work, indicating special excellence or high degree, as in some girl, some sick, going some, etc. it is still below the salt, but threatens to reach a more respectable position. one encounters it in the newspapers constantly and in the congressional record, and not long ago a writer in the atlantic monthly29 hymned it ecstatically as some worda true super - word, in fact and argued that it could be used in a sense for which there is absolutely no synonym in the dictionary. it was used by the prim emily dickinson forty or more years ago. 30 it will concern us again in chapter ix. it would be easy to pile up words and phrases that are used in both america and england, but with different meanings. i have already alluded to tariff - reform. open - shop is another. it means, in england, what an american union man ( english : trades - unionist ) calls a closed - shop. and closed - shop, in england, means what an american calls an open - shop! finally, there is the verb - phrase, to carry on. in the united states it means to make a great pother ; in england it means to persevere. but the record must have an end. note 5. the verb to crawfish, of course, is also unknown in england. [ back ] note 6. the differences between the nursery vocabulary in english and american deserve investigation, but are beyond the jurisdiction of a celibate inquirer. i have been told by an englishman that english babies do not say choo - choo to designate a railroad train, but puff - puff. [ back ] note 7. this title has been borrowed by some of the american universities, e. g., chancellor day of syracuse. but the usual title remains president. on the continent it is rector. [ back ] note 8. however, the street - cleaner is beginning to appear in some of the english cities. he is commonly employed by the urban sanitary authority, and so the letters u. s. a. appear upon his carta shock to visiting americans. the old - time crossing - sweeper was a free lance. he had his pitch at a crossing, and kept it clean ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5417106646589857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.596490"} {"text": ", 2nd ed. ( art. apartment house ), the term flat is usually in the united states restricted to apartments in houses having no elevator or hall service. in new york such apartments are commonly called walk - up - apartments or walk - ups. even with the qualification, apartment is felt to be better than flat. [ back ] note 19. canoeing was introduced into england by john macgregor in 1866, and there is now a royal canoe club. in america the canoe has been familiar from the earliest times, and in mme. sarah kemble knights diary ( 1704 ) there is much mention of cannoos. the word itself is from an indian dialect, probably the haitian, and came into american through the spanish, in which it survives as canoa. [ back ] note 20. an act was passed to prohibit playing nine - pins ; as soon as the law was put in force, it was notified everywhere, ten - pins played here. capt. marryat : diary in america, vol. iii, p. 195. [ back ] note 21. i am informed by the rev. w. g. polack, of evansville, ind., that certain lutherans in the united states, following german usage, employ vicar to designate a theological student, not yet ordained, who is doing temporary supply - work in a mission congregation. the verb, to vicar, means to occupy such a pulpit. mr. polack is occupied with an interesting inquiry into the american ecclesiastical vocabulary. he believes that mission - festival, common in the middle west, comes from the german missionsfest. so with agenda, used by some of the lutheran churches to designate their book of common prayer. he says that it is not the english term, but the german agende. he notes the use of services to indicate a single service ( this is common throughout the united states ) ; the decay of reverend to revernor, reverner, revenor or revener ; the use of confirmand to designate a candidate for confirmation ; the use of to announce to indicate notifying a pastor of an intention to partake of communion ( ger. sich anmelden ) ; and the use of confessional - address ( beichtrede. ) all these terms are used by english - speaking lutherans. [ back ] note 22. the term chapel, says joyce, in english as we speak it in ireland, has so ingrained itself in my mind that to this hour the word instinctively springs to my lips when i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5059530598537956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.598569"} {"text": "i think a good way to start this blog post series will be to explain some appliance terminology and what it all means. a short encyclopedia, if you will. this is not necessarily all in alphabetical order. i might get a little technical, but i \u2019 ll try to apply the k. i. s. s. rule ( keep it simple, stupid ) wherever i can. compressor - based system : an appliance that uses a compressor, or pump, with a closed refrigeration system, and uses a refrigerant to cool a particular space. this could be a refrigerator, wine cooler ( some ), kegerator or deep freezer. common refrigerants include r134a and r410a, among others. thermoelectric / te : an appliance that uses electronics / electricity to cool a small space without the use of refrigerants. these typically consist of a cooling node ( peltier effect ) and fans to distribute the air inside the cabinet and dissipate the heat to the outside. they are, for the most part, efficient, although there are a few drawbacks, especially if you are trying to build it into a cabinet. i \u2019 ll delve into that in a later post, along with what exactly a peltier unit is in simple terms. led : refers to a light emitting diode, which is a commonly used electronic component. all diodes allow electricity to flow in one direction only. think of it as a one way street, except this one glows when the electric flows. they are used for operation and mode indicators, and also for general lighting purposes. sometimes they use different colors and are commonly used to highlight and display wines in wine coolers. cooling fans : this will mostly apply to thermoelectric, or te, wine coolers. they do different jobs : some distribute the cooled air inside the cabinet or at the evaporator coil on compressor - based units, and others get rid of the hot air at the back of the cabinet or from the condenser coils on compressor - based units. most of them consist of the same small dc - powered fans you find in your desktop computer. portable dishwasher : this isn \u2019 t the one your mom used to roll around the kitchen and store in a corner. these actually are small enough to sit on a countertop. these are really simple to install. most come with two hoses, a drain and supply, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.603976909265458, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.633035"} {"text": "after more than four years in space, restlessly searching for planets orbiting other stars, nasa \u2019 s kepler space telescope may have met its demise. the kepler project is typically described in terms of raw numbers. as of the last official announcement, it had found 2, 740 likely new planets \u2013 including 1, 200 neptune - size planets, 350 earth - size planets, and at least 4 planets that orbit within the \u201c habitable zone \u201d where liquid water can exist. all of those numbers are sure to increase, as more observations are confirmed and as mission scientists continue to dig through a trove of archived data. but spirit, not statistics, is what really defines kepler. it is a modern version of the expedition of lewis and clark, or the great voyages of vasco da gama and ferdinand magellan. it is a headlong plunge into the unknown cosmic territory around us. extrapolating from kepler \u2019 s results, astronomers now estimate there are at least 17 billion earth - size planets in our galaxy. that is another number, yes, but one with a powerful message : another age of exploration awaits, one that may very well lead to the discovery that humanity is not alone in the universe. read more dark energy is the single most important element in the universe. it influenced how the cosmos was born, how it is evolving today, and how it all will end trillions of years in the future. right now, this energy is causing the universe to expand faster and faster ; in the far future, the expansion may become so rapid that space itself will be torn apart. and yet we know next to nothing about what dark energy is. we don \u2019 t even have a proper name for it \u2014 the very term \u201c dark energy \u201d is little more than a scientific shrug. small wonder, then, that our recent discover magazine cover story about the mystery of dark energy ( confronting the dark by zeeya merali ) produced such an outpouring of curious reader mail. in a previous post, i addressed some of the key cosmological questions submitted by our readers. but really, that first set of responses only scratched the surface. for every letter writer who asked broadly about the nature of the big bang, someone else who wanted to know more about dark energy itself. so as promised, here is a second installment addressing how scientists came to realize that energy, not matter, rules the universe. read more fifteen years ago, a small cabal of researchers took some of the most firmly held notions about how the universe works and turned them on their head", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5720782683175434, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.657354"} {"text": "a second installment addressing how scientists came to realize that energy, not matter, rules the universe. read more fifteen years ago, a small cabal of researchers took some of the most firmly held notions about how the universe works and turned them on their head. until then, everyone was sure that the expanding universe was born in an explosive big bang and had been slowing down ever since, dragged by the gravitational pull of untold billions of galaxies. but in fact the expansion is speeding up. everyone was sure that matter was what dominated the overall behavior of the universe. but in fact it seems that \u201c dark energy, \u201d not matter, is running the show. whoops. the may cover story in discover magazine ( confronting the dark by zeeya merali ) chronicles that game - changing discovery, and lays out the latest thinking about what dark energy is and how it affects the fate of the universe. as soon as the article was published, discover \u2019 s inbox began to fill with letters from curious readers wanting to know more. here i will address sweeping, big - picture questions about cosmology. i \u2019 ll consider more specific queries about dark energy and dark matter in a following post. read more last thursday, a team of scientists working with nasa \u2019 s kepler space telescope described three intriguing new planets circling distant stars. they are just slightly larger than earth and orbit in the \u201c habitable zone \u201d where temperatures could be right for liquid water and for life. the names of these amazing worlds? kepler 62f, kepler 62e, and kepler 69c. not to be confused with other much - celebrated recent discoveries like kepler 64b, kepler 22b, or gliese 581g. alan stern, a former nasa associate administrator and founder of a startup called uwingu, thinks these newfound worlds should have real names, and that the general public should be able to have a say. the international astronomical union \u2013 the organization the organization that officially validates astronomical nomenclature \u2013 strongly objects to uwingu \u2019 s approach, and has effectively thwarted it. after the iau \u2019 s blistering april 12 press release attacking uwingu, submissions to uwingu \u2019 s fee - based online planetary naming database plummeted. stern calls it a \u201c torpedo attack. \u201d read more or perhaps you would like to name it \u201c tatooine \u201d or \u201c wrigley \u2019 s pleasure planet \u201d? if so, you are in luck \u2013 all you need to pay a small fee and keep voting. a startup company called uwingu", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5699836865290486, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.658429"} {"text": "template for a symposium on how to help scientists do a better job communicating with the public. or maybe i just thought it would be a lot of fun. read more five - sixths of the universe is missing. that statement feels strange to write, and i \u2019 m sure it feels pretty strange to read as well. given the vastness of the cosmos \u2013 and given how little of it humans have explored \u2013 how can we know for sure that anything is out of place? the claim sounds positively arrogant, if not delusional. and yet scientists have assembled a nearly airtight case that the majority of the matter in the universe consists dark matter, a substance which is both intrinsically invisible and fundamentally different in composition than the familiar atoms that make up stars and planets. in the face of staggering difficulties, researchers like samuel ting of mit are even making progress in figuring out what dark matter is, as evidence by teasing headlines from last week. time to come to terms, then, with the new reality about our place in the universe. here are seven key things every informed citizen of the cosmos should know. read more what are those strange particles raining down on our planet from the depths of outer space? physicists have been wrestling with that question for a century now, but the past couple months have seen remarkable progress toward a meaningful answer. it \u2019 s taken so long because researchers have had to overcome a lot of obstacles along the way. even the name of the thing they are studying is confusing. the particles are formally known as cosmic rays even though they are not rays at all, but fragments of atoms that are moving at extremely high velocities. and those fragments are extremely difficult to study, because cosmic rays do not move in straight lines. they are electrically charged, so they bend to the will of the magnetic fields that snake almost everywhere through deep space. by the time a particular cosmic ray reaches earth, its path may have nothing to do with the place where it started out. looking at cosmic rays is like pointing a telescope into a set of funhouse mirrors. read more by now you \u2019 ve probably heard about the amazing new cosmic snapshot from the european space agency \u2019 s planck spacecraft. it is one of those scientific achievements so mind - boggling that you have to spend a bit of time with it to truly appreciate what you are seeing. this is relic radiation from when the universe was 370, 000 years old, still all aglow from the big bang. the radiation has been traveling 13. 8 billion years since then, across ever -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5734880154341395, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.660473"} {"text": "with it to truly appreciate what you are seeing. this is relic radiation from when the universe was 370, 000 years old, still all aglow from the big bang. the radiation has been traveling 13. 8 billion years since then, across ever - expanding stretches of space, before landing in planck \u2019 s detectors. then it took a tremendous feat of imagination and insight to translate that noisy signal into a comprehensible map of what the universe looked like in its infancy. so let \u2019 s step back for a moment, look at how this image came to be, and consider some of the more surprising details hidden within it. read more sounds like a trick question, doesn \u2019 t it? sort of like \u201c who is buried in grant \u2019 s tomb? \u201d and yet the answer keeps confounding a lot of smart people. ( discover even published a whole feature on the question. ) now the issue keeps coming up again in the latest images from the curiosity rover. blue skies on mars? can that be right? which of these images shows what mars really looks like? the very first viking images from the surface of mars in july, 1976 showed blue skies, largely because that \u2019 s what people were expecting and so that is how the imaging experts initially set the color balance. they quickly realized their error and reissued the image with tangerine skies.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5439903606472474, "token_count": 272, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.661067"} {"text": "by creating a mathematical model of the way overconfident individuals compete against ordinary individuals, they show that there is a clear advantage in overconfidence. in fact, if the potential reward is at least twice as great as the cost of competing, then overconfidence is the best strategy. in fact, overconfidence is actually advantageous on average, because it boosts ambition, resolve, morale, and persistence. in other words, overconfidence is the best way to maximize benefits over costs when risks are uncertain. but it is johnson and fowler ' s predictions that are most worrying. their model implies that optimal overconfidence increases with the magnitude of uncertainty. so the greater the risk, the more overconfident individuals should become. wednesday, september 30, 2009 tuesday, september 29, 2009 monday, september 28, 2009 elsewhere, jonah lehrer profiles clay in outside magazine, discussing the advantages asperger ' s gives clay, including the ability to focus on surfing for 8 - 9 hours at a time. saturday, september 26, 2009 friday, september 25, 2009 the assumptions that underpin these theories are largely inscrutable to those without a ph. d. in economics. indeed, the debate is full of terms that mean one thing to the uninitiated and quite another to economists. consider \u201c rationality. \u201d webster \u2019 s dictionary defines it as \u201c reasonableness. \u201d by contrast, for economists, a \u201c rational individual \u201d is not merely reasonable ; he or she is someone who behaves in accordance with a mathematical model of individual decision - making that economists have agreed to call \u201c rational. \u201d the centrepiece of this standard of rationality, the so - called \u201c rational expectations hypothesis \u201d, presumes that economists can model exactly how rational individuals comprehend the future. in a bit of magical thinking, it supposes that each of the many models devised by economists provides the \u201c true \u201d account of how market outcomes, such as asset prices, will unfold over time. the economics literature is full of different models, each one assuming that it adequately captures how all rational market participants make decisions. although the free - market chicago school, neo - keynesianism, and behavioural finance are quite different in other respects, each assumes the same reh - based standard of rationality. in other words, reh - based models ignore markets \u2019 very raison d \u2019 etre : no one, as friedrich hayek pointed out, can have access to the \u201c totality \u201d of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5372951592799907, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.691742"} {"text": "same reh - based standard of rationality. in other words, reh - based models ignore markets \u2019 very raison d \u2019 etre : no one, as friedrich hayek pointed out, can have access to the \u201c totality \u201d of knowledge and information dispersed throughout the economy. similarly, as john maynard keynes and karl popper showed, we cannot rationally predict the future course of our knowledge. today \u2019 s models of rational decision - making ignore these well - known arguments. thursday, september 24, 2009 wednesday, september 23, 2009 people who succumb to short - term impulses often do awful things, such as driving drunk or beating up their children. they would better off if their long - term selves had control, and could block and distract these short - term choices. but often the situation is flipped, and it \u2019 s the long - term self that \u2019 s misguided. it can become committed to belief systems that have immoral consequences. terrorism and genocide, for instance, are typically deliberate choices, not acts of passion ; it \u2019 s the long - term self that \u2019 s the guilty one. indeed, people often have to force themselves to commit terrible acts ; they have to work to defy the natural and legitimate moral impulses of their short - term selves. tuesday, september 22, 2009 monday, september 21, 2009 sunday, september 20, 2009 friday, september 18, 2009 animals share functional parallels with human conscious metacognition - - that is, they may share humans ' ability to reflect upon, monitor or regulate their states of mind. smith explains that metacognition is a sophisticated human capacity linked to hierarchical structure in the mind ( because the metacognitive executive control processes oversee lower - level cognition ), to self - awareness ( because uncertainty and doubt feel so personal and subjective ) and to declarative consciousness ( because humans are conscious of their states of knowing and can declare them to others ). therefore, smith says, \" it is a crucial goal of comparative psychology to establish firmly whether animals share humans ' metacognitive capacity. if they do, it could bear on their consciousness and self - awareness, too. \" in fact, he concludes, \" metacognition rivals language and tool use in its potential to establish important continuities or discontinuities between human and animal minds. \" related : temple grandin on similarities between animals and austistic savants with regard to \" priviledged \" access to low level sensory information.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5449724654407799, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.693060"} {"text": "to establish important continuities or discontinuities between human and animal minds. \" related : temple grandin on similarities between animals and austistic savants with regard to \" priviledged \" access to low level sensory information. thursday, september 17, 2009 \" the politically charged texas board of education has kicked off hearings today on whether school textbooks should have a more conservative slant. things began auspiciously when one member of the public got up to announce that she is a - - david kurtz, talking points memo wednesday, september 16, 2009 from the nyt : \u201c it is the nuclear reactor for all his works, \u201d shamdasani said, noting that jung \u2019 s more well - known concepts \u2014 including his belief that humanity shares a pool of ancient wisdom that he called the collective unconscious and the thought that personalities have both male and female components ( animus and anima ) \u2014 have their roots in the red book. creating the book also led jung to reformulate how he worked with clients, as evidenced by an entry shamdasani found in a self - published book written by a former client, in which she recalls jung \u2019 s advice for processing what went on in the deeper and sometimes frightening parts of her mind. read the rest of the article. it is fascinating reading all the way through. \u201c i should advise you to put it all down as beautifully as you can \u2014 in some beautifully bound book, \u201d jung instructed. \u201c it will seem as if you were making the visions banal \u2014 but then you need to do that \u2014 then you are freed from the power of them.... then when these things are in some precious book you can go to the book & turn over the pages & for you it will be your church \u2014 your cathedral \u2014 the silent places of your spirit where you will find renewal. if anyone tells you that it is morbid or neurotic and you listen to them \u2014 then you will lose your soul \u2014 for in that book is your soul. \u201d the book itself looks absolutely gorgeous. tuesday, september 15, 2009 in the case of time - space synaesthesia, a very visual experience can be triggered by thinking about time. \" i thought everyone thought like i did, says holly branigan, also a scientist at edinburgh university, and someone with time - space synaesthesia. \" i found out when i attended a talk in the department that julia was giving. she said that some synaesthetes can see time. and i thought,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5686759282964144, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.694232"} {"text": "at edinburgh university, and someone with time - space synaesthesia. \" i found out when i attended a talk in the department that julia was giving. she said that some synaesthetes can see time. and i thought, ' oh my god, that means i ' ve got synaesthesia '. \" so what exactly does she see? \" for me it ' s a bit like a running track, \" she says. \" the track is organised around the academic year. the short ends are the summer and christmas holidays - the summer holiday is slightly longer. \" it ' s as if i ' m in the centre and i ' m turning around slowly as the year goes by. if i think ahead to the future, my perspective will shift. \" monday, september 14, 2009 friday, september 11, 2009 i ' m reading several books simultaneously these days, including prep work for the cfa exam this december, rereading neal stephenson ' s baroque cycle for fun, working my way through everything don norman has published on design theory, and now, tyler cowen ' s book, create your own economy, which contains more about autism and web 2. 0 material than one might expect from the title. nonetheless, it ' s packed with engaging tidbits : i ' d love to have a collapsible caravaggio to carry around to parties, for instance. he also points the reader toward a really good 2007 blog post by media lab professor and technology review blogger ed boyden, who heavily annotates and organizes his life. boyden ' s post details 10 + 2 recommendations for effectively organizing your life : - synthesize new ideas constantly - learn how to learn ( rapidly ) - work backward from your goal. or else you may never get there - always have a long - term plan. even if you change it every day - make contingency maps - make your mistakes quickly - as you develop skills, write up best - practices protocols - document everything obsessively - keep it simple - use logarithmic time planning. use greater detail for the near future - compose conversation summaries. photograph and store for easy retrieval wednesday, september 09, 2009 listen carefully, my son : bombs were falling over mexico city but no one even noticed. the air carried poison through the streets and open windows. you ' d just finished eating and were watching cartoons on tv. i was reading in the bedroom next door when i realized we were going to die. despite the dizziness", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.552616650366218, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.696548"} {"text": "no one even noticed. the air carried poison through the streets and open windows. you ' d just finished eating and were watching cartoons on tv. i was reading in the bedroom next door when i realized we were going to die. despite the dizziness and nausea i dragged myself to the kitchen and found you on the floor. we hugged. you asked what was happening and i didn \u2019 t tell you we were on death \u2019 s program but instead that we were going on a journey, one more, together, and that you shouldn \u2019 t be afraid. when it left, death didn \u2019 t even close our eyes. what are we? you asked a week or year later, ants, bees, wrong numbers in the big rotten soup of chance? we \u2019 re human beings, my son, almost birds, public heroes and secrets. tuesday, september 08, 2009 eric heller at harvard university and various pals have studied rogue waves for some time. today they show how microwaves propagating through a forest of scatterers which the team call a \" quasi - two - dimensional resonator with randomly distributed scatterers, each mimicking an r ^ \u22122 repulsive potential \". the results are fascinating because they clearly show the rogue waves ( or hot spots in microwave terms ) appearing more often than conventional thinking ( rayleigh ' s law for the wave height distribution ) allows. in fact the team says the probability in their set up of a rogue wave appearing is 15 orders of magnitude greater than rayleigh statistics predict. they attribute the difference to ray refraction rather than to resonance effects as conventional thinking might suppose. mouse retinas contain cells that detect approaching objects, possibly providing an advance warning system. while investigating mouse eye cells, botond roska at the friedrich miescher institute for biomedical research in basel, switzerland, and colleagues noticed that one type behaved unusually in response to movement. further analysis of this one kind of retinal cell revealed that it fired only when an object approached. the researchers suspect that people have similar cells, which alert us to approaching objects faster than our brain cells can. \" it ' s an alarm system that ' s as close to the front end of the organism as possible, \" says roska. \" if you left it to the brain to respond, it might be too late. \" it could also be that these cells form part of the signal processing apparatus that enhances visual acuity. monday, september 07, 2009 sharing the top floor with oliver and his sister were two different lunatics :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5918026721434172, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.697854"} {"text": ", it might be too late. \" it could also be that these cells form part of the signal processing apparatus that enhances visual acuity. monday, september 07, 2009 sharing the top floor with oliver and his sister were two different lunatics : a rotund, elderly german, edward lindner \u2013 \" helen and i were convinced he was a nazi in hiding, \" reveals oliver who never went to the bathroom \u2013 and in the back room was freddie feldman, midget cabalist. \" freddie tried to kill us on a daily basis, he would steal our empty wine bottles from the trash \u2013 of which there were many as we liked to entertain \u2013 and he would plant them one by one, lying on their sides on various steps, hoping that helen and i on our many trips to the bathroom would step on an empty bottle and it would roll out from under our feet, causing us to plunge down the stairs and break our necks, \" oliver explains. \" it was quite amazing that freddie was able to plant his booby traps without making a sound, because the stairs creaked horribly. \" so how did he do it? \" first, he would remove his clothes. then he would walk up the stairs very carefully on tiptoe, balancing on the very outer edge of each step with his whole body pressed against the wall, then he ' d walk up the wall like a fly would. to see freddie \u2013 naked, walking up the wall \u2013 was truly to witness the most dread and awe - inspiring of acts, \" replies oliver. i wonder what it would take to bring this show to chicago. i ' d buy box seats. saturday, september 05, 2009 friday, september 04, 2009 thursday, september 03, 2009 this is the second time america has been up against the zero lower bound, the previous occasion being the great depression. and it was precisely the observation that there \u2019 s a lower bound to interest rates that led keynes to advocate higher government spending : when monetary policy is ineffective and the private sector can \u2019 t be persuaded to spend more, the public sector must take its place in supporting the economy. fiscal stimulus is the keynesian answer to the kind of depression - type economic situation we \u2019 re currently in. brad delong comments : such keynesian thinking underlies the obama administration \u2019 s economic policies \u2014 and the freshwater economists are furious. for 25 or so years they tolerated the fed \u2019 s efforts to manage the economy, but a full - blown keynesian resurgence was something entirely different. back in 1980, lucas, of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5357815327371778, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.698971"} {"text": "\u2019 s economic policies \u2014 and the freshwater economists are furious. for 25 or so years they tolerated the fed \u2019 s efforts to manage the economy, but a full - blown keynesian resurgence was something entirely different. back in 1980, lucas, of the university of chicago, wrote that keynesian economics was so ludicrous that \u201c at research seminars, people don \u2019 t take keynesian theorizing seriously anymore ; the audience starts to whisper and giggle to one another. \u201d admitting that keynes was largely right, after all, would be too humiliating a comedown. and so chicago \u2019 s cochrane, outraged at the idea that government spending could mitigate the latest recession, declared : \u201c it \u2019 s not part of what anybody has taught graduate students since the 1960s. they [ keynesian ideas ] are fairy tales that have been proved false. it is very comforting in times of stress to go back to the fairy tales we heard as children, but it doesn \u2019 t make them less false. \u201d ( it \u2019 s a mark of how deep the division between saltwater and freshwater runs that cochrane doesn \u2019 t believe that \u201c anybody \u201d teaches ideas that are, in fact, taught in places like princeton, m. i. t. and harvard. ) meanwhile, saltwater economists... were shocked to realize that freshwater economists hadn \u2019 t been listening.... freshwater economists [ like lucas, prescott, fama, cochrane, mulligan, zingales, boldrin, etc. ] who inveighed against the stimulus didn \u2019 t sound like scholars who had weighed keynesian arguments and found them wanting. rather, they sounded like people who... were resurrecting pre - 1930 fallacies in the belief that they were saying something new and profound. and it wasn \u2019 t just keynes whose ideas seemed to have been forgotten. as brad delong of the university of california, berkeley, has pointed out in his laments about the chicago school \u2019 s \u201c intellectual collapse, \u201d the school \u2019 s current stance amounts to a wholesale rejection of milton friedman \u2019 s ideas as well. friedman believed that fed policy rather than changes in government spending should be used to stabilize the economy, but he never asserted that an increase in government spending cannot, under any circumstances, increase employment. in fact, rereading friedman \u2019 s 1970 summary of his ideas, \u201c a theoretical framework for monetary analysis, \u201d what \u2019 s striking is how keynesian it seems. i remember october of 1987. we - - that is me, andrei shlei", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5082325888834573, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.699952"} {"text": "fact, rereading friedman \u2019 s 1970 summary of his ideas, \u201c a theoretical framework for monetary analysis, \u201d what \u2019 s striking is how keynesian it seems. i remember october of 1987. we - - that is me, andrei shleifer, larry summers, and robert waldmann - - had what we regarded as a very nice paper about the instability of irrational agents ' beliefs as itself a powerful barrier to arbitrage. we then watched the stock market crash by 25 % in one day. and we thought that we had won the argument : that the efficient market hypothesis couldn ' t come back from a 25 % market collapse on a day when absolutely nothing fundamental happened. but then we were told that something fundamental had happened : there had been a sudden shock to the required expected rate of return on equities and the market had reacted efficiently to that shock. however, when i tried to process this, i could not understand it other than as an assertion that the market had gone down for no reason and would eventually recover - - but that this was not a problem because it was consistent with the efficient market hypothesis... when we could endure no more upon the water ; we to a little ale - house on the bankside, over against the \u2018 three cranes, and there staid till it was dark almost, and saw the fire grow ; and, as it grew darker, appeared more and more, and in corners and upon steeples, and between churches and houses, as far as we could see up the hill of the city, in a most horrid malicious bloody flame, not like the fine flame of an ordinary fire. barbary and her husband away before us. we staid till, it being darkish, we saw the fire as only one entire arch of fire from this to the other side the bridge, and in a bow up the hill for an arch of above a mile long : it made me weep to see it. the churches, houses, and all on fire and flaming at once ; and a horrid noise the flames made, and the cracking of houses at their ruins. here ' s what the area looks like now, as viewed from the fire monument, which was built by christopher wren and robert hooke, as part of their reconstruction of london after the fire. tuesday, september 01, 2009 to bed at 2 or 3 in the morning and up again at 6 to go by appointment to my lord bellasses, but he out of town, which vexed me. so", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5769384690375968, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.700906"} {"text": "british go journal no. 41. may 1978. page 21. continuing our series on the most significant japanese go terms. kake, pronounces approximately, kah - keh, is one of the few important japanese terms which is always used in its english form, the english being so perfectly descriptive. diagram 1 | bgj had this diagram and that for page 20 swapped. black 1 in dia 1 is the pressing move, hitting the white stone on the shoulder. whites first option is to resist being pushed down by pushing between the two black stones to separate them. this leads to tactical fighting which we will not study here. however, it is important to remember that pressing moves can often be resisted in this way. the second option is to crawl along the third line as in the diagram. black keeps pressing with 3 and this time white jumps with 4. this jump ahead is very important. with every move that black presses white down, white gets territory against the edge and black gets influence facing the centre. if white is pressed further than necessary along the third line, his territory will be worth less than blacks influence. diagram 2 | dia 2 shows what we mean. the moves to 11 are a well - known joseki. black has territory against the edge and 11 is the essential jump which takes him ahead of white. 12 - 22 shows just one possibility if white decides to press black further. black cannot play 13 on the fourth line because white will push between 1 and 11, but 15 is a safe move and after white protects his cutting point with 22, both whites central influence and blacks territory have increased dramatically. diagram 3 | in dia 3 white jumps ahead of black immediately. this immediate jump allows black to push through and sacrifice one stone, but whether the sacrifice is effective or not depends of course on the overall position. here black sacrifices with 5, white correctly captures the cutting stone, rather than protecting on the outside, and though black can capture 2 in a ladder, white is more than happy. not only can he live in the corner with one more move, but he can push at a and break through into the centre. black cannot stop him without spoiling his ladder. diagram 4 | finally, pressing does not have to be against the edge. in dia 4 white 1 hits black on the shoulder and this time white wants to get out into the centre as quickly as he can. ( though if black does not resist white would be delighted to continue at 2 and press black in that direction. ) as soon as black leaps ahead", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5287055180598401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.704798"} {"text": "you and to have negative changes in heart rate, blood pressure, labwork, energy levels, reproductive functioning, and athletic performance. if underuse or overuse of food is an issue for you, check out our section on eating concerns. brown students can consider calling 401. 863 - 2794 to make an appointment with the health education nutritionist, who can help you develop a more balanced lifestyle pattern. there ' s no question about it : when you significantly change energy balance in the body, by repeatedly affecting either intake or expenditure, you ' re likely to see at least short - term changes in weight as muscle, adipose, and fluid status are impacted. but wait : the body is built to react strongly to systemic changes like this - - particularly if the changes are drastic. the rate at which the body burns calories ( metabolism ) slows down every time you diet, in part because of the inevitable loss of muscle mass, our most \" metabolically - active \" tissue. less muscle means the body doesn ' t need to spend as many calories in order to maintain itself. when you begin to eat normally again, your body is still functioning at the lower rate. so every time you diet, weight comes off more slowly and goes back on more quickly because your metabolism gets lower. and it isn ' t just muscle that determines how your body will respond to changes in energy balance. we are also programmed for a certain level of adiposity ( body fat ) - - a level that is monitored very closely by the survival mechanisms of the body. researchers are finding that adipose can be just as metabolically - active when the body perceives that survival and reproduction are being endangered, and that there are many chemical messengers whose function is to influence appetite, metabolism, and mobilization of fat stores in order to preserve or restore the status - quo. so under - nutrition and rapid weight loss can eventually result in preferential fat storage. once normal eating is resumed and maintained, the metabolism generally returns to normal. but the early stage of this metabolic adjustment can be scary for some people because they may put on a few pounds as the body attempts to reestablish equilibrium. fearing that the weight gain will be too significant, or that it will last forever, they may go back on a diet - causing their body to downshift metabolically again, and promote fat storage. studies show that people who repeatedly go on and off crash diets actually gain weight over time. the sad fact is that the only thing crash dieters ever learn is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5101566259411838, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.730796"} {"text": "in character as a result. - although dieting and exercise are two different behaviors, viewing physical activity primarily as a means of losing weight or re - shaping the body is a shift in attitude that can often accompany dieting. people can respond to this by developing a driven, compulsive relationship with physical activity that pushes them to exercise when fatigued, ill, and injured, and that cuts into their ability to enjoy other things. people can also respond by developing an aversion or resistance to physical activity, because it has become associated with guilt, obligation, and anxiety for them. have breakfast within an hour of waking up. your body is craving fuel after a night ' s sleep. not only does having breakfast support an optimal metabolism, but studies have shown that having breakfast helps our bodies with appetite control. study participants were found to experience less hunger all day long when they had breakfast - - there ' s something about that meal that is uniquely satisfying to the body. ( and for those of you who are saying that you experience more hunger during the day when you eat breakfast, here ' s a news flash : the hunger you are experiencing is actually your real level of hunger. when you skip breakfast, your body sometimes begins to produce a chemical called a ketone that \" covers up \" your natural hunger signal. as a result, you may not notice significant hunger - - until you eat or drink something with nutrients in it that \" breaks \" the ketosis, causing you to feel suddenly and ravenously hungry - - a real set - up for overeating and feeling uncomfortable ). be regular with meals and snacks ; try to eat something every 3 to 4 hours. again, your metabolism is better supported when the body is fed in a regular, consistent way. erratic eating patterns with more than 4 hours between meals and snacks may cause the body to fight back against what it perceives as deprivation and uncertainty. it may cause the metabolic rate to drop, and it may signal the body to preferentially store calories as fat instead of spending them freely. think of the peace symbol when you ' re planning your plate at lunch and dinner. aim to fill 2 / 3 of your plate with carbohydrates : a fruit serving, a cooked or raw vegetable serving, and a grain. the last third of your plate is for a serving of protein ( animal or vegetable ). add a serving or 2 of fat to round things off, if your other food choices don ' t contain much fat. this meal mix : carbohy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5045138990063158, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.732938"} {"text": "gone for too long without eating. hunger is the physiological expression of the body ' s need for energy. there are some common symptoms of hunger that people may manifest in descending order as their blood sugar levels continue to drop. it ' s useful for you to identify your personal progression from slight hunger to over - hunger. you are more likely to begin a meal or a snack at a comfortable level of hunger if you eat within 5 - 10 minutes of your early hunger signals. - rumbling, or empty stomach - early hunger - decreased energy, particularly during physical activity - decreased ability to focus - feeling weak or shaky - nausea, cold sweats - late hunger appetite is our interest in food. it usually accompanies hunger, but it can also be stimulated by sensory triggers ( walking past a bakery ), habit ( \" i always have a snack at this time \" ), or emotions ( wanting food when sad or anxious ). most of us are familiar with the experience of a food \" calling to us \" when we are clear that we are not hungry, and eating under these circumstances once in a while is totally normal. a frequent tendency to eat from appetite rather than hunger, however, is likely to create inappropriate weight gain because it promotes consumption of calories that the body has no use for. appetite is linked to our innate need for pleasure, and can be aggravated by food deprivation, but it can also be exacerbated by a lack of fun, not enough relaxation, and insufficient outlets for soothing and comfort. our appetite for food stays more manageable when we eat enough, when we eat things we really enjoy, and when we have many other ways of relaxing and having fun. to learn more about the link between emotions, self - care needs, and eating, look at our section on emotional eating below. fullness is the physiological expression of the body having received enough energy at a meal or snack. the experience of fullness can be affected by a variety of food - related factors : - high - fiber wholegrains help to fill us up at meals and snacks, and keep us feeling full for longer. - protein is best at promoting comfortable fullness at a meal or snack, and it will continue to promote comfortable fullness for several hours afterwards. - although the presence of fat in a meal may not boost fullness in the moment because it is digested more slowly, it contributes significantly to long - lasting fullness. - fruits, vegetables, and beans provide bulk and fiber that boosts fullness. - hot foods and beverages tend", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5373139480073349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.734848"} {"text": "so strongly reinforced on a physiological level, we have also developed a powerful emotional relationship with food. food and eating seem to be \" about \" a lot of things : family, cultural values, security, fun, intimacy, personal identity, spirituality, sensuality, control, power, love \u2026 the list goes on, and on. as a result, our relationship with food can get a little distorted when we are having a hard time coping in other areas of our lives. food can be used as a way to meet other needs when we are depleted ( e. g. eating a snack, when we really need to take a nap or have a study break ). food can also be used to manage emotions ( e. g. eating to \" numb - out, \" or relax ). everyone eats emotionally once in a while - that ' s normal. when emotional eating becomes frequent, however, it can be really disruptive and distressing. first of all, it confuses the body, which prefers to regulate its intake according to hunger and fullness. secondly, it interferes with our ability to deal with our feelings and meet our real needs directly. it turns the language of feelings into the language of food, creating a situation in which you can begin to think that you have a \" problem \" with food. food isn ' t the problem - - it ' s a symptom of coping difficulties. here are some ways to manage emotional over - eating : take care of your basic needs for sleep, relaxation, social connection, and pleasure on a daily basis. there is a tendency, particularly during college, to treat these needs as optional : they are not. and ignoring the deficit doesn ' t make it go away ; it simply goes underground and pops up someplace unexpected - - like your relationship with food. create academic, athletic, social, and work schedules that don ' t require you to sacrifice the foundation of well - being. find more supportive ways to comfort or distract yourself when things are difficult. phoning a friend, taking a hot shower, going for a short walk while listening to your favorite music ; these are some ways to take a break and boost your mood without using food. get help understanding and managing feelings. the transition to college life is exciting - - and incredibly stressful. everybody struggles with this in their own way, and a little coaching can help you to understand your situation better and feel more effective. for more information about all of the above suggestions, psychological services is a fantastic resource. you can reach them at 401.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5189097474281339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.736947"} {"text": "note - to date. the dome is still unfinished. as is this article. neither dome nor article will be. resumed until this autumn. so patience please... meanwhile. the information below is a step by step explanation of how to build your own geodesic dome. above, dome nearly completed, without glass and perspex windows ( its summer! ) above photo, interior of dome, nearly completed above photo, interior of dome, nearly completed. however, most governments and legislators would prefer people of low income to live here... in ' charming ' town planning projects that give the local medeival architecture a real boost to their image, eh hem... spot ales ' medieval fort and, significantly, old prison, it ' s a job to find it, but if you squint hard enough... step by step photo instructions... the first step in building a geodesic dome home is to fully understand and visualise the geometry of the structure beforehand. to do this it is essential to build a small model version that you can refer back to whenever you get confused or stuck. it ' s possible to build a dome without first doing a model, but you ' re more likely to get in a fix, which wastes time and money. to make a 50cm diameter cardboard model you ' ll need a pencil, a compass, a ruler, 15 sheets of a4 lightweight photocopy card in one colour, and 5 sheets of the same card in another colour, one large piece of thick cardboard for the base ( from a big cardboard box will do ), glue, at least twenty very small boston clips, thumbtacks and probably some other stuff too, we ' ll see as we go along. the two fluffy assistants are optional. i found a useful video on youtube showing how to ' construct a geodesic dome ' out of cardboard. the instructions are for children so even a maths moron such as myself could follow them! the dome is composed of 10 equilateral triangles that join together 6 pentagons, each pentagon being composed of 5 isosceles triangles. in all, the dome requires a total of 40 triangles, 30 of them isosceles and 10 of them equilateral. in order to attain the dome diameter of 50cm the 3 sides of the equilateral triangles must be 15cm45 long precisely ( to be called length a ). the isosceles triangles must have one side measuring, again, 15cm45 and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5073748790404555, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.755721"} {"text": "your base and draw an arc further along the line of your circle. then place the point where your arc crosses the line and draw another arc further along. continue all around the circle till all the points of your decagon ( ten - sided polygon ) are drawn. at this point you will discover if your compass is set precisely or not. if it isn ' t your last arc will be too far in or out. cursing loudly at this juncture may help relieve tension. if it ' s not right, rub out the marks and start again. i actually ended up having an approximate decagon and just bodged along as i do, knowing that the length a sides of the triangles would make up for any incompetent fumbling around with the compass. now use your ruler to draw straight lines from point to point, thus completing the drawing of the decagon. my assistant pointed out that my work was rather unprofessional. she explained that putting one ' s nose up against the base and scrutinising it carefully was all it took to discover my sloppy work. she even went so far as to call my other assistant over to prove her point at this moment in the proceedings my assistants became suddenly overwhelmed by a frenzy of excitement. perhaps my lack of professionalism had compromised their respect for the project. all at once my ordered workshop had degenerated into a wrestling ring! determined to get things under control, i raised my voice and commanded, ' no no, you naughty assistants! stop this monkey business at once!!! ' fearing my authority had indeed been compromised i was forced to take radical measures. reciting the affirmation ' i am strong and in control. i am respected ' i grabbed them round their fluffy bellies and firmly transported them out of the room, shutting the door behind them! they were outraged, but i felt proud to have proved to myself and to the world at large that i was an impressive figure of authority, not to be messed with. i could now get on with laying out my card dome sections, base, boston clips, thumbtacks and glue without further ado. applying glue to both sides that needed to be stuck together, i glued the pentagons and equliateral triangles alternately round the base following the decagon i ' d drawn previously, as neatly as possible. to keep everything in place it ' s essential to use the boston clips on the dome ' s edges and the thumbtacks around the base to hold everything in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5125055625308927, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.759865"} {"text": "##time sound files found on the art and life in africa project site to get a sense of how the instruments might sound. another suggestion, given in one of the site \u2019 s own teaching modules, is to do a search for \u201c jewelry \u201d ( also under \u201c function \u201d ). students should consider materials, functions, and styles ( as described in the captions ) in order to gain a better understanding of african motifs and the purpose of bodily decoration. students are better able to understand artifacts when they are placed in the context of important facets of people \u2019 s lives, such as childhood, puberty, religious belief, marriage, and death. students could look for art or objects in western culture ( in the present or historically ) that compare to african art and artifacts in similar categories. challenging examples might be the nkisi, or power figures of the kongo people from congo, or the mbari houses of the igbo people from nigeria, used to represent and to try to harness spiritual forces. these items might be compared in a variety of ways with sculptures of saints or carved altars in christian churches. the point here is not to change students \u2019 own beliefs, but to discuss uses of art, as well as a deeper point : what strategies do human beings in all cultures use to deal with the unpredictability of life? in short, this is a wonderful site that not only offers an abundance of images from africa and information about africa, but also many creative ways to understand and use the material in classroom settings.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5045109372539975, "token_count": 309, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.784217"} {"text": "today, i spoke with krista wilkinson, ph. d., who is an expert in the field of augmentative communication, particularly for people with cognitive disabilities. her interests include vocabulary learning and the use of visual supports in communication and education. i approached dr. wilkinson with my struggle to create, for the future clear helper web site, a set of navigation icons that would enable people with cognitive disabilities to find the information they want quickly and easily. i said i would like to use icons shown by research to be effective communicators. she confirmed for me that little research has been performed in this area. after more discussion, we agreed that icons we have seen in use on web sites seem arbitrary, or bereft of context. she explained that even the common use of left - and right arrows on web sites to indicate previous - and next pages is not contextually accurate in practice. she said that people with cognitive disabilities can find it confusing that a click to a right arrow does not actually present the next page from the right. instead, a new page just appears. dr. wilkinson showed me an augmentative communication device, called the tango, that uses arrow buttons in a contextually appropriate manner. below is a picture of it. note the green arrow buttons on both sides of the middle set of icon buttons. when a user presses a green, up - arrow button, the middle set of icon buttons revolve upward like a slot machine acts, and presents a new set. when a user presses a green, right - or left arrow button, the middle set of icon buttons scrolls in the relevant direction, and presents a new set. dr. wilkinson suggested i might make web pages act similarly when left - and right arrow buttons are clicked. i can \u2019 t think of an accessible way to do that, but i will consider it. another suggestion she made would be much easier to implement ; left - and right arrow buttons could be paired with a contextually - appropriate sound. an example of this would be a recording of a page turning. again, little research has been performed to demonstrate that the context of icons can be understood, or that the pairing of icons with sound is more effective than not. i \u2019 ll do what i can to experiment with these ideas on the future clear helper web site. perhaps, through evaluations by users, and via automated web - site evaluation tools, the effectiveness of the navigation icons i plan to use could be measured. note : no endorsement is intended or implied for the tango.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5252145866110045, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.788544"} {"text": "what is mediation? mediation is a confidential and \u201c out - of - court \u201d procedure which gives parties involved in a dispute a chance to meet and negotiate a resolution to their conflict with the assistance of a trained mediator. agreements that are reached during the course of a mediation session could include : repair, return or replacement of property, acceptance of social service referrals, payment of medical expenses, or arrangements to modify or cease specific behavior. in most cases, the mediation process can be very healing as it allows participants to address the underlying issues that gave rise to the dispute, without the formalities or restrictions of the courtroom. mediation is where two or more people, who are in conflict, get together to discuss their problems, trying to resolve them with the help of a neutral person - the mediator. the mediation session provides a structured, confidential setting designed to assist persons in working out their own problems. the purpose of mediation is not to judge guilt or innocence, but to help parties get at the root of their problems and devise their own resolution to them. the difference between mediation and court processing are significant. in a court case, guilt or innocence must be proven. in mediation, however, proof is not required ; the objective instead is to resolve a dispute by reaching a settlement that is agreeable to both parties. mediation allows participants to address the underlying issues that caused the dispute without the formality or restrictions of the courtroom. therefore, mediation can be very healing. mediation is not bound to the rules of a formal system and disputants retain the responsibility to make the final decision regarding the outcome of their mediation has proven effective when : - situations or issues are so great parties are unable to organize or focus on proper - a dispute involves such a great number of parties that a moderator is required. - parties involved in the conflict are not familiar with problem - solving procedures. - there are no laws, rules, or regulations to explain how the situation should be - false perceptions, poor communication, or intense feelings are involved. - parties do not want to use the legal system due to cost, time, publicity, or uncertain filing your complaint you may file your complaint by telephoning the restorative justice center at ( 515 ) 286 - 3057. the intake worker will record all of the information you provide such as dates, times, names and addresses.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5141381392320705, "token_count": 477, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.796217"} {"text": "of electrical energy, that of heating and cooking with electricity. \" it was a message that inspired j. d. ross, seattle city light \u2019 s superintendent of lighting, to promote the installation of electric ranges in seattle homes and apartments. to implement his plan, ross recalled in a 1937 seattle star article, he told his staff to \" order a carload of those ranges and advertise that we \u2019 ll wire them in free.... those early ranges had to be installed and wired correctly to give any service at all, and our boys knew how to do it. \" still, even with ross \u2019 s interest and drive, customers did not rush out to purchase electric ranges. furthermore, seattle city light had a difficult time acquiring parts and key materials during world war i. the big boom for electric cooking came after the war when an improved range came on the market and appliance companies collaborated with city light to promote electric appliances. for example, the hughes company, a division of edison electric appliance company, suggested in a letter to the seattle municipal light and power plant, city of seattle engineering department, that they join together to promote the sale of electric ranges. \" do you realize that in the very near future your greatest means of revenue is going to come from the electric range and other electrical cooking devices.... we are in a position to answer any questions pertaining to this subject [ cooking with electricity ], and to give you assistance in building up this load. \" eight years later edison electric appliance company allocated money for advertising electric ranges and provided lecturers for a cooking school. between 1924 and 1927 the number of ranges in seattle homes jumped from under 3, 000 to over 11, 000. during the 1920s various business and civic groups vigorously promoted the sale of electric appliances. in 1923 the seattle electric club, which had as its members businesses concerned with any and every aspect of electricity, celebrated an electric week. the exhibit, held in a large tent in bothell, a suburb of seattle, showcased cooking demonstrations and promoted the idea that \" the work is done by the most willing of servants, electricity harnessed to push buttons.... let electric mary do your work.... [ she ] will take a big load off the shoulders of any housewife \". two years later the seattle times backed the progressive seattle exhibition. though it did not focus exclusively on electricity, the exhibition \u2019 s spotlight shone on electric appliances, including radios. to entice customers, merchants showcased electric appliances during daily demonstrations.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5048156613739666, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.814744"} {"text": "\". two years later the seattle times backed the progressive seattle exhibition. though it did not focus exclusively on electricity, the exhibition \u2019 s spotlight shone on electric appliances, including radios. to entice customers, merchants showcased electric appliances during daily demonstrations. at the puget sound power and light booth, company representatives told visitors they would receive assistance in selecting the appropriate range as well as prompt service after the installation. \" our facilities and success in equipping thousands of seattle homes and apartment houses with electric ranges and service enable us to demonstrate the best in electrical cookery, \" said a spokesman for the company. between january and september of 1927, puget power announced, \" more electric ranges have been installed on our lines than there were in the entire state of washington only six years ago! \" the utility company sold westinghouse, hotpoint, and crawford electric ranges and offered very low time payments. before refrigerators became popular and necessary kitchen equipment, apartment houses installed coolers as a way to extend the life of perishables. the cooler, sometimes referred to as a cooling closet, can best be described as a cupboard, often made of wood, with one to three shelves. the back side, set against an outside kitchen or dining area wall, had a three - to five - inch opening covered with perforated tin or wire screen. this allowed air to flow in while keeping insects out. standing in mute testimony to the past, these small openings, usually located below or at the side of a window, are still visible on many early seattle apartments. coolers sufficed in seattle \u2019 s moderate climate. though not cold enough to keep perishable food such as meat from spoiling, they worked well for the short - term storage of fruits and vegetables, jars of jam and preserves, and cheeses. a cooler was comparable to having a small cellar in the kitchen. owners and tenants considered them an important apartment amenity. real estate promotional material for apartments indicates that in addition to, or in place of coolers, buildings furnished refrigerators. until the 1920s, these were actually iceboxes. the icebox usually had a finished ash, pine, or oak shell that was lined with zinc, slate, porcelain, or galvanized metal. iceboxes came in a variety of sizes and shapes and had doors that opened to reveal adjustable shelves, with a separate compartment for ice. a pan set in the bottom held melting ice water, which had to be emptied frequently. tenants eagerly awaited the weekly delivery of ice. \" the \u2018", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5293438906450125, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.815839"} {"text": "sizes and shapes and had doors that opened to reveal adjustable shelves, with a separate compartment for ice. a pan set in the bottom held melting ice water, which had to be emptied frequently. tenants eagerly awaited the weekly delivery of ice. \" the \u2018 ice man \u2019 would break up the large blocks into sections for ease in carrying up the stairs to the waiting iceboxes. the neighborhood kids would gather around the wagon to get an ice sliver to suck on, \" recalled al wilding who lived in several seattle apartments during the 1930s. because the ice melted and iceboxes leaked, these \" refrigerators \" could be exceedingly messy. whenever possible, they were placed on a back porch. this was a most convenient place for the apartment that had back steps - the renter did not have to be home when the ice man delivered. he could just bring the ice to the porch, open the icebox door, and insert the block of ice. as late as 1924 the roy vue apartments, in seattle \u2019 s capitol hill district, bragged that each apartment would have outside porches, \" containing a large refrigerator. \" in apartments without porches the icebox would frequently be housed on a wall with an opening onto the apartment corridor or in the entrance hall of individual apartments. bernice ovadia, who lived in the monmouth apartments, recalled that their icebox was in the front hall. \" sometimes we had to get up at night to empty the water from the melting ice. that was a very unpleasant task. \" once manufacturers figured out the mechanism for electric refrigerators to make ice cubes and freeze food, that technological wonder became one of the new appliance \u2019 s most important selling points. apartments promising true refrigerators reminded prospective tenants that each apartment had its own, enabling tenants to make \" their own ice and frozen dainties. \" the ice cube trays of the 1920s and 1930s were made of tin or nickel - plated copper with plated brass dividers, and required a dunking under warm water to remove the ice. many an anxious homemaker ruined her elegant frozen dessert by dousing the tray with very hot water in order to speed the process. in the mid 1930s, when engineers finally solved the choice of coolants and other design dilemmas, the refrigerator was well on its way to becoming an indispensable machine. along the way, companies tested many improvements. one, the electro - kold, employed a single machine, located in a basement or other out - of - the -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5018450404297606, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.816830"} {"text": "the refrigerator was well on its way to becoming an indispensable machine. along the way, companies tested many improvements. one, the electro - kold, employed a single machine, located in a basement or other out - of - the - way place, to operate 20 kitchen refrigerators in individual apartments. another system converted the older iceboxes into refrigerators operated by electricity. the president of modern appliances for frigidaire distributors explained how it worked, but because the process was rather complicated, he reminded people that the company would happily sell them a new electrical refrigerator, \" complete, with the mechanism in its own cabinet. \" most apartments chose that option. although modern amenities were most evident in the kitchen, the entire apartment benefited from technological advancements. bathrooms acquired built - in tubs with showers, telephones became common, rooms were wired for radio aerials, and garages became a necessity. aware of the importance of appealing to the middle class, apartment owners hired decorators to choose specially designed wallpaper and select fabric for lobby furniture. clearly, owners paid attention to the wants and needs of prospective tenants. that so many seattle apartments, built so long ago, are still fronting seattle streets is testimony to their role in the urban landscape. jacqueline b. williams is author of wagon wheel kitchens : food on the oregon trail ( university press of kansas ) and the way we ate : pacific northwest cooking, 1843 - 1900 ( washington state university press ). diana james is at heart, and by training, a preservationist. she and williams are currently researching early ( 1900 - 1939 ) seattle apartments. research for this article was partially funded by a grant from 4culture.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5336548585899817, "token_count": 339, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.817523"} {"text": "problems with prepositions prepositions are words that often show direction ; for example, below, above, over, under, around, through, in, out, between, among, to, toward ( s ). other common prepositions include of, for ( also sometimes a conjunction ), from, with, like ( also sometimes a verb ). rule : you shouldn \u2019 t use or end a sentence with an unnecessary preposition, i. e., when the meaning is clear without the preposition. sentences may end with necessary prepositions. correct : that is something i cannot agree with. with is a necessary preposition. incorrect : where did he go to? correct : where did he go? to is unnecessary because the meaning is clear without it. rule : don \u2019 t follow like with a subject and verb because prepositions are followed only by nouns that act as the object of the preposition. use as or as if or as though instead of like when a subject and verb follow. correct : i wish i could be more like her. incorrect : it doesn \u2019 t look like she will show up for dinner. correct : it doesn \u2019 t look as if ( or as though ) she will show up for dinner. which sentence is correct? 1. a. where did you get this at? b. where did you get this? 2. a. i will go later on. b. i will go later. 3. a. take your shoes off the bed. b. take your shoes off of the bed. 4. a. cut it up into small pieces. b. cut it into small pieces. 5. a. i look like my sister. b. i look as my sister. pop quiz answers posted on saturday, july 19th, 2008, at 12 : 31 am", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5114102745151223, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.828712"} {"text": "| a fool or simpleton ; ninny. | | an extraordinary or unusual thing, person, or event ; an exceptional example or instance. | | \u2014 the chemical symbol for | the symbol for the element rubidium. the symbol for rubidium. | rubidium ( r - bid ' e - \u0259m ) pronunciation key a soft, silvery - white metallic element of the alkali group. it ignites spontaneously in air and reacts violently with water. rubidium is used in photoelectric cells, in making vacuum tubes, and in radiometric dating. atomic number 37 ; atomic weight 85. 47 ; melting point 38. 89\u00b0c ; boiling point 688\u00b0c ; specific gravity ( solid ) 1. 532 ; valence 1, 2, 3, 4. see periodic table. rb / r - b - l / abbreviation : \" realtime blackhole list \". a service that allows people to blacklist sites for emitting spam, and makes the blacklist available in real time to electronic - mail transport programs that know how to use rbl so they can filter out mail from those sites. drastic ( and controversial ) but effective. there is an rbl home page ( http : / / maps. vix. com / rbl / usage. html ). chemical element of group 1 ( also called group ia ) in the periodic table, the alkali metal group. rubidium is the second most reactive metal and is very soft, with a silvery - white lustre. a brief treatment of rubidium follows. for full treatment, see alkali metal. learn more about rb with a free trial on britannica. com.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6162822248094035, "token_count": 338, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.838451"} {"text": "develop your pln ( personal learning network ) below, you ' ll find several approaches to plns. there ' s no right or wrong way to get started, so take what you like and leave the rest. excerpt from the wiki by australian educator, sue waters the aim of sue ' s site is to help you gain the skills to build your own personal learning network ( pln )! personal learning networks ( plns ) are all about using web tools such as blogs, wiki, twitter, facebook to create connects with others which extend our learning, increases our reflection while enabling us to learn together as part of a global community. plns increase our opportunities to ask questions and receive help compared to our normal daily face - to - face interactions. best of a pln is it ' s personal! you make all the choices : - what tools you use! - who you connect with! - how you want to learn! - when you want to learn! personal learning networks : the power of the human network what is a personal learning network ( pln )? definition one : personal learning networks are : - a concept based on web 2. 0 and social software - learner - driven, problem - based, or motivated by interested - based on the idea that learning will take place in different contexts, and not come from one place or person - set their own learning goals - manage their learning ; managing both content and process - communicate with others in the process of learning - and thereby achieve learning goals this information is from a wiki by judith epcke ( @ jepcke ) and scott meech ( @ smeech ). continue reading at the wiki. judy & scott ' s work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - share alike 3. 0 united states license. - free tech for teachers a blog by richard byrne about, well, free tech for teachers. reviews, advice, descriptions of how teachers use the tech. - what should i read? - a few suggestions. - social media reading list - the idea for this page is to build a ' best of the web ' reading / watching list for school leadership regarding using social media for school advancement. rather than talk about how great social media is we ' re using social media to build this reading list. - a 21st century professional development proposal : a personal learning network + specific web tools = a true 21st century teacher.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5024138092815675, "token_count": 490, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.841821"} {"text": "even if brain size accounts for just 10 to 20 percent of an iq test score, it is possible to conjecture what kind of average scores would be made by a group of people with 30 percent larger brains. we can readily calculate that a population with a mean brain size of 1, 750 cc would be expected to have an average iq of 149. this is a score that would be labeled at the genius level. and if there was normal variability among boskops, as among the rest of us, then perhaps 15 to 20 percent of them would be expected to score over 180. in a classroom with 35 big - headed, baby - faced boskop kids, you would likely encounter five or six with iq scores at the upper range of what has ever been recorded in human history. the boskops coexisted with our homo sapiens forebears. just as we see the ancient homo erectus as a savage primitive, boskop may have viewed us in somewhat the same way. they died and we lived, and we can \u2019 t answer the question why. why didn \u2019 t they outthink the smaller - brained hominids like ourselves and spread across the planet? perhaps they didn \u2019 t want to. longer brain pathways lead to larger and deeper memory hierarchies. these confer a greater ability to examine and discard more blind alleys, to see more consequences of a plan before enacting it. in general this enables us to think things through. if boskops had longer chains of cortical networks \u2014 longer mental assembly lines \u2014 they would have created longer and more complex classification chains. when they looked down a road as far as they could, before choosing a path, they would have seen farther than we can : more potential outcomes, more possible downstream costs and benefits. as more possible outcomes of a plan become visible, the variance among judgments between individuals will likely lessen. there are far fewer correct paths \u2014 intelligent paths \u2014 than there are paths. it is sometimes argued that the illusion of free will arises from the fact that we can \u2019 t adequately judge all p ossible moves, with the result that our choices are based on imperfect, sometimes impoverished, information. perhaps the boskops were trapped by their ability to see clearly where things would head. perhaps they were prisoners of those majestic brains. there is another, again poignant, possible explanation for the disappearance of the big - brained people. maybe all that thoughtfulness was of no particular survival value in 10, 000 b. c", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5566854829109878, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.849132"} {"text": "head. perhaps they were prisoners of those majestic brains. there is another, again poignant, possible explanation for the disappearance of the big - brained people. maybe all that thoughtfulness was of no particular survival value in 10, 000 b. c. the great genius of civilization is that it allows individuals to store memory and operating rules outside of their brains, in the world that surrounds them. the human brain is a sort of central processing unit operating on multiple memory disks, some stored in the head, some in the culture. lacking the external hard drive of a literate society, the boskops were unable to exploit the vast potential locked up in their expanded cortex. they were born just a few millennia too soon. in any event, boskops are gone, and the more we learn about them, the more we miss them. their demise is likely to have been gradual. a big skull was not conducive to easy births, and thus a within - group pressure toward smaller heads was probably always present, as it still is in present - day humans, who have an unusually high infant mortality rate due to big - headed babies. this pressure, together with possible interbreeding with migrating groups of smaller - brained peoples, may have led to a gradual decrease in the frequency of the boskop genes in the growing population of what is now south africa. then again, as is all too evident, human history has often been a history of savagery. genocide and oppression seem primitive, whereas modern institutions from schools to hospices seem enlightened. surely, we like to think, our future portends more of the latter than the former. if learning and gentility are signs of civilization, perhaps our almost - big brains are straining against their residual atavism, struggling to expand. perhaps the preternaturally civilized boskops had no chance against our barbarous ancestors, but could be leaders of society if they were among us today. maybe traces of boskops, and their unusual nature, linger on in isolated corners of the world. physical anthropologists report that boskop features still occasionally pop up in living populations of bushmen, raising the possibility that the last of the race may have walked the dusty transvaal in the not - too - distant past. some genes stay around in a population, or mix themselves into surrounding populations via interbreeding. the genes may remain on the periphery, neither becoming widely fixed in the population at large nor being entirely eliminated from the gene pool. just about 100 miles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5311956660856755, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.850196"} {"text": "recursion is a programming paradigm as well as a problem solving strategy thought to be very challenging to grasp for university students. this article outlines a pilot study, which expands the age range of students exposed to the concept of recursion in computer science through instruction in a series of interesting and engaging activities. in this study, a small number of students ( n = 9 ) aged 11 to 13 years, were presented with a new and unique recursion curriculum involving hands - on experiences over a seven - week period at the university of victoria, canada. the curriculum was comprised of a series of progressively challenging recursion activities \u2014 roughly based upon the ideas of \u2018 computer science unplugged \u2019 ( bell, witten, & fellows, 2009 ) \u2014 and included programming applications with microworlds ex, a programming language based on logo. through this engagement, an increased number of students recognized and understood the concepts covered. we hypothesize that through experiences for youth with activities such as those outlined here, the number of students who understand fundamental computer science applications and who might potentially pursue computer science in post - secondary education will increase. we hypothesis further that through an earlier encounter of \u201c challenging \u201d concepts the learning and understanding of those will become easier at the university level. in this paper, the curriculum, classroom experiences, preliminary, largely descriptive and qualitative results and next steps in the research are discussed. gunion, katherine ; milford, todd ; and stege, ulrike \" the paradigm recursion : is it more accessible when introduced in middle school?, \" the journal of problem solving : 2, article 8.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6289112845896117, "token_count": 330, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.853327"} {"text": "garden of eden to the building of the first city to the tower of babel. humorous it is that so much space is devoted to depictions of the first chapters of genesis. it is as if the maker of the protestant ladder realized after he had drawn about six scenes from genesis that he was running out of space, and so he quickly leaped over lots of history to get to the crucifixion of christ, the really big historical event. around the time of christ we have the interesting scene of john the baptist ' s head being presented by salome ( never know if the protestants were caravaggio - lovers, you know.. ). a second difference between the two ladders is that the protestant portrays two separate channels or tubes of history, the catholic and the protestant, rather than one. the catholics had looked at the protestants as a withered branch ; the protestants recognized the \" parallel track \" of the roman catholic church with the pope in charge. finally, however, the protestant ladder shows that the catholic \" track \" of history will end in an unceremonious way when the road turns back on itself and the pope is overturned. the last picture on the \" catholic side \" shows an upside - down pope being lowered into a fire - - perhaps he will fall victim to the same fires with which he has burned the protestant martyrs. what lies at the end of the protestant road, in contrast? a straight road to heaven. the protestant road is narrower than the catholic one ( \" narrow is the way that leads to salvation \" ) but it, after all, is the \" true \" one. by looking at the competing catholic and protestant ladders, then, the student can see how artistic representation can be used in the service of religious propaganda. spalding and whitman and the protestant ladder jette further informs us, however, that spalding seemed to make very little use of the ladder in teaching. why? because protestants, as \" people of the book \" and \" transformers of culture \" ( no, george bush isn ' t the first \" transformer \" ), were more interested in cultivating literacy and the land for the indians. by 1839 spalding had published the first printed book in the nez perce language ( jette doesn ' t tell us if this was a bible, but the eager student would, no doubt, follow up this lead ), and the protestant ladder just seemed to be a kind of afterthought so as not to let the catholics have all the good ideas. let ' s pause", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.521039424019651, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.863773"} {"text": "chemical principles / will it react? an introduction to chemical equilibrium and so, nothing that to our world appears, perishes completely, for nature ever upbuilds one thing from another ' s ruin ; suffering nothing yet to come to birth but by another ' s death. lucretius ( 95 - 55 b. c. ) the main question asked in chapter 2 was \" if a given set of substances will react to give a desired product, how much of each substance is needed? \" our basic assumptions were that matter cannot be arbitrarily created or destroyed, and that atoms going into a reaction must come out again as products. in this chapter we ask a second question : \" will a reaction occur, eventually? \" is there a tendency or a drive for a given reaction to take place, and if we wait long enough will we find that reactants have been converted spontaneously into products? this question leads to the ideas of spontaneity and of chemical equilibrium. a third question, \" will a reaction occur in a reasonably short time? \" involves chemical kinetics, which will be discussed in chapter 22. for the moment, we will be satisfied if we can predict which way a chemical reaction will go by itself, ignoring the time factor. spontaneous reactions a chemical reaction that will occur on its own, given enough time, is said to be spontaneous. in the open air, and under the conditions inside an automobile engine, the combustion of gasoline is spontaneous : c7h16 + 11 o2 \u2192 7co2 + 8 h2o ( the reaction is exothermic, or heat emitting. the enthalpy change, which was defined in chapter 2, is large and negative : = - 4812 kj mole - 1 of heptane at 298 k. the heat emitted causes the product gases to expand, and it is the pressure from these expanding gases that drives the car. ) in contrast, the reverse reaction under the same conditions is not spontaneous : 7co2 + 8h2o c7h16 + 11 o2 no one seriously proposes that gasoline can be obtained spontaneously from a mixture of water vapor and carbon dioxide. explosions are examples of rapid, spontaneous reactions, but a reaction need not be as rapid as an explosion to be spontaneous. it is important to understand clearly the difference between rapidity and spontaneity. if you mix oxygen and hydrogen gases at room temperature, they will remain together without appreciable reaction for years. yet the reaction to produce water is genuinely spontaneous", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.551124319329817, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.927120"} {"text": "it is important to understand clearly the difference between rapidity and spontaneity. if you mix oxygen and hydrogen gases at room temperature, they will remain together without appreciable reaction for years. yet the reaction to produce water is genuinely spontaneous : 2h2 + o2 \u2192 2h2o we know that this is true because we can trigger the reaction with a match, or catalyst of finely divided platinum metal. the preceding sentence suggests why a chemist is interested in whether a reaction is spontaneous, that is, whether it has a natural tendency to occur. if a desirable chemical reaction is spontaneous but slow, it may be possible to speed up the process. increasing the temperature will often do the trick, or a catalyst may work. we will discuss the functions of a catalyst in detail in chapter 22. but in brief, we can say now that a catalyst is a substance that helps a naturally spontaneous reaction to go faster by providing an easier pathway for it. gasoline will burn rapidly in air at a high enough temperature. the role of a spark plug in an automobile engine is to provide this initial temperature. the heat produced by the reaction maintains the high temperature needed to keep it going thereafter. gasoline will combine with oxygen at room temperature if the proper catalyst is used, because the reaction is naturally spontaneous but slow. but no catalyst will ever make carbon dioxide and water recombine to produce gasoline and oxygen at room temperature and moderate pressures, and it would be a foolish chemist who spent time trying to find such a catalyst. in short, an understanding of spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions helps a chemist to see the limits of what is possible. if a reaction is possible but not currently realizable, it may be worthwhile to look for ways to carry it out. if the process is inherently impossible, then it is time to study something else. equilibrium and the equilibrium constant the speed with which a reaction takes a place ordinarily depends on the most concentrations of the reacting substances. this is common sense, since most reactions take place when molecules collide, and the more molecules there are per unit of volume, the more often collisions will occur. the industrial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is very important in the manufacture of agricultural fertilizers ( and explosives ). one of the steps in nitrogen fixation, in the presence of a catalyst, is n2 + o2 \u2192 2no ( 4 - 1 ) if this reaction took place by simple collision of one molecule of n2 and one molecule of o2, then we would expect", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5956537871846699, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.929428"} {"text": "nitrogen fixation, in the presence of a catalyst, is n2 + o2 \u2192 2no ( 4 - 1 ) if this reaction took place by simple collision of one molecule of n2 and one molecule of o2, then we would expect the rate of collision ( and hence the rate of reaction ) to be proportional to the concentrations of n2 and o2 : rate of no production r1 = k1 [ n2 ] [ o2 ] ( 4 - 2 ) the proportionality constant k1 is called the forward - reaction rate constant, and the bracketed terms [ n2 ] [ o2 ] represent concentrations in moles per liter. this rate constant, which we will discuss in more detail in chapter 22, usually varies with temperature. most reactions go faster at higher temperatures, so k1 is larger at higher temperatures. but k1 does not depend on the concentrations of nitrogen and oxygen gases present. all of the concentration dependence of the overall forward reaction rate, r1, is contained in the terms [ n2 ] and [ o2 ]. if this reaction began rapidly in a sealed tank with high starting concentrations of both gases, then as more n2 and o2 were consumed, the forward reaction would become progressively slower. the rate of reaction would decrease because the frequency of collision of molecules would diminish as fewer n2 and o2 molecules were left in the tank. the reverse reaction can also occur. if this reaction took place by the collision of two molecules of no to make one molecule of each starting gas, 2no \u2192 n2 + o2 ( 4 - 3 ) then the rate of reaction again would be proportional to the concentration of each of the colliding molecules. since these molecules are of the same compound, no, the rate would be proportional to the square of the no concentration : rate of no removal [ no ] [ no ] r2 = k2 [ no ] 2 ( 4 - 4 ) where r2 is the overall reverse reaction rate and k2 is the rev ~ rse - reaction rate constant. if little no is present when the experiment begins, this reaction will occur at a negligible rate. but as more no accumulates by the forward reaction, the faster it will be broken down by the reverse reaction. thus as the forward rate, r1, decreases, the reverse rate, r2, increases. eventually the point will be reached at which the forward and reverse reactions exactly balance ( 4 - 5 ) : r1 = r2 [ n2 ] [", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5766390990063823, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.930515"} {"text": "as the forward rate, r1, decreases, the reverse rate, r2, increases. eventually the point will be reached at which the forward and reverse reactions exactly balance ( 4 - 5 ) : r1 = r2 [ n2 ] [ o2 ] k1 = k2 [ no ] 2 this is the condition of equilibrium. had you been monitoring the concentrations of the three gases, n2 o2, and no, you would have found that the composition of the reacting mixture had reached an equilibrium state and thereafter ceased to change with time. this does not mean that the individual reactions had stopped, only that they were proceeding at equal rates ; that is, they had arrived at, and thereafter maintained, a condition of balance or equilibrium. the condition of equilibrium can be illustrated by imagining two large fish tanks, connected by a channel ( figure 4 - 1 ). one tank initially contains 10 goldfish, and the other contains 10 guppies. if you watch the fish swimming aimlessly long enough, you will eventually find that approximately 5 of each type of fish are present in each tank. each fish has the same chance of blundering through the channel into the other tank. but as long as there are more goldfish in the left tank ( figure 4 - la ), there is a greater probability that a goldfish will swim from left to right than the reverse. similarly, as long as the number of guppies in the right tank exceeds that in the left, there will be a net flow of guppies to the left, even though there is nothing in the left tank to make the guppies prefer it. thus the rate of flow of guppies is proportional to the concentration of guppies present. a similar statement can be made for the goldfish. at equilibrium ( figure 4 - 1b ), on an average there will be 5 guppies and 5 goldfish in each tank. but they will not always be the same 5 of each fish. if 1 guppy wanders from the left tank into the right, then it or a different guppy may wander back a little later. thus at equilibrium we find that the fish have not stopped swimming, only that over a period of time the total number of guppies and goldfish in each tank remains constant. if we were to fill each tank with 9 goldfish and then throw in 1 guppy, we would see that, in its aimless swimming, it would spend half its time in one tank and half in the other (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.589483620848438, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.931601"} {"text": "each tank remains constant. if we were to fill each tank with 9 goldfish and then throw in 1 guppy, we would see that, in its aimless swimming, it would spend half its time in one tank and half in the other ( figure 4 - 1 c ). in the no reaction we considered, there will be a constant concentration of no molecules at equilibrium, but they will not always be the same no molecules. individual no molecules will react to re - form n2 and o2, and other reactant molecules will make more no. as with the goldfish, only on a head - count or concentration basis have changes ceased at equilibrium. the equilibrium condition for the no - producing reaction, equation 4 - 1, can be rewritten in a more useful form : in which the ratio of forward and reverse rate constants is expressed as a simple constant, the equilibrium constant, keq. this equilibrium constant will vary as the temperature varies, but it is independent of the concentrations of the reactants and products. it tells us the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium, and is an extremely useful quantity for determining whether a desired reaction will take place spontaneously. general form of the equilibrium constant we derived the equilibrium - constant expression for the no reaction by assuming that we knew the way that the forward and reverse steps occurred at the molecular level. if the no reaction proceeded by simple collision of two molecules, the derivation would be perfectly correct. the actual mechanism of this reaction is more complicated. but it is important, and fortunate for chemists, that we do not have to know the reaction mechanism to write the proper equilibrium constant. the equilibrium - constant expression can always be written from the balanced chemical equation, with no other information, even when the forward and reverse rate expressions are more complicated than the balanced equation would suggest. ( we shall prove this in chapter 16. ) in our no example, the forward reaction actually takes place by a series of complicated chain steps. the reverse reaction takes place by a complementary set of reactions, so that these complications cancel one another in the final ratio of concentrations that gives us the equilibrium constant. the details of the mechanism are \" invisible \" to the equilibrium - constant expression, and irrelevant to equilibrium calculations. a general chemical reaction can be written as in this expression, a and b represent the reactants ; c and d, the products. the letters a, b, c, and d represent the number of moles of each substance involved in the balanced reaction, and the double arrows indicate a state of equilibrium", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5800029450792383, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.932640"} {"text": ", a and b represent the reactants ; c and d, the products. the letters a, b, c, and d represent the number of moles of each substance involved in the balanced reaction, and the double arrows indicate a state of equilibrium. although only two reactants and two products are shown in the general reaction, the principle is extendable to any number. the correct equilibrium - constant expression for this reaction is it is the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations, with each concentration term raised to a power given by the number of moles of that substance appearing in the balanced chemical equation. because it is based on the quantities of reactants and products present at equilibrium, equation 4 - 8 is called the law of mass action. | give the equilibrium - constant expression for the reaction | the equilibrium constant is given by since all four substances have a coefficient of 1 in the balanced equation, their concentrations are all raised to the first power in the equilibrium - constant expression. | what is the equilibrium - constant expression for the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen gases? the reaction is | since two moles of hydrogen and water are involved in the chemical equation, their concentrations are squared in the keq expression. | give the equilibrium - constant expression for the dissociation ( breaking up ) of water into hydrogen and oxygen. the reaction is | an important general point emerges here. this reaction is the reverse of that of example 2, and the equilibrium - constant expression is the inverse, or reciprocal, of the earlier one. if a balanced chemical reaction is reversed, then the equilibrium - constant expression must be inverted, since what once were reactants now are products, and vice versa. | the dissociation of water can just as properly be written as what then is the equilibrium - constant expression? notice that when the reaction from example 3 is divided by 2, resulting in the example 4 reaction, the equilibrium constant is the square root of the old value, or the old keq to the one - half power. similarly, if the reaction is doubled, the keq must be squared. in general, it is perfectly proper to multiply all the coefficients of a balanced chemical reaction by any positive or negative number, n, and the equation will remain balanced. ( multiplying all the coefficients of an equation by - 1 is formally the same as writing the equation in reverse. write out a simple equation and prove to yourself that this is so. ) but if all the co1ficients of an equation are multiplied by n,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5678858377633602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.933692"} {"text": "coefficients of an equation by - 1 is formally the same as writing the equation in reverse. write out a simple equation and prove to yourself that this is so. ) but if all the co1ficients of an equation are multiplied by n, then the new equilibrium - constant expression is the old one raised to the nth power. hence, when working with equilibrium constants, one must keep the corresponding chemical reactions clearly in mind. | the reaction for the formation or the breakdown of ammonia can be written in a number of ways : ( each of these expressions might be appropriate, depending on whether you were focusing on nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen, or the dissociation of ammonia. ) what are the equilibrium - constant expressions for each formulation, and how are the equilibrium constants related? notice that there is nothing wrong with fractional powers in the equilibrium - constant expression. using equilibrium constants equilibrium constants have two main purposes : - 1. to help us tell whether a reaction will be spontaneous under specified conditions. - 2. to enable us to calculate the concentration of reactants and products that will be present once equilibrium has been reached. we can illustrate how equilibrium constants can be used to achieve these ends, and also the fact that an equilibrium constant is indeed constant, with real data from one of the most intensively studied of all reactions, that between hydrogen and iodine to yield hydrogen iodide : if we mix hydrogen and iodine in a sealed flask and observe the reaction, the gradual fading of the purple color of the iodine vapor tells us that iodine is being consumed. this reaction was studied first by the german chemist max bodenstein in 1893. table 4 - 1 contains the data from bodenstein ' s experiments. the experimental data are in the first three columns. in the fourth column, we have calculated the simple ratio of product and reactant concentrations, [ hi ] / [ h2 ] [ i2 ], to see if it is constant. it clearly is not, for as the hydrogen concentration is decreased and the iodine concentration is increased, this ratio varies from 2. 60 to less than 1. the law of mass action ( section 4 - 3 ) dictates that the equilibrium - constant expression should contain the square of the hi concentration, since the reaction involves 2 moles of hi for every mole of h2 and i2, the fifth column shows that the ratio [ hi ] 2 / [ h2 ] [ i2 ] is constant within a mean deviation of approximately 3 %", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5394355549668055, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.934784"} {"text": ", since the reaction involves 2 moles of hi for every mole of h2 and i2, the fifth column shows that the ratio [ hi ] 2 / [ h2 ] [ i2 ] is constant within a mean deviation of approximately 3 %. * therefore, this ratio is the proper equilibrium - constant expression, and the average value of keq for these six runs is 50. 53. the equilibrium constant can be used to determine whether a reaction under specified conditions will go spontaneously in the forward or in the reverse direction. the ratio of product concentration to reactant concentration, identical to the equilibrium constant in form but not necessarily at equilibrium conditions, is called the reaction quotient, q : q = ( not necessarily at equilibrium ) ( 4 - 10 ) if there are too many reactant molecules present for equilibrium to exist, then the concentration terms in the denominator will make the reaction quotient, q, smaller than keq. the reaction will go forward spontaneously to make more product. however, if an experiment is set up so that the reaction quotient is greater than keq, then too many product molecules are present for equilibrium and the reverse reaction will proceed spontaneously. therefore, a comparison of the actual concentration ratio or reaction quotient with the equilibrium constant allows us to predict in which direction a reaction will go spontaneously under the given set of circumstances : q < keq ( forward reaction spontaneous ) q > keq ( reverse reaction spontaneous ) ( 4 - 11 ) q = keq ( reactants and products at equilibrium ) - these are bodenstein ' s original numbers. modern data can be much more accurate, with less deviation in keq. the mean deviation is the average of the deviations of individual calculated keq from the average keq. | if 1. 0 x 10 - 2 mole each of hydrogen and iodine gases are placed in a i - liter flask at 448\u00b0c with 2. 0 x 10 - 3 mole of hi, will more hi be produced? | the reaction quotient under these conditions is this is smaller than the equilibrium value of 50. 53 in table 4 - 1, which tells us that excess reactants are present. hence, equilibrium will not be reached until more hi has been formed. | if only 1. 0 x 10 - 3 mole each of h2 and i2 had been used, together with 2. 0 x 10 - 3 mole of hi, would more hi have been produced spontaneously? | you can verify that the reaction quotient", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.598648979748382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.935722"} {"text": "1. 0 x 10 - 3 mole each of h2 and i2 had been used, together with 2. 0 x 10 - 3 mole of hi, would more hi have been produced spontaneously? | you can verify that the reaction quotient is q = 4. 0. because this is less than keq, the forward reaction is still spontaneous. | if the conditions of example 7 are changed so that the hi concentration is increased to 2. 0 x 10 - 2 mole liter - 1, what happens to the reaction? | the reaction quotient now is q = 400. this is greater than keq - there are now too many product molecules and too few reactant molecules for equilibrium to exist. thus the reverse reaction occurs more rapidly than the forward reaction. equilibrium is reached only by converting some of the hi to h2 and 12, so the reverse reaction is spontaneous. | if the conditions of example 7 are changed so that the hi concentration is 7. 1 x 10 - 3 mole liter - 1, in which direction is the reaction spontaneous? | under these conditions, since q equals keq within the limits of accuracy of the data, the system as described is at equilibrium, and neither the forward nor the backward reaction is spontaneous. ( both reactions are still taking place at the molecular level, of course, but they are balanced so their net effects cancel. ) the second use for equilibrium constants is to calculate the concentrations of reactants and products that will be present at equilibrium. | if a 1 - liter flask contains 1. 0 x 10 - 3 mole each of h2 and i2 at 448\u00b0c, what amount of hi is present when the gas mixture is at equilibrium? | the keq expression is treated as an ordinary algebraic equation, and solved for the hi concentration : you can verify that in example 7 the hi concentration was less than this equilibrium value ; in example 8 it was more ; and in example 9 it was just this value. | one - tenth of a mole, 0. 10 mole, of hydrogen iodide is placed in an otherwise empty 5. 0 liter flask at 448\u00b0c. when the contents have come to equilibrium, how much hydrogen and iodine will be in the flask? | from the stoichiometry of the reaction, the concentrations of h2 and i2 must be the same. for every mole of h2 and i2 formed, 2 moles of hi must decompose. let y equal the number of moles of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6067052171470118, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.936821"} {"text": "0 can be solved by the quadratic formula, thus for this problem the first solution is physically impossible since it shows more h2 reacting than was originally present. the second solution is the correct answer : y = 0. 935 10 - 3 mole liter - 1. therefore, the equilibrium concentrations are units and equilibrium constants as we have seen, the square brackets around a chemical symbol, as in [ n2 ], represent concentrations, usually but not exclusively in units of moles liter - 1. concentrations expressed as moles liter - 1 are often given the special symbol c, as in cn2, the concentrations measured in these units is denoted by kc. an equilibrium constant as we have defined it thus far may itself have units. in example 1, keq is unitless since the moles2 1iter - 2 of the numerator and denominator cancel. in example 2, the units of keq are moles - 1 liter since concentration occurs to the second power in the numerator and to the third power in the denominator. in example 3 the units of keq are the inverse : moles liter - 1. the units demanded by example 4, moles1 / 2 liter - 1 / 2, may seem strange but they are perfectly respectable. | what are the units for the equilibrium constants in the four reactions of example 5? | the keq expression is treated as an ordinary algebraic equation, and solved for the hi concentration : the question of units for keq becomes important as soon as we realize that we can measure concentration in units other than moles liter - 1. the partial pressure in atmospheres is a convenient unit when dealing with gas mixtures, and the equilibrium constant then is identified by kp. since the numerical values of kp and kc in general will be different, one must be sure what the units are when using a numerical constant. | one step in the commercial synthesis of sulfuric acid is the reaction of sulfur dioxide and oxygen to make sulfur trioxide : at 1000 k, the equilibrium constant for this reaction is kp = 3. 50 atm - 1. if the total pressure in the reaction chamber is 1. 00 atm and the partial pressure of unused 02 at equilibrium is 0. 10 atm, what is the ratio of concentrations of product ( s03 ) to reactant ( s02 )? the equilibrium mixture has 0. 59 mole of s03 for every 1 mole of s02. the ideal gas law permits us to convert between atmospheres", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5670080235898614, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.938754"} {"text": "of concentrations of product ( s03 ) to reactant ( s02 )? the equilibrium mixture has 0. 59 mole of s03 for every 1 mole of s02. the ideal gas law permits us to convert between atmospheres and moles liter - 1, and between kp and kc : pv = nrt ( 3 - 8 ) ( 4 - 12 ) in the general chemical reaction written earlier, \u03b4n ( read \" delta n \" ), the increase in number of moles of gas during the reaction, is n = c + d - a - b ( 4 - 13 ) the equilibrium - constant expression in terms of partial pressures is with the ideal gas law applied to each gas component, we can convert this expression to kc : ( rt ) \u03b4n = kc ( rt ) \u03b4n ( 4 - 15 ) ( do not confuse the two uses of the symbol c in equation 4 - 15 : one is for concentration in moles liter - 1 and the other for the number of moles of substance c. ) | what is the numerical value of kc for the reaction of example 14? | three moles of reactant gases are converted into only 2 moles of product, so \u03b4n = - 1. hence at 1000 k, although the numerical answers that result when different units are used may differ, the physical reality must be the same. | what is the concentration of oxygen in example 14, in moles liter - 1? solve example 14 again using kc from example 15. | three moles of reactant gases are converted into only 2 moles of product, so \u03b4n = - 1. hence at 1000 k, this is the same ration of so _ 3 to so _ 4 as was obtained when atmospheres were used. the choice is one of convenience. equilibrium involving gases with liquids or solids all the examples considered so far have involved only one physical state, a gas, and are examples of homogeneous equilibria. equilibria that involve two or more physical states ( such as a gas with a liquid or a solid ) are called hetergenous equilibria. if one or more of the reactants or products are solids or liquids, how does this affect the form of the equilibrium constant? the answer, in short, is that any pure solids or liquids that may be present at equilibrium have the same effect on the equilibrium no matter how much solid or liquid is present. the concentration of a pure solid or liquid can be considered constant, and for convenience", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5485027373709637, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.939660"} {"text": ", in short, is that any pure solids or liquids that may be present at equilibrium have the same effect on the equilibrium no matter how much solid or liquid is present. the concentration of a pure solid or liquid can be considered constant, and for convenience all such constant terms are brought to the left side of the equation and incorporated into the equilibrium constant itself. as an example, limestone ( calcium carbonate, caco3 ), breaks down into quicklime ( calcium oxide, cao ) and carbon dioxide, co2 : the simple equilibrium - constant expression is - k ' eq = as long as any solid limestone and quicklime are in contact with the gas, their effect on the equilibrium is unchanging. hence the terms [ caco3 ] and [ cao ] remain constant and can be merged with k ' eq : - keq = k ' eq [ co2 ( g ) ] this form of the equilibrium - constant expression tells us that, at a given temperature, the concentration of carbon - dioxide gas above limestone and calcium oxide is a fixed quantity. ( this is true only as long as both solid forms are present. ) measuring concentration in units of atmospheres, we get - kp = pco2 with the experimental value 0. 236 atm at 800\u00b0c. we can see what this means experimentally by considering a cylinder to which caco, and cao have been added. the cylinder has a movable piston, as shown in figure 4 - 2. if the piston is fixed at one position, then caco3 will decompose until the pressure of co2 above the solids is 0. 236 atm ( if the temperature is 800\u00b0c ). if you try to decrease the pressure by raising the piston, then more caco3 will decompose until the pressure again rises to 0. 236 atm. conversely, if you try to increase the pressure by lowering the piston, some of the co2 gas will react with cao and become caco3 decreasing the amount of co2 gas present until the pressure once more is 0. 236 atm. the only way to increase pco2, is to raise the temperature, which increases the value of kp itself to 1 atm at 894\u00b0c and to 1. 04 atm at 900\u00b0c. an even simpler example is the vaporization of a liquid such as water : this process can be treated as a chemical reaction in a formal sense even though bonds within molecules are not made or broken. imagine that the cylinder shown in figure 4 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5998140609395325, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.940815"} {"text": "room temperature, then iodine is present as deep purple crystals rather than as vapor. what then is the form of the equilibrium - constant expression, and does the equilibrium depend on the amount of iodine crystals present? | the reaction is and the equilibrium - constant expression is : as long as some i2 ( s ) crystals are present, the quantity is immaterial as far as equilibrium is concerned. | tin ( iv ) oxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form metallic tin and co2 by the reaction what is the equilibrium - constant expression? | what is the equilibrium - constant expression for the following reaction leading to liquid water? what would the expression be if the product were water vapor? if the product is h2o ( l ), the equilibrium - constant expression is if the product is h2o ( g ), the equilibrium - constant expression is the preceding example shows that as long as liquid water is present the gas - phase concentration is fixed at the vapor pressure of water at that temperature. hence the water contribution, being constant, can be lumped into keq. factors affecting equilibrium : le chatelier ' s principle equilibrium represents a balance between two opposing reactions. how sensitive is this balance to changes in the conditions of a reaction? what can be done to change the equilibrium state? these are very practical questions if, for example, one is trying to increase the yield of a useful product in a reaction. under specified conditions, the equilibrium - constant expression tells us the ratio of product to reactants when the forward and backward reactions are in balance. this equilibrium constant is not affected by changes in concentration of reactants or products. however, if products can be withdrawn continuously, then the reacting system can be kept constantly off - balance, or short of equilibrium. more reactants will be used and a continuous stream of new products will be formed. this method is useful when one product of the reaction can escape as a gas, be condensed or frozen out of a gas phase as a liquid or solid, be washed out of the gas mixture by a spray of a liquid in which it is especially soluble, or be precipitated from a gas or solution. for example, when solid lime ( cao ) and coke ( c ) are heated in an electric furnace to make calcium carbide ( cac2 ), the reaction, which at 2000 - 3000\u00b0c has an equilibrium constant of close to 1. 00, is tipped toward calcium carbide formation by the continuous removal of carbon monoxide gas. in the industrial manufacture", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5714951147712248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.943360"} {"text": "dissociation to hydrogen and iodine is favored much more. the hydrogen iodide - producing reaction is exothermic or heat emitting : ( if you check this figure against appendix 3, remember that this reaction involves gaseous iodine, not solid. ) if the external temperature of this reaction is lowered, the equilibrium is shifted in favor of the heat - emitting or forward reaction ; conversely, if the temperature is increased, the reverse reaction, producing h2 and i2 is favored. the equilibrium shifts so as to counteract to some extent the effect of adding heat externally ( raising the temperature ) or removing it ( lowering the temperature ). the temperature dependence of the equilibrium point is one example of a more general principle, known as le chatelier ' s principle : if an external stress is applied to a system at chemical equilibrium, then the equilibrium point will change in such a way as to counteract the effects of that stress. if the forward half of an equilibrium reaction is exothermic, then keq will decrease as the temperature increases ; if it is endothermic, keq will increase. only for a heat - absorbing reaction can the equilibrium yield of products be improved by increasing the temperature. a good way to remember this is to write the reaction explicitly with a heat term : then it is clear that adding heat, just like adding hi, shifts the reaction to the left. ( see figure 4 - 3. ) le chatelier ' s principle is true for other kinds of stress, such as pressure changes. the equilibrium constant, keq, is not altered by a pressure change at constant temperature. however, the relative amounts of reactants and products will change in a way that can be predicted from le chatelier ' s principle. the hydrogen - iodine reaction involves an equal number ( 2 ) of moles of reactants and product. therefore, if we double the pressure at constant temperature, the volume of the mixture of gases will be halved. all concentrations in moles liter - 1 will be doubled, but their ratio will be the same. in example 12, doubling the concentrations of the reactants and product does not change the equilibrium constant : - keq = - = 50. 51 thus the hydrogen - iodine equilibrium is not sensitive to pressure changes. notice that in this case keq does not have units, since the concentration units in the numerator and denominator cancel. in contrast, the dissociation of ammonia is affected by changes in pressure because the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6054084933783543, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.948535"} {"text": "not sensitive to pressure changes. notice that in this case keq does not have units, since the concentration units in the numerator and denominator cancel. in contrast, the dissociation of ammonia is affected by changes in pressure because the number of moles ( 2 ) of reactant does not equal the total number of moles ( 4 ) of products : the equilibrium constant for this reaction at 25\u00b0c is - keq = 2. 5 10 - 9 mole2 liter - 2 one set of equilibrium conditions is - n2 = 3. 28 10 - 3 mole liter - 1 - h2 = 2. 05 10 - 3 mole liter - 1 - nh3 = 0. 106 mole liter - 1 ( can you verify that these concentrations satisfy the equilibrium condition? ) if we now double the pressure at constant temperature, thereby halving the volume and doubling each concentration, - n2 = 6. 56 10 - 3 mole liter - 1 - h2 = 4. 10 10 - 3 mole liter - 1 - nh3 = 0. 212 mole liter - 1 the ratio of products to reactants, the reaction quotient, is no longer equal to keq : - q = 1. 0 10 - 8 mole2 liter - 2 since q is greater than keq, too many product molecules are present for equilibrium. the reverse reaction will run spontaneously, thereby forming more nh3 and decreasing the amounts of h2 and n2. consequently, part of the increased pressure is offset when the reaction shifts in the direction that lowers the total number of moles of gas present. in general, a reaction that reduces the number of moles of gas will be favored by an increase in pressure, and one that produces more gas will be disfavored. ( see figure 4 - 4. ) | if the hydrogen iodide reaction were run at a temperature at which the iodine was a solid, would an increase in pressure shift the equilibrium reaction toward more hi, or less? what would be the effect of pressure on keq? | since the reaction of 2 moles of gaseous hi now yields 1 mole of gaseous h2 and 1 mole of solid i2 the stress of increased pressure is relieved by dissociating hi to h2 and i2. however, keq will be unchanged by the pressure increase. what effect does a catalyst have on a reaction at equilibrium? none. a catalyst cannot change the value of keq, but it can increase the speed with which equilibrium is reached. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5746469719877332, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.949737"} {"text": ". however, keq will be unchanged by the pressure increase. what effect does a catalyst have on a reaction at equilibrium? none. a catalyst cannot change the value of keq, but it can increase the speed with which equilibrium is reached. this is the main function of a catalyst. it can take the reaction only to the same equilibrium state that would be reached eventually without the catalyst. catalysts are useful, nevertheless. many desirable reactions, although spontaneous, occur at extremely slow rates under ordinary conditions. in automobile engines, the main smog - producing reaction involving oxides of nitrogen is ( once no is present, it reacts readily with more oxygen to make brown n02. ) at the high temperature of an automobile engine, keq for this reaction is so large that appreciable amounts of no are formed. however, at 25\u00b0c, keq = 10 - 30. ( using only the previous two bits of information and le chatelier ' s principle, predict whether the reaction as written is endothermic or exothermic. check your answer using data from appendix 3. ) the amount of no present in the atmosphere at equilibrium at 25\u00b0c should be negligible. no should decompose spontaneously to n2 and o2 as the exhaust gases cool. but any southern californian can verify that this is not what happens. both no and n02 are indeed present, because the gases of the atmosphere are not at equilibrium. the rate of decomposition of no is extremely slow, although the reaction is spontaneous. one approach to the smog problem has been to search for a catalyst for the reaction that could be housed in an exhaust system and could break down no in the exhaust gases as they cool. finding a catalyst is possible ; a practical problem arises from the gradual poisoning of the catalyst by gasoline additives, such as lead compounds. this is the reason why new cars with catalytic converters only use lead - free gasoline. a proof of the assertion that a catalyst cannot change the equilibrium constant is illustrated in figure 4 - 5. if a catalyst could shift the equilibrium point of a reacting gas mixture and produce a volume change, then this expansion and contraction could be harnessed by mechanical means and made to do work. we would have a true perpetual - motion machine that would deliver power without an energy source. from common sense and experience we know this to be impossible. this \" common sense \" is stated scientifically as the first law of thermodynamics, which will be discussed in chapter 15", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5889989268253446, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.950805"} {"text": "motion machine that would deliver power without an energy source. from common sense and experience we know this to be impossible. this \" common sense \" is stated scientifically as the first law of thermodynamics, which will be discussed in chapter 15. a mathematician would call this a proof by contradiction : if we assume that a catalyst can alter keq, then we must assume the existence of a perpetual - motion machine. however, a perpetual - motion machine cannot exist ; therefore our initial assumption was wrong, and we must conclude that a catalyst cannot alter keq. in summary, keq is a function of temperature, but it is not a function of reactant or product concentrations, total pressure, or the presence or absence of catalysts. the relative amounts of substances at equilibrium can be changed by applying an external stress to the equilibrium mixture of reactants and products, and the change is one that will relieve this stress. this last statement, le chatelier ' s principle, enables us to predict what will happen to a reaction when external factors are changed, without having to make exact calculations. a spontaneous reaction is one that will take place, given enough time, without outside assistance. some spontaneous reactions are rapid, but time is not an element in the definition of spontaneity. a reaction can be almost infinitely slow and still be spontaneous. the net reaction that we observe is the result of competition between forward and reverse steps. if the forward process is faster, then products accumulate, and we say that the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction. if the reverse process is faster, then reactants accumulate, and we say that the reverse reaction is the spontaneous one. if both forward and reverse processes take place at the same rate, then no net change is observed in any of the reaction components. this is the condition of chemical equilibrium. the ratio of products to reactants, each concentration term being raised to a power corresponding to the coefficient of that substance in the balanced chemical equation, is called the equilibrium constant, keq. ( see equation 4 - 8. ) it can be used to predict whether a given reaction under specified conditions will be spontaneous, and to calculate the concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium. the reaction quotient, q, has a form that is identical with that of the equilibrium constant, keq, but q applies under nonequilibrium conditions as well. for a given set of conditions, if q is smaller than keq, the forward reaction is spontaneous ; if q is greater than keq,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6587032142594431, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.951882"} {"text": "that of the equilibrium constant, keq, but q applies under nonequilibrium conditions as well. for a given set of conditions, if q is smaller than keq, the forward reaction is spontaneous ; if q is greater than keq, the reverse reaction is spontaneous ; and if q = keq, the system is at equilibrium. the equilibrium constant can be used with any convenient set of concentration units : moles liter - 1, pressure in atmospheres, or others. its numerical value will depend on the units of concentration, so one must be careful to match the proper values of keq and units when solving problems. if gas concentrations are expressed in moles liter - 1, the equilibrium constant is designated by kc ; if in atmospheres, by kp. just as partial pressure of the jth component of a gas mixture is related to moles per liter by pj = cjrt, so kp and kc are related by kp = kc ( rt ) \u03b4n, in which \u03b4n is the net change in number of moles of gas during the reaction. when some of the reactants or products are pure solids or liquids, they act as infinite reservoirs of material as long as some solid or liquid is left. their effect on equilibrium depends only on their presence, not on how much of the solid or liquid is present. their effective concentrations are constant, and can be incorporated into keq. in practice, this simply means omitting concentration terms for pure solids and liquids from the equilibrium - constant expression. evaporation of a liquid can be treated formally as a chemical reaction with the liquid as reactant and vapor as product. these conventions for writing concentration terms for a liquid permit us to write the equilibrium constant for evaporation as kp = pj where pj is the equilibrium vapor pressure of substance j. le chatelier ' s principle states that if stress is applied to a system at equilibrium the amounts of reactants and products will shift in such a manner as to minimize the stress. this means that for a heat - absorbing, or endothermic, reaction, keq increases as the temperature is increased, since carrying out more of the reaction is a way of absorbing some of the added heat. similarly, cooling increases keq for a heat - emitting or exothermic reaction. although the equilibrium constant keq is independent of pressure, and changing the total pressure on a reacting system does not alter keq directly, an increase in pressure does cause the reaction to shift in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6078402681915707, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:35.952908"} {"text": "automatic number plate recognition automatic number plate recognition ( anpr ; see also other names below ) is a mass surveillance method that uses optical character recognition on images to read vehicle registration plates. they can use existing closed - circuit television or road - rule enforcement cameras, or ones specifically designed for the task. they are used by various police forces and as a method of electronic toll collection on pay - per - use roads and cataloging the movements of traffic or individuals. anpr can be used to store the images captured by the cameras as well as the text from the license plate, with some configurable to store a photograph of the driver. systems commonly use infrared lighting to allow the camera to take the picture at any time of the day. anpr technology tends to be region - specific, owing to plate variation from place to place. concerns about these systems have centered on privacy fears of government tracking citizens ' movements, misidentification, high error rates, and increased government spending. other names anpr is sometimes known by various other terms : - automatic license - plate recognition ( alpr ) - automatic vehicle identification ( avi ) - car plate recognition ( cpr ) - license - plate recognition ( lpr ) - lecture automatique de plaques d ' immatriculation ( lapi ) development history anpr was invented in 1976 at the police scientific development branch in the uk. prototype systems were working by 1979, and contracts were let to produce industrial systems, first at emi electronics, and then at computer recognition systems ( crs ) in wokingham, uk. early trial systems were deployed on the a1 road and at the dartford tunnel. the first arrest through detection of a stolen car was made in 1981. the software aspect of the system runs on standard home computer hardware and can be linked to other applications or databases. it first uses a series of image manipulation techniques to detect, normalize and enhance the image of the number plate, and then optical character recognition ( ocr ) to extract the alphanumerics of the license plate. anpr systems are generally deployed in one of two basic approaches : one allows for the entire process to be performed at the lane location in real - time, and the other transmits all the images from many lanes to a remote computer location and performs the ocr process there at some later point in time. when done at the lane site, the information captured of the plate alphanumeric, date - time, lane identification, and any other information required is completed in approximately 250 milliseconds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.551407157839247, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.000784"} {"text": "image. there are a number of possible difficulties that the software must be able to cope with. these include : - poor image resolution, usually because the plate is too far away but sometimes resulting from the use of a low - quality camera. - blurry images, particularly motion blur. - poor lighting and low contrast due to overexposure, reflection or shadows. - an object obscuring ( part of ) the plate, quite often a tow bar, or dirt on the plate. - a different font, popular for vanity plates ( some countries do not allow such plates, eliminating the problem ). - circumvention techniques. - lack of coordination between countries or states. two cars from different countries or states can have the same number but different design of the plate. while some of these problems can be corrected within the software, it is primarily left to the hardware side of the system to work out solutions to these difficulties. increasing the height of the camera may avoid problems with objects ( such as other vehicles ) obscuring the plate but introduces and increases other problems, such as the adjusting for the increased skew of the plate. on some cars, tow bars may obscure one or two characters of the license plate. bikes on bike racks can also obscure the number plate, though in some countries and jurisdictions, such as victoria, australia, \" bike plates \" are supposed to be fitted. some small - scale systems allow for some errors in the license plate. when used for giving specific vehicles access to a barricaded area, the decision may be made to have an acceptable error rate of one character. this is because the likelihood of an unauthorized car having such a similar license plate is seen as quite small. however, this level of inaccuracy would not be acceptable in most applications of an anpr system. imaging hardware at the front end of any anpr system is the imaging hardware which captures the image of the license plates. the initial image capture forms a critically important part of the anpr system which, in accordance to the garbage in, garbage out principle of computing, will often determine the overall performance. license plate capture is typically performed by specialized cameras designed specifically for the task. factors which pose difficulty for license plate imaging cameras include speed of the vehicles being recorded, varying ambient lighting conditions, headlight glare and harsh environmental conditions. most dedicated license plate capture cameras will incorporate infrared illumination in order to solve the problems of lighting and plate reflectivity. many countries now use license plates that are retroreflective. this returns the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5381465489514683, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.004849"} {"text": "lighting conditions, headlight glare and harsh environmental conditions. most dedicated license plate capture cameras will incorporate infrared illumination in order to solve the problems of lighting and plate reflectivity. many countries now use license plates that are retroreflective. this returns the light back to the source and thus improves the contrast of the image. in some countries, the characters on the plate are not reflective, giving a high level of contrast with the reflective background in any lighting conditions. a camera that makes use of active infrared imaging ( with a normal colour filter over the lens and an infrared illuminator next to it ) benefits greatly from this as the infrared waves are reflected back from the plate. this is only possible on dedicated anpr cameras, however, and so cameras used for other purposes must rely more heavily on the software capabilities. further, when a full - colour image is required as well as use of the anpr - retrieved details it is necessary to have one infrared - enabled camera and one normal ( colour ) camera working together. to avoid blurring it is ideal to have the shutter speed of a dedicated camera set to 1 / 1000 of a second. because the car is moving, slower shutter speeds could result in an image which is too blurred to read using the ocr software, especially if the camera is much higher up than the vehicle. in slow - moving traffic, or when the camera is at a lower level and the vehicle is at an angle approaching the camera, the shutter speed does not need to be so fast. shutter speeds of 1 / 500 of a second can cope with traffic moving up to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) and 1 / 250 of a second up to 5 mph ( 8 km / h ). license plate capture cameras can now produce usable images from vehicles traveling at 120 mph ( 190 km / h ). to maximize the chances of effective license plate capture, installers should carefully consider the positioning of the camera relative to the target capture area. exceeding threshold angles of incidence between camera lens and license plate will greatly reduce the probability of obtaining usable images due to distortion. manufacturers have developed tools to help eliminate errors from the physical installation of license plate capture cameras circumvention techniques vehicle owners have used a variety of techniques in an attempt to evade anpr systems and road - rule enforcement cameras in general. one method increases the reflective properties of the lettering and makes it more likely that the system will be unable to locate the plate or produce a high enough level of contrast to be able to read it. this is typically done by using", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5280557792150196, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.006106"} {"text": "enforcement cameras in general. one method increases the reflective properties of the lettering and makes it more likely that the system will be unable to locate the plate or produce a high enough level of contrast to be able to read it. this is typically done by using a plate cover or a spray, though claims regarding the effectiveness of the latter are disputed. in most jurisdictions, the covers are illegal and covered under existing laws, while in most countries there is no law to disallow the use of the sprays. other users have attempted to smear their license plate with dirt or utilize covers to mask the plate. novelty frames around texas license plates were made illegal in texas on 1 september 2003 by texas senate bill 439 because they caused problems with anpr devices. that law made it a class c misdemeanor ( punishable by a fine of up to us $ 200 ), or class b ( punishable by a fine of up to us $ 2, 000 and 180 days in jail ) if it can be proven that the owner did it to deliberately obscure their plates. the law was later clarified in 2007 to allow novelty frames. if an anpr system cannot read the plate it can flag the image for attention, with the human operators looking to see if they are able to identify the alphanumerics. in order to avoid surveillance or penalty charges, there has been an upsurge in car cloning. this is usually achieved by copying registration plates from another car of a similar model and age. this can be difficult to detect, especially as cloners may change the registration plates and travel behavior to hinder investigations. other possible options include ir emitting leds around the license plate which would serve to \" blind \" cameras. police enforcement several state police forces, and the department of justice ( victoria ) utilise both fixed and mobile anpr systems. the new south wales police force highway patrol were the first to trial and use a fixed anpr camera system in australia in 2005. in 2009 they began a roll - out of a mobile anpr system ( known officially as manpr ) with three infrared cameras fitted to its highway patrol fleet. the system identifies unregistered and stolen vehicles as well as disqulified or suspended drivers as well as other ' persons of interest ' such as persons having outstanding warrants. on 11 march 2008, the federal constitutional court of germany ruled that some areas of the laws permitting the use of automated number plate recognition systems in germany violated the right to privacy. more specifically, the court found that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5092500536350195, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.007573"} {"text": "such as persons having outstanding warrants. on 11 march 2008, the federal constitutional court of germany ruled that some areas of the laws permitting the use of automated number plate recognition systems in germany violated the right to privacy. more specifically, the court found that the retention of any sort of information ( i. e. number plate data ) which wasn ' t for any pre - destined use ( e. g. for use tracking suspected terrorists or for enforcement of speeding laws ) was in violation of german law. these systems were provided by jenoptik robot gmbh, and called trafficapture. the project of system integration \u00ab olli technology \u00bb and the ministry of internal affairs of ukraine department of state traffic inspection ( sti ) experiments on the introduction of a modern technical complex which is capable to locate stolen cars, drivers deprived of driving licenses and other problem cars in real time. the ukrainian complex \" video control \" working by a principle of video fixing of the car with recognition of license plates with check under data base. the city of mechelen uses an anpr system since september 2011 to scan all cars crossing the city limits ( inbound and outbound ). cars listed on ' black lists ' ( no insurance, stolen, etc. ) generate an alarm in the dispatching room, so they can be intercepted by a patrol. as of early 2012, 1 million cars per week are automatically checked in this way. several hungarian auxiliary police units use a system called matrix police in cooperation with the police. it consists of a portable computer equipped with a webcam that scans the stolen car database using automatic number plate recognition. the system is installed on the dashboard of selected patrol vehicles ( pda based handheld versions also exist ) and is mainly used to control the license plate of parking cars. as the auxiliary police doesn ' t have the authority to order moving vehicles to stop, if a stolen car is found, the formal police is informed. several cities have tested and some have put into service the \" city security administration system \" i. e. capital ankara has debuted kgys - \" kent guvenlik yonetim sistemi \" which consists of a registration plate number recognition system on the main arteries and city exits. the system has been used with two cameras per lane, one for plate recognition, one for speed detection. now the system has been widened to network all the registration number cameras together, and enforcing average speed over preset distances. some arteries have 70kmh limit, and some 50 kmh, and photo evidence with date - time details are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5395678971305664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.009044"} {"text": "amounts of unpaid parking fines. a recent initiative by new york state deployed alpr systems to catch car thieves by tracing suspect plates back to forged documents. police from albany, new york also scan vehicles in their parking lots to check visitors for warrants. in addition to the real - time processing of license plate numbers, alpr systems in the us collect ( and can indefinitely store ) data from each license plate capture. images, dates, times and gps coordinates can be stockpiled and can help place a suspect at a scene, aid in witness identification, pattern recognition or the tracking of individuals. such data can be used to create specialized databases that can be shared among departments or individuals ( such as insurers, banks or auto recovery \" repo - men \". ) specialized databases can also be used to compile personal information on individuals such as journalists suspected gang members, employees of a business, patrons of a bar, etc., and be shared by e - mail or portable flash media. from time to time, states will make significant changes in their license plate protocol that will affect ocr accuracy. they may add a character or add a new license plate design. alpr systems must adapt to these changes quickly in order to be effective. for the most part, however, the north american design will be based on a variation of the \" zurich extra condensed \" font. another challenge with alpr systems is that some states have the same license plate protocol. for example more than one state uses the standard three letters followed by four numbers. so each time the alpr systems alarms, it is the user \u2019 s responsibility to make sure that the plate which caused the alarm matches the state associated with the license plate listed on the in - car computer. average - speed cameras this works by tracking vehicles ' travel time between two fixed points, and calculating the average speed. these cameras are claimed to have an advantage over traditional speed cameras in maintaining steady legal speeds over extended distances, rather than encouraging heavy braking on approach to specific camera locations and subsequent acceleration back to illegal speeds. the netherlands average speed cameras ( trajectcontrole ) are in place in the netherlands since 2002. as of july 2009, 12 such cameras are operating, mostly in the west of the country and along the a12. some of these are divided in several \u201c sections \u201d to allow for cars leaving and entering the motorway. a first experimental system was tested on a short stretch of the a2 in 1997 and was deemed a big success by the police, reducing overspeeding to 0.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.51744791297833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.020914"} {"text": "cars driving into or out of the inner city must pay a charge, depending on the time of the day. from 2013, also for the gothenburg congestion tax, which also includes vehicles passing the city on the main highways. the introduction of anpr systems has led to fears of misidentification and the furthering of 1984 - style surveillance. in the united states, some such as gregg easterbrook oppose what they call \" machines that issue speeding tickets and red - light tickets \" as the beginning of a slippery slope towards an automated justice system : - \" a machine classifies a person as an offender, and you can ' t confront your accuser because there is no accuser... can it be wise to establish a principle that when a machine says you did something illegal, you are presumed guilty? \" similar criticisms have been raised in other countries. easterbrook also argues that this technology is employed to maximize revenue for the state, rather than to promote safety. the electronic surveillance system produces tickets which in the us are often in excess of $ 100, and are virtually impossible for a citizen to contest in court without the help of an attorney. the revenues generated by these machines are shared generously with the private corporation that builds and operates them, creating a strong incentive to tweak the system to generate as many tickets as possible. older systems had been notably unreliable ; in the uk this has been known to lead to charges being made incorrectly with the vehicle owner having to pay \u00a310 in order to be issued with proof ( or not ) of the offense. improvements in technology have drastically decreased error rates, but false accusations are still frequent enough to be a problem. perhaps the best known incident involving the abuse of an anpr database in north america is the case of edmonton sun reporter kerry diotte in 2004. diotte wrote an article critical of edmonton police use of traffic cameras for revenue enhancement, and in retaliation was added to an anpr database of \" high - risk drivers \" in an attempt to monitor his habits and create an opportunity to arrest him. the police chief and several officers were fired as a result, and the office of the privacy commissioner of canada expressed public concern over the \" growing police use of technology to spy on motorists. \" other concerns include the storage of information that could be used to identify people and store details about their driving habits and daily life, contravening the data protection act along with similar legislation ( see personally identifiable information ). the laws in the uk are strict for any system that uses cctv footage and can identify individuals", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5205365554616842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.055350"} {"text": "identify people and store details about their driving habits and daily life, contravening the data protection act along with similar legislation ( see personally identifiable information ). the laws in the uk are strict for any system that uses cctv footage and can identify individuals. there is also a case in the uk for saying that use of anpr cameras is against the law under the regulation of investigatory powers act 2000. the breach exists, some say, in the fact that anpr is used to monitor the activities of law - abiding citizens and treats everyone like the suspected criminals intended to be surveyed under the act. the police themselves have been known to refer to the system of anpr as a \" 24 / 7 traffic movement database \" which is a diversion from its intended purpose of identifying vehicles involved in criminal activities. the associated press reported in august 2011 that new york police department cars and license plate tracking equipment purchased with federal hidta ( high intensity drug trafficking area ) funds were used to spy on muslims at mosques, and to track the license plate numbers of worshipers. police in unmarked cars outfitted with electronic license plate readers would drive down the street and automatically catalog the plates of everyone parked near the mosque, amassing a covert database that would be distributed among officers and used to profile muslims in public. other uses anpr systems may also be used for / by : - section control, to measure average vehicle speed over longer distances. - border crossings - automobile repossessions - petrol stations to log when a motorist drives away without paying for their fuel. - a marketing tool to log patterns of use - targeted advertising, a - la \" minority report \" - style billboards. - traffic management systems, which determine traffic flow using the time it takes vehicles to pass two anpr sites - analyses of travel behaviour ( route choice, origin - destination etc. ) for transport planning purposes - drive through customer recognition, to automatically recognize customers based on their license plate and offer them the items they ordered the last time they used the service, improving service to the customer. - to assist visitor management systems in recognizing guest vehicles. - police and auxiliary police - car parking companies. related research society measuring anpr system performance a 2008 article in parking trend international discussed a disparity in claimed vs. experienced license plate recognition read rates, with manufacturers claiming that their recognition engines can correctly report 98 % of the time, although customers experience only 90 % to 94 % success, even with new equipment under perfect conditions. early systems were reportedly only 60 % to 80 % reliable.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5322071829400695, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.057904"} {"text": "read rates, with manufacturers claiming that their recognition engines can correctly report 98 % of the time, although customers experience only 90 % to 94 % success, even with new equipment under perfect conditions. early systems were reportedly only 60 % to 80 % reliable. true system error rate is the product of its subsystem error rates ( image capture, license plate image extraction, lp image interpretation ) ; slight increases in subsystem error rates can produce dramatic reductions of read rates. the effects of real - world interfering factors on read rate are not uniformly specified or tested by manufacturers. the article states \" there is a need for the industry to adopt a standard performance measurement protocol to enable potential customers assess the best fit for their particular requirements. \" see also | wikimedia commons has media related to : automatic number plate recognition | - ai effect - applications of artificial intelligence - facial recognition system - road policing unit - specs ( speed camera ) - closed circuit television - ieee intelligent transportation systems society - \" anpr tutorial \". anpr tutorial. 15 august 2006. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24. - \" an introduction to anpr \". cctv - information. co. uk. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24. - \" plate recognition \". photocop. com. - \" algorithm for license plate recognition \". visl, technion. 2002. - \" a real - time vehicle license plate recognition ( lpr ) \". visl, technion, 2003 - \" an approach to license plate recognition \" ( pdf ). university of calgary. 1996. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24. - draghici, sorin ( 1997 ). \" a neural network based artificial vision system for license plate recognition \" ( pdf ). dept. of computer science, wayne state university. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24. - \" license plate recognition in turkey ( plaka okuma sistemi ) \". grimedia. com. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24. - kwasnicka, halina ; wawrzyniak, bartosz ( 2002 ). \" license plate localization and recognition in camera pictures \" ( pdf ). retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24. - kahraman, fatih ; gokmen, muhittin ( 2003 ). \" license plate character segmentation based on the gabor transform and vector quantization \" ( pdf ). archived from the original on 2006 - 05 - 24. retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24. - ondrej martins", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5568785310564943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.060097"} {"text": "| | this article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. ( december 2011 ) | a counterfactual conditional, subjunctive conditional, or remote conditional, abbreviated cf, is a conditional ( or \" if - then \" ) statement indicating what would be the case if its antecedent were true ( although it is not true ). this is to be contrasted with an indicative conditional, which indicates what is ( in fact ) the case if its antecedent is ( in fact ) true ( which it may or may not be ). the difference between indicative and counterfactual conditionals, in a context of past time reference, can be illustrated with a pair of examples in which the if clause is in the past indicative in the first example but in the pluperfect subjunctive in the second : - if oswald did not shoot kennedy, then someone else did. - if oswald had not shot kennedy, then someone else would have. the protasis ( the if clause ) of the first sentence may or may not be true according to the speaker, so the apodosis ( the then clause ) also may or may not be true ; the apodosis is said by the speaker to be true if the protasis is true. in this sentence the if clause and the then clause are both in the past tense of the indicative mood. in the second sentence, the speaker is speaking with a certainty that oswald did shoot kennedy ( according to the speaker, the protasis is false ), and therefore the main clause deals with the counterfactual result \u2014 what would have happened. in this sentence the if clause is in the pluperfect subjunctive form of the subjunctive mood, and the then clause is in the conditional perfect form of the conditional mood. a corresponding pair of examples with present time reference uses the present indicative in the if clause of the first sentence but the past subjunctive in the second sentence ' s if clause : - if it is raining, then he is inside. - if it were raining, then he would be inside. here again, in the first sentence the if clause may or may not be true ; the then clause may or may not be true but certainly ( according to the speaker ) is true conditional on the if clause being true. here both the if clause and the then clause are in the present indicative. in the second sentence, the if clause is not true, while the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5256751989861836, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.174072"} {"text": "not be true but certainly ( according to the speaker ) is true conditional on the if clause being true. here both the if clause and the then clause are in the present indicative. in the second sentence, the if clause is not true, while the then clause may or may not be true but certainly would be true in the counterfactual circumstance of the if clause being true. in this sentence the if clause is in the past subjunctive form of the subjunctive mood, and the then clause is in the conditional mood. people engage in counterfactual thinking frequently. experimental evidence indicates that people ' s thoughts about counterfactual conditionals differ in important ways from their thoughts about indicative conditionals. participants in experiments were asked to read sentences, including counterfactual conditionals, e. g., ' if mark had left home early he would have caught the train '. afterwards they were asked to identify which sentences they had been shown. they often mistakenly believed they had been shown sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e. g., ' mark did not leave home early ' and ' mark did not catch the train ' ( fillenbaum, 1974 ). in other experiments, participants were asked to read short stories that contained counterfactual conditionals, e. g., ' if there had been roses in the flower shop then there would have been lilies '. later in the story they read sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e. g., ' there were no roses and there were no lilies '. the counterfactual conditional ' primed ' them to read the sentence corresponding to the presupposed facts very rapidly ; no such priming effect occurred for indicative conditionals ( santamaria, espino, and byrne, 2005 ). they spend different amounts of time ' updating ' a story that contains a counterfactual conditional compared to one that contains factual information ( de vega, urrutia, and riffo, 2007 ) and they focus on different parts of counterfactual conditionals ( ferguson and sanford, 2008 ). experiments have compared the inferences people make from counterfactual conditionals and indicative conditionals. given a counterfactual conditional, e. g., ' if there had been a circle on the blackboard then there would have been a triangle ', and the subsequent information ' in fact there was no triangle ', participants make the modus tollens inference ' there was no", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5269198697701002, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.178515"} {"text": "e. g., ' if there had been a circle on the blackboard then there would have been a triangle ', and the subsequent information ' in fact there was no triangle ', participants make the modus tollens inference ' there was no circle ' more often than they do from an indicative conditional ( byrne and tasso, 1999 ). given the counterfactual conditional and the subsequent information ' in fact there was a circle ', participants make the modus ponens inference as often as they do from an indicative conditional. psychological accounts ruth m. j. byrne proposed in the rational imagination : how people create alternatives to reality that people construct mental representations that encompass two possibilities when they understand, and reason from, a counterfactual conditional, e. g., ' if oswald had not shot kennedy, then someone else would have '. they envisage the conjecture ' oswald did not shoot kennedy and someone else did ' and they also think about the presupposed facts ' oswald did shoot kennedy and someone else did not ' ( byrne, 2005 ). according to the mental model theory of reasoning, they construct mental models of the alternative possibilities, as described in deduction ( johnson - laird and byrne, 1991 ). philosophical treatments in order to distinguish counterfactual conditionals from material conditionals, a new logical connective ' > ' is defined, where a > b can be interpreted as \" if it were the case that a, then it would be the case that b. \" the truth value of a material conditional, a \u2192 b, is determined by the truth values of a and b. this is not so for the counterfactual conditional a > b, for there are different situations agreeing on the truth values of a and b but which yield different evaluations of a > b. for example, if keith is in germany, the following two conditionals have both a false antecedent and a false consequent : - if keith were in mexico then he would be in africa. - if keith were in mexico then he would be in north america. indeed, if keith is in germany, then all three conditions \" keith is in mexico \", \" keith is in africa \", and \" keith is in north america \" are false. however, ( 1 ) is obviously false, while ( 2 ) is true as mexico is part of north america. possible world semantics philosophers such as david lewis and robert stalnaker modeled counterfactuals using the possible world semantics of modal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5900358591676017, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.183136"} {"text": ", ( 1 ) is obviously false, while ( 2 ) is true as mexico is part of north america. possible world semantics philosophers such as david lewis and robert stalnaker modeled counterfactuals using the possible world semantics of modal logic. the semantics of a conditional a > b are given by some function on the relative closeness of worlds where a is true and b is true, on the one hand, and worlds where a is true but b is not, on the other. on lewis ' s account, a > c is ( a ) vacuously true if and only if there are no worlds where a is true ( for example, if a is logically or metaphysically impossible ) ; ( b ) non - vacuously true if and only if, among the worlds where a is true, some worlds where c is true are closer to the actual world than any world where c is not true ; or ( c ) false otherwise. although in lewis ' s counterfactuals it was unclear what he meant by ' closeness ', in later writings, lewis made it clear that he did not intend the metric of ' closeness ' to be simply our ordinary notion of overall similarity. consider an example : - if i had eaten more at breakfast, i would not have been hungry at 11am. on lewis ' s account, the truth of this statement consists in the fact that, among possible worlds where i ate more for breakfast, there is at least one world where i am not hungry at 11am and which is closer to our world than any world where i ate more for breakfast but am still hungry at 11am. stalnaker ' s account differs from lewis ' s most notably in his acceptance of the limit and uniqueness assumptions. the uniqueness assumption is the thesis that, for any antecedent a, there is a unique possible world where a is true, while the limit assumption is the thesis that, for a given antecedent a, there is a unique set of worlds where a is true that are closest. ( notice that the uniqueness assumption entails the limit assumption, but the limit assumption does not entail the uniqueness assumption. ) on stalnaker ' s account, a > c is non - vacuously true if and only if, at the closest world where a is true, c is true. so, the above example is true just in case at the single, closest world where i eat more breakfast, i don ' t feel hungry at 11am.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5815194997877421, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.185574"} {"text": "if and only if, at the closest world where a is true, c is true. so, the above example is true just in case at the single, closest world where i eat more breakfast, i don ' t feel hungry at 11am. although it is controversial, lewis rejected the limit assumption ( and therefore the uniqueness assumption ) because it rules out the possibility that there might be worlds that get closer and closer to the actual world without limit. for example, there might be an infinite series of worlds, each with my coffee cup a smaller fraction of an inch to the left of its actual position, but none of which is uniquely the closest. ( see lewis 1973 : 20. ) one consequence of stalnaker ' s acceptance of the uniqueness assumption is that, if the law of excluded middle is true, then all instances of the formula ( a > c ) \u2228 ( a > \u00acc ) are true. the law of excluded middle is the thesis that for all propositions p, p \u2228 \u00acp is true. if the uniqueness assumption is true, then for every antecedent a, there is a uniquely closest world where a is true. if the law of excluded middle is true, any consequent c is either true or false at that world where a is true. so for every counterfactual a > c, either a > c or a > \u00acc is true. this is called conditional excluded middle ( cem ). consider the following example : - ( 1 ) if the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads. - ( 2 ) if the coin had been flipped, it would have landed tails ( i. e. not heads ). on stalnaker ' s analysis, there is a closest world where the coin mentioned in ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) is flipped and at that world either it lands heads or it lands tails. so either ( 1 ) is true and ( 2 ) is false or ( 1 ) is false and ( 2 ) true. on lewis ' s analysis, however, both ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) are false, for the worlds where the coin lands heads are no more or less close than the worlds where they land tails. for lewis, ' if the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads or tails ' is true, but this does not entail that ' if the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads, or : if the coin had been flipped it would have landed tails. ' other accounts counter", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5640500439985765, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.187901"} {"text": "it would have landed heads or tails ' is true, but this does not entail that ' if the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads, or : if the coin had been flipped it would have landed tails. ' other accounts counterfactual conditionals may also be evaluated using the so - called ramsey test : a > b holds if and only if the addition of a to the current body of knowledge has b as a consequence. this condition relates counterfactual conditionals to belief revision, as the evaluation of a > b can be done by first revising the current knowledge with a and then checking whether b is true in what results. revising is easy when a is consistent with the current beliefs, but can be hard otherwise. every semantics for belief revision can be used for evaluating conditional statements. conversely, every method for evaluating conditionals can be seen as a way for performing revision. ginsberg ( 1986 ) has proposed a semantics for conditionals which assumes that the current beliefs form a set of propositional formulae, considering the maximal sets of these formulae that are consistent with a, and adding a to each. the rationale is that each of these maximal sets represents a possible state of belief in which a is true that is as similar as possible to the original one. the conditional statement a > b therefore holds if and only if b is true in all such sets. within empirical testing the counterfactual conditional is the basis of experimental methods for establishing causality in the natural and social sciences, e. g., whether taking antibiotics helps cure bacterial infection. for every individual, u, there is a function that specifies the state of u ' s infection under two hypothetical conditions : had u taken antibiotic and had u not taken antibiotic. only one of these states can be observed in any instance, since they are mutually exclusive. the overall effect of antibiotic on infection is defined as the difference between these two states, averaged over the entire population. if the treatment and control groups are selected at random, the effect of antibiotic can be estimated by comparing the rates of recovery in the two groups. the tight connection between causal and counterfactual relations has prompted judea pearl ( 2000 ) to reject both the possible world semantics and those of ramsey and ginsberg. the latter was rejected because causal information cannot be encoded as a set of beliefs, and the former because it is difficult to fine - tune lewis ' s similarity measure to match causal intuition. pearl defines counterfactuals directly in terms", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.6049206006339216, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.198061"} {"text": "ginsberg. the latter was rejected because causal information cannot be encoded as a set of beliefs, and the former because it is difficult to fine - tune lewis ' s similarity measure to match causal intuition. pearl defines counterfactuals directly in terms of a \" structural equation model \" - - a set of equations, in which each variable is assigned a value that is an explicit function of other variables in the system. given such a model, the sentence \" y would be y had x been x \" ( formally, x = x > y = y ) is defined as the assertion : if we replace the equation currently determining x with a constant x = x, and solve the set of equations for variable y, the solution obtained will be y = y. this definition has been shown to be compatible with the axioms of possible world semantics and forms the basis for causal inference in the natural and social sciences, since each structural equation in those domains corresponds to a familiar causal mechanism that can be meaningfully reasoned about by investigators. see also - english conditional sentences - indicative conditional - irrealis moods - logical consequence - material conditional - optative mood - principle of explosion - subjunctive mood - thought experiment - possible world semantics - bennett, jonathan. ( 2003 ). a philosophical guide to conditionals. oxford university press. - bonevac, d. ( 2003 ). deduction, introductory symbolic logic. 2nd ed. blackwell publishers. - byrne, r. m. j. ( 2005 ). the rational imagination : how people create alternatives to reality. cambridge, m. a. : mit press. - byrne, r. m. j. & tasso, a. ( 1999 ). deductive reasoning with factual, possible, and counterfactual conditionals. memory & cognition. 27, 726 - 740. - de vega, m., urrutia, m., riffo, b. ( 2007 ). canceling updating in the comprehension of counterfactuals embedded in narrative. memory & cognition, 35, 1410 - 1421. - edgington, dorothy. ( 2001 ). \" conditionals \". in goble, lou, ed., the blackwell guide to philosophical logic. blackwell. - edgington, dorothy. ( 2006 ). \" conditionals \". the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, edward zalta ( ed. ). - ferguson, h. j. and sanford, a. j. ( 2008 ) anomalies in real and counterfactual worlds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6447771699473477, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.203892"} {"text": "2006 ). \" conditionals \". the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, edward zalta ( ed. ). - ferguson, h. j. and sanford, a. j. ( 2008 ) anomalies in real and counterfactual worlds : an eye - movement investigation. j. mem. lang. 58, 609 - 626. - fillenbaum, s. ( 1974 ). information amplified : memory for counterfactual conditionals. journal of experimental psychology, 102, 44 - 49. - johnson - laird, p. n. and byrne, r. m. j. ( 1991 ). deduction. hillsdale, nj : erlbaum. - morgan, stephen l. and christopher winship. ( 2007 ). \" counterfactuals and causal inference : methods and principles of social research \". cambridge eprint. - ginsberg, m. l. ( 1986 ). \" counterfactuals \". artificial intelligence, 30 : 35 - 79. - lewis, david. ( 1973 ). counterfactuals. blackwell publishers. isbn 0 - 631 - 22425 - 4 - santamaria, c., espino, o. and byrne, r. m. j. ( 2005 ). counterfactual and semifactual conditionals prime alternative possibilities. journal of experimental psychology : learning, memory and cognition. 31, 1149 \u2013 1154 - thompson, v. and byrne, r. m. j. ( 2002 ). reasoning about things that didn ' t happen. journal of experimental psychology : learning, memory, and cognition. 28, 1154 - 1170.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5703804602454421, "token_count": 343, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.208376"} {"text": "splash ( fluid mechanics ) in fluid mechanics, a splash is a sudden disturbance to the otherwise quiescent free surface of a liquid ( usually water ). the disturbance is typically caused by a solid object suddenly hitting the surface, although splashes can occur in which moving liquid supplies the energy. this use of the word is onomatopoeic. splashes are characterized by transient ballistic flow, and are governed by the reynolds number and the weber number. in the image of a brick splashing into water to the right, one can identify freely moving airborne water droplets, a phenomenon typical of high reynolds number flows ; the intricate non - spherical shapes of the droplets show that the weber number is high. also seen are entrained bubbles in the body of the water, and an expanding ring of disturbance propagating away from the impact site. physicist lei xu and coworkers at the university of chicago discovered that the splash due to the impact of a small drop of ethanol onto a dry solid surface could be suppressed by reducing the pressure below a specific threshold. for drops of diameter 3. 4 mm falling through air, this pressure was about 20 kilopascals, or 0. 2 atmosphere. splash plate a plate made of a hard material on which a stream of liquid is designed to fall is called a \" splash plate \". it may serve to protect the ground from erosion by falling water, such as beneath an artificial waterfall or water outlet in soft ground. splash plates are also part of spray nozzles, such as in irrigation sprinkler systems. see also - harold eugene edgerton, whose milkdrop coronet is arguably the most famous photograph of a splash - slosh, other free surface phenomenon - lei xu et al., \" drop splashing on a dry smooth surface \", phys. rev. letts. ( 2005 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5912139947035119, "token_count": 375, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.371143"} {"text": "| an aspect of fiscal policy | many countries have agreed with other countries in treaties to mitigate the effects of double taxation ( double tax avoidance agreement ). tax treaties may cover income taxes, inheritance taxes, value added taxes, or other taxes. besides bilateral treaties, also multilateral countries are in place : countries of the european union ( eu ) have also entered into a multilateral agreement with respect to value added taxes under auspices of the eu, while a joint treaty of the council of europe and the oecd exists open to all nations. tax treaties tend to reduce taxes of one treaty country for residents of the other treaty country in order to reduce double taxation of the same income. the provisions and goals vary highly ; very few tax treaties are alike. most treaties : - define which taxes are covered and who is a resident and eligible for benefits, - reduce the amounts of tax withheld from interest, dividends, and royalties paid by a resident of one country to residents of the other country, - limit tax of one country on business income of a resident of the other country to that income from a permanent establishment in the first country, - define circumstances in which income of individuals resident in one country will be taxed in the other country, including salary, self - employment, pension, and other income, - provide for exemption of certain types of organizations or individuals, and - provide procedural frameworks for enforcement and dispute resolution. the stated goals for entering into a treaty often include reduction of double taxation, eliminating tax evasion, and encouraging cross - border trade efficiency. it is generally accepted that tax treaties improve certainty for taxpayers and tax authorities in their international dealings. several governments and organizations have proposed model treaties to use as starting points in their own negotiations. the organisation for economic co - operation and development ( oecd ) model treaty is often used as such a starting point. the oecd members have from time to time agreed on various provisions of the model treaty, and the official commentary and member comments thereon serve as a guidance as to interpretation by each member country. tax residency in general, the benefits of tax treaties are available only to persons who are residents of one of the treaty countries. in most cases, a resident of a country is any person that is subject to tax under the domestic laws of that country by reason of domicile, residence, place of incorporation, or similar criteria. generally, individuals are considered resident under a tax treaty and subject to taxation where they maintain their primary place of abode. however, residence for treaty purposes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5288818262764562, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.383831"} {"text": "of that country by reason of domicile, residence, place of incorporation, or similar criteria. generally, individuals are considered resident under a tax treaty and subject to taxation where they maintain their primary place of abode. however, residence for treaty purposes extends well beyond the narrow scope of primary place of abode. for example, many countries also treat persons spending more than a fixed number of days in the country as residents. the united states includes citizens and green card holders, wherever living, as subject to taxation, and therefore as residents for tax treaty purposes. because residence is defined so broadly, most treaties recognize that a person could meet the definition of residence in more than one jurisdiction ( i. e., \" dual residence \" ) and provide a \u201c tie breaker \u201d clause. such clauses typically have a hierarchy of three to five tests for resolving multiple residency, typically including permanent abode as a major factor. tax residency rarely impacts citizenship or permanent resident status, though certain residency statuses under a country ' s immigration law may influence tax residency. entities may be considered resident based on their country of seat of management, their country of organization, or other factors. the criteria are often specified in a treaty, which may enhance or override local law. it is possible under most treaties for an entity to be resident in both countries, particularly where a treaty is between two countries that use different standards for residence under their domestic law. some treaties provide \u201c tie breaker \u201d rules for entity residency, some do not. residency is irrelevant in the case of some entities and / or types of income, as members of the entity rather than the entity are subject to tax. permanent establishment most treaties provide that business profits ( sometimes defined in the treaty ) of a resident of one country are subject to tax in the other country only if the profits arise through a permanent establishment in the other country. many treaties, however, address certain types of business profits ( such as directors ' fees or income from the activities of athletes and entertainers ) separately. such treaties also define what constitutes a permanent establishment ( pe ). most but not all tax treaties follow the definition of pe in the oecd model treaty. under the oecd definition, a pe is a fixed place of business through which the business of an enterprise is carried on. certain locations are specifically enumerated as examples of pes, including branches, offices, workshops, and others. specific exceptions from the definition of pe are also provided, such as a site where only preliminary or ancillary activities ( such as ware", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5409624501216743, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.384895"} {"text": "certain locations are specifically enumerated as examples of pes, including branches, offices, workshops, and others. specific exceptions from the definition of pe are also provided, such as a site where only preliminary or ancillary activities ( such as warehousing of inventory, purchasing of goods, or collection of information ) are conducted. while in general tax treaties do not specify a period of time for which business activities must be conducted through a location before it gives rise to a pe, most oecd member countries do not find a pe in cases in which a place of business exists for less than six months, absent special circumstances. many treaties explicitly provide a longer threshold, commonly one year or more, for which a construction site must exist before it gives rise to a permanent establishment. in addition, some treaties, most commonly those in which at least one party is a developing country, contain provisions which deem a pe to exist if certain activities ( such as services ) are conducted for certain periods of time, even where a pe would not otherwise exist. even where a resident of one country does not conduct its business activities in another country through a fixed place or business, a pe may still be found to exist in that other country where the business is carried out through a person in that other country that has the authority to conclude contracts on behalf of the resident of the first country. thus, a resident of one country cannot avoid being treated as having a pe by acting through a dependent agent rather than conducting its business directly. however, carrying on business through an independent agent will generally not result in a pe. withholding taxes many tax systems provide for collection of tax from nonresidents by requiring payors of certain types of income to withhold tax from the payment and remit it to the government. such income often includes interest, dividends, royalties, and payments for technical assistance. most tax treaties reduce or eliminate the amount of tax required to be withheld with respect to residents of a treaty country. income from employment most treaties provide mechanisms eliminating taxation of residents of one country by the other country where the amount or duration of performance of services is minimal but also taxing the income in the country performed where it is not minimal. most treaties also provide special provisions for entertainers and athletes of one country having income in the other country, though such provisions vary highly. also most treaties provide for limits to taxation of pension or other retirement income. tax exemptions most treaties eliminate from taxation income of certain diplomatic personnel. most tax treaties also provide that certain entities exempt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5074555383464974, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.386045"} {"text": "of the country. the treaty may or may not provide mechanisms for limiting this credit, and may or may not limit the application of local law mechanisms to do the same. mutual enforcement taxpayers may relocate themselves and their assets to avoid paying taxes. some treaties thus require each treaty country to assist the other in collection of taxes and other enforcement of their tax rules. most tax treaties include, at a minimum, a requirement that the countries exchange of information needed to foster enforcement. tax information exchange agreement the purpose of this agreement is to promote international co - operation in tax matters through exchange of information. it was developed by the oecd global forum working group on effective exchange of information. the working group consisted of representatives from oecd member countries as well as delegates from aruba, bermuda, bahrain, cayman islands, cyprus, isle of man, malta, mauritius, the netherlands antilles, the seychelles and san marino. the agreement grew out of the work undertaken by the oecd to address harmful tax practices. the lack of effective exchange of information is one of the key criteria in determining harmful tax practices. the mandate of the working group was to develop a legal instrument that could be used to establish effective exchange of information. the agreement represents the standard of effective exchange of information for the purposes of the oecd \u2019 s initiative on harmful tax practices. this agreement, which was released in april 2002, is not a binding instrument but contains two models for bilateral agreements. a number of bilateral agreements have been based on this agreement. dispute resolution nearly all tax treaties provide some mechanism under which taxpayers and the countries can resolve disputes arising under the treaty. generally, the government agency responsible for conducting dispute resolution procedures under the treaty is referred to as the \u201c competent authority \u201d of the country. competent authorities generally have the power to bind their government in specific cases. the treaty mechanism often calls for the competent authorities to attempt to agree in resolving disputes. limitations of benefits recent treaties of certain countries have contained an article intended to prevent \" treaty shopping, \" which is the inappropriate use of tax treaties by residents of third states. these limitation of benefits articles deny the benefits of the tax treaty to residents that do not meet additional tests. limitation of benefits articles vary widely from treaty to treaty, and are often quite complex. the treaties of some countries, such as the united kingdom and italy, focus on subjective purpose for a particular transaction, denying benefits where the transaction was entered into in order to obtain benefits under the treaty. other countries, such as the united states, focus on the objective characteristics of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5028601289536558, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.388260"} {"text": ", such as the united kingdom and italy, focus on subjective purpose for a particular transaction, denying benefits where the transaction was entered into in order to obtain benefits under the treaty. other countries, such as the united states, focus on the objective characteristics of the party seeking benefits. generally, individuals and publicly traded companies and their subsidiaries are not adversely impacted by the provisions of a typical limitation of benefits provision in a u. s. tax treaty. with respect to other entities, the provisions tend to deny benefits where an entity seeking benefits is not sufficiently owned by residents of one of the treaty countries ( or, in the case of treaties with members of a unified economic bloc such as the european union or nafta, by \" equivalent beneficiaries \" in the same group of countries ). even where entities are not owned by qualified residents, however, benefits are often available for income earned from the active conduct of a trade or business. priority of law treaties are considered the supreme law of many countries. in those countries, treaty provisions fully override conflicting domestic law provisions. for example, many eu countries could not enforce their group relief schemes under the eu directives. in some countries, treaties are considered of equal weight to domestic law. in those countries, a conflict between domestic law and the treaty must be resolved under the dispute resolution mechanisms of either domestic law or the treaty. - pension tax relief - australian tax treaties - barbados tax treaties - canada income tax treaties - dutch tax treaties - mauritius tax treaties - singapore tax treaties - united kingdom tax treaties - u. s. income tax treaties - list of u. s. estate and gift tax treaties - the exchange of tax information portal - agreements on tariffs, while technically tax treaties, are generally called agreements on tariffs and trade. - see, e. g., the speech by professor mcintyre of michigan ' s wayne state university. - \" comments by new zealand revenue minister \". government of new zealand. - \" model treaty \". oecd. - \" official commentary \". oecd. - see, e. g., the oecd model tax convention on income and on capital, article 1 ( \" oecd model \" ) - see, e. g., oecd model, article 4. - see, e. g., the treaty between canada and belgium, article 4. - see, e. g., 26 u. s. c. sec. 7701 ( b ) for the u. s. \" substantial presence \" test for residency", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5009380320982577, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.389292"} {"text": "coleman, sa and nichols, e ( 2011 ) embedding inquiry based learning into programming via paired assessment. italics, 10 ( 1 ). pp. 72 - 77. [ journal article ] full text not available from this repository. changes within our approach to teaching can make some students feel uncomfortable. to overcome this, inquiry based learning, which is strongly supported by research in the areas of intellectual development and approaches to learning ( prince, 2007 ), can be used. inquiry based approaches should be introduced in combination with existing teaching styles in order to address the needs of all students. pair programming enhances the communication among peers and encourages students to ask questions of each other and be more ambitious in their computer programming practicals. the students subsequently gain confidence from one another to try different approaches to solving programming problems ; this enhances deeper learning. additionally, working in pairs provides some students with the courage to ask questions of the teacher while with their pair, which they may not do alone. this paper presents a case study on using pair programming to encourage inquiry based learning within programming modules, to improve attendance and practical assessment results. | item type : | | journal article | | faculties and schools : | | faculty of computing & engineering | faculty of computing & engineering > school of computing and intelligent systems | research institutes and groups : | | computer science research institute | computer science research institute > intelligent systems research centre | deposited by : | | dr sonya coleman | | deposited on : | | 11 jul 2011 09 : 06 | | last modified : | | 11 jul 2011 09 : 06 | repository staff only : item control page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5381259136956573, "token_count": 322, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.395849"} {"text": "the set of hamming codes are called ' forward error correction ' and give the ability for the receiving station to correct a transmission error. while this takes more bits to send the information, it means fewer retransmits and thus can actually speed up a noisy connection. the number of parity bits in the hamming code is given by the hamming rule. this is a function of the number of bits of information transmitted in a block and is represented by the following inequality : d + p + 1 > = 2p ' d ' is the number of data bits and ' p ' is the number of parity bits. hamming codes are identified by the ordered set ( c, d ) where ' c ' = ' d ' + ' p '. the hamming code ( 7, 4 ) is the classic example used which describes a word of 4 data bits long and 3 error check bits. this satisfies the above inequality : 4 + 3 + 1 > = 23 the hamming code word is created by multiplying the data bits by a generator matrix using modulo - 2 arithmetic. the result of this is called a code word vector which consists of the original data bits and the parity bits. the generator matrix used in constructing the hamming code consists of i ( the identity matrix ) and a parity generation matrix a. for a data size of 4 the following matrix is created : 1 0 0 0 | 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 | 0 1 1 g = 0 0 1 0 | 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 | 1 1 0 multiplying a 4 bit vector ( d1, d2, d3, d4 ) by g results in a 7 bit vector of the form ( d1, d2, d3, d4, p1, p2, p3 ). the a portion is what generates the parity bits. if the selection of the columns of a are unique, it is true that ( p1, p2, p3 ) is the parity calculations of three distinct subsets of the original data. to validate the code word, it is necessary to multiply the data word by ' h ' which is the [ inverse a | i ] check to form the parity check vector. h r | 1 | s | 1 0 1 1 | 1 0 0 | | 0 | | 0 | | 1 1 0 1 | 0 1 0 | * | 1 | = | 0 | | 1 1 1 0 | 0 0 1 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6035223751627141, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.400359"} {"text": "h r | 1 | s | 1 0 1 1 | 1 0 0 | | 0 | | 0 | | 1 1 0 1 | 0 1 0 | * | 1 | = | 0 | | 1 1 1 0 | 0 0 1 | | 0 | | 0 | if all the elements of s are 0, then the entire set has been received correctly. if there are any ' 1 ' s in s, then there is an error which can be determined by looking at the parity pits that have failed. if r = s will be this matches the third colum of ' h ' which corresponds to the bit that has the error. the ( 7, 4 ) hamming code, while good for demonstrations is not the best choice for practical communications - it has allot of overhead and has a non - standard length. the number of parity bits goes up with the log of the number of data bits. hence, there is less overhead for longer words than shorter words. the hamming code can detect and fix single bit errors, and detect double bit errors. for the ( 7, 4 ) hamming code, the following table ( error correcting bits are in bold ) : decimal binary hamming ( 7, 4 ) 0 0000 0000000 1 0001 0001110 2 0010 0010101 3 0011 0011011 4 0100 0100011 5 0101 0100011 6 0110 0110110 7 0111 0111000 8 1000 1000111 9 1001 1001001 10 1010 1010010 11 1011 1011100 12 1100 1100100 13 1101 1101010 14 1110 1110001 15 1111 1111111 the hamming distance from one valid error correcting set to another for the same data is three. this means that it would take three errors to go from one valid message to another. example : 0100010 ( not valid - correctable ) 0100000 ( not valid - not correctable ) it is left an excercise to the reader to demonstrate this is the case for all 127 possible cases that the minimum hamming distance between any two valid messages is three.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5973960112308374, "token_count": 444, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.401145"} {"text": "wart (? ), n. [ oe. werte, as. wearte ; akin to d. wrat, g. warze, ohg. warza, icel. varta, sw. vx86 ; rta, dan. vorte ; perh. orig., a growth, and akin to e. wort ; or cf. l. verruca wart. ] a small, usually hard, tumor on the skin formed by enlargement of its vascular papillae, and thickening of the epidermis which covers them. an excrescence or protuberance more or less resembling a true wart ; specifically bot., a glandular excrescence or hardened protuberance on plants. fig wart, moist wart med., a soft, bright red, pointed or tufted tumor found about the genitals, often massed into groups of large size. it is a variety of condyloma. called also pointed wart, venereal wart. l. a. duhring. - - wart cress bot., the swine ' s cress. see under swine. - - wart snake zool., any one of several species of east indian colubrine snakes of the genus acrochordus, having the body covered with wartlike tubercles or spinose scales, and lacking cephalic plates and ventral scutes. - - wart spurge bot., a kind of wartwort ( euphorbia helioscopia ). \u00a9 webster 1913.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5022436024750915, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.426404"} {"text": "what is geography? while the word geography is derived from greek and literally means \" to write about the earth, \" the subject of geography is much more than describing \" foreign \" places or memorizing the names of capitals and countries. geography is an all - encompassing discipline that seeks to understand the world - its human and physical features - through an understanding of place and location. geographers study where things are and how they got there. my favorite definitions for geography are \" the bridge between the human and physical sciences \" and \" the mother of all sciences. \" geography looks at the spatial connection between people, places, and the earth. how is geography different from geology? many people have an idea of what a geologist does but don ' t have any idea of what a geographer does. while geography is commonly divided into human geography and physical geography, the difference between physical geography and geology is often confusing. geographers tend to study the surface of the earth, its landscapes, its features, and why they are where they are. geologists look deeper into the earth than do geographers and study its rocks, the internal processes of the earth ( such as plate tectonics and volcanoes ), and study periods of earth history many millions and even billions of years ago. how does one become a geographer? an undergraduate ( college or university ) education in geography is an important beginning to becoming a geographer. with a bachelor ' s degree in geography, a geography student can begin working in a variety of fields. while many students begin their career after achieving an undergraduate education, others continue on. a master ' s degree in geography is very helpful for the student who desires to teach at the high school or community college level, to be a cartographer or gis specialist, of work in business or government. a doctorate in geography ( ph. d. ) is necessary if one wishes to become a full professor at a university. although, many ph. d. s in geography continue on to form consulting firms, become administrators in government agencies, or attain high - level research positions in corporations or think - tanks. the best resource for learning about colleges and universities that offer degrees in geography is the annual publication of the association of american geographers, the guide to programs in geography in the united states and canada. what does a geographer do? unfortunately, the job title of \" geographer \" is not often found in companies or government agencies ( with the most notable exception of the u. s. census bureau ). however, more and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5313963414067231, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.451353"} {"text": "looking at the definitions of again and wieder we ' re able to figure out which meanings are identical and which are different. 1 one more time ; on another occasion 1 druckt eine wiederholung aus ; ein weiteres mal, wie fruher schon einmal ; erneut 2 showing that somebody / something is in the same place or state that they were in originally 2 druckt eine ruckkehr in einen fruheren zustand aus ; druckt aus, dass etwas ruckgangig gemacht wird 3 added to an amount that is already there 4 used to show that a comment or fact is connected with what you have just said 5 ( then / there again ) used to introduce a fact or an opinion that contrasts with what you have just said 3 gleichzeitig, andererseits [ aber auch ] 6 used when you ask somebody to tell you something or repeat something that you think they have told you already 6 ( noch, doch ) druckt in fragesatzen aus, dass der sprecher nach etwas bekanntem fragt, was ihm im moment nicht einfallt as you can see there are two meanings of again that aren ' t represented by wieder. in the following sentence you can ' t use wieder in german. the cost is about half as much again as it was two years ago. and again, we must think of the cost. side note : there are also definitions of wieder that aren ' t covered by again ; hence, you can ' t translate wieder to again in every case. last but not least : in some sentences german natives would tend to use a synonym like nochmals where again is used in english. could you say it again, please? - kannst du das bitte nochmals sagen. the last definition is taken from the entry of doch.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5139037072868912, "token_count": 411, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.453037"} {"text": "the heating system of the winter moth when winter comes, many insect species inhabiting cold regions of the world die from cold or lack of food. that is because insects are delicate creatures, but there are some exceptions to this rule. for example, owl moths look like butterflies and at first sight seem very delicate. in reality, however, they are strong enough to survive tough winter conditions. therefore these moths are also called \" winter moths \". like butterflies, a winter moth has two wings and a trunk to which these wings are joined. in order for this moth to fly, the temperature of its thorax to which its wings are joined should be 30oc ( 86of ). but the temperature where they live is usually 0oc ( 32of ) and even drops below zero degrees from time to time. how can winter moths survive such cold? what prevents them from freezing when they are motionless, and what enables them to fly in cold weather? this moth species is created together with a special heating system that enables it to live under winter conditions. this system consists of several complementary features. before flight winter moths continuously tense the main muscles that are connected to the wings and make their wings vibrate. the rapid vibrating of the wings leads to an increase in the temperature of the insect ' s thorax. as a result of this increase, the temperature of the thorax may rise from 0oc ( 32of ) to 30oc ( 86of ) or even more. however, this is only one of the features that the moth needs to survive. in order to fly it is not sufficient for the winter moth merely to increase its body temperature. that is because the difference between the temperatures of the insect ' s body and of the atmosphere will result in loss of heat. in the same way as a glass of hot tea cools after a while, the moth ' s body will also cool. therefore it will not help even if the moth keeps its wings vibrating. in order for the winter moth to fly and thus survive, another method is required to maintain the heat it has produced. this need is also met by a special structure that allah created in the moth ' s body. moths are covered with dense scales that reduce heat loss. scientists have determined after research that a moth without scales cools twice as fast as those with scales. these are some of the mechanisms in a winter moth that protect it from cold. the features mentioned above must have existed since this moth species came into being. otherwise, the moth would have died of cold and this species would be extinct", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5295052306427165, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.459031"} {"text": "\" we hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their creator with inherent and inalienable rights ; that among these, are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. \" - us declaration of independence as originally written by thomas jefferson, 1776. \" i define equality of opportunity as the following : equality before the law. it is a career open to the talents. no arbitary obstacles should prevent people from achieving those positions for which their talents fit them and which their values lead them to seek. not birth, nationality, colour, religion, sex, nor any other irrelevent characteristic should determine the opportunitiues that are open to a person - only his abilities. equality of opportunity, like personal equality, is not inconsistent with liberty, on the contrary, it is an essential component of liberty. if some people are denied access to particular positions in life for which they are qualified simply because of their ethnic background, colour, or religion, that is an interference with their right to \" life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. \" - milton friedman, \" free to choose \" \" the authors are badly confused about equality. they are hung up on the term ' equality of opportunity. ' jefferson ' s ' equality ' in the declaration is, of course, what hayek called isonomia - equality before the law. philosopher robert nozick called it process equality, which he carefully distinguished from end - state - equality. the authors pursue the latter of those mutually exclusive concepts. \" - charles w. baird, review of \" the stakeholder society \" the struggle for the high school and the debate over its proper role in american democracy would focus once again a question that had recurred throughout american history and that would bedevil the nation in the 20th century. it was in some ways the central problem of modern democracy, for it was nothing less than the meaning of human \" equality \". was the good society one which allowed all citizens to develop their natural differences, including their natural inequalities? or was it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5464918291825693, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.493080"} {"text": "in some ways the central problem of modern democracy, for it was nothing less than the meaning of human \" equality \". was the good society one which allowed all citizens to develop their natural differences, including their natural inequalities? or was it a society which tried to make men equal? did \" equality \" mean the maximum fulfillment of each, or did it mean the levelling of all? this question was nowhere more sharply posed than in education, and especially in the high school. - daniel boorstin, \" the americans : the democratic experience \" all men are by nature... born equally free and independent... not a physical but a moral equality. common sense was sufficient to determine that it could not mean that all men were equal in fact, but in right, not equally tall, strong, wise, handsome, active, but equally men... the work of the same artist, children in the same cases entitled to the same justice. - john adams ' all men are created equal ' says the american declaration of independence. ' all men shall be kept equal ' say the socialists. - winston churchill let our children grow tall, and some taller than others if they have it in them to do so. let a thousand flowers bloom, and if some are prettier than others, so be it. - robert locke we have so many people who can ' t see a fat man standing beside a thin one without coming to the conclusion that the fat man got that way by taking advantage of the thin - ronald reagan you do not make the weak strong by making the strong weak. it is the character of egalitarian measures that they pull down what is above. they never raise what is below. beware dependency on the state. - edmund burke, 1770. those who attempt to level, never equalize... very plausible schemes, with very pleasing commencements, have often shameful and lamentable conclusions. - edmund burke socialists make the mistake of confusing individual worth with success. they believe you cannot allow people to succeed in case those who fail feel worthless. - kenneth baker even if it were proved - which it is not - that the incidence of men of potentially superior brain power is greater among the members of certain races than among the members of others, it would still tell us nothing about any given individual and it would be irrelevent to one ' s judgment of him. a genius is still a genius, regardless of the number of morons who belong to the same race. democracy extends the sphere", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.551238014876112, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.494001"} {"text": "would still tell us nothing about any given individual and it would be irrelevent to one ' s judgment of him. a genius is still a genius, regardless of the number of morons who belong to the same race. democracy extends the sphere of individual freedom, socialism restricts it. democracy attaches all possible value to each man ; socialism makes each man a mere agent, a mere number. democracy and socialism have nothing in common but one word : equality. but notice the difference : while democracy seeks equality in liberty, socialism seeks equality in restraint and servitude. - alexis de tocqueville a society that puts equality - in the sense of equality of outcome - ahead of freedom will end up with neither equality or freedom. the use of force to achieve equality will destroy freedom. on the other hand, a society that puts freedom first will, as a happy by - product, end up with both greater freedom and greater equality. freedom means diversity but also mobility. it preserves the opportunity for today ' s less well off to become tomorrow ' s rich, and in the process, enables almost everyone, from top to bottom, to enjoy a richer and fuller - milton friedman, \" free to choose \" the urge to distribute wealth equally, and still more the belief that it can be brought about by political action, is the most dangerous of all popular emotions. it is the legitimation of envy, of all the deadly sins the one which a stable society based on consensus should fear the most. the monster state is a source of many evils ; but it is, above all, an engine of envy. - paul johnson there exists in the human heart a depraved taste for equality, which impels the weak to attempt to lower the powerful to their own level, and reduces men to prefer equality in slavery to inequality with freedom. - alexis de tocqueville everything that i have experienced and everything that i have read about socialist experiments in the field of equality convinces me that, not only is equality of outcome an evil myth, but that all attempts to engineer it, that is, to rig the race, are certain to end where they have ended from the french to the russian revolutions : the guillotine and the gallows. hierarchy is vital to any human project. in a storm, no mass meeting is a substitute for a captain on deck to shoulder responsibility. - eoghan harris, \" the irish independent \" socialism was always a crappy philosophy based on the stupid idea that we couldn ' t allow anybody", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5287715787680656, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.494932"} {"text": ". in a storm, no mass meeting is a substitute for a captain on deck to shoulder responsibility. - eoghan harris, \" the irish independent \" socialism was always a crappy philosophy based on the stupid idea that we couldn ' t allow anybody to succeed in life becacause if would make the rest of us feel like failures. good riddance to that. - marc coleman, urging a new approach for the left in \" the irish independent \" my experience of life tells me that equality is a hopeless cause. from the minute you are born, you are unequal to others born on that same day and in the same location, and there is nothing any state directive can do about it. you may be born plain - looking. this is one of the greatest disadvantages in life. to be born handsome is to have a first - class ticket on the journey of life. you may be born to two rather stout parents, in which case you have an inherited genotype which will make you fat however many diets your torment yourself like the ideal of chastity, the ideal of equality is a war against nature, and in wars against nature, nature usually wins. philosophers say that liberty, equality, fraternity - that trio of aspirations still stamped on official french documents - are contradictions in terms. you can never have both liberty and equality : you have to choose. i ' ll take liberty. - mary kenny, \" no such thing as equality \", \" the irish independent \" equality has always been a threat to liberty, since you can never have both. one person ' s \" equality \" is another person ' s lack of choice. the state which enforces \" equality \" will trample on liberty. the nation which embraces \" liberty \" will always be an unequal one, since free individuals will make different and thereby - mary kenny, \" the irish independent \" it is a terrible misunderstanding of meritocracy to assume it means everyone is somehow ( or could be ) of equal merit, with equal success. innate ability varies, obviously enough. merit varies. all cannot have prizes, though all can do well in some way. no one believes these days that anyone should be held back by some long - discredited idea of knowing your place or getting above your station. we do live in a meritocracy, imperfect though it is, and few people would wish to change that. however, the painful truth is that meritocracy is cruel. it offers no excuses to those who donit do well.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5059434701689531, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.497869"} {"text": "page 3 of 3 although kilby probably thought of the integrated circuit a bit before noyce both texas and fairchild filed for patents and a long legal wrangle developed between the two. one of the key points of contention was the use of flying interconnecting wires in the kilby diagram - was this really a true integrated circuit? kilby had realised the problem while the patent was being written and added some lines about being able to use any method of interconnection for instance gold tracks laid down on an insulating layer of silicon dioxide. where this additional idea had sprung from is unknown but it certainly placed kilby ' s chip alongside noyce ' s in terms of sophistication. the patent lawyers argued that kilby ' s postscript wouldn ' t work because gold wouldn ' t stick to silicon dioxide and used experts to try to undermine kilby ' s design. the patent was initially awarded to kilby, or rather to texas instruments. then the appeal judge, in 1966 roughly ten years on, reversed the decision and awarded the patent to noyce, in other words to fairchild. by this time it didn ' t make any difference because the two firms had got together to carve up the market between them. they each charged a royalty of between 2 to 4 % which alone eventually earned them somewhere in the region of $ 100 million each. i say \" eventually \" because when both companies announced the technique in 1959 there were few takers. the reason was the high price of the relatively low component count chips that could be made. it was cheaper to build the same out of discrete components. surprisingly it wasn ' t the mainstream computer industry that initially created the market for integrated circuits. it was the combination of the space race and military electronics which needed the low weight and reliability of integrated circuits at any price. as the price fell and the number of components increased, a trend that continues today. first mainframe computers started to incorporate replacement printed circuit boards using chips in place of transistors and then whole integrated circuit computers were designed. next came the minicomputer and then the microcomputer and we are still waiting to see where it will all end. so what happened to kilby and noyce after the chip? irrespective of the outcome of the patent wrangle they are both generally credited as the co - inventor of the integrated circuit - both were awarded the national ( usa ) medal of science and inducted into the national inventor ' s hall of fame. kilby stayed with ti for some time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5580564257059757, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.504104"} {"text": "##an. \u201d ( saheeh muslim, and the first part of this hadeeth was mentioned above ). - note that cheating is haraam whether it is in foreign language tests or any other tests. the prophet ( peace and blessings of allaah be upon him ) said, \u201c whoever cheats is not one of us. \u201d it is wrongdoing and it is a haraam means of attaining a degree or certificate, etc., that you have no right to. the consensus is that cheating is a kind of cooperation in sin and transgression. so do without that which is haraam, and allaah will suffice you from his bounty. reject all offers of haraam things that come to you from others. whoever gives up a thing for the sake of allaah, allaah will compensate him with something better. you have to denounce and resist evil, and tell the authorities about any such thing that you see during the exam, or before or after it. this is not the forbidden kind of slander rather it is denouncing evil which is obligatory. advise those who buy or sell questions or post them on the internet etc., or who prepare cheat notes. tell them to fear allaah, and tell them of the ruling on what they are doing and on the money they earn from that. tell them that the time they are spending in preparing these haraam things, if they spent it in studying, or answering previous exams, or helping one another to understand the subject before the exam, that would be better for them than doing these haraam things. - remember what you have prepared for the hereafter, and the questions of the examination in the grave, and how to be saved on the day of resurrection. whoever is saved from the fire and admitted to paradise will indeed have succeeded. we ask allaah to make us succeed in this world and cause us to be among those who are victorious and saved in the hereafter, for he is the all - hearing who answers prayer. sheikh muhammed salih al - munajjid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5272525990942883, "token_count": 425, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.542640"} {"text": "we got hit by one 1, 200 years ago. it came from two colliding neutron stars from a few thousand light years away and scientists were just now able to pick it up because of the existence of carbon - 14 in tree rings. what did it do around the year 775 ad? pretty much nothing. the estimate two - second blast had really zero effect on the earth since the most high tech thing on the planet at the time was the castle and the crossbow. had that blast happened today we would be in some serious trouble since it would short out power grids and knock out all of our satellites. if the blast happened from say, 100 light years away, we would have been a crispy cinder. these gamma ray bursts were the result of the creation of a black hole from the collision of the neutron stars. so you ' ll have to excuse science for taking a while to figure this mystery out since there ' s no evidence visible. had it been a supernova, people would have seen it in the 700s because it would have been so bright it would have been visible during the day. had it been a solar flare, it would have been the largest flare every recorded. the black hole theory pretty much settles everything. except, when is this going to happen again? ( buy this awesome book on space by neil degrasse tyson - the guy that killed pluto. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5085729981138636, "token_count": 281, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.597961"} {"text": "\u2014 internaciona idokonfero, 23 - 29 julio 2012, dessau ( germania ) \u2014 the esperanto suffix - id means child. from bovo ( cow ) we form bovido ( calf ) ; from hundo ( dog ) we form hundido ( puppy ). ido is a child of esperanto, the first of many esperanto \" reform \" projects. ido shares much of esperanto ' s vocabulary, but replaces many germanic and slavic roots with their romantic counterparts. nonetheless, speakers of either language can read the other with little difficulty. as in esperanto, antonyms can be formed by use of the appropriate prefix. one thing that i find intriguing about ido is that although this sort of antonym formation is both possible and acceptable, ido also provides a greater number of unique antonyms for common terms than esperanto does, and in many cases these antonyms are the same as those words which you will find marked literary in an esperanto dictionary. in both esperanto and ido, adjectives end in - a. but in esperanto, adjectives must agree in number and case with the nouns they qualify. an adjective in the plural must have the suffix - j appended ; and if in the accusative, it will also need - n. ido does away with adjectival agreement, and requires the accusative only when nonstandard word order is used. in esperanto and many other languages, words for people and animals refer either to the male or to neither sex specifically, with the word for the female being derived by use of a suffix. some say that this is sexist because it is demeaning to the female ; i would argue the opposite, that it is demeaning to the male for he has no suffix to call his own. this was probably not a sexism issue in the early 20th century, but it was a logical issue and one that zamenhof wished to address but for some reason never did. esperantists have proposed several solutions and some are fairly common today. the ido approach is this : the root word is epicene ( specifies neither sex, or either sex, depending how you look at it ) ; the suffix - ul denotes the male, and - in the female. thus we speak of an aktoro ( actor ) ; if we wish to specify sex, we can refer to this person as an aktorulo or an ak", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.512816938518063, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.602378"} {"text": "' s right, researchers believe too little sleep can affect growth and your immune system \u2014 which keeps you from getting sick. as you ' re drifting off to sleep, it doesn ' t seem like much is happening... the room is getting fuzzy and your eyelids feel heavier and heavier. but what happens next? a lot! your brain swings into action, telling your body how to sleep. as you slowly fall asleep, you begin to enter the five different stages of sleep : in this stage, your brain gives the signal to your muscles to relax. it also tells your heart to beat a little slower, and your body temperature drops a bit. after a little while, you enter stage 2, which is a light sleep. you can still be woken up easily during this stage. for example, if your sister pokes you or you hear a car horn outside, you ' ll probably wake up. when you ' re in this stage, you ' re in a deeper sleep, also called slow - wave sleep. your brain sends a message to your blood pressure to get lower. your body isn ' t sensitive to the temperature of the air around you, which means that you won ' t notice if it ' s a little hot or cold in your room. it ' s much harder to be awakened when you ' re in this stage, but some people may sleepwalk or talk in their sleep at this point. this is the deepest sleep yet and is also considered slow - wave sleep. it ' s very hard to wake up from this stage of sleep, and if you do wake up, you ' re sure to be out of it and confused for at least a few minutes. like they do in stage 3, some people may sleepwalk or talk in their sleep when going from stage 4 to a lighter stage of sleep. r. e. m. stands for rapid eye movement. even though the muscles in the rest of your body are totally relaxed, your eyes move back and forth very quickly beneath your eyelids. the r. e. m. stage is when your heart beats faster and your breathing is less regular. this is also the stage when people dream! while you ' re asleep, you repeat stages 2, 3, 4, and r. e. m. about every 90 minutes until you wake up in the morning. for most kids, that ' s about four or five times a night. who said sleep was boring? dream a little dream you ' re walking down the street and you pass a monkey in a green hat eating a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5189785358192666, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.779788"} {"text": "you wake up in the morning. for most kids, that ' s about four or five times a night. who said sleep was boring? dream a little dream you ' re walking down the street and you pass a monkey in a green hat eating a donut. suddenly you ' re in school \u2014 but why does your teacher have such big teeth? and how come you ' re wearing polka - dot pants? no, this isn ' t a scene from a scary movie \u2014 it ' s a dream! people dream during r. e. m. sleep, the period that follows the deepest stage of sleep. everybody has dreams, although some people have a tough time remembering them. when you wake up can affect whether you can remember your dreams. if you wake up during r. e. m. sleep, you might remember everything about your dream. if you wake up during another stage of sleep, you might not remember a thing. no one knows for sure why people dream. some scientists think that dreams are your brain ' s way of making sense of what happened during the day. others think that dreams allow your brain to sort through the events of the day, storing the important stuff and getting rid of the junk. some scientists say that dreams are a clue to what you ' re worried about or thinking about. for most kids, sleeping comes pretty naturally. here are some tips to help you catch all the zzzs you need : try to go to bed at the same time every night ; this helps your body get into a routine. follow a bedtime routine that is calming, such as taking a warm bath or reading. limit foods and drinks that contain caffeine. these include some sodas and other drinks, like ice tea. don ' t have a tv in your room. research shows that kids who have one in their rooms sleep less. if you have a tv, turn it off when it ' s time to sleep. don ' t watch scary tv shows or movies close to bedtime because these can sometimes make it hard to fall asleep. don ' t exercise just before going to bed. do exercise earlier in the day \u2014 it helps a person sleep better. use your bed just for sleeping \u2014 not doing homework, reading, playing games, or talking on the phone. that way, you ' ll train your body to associate your bed with sleep. if you have a hard time falling asleep for more than one or two nights or have worries that are keeping you from sleeping, tell your mom or dad. they can help you solve", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5082074740044793, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.782023"} {"text": "definition of leyte 1. noun. a battle in world war ii ; the return of united states troops to the philippines began with landings on leyte island in october 1944 ; the battle marked first use of kamikaze aircraft by the japanese. generic synonyms : amphibious assault group relationships : second world war, world war 2, world war ii geographical relationships : philippine islands, philippines click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term : leyte images lexicographical neighbors of leyte literary usage of leyte below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and / or classical literature : 1. report by united states board on geographic names, united states geographic board ( 1916 ) \"... barrio, maasin municipality, leyte province, leyte.... bay, east coast, and town, leyte province, leyte.... leyte pw - ince, leyte, ( not jubas. 1 )... \" 2. general kenney reports : a personal history of the pacific war by george c. kenney ( 1997 ) \" the battle for leyte gulf october, 1944 on the 16th, with general macarthur and... halsey radioed that he would support us in the leyte area with two fast... \" 3. united states coast pilot, philippine islands by u. s. coast and geodetic survey ( 1919 ) \"... side to avoid the stronger current and whirlpools on the leyte side... as foul ground lies between it and the leyte shore. east coast of leyte.... \" 4. the inhabitants of the philippines by frederic henry read sawyer ( 1900 ) \" area and population \u2014 panay \u2014 negros \u2014 cebu \u2014 bohol \u2014 leyte \u2014 samar. this name is given to the group of six considerable islands lying between luzon and mindanao,... \" other resources relating to : leyte", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5039506879358667, "token_count": 392, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.810051"} {"text": "by michael f. reber abstract : in today \u2019 s society, a peculiar understanding of distributive justice has developed which holds that \u201c social justice must be distributed by the coercive force of government. \u201d however, this is a perversion of the ideal of distributive justice. the perspective of distributive justice which should be considered is one with its roots in the school of thought referred to as self - actualization ethics or eudaimonism, which holds that each person is unique and each should discover whom he or she is \u2014 to actualize his or her true potential and to live the \u201c good life \u201d within the congeniality and complementarity of personal excellences of his or her fellow members of community. when a eudaimonistic perspective is considered, a definition of distributive of justice could be \u201c the allocation of goods and utilities via the voluntary ubiquitous human interaction of self - actualizing individuals who not only recognize the human dignity of the self and other and the rights which flow from and guarantee it, but also actively will goods and utilities toward the self and other so as to manifest human dignity. \u201d therefore, with a eudaimonistic understanding of distributive justice, one can argue that the free market is the ubiquitous interactions of self - actualizing individuals who are giving and receiving goods and utilities for one and another \u2019 s own \u201c happiness, \u201d i. e. the free market is the socio - economic mechanism by which distributive justice operates. in this paper i first will overview the philosophical foundations of distributive justice. next, i will propose a eudaimonistic definition of distributive justice. finally, i will highlight examples of distributive justice operating in a free market economy.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5962967816352109, "token_count": 371, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.813256"} {"text": "salmonella \u201c syringe \u201d ready for its close - up salmonella bacteria are tiny, but they wreak mighty havoc on human health, causing serious, sometimes fatal, food poisoning. in 1998, jorge galan, ph. d., d. v. m., the lucille p. markey professor of microbial pathogenesis, threw new light on salmonella \u2019 s virulence when his research team revealed that the bacteria infects cells by forming \u201c needle complexes, \u201d syringe - like tubes through which salmonella exchanges proteins with its host. now galan and his colleagues have joined forces with the laboratory of vinzenz m. unger, ph. d., associate professor of molecular biophysics and biochemistry, to paint a vivid three - dimensional portrait of the salmonella syringe using a state - of - the - art technique known as cryoelectron microscopy. in this method, an electron microscope scans samples that contain many copies of the object of interest suspended in an ice - like solid at every possible angle ( background in image at right ). researchers then feed scores of images of the object seen from these myriad perspectives to powerful computers, which combine the information in the two - dimensional views to calculate the object \u2019 s three - dimensional structure.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5411150759157315, "token_count": 261, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.852536"} {"text": "this is the third post on richard l. bushman ' s mormonism : a very short introduction ( oup, 2008 ). [ see part 1 and part 2. ] in chapter three, bushman reviews the several meanings of the term \" zion \" in lds doctrine and thinking. the mormon sense of zion has no real parallels in protestant thought. in a general sense, zion refers to mormon community and society, a larger concept than just the lds church as a religious institution. here ' s how bushman explains it. from the beginning, mormons have actively sought unity. they aspire to be a people, thinking of themselves as a society as much as a church. their common ground goes beyond belief and worship to work, education, family, and business. this comprehensiveness goes back to their origins, when joseph smith first organized the church. i suspect what bushman gently terms \" comprehensiveness \" is what rubs some religious contemporaries the wrong way about mormonism, giving rise to recurrent charges of being cultish or un - american. but comprehensiveness also describes the earliest religious settlers in 17th - century new england. you can ' t get more american than the pilgrims, who also thought of themselves as trying to establish a model religious community. the early quest for mormon unity led to experiments in economic communalism. these did not go well, and by 1839 the attempt had been quietly abandoned. while zion or the related term \" zion society \" is still applied by some to these short - term economic experiments, the terms at present are more often used to refer to principles of economic justice and compassion that are realized through service to others, sacrifice for the benefit of those in need, and modest living. at present, zion means something like this : applying the principles of charitable communal living within the free market, private property economy of the 21st century. but the zion concept doesn ' t simply refer to a set of principles. the lds church makes it a program, and a remarkably successful one. here ' s bushman again : out of the early zion principles also evolved the mormon sense of how to care for the poor. the scriptural condemnation of inequality in the early years was less an attack on the systemic inequalities of capitalism than an admonition to watch over the needy. in the twentieth century, the consecration principle took the form of a welfare program begun during the great depression to provide work and sustenance for poor church members. the church now owns farms, canning plants, and manufacturing facilities where the poor work producing the goods", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5449729100033235, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.889683"} {"text": "the twentieth century, the consecration principle took the form of a welfare program begun during the great depression to provide work and sustenance for poor church members. the church now owns farms, canning plants, and manufacturing facilities where the poor work producing the goods they need to subsist. in just the last few years, the lds church has also expanded the scope of its humanitarian aid efforts outside the lds community. again, it ' s not just a wish, it ' s a program : mormon helping hands. the website explanation even includes a 14 - page manual telling local units how to make it work. one could cite scripture or conference talks for a more doctrinally oriented summary of the term zion, but i think the lds welfare program ( to benefit latter - day saints in need ) and the helping hands program ( to channel service toward worthwhile projects in local communities ) are themselves the best expression of what zion means in practice to modern latter - day saints. i ' ll wind up with some general comments on mormonism : a very short introduction. it is a short and very readable introduction for the non - lds reader, but also full of insightful descriptions and observations for the lds reader. it is certainly worth picking up and reading if you run across it at your local library or bookstore. originally posted with comments at beliefnet.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5080581288883856, "token_count": 269, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.890507"} {"text": "to die anyhow, before senility set in. furthermore, his ' divine sign ' - the ' voice ' he sometimes heard warning him for his own good against a contemplated course of action - had prevented him from spending time crafting a defence speech. ( this voice seems to have been the basis for the charge of introducing ' new ' gods. ) so he would do nothing to soften his manner in order to win his freedom. even if this story is true, plato could be right that socrates put on a spirited, deeply serious defence of his life and beliefs - one that he thought should have convinced the jurors of his innocence, if only they had judged him intelligently and fairly. in cross - examining those with reputations for wisdom about human affairs and showing their lack of it, socrates employed a special method of dialectical argument that he himself had perfected, the method of ' elenchus ' - greek for ' putting to the test ' or ' refutation '. he gives an example at his trial when he cross - examines meletus, one of his accusers ( plato, apology 24d - 27e ). the respondent states a thesis, as something he knows to be true because he is wise about the matter in question. socrates then asks questions, eliciting clarifications, qualifications and extensions of the thesis, and seeking further opinions of the respondent on related matters. he then argues, and the respondent sees no way not to grant, that the original thesis is logically inconsistent with something affirmed in these further responses. for socrates, it follows at once that the respondent did not know what he was talking about in stating his original thesis : true knowledge would prevent one from such self - contradiction. so the respondent suffers a personal set - back ; he is refuted - revealed as incompetent. meletus, for example, does not have consistent ideas about the gods or what would show someone not to believe in them, and he does not have consistent ideas about who corrupts the young, and how ; so he does not know what he is talking about, and no one should take his word for it that socrates disbelieves in the gods or has corrupted his young men. in many of his early dialogues plato shows socrates using this method to examine the opinions of persons who claim to be wise in some matter : the religious expert euthyphro on piety ( euthyphro ), the generals laches and nicias on courage ( lac", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5042178381754477, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.941624"} {"text": ", and are quite willing to admit their ignorance and to reason out the truth about these important matters. examples are his discussions with his long - time friend crito on whether he should escape prison and set aside the court ' s death sentence ( plato, crito ), and with the young men charmides, on self - control ( charmides ), and lysis and menexenus, on the nature of friendship ( lysis ). socrates examines crito ' s proposal that he escape on the basis of principles that he presents to him for his approval, and he, together with crito ( however half - heartedly ), rejects it when it fails to be consistent with them. and he examines the young men ' s successive ideas about these virtues, rejecting some of them and refining others, by relying on their own acceptance of further ideas that he puts to them. again, he is confident that the inconsistencies brought to light in their ideas indicate the inadequacy of their successive proposals as to the nature of the moral virtue in question. in many of his discussions, both with young men and the allegedly wise, socrates seeks to know what some morally valuable property is - for example, piety, courage, self - control or friendship ( see \u00a7 5 ). rejecting the idea that one could learn this simply from attending to examples, he insisted on an articulated ' definition ' of the item in question - some single account that would capture all at once the presumed common feature that would entitle anything to count as a legitimate instance. such a definition, providing the essence of the thing defined, would give us a ' model ' or ' paradigm ' to use in judging whether or not some proposed action or person possesses the moral value so defined ( euthyphro 6d - e ). aristotle says ( in metaphysics i, 6 ) that socrates was the first to interest himself in such ' universal definitions ', and traces to his interest in them plato ' s first impetus towards a theory of forms, or ' separated ' universals ( see plato \u00a7 10 ). in none of his discussions in plato ' s early works does socrates profess to think an adequate final result has actually been established - about the nature of friendship, or self - control, or piety, or any of the other matters he inquires about. indeed, on the contrary, these works regularly end with professions of profound ignorance about the matter under investigation. knowledge is never attained, and further questions always remain to be considered. but socrates", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5581372215415976, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.943621"} {"text": ", or any of the other matters he inquires about. indeed, on the contrary, these works regularly end with professions of profound ignorance about the matter under investigation. knowledge is never attained, and further questions always remain to be considered. but socrates does plainly think that progress towards reaching final understanding has taken place ( even if only a god, and no human being, could ever actually attain it ). not only has one discovered some things that are definitely wrong to say ; one has also achieved some positive insights that are worth holding onto in seeking further systematic understanding. given that socrates ' method of discussion is elenctic throughout, what does he think justifies this optimism? on balance, our evidence suggests that socrates had worked out no elaborate theory to support him here. the ideas he was stimulated to propound in an elenctic examination which went against some initial thesis seemed to him, and usually also to the others present, so plausible, and so supportable by further considerations, that he and they felt content to reject the initial thesis. until someone came up with arguments to neutralize their force, it seemed the thesis was doomed, as contrary to reason itself. occasionally socrates expresses himself in just those terms : however unpalatable the option might seem, it remains open to someone to challenge the grounds on which his conclusions rest ( see euthyphro 15c, gorgias 461d - 462a, 509a, crito 54d ). but until they do, he is satisfied to treat his and his interlocutor ' s agreement as a firm basis for thought and action. later, when plato himself became interested in questions of philosophical methodology in his meno, this came to seem a philosophically unsatisfactory position ; plato ' s demand for justification for one ' s beliefs independent of what seemed on reflection most plausible led him to epistemological and metaphysical inquiries that went well beyond the self - imposed restriction of socratic philosophy to ethical thought in the broadest sense. but socrates did not raise these questions. in this respect more bound by traditional views than plato, he had great implicit confidence in his and his interlocutors ' capacity, after disciplined dialectical examination of the issues, to reach firm ground for constructing positive ideas about the virtues and about how best to lead a human life - even if these ideas never received the sort of final validation that a god, understanding fully the truth about human life, could give them. the topics socrates discussed were always ethical, and never included questions of physical", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5393078185215238, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.945957"} {"text": "about how best to lead a human life - even if these ideas never received the sort of final validation that a god, understanding fully the truth about human life, could give them. the topics socrates discussed were always ethical, and never included questions of physical theory or metaphysics or other branches of philosophical study. moreover, he always conducted his discussions not as theoretical inquiries but as profoundly personal moral tests. questioner and interlocutor were equally putting their ways of life to what socrates thought was the most important test of all - their capacity to stand up to scrutiny in rational argument about how one ought to live. in speaking about human life, he wanted his respondents to indicate what they truly believed, and as questioner he was prepared to do the same, at least at crucial junctures. those beliefs were assumed to express not theoretical ideas, but the very ones on which they themselves were conducting their lives. in losing an argument with socrates you did not merely show yourself logically or argumentatively deficient, but also put into question the very basis on which you were living. your way of life might ultimately prove defensible, but if you cannot now defend it successfully, you are not leading it with any such justification. in that case, according to socrates ' views, your way of life is morally deficient. thus if menexenus, lysis and socrates profess to value friendship among the most important things in life and profess to be one another ' s friends, but cannot satisfactorily explain under pressure of elenctic investigation what a friend is, that casts serious doubt on the quality of any ' friendship ' they might form ( plato, lysis 212a, 223b ). moral consistency and personal integrity, and not mere delight in argument and logical thought, should therefore lead you to repeated elenctic examination of your views, in an effort to render them coherent and at the same time defensible on all sides through appeal to plausible arguments. or, if some of your views have been shown false, by conflicting with extremely plausible general principles, it behoves you to drop them - and so to cease living in a way that depends upon accepting them. in this way, philosophical inquiry via the elenchus is fundamentally a personal moral quest. it is a quest not just to understand adequately the basis on which one is actually living, and the personal and moral commitments that this contains. it is also a quest to change the way one lives as the results of argument show one ought to, so", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5154039270271518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.947171"} {"text": "courageous, or wise? if you did not know that, you would not know what to do in order to acquire those qualities. furthermore, supposing you did possess a virtue, you would have to be able to explain and defend by argument the consequent ways in which you lived - otherwise your conviction that those are ways one ought to act would be shallow and unjustified. and in order to do that you would have to know what state of mind the virtue was, since that is essential to them ( see plato, charmides 158e - 159a ). consequently, in his discussions socrates constantly asked for ' definitions ' of various virtues : what is courage ( laches ) ; what is self - control or moderation ( charmides ), what is friendship ( lysis ) and what is piety ( euthyphro ). as this context shows, he was asking not for a ' dictionary definition ', an account of the accepted linguistic understanding of a term, but for an ethically defensible account of an actual condition of mind or character to which the word in common use would be correctly applied. in later terminology, he was seeking a ' real ' rather than a ' nominal ' definition ( see definition ; plato \u00a7 \u00a7 6 - 9 ). socrates objected to definitions that make a virtue some external aspect of a virtuous action ( such as the manner in which it is done - for example its ' quiet ' or measured quality in the case of moderation, charmides 160b - d ), or simply the doing of specific types of action, described in terms of their external circumstances ( such as, for courage, standing one ' s ground in battle ; laches 190e - 191d ). he also objected to more psychological definitions that located a virtue in some non - rational and non - cognitive aspect of the soul ( for example, in the case of courage, the soul ' s endurance or strength of resistance ) ( laches 192d - 193e ). for his own part, he regularly shows himself ready to accept only definitions that identify a virtue with some sort of knowledge or wisdom about what is valuable for a human being. that ' intellectualist ' expectation about the nature of virtue, although never worked out to his satisfaction in any platonic dialogue, is central to socrates ' philosophy. given that in his discussions he is always the questioner, probing the opinions of his respondent and not arguing for views of his own, we never find socrates stating clearly what led him to this intellectualism", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.508750485081334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.950433"} {"text": "dialogue, is central to socrates ' philosophy. given that in his discussions he is always the questioner, probing the opinions of his respondent and not arguing for views of his own, we never find socrates stating clearly what led him to this intellectualism. probably, however, it was considerations drawn from the generally agreed premise that each virtue is a condition motivating certain voluntary actions, chosen because they are good and fine or noble. he took it that what lies behind and produces any voluntary action is the idea under which it is done, the conception of the action in the agent ' s mind that makes it seem the thing to do just then. if so, each virtue must be some state of the mind, the possessor of which constantly has certain distinctive general ideas about how one ought to behave. furthermore, since virtues get this right, these are true ideas. and since a virtuous person acts well and correctly in a perfectly reliable way, they must be seated so deeply in the mind as to be ineradicable and unwaveringly present. the only state of mind that meets these conditions is knowledge : to know a subject is not just to be thoroughly convinced, but to have a deep, fully articulated understanding, being ready with explanations to fend off objections and apparent difficulties and to extend old principles into new situations, and being prepared to show with the full weight of reason precisely why each thing falling under it is and must be so. each virtue, then, must be knowledge about how one ought to behave in some area of life, and why - a knowledge so deep and rationally secure that those who have it can be counted upon never to change their minds, never to be argued out of or otherwise persuaded away from, or to waver in, their conviction about how to act. in plato ' s protagoras socrates goes beyond this, and identifies himself with the position, rejected by protagoras in their discussion, that the apparently separate virtues of justice, piety, self - control, courage and wisdom are somehow one and the same thing - some single knowledge ( 361a - b ). xenophon too confirms that socrates held this view ( memorabilia iii 9. 5 ). protagoras defends the position that each of the virtues is not only a distinct thing from each of the others, but so different in kind that a person could possess one of them without possessing the others ( 329d - e ). in opposing him, socrates sometimes speaks plainly of two allegedly distinct virtues being", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5379771422960037, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.951510"} {"text": "of alternative sources of motivation that produce voluntary action on their own ( see stoicism \u00a7 19 ). in fact, during hellenistic times it was the socratic, ' unitary ' psychology of action that carried the day ; the platonic - aristotelian alternative, dominant in the ' common sense ' and the philosophy of modern times, was a minority view. the issues socrates raised about weakness of will continue to be debated today. socrates drew to himself many of the brightest and most prominent people in athens, securing their fascinated attention and their passionate friendship and support. his effectiveness as a philosopher, and the socratic ' legend ' itself, depended as much on the strength and interest of his personality as on the power of his mind. plato ' s and xenophon ' s portraits of socrates as a person differ significantly, however. plato ' s socrates is aloof and often speaks ironically, although also with unusual and deeply held moral convictions ; paradoxically, the depth and clarity of his convictions, maintained alongside the firm disclaimer to know what was true, could seem all the stronger testimony to their truth, and made them felt the more strongly as a rebuke to the superficiality of one ' s own way of living. in xenophon, socrates is also sometimes ironical and playful, especially in the symposium, but his conversation is usually direct, even didactic, and often chummy in tone ; his attitudes are for the most part conventional though earnest ; and there is nothing to unsettle anyone or make them suspect hidden depths. it is much easier to believe that the socrates of plato ' s dialogues could have had such profound effects on the lives of the brightest of his contemporaries than did the character in xenophon. that is one reason given for trusting plato ' s more than xenophon ' s portrait of the historical personage. but perhaps socrates used the more kindly and genial manner and conventional approach depicted by xenophon to draw out the best in some of his young men and his friends - ones who would have been put off by the platonic subtleties. the historical socrates may have been a more complex person than even plato presents. plato and xenophon both represent socrates as strongly attracted to good - looking young men in the ' bloom ' of their middle to late teens, just the period when they were also coming of age morally and intellectually. in both he speaks of himself as unusually ' erotic ' by temperament and constantly ' in love '. but he explains his ' erotic ' attachments in terms", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.50144140983466, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.957729"} {"text": "' philosophy. the academic arcesilaus interpreted the platonic socrates as a sceptical inquirer, avidly searching but never satisfied that the truth on any disputed question had been finally uncovered. he could point to much about plato ' s socrates in support : his modest but firm denial that he possessed any knowledge, and his constant practice of inquiring into the truth by examining others ' opinions on the basis of ideas which they themselves accepted, without formally committing himself to these ideas even when he was the one to first suggest them. arcesilaus, however, applied his sceptical socratic dialectic to more than the questions of ethics and human life about which socrates himself had argued, making it cover the whole range of philosophical topics being investigated in his day. the stoics read the dialogues ( especially the euthydemus and protagoras ) quite differently. they found socrates espousing a complete doctrine of ethics and the psychology of human action. he posed his questions on the basis of this doctrine, leaving the respondent ( and the reader ) to recover for themselves the philosophical considerations underlying it. they thus emphasized the conceptions of virtue as knowledge, of virtue as unified in wisdom, and of voluntary action as motivated always by an agent ' s beliefs about what is best to do, that emerged through socrates ' examination of protagoras ( see \u00a7 \u00a7 6 - 7 ). they thought these constituted a positive, socratic moral philosophy, and in their own moral theory they set out to revive and strengthen it with systematic arguments and with added metaphysical and physical speculations of their own. later stoics regularly referred to socrates as a genuine wise man or ' sage ', perhaps the only one who ever lived. he had brought to final, systematic perfection his knowledge, along stoic lines, of what is good and bad for human beings, and what is not, and therefore possessed all the virtues and no vices, and lived unwaveringly the best, happy life, free from emotion and all other errors about human life. it is a tribute to the complexity and enigmatic character of socrates that he could stand simultaneously as a paragon both of sceptical, non - committal inquiry and life led on that uncommitted basis, and of dogmatic knowledge of the final truth about all things human. the figure of socrates has continued to fascinate and to inspire ever - new interpretations of his innermost meaning. for montaigne, he proved that human beings can convincingly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5036107761257024, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.961203"} {"text": "and of dogmatic knowledge of the final truth about all things human. the figure of socrates has continued to fascinate and to inspire ever - new interpretations of his innermost meaning. for montaigne, he proved that human beings can convincingly and attractively order their own lives from their own resources of mind, without direction from god or religion or tradition. in the nineteenth century kierkegaard and nietzsche offered extensive interpretations of him, both heavily dependent upon hegel ' s absolute - idealist analysis. hegel interpreted socrates as a quintessentially negative thinker, aiming at making people vacillate in their superficial moral beliefs and endorse none of them wholeheartedly, thus hinting that the truth, although universal and objective, lies deep within the freedom of their own subjectivity. for kierkegaard he represents, on the contrary, the possibility of living wholeheartedly by occupying an unarticulated position somehow beyond the negative rejection but expressed through it : ' infinite absolute negativity '. in die geburt der tragodie ( the birth of tragedy ) nietzsche treats socrates principally as having poisoned the ' tragic ' attitude that made possible the great achievements of classical culture, by insisting that life should be grounded in rational understanding and justified by ' knowledge ' ; but his fascinated regard for socrates led him to return to him repeatedly in his writings. socrates was paradigmatically a philosopher whose thought, however taken up with logic and abstract argument, is inseparable from the search for self - understanding and from a deeply felt attachment to the concerns of human life. his power to fascinate and inspire is surely not exhausted. john m. cooper", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5063369848707803, "token_count": 341, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.962801"} {"text": "today \u2019 s topic was chosen by gautum u, who attends caltech. he specifically asked for a \u201c serious blog post \u201d as opposed to a \u201c satire \u201d for this one. ( interestingly, the only other person who asked explicitly for a serious post was someone who chose the topic of free will for the 30th. it seems that philosophy is quite some serious business. ) what is the purpose of existence? it \u2019 s one of the most profound questions of metaphysics. it is even broader than the humanized form, what is the meaning of life? this specific one asks why we are here. but to be more general, we should ask, why is anything here? let us ask, why does earth exist? scientifically, there \u2019 s no real reason. take a look at the following : this image, known famously as the \u201c pale blue dot \u201d picture, was snapped by the voyager 1 spacecraft in 1991. that tiny pixel right there is earth, viewed from 4 billion miles away. indeed, from the scale of space, earth is just a speck of dust. galaxies, astronomers estimate, have 100 billion stars each. and there might be 100 billion galaxies in the visible universe. and according to the still debated multiverse theory, our universe may be only a tiny bubble in a vast sea of universes. and our earth is but one of the thousands of objects floating the sun. and humans have been on earth for only a tiny fraction of its history. it is like you are looking at an infinite beach, and you point at one grain of sand, and you ask, \u201c why does this grain of sand exist? \u201d it seems this is the wrong question. we should instead ask, \u201c why does this beach exist? \u201d why does the universe ( or multiverse ) exist? again, there doesn \u2019 t seem to be any intrinsic purpose. if you believe in god, you would say, the universe or multiverse exists because god created it. but then this turtles down to why does god exist? by most definitions of god, we would never be able to know. so generalizing the question does not seem like the right thing to do either, as it gets us nowhere. if it \u2019 s futile to ask why an atom exists, and also futile why the universe exists, then what is there to ask? why we exist. human beings. gautam \u2019 s topic as originally stated was \u201c the purpose of our existence \u201d ( emphasis added ). just like atoms to the entire universe, we don", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5449813289477167, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.965650"} {"text": "martin harwit has argued that we cannot have made more than ten per cent of the crucial discoveries in astronomy. he uses what john barrow aptly calls ` the proof - readers argument '. if two independent readers look at a manuscript then it is possible to estimate, by comparing their different results, how many errors there must be in total, including those not identified. in an analogous way two independent astronomical channels ( say optical and x - ray ) can be used to examine the universe and a comparison of their separate key discoveries will yield an estimate of the numbers still to be found. in any case with so little data to work on it shouldn ' t be too difficult to devise a plausible theory to account for them. it is, however, sobering to compare the cosmological situation with the history of other sciences. take geology. men were living on the earth for millions of years, and quarrying rock, digging mines and canals and puzzling over its fossils for thousands of years, before unexpected palaeomagnetic patterns revealed for certain the key idea of continental drift. in stellar physics two thousand years elapsed between hipparcos ' s speculations and bessel ' s first measurement of a stellar distance. seventy years later the statistical patterns in the h - r diagram led to our understanding of stellar structure. however the closest comparison comes from my own field of galaxy astronomy which is, as an observational science, almost exactly contemporary with cosmology. although we now have good spectra and images of thousands of galaxies the list of fundamental things we don ' t know about them ( table 3 ) is far more striking that the list of things we do. | 1. | | how our knowledge is warped by selection effects. | | 2. | | what they are mostly made of. ( dark matter? ) | | 3. | | how they formed - and when. | | 4. | | how much internal extinction they suffer from. | | 5. | | what controls their global star - formation rates. | | 6. | | what parts their nuclei and halos play. | | 7. | | if there are genuine correlations among their global properties. | | 8. | | how they keep their gas / star balances. | of course these are only arguments by analogy. the optimistic cosmologist can always counter argue [ i don ' t know how ] that the universe in the large is a great deal simpler than its constituent parts.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5682914929517676, "token_count": 502, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.968128"} {"text": "| annu. rev. astron. astrophys. 1991. 29 : copyright \u00a9 1991 by. all rights reserved several major themes have emerged from the preceding discussion : | 1. | | in most or all galaxies, globular clusters are distinctly more metal - poor, by [ fe / h ] ~ - 0. 5, than the spheroid - population field stars. | | 2. | | both the average and range of cluster metallicity increase with galaxy size. these correlations parallel the ones for the metallicities of the galaxies themselves, and support the view that similar enrichment processes generated both types of halo subsystems. | | 3. | | globular clusters in all galaxies have similar, though not identical, luminosity distributions. for distance scale purposes, the calibrations of gclfs are not yet adequate for use as high - precision ( \u00b1 0. 2 - mag ) standard candles. the present data are, however, sufficient to exert strong theoretical constraints favoring a universal cluster formation process insensitive to metallicity and with only modest later influences from dynamical evolution in most of the halo. | | 4. | | in giant ellipticals, gcss are often ( but not always ) more spatially extended than the halo light. a few have been shown to have higher velocity dispersions as well, and thus to form a dynamically different halo population than the spheroid stars. | | 5. | | in most large galaxies, the inner ~ 1 - 2 kpc of their spheroids have probably been almost totally depopulated of globular clusters through many dynamical mechanisms. at larger rgc, the effectiveness of these mechanisms falls off rapidly, leaving only gradual erosive processes. it is not yet clear if these processes act much differently in practice for disk galaxies as opposed to ellipticals. | | 6. | | in today ' s universe, few globular clusters are being formed ( that is, the formation of dense clusters with a characteristic mass ~ 105 - 6 m is extremely rare ). though there is no reason to believe that the processes of star cluster formation 15 gy ago were fundamentally different than today, the prevailing physical conditions of the protocluster gas then clearly favored more massive objects. the formation of globular clusters was an early, but secondary, process ( that is, clearly associated with their surrounding protogalaxies ). | | 7. | | arguments based on gcs spatial distributions, metallicity", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5327548880345099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.973172"} {"text": "more massive objects. the formation of globular clusters was an early, but secondary, process ( that is, clearly associated with their surrounding protogalaxies ). | | 7. | | arguments based on gcs spatial distributions, metallicity distributions, and dynamics suggest that the high - sn giant ellipticals such as in virgo and fornax did not form by mergers of disk galaxies or dwarfs. the merger scenario is, however, more viable for e galaxies in sparse environments ( smaller groups and the field ) and perhaps for some cd galaxies. | how else may we use gcss to understand the formation of galaxies? on the observational side, we need to fill in the many areas that are presently sketched out only with broad brush strokes : | 1. | | the metallicity distribution of gcs has proven to be an effective touchstone of interpretive models. we need to accumulate spectra of clusters in a wider variety of galaxies, combined with multicolor photometry in metallicity - sensitive indices. | | 2. | | luminosity function work has just begun to be exploited. for example, the luminosity distributions of clusters within rgc 3 kpc in giant galaxies should carry the strongest imprint of dynamical evolution ; direct observations could be straightforwardly made in many galaxies. larger samples of clusters taken from the rich virgo and fornax systems will reveal fine structure in the gclf and provide essential constraints on eventual theoretical modelling. and deep photometry of clusters in additional near - field galaxies should finally tell us how accurate gclfs can be as distance indicators. in addition, the brightest globulars in giant e galaxies may prove to be useful long - range standard candles. | | 3. | | it is possible that the globular clusters in central giant ellipticals such as m87 are the oldest visible objects in the universe. high - s / n spectra of them, compared with integrated spectra of milky way globulars and fitted with population synthesis codes, may lead to useful age determinations relative to the milky way halo and to stronger limits on the hubble time. | | 4. | | modern spectroscopic and imaging techniques are finally putting a complete and accurate understanding of the important m31 cluster system within reach. | | 5. | | the advent of large - format ccd arrays will enable us to study the large - scale structures of globular cluster systems far more quantitatively and accurately. | | 6. | | comprehensive radial velocity surveys", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5457415888676784, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.974273"} {"text": "reach. | | 5. | | the advent of large - format ccd arrays will enable us to study the large - scale structures of globular cluster systems far more quantitatively and accurately. | | 6. | | comprehensive radial velocity surveys of gcss can place unique limits on the large - scale mass distribution of galaxies, and on the orbital characteristics of the halo clusters. for gcss at or beyond virgo - like distances, the velocity measurements do press the limits of current technology, but this field will be a rich mine for the new generation of 8 - meter - class telescopes to explore. | on the theoretical side, recommendations for future work may be easy to prescribe but will be hard to execute. a formation model specific enough to predict an initial cluster mass spectrum as a function of density and metallicity would be a major achievement. the dynamical evolution of gcss within galaxies of different types also needs to be modelled more comprehensively, with the eventual goal of predicting the full evolution of the gclf as a function of parent galaxy type and galactocentric distance. because they are virtually the only remaining witnesses to the long - vanished first epoch of galaxy formation, globular clusters stand among the most powerful cosmological probes that we have. although many intriguing new results and questions have emerged from the observational work of the past decade, we have also confirmed that globular cluster systems resemble each other rather closely. thus by extending our study of these remarkable objects, we are uncovering a common theme in the earliest history of the galaxies. it is a pleasure to give credit for projects, conversations, and ideas generated together over the years to many colleagues and friends, including david hanes, gretchen harris, hugh harris, jim hesser, chris pritchet, sidney van den bergh, malcolm smith, michael fall, and richard larson. the healthy state of our field today owes a great deal especially to the vision of rene racine, who in the 1970s first set in motion much of the work discussed above. i am pleased to acknowledge the hospitality of kitt peak national observatory, and d. and m. gehret of the orinda imac, as well as financial support from the natural sciences and engineering research council of canada.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5658046843635867, "token_count": 463, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:36.975209"} {"text": "david m. lane values of pearson ' s correlation, variance sum law, measures of variability the collection of data involves measurement. measurement of some characteristics such as height and weight are relatively straightforward. the measurement of psychological attributes such as self esteem can be complex. a good measurement scale should be both reliable and valid. these concepts will be discussed in turn. the notion of reliability revolves around whether you would get at least approximately the same result if you measure something twice with the same measurement instrument. a common way to define reliability is the correlation between parallel forms of a test. letting \" test \" represent a parallel form of the test, the symbol rtest, test is used to denote the reliability of the test. true scores and error assume you wish to measure a person ' s mean response time to the onset of a stimulus. for simplicity, assume that there is no learning over tests which, of course, is not really true. the person is given 1, 000 trials on the task and you obtain the response time on each trial. the mean response time over the 1, 000 trials can be thought of as the person ' s \" true \" score, or at least a very good approximation of it. theoretically, the true score is the mean that would be approached as the number of trials increases indefinitely. an individual response time can be thought of as being composed of two parts : the true score and the error of measurement. thus if the person ' s true score were 345 and their response on one of the trials was 358, then the error of measurement would be 13. similarly, if the response time were 340, the error of measurement would be - 5. now consider the more realistic example of a class of students taking a 100 - point true / false exam. let ' s assume that each student knows the answer to some of the questions and has no idea about the other questions. for the sake of simplicity, we are assuming there is no partial knowledge of any of the answers and for a given question a student either knows the answer or guesses. finally, assume the test is scored such that a student receives one point for a correct answer and loses a point for an incorrect answer. in this example, a student ' s true score is the number of questions they know the answer to and their error score is their score on the questions they guessed on. for example, assume a student knew 90 of the answers and guessed correctly on 7 of the remaining 10 ( and therefore incorrectly on 3 ). their true score would be 90 since that is the number", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5842415659543178, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.010904"} {"text": "score is their score on the questions they guessed on. for example, assume a student knew 90 of the answers and guessed correctly on 7 of the remaining 10 ( and therefore incorrectly on 3 ). their true score would be 90 since that is the number of answers they knew. their error score would be 7 - 3 = 4 and therefore their actual test score would be 90 + 4. every test score can be thought of as the sum of two independent components, the true score and the error score. this can be written as : the following expression follows directly from the variance sum law : reliability in terms of true scores and error it can be shown that the reliability of a test, rtest, test, is the ratio of true - score variance to test - score variance. this can be written as : download pdf of derivation it is important to understand the implications of the role the variance of true scores plays in the definition of reliability : if a test were given in two populations for which the variance of the true scores differed, the reliability of the test would be higher in the population with the higher true - score variance. therefore, reliability is not a property of a test per se but the reliability of a test in a given population. assessing error of measurement the reliability of a test does not show directly how close the test scores are to the true scores. that is, it does not reveal how much a person ' s test score would vary across parallel forms of test. by definition, the mean over a large number of parallel tests would be the true score. the standard deviation of a person ' s test scores would indicate how much the test scores vary from the true score. this standard deviation is called the standard error of measurement. in practice, it is not practical to give a test over and over to the same person and / or assume that there are no practice effects. instead, the following formula is used to estimate the standard error of measurement. where smeasurement is the standard error of measurement, stest is the standard deviation of the test scores, and rtest, test is the reliability of the test. taking the extremes, if the reliability is 0 then the standard error of measurement is equal to the standard deviation of the test ; if the reliability is perfect ( 1. 0 ) then the standard error of measurement is 0. it is important to make measures as reliable as is practically possible. suppose an investigator is studying the relationship between spatial ability and a set of other variables. the higher the reliability of the test of spatial ability, the higher", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5707295489789878, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.013159"} {"text": "standard error of measurement is 0. it is important to make measures as reliable as is practically possible. suppose an investigator is studying the relationship between spatial ability and a set of other variables. the higher the reliability of the test of spatial ability, the higher the correlations will be. similarly, if an experimenter seeks to determine whether a particular exercise regiment decreases blood pressure, the higher the reliability of the measure of blood pressure, the more sensitive the experiment. more precisely, the higher the reliability the higher the power of the experiment. power is covered in detail here. finally, if a test is being used to select students for college admission or employees for jobs, the higher the reliability of the test the stronger will be the relationship to the criterion. two basic ways of increasing reliability are ( 1 ) to improve the quality of the items and ( 2 ) to increase the number of items. items that are either too easy so that almost everyone gets them correct or too difficult so that almost no one gets them correct are not good items : they provide very little information. in most contexts, items which about half the people get correct are the best ( other things being equal ). items that do not correlate with other items can usually be improved. sometimes the item is confusing or ambiguous. increasing the number of items increases reliability in the manner shown by the following formula : where k is the factor by which the test length is increased, rnew, new is the reliability of the new longer test, and rtest, test is the current reliability. for example, if a test with 50 items has a reliability of. 70 then the reliability of a test that is 1. 5 times longer ( 75 items ) would be calculated as follows. which equals 0. 78. thus increasing the number of items from 50 to 75 would increase the reliability from 0. 70 to 0. 78. it is important to note that this formula assumes the new items have the same characteristics as the old items. obviously adding poor items would not increase the reliability as expected and might even decrease the reliability. more information on reliability from william trochim ' s knowledge source the validity of a test refers to whether the test measures what it is supposed to measure. the three most common types of validity are face validity, empirical validity, and construct validity. we consider these types of validity below. a test ' s face validity refers to whether the test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. that is, does the test \" on its face \" appear to measure what it is supposed to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5158162005444213, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.014185"} {"text": "validity. we consider these types of validity below. a test ' s face validity refers to whether the test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. that is, does the test \" on its face \" appear to measure what it is supposed to be measuring. an asian history test consisting of a series of questions about asian history would have high face validity. if the test included primarily questions about american history then it would have little or no face validity as a test of asian history. predictive validity ( sometimes called empirical validity ) refers to a test ' s ability to predict the relevant behavior. for example, the main way in which sat tests are validated is by their ability to predict college grades. thus, to the extent these tests are successful at predicting college grades they are said to possess predictive validity. construct validity is more difficult to define. in general, a test has construct validity if its pattern of correlations with other measures is in line with the construct it is purporting to measure. construct validity can be established by showing a test has both convergent and divergent validity. a test has convergent validity if it correlates with other tests that are also measures of the construct in question. divergent validity is established by showing the test does not correlate highly with tests of other constructs. of course, some constructs may overlap so the establishment of convergent and divergent validity can be complex. to take an example, suppose one wished to establish the construct validity of a new test of spatial ability. convergent and divergent validity could be established by showing the test correlates relatively highly with other measures of spatial ability but less highly with tests of verbal ability or social intelligence. reliability and predictive validity the reliability of a test limits the size of the correlation between the test and other measures. in general, the correlation of a test with another measure will be lower than the test ' s reliability. after all, how could a test correlate with something else as high as it correlates with a parallel form of itself? theoretically it is possible for a test to correlate as high as the square root of the reliability with another measure. for example, if a test has a reliability of 0. 81 then it could correlate as high as 0. 90 with another measure. this could happen if the other measure were a perfectly reliable test of the same construct as the test in question. in practice, this is very unlikely. a correlation above the upper limit set by reliabilities can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5564158713532993, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.015216"} {"text": "constitutionalism : a skeptical view new york university school of law may 1, 2012 nyu school of law, public law research paper no. 10 - 87 this paper examines the ideology that goes by the name of \" constitutionalism. \" the first part of the paper considers the significance of \" written constitutions \" the second part of the paper casts a skeptical eye at conceptions of constitutionalisim that emphasize \" limited \" government. once \" limited government \" is contrasted carefully with \" restrained government \" ( restraints upon specific actions by government ) and with \" controlled government \" ( e. g. insistence upon democratic control ), we see that the association of constitutionalism with general limitations on the scope of government ought to make it a much more controversial ideal than the general anodyne acceptance of the term \" constitutionalism \" might lead us to expect. finally, the anti - democratic implications of constitutionalism are explored. the paper argues that, by insisting on limited government, constitutionalism downplays the important role that constitutions have to perform in the modern world in establishing and securing specifically democratic authority. number of pages in pdf file : 46 keywords : authority, constitution, constitutionalism, constitutional law, democracy, judicial review, limited government, rights, written constitutionaccepted paper series date posted : december 11, 2010 ; last revised : may 5, 2012 \u00a9 2013 social science electronic publishing, inc. all rights reserved. this page was processed by apollo4 in 0. 859 seconds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5481143512253455, "token_count": 298, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.028559"} {"text": "sent in by : brooke of alberta, canada and nirav of pleasanton, ca play it again, sam. - 3 glasses of each of 3 different sizes and shapes ( 9 glasses total ) - 4 glasses of the same size and shape - different liquids like vinegar, water, milk, tomato juice, maple syrup, oil or apple juice - check with a grown - up before you begin. - in the zoomsci, glass xylophone, and in the online gizmo, tunes & spoons, you can experiment with the different sounds made by glasses holding different amounts of the same liquid. - now ' s your chance to experiment with other variables like the kind of liquid in the glass or the size and shape of the glass itself. - first, find out if different kinds of liquids change the sound made by tapping the glass with a spoon. - pour the same amounts of different kinds of liquids into the same kind of glass. try liquids that are thick and gooey like maple syrup as well as liquids that are runny like water. - tap the same spot on each glass. do the different liquids produce different sounds? how are the sounds different? - touch the glass after you tap it with the spoon. do the vibrations from each glass feel different? what is it about each liquid that might change the sound the glass makes? - next, find out if the shape or size of the glass makes a difference in the sound made by tapping the glass with a spoon. - pour the same amount of the same liquid into three glasses of different sizes and shapes. tap each glass with the spoon. does it make a different sound than the other glasses? how are the sounds different? - touch the glass after you tap it with the spoon. do the vibrations from each glass feel different? what is it about the shape and size of the glass that changes the sound? ready for the science scoop? when an object vibrates, it sends a disturbance through the air in the form of waves. these are called sound waves. it ' s like when you drop a pebble into water and the waves ripple out in all directions. sound waves in the air are sort of like waves in the water in the way that they move farther and farther out from the center where the disturbance was created. when you tap a glass filled with liquid, the liquid slows down the vibrations or sound waves. different liquids slow down the sound waves by different amounts. the differences in the sounds you hear are called pitch. the pitch of a sound depends on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5485835561414127, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.038474"} {"text": ". when you tap a glass filled with liquid, the liquid slows down the vibrations or sound waves. different liquids slow down the sound waves by different amounts. the differences in the sounds you hear are called pitch. the pitch of a sound depends on how fast the object making the sound vibrates ( how fast the sound waves move away from the object. ) a glass that vibrates slowly produces slow sound waves and a low pitch sound. a glass that produces a high pitch vibrates quickly, making sound waves move fast. see how many different pitches you can make using glasses and liquids. can you play a song with them? give it a try and send your results to zoom! shayla, age 10 wrote : it made high sounds tre, age 14 of jefferson city, mo wrote : the glasses made different sounds no matter what the variable was. if the liquids were different, but the glasses were the same, it was different. if the liquids were the same, but the glasses were different, it was still different. when everything was different, it was completely different. we used glass containers and glass cups and they were all different sizes. we used oil, vinegar, and water. the oil was the thickest and the vinegar was the thinnest. the water was in between. we tried to use all three liquids in three different glasses and put the sounds in order. it sounded like a messed up xylophone. when we put the same liquids in three different glasses then the sounds were different. we did different liquids in the same type of glass. they all made different sounds. the oil made the lowest sound and the vinegar mad the highest sound. the water was in between. it was fun! nicki, age 11 of jefferson city, mo wrote : it made different sounds depending on the glasses we used. we used vinegar, water, and used vegetable oil. the vinegar was the highest because it was the thinest, the water was in the middle and the used vegetable oil made the lowest sound. the glasses we used were 3 tiny wine glasses, 3 glass tostitos salsa containers, and 3 regular glass cups. roslyn, age 13 of jefferson city, mo wrote : well when we did it, we could almost play a song from a commercial. it was really fun. even though our xylophone wasn ' t all the way in order, it was good enough. clara, age 11 of bexley, oh wrote : i just used water but at different levels and it made sounds that were higher when", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5546130001075957, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.039520"} {"text": "liquid crystals, the state of matter that makes possible the flat screen technology now commonly used in televisions and computers, may have some new technological tricks in store. writing today ( may 3, 2012 ) in the journal nature, an international team of researchers led by university of wisconsin - madison professor of chemical and biological engineering juan j. de pablo reports the results of a computational study that shows liquid crystals, manipulated at the smallest scale, can unexpectedly induce the molecules they interact with to self - organize in ways that could lead to entirely new classes of materials with new properties. \" from an applied perspective, once we get to very small scales, it becomes incredibly difficult to pattern the structure of materials. but here we show it is possible to use liquid crystals to spontaneously create nanoscale morphologies we didn ' t know existed, \" says de pablo of computer simulations that portray liquid crystals self - organizing at the molecular scale in ways that could lead to remarkable new materials with scores of technological applications. as their name implies, liquid crystals exhibit the order of a solid crystal but flow like a liquid. used in combination with polarizers, optical filters and electric fields, liquid crystals underlie the pixels that make sharp pictures on thin computer or television displays. liquid crystal displays alone are a multibillion dollar industry. the technology has also been used to make ultrasensitive thermometers and has even been deployed in lasers, among other applications. the new study modeled the behavior of thousands of rod - shaped liquid crystal molecules packed into nano - sized liquid droplets. it showed that the confined molecules self organize as the droplets are cooled. \" at elevated temperatures, the droplets are disordered and the liquid is isotropic, \" de pablo explains. \" as you cool them down, they become ordered and form a liquid crystal phase. the liquid crystallinity within the droplets, surprisingly, induces water and other molecules at the interface of the droplets, known as surfactants, to organize into ordered nanodomains. this is a behavior that was not known. \" in the absence of a liquid crystal, the molecules at the interface of the droplet adopt a homogeneous distribution. in the presence of a liquid crystal, however, they form an ordered nanostructure. \" you have two things going on at the same time : confinement of the liquid crystals and an interplay of their structure with the interface of the droplet, \" notes de pablo. \" as you lower the temperature the liquid crystal starts to become organized and imprints that order into the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6123049365353554, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.050820"} {"text": "at the same time : confinement of the liquid crystals and an interplay of their structure with the interface of the droplet, \" notes de pablo. \" as you lower the temperature the liquid crystal starts to become organized and imprints that order into the surfactant itself, causing it to self assemble. \" it was well known that interfaces influence the order or morphology of liquid crystals. the new study shows the opposite to be true as well. \" now you can think of forming these ordered nanophases, controlling them through droplet size or surfactant concentration, and then decorating them to build up structures and create new classes of materials, \" says de pablo. as an example, de pablo suggested that surfactants coupled to dna molecules could be added to the surface of a liquid crystal droplets, which could then assemble through the hybridization of dna. such nanoscale engineering, he notes, could also form the basis for liquid crystal based detection of toxins, biological molecules, or viruses. a virus or protein binding to the droplet would change the way the surfactants and the liquid crystals within the droplet are organized, triggering an optical signal. such a technology would have important uses in biosecurity, health care and biology research settings. explore further : physicists develop revolutionary low - power polariton laser", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5936030025598953, "token_count": 269, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.051447"} {"text": "a constant shower of subatomic particles rains down from space. a hundred years ago, this \" cosmic radiation \" was discovered by the austrian physicist victor franz hess. among other things, the discovery laid the foundation for a whole new field of research : high energy physics - which recently gave us, for instance, the first experimental evidence for the higgs boson. an anniversary conference looks at the past milestones of cosmic ray research and at future experiments. when hess landed his hydrogen balloon at bad saarow in the german state of brandenburg at lunchtime on 7 august 1912, he had on board a discovery with far - reaching consequences, which he surely wasn ' t fully aware of at that very time. at his seventh balloon voyage in the course of this year, equipped with three ionization measuring instruments, hess had just identified the existence of a pervasive radiation in 5300 metres altitude above the schwieloch lake in the southeast of brandenburg. only later it became evident that this so - called cosmic radiation was comprised mostly of energetic, electrically charged atomic nuclei. the discovery of cosmic rays won hess the nobel prize in physics 24 years later. \" the detection of the cosmic radiation was the discovery of a century and brought us completely new insights into the cosmos, \" says prof. christian stegmann, head of the desy institute at zeuthen near berlin. \" furthermore it became a cornerstone of early particle physics. before the development of particle accelerators, cosmic ray research led to the discovery of many important elementary particles, among them the anti - particle of the electron - the positron - as well as the muon and the pion. \" desy, the university of potsdam, and the max planck institute for the history of science in berlin jointly organise a symposium on the 100th anniversary of the discovery of cosmic rays. from 6 to 8 august 2012, scientists from all over the world will meet in bad saarow, where hess landed his balloon, to present and discuss the development of various sub - areas ranging from the historic beginnings up to ideas for new projects. along with physics nobelist prof. james cronin, one of the designers of today ' s largest cosmic ray observatory \" pierre auger \" in argentina, and the 14th astronomer royal prof. sir arnold wolfendale, hess ' grandsons william and arthur breisky have also registered for the conference. a memorial stone will be unveiled, participants may book balloon flights, and electroscopes that were then used all over the world to carry out ion", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5971440581121523, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.056128"} {"text": "wolfendale, hess ' grandsons william and arthur breisky have also registered for the conference. a memorial stone will be unveiled, participants may book balloon flights, and electroscopes that were then used all over the world to carry out ionisation measurements will be on display. \" the advent of a centenary is a time for both looking back at the development of the subject and forwards : ' where do we go from here? ', \" says sir wolfendale. \" cosmic ray research has led to new areas of research, including ' the new astronomies ' and the future for them is bright, indeed. neutrino astronomy is on the verge of starting and gamma ray astronomy has begun in earnest. \" physicists expect to gain new insights into the nature of cosmic particle accelerators, which are a million times stronger than the best accelerators on earth, from gramma ray astronomy. single protons from the cosmic radiation may have as much energy as a powerfully - hit tennis ball, but due to their electric charge, the fast particles are deflected by numerous magnetic fields as they travel through the cosmos. this means that one cannot retrace their point of origin from their direction of flight when they hit the earth. therefore, a hundred years since their discovery, the mystery of the origin of cosmic rays is far from being solved. \" the universe is full of natural particle accelerators, as for example in supernova explosions, in binary star systems, or in active galactic nuclei. so far, only 150 of these objects are known to us, and we have just an initial physical understanding of these fascinating systems, \" says stegmann. in contrast to what the name might suggest, cosmic radiation is mostly comprised of particles, but a small fraction is indeed gamma radiation, which is not deflected on its way through space and thus points directly to its source. as physicists expect the sources of cosmic gamma radiation to be the same as for cosmic particles, they are on the hunt for cosmic particle accelerators with specialised gamma ray observatories. observatories like h. e. s. s. in namibia, named in honour of the discoverer of cosmic radiation, magic on the canary island la palma, and veritas in the united states, with desy participation, detected more than hundred high - energy cosmic gamma radiation sources by now. the planned cherenkov telescope array cta, for which desy is currently building a first prototype telescope will follow this path of discovery. \" the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5339573017530421, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.057147"} {"text": "researchers at disney research, zurich, eth zurich, and cornell university have invented a system to digitize facial hair and skin. capturing facial skin and geometry is a fundamental technology for a variety of computer - based special effects for movies. conventional face capturing is well established and widely utilized in the entertainment industry to capture a three - dimensional model of an actor ' s face. however, up to now, no method was capable of reconstructing facial hair or even handling it appropriately. this omission is surprising as facial hair is an important component of our popular culture. the system developed by the disney research laboratory in zurich constitutes a significant technical breakthrough in the field of digitizing human faces and was presented at acm siggraph, the international conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques. \" our method captures individual strands of facial hair and stores them separately from the actual human face. this approach allows us to ' shave ' people with facial hair virtually with the computer. \" said thabo beeler, a computer scientist at disney research, zurich, who is the main inventor of the technology. the system employs several consumer - grade photo cameras to capture a face in a fraction of a second. the method then automatically detects hairs in the captured images. these hairs are being tracked and followed in the input images, much like we follow a path on a map with our fingers. a mathematical method called multi - view stereo ( mvs ) reconstructs them in three dimensions. the trick the researchers applied is to remove the hair strands from the input images similar to an artist painting over parts of a picture. this process makes the 3d skin surface to look as if it were digitally shaved. the system was applied to a large variety of different facial hair styles, ranging from designer stubbles all the way to wild mustaches, to demonstrate its robustness. the produced results look very compelling. prof. markus gross, director of disney research, zurich, stated, \" the long - term goal of our research is to make facial animation and special effects more realistic and ultimately indistinguishable from reality. this method is going to be a very important step toward this long term goal \". explore further : researchers develop fast, economical method for high - definition video compositing more information : for more information, please visit the web site at www. disneyresearch. com / research / projects / cv _ reconfacialhair _ drz. htm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5459944312309918, "token_count": 496, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.059755"} {"text": "new a team of researchers including scientists from the university of florida has shown insect colonies follow some of the same biological \" rules \" as individuals, a finding that suggests insect societies operate like a single \" superorganism \" in terms of their physiology and life cycle. for more than a century, biologists have marveled at the highly cooperative nature of ants, bees and other social insects that work together to determine the survival and growth of a colony. the social interactions are much like cells working together in a single body, hence the term \" superorganism \" \u2014 an organism comprised of many organisms, according to james gillooly, ph. d., an assistant professor in the department of biology at uf ' s college of liberal arts and sciences. now, researchers from uf, the university of oklahoma and the albert einstein college of medicine have taken the same mathematical models that predict lifespan, growth and reproduction in individual organisms and used them to predict these features in whole colonies. by analyzing data from 168 different social insect species including ants, termites, bees and wasps, the authors found that the lifespan, growth rates and rates of reproduction of whole colonies when considered as superorganisms were nearly indistinguishable from individual organisms. the findings will be published online this week in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences early edition. \" this pnas paper regarding the energetic basis of colonial living in social insects is notable for its originality and also for its importance, \" said edward o. wilson, a professor of biology at harvard university and co - author of the book \" the super - organism, \" who was not involved in the research. \" the research certainly adds a new perspective to our study of how insect societies are organized and to what degree they are organized. \" the study may also help scientists understand how social systems have arisen through natural selection \u2014 the process by which evolution occurs. the evolution of social systems of insects in particular, where sterile workers live only to help the queen reproduce, has long been a mystery, gillooly said. \" in life, two of the major evolutionary innovations have been how cells came together to function as a single organism, and how individuals joined together to function as a society, \" said gillooly, who is a member of the uf genetics institute. \" relatively speaking, we understand a considerable amount about how the size of multicellular organisms affects the life cycle of individuals based on metabolic theory, but now we are showing this same theoretical framework helps predict the life cycle of whole", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5038078416551971, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.063493"} {"text": "there are two different questions at work here, that you ' ve kind of mashed together. the first question is \" what is the speed at which a change in the electric field propagates? \" the answer to that is the speed of light. in qed terms, the electromagnetic interaction that we see as the electric field is mediated by photons, so any change in an established field ( say, due to shifting the position of the charge creating the field ) won ' t be felt by a distant object until enough time has passed for a photon from the source to make it to the observation point. the second question is \" what is the speed of propagation of electric current? \" this speed is slower than the speed of light, but still on about that order of magnitude - - the exact value depends a little on the arrangement of wires and so on, but you won ' t be far off if you assume that electrical signals propagate down a cable at the speed of light. this relates to electric field in that the charge moving through a circuit to light a light bulb has to be driven by some electric field, so you can reasonably ask how that field is established, and how much time it takes. qualitatively, the necessary field is established by excess charge on the surface of the wires, with the surface charge being generally positive near the positive terminal of a battery and generally negative near the negative terminal, and dropping off smoothly from one to the other so that the electric field is more or less piecewise constant ( that is, the field is the same everywhere inside a wire, and the field is the same everywhere inside a resistor, but the two field values are not the same ). when the circuit is first connected, there is a rapid redistribution of the charge on the surface of the wires which establishes the surface charge gradients that drive the steady - state current that will eventually do whatever it is you want it to do. the time required to establish the gradients and settle in to the steady - state condition is very fast, most likely on the order of nanoseconds for a normal circuit. there ' s a good discussion of the business of how, exactly, charges get moved around to drive a current in the textbook that we use for our introductory classes, matter and interactions, by chabay and sherwood. it doesn ' t go into enough detail to let you calculate the relevant times directly, but it lays out the basic science pretty well. ( it ' s a textbook for a first - year introductory physics class", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6226389730878275, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.066235"} {"text": "conversations - use this space to communicate about this project only logged in users are allowed to comment. register / log in november 23, 2010 | 8 : 17 am | farewell and best wishes as this research project is now in the final stages of wrapping - up, we wish to thank everyone who participated in this inquiry ; the students, mentors, teachers and others behind the scenes. we appreciate all of your efforts and contributions to this online learning community. scientific exploration is a process of discovery that can be fun! there are many unanswered questions about plants just waiting for new scientists to consider, investigate, and share. please come back and visit the plantingscience research gallery archive anytime to view this project in the future. you can search the archive by key word, team name, topic, or school name. good bye for now. the plantingscience team november 19, 2010 | 8 : 07 am | 3 things confusing : - the time allotted was too short - the refraction of the light made it difficult to see which disks were in fact, floating... - the disks didn ' t seem to really want to float at all 3 ways to improve : - add more time to our experiment - have an environment with a smaller diameter for the experiment ( as in test tube as opposed to beaker ) - have all materials ( i. e. crushed ice ) prepared before you start the procedure 2 things we learned about experimentation : - if everyone cooperates and puts in effort then the experiment could be done more efficiently - you should never start something you can ' t finish 2 things we learned about photosynthesis : - excessive heat prevents photosynthesis - a chilled environment lets photosynthesis occur more rapidly 1 thing we ' liked ' : 1 thing we disliked : - preparing thirty small diameter spinach disks everyday november 15, 2010 | 8 : 05 am | ran out of time sorry, last response we left was brief due to time limit. we came to a conclusion on which research question we would extrapolate and explore. we posted it above in the research information. i guess we ' ll try to make this thing exciting? so what are your ideas? kayla, brittany, and blake november 10, 2010 | 1 : 47 pm | dr. kevin folta what is your hypothesis? how to test it? i was a vegetarian for 16 years!! until this march. let me know your ideas. the project should have tremendous purpose and lots of direction. let ' s do a great project that is truly exciting. i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.58862090614617, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.074699"} {"text": "hypothesis? how to test it? i was a vegetarian for 16 years!! until this march. let me know your ideas. the project should have tremendous purpose and lots of direction. let ' s do a great project that is truly exciting. i ' d like to hear your ideas first before i start giving mine! november 10, 2010 | 8 : 08 am | re : hi everybody 1. are you a vegetarian? 2. we are 3 students taking bio honors. 3. this project doesn ' t have much purpose. 4. we have 3 testable research questions to discuss with you. november 8, 2010 | 9 : 19 am | dr. kevin folta i ' m glad to be part of the team. i hope that you ' ll keep in touch with me frequently via this forum. i ' m a scientist in plant biology and am really excited to be assisting you. plant science is extremely important. the experiments you are doing today are similar to those being done all over the world to help meet major challenges to the future of food. even the most simple basic experiments could give new information that could feed millions of people in the future. get excited - you are participating in something very important! november 5, 2010 | 11 : 53 am | dr. claire hemingway we are delighted to welcome you to this community of plant researchers. your team has the opportunity to be mentored by a scientist to help you plan and think through your own project investigating photosynthesis. the mentor ' s role is to encourage and guide you through the scientific process of discovery. your role is to share what your team is doing in class. the more you share your ideas and research information online, the more your mentor can help. your scientist mentor for this project will be dr. kevin folta from university of florida. please introduce yourself and post some possible research topic ideas to get a conversation rolling. these resources are available to help you get started : thinking like a scientist / working like a scientist guide to using a spreadsheet best wishes as you start this scientific journey. we are all pleased to share this experience with you. the plantingscience team", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5415970137053943, "token_count": 433, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.075542"} {"text": "individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | it was a subject - oriented adjective that was used to label the harmful, injurious, unpleasant, or undesirable reactions ( or responses ) that a subject manifested ( thus, \" nocebo reactions \" ( or \" nocebo responses \" ) as a result administering an inert dummy drug, where these responses had not been chemically generated, and were entirely due to the subject ' s pessimistic belief and expectation that the inert drug would produce harmful, injurious, unpleasant, or undesirable consequences. in these cases, there is no \" real \" drug involved, but the actual harmful, injurious, unpleasant or undesirable biochemical, physiological, behavioural, emotional, and / or cognitive consequences of the administration of the inert drug are very real. one severe example of nocebo effect is someone who dies of fright after being bitten by a non - poisonous snake. the term \" nocebo \" edit the term nocebo ( \" i shall harm \" ) was chosen by walter kennedy, in 1961, to denote the counterpart of one of the more recent applications of the term \" placebo \" ( = \" i shall please \" ) ; namely, that of a placebo being a drug that produced a beneficial, healthy, pleasant, or desirable consequence in a subject, as a direct result of that subject ' s beliefs and expectations. today, in the same way that the term placebo ( or \" placebo drug \" ) is often used wrongly in an agent - oriented way to denote an active drug that produces an entirely predictable, and intentionally sought after outcome that is experienced as pleasant or desirable ( e. g., analgesia ), the term nocebo ( or nocebo drug ) is often used wrongly to denote its counterpart, an active drug that produces an entirely predictable, and intentionally sought outcome that is experienced as unpleasant or undesirable ( e. g., nausea ). houston may have been the first to have spoken of a doctor ' s deliberate application of harmful \" placebo \" procedures, as distinct from the other, harmless sort of \" placebo \" procedures a doctor might apply and whose \" usefulness was in direct proportion to the faith that the doctor had and the faith that he was able to inspire in his patients \". houston ( 1938, p. 1418 ) wrote : -... [ and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5256504607932835, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.095523"} {"text": "doctor might apply and whose \" usefulness was in direct proportion to the faith that the doctor had and the faith that he was able to inspire in his patients \". houston ( 1938, p. 1418 ) wrote : -... [ and while the efficacy of the placebo procedure ] is believed in by the doctor, [ the placebo procedure itself ] is no longer harmless but harmful, sometimes very dangerous. it would seem peculiarly contradictory to speak of the painful and dangerous placebo, yet men are so constituted that they feel the need in dire extremity of resorting to dread measures. nervous patients in particular, feel that a certain standing and sanction is bestowed upon their maladies when violent therapeutic measures are used. \" houston spoke of three significantly different categories of placebo ( pp. 1417 - 1418 ) : - the drug that the physician knows to be inert, but which the subject believes to be potent. - the drug which is believed to be potent by both subject and physician, but which later investigation proves to have been totally inert. - the drug which is believed to be potent by both subject and physician, but is actually harmful and dangerous, rather than being inert and harmless. the term \" nocebo response \" originally only meant an unpredictable unintentional belief - generated injurious response to an inert procedure. but there is an emerging practice of labelling drugs that produce unpleasant consequences as \" nocebo drugs \" means that the term \" nocebo response \" may be being used to label an intentional, entirely pharmacologically - generated and quite predictably injurious outcome that has ensued from the administration of an active ( nocebo ) drug. anthropologists use the term \" nocebo ritual \" to describe a procedure, or treatment, or ritual that has been performed ( or a herbal remedy or medication that has been administered ) with malicious intent, by contrast with a placebo procedure or treatment or ritual that is performed with a benevolent intent. the nocebo effectedit because the original meaning of \" nocebo \" specifically referred to a subject ' s response to an inert drug, the term nocebo effect can really only refer to the consequences of the application of a \" harm - producing \" \" nocebo drug \" ( however, the concept of a \" harm - producing \" \" nocebo drug \" is a much later concept than either that of a \" nocebo response \" or of a \" nocebo", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5707748635308147, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.097276"} {"text": "- producing \" \" nocebo drug \" ( however, the concept of a \" harm - producing \" \" nocebo drug \" is a much later concept than either that of a \" nocebo response \" or of a \" nocebo reaction \" ). the nocebo responseedit according to current pharmacological knowledge and the current understanding of cause and effect, a placebo contains no chemical ( or any other agent ) that could possibly cause any of the observed worsening in the subject ' s symptoms. thus, any change for the worse must be due to some subject - internal factor. the worsening of the subject ' s symptoms is a direct consequence of their exposure to the placebo, but those symptoms have not been chemically generated by the placebo. because this generation of symptoms entails a complex of \" subject - internal \" activities, in the strictest sense, we can never speak in terms of simulator - centred \" nocebo effects \", but only in terms of subject - centred \" nocebo responses \". although some attribute nocebo responses ( or placebo responses ) to a subject ' s gullibility, there is no evidence that an individual who manifests a nocebo / placebo response to one treatment will manifest a nocebo / placebo response to any other treatment ; i. e., there is no fixed nocebo / placebo - responding trait or propensity. - mcglashan, evans & orne ( 1969, p. 319 ) found no evidence of what they termed a \" placebo personality \". also, in a carefully designed study, lasagna, mosteller, von felsinger & beecher ( 1954 ), found that there was no way that any observer could determine, by testing or by interview, which subject would manifest a placebo reaction and which would not. why a nocebo response? edit he had observed that another, entirely different and unrelated, and far more recent meaning of the term placebo was emerging into far more common usage in the technical literature ( see homonym ) ; namely that a \" placebo response \" ( or \" placebo reaction \" ) was a \" pleasant \" response to a real or sham / dummy treatment ( this new and entirely different usage was based on the latin meaning of the word placebo, \" i shall please \" ). kennedy chose the latin word nocebo ( \" i shall harm \" ) because it was the opposite of the latin word placebo", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.528212232268496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.098489"} {"text": "new and entirely different usage was based on the latin meaning of the word placebo, \" i shall please \" ). kennedy chose the latin word nocebo ( \" i shall harm \" ) because it was the opposite of the latin word placebo ( \" i shall please \" ), and used it to denote the counterpart of the placebo response : namely, an \" unpleasant \" response to the application of real or sham treatment. kennedy very strongly emphasized that his specific usage of the term nocebo did not refer to \" the iatrogenic action of drugs \" : in other words, according to kennedy, there was no such thing as a \" nocebo effect \", there was only a \" nocebo response \". he insisted that a nocebo reaction was subject - centred, and he was emphatic that the term nocebo reaction specifically referred to \" a quality inherent in the patient rather than in the remedy \". even more significantly, kennedy also stated that whilst \" nocebo reactions do occur [ they should never be confused ] with true pharmaceutical effects, such as the ringing in the ears caused by quinine \". this is strong, clear and very persuasive evidence that kennedy was precisely speaking of an outcome that had been totally generated by a subject ' s negative expectation of a drug or ritual ' s administration ; which was the exact counterpart of a placebo response that would have been generated by a subject ' s positive expectation. and, finally, and most definitely, kennedy was not speaking of an active drug ' s unwanted, but pharmacologically predictable negative side - effects ( something for which the term nocebo is being increasingly used in current literature ). ambiguity of medical usageedit in an important recent paper, stewart - williams and podd argue that using the contrasting terms \" placebo \" and \" nocebo \" to label inert agents that produce pleasant, health - improving or desirable outcomes, or unpleasant, health - diminishing, or undesirable outcomes ( respectively ), is extremely counterproductive. a second problem is that precisely the same effect, such as immunosuppression, may be quite desirable for a subject with an autoimmune disorder, but be quite undesirable for most other subjects. thus, in the first case, the effect would be a placebo, and in the second, a nocebo. a third problem is that the prescriber does not know whether the relevant subjects consider the effects that they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5540790324096012, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.099460"} {"text": "most other subjects. thus, in the first case, the effect would be a placebo, and in the second, a nocebo. a third problem is that the prescriber does not know whether the relevant subjects consider the effects that they experience to be subjectively desirable or undesirable until some time after the drugs have actually been administered. a fourth problem is that, in cases such as this, precisely the same phenomena are being generated in all of the subjects, and these are being generated by precisely the same drug, which is acting in all of the subjects through precisely the same mechanism. yet, just because the phenomena in question have been subjectively considered to be desirable to one group, but not the other, the phenomena are now being labelled in two mutually exclusive ways ( i. e., placebo and nocebo ) ; and this is giving the false impression that the drug in question has produced two entirely different phenomena. these sorts of argument produce a strong case that \u2014 despite the fact that, in some of its applications, the term \" placebo \" is used to denote something that pleases ( compared with it denoting an inert sumulator ) \u2014 the desirability ( placeboic nature ) or undesirability ( noceboic nature ) of the phenomena that have been manifested by a subject, after a drug has been administered, should never be part of the definition of what constitutes either \" a placebo \" or \" a placebo response \". ambiguity of anthropological usageedit some people maintain that belief kills ( e. g., \" voodoo death \" : cannon ( 1942 ) describes a number of \" voodoo deaths \" from a variety of different cultures ) and belief heals ( e. g., faith healing ). a \" self - willed \" death ( due to voodoo hex, evil eye, pointing the bone procedure, etc. ) is an extreme form of a culture - specific syndrome or sociogenic illness, that produces a particular form of psychosomatic or psychophysiological disorder, which results in a psychogenic death. - there are many recorded instances of self - willed psychogenic death. for example, the death of ananias, as recorded in acts 5 : 1 - 6 ; see ananias and sapphira. - rubel ( 1964 ) spoke of \" culture bound \" syndromes, which were those \" from which members of a particular group claim to suffer and for which their culture provides an etiology, diagnosis, preventive measures, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5503489691150759, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.100429"} {"text": "sapphira. - rubel ( 1964 ) spoke of \" culture bound \" syndromes, which were those \" from which members of a particular group claim to suffer and for which their culture provides an etiology, diagnosis, preventive measures, and regimens of healing \u201d ( p. 268 ). it is important to distinguish these \" self - willed deaths \" from other \" self - imposed \" sorts of death, such as : - the \" self - inflicted deaths \" of suicide, voluntary euthanasia, or the refusal of life - extending treatment ; - the \" heroic \" \" self - inflicted death \" of a soldier who throws himself on a hand grenade to save his mates, or that of the antarctic explorer captain lawrence oates ( \u201c i am just going outside and may be some time \u201d ) ; or - the \" religious self - inflicted death \" ' of the self - immolating suttee, or the mors voluntaria religiosa ( = \" voluntary religious death \" ) of the aged person, who religious elders have permitted to voluntarily, peacefully, and slowly die by fasting. certain anthropologists, such as robert hahn and arthur kleinman have extended the placebo / nocebo distinction into this realm in order to allow a distinction to be made between rituals, like faith healing, that are performed in order to heal, cure, or bring benefit ( placebo rituals ) and others, like \" pointing the bone \", that are performed in order to kill, injure or bring harm ( nocebo rituals ). as the meaning of the two inter - related and opposing terms has extended, we now find anthropologists speaking, in various contexts, of nocebo or placebo ( harmful or helpful ) rituals : - - that might entail nocebo or placebo ( unpleasant or pleasant ) procedures, - about which subjects might have nocebo or placebo ( harmful or beneficial ) beliefs, - that are delivered by operators that might have nocebo or placebo ( pathogenic, disease - generating or salutogenic, health - promoting ) expectations, - that are delivered to subjects that might have nocebo or placebo ( negative, fearful, despairing or positive, hopeful, confident ) expectations about the ritual, - which are delivered by operators who might have nocebo or placebo ( malevolent or benevolent ) intentions, in the hope that the rituals will generate nocebo or placebo ( lethal, injurious, harmful or restorative,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5197234090100102, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.101375"} {"text": "are delivered by operators who might have nocebo or placebo ( malevolent or benevolent ) intentions, in the hope that the rituals will generate nocebo or placebo ( lethal, injurious, harmful or restorative, curative, healthy ) outcomes ; and, that all of this depends upon the operator ' s overall beliefs in the harmful nature of the nocebo ritual or the beneficial nature of the placebo ritual. yet, it may become even more terminologically complex ; for, as hahn and kleinman indicate, there can also be cases where there are paradoxical nocebo outcomes from placebo rituals ( e. g. the tgn1412 drug trial ), as well as paradoxical placebo outcomes from nocebo rituals ( see also unintended consequences ). writing from his extensive experience of treating cancer ( including more than 1, 000 melanoma cases ) at sydney hospital, milton ( 1973 ) warned of the impact of the delivery of a prognosis, and how many of his patients, upon receiving their prognosis, simply turned their face to the wall and died an extremely premature death : \"... there is a small group of patients in whom the realisation of impending death is a blow so terrible that they are quite unable to adjust to it, and they die rapidly before the malignancy seems to have developed enough to cause death. this problem of self - willed death is in some ways analogous to the death produced in primitive peoples by witchcraft ( \u201c pointing the bone \u201d ). \" ( p. 1435 ) - \u2191 miller ( 2003 ) - \u2191 mcglashan, evans & orne ( 1969 ) ; stam ( 1984 ) ; stam & spanos ( 1987 ). - \u2191 3. 0 3. 1 3. 2 kennedy ( 1961 ), p. 204 - \u2191 stewart - williams & podd ( 2004 ), p. 326 - \u2191 zusne & jones ( 1989 ), p. 57 ; roheim ( 1925 ). - barber, t. x., \" death by suggestion : a critical note \", psychosomatic medicine, vol. 23, no. 2, ( march - april 1961 ), pp. 153 - 155. - barker, j. c., scared to death : an examination of fear, its cause and effects, frederick muller, ( london ), 1968. - barrett, g. v. & franke, r. h., \" \" psychogenic \" death", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5441358217657143, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.102218"} {"text": "j. c., scared to death : an examination of fear, its cause and effects, frederick muller, ( london ), 1968. - barrett, g. v. & franke, r. h., \" \" psychogenic \" death : a reappraisal \", science, vol. 167, no. 3916, ( 16 january 1970 ), pp. 304 - 306. - barsky, a. j., saintfort, r., rogers, m. p. & borus, j. f., \" nonspecific medication side effects and the nocebo phenomenon \", journal of the american medical association, vol. 287, no. 5, ( 6 february 2002 ), pp. 622 - 627. - cannon, w. b., \" \u201c voodoo \u201d death \", american anthropologist, vol. 44, no. 2, ( april - june 1942 ), pp. 169 - 181. - charcot, j. m., \" the faith - cure \", the new review, vol. viii, ( january 1893 ), pp. 18 - 31. - cohen, s. i., \" psychosomatic death : voodoo death in a modern perspective \", integrative psychiatry, vol. 3, no. 1, ( march 1985 ), pp. 46 - 51. - dein, s., \" psychogenic death : individual effects of sorcery and taboo violation \", mental health, religion and culture, vol. 6, no. 3, ( november 2003 ), pp. 195 - 202. - di blasi, z., harkness, e., edzard, e., georgiou, a. & kleijnen, j., \" influence of context effects on health outcomes : a systematic review \", the lancet, vol. 357, no. 9258, ( 10 march 2001 ), pp. 757 - 762. - goddard, h. h., \" the effects of mind on body as evidenced by faith cures \", american journal of psychology, vol. 10, no. 3, ( april 1899 ), pp. 431 - 502. - hahn, r. a., \" the nocebo phenomenon : concept, evidence, and implications for public health \", preventive medicine, vol. 26, no. 5, ( september 1997 ), pp. 607 - 611. - hahn, r. a. & klein", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5480891794841667, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.102936"} {"text": "nocebo phenomenon : concept, evidence, and implications for public health \", preventive medicine, vol. 26, no. 5, ( september 1997 ), pp. 607 - 611. - hahn, r. a. & kleinman, a, \" belief as pathogen, belief as medicine : \" voodoo death \" and the \" placebo phenomenon \" in anthropological perspective \", medical anthropology quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4, ( august 1983 ), pp. 3, 16 - 19. - harrington, e. r., the nocebo effect : a meta - analysis of the effect of suggestion on reports of physical symptoms, ( ph. d. dissertation ), temple university, 1998. - houston, w. r., \" the doctor himself as a therapeutic agent \", annals of internal medicine, vol. 11, no. 8, ( february 1938 ), pp. 1416 - 1425. - kennedy, w p., \" the nocebo reaction \", medical world, vol. 95, ( september 1961 ), pp. 203 - 205. - kirsch, i., \" response expectancy as a determinant of experience and behavior \", american psychologist, vol. 40, no. 11, ( november 1985 ), pp. 1189 - 1202. - kirsch, i., \" response expectancy theory and application : a decennial review \", applied and preventive psychology, vol. 6, no. 2, ( spring 1997 ), pp. 69 - 79. - lasagna, l., mosteller, f., von felsinger, j. m. & beecher, h. k., \" a study of the placebo response \", american journal of medicine, vol. 16, no. 6, ( june 1954 ), pp. 770 - 779. - lorenz, j., hauck, m., paura, r. c., nakamura, y., zimmermann, r., bromm, b. & engela, a. k., \" cortical correlates of false expectations during pain intensity judgments \u2014 a possible manifestation of placebo / nocebo cognitions \", brain, behavior, and immunity, vol. 19, no. 4, ( july 2005 ), pp. 283 - 295. - mcglashan, t. h., evans, f. j. & orne, m. t., \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5520630628025257, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.103857"} {"text": ", and immunity, vol. 19, no. 4, ( july 2005 ), pp. 283 - 295. - mcglashan, t. h., evans, f. j. & orne, m. t., \" the nature of hypnotic analgesia and placebo response to experimental pain \", psychosomatic medicine, vol. 31, no. 3, ( may - june 1969 ), pp. 227 - 246. - merton, r. k., \" the unanticipated consequences of purposive social action \", american sociological review, vol. 1, no. 6, ( december 1936 ), pp. 894 - 904. - miller, f. g., \" william james, faith, and the placebo effect \", perspectives in biology and medicine, vol. 48, no. 2, ( spring 2005 ), pp. 273 - 281. - miller, f. g., \" sham surgery : an ethical analysis \", the american journal of bioethics, vol. 3, no. 4, ( fall 2003 ), pp. 41 - 48. - milton, g. w., \" self - willed death or the bone - pointing syndrome \", the lancet, ( 23 june, 1973 ), pp. 1435 \u2013 1436. - perlman, l, \" nonspecific, unintended, and serendipitous effects in psychotherapy \", professional psychology : research and practice, vol. 32, no. 3, ( june 2001 ), pp. 283 \u2013 288. - phillips, d. p., liu, g. c., kwok, k., jarvinen, j. r., zhang, w. & abramson, i. s., \" the hound of the baskervilles effect : natural experiment on the influence of psychological stress on timing of death \", british medical journal, vol. 324, no. 7327, ( 22 - 29 december 2001 ), pp. 1443 - 1446. - pyysiainen, i., \" mind and miracles \", zygon, vol. 37, no. 3, ( september 2002 ), pp. 729 - 740. - rief, w., avorn, j. & barsky, arthur j., \" medication - attributed adverse effects in placebo groups : implications for assessment of adverse effects \", archives of internal medicine, vol. 166, no", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5319176118705352, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.104582"} {"text": ". - rief, w., avorn, j. & barsky, arthur j., \" medication - attributed adverse effects in placebo groups : implications for assessment of adverse effects \", archives of internal medicine, vol. 166, no. 2 ), ( 23 january 2006 ), pp. 155 - 160. - richter, c. p., \" on the phenomenon of sudden death in animals and man \", psychosomatic medicine, vol. xix, no. 3, ( may - june 1957 ), pp. 191 \u2013 198. - roheim, g., \" the pointing bone \", the journal of the royal anthropological institute of great britain and ireland, vol. 55, ( january - june 1925 ), pp. 90 - 114. - rubel, a. j., \" the epidemiology of a folk illness : susto in hispanic america \", ethnology, vol. 3, no. 3, ( july 1964 ), pp. 268 - 283. - shapiro, a. k., \" a contribution to a history of the placebo effect \", behavioral science, vol. 5, no. 2 ( april 1960 ) pp. 109 - 135. - shapiro, a. k., \" semantics of the placebo \", psychiatric quarterly, vol. 42, no. 4, ( december 1968 ), pp. 653 \u2013 695. - south, r., \" a sermon delivered at christ - church, oxon., before the university, octob. 14. 1688 : prov. xii. 22 lying lips are abomination to the lord \", pp. 519 - 657 in south, r., twelve sermons preached upon several occasions ( second edition ), volume i, printed by s. d. for thomas bennet, ( london ), 1697. - spiegel, h., \" nocebo : the power of suggestibility \", preventive medicine, vol. 26, no. 5, ( 1 september 1997 ), pp. 616 - 621. - staats, p., hekmatb, h. & staats, a., \" suggestion / placebo effects on pain : negative as well as positive \", journal of pain and symptom management, vol. 15, no. 4, ( april 1998 ), pp. 235 - 243. - stam, h. j., hypnotic analgesia and the placebo effect : controlling", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5265514245598859, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.105338"} {"text": "\", journal of pain and symptom management, vol. 15, no. 4, ( april 1998 ), pp. 235 - 243. - stam, h. j., hypnotic analgesia and the placebo effect : controlling ischemic pain, ( ph. d. dissertation ), carleton university, ( ottawa, canada ), 1984. - stam, h. j. & spanos, n., \" hypnotic analgesia, placebo analgesia, and ischemic pain : the effects of contextual variables \", journal of abnormal psychology, vol. 96, no. 4, ( november 1987 ), pp. 313 \u2013 320. - stewart - williams, s. & podd, j., \" the placebo effect : dissolving the expectancy versus conditioning debate \", psychological bulletin, vol. 130, no. 2, ( march 2004 ), pp. 324 - 340. - wilson, i., the bleeding mind : an investigation into the mysterious phenomenon of stigmata, paladin, ( london ), 1991. - zusne, l. & jones, w. h., anomalistic psychology : a study of magical thinking ( second edition ), lawrence erlbaum associates, ( new york ), 1989. - nocebo and nocebo effect - the nocebo response - the nocebo effect : placebo ' s evil twin - what modifies a healing responsenl : nocebo - effectsv : noceboeffekt | this page uses creative commons licensed content from wikipedia ( view authors ). |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5318230068555652, "token_count": 332, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.105948"} {"text": "of the 594 children randomised, 571 started the study, receiving either milk containing lactobacillus gg ( n = 282 ) or control milk ( n = 289 ) ( figure ). fifty eight children did not complete the follow up period. progress of participants during seven month study table details characteristics of the children before treatment. the block randomisation resulted in a similar distribution of children in the age groups under 3 years and 3 years and over : 51 ( 18 % ) and 231 ( 82 % ) in the lactobacillus group and 55 ( 19 % ) and 234 ( 81 % ) in the control group. detailed analysis of age distribution, however, showed that there were differences between the groups. also, there were more children in the control group who had had five or more respiratory infections during the preceding 12 months. age and preceding infections both have an effect on the incidence of infections and as they were strongly correlated we adjusted only for age in comparisons of treatment. characteristics before treatment of children allocated to probiotic milk ( lactobacillus gg ) and control groups. figures are means ( ranges ) or numbers ( percentage ) of children intention to treat analysis symptoms of illness as reported by parents \u2014 there were no significant differences between the groups in the number of days with respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms ( table ). however, in the lactobacillus group there were fewer days of absence because of illness \u2014 a lactobacillus : control ratio of 0. 85 ( 95 % confidence interval 0. 73 to 0. 98 ) \u2014 and thus a reduction of 15 %. the time without respiratory symptoms was significantly longer in the lactobacillus group compared with the control group ( 5 ( 4. 1 to 5. 9 ) v 4 ( 3. 5 to 4. 6 ) weeks, p = 0. 03, fig ). time without diarrhoea was not significantly different ( 25 ( 24 to 26 ) v 24 ( 23 to 25 ) weeks, respectively, p = 0. 20, fig ). table 2 details of symptoms, absence, and symptom score during seven month treatment period. unadjusted and age adjusted results based on intention to treat population, with children who completed intervention. figures are geometric means ( 95 % confidence ( more... ) proportion of children without infection during seven month study ( respiratory symptoms and diarrhoea ) upper and lower respiratory tract infections diagnosed by doctor \u2014 the number of children with respiratory infections ( otitis media,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5118086510184096, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.121483"} {"text": "an encyclopedia of claims, frauds, and hoaxes of the occult and supernatural introduction | \" r \" reading | curse of the pharaoh | end - of - the - world prophecies index | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | y | z zener, dr. karl ( 1903 - 1963 ) in the early 1930s, a swiss psychologist named zener, a partner of dr. joseph banks rhine, designed a set of cards bearing five symbols which he felt were sufficiently different from one another that they would be ideal for conducting certain tests, among them extrasensory perception ( esp ) tests. these symbols are : circle, plus sign, wavy lines, square, and star. the five symbols developed by dr. karl zener for use in tests of extrasensory perception. these are normally used in a deck of twenty - five cards, five of each symbol. for decades, zener cards have been employed in parapsychological laboratories in the search for the ever - elusive powers called telepathy and clairvoyance. so far, in spite of millions of bits of data gathered through that extensive exploration, experiments with zener cards have failed to yield convincing, replicable results. after a few years of association with dr. rhine, zener began efforts to have him removed from the campus of duke university, fearing the burden that the university would have to bear for being connected with parapsychology. click here to order a copy of the original hardcover edition of this encyclopedia. copyright ( c ) 1995 - 2007 james randi. created and maintained with the dictionary compilation software tshwanelex.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.6058221476499446, "token_count": 365, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.124708"} {"text": "dragons and dragon lore, by ernest ingersoll,, at sacred - texts. com the dragon ' s precious pearl a most curious, interesting, and at the same time obscure feature of this whole baffling subject is that of the so - called pearl which accompanies the dragon in pictures and legends from the earliest times, and is common to the religious traditions of the whole east - - india, china and japan. necklaces of pearls are a regular part of the regalia of naga - queens in their submarine palaces ; and we read often in the old vedic books of a magical jewel of good luck, ' which was in custody of the naga - maidens but was lost by them through terror of their monstrous enemy, the bird garuda. there are traces of it in early taoism, but it is best preserved in buddhism as the jewel in the lotus, the mani of the mystic, ecstatic, formula om mani padme hum - - the \" jewel that grants all desires, \" the ' divine pearl ' of the buddhists throughout the orient. koreans commonly believe that the yellow ( chief ) dragon carries on his forehead ( as also in japan ) a pear - shaped pearl having supernatural properties and healing power. in china alone, however, is this mystical accessory of the dragon made a significant part of pictures and decorative designs. some say that originally every proper dragon carried a pearl under his chin ; others that it was a special mark of imperial rank. a sixth - century writer asserts that such pearls are \" spit out of dragons like snake - pearls out of snakes, \" and have enormous value. this extraordinary gem is represented as a spherical object, or ball, half as big, or quite as large, as the head of the dragon with which it is associated, for it is never depicted quite by itself. the gem is white or bluish with a reddish or golden halo, and usually has an antler - shaped ' flame ' rising from its surface. almost invariably there hangs downward from the centre of the sphere a dark - coloured, comma - like appendage, frequently branched, wavering below the periphery. a biologist might easily at first glance conclude that the whole affair represented the entry of a spermatozoon into an ovum ; and the chinese commonly interpret the ball with its comma - mark as a symbol of yang and yin, male and female elements, combined in the earth - - which seems pretty close to the biologist ' s view. such is the dragon - pearl. in purely decorative work", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5012004474981201, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.146448"} {"text": "interpret the ball with its comma - mark as a symbol of yang and yin, male and female elements, combined in the earth - - which seems pretty close to the biologist ' s view. such is the dragon - pearl. in purely decorative work, where the figure of a dragon is writhing in clouds or adapting its lithe body under an artist ' s hand to the shape or purpose of a piece of porcelain, a bronze article, or a silken garment, the pearl may be drawn close to the dragon, or wherever convenient. when, however, it is desirable to express the significance of this sacred adjunct of dragonhood, it is treated with strict attention to reverence and tradition. then are pictured celestial dragons ascending and descending through the upper air, tearing a path, perhaps, through swirling mists and shadows, \" in pursuit of effulgent jewels or orbs that appear to be whirling in space, and that were supposed to be of magic efficiency, granting every wish. \" a passion for gems is a well - known characteristic of these beings, and that it has ' always ' been so is shown by a fable recorded by joly. t ' an t ' ai mieh ming, a disciple of confucius, was attacked, at the instigation of the god of the yellow river, by two dragons seeking to rob him of a valuable gem ; but t ' an t ' ai slew the dragons and then, to show his contempt for worldly goods, threw the treasure into the river. twice it leaped back into his boat, but at last he broke it in pieces and scattered the fragments. can these be the two dragons so often depicted facing one another in the air, and apparently rushing, as if in eager play, toward a pearl floating like an iridescent bubble between them? nothing in the decorative art of china has occasioned more guessing and controversy than this. an eighteenth century vase described by chait is \" decorated with nine dragons ( a mystic number ) whirling through scrolled clouds enveloping parts of their serpentine bodies in pursuit of jewels of omnipotence, which appear in the midst of clouds as revolving disks emitting branched rays of effulgence. \" ball points out that in books issued under imperial auspices \" two dragons encircle the title, striving... for a pearl. \" japanese designers like to form the handles of bells, whether big temple - bells or tiny ones, of two dragons affrontes, with the tam", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5385580664941184, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.147436"} {"text": "auspices \" two dragons encircle the title, striving... for a pearl. \" japanese designers like to form the handles of bells, whether big temple - bells or tiny ones, of two dragons affrontes, with the tama between them. one japanese carving represents a snake - like dragon coiled tightly around a ball, marked with spiral lines, illustrating devotion to the tama. \" a great ball of gilded glass, \" writes visser, \" is said to hang from the centre of the roof of the great hall of the buddhist temple fa ( h ) - yu - sze, or temple of the reign of law, while eight dragons, curved around the ' hanging pillars, ' eagerly stretch their claws towards the ' pearl of perfection. '... dragons trying to seize a fiery ' pearl, ' which is hanging in a gate, are represented twice in the same temple.... we may be sure that the chinese buddhists, identifying the dragon with the naga, also identified the ball with their cintamani or ' precious pearl which grants all desires. ' \" in these and many similar examples we, as outsiders, may grasp little of the significance or symbolism in this conspicuous ' ball ' or ' pearl, ' but we may approach an understanding of it through dr. de groot ' s investigation of chinese religion. ' he describes the ceremonial dress of the wuist priests as having a \" broad border of blue silk around the neck stitched with two ascending dragons which are belching out a ball probably representing thunder. \" de groot explains further that \" the ball between two dragons is often delineated as a spiral, \" and adds that ' in an ancient charm... a spiral denotes the rolling of thunder from which issues a flash of lightning. \" in japanese prints a dragon is frequently accompanied by a huge spiral indicating a thunderstorm caused by him. are the antler - shaped appendages rising above the ' ball ' intended to represent lightning - flames? dr. visser discusses this hypothesis at length, pointing out that the whole attitude of the two dragons in such art - productions displays great eagerness to catch and swallow the gleaming sphere. this attitude and avidity become clear, visser thinks, when one sees a chinese picture like that in blacker ' s chats on oriental china, of two dragons rushing at a fiery spiral ball above the legend : \" two dragons facing the moon. \" sometimes two dragons confront each other, each having a flaming pearl floating just in front of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5260551049285069, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.148483"} {"text": "that in blacker ' s chats on oriental china, of two dragons rushing at a fiery spiral ball above the legend : \" two dragons facing the moon. \" sometimes two dragons confront each other, each having a flaming pearl floating just in front of their faces. there is nothing absurd about this suggestion of swallowing the moon. celestial dragons are, in reality, personifications of clouds ; and among the most primitive and widespread impressions respecting lunar eclipses is the notion that a monster is devouring the moon. dark and writhing clouds advancing as if alive, and finally extinguishing its light, might easily suggest a similar thought ; and it was a matter of early experience that after these hungry cloud - dragons had completed their feast, fertilizing rain usually blessed the thirsty fields and pastures, so that the dragons got the credit. hence artists liked to represent these public benefactors playfully contending for the opportunity to devour the ' queen of night ' and so produce a crop - saving fall of showers for which they ( the dragons ) would enjoy grateful appreciation. incidentally, artists note that a pair of their graceful figures make a well - balanced composition. the moon and water are closely connected in all mythologies ; hence the moon is closely linked with fertilizing agencies in general. faith in the moon ' s influence on the weather lingers strongly in the mind of rural communities even in these progressive united states of america ; and it is easy to believe that the dragon - thanking agriculturists and shepherds of china felt assured that the rain - giving will and power of their celestial friends were refreshed by frequently absorbing this bright and stimulating object in the sky. that these reflections are not ' all moonshine ' is shown by evidence in the writings of the old philosophers of the east, who assure us that the actual mundane pearl taken from the oyster in whose shell it is formed beneath the salt waters is the \" concrete essence of the moon \" distilled through the system of the mollusk - - an emanation from the moon - goddess herself. \" the pearls found in the oyster, \" as one student interprets it, \" were supposed to be little moons, drops of the moon - substance ( or dew ) which fell from the sky into the gaping oyster. hence pearls acquired the reputation of shining by night, like to the moon from which they were believed to have come. \" all this tends to demonstrate that the theory that the moon is the mani, the ' pearl of great price, ' the divine essence of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5217731618938919, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.149664"} {"text": "pearls acquired the reputation of shining by night, like to the moon from which they were believed to have come. \" all this tends to demonstrate that the theory that the moon is the mani, the ' pearl of great price, ' the divine essence of the gods, is not unreasonable ; and its probability is reinforced by the stated fact that in both chinese and japanese dictionaries an ideograph combined of elements meaning respectively ' jewel ' and ' moon ' is defined as ' moon - pearl. ' i am inclined to regard this as a better explanation of the puzzling object so constantly associated with dragons in chinese decorative art than is the ' thunder ' hypothesis. at the same time it is to be noted that the spiral character of the pearl, ' and of the ' tag ' that springs from its centre, is the widely recognized symbol for thunder ; while the antler - like appendages indicate accompanying lightnings ; therefore the identification of the ' pearl ' with the moon need not preclude its co - association with thunderstorms, for the dragon is a rain - controller, and in a fair sense is the deity heard and seen in thunder and lightning, who is in particular the storm - god of sailormen. in japan, whose dragon - mythology has been strongly tinctured with indian notions, as we have seen, the pearl appears mainly in connection with mythical tales of the ocean - - a very natural connection. in the nihongi, an ancient japanese historical work, it is related that in the second year of the emperor chaui ' s reign ( a. d. 193 ) the empress jingo - kogo found in the sea \" a jewel which grants all desires, \" apparently the same lost by the frightened naga maidens. she also obtained from the submarine palace of the dragon - king the ebb - jewel ( kan - ja ) and the flood - jewel ( man - ja ), by which she was able, on at least one important occasion, to control the tides ; they are described in the nihongi as about five sun long, the former white and the latter blue - - the colour of the east, whence rain comes ; and the moon is controller of the oceanic tides! japanese legends relating to this matter, as briefly given by joly, in his elaborate work on the legendary art of japan, are connected with the mythical character riujin, the ruler of the waters of the globe, whose home is beneath the sea, or in deep lakes, and who is represented as a very old", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.527550840744524, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.150715"} {"text": "##y, or crocodilian, or shark - like, than were the terrestrial, serpentine dragons. but japanese mythology includes also an earthquake - fish ( namazu ) like an eel, with a long, attenuated head and long feelers on both sides of the mouth, which stirs about underground, thus causing earthquakes. \" the cultural drift from west to east, along the south coast of india, \" dr. smith reminds us, \" was effected mainly by sailors who were searching for pearls. sharks constituted the special dangers the divers had to incur in exploiting pearlbeds to obtain the precious ' giver of life. ' but at the time these great enterprises were undertaken in the indian ocean the people dwelling in the neighbourhood of the chief pearlbeds regarded the sea as the great source of all life - giving, and the god who exercised these powers was incarnated in a fish ( ancestor of dagon ). the sharks therefore had to be brought into this scheme, and they were rationalized as the guardians of the storehouse of life - giving pearls at the bottom of the sea.... out of these crude materials the imaginations of the early pearl - fishers created the picture of wonderful submarine palaces of naga kings in which vast wealth, not merely of pearls but also of gold, precious stones, and beautiful maidens, were placed under the protection of shark - dragons. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5109221006467266, "token_count": 290, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.152203"} {"text": "in jena, graph is an interface. it abstracts anything that looks like rdf - storage options, inference, other legacy data sources. the main operations are addition, there are a number of getters to access handlers of various features ( query, statistics, reification, bulk update, event manager ). having handlers, rather than directly including all the operations for each feature reduces the size of the interface and makes it easier to provide default implementations of each feature. implementing a graph rarely needs to directly implement the interface. more usually, an implementation starts by inheriting from the class graphbase. a minimal ( read - only ) implementation just needs to implement wrapping legacy data often only makes sense as a read - only graph. to provide update operations, just implement the methods which are the methods called from the base implementations of then for testing with junit, inherit from abstractgraphtest ( override tests that don ' t make sense in a particular circumstance ) and provide the getgraph operation to generate a graph instance to test. where the graph level is minimal and symmetric ( e. g. literal as subjects, inclusion of named variables ) for easy implementation, the rdf api enforces the rdf conditions and provides a wide variety of convenience operations so writing a program can be succinct, not requiring the application writer to write unnecessary boilerplate code sequences. the ontology api does the same for owl. if you look at the javadoc, you ' ll see the apis are large but the system level interface is small. a graph is turned into a model by calling modelfactory. createmodelforgraph ( graph ). all the key application apis are interface - based although it ' s rarely needed to do anything other that use the standard model - graph bridge. data access to the graph all goes via find. all the read operations of application apis, directly or indirectly, come down to calling graph. find or a graph query handler. and the default graph query handler works by calling graph. find, so once find is implemented everything ( read - only ) works. arq ' s query api, which includes a sparql implementation, included. it may not be the most efficient way but importantly all functionality is available and so the graph implementer can quickly get a first implementation up and running, then decide where and when to spend further development time - or whether that ' s needed at all. an example of this is a prototype jena - mulgara bridge ( work in progress as of jan ' 08", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5353420171466916, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.155935"} {"text": "get a first implementation up and running, then decide where and when to spend further development time - or whether that ' s needed at all. an example of this is a prototype jena - mulgara bridge ( work in progress as of jan ' 08 ). this maps the graph api to a mulgara session object, which can be a local mulgara database or a remote mulgara server. the prototype is a single class together with a set of factory operations for more convenient creation of a bridge graph wrapped in all jena ' s apis. implementing graph nodes, for iris and for literals is straight forward. mulgara uses jrdf to represent these nodes and to represent triples. mapping to and from jena versions of the same is just the change in naming. blank nodes are more interesting. a blank node in jena has an internal label ( which is not a uri in disguise ). when working at the lowest level of graph, the code is manipulating things at a concrete, syntactic level. a blank node in mulgara has an internal id but it can change. it really is the internal node index as i found out by creating a blank node with id = 1 and found it turned into rdf : type which was what was really at node slot 1. paul has been ( patiently! ) explaining this to me on a mulgara mailing list. the session interface is an interface onto the rdf data, not an interface to extend the graph details to the client. both approaches are valid - it ' s just different levels of abstraction. if the jena application is careful about blank nodes ( not assuming they are stable across transactions, and not deleting all triples involving some blank node, then creating triples involving that blank node ) then it all works out. the most important case of reading data within a transaction is safe. bulk loading is better down via the native mulgara interfaces anyway. the jena - mulgara bridge enables a jena application to access a mulgara server through the same interfaces as any other rdf data.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5696222811337899, "token_count": 422, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.156861"} {"text": "text : : unicodebox : : text - objects to describe text rendering this module is part of the low level interface to text : : unicodebox ; you probably don ' t need to use it directly. the string representation of the text. how many characters wide the text represents when rendered on the screen. the following methods are exportable by name or by the tag ' : all ' given the passed text, figures out the a smart value for the length field and returns a new instance. my $ text = box _ string ( ' test ' ) ; $ text - > align _ and _ pad ( 8 ) ; # is the same as # $ text - > align _ and _ pad ( width = > 8, pad = > 1, pad _ char = > ' ', align = > ' left ' ) ; $ text - > value eq ' test ' ; modify the value of this object to pad and align the text according to the specification. pass any of the following parameters : defaults to the object ' s length. specifies how wide of a space the string is to be fit in. doesn ' t make sense for this value to smaller then the width of the string. if you pass only one parameter to align _ and _ pad, this is the parameter it ' s assigned to. if the string looks like a number, the align default to ' right ' ; otherwise, ' left '. how much padding on the right and left what character to use for padding returns the value of this object. return array of objects of this string split into new strings on the newline character provides the count of return the length of the longest line in my @ segments = $ obj - > split ( max _ width = > 100, break _ words = > 1 ) ; return array of objects of this string split at the max width given. if break _ words = > 1, break anywhere, otherwise only break on the space character. copyright ( c ) 2012 eric waters and shutterstock images ( http : / / shutterstock. com ). all rights reserved. this program is free software ; you can redistribute it and / or modify it under the same terms as perl itself. the full text of the license can be found in the license file included with this module. eric waters < email @ example. com >", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5060811693320497, "token_count": 477, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.163943"} {"text": "horizon may be jet fuel from the emerging \" electrofuels \" industry, which uses microbes and electrosynthesis, photosynthesis ' s more powerful cousin. the advanced research projects agency - energy and the energy department are throwing billions of research dollars at electrofuels, which they consider one of the more promising paths to fossil fuel independence to develop in many years. in march, the air force alternative fuels certification division demonstrated that biofuel performs just as well as fossil fuels in the f - 22 raptor fighter jet. commercial airlines are even more eager to see the industry ramp up, says jeff braun, the division ' s chief, with several firm commitments to buy biofuel as soon as it is available in commercial quantities. for the military, braun notes, biofuels represent an energy \" holy grail \" : domestically controlled fuel that can be produced anywhere the military needs it. not everyone is convinced. the rand corporation recently criticized the military ' s plans for biofuel, predicting that it would remain a niche industry incapable of providing the volume that the military needs at a price that could compete with oil. the navy ' s hicks counters that military purchases of biofuel, as they move from tens of thousands of gallons to tens of millions, will drive innovation and bring down costs. he cites as precedent such military - turned - commercial products as night - vision goggles, gps devices, and even the internet, all of which started out as expensive niche defense technologies. in fact, says hicks, a former epa and u. s. green building council official who helped develop both the energy star program for buildings and the leed rating system, \" from what we can see already, we expect cost parity with petroleum by 2016. \" many obstacles stand in the way of the military ' s big green goals, starting with the fact that most military housing and many other defense department buildings lack electrical meters \u2014 making it difficult to weed out inefficiencies. the armed services have recently been on a crash course to install \" smart meters \" but are still barely halfway there. an even greater energy and security concern is that almost all military bases \u2014 even those with solar or geothermal power plants attached \u2014 are dependent on the commercial grid for power. in the world war ii era, most bases generated their own power, but that capacity gave way to privatization, leaving most bases vulnerable to grid sabotage while also complicating plans to green military electricity. then there ' s the flagship 500 - megawatt solar project announced with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.520024557025826, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.209110"} {"text": "creating a distributed wireless monitoring system for aircraft noise \" during the hardware evaluation process, we decided to use ni products because of their high measurement quality, ruggedness, and reliability compared to lower cost sound - level meters. \" - luis fernandez, national polytechnic institute developing an autonomous, distributed wireless monitoring system to measure aircraft noise levels and stream the data back for analysis at a control center. using ni labview software, the ni sound and vibration toolkit, and an ni usb - 9234 dynamic signal acquisition module ( dsa ) to acquire and analyze reliable, high - quality data from various aircraft. noise levels from heavy automobile and aircraft traffic during morning and evening rush hours in mexico city could potentially cause hearing loss. the committee of aerial transport has proposed a new aircraft classification system in which the aircraft operator would pay a fee based on noise production, not weight or aircraft type. as a result, we put together a novel computational model that not only measures noise production, but also identifies an aircraft based on the noise it generates. each node in our wireless monitoring system contains a half - inch prepolarized microphone, a data acquisition card that measures noise level, an industrial computer, and a wireless internet connection using wi - fi or 3g. each microphone is in a weatherproof case mounted 4 meters above the ground. the node measures noise levels every 30 seconds and streams the data back to the control center every 5 minutes. figure 1. distributed wireless monitoring system diagram identifying an aircraft based on the noise spectrum characteristics it generates is complicated in the real world because background noise, the weather, takeoff speed, and the aircraft \u2019 s load can interfere with analysis. recently, measurement equipment that uses neural networks to identify noise has appeared on the market, but it can only distinguish between jet aircrafts, propeller aircrafts, helicopters, and background noise. we decided to create a computational model to measure and interpret noise. using only the noise created during the 24 seconds after takeoff, our system can correctly identify the aircraft. using a wireless topology reduces costs and provides flexibility in setting up a monitoring system. each monitoring node is based on a headless industrial pc running windows xp with a wi - fi adapter and an ni usb - 9234. during the hardware evaluation process, we decided to use ni products because of their high measurement quality, ruggedness, and reliability compared to lower cost sound - level meters. even though each node is connected to the city \u2019 s electrical system, we use an uninterruptible power supply to prevent data loss. the node measures noise levels", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5577347717376153, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.215852"} {"text": ", ruggedness, and reliability compared to lower cost sound - level meters. even though each node is connected to the city \u2019 s electrical system, we use an uninterruptible power supply to prevent data loss. the node measures noise levels every 30 seconds and the system can collect data locally for up to 14 days. the government plans to use our data to identify the times and locations in mexico city with the highest noise level, create noise maps, and implement regulatory actions to control the noise and promote a healthier environment for its citizens. our system can record traditional metrics used for road traffic noise, such as continuous equivalent sound level ( leq ), and it can also record fractional octave analysis and measure prominent tones. in addition, the system can transfer wav files to a central server to study transient signals that may trigger alarms, which helps identify isolated sound sources that interfere with accurate measurements. figure 2. noise patterns from two weeks in the city square mexico city. we originally planned to use the public wi - fi that the government installed in 2008, but some nodes had to be converted to a slower 3g system provided by a wireless carrier. although we can use speech and data services simultaneously on the 3g network, it has significantly slower data transfer rates. communicating via tcp / ip our control center has a static ip address. each node has a dynamic address assigned by a dhcp server. to simplify, the control center is similar to a server, and the nodes are similar to a client. the nodes attempt to open a tcp connection, and if the control center receives this connection request and the node \u2019 s validation key, it accepts the connection. figure 3. control center central server interface figure 4. signal analysis of audio that exceeds thresholds figure 5. noise level, time, and date, and amplitude measured in dba figure 6. 3d noise map displaying noise level, time, date, and amplitude below is the system block diagram we created for pattern generation and recognition. we considered takeoff noise a nonstationary transient signal because it starts and ends at a zero level and has a finite duration. as figure 8 shows, most of the signal \u2019 s energy is below 2 khz. in this case, we notice the background noise more strongly at the ends of the signal because the aircraft - generated noise masks it in the middle portion. figure 7. system block diagram for pttern generation and recognition figure 8. typical noise signal and spectrum of a boeng 747 taking off for all aircraft noise, we observed the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5371212712759604, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.216916"} {"text": "the signal because the aircraft - generated noise masks it in the middle portion. figure 7. system block diagram for pttern generation and recognition figure 8. typical noise signal and spectrum of a boeng 747 taking off for all aircraft noise, we observed the typical form of the amplitude spectrum from 0 to 5, 000 hz. we chose to use a sampling frequency of 11, 025 hz in order to reduce the number of samples taken in 24 seconds to 264, 600 samples. in other aircraft noise analyses, the recommended sampling frequency is 25 ks / s and d -, c - and a - weighting filters. reducing spectral resolution we decided to reduce the spectral resolution because the amplitude spectrum has 132, 300 harmonics, which would result in very complex processing. in addition, we were only interested in gathering data about the spectral form. we present the following hypotheses : - any method to reduce spectral resolution introduces a tolerance in the initial and final times within the measurement interval of aircraft noise. for example, a feedforward neural network is trained with one noise pattern, which was acquired from zero seconds from the aircraft takeoff until 24 seconds later. in run time, if the aircraft takeoff noise is acquired from 5 seconds until 24 seconds, this 5 second time displacement will have little effect on the spectral form if its spectral resolution has been reduced. - a median filter ( moving average filter ) creates a typical form of the aircraft \u2019 s takeoff noise spectrums. - the decimation of average spectrum, with a rate x, conserves the spectral form of an aircraft \u2019 s takeoff noises. our 10 - node system successfully measures the noise produced during takeoff by airplanes at the international airport of mexico. the system makes many different types of spectral analyses and obtains the most - used statistical indicators for noise measurement, expressed in db ( a ) or db ( c ). we can store the data collected by our system and later come back to perform more in - depth analysis. we can determine potential health risks from this noise, and gain an idea of how noise levels fluctuate throughout the day. in the future, we would like to measure the differences of the yield when applying this technique after segmenting the original signal. we also plan to test new parameters to create the neural network. explore the ni developer community discover and collaborate on the latest example code and tutorials with a worldwide community of engineers and scientists. who is national instruments? national instruments provides a graphical system design platform for test, control, and embedded design applications that is transforming the way engineers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5742507162195838, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.217976"} {"text": "new srnl device measures liquid fill level ( download printer - friendly, pdf version ) aiken, s. c. ( november 18, 2010 ) \u2013 the u. s. patent and trademark office recently granted savannah river nuclear solutions ( srns ) a u. s. patent for an ultrasonic liquid level detector developed by savannah river national laboratory ( srnl ) to remotely measure the fill level of a hazardous liquid in a container. the inventors, william hinz and dennis kotz, constructed a functional prototype and demonstrated it at the savannah river site ( srs ). \" this device was conceived because we needed a creative solution for a challenging process where there was not an off - the - shelf fix, \" said hinz. ultrasonic devices are used to determine the liquid level by transmitting and receiving ultrasonic energy traveling through liquids and solids to accurately measure distance. in the nuclear storage industry, these devices are critical for the precise filling of drums containing hazardous liquids. the most commonly used devices measure from the side or bottom of the container. one type measures liquid level from within a container, but requires multiple devices attached separately at specific areas. \" the core technology was available and well understood, but the access restrictions and the presence of shielding material presented a real challenge for the location and placement of the sensor. we sketched a device that took into consideration all the logistical complexities of the container design and the potential operational issues. a novel, spiral patterned shielding plug was incorporated to minimize any radiation exposure to personnel in the area. several weeks later a full scale prototype was developed and demonstrated to be effective, \" said hinz. the ultrasonic liquid level detector was designed to be a simple, compact detector that could be positioned and used anywhere within a container, even above a liquid, independent of the orientation of the detector or the distance from the liquid surface to the bottom of the container. the patent states that the device achieves these goals and \" is especially useful when a container is being filled remotely with a hazardous liquid \u2026 and shielding is positioned around the container so that access from the side or bottom is not possible. \" \" this new device will make it much easier to determine the level of liquid in such a container, with less error and radioactive exposure, \" said hinz. srnl is doe ' s applied research and development national laboratory located at the savannah river site. srnl puts science to work to support doe and the nation in the areas of environmental management, national and homeland security, and energy security. the management and operating contractor for sr", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5265832831630449, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.266659"} {"text": "what is culture shock? culture shock is the name given to a feeling of disorientation or confusion that often occurs when a person leaves a familiar place and moves to an unfamiliar place. the reaction may be both physical and psychological, and some students will probably at some point ask themselves why they chose to leave their familiar surroundings. it is important then to remember that it is a learning process, and that most students will return with greater self - confidence and the ability to manage in an intercultural environment. why you may experience culture shock when you arrive in denmark, you will no doubt encounter a multitude of new things. the food is not the same as it is at home, and familiar greetings such as ' hello ' and ' good day ', ' thanks ' and ' how are you doing ', may suddenly give completely different responses than the ones you are used to. people talk in a strange language and look different. university rules are different, and the way of studying may appear strange and difficult. even though things seem very similar, they may not be, and suddenly everyday routine and simple actions become difficult and frustrating. it is often small differences that are most frustrating, as you think you know how to behave / do things, but you get a strange response. your family and friends are very far away. stages you may go through research has shown that culture shock often develops in different stages : arrival / \u201c honeymoon \u201d stage : everything is new and exciting culture shock stage : you start to experience difficulties with everyday things, as they are different from home, such as the language barrier, getting the right food etc. adapting stage : you slowly start to understand the new culture and feel more in balance. you feel an urge to belong re - entry shock stage : this stage takes place when you return to your home country and suddenly find out that you have brought back something with you, namely something that suddenly makes you see your own culture with more critical eyes. this can be difficult to come to terms with. to minimise the effect of culture shock it is important to acknowledge the existence of it, and to know and pay attention to the symptoms, as well as to keep in mind that it is occurring as part of a learning process. some of the typical symptoms of culture shock are : - boredom, loneliness - allergies, pain - obsession with own health - sleeplessness, excessive need of sleep - mood changes, depression, powerlessness - anger, animosity against other people - identification and idealisation of home culture - trying to absorb everything", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5513859748769377, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.281780"} {"text": "mathematics, one of the very oldest human disciplines, is an indispensable tool for analysing and explaining the world around us, providing us with the skills to deal with the most abstract concepts. mathematics and statistics play a fundamental role in the sciences, in commerce and in every other activity where quantitative, analytical or logical understanding is important. ultimately, mathematics is about clarity of thought and precision of understanding. in the mathematics major, you will be immersed in a mixture of different topics ranging from linear algebra to data analysis and hypothesis testing, from the mathematics of counting and logic, to the techniques of calculus. the range of units available has been designed to cater for you - whether you intend to become a professional mathematician or if you main interests lie in other areas. for exceptional students, there is the opportunity to participate in the challenging extension work provided through the science talented student program or the mathematics special studies program. when planning for a mathematics major, you generally need to take at least 12 credit points of junior mathematics units, in order to enrol in intermediate mathematics units for your second year. it is a good idea to plan ahead and have an idea of which senior units you need to complete, so that you can plan your junior and intermediate prerequisite units accordingly. you will take at least 12 credit points of intermediate mathematics units, which are the prerequisites for your third year senior units. to successfully complete your mathematics major, you must take at least 24 credit points of senior units of study from the mathematics subject area. differential equations and biomathematics fluid dynamics ( advanced ) lagrangian and hamiltonian dynamics ( advanced ) linear mathematics and vector calculus number theory and cryptography optimisation and financial mathematics partial differential equations graduates with mathematical skills are in demand in many areas, especially in business associated with financial services and information technology. they are needed in almost all scientific, medical, technological and industrial research. with a major in mathematics, you could be employed in a wide range of organisations to interpret information and make forecasts and decisions. statisticians and mathematicians can be found in major corporations and in the public sector, where their skills are essential for policy planning. secondary school mathematics teaching is also a high demand area for graduates. even in areas where specific mathematical knowledge is not directly relevant, mathematics and statistics graduates are highly valued by many employers for their mental discipline and thoroughness. further study for major many mathematics graduates choose to continue studying at postgraduate level in order to pursue more specialised careers. if you are interested in further study, you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5091663210454944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.286051"} {"text": "just go outside on a sunny day and start shooting whatever ' s nearby. and aren ' t i glad that this is a camera thread to give context to that sentence... anyway, you want to understand the relationship of three things, represented with different numbers : shutter speed, aperture, and iso. changing either one of them will affect how bright / dark your images are, as well as one other \" side effect \" unique to each choice. all three affect each other and you will eternally balance with them. - your shutter speed seems intuitively obvious : how long your shutter is open, or rather, how long your sensor is exposed to light. measured in fractions of a second, or whole seconds or even minutes for really long exposures, but for walking around holding the thing in your hands, you ' re going to want numbers like 1 / 50 or 1 / 100, or even 1 / 1000 or 1 / 2000 in broad daylight. side effect : shutter speed is also what you use to freeze motion. something moving very fast will still be blurry even at 1 / 100th of a second. at 1 / 4000th, however, you might be able to freeze the subject. but getting that high of a shutter speed cuts down the amount of light you have, which leads us to... - aperture : how big a \" hole \" your sensor is being exposed to. think of a water faucet ; on low it takes forever to fill up a cup, but open it up a little and suddenly your cup runneth over in no time. sometimes water pressure can be so strong it ' ll blast in your glass and splash out all over the place. with light, that last effect leads to \" overexposure \", when it ' s so bright that all you get is stark glaring whiteness, all detail of your subject gone. so you reduce the size of the hole that light ( water ) is going through, so it doesn ' t overload the sensor ( cup ). they call this \" stopping down \". one full \" stop \" refers to a halving or doubling of light ; the water faucet becomes half or twice as strong, respectively. so the next number you have to worry about is your \" f - stop \", the number system that describes how \" open \" or \" closed \" your lens is. f / 11 is a very small hole, and you ' ll probably only use this in broad daylight. lots of zooms have a widest f - stop of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5335154351264486, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.292495"} {"text": "the number system that describes how \" open \" or \" closed \" your lens is. f / 11 is a very small hole, and you ' ll probably only use this in broad daylight. lots of zooms have a widest f - stop of 3. 5 ; more expensive zooms will go to f / 2. 8 ; some prime lenses ( lenses that don ' t zoom ) go down to very wide f - stops like 1. 8 or 1. 4. very small numbers ( wide apertures ) mean lots of light per unit of time : at 1 / 100th of a second, f / 2. 8 will be \" twice as bright \" as f / 4. side effect : this is a biggie, and it ' s depth of field. this refers to how wide an area, perpendicular to the front of the lens. narrow depth of field ( dof ) has everything on one narrow plane in focus, while everything behind it or in front of it is blurry ; this is a product of wide apertures ( small f - numbers, like f / 1. 4 or f / 2 or whatever ) in most shooting situations. deep dof, or wide, or thick, or... whatever... has a very large plane of focus, at very narrow apertures ( big f - numbers, like f / 8, 11, 16 ). although i confess, in that last photo i cheated and used a very wide - angle lens ; i ' ll give you a note about focal length below. - iso is just how sensitive your camera is to light. this is a very simple one : noise. low iso ' s mean low noise, and low sensitivity ( you ' ll need wider apertures or longer shutter speeds unless you ' re in broad daylight ). noise is random data of wrongly - colored pixels. when there ' s less light, the camera has to \" guess \" more, and makes more errors based on random spikes of information in the sensor. the technical details are fascinating, but are also minutiae when discussing shooting. what you really need to understand is that the clearest, sharpest, best colored images will come at the lower isos. higher isos make shooting in very low light possible. the d90, in my opinion, looks very good even at iso 1600 or even, depending on the subject, 3200, but try the different settings and see what you like. you may prefer to keep it under iso 800. i know i try to keep it at iso", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5373186184783258, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.294489"} {"text": "opinion, looks very good even at iso 1600 or even, depending on the subject, 3200, but try the different settings and see what you like. you may prefer to keep it under iso 800. i know i try to keep it at iso 200 as much as possible. iso is sort of a buffer that gives you wiggle room between balancing your aperture and shutter speeds. if you really want a deep depth of field, need a high shutter speed, you have no choice but to raise the iso ( or add more light ; open a window, turn on more lights, use a flash or multiple flashes... photography can get expensive really quick ). - focal length : how \" zoomed in \" or \" zoomed out \" you are, in simplest terms. small numbers mean a wide angle of view ( how much of what ' s in front of you will you see ) while big numbers mean a narrow angle of view, to frame really tightly on distant objects. roughly \" in the middle \" ( thematically, not numerically ) is the \" normal \" range. this corresponding number is commonly viewed to be hovering around 50mm in good ol ' 35 mm film parlance ; for a dx camera like your d90, which has a smaller sensor, \" normal \" is right around 35mm. numbers smaller than 35 are \" wide \", and numbers higher go into \" telephoto \" range. wider lenses, all else being equal, will also have deeper depth of field. a 15mm focal length at f / 4 will have a greater range of objects in focus than a 100mm focal length at the same aperture. shutter speed doesn ' t affect depth of field, but it will affect how blurry ( or otherwise ) your pictures are. at 1 / 30th of a second, even casual movement will make blur. at 1 / 5th of a second, your hand holding the camera will be so jittery that the entire image will blur, unless you have a very good vibration reduction system in your lens. hmm. i wound up writing way more than i thought i would, and i ' m kinda running outta steam. i know i ' m only beginning to scratch the surface. sorry for the abrupt conclusion ; congratulations on the new toy! play around with it, go take some pictures, and realize that understanding the numbers and the tools are only to facilitate your own vision. composition will ultimately be the most important thing for you to work on, and you ' ll be going nuts with it once you get over", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5095654072703766, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.297369"} {"text": "anatomic and physiologic considerations are the basis for proper diagnostic techniques. we will discuss basic diagnostic procedures and relative pharmacological consideration to enhance the ophthalmic examination. normal anatomy and physiology the eye is a sensitive neurological tissue and is considered the anterior extension of the brain. it functions to translate light waves into a nerve impulse, which can then be interpreted by the brain as sight. the eye is extremely delicate and sensitive, and has special anatomic and physiologic adaptations. a basic understanding of ocular anatomy and physiology are necessary to appreciate abnormalities and understand their significance. the eyes and their associated structures are bilateral and symmetrical in most species. eyelids protect, lubricate and meter out excessive light. the shape of the palpebral fissure is species and breed dependent. a wide variation among the breeds results in a particular facial expression. two main sets of muscles control eyelid position. the orbicularis muscles, innervated by the facial nerve, close the eyelid. the levator palpebral muscle innervated by the oculomotor nerve raises the upper eyelid. the margins of the eyelids contain specialized cilia known as eyelashes, and openings to the sebaceous meibomian glands provide oily secretions. the glands of zeis and moll are sebaceous and sweat glands that are associated with the follicles of the eyelash. the conjunctiva is the mucous membrane lining inside of the eyelids ( palpebral conjunctiva ) and is continuous onto the anterior sclera ( bulbar conjunctiva ). the palpebral conjunctiva is thicker and pink - red in color, whereas the bulbar conjunctiva is very thin, colorless and nearly transparent. both contain blood vessels which when irritated will become congested and red. jaundice contrition will give the conjunctiva a yellowish color. anemia will give it a blanched, pale appearance. the third eyelid ( nictitating membrane ) is a specialized conjunctival structure of non - primate animals. it serves to protect the cornea, secrete part of the tear film and fight infection via lymph follicles. this is supported by a t - shaped piece of cartilage and at the base of this cartilage is the gland of the third eyelid, which produces a significant quantity of tears. the excursion of the nicti", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5210159428329544, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.363199"} {"text": "what are bitcoins, everybody asks. the usual answer is \u201c they are a distributed, semi - anonymous, peer to peer, cryptographic digital currency \u201d or something along those lines, but there is another simpler way to look at bitcoins. bitcoins are a tech stock \u2013 tech because they solve a technological problem and have a technological use, and stock because they can be bought and sold on open market. imagine a startup arrived in silicon valley one day and said they were going to create a digital currency which would succeed. a digital currency that overcomes the many limitations and fatal flaws of all its predecessors. i wonder how we could quantify it \u2019 s value in terms of vc funding, and once it reached a market cap of $ 300 million, its value as an acquisition? let \u2019 s look at three start ups who received over $ 100million each in vc funding. dropbox has received over $ 250 million in venture capital funding, for a service that essentially stores files. airbnb, a space rental service ( generally for holidays ) has received $ 119 million in funding. homeaway, a vacation property booking services has raised over $ 500 million. and let \u2019 s look at a few startups that have sold for over $ 1billion. instagram, a simple photo sharing platform, sold to facebook for $ 1billion. youtube, the video sharing site we all know and love, sold to google for $ 1. 6billion and doubleclick for $ 3billion. yahoo bought an internet radio service for $ 5. 7billion, geocities ( now defunct ) for $ 3. 6billion, overture services inc for $ 1. 6 billion and various others. microsoft purchased visio software for $ 1. 3 billion, navision for $ 1. 3 billion, aquantive for $ 6. 3 billion, fast search and transfer for $ 1. 1 billion, skype for $ 8. 5 billion and yammer for $ 1. 2 billion in the above examples i \u2019 ve listed 12 companies that were sold for a total of $ 36, 200, 000, 000. just 12 companies! and let \u2019 s not even talk about the tech stocks which have floated on stock exchanges! all of these companies have one thing in common, commerciality. each requires a monetary transaction of some description to have been worth investing in or buying, in the first place. now imagine a technology which facilitates the commerciality of all trade. the current market cap of bitcoins", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5396856137857063, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.367516"} {"text": "authors : j. marvin herndon ours is a time of unparalleled richness in astronomical observations, but understanding seems to be absent throughout broad areas of astrophysics. among some groups of astrophysicists there appears to be measured degrees of consensus, as indicated by the prevalence of so - called \" standard models \", but in science consensus is nonsense ; science is a logical process, not a democratic process, and logical connections in many instances seem to be lacking. so the question astrophysicists should ask is this : \" what ' s wrong with astrophysics? \" finding out what ' s wrong is not only the necessary precursor to righting what ' s wrong, but will open the way to new advances in astrophysics. toward that end, one may question the basic assumptions upon which astrophysics is founded, as well as question the approaches astrophysicists currently employ. here i describe one methodology and provide specific examples, the details of which are set forth elsewhere [ 1 - 3 ]. in doing so, i place into a logical sequence seemingly unrelated astronomical observations, including certain hubble space telescope images, so that causal relationships become evident and understanding becomes possible ; as a consequence, profound new implications follow, for example bearing on the origin of diverse galactic structures and the origin of the heavy elements. comments : recovered from sciprint. org [ v1 ] 2 apr 2008 unique - ip document downloads : 29 times add your own feedback and questions here :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6227257551704249, "token_count": 295, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.369603"} {"text": "becomes mandatory by default. here ' s how it might work : first thing is to organize at the local level on the idea of a people ' s constitutional convention, with proposed constitutional amendments. once this catches on across the country, then move to the next step. delegates are elected at the local level to attend regional conventions. these delegates will poll their constituencies to get an accurate report on what the people want strengthened in the constitution and what they want changed about government. this report will be the message of the delegate at the regional convention. the job of the regional convention is to debate and vote, so as to combine all the delegates polls into one coherent amendment package. these delegates then go to the state conventions, repeating the process. the amendment package that has thus been debated and voted upon, then moves on to the national convention. the final amendment package coming out of the national convention is a directive to congress, to the executive, and to the courts. according to the declaration of independence, this people ' s directive will supersede all existing law. all that ' s left after the congress does their job, by implementing the amendment package, is for the states to ratify the amendments. once ratified by the states, the newly amended people ' s constitution becomes the law of the land. now, if we don ' t really have this right, this original authority, then we the people have been lied to. everything taught to us about our country and the founding fathers is a lie. everything taught to our children in schools about our government is a lie. the declaration of independence is just a piece of paper. i don ' t think so. i suspect that the government, given the political choice, would capitulate in favor of the people, rather than risk an all - out revolution. after all, we are talking about america here, aren ' t we? here ' s more on the issue that is excerpted from an article i previously wrote, and that addressed several concerns. all the peace and social justice activists that i have talked to want the same things. they want what most people want, that is, equal rights and justice for all people everywhere, affordable education and health care, opportunity and quality of life, and a clean and healthy planet to live on. regardless of the particular issue, there are common threads interwoven into most, if not all, of the issues. these threads include, but are not limited to, government corruption, excessive corporate power, and an unfair class - driven election process that keeps high level political", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.50243946113178, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.386926"} {"text": "issue, there are common threads interwoven into most, if not all, of the issues. these threads include, but are not limited to, government corruption, excessive corporate power, and an unfair class - driven election process that keeps high level political office out of the reach of the average working class individual. there are other fundamental issues as well, but these particular three go a long way toward fostering the crisis that we the people currently face in this country. think about it. nearly every issue that we are fighting in our many different causes can be traced back to a common thread, a fundamental flaw in our society. it seems logical that any long - term solution should address these flaws. otherwise it ' s like trying to get rid of a noxious weed by picking off its leaves. the problem is going to come back. so how do we get at the root? well you start by taking stock in the tools you have available. our most powerful tool that we collectively share is the fact that we the people are popular sovereigns. this is the authority that we the people declared in the declaration of independence. if you can get the majority of people in this country to realize the truth, then you have your sovereignty ' muscle '. then you flex that popular sovereignty muscle by calling a constitutional convention and amending the constitution. most left - leaning progressives tend to shudder whenever you mention the constitution as something that we should all embrace as activists working for change. i ' ve heard it all, from \" the constitution is no longer relevant \", and \" that authority no longer exists \", and \" constitutionalism is the refuge of right wing extremists and gun nuts \", to \" the constitution was written by rich white men \". i also get told by some that what i propose is unrealistic, that i should just select a smaller issue, and join the ranks of those \" picking away at the problem \" ; or that what i propose is dangerous, not only to ourselves, but to the constitution as well. some say it will \" put the constitution up for grabs \" because the convention delegations would be filled with existing legislators who would dominate the process. i understand what people are saying regarding some of the potential risks, however, i disagree with them on many of the variables. for instance, i believe that in a normal political environment, article v of the constitution does indeed govern the process of conventions. however, in a political environment that has created a legitimate threat to the future integrity of the rule of constitutional law, such", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5142833740392316, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.387989"} {"text": "but we should see the futenma base relocation issue as part of a much broader problem. in this article i want to consider the futenma issue in the context of other activities within the international anti - bases movement. i have been involved in the anti - bases movement for many years and serve on the hokkaido asia africa latin america solidarity committee ( haala ). haala is an organization that opposes neo - colonialism, respects the rights of people to self - determination and aims for the equality of all peoples. revocation of the us - japan security treaty and the removal of all american bases from japan are among its aims. we have links with vietnam, nicaragua, cuba and south africa among others and are involved in various humanitarian projects there. a representative of the japan africa asia south america solidarity committee went to ecuador to attend the anti - base activities described in fuse yujin \u2019 s article [ add link ], and have also visited venezuela and bolivia. the international network for the abolition of foreign military bases ( inafmb ) took off at the world social forum held in mumbai in january 2004 and was launched officially as a result of its first international conference in quito and manta, ecuador, in march 2007. i attended the mumbai meeting as the representative of haala. it was an unforgettable experience. to have 130, 000 people gathering from across the globe under the slogan \u2018 another world is possible \u2019 in a meeting of such diversity and vibrancy was enough to really make one believe it could happen. in particular, the demonstrations by members of india \u2019 s so - called \u2018 untouchables \u2019 caste left a particularly strong impression. their cries of \u2018 if another world is possible then it must include us \u2019 brought it home that only by raising one \u2019 s voice is there any hope to change things. read more. on march 11, the us state department issued its \" 2009 human rights report : china ( includes tibet, hong kong, and macau ), \" calling the people ' s republic of china ( prc ) \" an authoritarian state in which the chinese communist party ( ccp ) constitutionally is the paramount source of power, \" practicing : - \" cultural and religious repression ; \" - harassment of human rights activists ; - harassment and disbarment of lawyers who defend them ; - control of free expression, the internet, and access to it ; - extrajudicial killings ; - torture and coerced confessions of prisoners ; - use of forced labor, including prison labor ; - monitoring, harassing,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5051550169374707, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.431321"} {"text": "viticulture - n. : the cultivation or culture of grapes enology - n. : a science that deals with wine and wine making the v & e department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. for over one hundred years the university of california has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. the continuing excellence of the department has enabled california growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the golden state to achieve its potential and become a premier wine - producing region. le reve women in wine scholarship upon repeal of prohibition, rudolph c. kopf founded the wine and spirits department of macy ' s department store in new york, the year was 1933. it quickly gained a reputation as the finest wine and spirits shop in the country and kopf became recognized as one of america \u2019 s most knowledgeable wine and spirits professionals. in 1944 he decided to turn his knowledge and relationships toward establishing his own company, which would become kobrand corporation. his founding principles were simple : first was quality of product, second was the quality of people, and third was the quality of relationships created. regarding quality of product, mr. kopf was determined to represent only the very finest produc...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5290578390667517, "token_count": 279, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.473465"} {"text": ", i, 552 ). this general agreement of theologians as to papal infallibility in canonization must not be extended to beatification, not withstanding the contrary teaching of the canonical commentary known as \" glossa \" [ in cap. un. de reliquiis et venerat. ss. ( iii, 22 ) in 6 ; innocent., comm. in quinque decretalium libros, tit. de reliquiis, etc., no 4 ; ostiensis in eumd. tit. no 10 ; felini, cap. lii, de testibus, etc., x ( ii, 20 ) ; caietani, tract. de indulgentiis adversus lutherum ad julium mediceum ; augustini de ancona, seu triumphi, de potestate eccl., q. xiv, a. 4 ). canonists and theologians generally deny the infallible character of decrees of beatification, whether formal or equivalent, since it is always a permission, not a command ; while it leads to canonization, it is not the last step. moreover, in most cases, the cultus permitted by beatification, is restricted to a determined province, city, or religious body ( benedict xiv, op. cit., i, xlii ). some, however, have thought otherwise ( arriaga, theol., v, disp. 7, p. 6 ; amicus, theol., iv, disp. 7, p. 4, no 98 ; turrianus on ii - ii, v, disp. 17, no 6 ; del bene, de s. inquisit. ii, dub. 254 ). we must first distinguish causes of martyrs from those of confessors or virgins, since the method followed is not entirely identical in both cases. in order to secure beatification ( the most important and difficult step in the process of canonization ) the regular procedure is as follows : this procedure is followed in all cases of formal beatification in causes of both confessors and martyrs proposed in the ordinary way ( per viam non cultus ). those proposed as coming under the definition of cases excepted ( casus excepti ) by urban viii are treated in another way. in such cases it must be proved that an immemorial public veneration ( at least for 100 years before the promulgation, in 1640, of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.509867714993977, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.521090"} {"text": "zurich, switzerland - 13 jan 2012 : ibm scientists have developed a flexible, non - contact microfluidic probe made from silicon that can aid researchers and pathologists to investigate critical tissue samples accurately for drug discovery and disease diagnostics. tissue staining is widely used in pathology to detect disease markers in a patient \u2019 s sample. more specifically, a particular disease marker is bound with an antibody, which is then chemically colored or stained on the tissue. the intensity of the color classifies and determines the extent of a disease. tissue staining is a tedious process with many chemical steps analogous to developing photographs, whereby excessive chemical solution or long exposures can overdevelop the sample or photograph. in the context of pathology, this can cause false positives and negatives, which can lead to misdiagnosis. according to a report issued by johns hopkins hospital, of 6, 171 biopsy slides that were sent from late 2008 for a second review, pathologists disagreed with the diagnosis on 86 of them. obtaining a biopsy is an invasive procedure for the patient, so small samples are taken whenever possible. pathologists are determined to gain as much information as possible from these small samples, which can be only a few millimeters in length. working at this scale requires staining to be performed on many thin slices of the sample to identify and sub - type diseases such as cancer, for treatment. pathologists are often challenged in performing a sufficient number of important tests on these limited samples, critical for personalized treatment strategies. \u201c a key aspect of taking clinical samples is to ensure a high diagnostic capability while minimizing patient discomfort \u2014 the probe developed by ibm scientists does exactly that. the probe allows one to stain a very small section of a tissue with virtually any biomarker that may be clinically relevant. this capability allows the clinician to not only do more with a smaller sample, but will also allow the use of multiple stains on the same sample, therefore increasing the accuracy of the diagnosis. thus this work may be transformative for diagnosing a variety of ailments ranging from cancer to cardiac disease, \u201d said prof. dr. ali khademhosseini, associate professor at harvard medical school and brigham and women ' s hospital. to address these important challenges, ibm scientists in zurich are reporting today in the peer - reviewed journal lab on a chip an innovative proof - of - concept technology called the microfluidic probe, which can accurately stain tissue sections at the micrometer scale. the eight millimeter -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5692442869048201, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.534744"} {"text": "ibm scientists in zurich are reporting today in the peer - reviewed journal lab on a chip an innovative proof - of - concept technology called the microfluidic probe, which can accurately stain tissue sections at the micrometer scale. the eight millimeter - wide, diamond - shaped probe consists of a silicon microfluidic head with two microchannels at each tip. similar to an inkjet printer cartridge, the head injects the liquid on the surface, but then unlike a printer, it continuously aspirates the liquid to prevent spreading and accumulation on the surface, which can lead to overexposure. specifically for tissue section analysis, the probe can deliver an antibody very locally in a selected area of a tissue section with pinpoint accuracy. since analysis can be done on spots and lines instead of on the entire tissue section, the tissue is better preserved for additional tests, if required. in addition, only a few picoliters ( one trillionth of a liter ) of liquid containing antibodies are needed for each analysis spot. \u201c we have developed a proof - of - concept technology, which i hope puts pathology on a modern roadmap \u2014 benefiting from the latest developments in silicon - based microfluidics, \u201d said govind kaigala, a scientist at ibm research - zurich. he adds, \u201c this new approach will enable pathologists to stain tissue samples with micrometer precision and easily perform multiple tissue stains on limited samples. \u201d this research is based on ibm \u2019 s decades of experience with silicon, which is now being applied to novel micro and nanotechnologies to solve today \u2019 s greatest challenges ranging from energy production and consumption to healthcare. the microfluidic probe fits to standard workflows in conventional pathology. in addition, it is compatible with current biochemical staining systems and is resistant to a broad range of chemicals. the small size of the probe also enables easy viewing of the sample from above and below by an inverted microscope commonly used in research and clinical laboratories. prof. dr. khademhosseini said, \u201c the developed system may have great potential in applications where sample size and the need for testing various types of biological analysis are required. i am confident that one day such approach will enable us to take small tissue biopsies and be able to obtain significantly more information. \u201d ibm scientists will continue to test and improve the probe and potentially begin using it in laboratory environments in the next several months. in addition, the team plans to explore specific clinical applications, possibly with partners in the field", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.549054975910586, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.535748"} {"text": "center of science, policy and society programs : aaas dialogue on science, ethics and religion aaas dialogue on science, ethics and religion physics & the cosmos the field of physics attempts to make sense of the universe at all scales, from the impossibly small particles from which we are comprised to the inconceivably large structures within which we exist. the miniscule yet fundamentally important realm of quarks, photons and protons ( among many others ) is articulated by quantum mechanics through such concepts as the simultaneously wave and particle nature of light and the inherent uncertainty in the physical universe. at the other extreme, einstein \u2019 s general relativity provides a framework for understanding our cosmos on the largest possible scale and accounts for the large - scale gravitational effects of all matter on space and time. from quarks to quasars, physics and astronomy address an enormous variety of objects and phenomena, many of which provoke intriguing physical and metaphysical questions. since the beginning of human history we have been looking up at the night sky, wondering about the countless points of lights and what might lie beyond. ancient astronomers observed that the visible heavens are relatively ordered and predictable, yet also peculiar and vast. such universally experienced mystery has engendered tremendous philosophical, religious, and scientific inquiry. the last several hundred years in particular have witnessed revolutions in the way we understand the universe. copernicus re - envisioned the cosmos as sun - centered, not earth - centered. galileo observed jupiter \u2019 s orbiting moons and the sun \u2019 s \u201c imperfect \u201d spots that led him to challenge the traditional greek conceptions of the heavens. indeed, both religious and scientific communities have had to regularly revise their understanding of the cosmos as more discoveries come to light. modern astronomy and physics continue to reveal many unanticipated features of the universe \u2019 s structure and evolution. astrophysicists theorize that all space, matter and energy expanded explosively from an extremely dense soup of subatomic particles in an event called the big bang. after a process of cooling and coalescing, cloudlike nebulae of gas and dust collapsed to form stars, and these stars clustered to comprise galaxies. eventually, terrestrial planets and moons were forged from the heavier material expelled from dying stars. over an unimaginably long span of time \u2014 approximately 13. 7 billion years \u2014 the components of the universe gradually formed, and today the universe continues to evolve as space itself dramatically expands. in addition to piecing together the intricate history of the universe and explaining the various objects we see around us", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6345209956475546, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.541611"} {"text": "\u2014 approximately 13. 7 billion years \u2014 the components of the universe gradually formed, and today the universe continues to evolve as space itself dramatically expands. in addition to piecing together the intricate history of the universe and explaining the various objects we see around us, astronomers also seek to predict what the future may hold for the cosmos. however, such projections are constrained by the limits of our current understanding and by uncertainties inherent in many physical processes. as a result, recent cosmological models are not only plentiful but also often directly contradictory. will the expansion of the universe continue to accelerate until space is torn apart in a \u201c big rip? \u201d will the currently expanding universe eventually begin contracting, leading to a \u201c big crunch \u201d and potentially another big bang? could it be that this universe is only one of an infinite number of other universes? discussion of the universe \u2019 s turbulent past and uncertain future raises many socially relevant questions including : how does the vastness of space inform our conception of humanity \u2019 s role in the universe? more locally, a notable feature of our planet is that it contains conditions suitable for an incredible diversity of life. perhaps even more remarkable, however, is the fact that astronomers are discovering a multitude of planets orbiting other stars, some of which may share these conditions and some of which may also host life. such discoveries would impact our perceptions about human uniqueness, significance and purpose, and we must be prepared to address and explore the implications. the realm of physics and astronomy is wide ( physically and metaphorically! ), and it spurs questions foundational to religion, philosophy, and human significance. advances in particle physics, cosmology, astrobiology and energy are sure to yield abundant fodder for socially relevant discussions over the coming years. see doser ' s work related to physics & the cosmos", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6175193718934526, "token_count": 367, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.542360"} {"text": "when all data are not created equally t idewater areas can be difficult places to acquire consistent - quality seismic data, because different sources have to be used across exposed land surfaces than what are used across shallow - water areas. typically, explosives are used in shot holes in the onshore portion of a tidewater prospect, whereas environmental regulations may require that an air - gun source be used in shallow - water areas. these two seismic sources produce different basic wavelets \u2013 and profiles produced with explosives and air guns rarely tie in an optimal manner at common image coordinates without using wavelet - shaping algorithms to create equivalent reflection character across targeted intervals. an example of using an explosive source and an air - gun source across a louisiana tidewater area is documented as figures 1 and 2. this shallow - water test line was recorded twice because, at this location, explosive sources were allowed. for one profile, the source was a 30 - pound ( 13. 6 - kilogram ) charge positioned at a depth of 135 feet ( 41 meters ) at each source station. for the second data acquisition along the same profile, the source was an array of four air guns with a combined volume of 920 in3, and eight air - gun pops were summed at each source station. considerable processing effort was expended to make the final reflection character identical on each test line. the data illustrated as figure 1 show the results of the data processing. the frequency content of the two profiles is approximately the same, but wavelet character is not identical at the junction point ( station 165 ). in this instance, the interpreter responsible for this prospect decided that the reflection character expressed by the explosive source was preferred rather than the wavelet response shown by the air - gun source. the challenge was that in neighboring tideland areas, regulations required that an air - gun source be used in water - covered areas \u2013 shot - hole explosives could not be used in shallow water as they had been across this initial test site, and a method had to be developed that would allow air - gun - source data to be used in conjunction with explosive - source data acquired across adjacent exposed - land areas. said another way, the problem was to create a basic wavelet in air - gun - generated data that was equivalent to the basic wavelet embedded in explosive - source data. this type of problem has to be solved by data - processing procedures, not by data - acquisition techniques. an approach used by many data processors to ensure that equivalent basic wavelets exist in two seismic profiles acquired with different sources is to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5623018062204994, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.547652"} {"text": "- source data. this type of problem has to be solved by data - processing procedures, not by data - acquisition techniques. an approach used by many data processors to ensure that equivalent basic wavelets exist in two seismic profiles acquired with different sources is to calculate numerical cross - equalization operators that convert the phase and frequency spectra of source a to be equivalent to the phase and frequency spectra of source b. this technique was applied to the tidewater seismic data illustrated on figure 1 by using data from the image trace at station 153 to calculate cross - equalization operators that converted the phase / frequency spectra of the air - gun data to the spectra of the explosive - source data. the result is exhibited as figure 2. the wavelet character of the profiles now agrees better at the tie point so that common horizons, sequence boundaries, and facies character can be interpreted on both profiles with greater confidence. the example discussed here is from a tidewater area where operating and environmental constraints forced different sources to be used on land - based and water - based seismic lines. the concept of numerical equalization of the basic wavelets embedded in any grid of intersecting 2 - d ( or 3 - d ) data, however, applies to a variety of onshore and offshore areas where people have access to overlapping legacy seismic data that have been acquired by different companies at different times and with different energy sources.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.553071735153924, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.548246"} {"text": "we may not catch this break next time a pandemic inevitably arises. a pandemic strain could emerge at the beginning of the production cycle for the seasonal vaccine. this would force a hard decision whether to shift some of the production capacity for a seasonal vaccine into efforts to manufacture a vaccine against pandemic virus. these vulnerabilities and our present efforts to make a vaccine to h1n1 illustrate the shortcomings and risks of the egg - based process. another challenge of the egg - based process is virus yield - - in other words, the number of viral particles that come out of an egg that could be used to make the vaccine. eggs are typically low - yield factories for the production of vaccine components. this limits how much vaccine can be produced in a limited time. as a rule of thumb, three eggs are needed to produce each individual shot of the seasonal flu vaccine. virus yield is increased substantially by using strains of the virus that are specially tweaked to make them produce more viral particles and survive better in the eggs. that is because the \" wild - type \" viruses that are isolated from patients do not grow well in the eggs that are used for their manufacture. therefore, the wild - type viruses need to be altered or reassorted to grow well in eggs while still retaining the ability to make the viral antigens that are needed for an effective vaccine. the antigens are basically components of the virus that have lost their property to infect people but remain similar to wild - type virus. when injected as part of a vaccine, they stimulate our immune systems to develop antibodies that will target the natural, wild - type virus. but this process of making reassortant strains takes time. it is this process that cdc refers to when it says it is working on the \" seed \" of the swine virus to give to vaccine manufacturers. at present, there are not many labs that work on developing these reassortants. thus, the egg - based process is slow and involved. when it comes to h1n1, based on current knowledge about the virus, \" it would take at least two to three weeks for vaccine strain preparation, seed virus preparation would take another three or four weeks, putting the start of bulk production at the end of june, \" according to a timetable provided by novartis. \" standardizing reagents would not be available for another eight weeks, and quality control would tack on an additional one to two weeks.... that would bring us to a time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5040963413393558, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.601152"} {"text": "vaccines, creating incentives for the development of better products and more and better manufacturing facilities. so long as the market for new vaccines continues to remain robust, there is every reason to expect that more manufacturers will continue to enter this field. but our improved preparedness is not a sure thing, nor are continued advances in vaccines that can reduce risks and improve our preparedness. one significant reason is diminishing incentives for investment in research and development of vaccines and new industrial capacity to manufacture them. intellectual property creation has been a key component of driving more investment into vaccines - - not only for vaccines targeting new infectious diseases, but also for flu vaccines. in particular, the need to develop vaccines against new pandemic flu strains has required companies to invest in new processes for developing and delivering these products. these innovations have had more generalized benefits, spilling into improvements being recognized in other kinds of vaccines, including seasonal flu vaccines. for example, one technique for developing pandemic vaccines, pioneered by the biotechnology firm medimmune, has created significant new capabilities against pandemics and generated an attractive royalty stream for the company. the technique is called reverse genetics, and it can be used to engineer the specific seed strain rapidly. with the reverse genetics method, scientists can splice the desired genes into small circular pieces of dna called plasmids. the plasmids are then put into animal cells, and the vaccine seed virus grows. the seed stock can then be grown in mass quantity for vaccine production either in the traditional chicken egg or in cell culture. using reverse genetics is a potentially more predictable process for developing these seed strains. reverse genetics can also be used to improve the process for making seasonal flu vaccine, shaving time and uncertainty off that process. it seems only a matter of time before manufacturers move away from using the customary process for developing seed strains for the seasonal flu vaccines and adopt reverse genetics as a universal tool. reverse genetics is the process currently being used by the cdc in the development of a seed strain for a vaccine targeting h1n1. the development of this technique is an instructive example of how the creation of new intellectual property rewards investment while significantly improving our pandemic preparedness. but the patent protections that secure these investments are in doubt. the average patent life on big new drugs has been reduced to as little as ten years from more than twelve just nine years ago, in part by legislative endeavors favoring generics and lower drug costs. these measures improve access to medicines but reduce incentives to invest in new plants and technology.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5425294960203886, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.606554"} {"text": "drugs has been reduced to as little as ten years from more than twelve just nine years ago, in part by legislative endeavors favoring generics and lower drug costs. these measures improve access to medicines but reduce incentives to invest in new plants and technology. now, proposed legislation sponsored by representative henry waxman ( d - calif. ) would reduce the effective patent life on biologics like vaccines still further - - to as little as five years under some measures. this legislation is intended to address the approval of follow - on biologics ( fobs ) or so - called generic biologics. but it contains no carve - out for vaccines, even though the vaccine industry has narrower margins than those for traditional biologics. the intellectual property protections afforded under any potential legislation on fobs is likely to reflect a compromise that affords these drugs substantially more protection than waxman ' s proposed five years. nonetheless, the unusual economics of the vaccine industry means that it should be treated separately, not lumped in with traditional biologics as part of a new legislative scheme. at a time when we are trying to create new incentives for manufacturers to invest in this product category, we should be considering longer, not shorter, patent terms for products that embody genuine innovations and advances in intellectual property, especially products that target low - probability but potentially high - impact threats like a global flu pandemic. newly created intellectual property has been an important factor in coaxing more investment in the development of many new vaccines. ultimately, it is through new innovations like these that we will be able to thwart the risk from pandemic flu. to these ends, the holy grail would be a universal flu vaccine that protects against all varieties of influenza, including pandemic strains like h1n1. the complexity of flu vaccine owes to the fact that we have to develop a brand new vaccine each year to guard against that year ' s circulating strains of influenza. this stands in marked contrast to vaccines against other infectious diseases, which do not vary over time, enabling the vaccines to be mass - produced and stockpiled. with flu vaccine, just - in - time delivery is required. the idea of a universal vaccine is not far - fetched, however. a universal flu vaccine that would cross - react against a broader range of influenza viruses is more than theoretically possible. several biotech companies are working on such a product. in the case of h1n1, a possible complication to a new vaccine is that the product will be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.51452630087595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.607563"} {"text": "cross - react against a broader range of influenza viruses is more than theoretically possible. several biotech companies are working on such a product. in the case of h1n1, a possible complication to a new vaccine is that the product will be made using the strain available now ; whether that will work if the virus mutates is uncertain. a universal vaccine, by contrast, would target more \" conserved \" regions of the flu virus ' s structural proteins - - parts of the flu virus architecture that do not undergo much mutation and, therefore, are unlikely to change, regardless of the particular strain of flu. right now, our vaccines target proteins that are on the outer surface of the flu virus. since our immune systems attack these proteins, the proteins themselves undergo adaptation, mutation, and change in order to evade our immune response. but structural proteins that are core components of the architecture of all flu viruses would be less likely to undergo mutation, regardless of the pressure from nature to change in order to survive. theoretically, to target these core proteins, a universal vaccine would need to recruit our t cells to attack the flu virus, as opposed to today ' s vaccines, which recruit an antibody response. for that reason, some suggest that such a vaccine would more likely be a therapeutic tool, as opposed to a protective vaccine. there is some literature to suggest that a t cell response alone may not be sufficient to protect us fully from flu, but work continues, and a universal vaccine is at least possible. steps the fda must take to improve vaccine readiness preparing for future threats requires a broad armamentarium and the residual capacity to create new things quickly. even as we respond to the present threat, policymakers must be looking downfield at the longer - term steps we need to take to improve our readiness. perhaps most important are those efforts undertaken by the fda to open up pathways to products that will continue to improve capacity. a few of the steps that the fda can take to continue to improve our preparedness deserve a high degree of attention from policymakers. first, the agency should develop guidance on the regulatory review pathway for other emerging technologies, such as dna - based vaccines, the use of adjuvants, cell - based methods, and a universal vaccine that triggers t cell responses. regulatory uncertainties and delays have in the past been obstacles to realizing benefits from new vaccine technologies. additional fda guidance may require some new investments in the fda ' s scientific capacity. the fda needs to develop the capacity to play a more proactive role in providing advice on the development", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.526798425124995, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.608576"} {"text": "have in the past been obstacles to realizing benefits from new vaccine technologies. additional fda guidance may require some new investments in the fda ' s scientific capacity. the fda needs to develop the capacity to play a more proactive role in providing advice on the development and testing of these important technologies. once vaccine is available, it is the fda ' s responsibility to make sure that the products are potent and free from potential contaminants. impurities in the egg - based manufacturing process create health risks and have triggered some recent vaccine shortages. rapid assays are necessary to control manufacturing quality and accelerate the process for releasing lots of vaccines after they are manufactured. the fda needs to work with manufacturers to develop standardized assays for the rapid assessment of vaccine potency, quality, safety, and potential contamination. many current assays are outmoded and difficult to perform. since the fda sets the standards for testing and certifying new vaccine lots, the agency needs to play a key role in directing the science to develop better tools for assuring that new lots of vaccine are safe and effective. this also includes tools for establishing the standards for vaccines produced using new techniques. more broadly, we need to invest - - through federal grants if necessary - - in additional facilities for manufacturing flu vaccine, in particular cell - based facilities. these plants could be scaled quickly to enable rapid production of a pandemic vaccine. a certain amount of this production capacity needs to be maintained domestically. in a full - blown pandemic, with a very deadly strain of flu causing mass casualties, it is hard to envision that foreign nations would allow limited supplies of potentially life - saving vaccines to be shipped outside their borders. the reaction to h1n1, an infection that is turning out to be milder than first feared, demonstrates how quickly international panic can set in, prompting governments to take extraordinary and sometimes severe measures, such as china ' s decision to place mexican visitors under extended, involuntary quarantines. in a full - blown pandemic, we can expect vaccine - manufacturing facilities to be nationalized. much of the flu vaccine production capacity exists outside the united states. the creation of more domestic capacity for rapid vaccine production should be viewed as a strategic asset. finally, the development of countermeasures will require an embrace of new technology. one of the most significant impediments to these investments remains an antitechnology and anti - drug industry bias that permeates many policy decisions, thwarting innovation and targeting new therapeutics. one of the external", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5168904815372761, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.609615"} {"text": "it is the religious time of the year. step into any city in america or britain and you will see the night sky lit by religious symbols, christmas decorations certainly and probably also a giant menorah. religion in the west seems alive and well. but is it really? or have these symbols been emptied of content, no more than a glittering backdrop to the west \u2019 s newest faith, consumerism, and its secular cathedrals, shopping malls? at first glance, religion is in decline. in britain, the results of the 2011 national census have just been published. they show that a quarter of the population claims to have no religion, almost double the figure 10 years ago. and though the united states remains the most religious country in the west, 20 percent declare themselves without religious affiliation \u2013 double the number a generation ago. looked at another way, though, the figures tell a different story. since the 18th century, many western intellectuals have predicted religion \u2019 s imminent demise. yet after a series of withering attacks, most recently by the new atheists, including sam harris, richard dawkins and the late christopher hitchens, still in britain three in four people, and in america four in five, declare allegiance to a religious faith. that, in an age of science, is what is truly surprising. the irony is that many of the new atheists are followers of charles darwin. we are what we are, they say, because it has allowed us to survive and pass on our genes to the next generation. our biological and cultural makeup constitutes our \u201c adaptive fitness. \u201d yet religion is the greatest survivor of them all. superpowers tend to last a century ; the great faiths last millenniums. the question is why. darwin himself suggested what is almost certainly the correct answer. he was puzzled by a phenomenon that seemed to contradict his most basic thesis, that natural selection should favor the ruthless. altruists, who risk their lives for others, should therefore usually die before passing on their genes to the next generation. yet all societies value altruism, and something similar can be found among social animals, from chimpanzees to dolphins to leafcutter ants. neuroscientists have shown how this works. we have mirror neurons that lead us to feel pain when we see others suffering. we are hard - wired for empathy. we are moral animals. the precise implications of darwin \u2019 s answer are still being debated by his disciples \u2013 harvard \u2019 s e. o. wilson in one corner, oxford \u2019 s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5161177567898638, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.624836"} {"text": "when we see others suffering. we are hard - wired for empathy. we are moral animals. the precise implications of darwin \u2019 s answer are still being debated by his disciples \u2013 harvard \u2019 s e. o. wilson in one corner, oxford \u2019 s richard dawkins in the other. to put it at its simplest, we hand on our genes as individuals but we survive as members of groups, and groups can exist only when individuals act not solely for their own advantage but for the sake of the group as a whole. our unique advantage is that we form larger and more complex groups than any other life - form. a result is that we have two patterns of reaction in the brain, one focusing on potential danger to us as individuals, the other, located in the prefrontal cortex, taking a more considered view of the consequences of our actions for us and others. the first is immediate, instinctive and emotive. the second is reflective and rational. we are caught, in the psychologist daniel kahneman \u2019 s phrase, between thinking fast and slow. religion reconfigures our neural pathways, turning altruism into instinct. the fast track helps us survive, but it can also lead us to acts that are impulsive and destructive. the slow track leads us to more considered behavior, but it is often overridden in the heat of the moment. we are sinners and saints, egotists and altruists, exactly as the prophets and philosophers have long maintained. if this is so, we are in a position to understand why religion helped us survive in the past \u2013 and why we will need it in the future. it strengthens and speeds up the slow track. it reconfigures our neural pathways, turning altruism into instinct, through the rituals we perform, the texts we read and the prayers we pray. it remains the most powerful community builder the world has known. religion binds individuals into groups through habits of altruism, creating relationships of trust strong enough to defeat destructive emotions. far from refuting religion, the neo - darwinists have helped us understand why it matters. no one has shown this more elegantly than the political scientist robert d. putnam. in the 1990s he became famous for the phrase \u201c bowling alone \u201d : more people were going bowling, but fewer were joining bowling teams. individualism was slowly destroying our capacity to form groups. a decade later, in his book \u201c american grace, \u201d he showed that there was one place where social capital could still be found :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5598359596048765, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.625863"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia very nice diagrams of refraction ( with the red lines ). very good at explaining the phenomenon. i think that a rainbow is visible only when the sun is at a low altitude - mornings and late afternoon / evenings. isn ' t there some specific angle for this? krs 15 : 33, 1 feb 2004 ( utc ) - i added : hence there is no rainbow if the sun is at a higher altitude than 42\u00b0 : the rainbow would be below the horizon. - - patrick 23 : 30, 1 feb 2004 ( utc ) nevertheless, it is not true, as sometimes one can look below the horizon. for example, if you are looking down from a mountain, or - as mentioned in the article! - from an aeroplane. i ' ve deleted the incorrect reference to glories from the aeroplane comment. glory is a different optical phenomenon from rainbow and it is incorrect to state that a full - circle rainbow is a glory. this error needs to be removed from the page glory _ ( rainbow ) and i ' ve put that on my task list, but i ' m not sure how to fix the problem that the error is incorporated into the page title. advice welcome. - - richard jones 13 : 45, 20 mar 2004 ( utc ) added : even more rarely is a triple rainbow seen and a few observers have reported seeing quadruple rainbows in which a dim outermost arc had a rippling and pulsating appearance. - sounds fantanstic, but i saw this, and i was not the only one - leonard g. 03 : 50, 25 aug 2004 ( utc ) the article does a clumsy job about what is special about the 42\u00b0 or the 52\u00b0 angle. the picture lead me to correctly see that light can be refracted - internally. reflected - refracted. again at a large range of angles, its just that 42\u00b0 is where the largest intensity of refraction occurs. the page http : / / www. phy. ntnu. edu. tw / java / rainbow / rainbow. html has a much better explanation for the angle. 220. 127. 116. 11 21 : 46, 30 aug 2004 ( utc ) i ' m not clear on this section : in a very few cases, a moonbow, or night - time rainbow, can be seen on strongly - moonlit nights. as human visual perception for colour in low light is poor, moonbows are perceived to be white. in hawaii, we see moonbows", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5508666324059626, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.641830"} {"text": ", a moonbow, or night - time rainbow, can be seen on strongly - moonlit nights. as human visual perception for colour in low light is poor, moonbows are perceived to be white. in hawaii, we see moonbows all the time, and it ' s possible to make out many colors. so, what does the editor ( or author ) mean by \" in a very few cases \"? - - viriditas 12 : 00, 29 oct 2004 ( utc ) the article states : even more rarely is a triple rainbow seen and a few observers have reported seeing quadruple rainbows... these things are not rare in hawaii. i ' ve seen triple rainbows many times and a quadruple rainbow only twice. - - viriditas 12 : 32, 29 oct 2004 ( utc ) - more importantly we could use a scientific explanation of how they are possible. i ' ve seen a 3 + rainbow and know that the additional bows cannot be explained using descartes ' internal reflections in a rain drop. - - solipsist 08 : 32, 24 nov 2004 ( utc ) the main mnemonic described in the article is ' richard of york... ', given the subject am i right in thinking that this is only commonly used in the uk? another editor has also added ' roy g. biv ' saying it is more common. i haven ' t heard this one, is it common in the us? - - solipsist 08 : 43, 24 nov 2004 ( utc ) total internal reflection? the article states that light is reflected from the back of the drop under total internal reflection. i find this statement rather dubious at best. a quick derivation from snell ' s law shows that the minimum angle for total internal reflection in water ( using nw = 1. 33 ) is 48. 7 degrees. that would imply that the angle at the back of the droplet is greater than 90 degrees, which by inspection is not the case. since light would therefore leave the back of the drop refracted, would it not be impossible to see a rainbow between the observer and the sun, if the appropriate areas of the sky were unobscured? kenneth charles edit : i did some research. light is indeed passed out the back of a droplet, but due to the fact that there is no distinct peak of emission from this spectra, it does not form a visible rainbow. however, the statement that light is totally internally reflected inside a raindrop is wrong and should", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5920089105509658, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.642852"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia a typographical error or \" typo \" is a mistake made during the typing process. this excludes errors of ignorance, rather being the result of slips of the hand or finger, or in some cases, mechanical failure. typographical errors typically manifest in the form of an additional or missing character, or the switching of two characters. the emergence of usenet and the world wide web as popular forms of mass - communication brought with it many people who are not skilled typists but have a lot to say. typos are therefore common on the usenet and the web, and some have found certain notoriety as in - jokes among internet groups and subcultures. a well - known typo in the internet gaming subculture is pwned. the etymology is not definite, but it is widely - believed that the close proximity of the o and p keys on a qwerty keyboard caused the accidental typing \u2014 and subsequent publishing \u2014 of pwned instead of owned ( a declaration of domination over an opponent ) in a popular multiplayer game. the in - joke has since gained considerable popularity and variations. \" teh best thign evar!! 1! one! 1!! \" users who are careless about their fast, emotional postings to web forums have sometimes brought on some sardonic ridicule with similar \" errors \" by others in follow - up or stereotypical postings. the ridicule is not usually directed solely at the original poster ' s typing ability, but also their impatience and carelessness to contribute a meaningful posting. this has included : - the misspelling of ' the ' as ' teh ', combined with poor grammar and similar misspellings. - the sardonic ridicule of a user being so excited that they have failed to hold down the shift key long enough to type a consistent series of exclamation marks ( resulting in a string of characters like \"!!! 1! 1! \" ). such ridicule is usually exacted by the replacement of ' 1 ' characters with literal ' one ' s in a similar string. e. g., \" omg that is sooo interesting!!! 1! one! \" despite syntactical similarities, this form of intentional mis - typing is not directly related to leetspeak. the intentional replacement of choice characters in leetspeak usually has the intention of obfuscation rather than ridicule. a common internet typo for student.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5751978697210804, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.646973"} {"text": "part of speech : noun notes : rudyard kipling must have been the last english speaker to use today ' s word as anything other than a name. he did so in his poem, the ballad of east and west, which begins : \" oh, east is east, and west is west, and never the twain shall meet, till earth and sky stand presently at god ' s great judgment seat. \" the phrase, \" never the twain shall meet, \" however, has found a permanent place among our idiomatic phrases. in play : the most famous play on this word was made by perhaps the greatest word - player of us all, samuel clemens. as a boy, clemens rode steamboats up and down the mississippi, where sailing was safe in water two fathoms or more deep. the river boatmen who checked the depth would call out \" mark twain \" to alert the captain when their two - fathom - long lines struck bottom. he took that phrase as his pseudonym, mark twain. word history : pie dwo - \" two \", which underlies today ' s word, shows up in russian and serbian dva, german zwei, latin duo, french deux, spanish dos, portuguese dois, hindi do, and nepalese dui. however, it also appears in words where you might not expect it : twilight, of course, is when the two lights ( day and night ) meet. the reason you can only be between two things ( you must be among more than two ) is the tween \" two \" in the preposition. does it sound a little like twine, the string made by twisting two threads together? no wonder. finally, doubt is the result of french twitching latin dubitare \" to waver \", that ' s right, between two choices. ( we are delighted that larry brady, the stargazer of the alpha agora, is never of twain minds when he spots a curious word like this one, which he suggested for today. ) come visit our website at < http : / / www. alphadictionary. com > for more good words and other language resources!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5419089504701, "token_count": 436, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.657671"} {"text": "mirror of their own species, among the most social of all mammals. consequently, no domestic animal other than the dog has so many symbolic connotations as the chicken does. the mammoth new random house historical dictionary of american slang devotes no fewer than six pages to the word chicken and its compounds. hens, cocks, biddies, chicks, and others take up yet more pages. the chicken spread from india toward the west and reached greece at the time of the persian wars ( greeks still call chickens \u201c persian birds \" ). by the roman era it was common throughout western europe. the romans and greeks thought that chickens were useful as diviners of the future, and roman military leaders would offer a flock grain before a battle. if the birds devoured it, the auguries were good. if they did not, the general often would avoid battle. during the punic wars, one roman admiral was so annoyed when the chickens, perhaps seasick, refused to eat that he threw them overboard, saying, \u201c if they will not eat, let them drink! \u201d and attacked anyway. he lost badly. chickens were often carried on shipboard for reasons other than forecasting the outcome of battles, for by roman times chickens and their eggs had come to be used for food. they made excellent shipboard livestock. they took up little space, would eat nearly anything, and provided both fresh meat and eggs to people who otherwise had to subsist on ship \u2019 s biscuits and salted meat. it is no wonder, then, that chickens arrived in the new world at very nearly the same time as europeans. by 1609, only two years after its founding, jamestown, virginia, had as many as five hundred. the terrible famine in the winter of 1609 - 10 reduced that population to zero, or very nearly so. but once the colony was restocked from the west indies the following spring, the chicken \u2019 s place in north america was secure. for a very long time, the americans \u2019 husbandry of chickens was a casual affair at best, for chickens, unlike most barnyard animals, are quite self - sufficient. often they weren \u2019 t even fed or housed but made their own way by snapping up grain spilled by the other animals, along with bugs, worms, and table scraps. at night they roosted in trees, which is why in those days white - feathered chickens were unpopular, being too easily spotted by foxes, hawks, and other predators. traditionally it was the job of the youngest child to hunt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5041157697743074, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.697901"} {"text": "dirt floors covered with wood shavings. as the manure built up, so did the incidence of disease as the chickens scratched, which chickens will do even when they are not hungry. to solve this problem, farmers began putting their chickens in houses with wire floors so that the droppings could fall through and be removed. the health of the chickens, and thus their egg production, greatly improved. the keeping of birds in tiers of wire cages, where they could be fed, watered, and cared for more easily, soon followed. the price of a dozen eggs began a fifty - year decline. much of that continuing decline has come from ever - increasing economies of scale as the number of egg farms has steadily dropped and the number of chickens at each farm has increased. in the 1940s an egg farm with a hundred thousand birds was considered very large. today a farm needs ten million birds to have that status. as a result of these enormous numbers \u2014 an egg farm with ten million birds produces well over half a million dozen eggs per day \u2014 even the most minor savings per egg makes major improvements to the bottom line. just a tenth - of - a - cent drop per egg in production costs increases the daily gross profit by more than six thousand dollars, or over two million dollars per year. although the number of independent egg farms has drastically declined since the days betty macdonald wrote about, there are nonetheless still about 350 companies in the united states, and competition among them remains fierce. much of the decreased cost that ensues from innovation, then, is necessarily passed along to the consumer as lower prices. this, in turn, requires an unceasing search for new ways to drive down costs if profits are to be maintained, just as adam smith predicted. some houses are built underground to save heating and air - conditioning costs, while light, which stimulates egg production, is provided at the optimal level. about the only thing that is not automated today is the removal of dead chickens. only about three in ten thousand die per day in a well - regulated hen house ( just about half again the human mortality rate in this country ). but out of two hundred fifty thousand, that is still seventy - five dead birds a day that must be removed immediately to prevent disease. in this wholly artificial \u2014 some would say cruel \u2014 environment, even the genes that the birds inherit have been determined by the process of artificial evolution called selective breeding. this process has been the biggest single factor in increasing egg production per bird and per pound of feed so dramatically. but the genes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5059680324847379, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.703560"} {"text": "the search for certainty : a philosophical account of foundations of mathematics. marcus giaquinto. xii + 286 pp. oxford university press, 2002. $ 45. david hilbert ( 1862 \u2013 1943 ) was arguably the leading mathematician of his time. in struggles over how mathematics was to accommodate new understandings of the infinite, the dutch mathematician l. e. j. brouwer was his most fervent opponent. when hilbert ' s favorite student, hermann weyl, went over to the enemy, saying \" brouwer, that is the revolution, \" hilbert was incensed. in a passionate address delivered in 1922, he proclaimed : weyl and brouwer... seek to provide a foundation for mathematics by pitching overboard whatever discomforts them and declaring an embargo.... but this would mean dismembering and mutilating our science, and, should we follow such reformers, we would run the risk of losing a large part of our most valued treasures. weyl and brouwer outlaw the general notion of irrational number, of function, even of number - theoretic function, cantor ' s [ ordinal ] numbers of higher number classes, etc. the theorem that among infinitely many natural numbers there is always a least, and even the logical law of the excluded middle, e. g., in the assertion that either there are only finitely many prime numbers or there are infinitely many : these are examples of forbidden theorems and modes of inference. i believe that impotent as kronecker was to abolish irrational numbers..., no less impotent will their efforts prove today. no! brouwer ' s [ program ] is not as weyl thinks, the revolution, but only a repetition of an attempted putsch with old methods, that in its day was undertaken with greater verve yet failed utterly. especially today, when the state power is thoroughly armed and fortified by the work of frege, dedekind, and cantor, these efforts are foredoomed to failure. a decade later hilbert ' s own program for the foundations of mathematics lay in tatters, destroyed in an investigation by the young logician kurt godel, which had initially been undertaken in an effort to contribute to that very program. today, passions have cooled, and working mathematicians show little interest in foundational matters. the infinitary set theoretic methods that occasioned such controversy are casually absorbed in passing by the beginning graduate student and used unhesitatingly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6277015723201093, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.732985"} {"text": "program. today, passions have cooled, and working mathematicians show little interest in foundational matters. the infinitary set theoretic methods that occasioned such controversy are casually absorbed in passing by the beginning graduate student and used unhesitatingly. like a military historian surveying the battlefield long after all the bodies have been cleared away, marcus giaquinto coolly revisits the controversies in the search for certainty. it all began with a necessary effort by mathematicians to put their house in order. although the methods of the calculus had proved highly successful, their underlying logic had been in grave need of clarification. calculus worked with numbers and functions, but no coherent theory of the so - called \" real \" numbers had been developed, and the notion of function had been stretched in the direction of a frightening arbitrariness. richard dedekind ' s elegant characterization of the real numbers in terms of \" cuts \" had a distinctly set - theoretic flavor, and georg cantor ' s new push into the \" actual \" infinite expanded the boundaries of the subject matter of mathematics into what hilbert later characterized as \" cantor ' s paradise. \" but cantor ' s infinite was plagued by paradox. the kernel of at least one of these paradoxes could manifest itself in what seemed like everyday reasoning, as bertrand russell showed in his famous paradox : if we consider the set s of all those sets that are not members of themselves, then s is a member of itself if and only if it is not a member of itself. this was particularly bad news for gottlob frege, whose ambitious logical system for the foundations of mathematics proved vulnerable to russell ' s paradox and was thus seen to be inconsistent. the highly influential but rather baroque three - volume principia mathematica was bertrand russell ' s effort ( with coauthor alfred north whitehead ) to revive frege ' s wrecked program. paradoxes such as russell ' s were to be avoided by slicing up the universe of mathematical discourse into discrete successive \" types, \" with set membership permitted only between adjacent types. meanwhile, ernst zermelo, who never accepted the stringent syntactic demands of formal logical systems, proposed a set of axioms for set theory. by the 1920s, it was realized that zermelo ' s axioms provided the basis of a formal system rivaling that of principia. in an important paper appearing in 1930, zermelo proposed what came to be called the iterative notion of set, in which a hierarchy of sets is built", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5587143123964766, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.734312"} {"text": "axioms provided the basis of a formal system rivaling that of principia. in an important paper appearing in 1930, zermelo proposed what came to be called the iterative notion of set, in which a hierarchy of sets is built from some initial collection of things by iterating indefinitely the operation of forming the set of all subsets of a given set. he observed that his axioms could be construed as being about just this notion. a few years later, in an address on the foundations of mathematics, kurt godel emphasized that rather than being seen as a rival to principia, when viewed from the perspective of the iterative notion of set zermelo ' s system could be seen as the result of eliminating unnecessary complications and artificial restrictions from the whitehead - russell system. by the 1940s and ' 50s, set - theoretic methods had become a crucial part of the mathematician ' s toolbox. back in the 1920s, when passions were aflame, hilbert developed an ingenious strategy by which he intended to overcome his opponents. he would establish the legitimacy of methods that brouwer and weyl considered dubious by encapsulating those methods in formal systems whose consistency would then be proved using only methods of which they approved. in a revolutionary paper in 1931, the young godel demonstrated not only that consistency could not be proved using only these restrictive methods, but also that the same negative conclusion held even if the entire panoply of methods encapsulated in the systems in question was brought to bear. after godel, the foundations of mathematics were seen as inevitably open - ended, with more and more propositions becoming provable as ever more powerful methods were employed. godel liked to emphasize that these more powerful methods could be thought of as being essentially a matter of venturing sufficiently far out in the iterative hierarchy of sets. giaquinto has provided a careful and judicious discussion and analysis of these matters, supplying needed technical background for readers who are not mathematicians. although foundational questions have ceased to be of much importance to most mathematicians, controversies among specialists continue. readers of this book will be well prepared to follow the current literature on foundations of mathematics.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6346035035775146, "token_count": 448, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.735320"} {"text": "cerebral blood flow ( cbf ) the normal cerebral blood flow is approximately 50ml / 100g / min or 700 ml / min, which is roughly 14 % of the cardiac output. this ranges from 20ml / 100g / min in white matter to 70ml / 100g / min in grey matter. the kety - schmidt technique applies the fick principal using n2o to calculate whole brain cbf. cerebral blood flow = cerebral perfusion pressure / cerebrovascular resistance cerebral perfusion pressure cpp = cbf x cvr ( compare bp = co x svr ) cerebral perfusion pressure ( cpp ) is defined as the difference between mean arterial pressure ( map ) and intracranial ( icp ) or central venous pressures ( cvp ), whichever is the highest. map is the diastolic pressure plus one third of the pulse pressure ( difference between the systolic and diastolic ). cpp = map \u2013 icp ( or cvp, whichever is the highest ) a cpp less than 70 mmhg can lead to a rapid decrease in jugular venous bulb saturation ( normal range 65 % - 75 % ) because of increased oxygen extraction a number of studies on patients with severe head injuries have shown an increase in mortality and poor outcome when cpp falls to less than 70 mmhg for a sustained period. pressure autoregulation maintains cbf at a constant level in normal brain in the face of the usual fluctuations in blood pressure. it is a poorly understood local vascular mechanism. normally autoregulation maintains a constant blood flow between map 50 mmhg and 150 mmhg. however in traumatised or ischaemic brain, cbf may become blood pressure dependent. regional blood flow is tightly coupled to brain metabolism. energy metabolites cause local vasodilatation, assisting with rapid regional control of cbf. carbon dioxide can have a significant influence on cbf. as the arterial pco2 rises, vasodilatation increases cbf and when co2 is reduced vasoconstriction occurs. when paco2 is less than 3. 3kpa ( 25 mmhg ) there is no further reduction in cbf. therefore there is no advantage in inducing further hypocapnia as this will only shift the oxygen dissociation curve further to the left, making oxygen less available to the tissues. arterial po2 has a minimal effect until po2 drops below 6. 7 kpa ( 50 mmhg ), when cb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5067775540603361, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.738012"} {"text": "what makes some children more likely than others to dart across the street in traffic? according to a study in the december journal of experimental psychology : applied ( vol. 9, no. 4 ), it ' s whether they are risk - takers. in the study, lead author ulrich hoffrage, phd, a research scientist at the max planck institute for human development in berlin, and colleagues tested 22 boys and 22 girls who were 5 to 6 years old. the researchers first placed each child on the curb of a busy one - way street in munich where there was no traffic light or crosswalk. they then asked the children to indicate when they thought it was safe to cross the street. as the researchers expected, some children were more likely than others to say they ' d cross the street at potentially dangerous times. to find out why some children seem to be traffic daredevils, hoffrage and colleagues played a gambling game with the children. an experimenter presented each child with 10 wooden boxes, nine of which contained coveted stickers ; the tenth box was an empty \" devil \" box. the children were told to choose and open the boxes one - by - one. if they chose the devil box, the game ended and they lost their stickers ; but if they terminated the game before they found the devil, they were able to keep the stickers they ' d found. children who terminated the game early were classified as risk - avoiders, while those who pressed their luck were labeled risk - takers. overall, the researchers found that the children who were risk - takers in the gambling task were more likely to decide to cross the street, especially when the gaps between cars were midsized - - a time when it ' s often unclear whether it ' s safe to cross. the risk - takers also made their decisions to cross the street more quickly. moreover, while boys were more likely than girls to make risky decisions, whether a child was a risk - taker was a far better predictor of their street - crossing behavior than gender. the findings indicate that traffic - safety education should pay more attention to children ' s risk behavior and tailor their messages accordingly, says hoffrage. \" if we succeed in identifying the mechanisms that make risk - takers accept higher levels of risk, \" write the authors, \" we can design and implement training programs tailored to those mechanisms. for instance, risk - takers may profit from training in visual timing skills. \" - - d. smith bailey", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5044670046309994, "token_count": 506, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.747298"} {"text": "this month in physics history november 1887 : michelson and morley report their failure to detect the luminiferous ether albert abraham michelson was born in strelno, germany in 1852. when he was two years old his family moved to the us, and he grew up in the rough mining towns of murphy \u2019 s camp, california and virginia city, nevada. as a youngster, he showed some aptitude for science, and at age 16 he obtained a special appointment to the u. s. naval academy from president u. s. grant. as a student at the naval academy, he excelled at optics and other sciences, and clearly had an aptitude for precision instruments and measurements. he graduated in 1873, and then became an instructor of physics and chemistry at the naval academy. in 1877, while conducting a classroom demonstration of foucault \u2019 s measurement of the speed of light, he realized he could make significant improvements on the method. within the next two years, michelson managed to measure the speed of light with much greater precision than ever before. the measurement brought him some recognition as a scientist, and settled him on pursuing a career in physics research. he then headed to europe to study for the next two years. working in berlin, he invented the device known as the michelson interferometer. he realized he could use the setup to detect the earth \u2019 s velocity through the ether. the basic design is simple and elegant. a beam of light is split and sent down two perpendicular paths. then, after bouncing off mirrors, the two beams are recombined, producing an interference pattern. if the earth was indeed traveling through the ether, the speed of light would differ depending on its direction with respect to the earth \u2019 s motion through the ether, and michelson \u2019 s interferometer would pick up a slight shift in the interference fringes. however, these early efforts found no evidence of the earth \u2019 s movement with respect to the ether. michelson was disappointed by the result and considered the experiment a failure. nonetheless, he continued his effort to detect the ether when he returned to the united states. in 1882 michelson took a position at the case school of applied science in cleveland, ohio. there he teamed up with chemist edward morley, who helped make some improvements in the experiments michelson had begun in berlin. the new apparatus was similar in basic design to his previous ones, but much more sensitive. it used extra mirrors to allow the light beams to bounce back and forth, creating a much longer path length.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.56309455260579, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.773011"} {"text": "in the experiments michelson had begun in berlin. the new apparatus was similar in basic design to his previous ones, but much more sensitive. it used extra mirrors to allow the light beams to bounce back and forth, creating a much longer path length. michelson and morley conducted the experiments in a basement lab, and to minimize vibrations, the setup rested atop a huge stone block, which floated in a pool of mercury that allowed the entire apparatus to rotate. even with this exquisitely sensitive design, michelson and morley couldn \u2019 t detect evidence of motion through the ether. they reported their null result in november 1887 in the american journal of science, in a paper titled \u201c on the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether. \u201d ( the paper is online at www. aip. org / history / gap / michelson / michelson. html. ) though disappointing to michelson and morley, the experiment revolutionized physics. some scientists initially tried to explain the results while keeping the ether concept. for instance, george fitzgerald and hendrik lorentz independently proposed that moving objects contract along their direction of motion, making the speed of light appear the same for all observers. then in 1905 albert einstein, with his groundbreaking theory of special relativity, abandoned the ether and explained the michelson - morley result, though it is uncertain whether einstein was actually influenced by their experiment. michelson and morley nonetheless both continued to believe that light must be a vibration in the ether, though michelson did acknowledge the importance of einstein \u2019 s work on relativity. although it couldn \u2019 t detect the non - existent ether, the michelson interferometer proved useful for other measurements. michelson used his interferometer to measure the length of the international standard meter in terms of wavelengths of cadmium light, and in 1920 he was the first to measure the angular diameter of a distant star, also using an interferometer. in 1901 michelson was the second president of the aps, and he became the first american to win the nobel prize in 1907, for his precision optical instruments and measurements made with them. in 1889 michelson moved to clark university in worcester, massachusetts, and then in 1892 to the university of chicago. he returned to his work refining measurements of the speed of light, and continued making more and more precise measurements right up to his death in 1931. \u00a91995 - 2013, american physical society aps encourages the redistribution of the materials included in this newspaper provided that attribution to the source is noted and the materials are not truncated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5810082491379787, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.776654"} {"text": ". ideally, contestants will use data visualization software such as microsoft research \u2019 s layerscape ( worldwide telescope ) to add visualization or maps to the learning unit. each entry should include a one - page description of subject, content matter, and how the arizona experience content was incorporated. lesson plans should strive to present an engaging and interactive learning experience that involves students in creative and analytical thinking through inquiry, investigation, and exploration of content. lesson plans must be classroom - tested prior to submission to the contest. only one entry per teacher is permitted, either individually or as a team. download entry form. each entry should include the following : - name of teacher ( s ) - project title - grade level ( s ) - statement of the objective, scope and strengths of the proposed lesson plan - statement of how and which arizona experience content is incorporated into the lesson plan - reflection paragraph about the effectiveness of the lesson in your classroom. - detailed description of the lesson plan - lesson description \u2014 describe the objective ( s ) and procedure to accomplish the objective ( s ) - content standards \u2014 note which of arizona state standards are addressed in the lesson plan - concepts \u2014 identify the concepts engaged by the lesson plan - objectives \u2014 student - oriented, observable, measurable and descriptive of a learning outcome - materials \u2014 worksheets, student activity forms, assignments, assessment tool ( s ), and other materials used in the lesson plan - time \u2014 in - class time required to complete the lesson nominations must be received by 5 : 00 pm on sunday, march 10, 2013. the entry must comply with the guidelines outlined on the application form. the imagine arizona selection committee reserves the right to disqualify entries that do not comply with the guidelines. winning curriculum will be publicized on the teachers \u2019 center at the arizona experience. entries will be judged by a selection committee including arizona experience team members and individuals from the education community. entries will be judged on the following criteria : - 25 points \u2014 incorporating the arizona experience materials ( e. g., publications, web site, multimedia resources, etc. ) - 15 points \u2014 arizona standard - based education approach - 15 points \u2014 evidence of exemplary teaching methods and effectiveness - 15 points \u2014 lesson originality and creativity - 15 points \u2014 ease of replication or adaptation ( across curriculum, age groups, and schools ) - all decisions of the selection committee are final and are not subject to appeal. cash prizes will be awarded for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd prize in both the individual and team category and for honorable mention ( s ). this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5061637095962237, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.802368"} {"text": "copyright \u00a9 2001 \u2013 2008 jsd i set up some spreadsheets to solve laplace \u2019 s equation, with more - or - less any boundary conditions you want. the spreadsheet becomes, essentially, a 2d cellular automaton that directly emulates the physics. this version handles objects in a d = 2 universe in rectangular coordinates. in flatland, i. e. d = 2, the z direction simply does not exist. alas many people are unfamiliar with the laws of physics in flatland. therefore it might be better to think of this as a d = 3 universe in which all d = 3 objects are infinitely tall and translationally invariant along the z axis. in this case, the z direction exists, but is uninteresting, and the essential physics is the same as the d = 2 case. ( this is not the same as considering a thin flat \u201c d = 2 \u201d object embedded in the d = 3 universe! ) in any case, each cell represents an area dx\u2227dy in the xy plane. the spreadsheet to handle this case can be found in reference 1. occupying a large area near the upper left of the spreadsheet is a grid that i call the potential grid. you can set boundary conditions for the problem by choosing cells that you want to represent electrodes, and specifying the potential on these electrodes. for example, reference 1 contains three electrodes : within the universe, cells that are not electrodes are called vacuum cells. they contain a formula that will be used to calculate their potential, in accordance with laplace \u2019 s equation, subject to the specified boundary conditions. if you want to \u201c erase \u201d part of an electrode, you should use the copy - and - paste function to fill those cells with the vacuum formula. just to the right of the \" potential \" grid there is second grid that i call the | field | grid because it calculates and displays the magnitude of the electric field at each point. farther right is a third grid that calculates the charge density ( charge per unit volume ). if you add up all the cells in a given area, you get a charge per unit length. this means length in the z direction ; it is the charge per unit length of the object rooted in the given area and extending infinitely far perpendicular to the screen. principle of operation : consider a cross - shaped group of 5 elements somewhere on the spreadsheet, and label them as shown in figure 1. now the discrete approximation to the second derivative in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6203150074521234, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.865080"} {"text": "the given area and extending infinitely far perpendicular to the screen. principle of operation : consider a cross - shaped group of 5 elements somewhere on the spreadsheet, and label them as shown in figure 1. now the discrete approximation to the second derivative in the horizontal direction is b + c\u22122w, and in the vertical direction it is a + d\u22122w. the laplacian vanishes if w = ( a + b + c + d ) / 4, i. e. if the central element is equal to the average of its four neighbors. recall we are assuming ( d / dz ) is zero. this leads to an algorithm that says that for each cell in the vacuum, we want to equal the average of its four neighbors. so the basic step of the algorithm is to run through the grid and just set each cell to the average of the neighboring cells. that does not immediately solve the problem, because whenever we change a cell it requires us to change all the neighbors. however, each basic step brings us closer to a good solution, so we just repeat the basic step several times. this is called the relaxation algorithm. another way to motivate the same algorithm is to consider the electrostatic field energy. it depends on the square of the electric field, i. e. the square of the first derivatives of the potential. this energy is minimized when the central cell is equal to the average of its four neighbors. therefore each step of the update algorithm lowers the local energy. tangential remark : you can say that the field energy serves as a lyapunov function for the relaxation algorithm... but if this doesn \u2019 t mean anything to you, don \u2019 t worry about it. reference 1 has 841 cells arranged as a 29x29 grid. for a grid of this size, the relaxation algorithm converges in a few seconds. that \u2019 s fast enough that it \u2019 s not boring, but slow enough that you can observe the propagation of changes if you fiddle with the boundary conditions. there is a cell just above the top right of the potential grid, labeled object potential. if you change the value of this cell, you can watch how the charge distribution responds. while the algorithm is running, i. e. after you have changed something but before the algorithm has converged to a solution, the grid contains an approximate solution that doesn \u2019 t exactly satisfy laplace \u2019 s equation. that is, during this phase, there will be nonzero charge in the \u201c vacuum \u201d. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.598098463395329, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.866124"} {"text": "but before the algorithm has converged to a solution, the grid contains an approximate solution that doesn \u2019 t exactly satisfy laplace \u2019 s equation. that is, during this phase, there will be nonzero charge in the \u201c vacuum \u201d. this is unavoidable ; because the spreadsheet strictly enforces local conservation of charge, as discussed in section 2. 2. that means there is no way for the objects to acquire the correct charge unless charge flows through the vacuum somehow. the algorithm gradually moves all this charge to the boundaries. the \u201c manual recalculation \u201d mode ( using the \u201c f9 \u201d key ) may help you observe this, as discussed in section 5. excel evaluates cells in a sequence that it chooses. the sequence defies simple description, and it has nothing to do with the physics. ( remember, this is an electrostatic problem ; there is no physically - significant timescale. ) unfortunately, this sequencing means charge propagates quickly in certain directions across the grid, and slowly in the opposite directions. if you were writing in a computer language that gave you more control than excel does, you could get rid of this unphysical asymmetry by evaluating things in checkerboard - sequence ( all the black squares, then all the white squares ) or in randomized order. as mentioned above, just outside the edge of the potential grid is a layer of cells that implement the boundary conditions. in this example, they implement born / von - karman periodic boundary conditions. that is, given a universe of n rows by m columns, row n + 1 is constrained to equal row 1, and column m + 1 is constrained to equal column 1. you can think of this as a torus, where the top edge of the n\u00d7m grid joins the bottom, and the left edge joins the right. equivalently, you can imagine tiling an infinite region with copies of the n\u00d7m grid, subject to the constraint that corresponding cells have the same value in every tile. below the potential grid is a graph with many traces ; each trace shows the potential as a function of x, while different traces show different y values ( rows ). clicking on one of the traces highlights the corresponding row. this may help you locate extremal values. below the field grid is a similar graph with many traces. you can make the universe bigger by adding more rows and columns if you like ; use the \" fill across \" and \" fill down \" features to propagate the vacuum formula into", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5810263006545764, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.867468"} {"text": "values. below the field grid is a similar graph with many traces. you can make the universe bigger by adding more rows and columns if you like ; use the \" fill across \" and \" fill down \" features to propagate the vacuum formula into the new cells. beware : you must fill from a vacuum cell that is not adjacent to the newly - added cells or the results will be incorrect. you could extend this calculation to d = 3, removing any assumption of translational symmetry. one possible brute - force solution would be to make a spreadsheet with 29 different 29x29 grids and put the appropriately - generalized formula in them. on the other hand, when the problem gets this complicated, you \u2019 re probably better off using a more sophisticated programming language, such as c + +. reference 2 is similar to reference 1, but has several additional features. for one thing, it uses a fancier formula in the vacuum cells. it uses a technique called \u201c over - relaxation \u201d to improve the speed of convergence. this is described at e. g. reference 3. basically the idea is to figure out how big a step the simple relaxation algorithm would have \u2018 taken, and take a step larger than that by a factor of gamma, in hopes of moving more quickly towards the final result. gamma = 1 corresponds to the plain old relaxation algorithm, with no over - relaxation. values between 1 and 2 make sense. ( if gamma were set greater than 2, the electrostatic energy would increase at every step, so the algorithm would not converge. ) the value of gamma is controlled by a cell near the top right of the potential grid. more generally, reference 4 describes a fancy fortran program for doing calculations of this sort. if you \u2019 re interested in such things, take a look there. reference 2 has another cute little feature, the \u201c gate \u201d cell at the lower right of the potential grid. setting it to zero sets the vacuum potential to zero everywhere. setting it back to a nonzero value allows the potentials to be recalculated. this is convenient if you just want to watch how the solution propagates. it is also invaluable for recovering from the following situation : if you enter an invalid expression into a cell in or near the vacuum, the spreadsheet will be unable to calculate the neighboring cell values, and the problem will spread from cell to cell like a disease. as mentioned above, all the potential grids in reference 1 and reference 2 implement periodic boundary conditions \u2013 also", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6138215803934339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.868547"} {"text": "vacuum, the spreadsheet will be unable to calculate the neighboring cell values, and the problem will spread from cell to cell like a disease. as mentioned above, all the potential grids in reference 1 and reference 2 implement periodic boundary conditions \u2013 also known as born / von - karman boundary conditions. periodic boundary conditions are not the only possible choice. another option to have a hall of mirrors. that is, imagine that just to the left of the model universe there is a mirror - image copy of itself. then impose periodic boundary conditions on the pair ( with the appropriate double - length period ). do the same in the vertical direction. you can turn on this feature in the advanced spreadsheet by putting a nonzero value in the cell labeled \u201c hall of mirrors \u201d near the lower - right corner of the potential grid. the hall - of - mirrors condition has an interesting property : it causes the directional derivative of the potential, in the direction perpendicular to the edge, to be zero at the edge of the universe. for some applications, for instance if you are trying to model the \u201c self - capacitance \u201d of some object, the hall - of - mirrors boundary condition may approximate the desired physics better than periodic boundary conditions would. in reference 2, over on the lower right below the main charge - density grid, there is a pair of smallish grids labeled \u201c charge conservation \u201d. they serve to illustrate the principle of global charge neutrality and local charge conservation. the pair consists of a potential grid and the corresponding charge - density grid. in this potential grid, you can put an arbitrary arrangement of values in the cells. no matter what you do, no matter how weird the potential - arrangement is, the total charge ( i. e. the sum over the charge - density grid ) comes out zero, provided you don \u2019 t mess with the periodic boundary conditions. it is easy to see why this must be so : we calculate the charge by convolving the operator ( a + b + c + d\u22124w ) with the potential grid. every nonzero potential cell contributes to the convolution grid five times : once as a, once as b, once as c, once as d, and once ( weighted by - 4 ) as w. if you add those five contributions, you get zero every time. ( there may be small discrepancies due to roundoff errors, which we ignore. ) the cells in this little grid are just numbers. we do not run the relaxation algorithm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.617947426773064, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.869522"} {"text": "if you add those five contributions, you get zero every time. ( there may be small discrepancies due to roundoff errors, which we ignore. ) the cells in this little grid are just numbers. we do not run the relaxation algorithm on them. this should make it clear that the global charge neutrality, in this model system, has nothing to do with the relaxation algorithm. you could use potential values from the relaxation algorithm, or from some other algorithm, or from a random - number generator, and the total charge in the universe would still be zero. no algorithm can change this zero. this zero can be seen as a manifestation of gauss \u2019 s law. we can consider the edge of the universe to be a gaussian pillbox. the periodic boundary condition ensures that whatever field lines leave the top of the universe re - enter the bottom of the universe. therefore there is no net flux flowing into the universe. ( in the example, the field happens to be zero at the edge, making it extra - obvious that there is no net flux. ) since there is no net flux, the net charge on the interior must be zero. the validity of gauss \u2019 s law depends on the structure of the operator ( a + b + c + d\u22124w ) and not much else. its applicability depends on the boundary condition for the universe itself. global charge neutrality automatically implies global conservation of charge. global conservation is vaguely interesting, but it is important in physics, however, to have a local conservation law. here \u2019 s why : suppose some charge unaccountably disappeared from my lab. it would give me little comfort to be told that it reappeared in some unknowable distant part of the universe ; i would be unable to distinguish non - local conservation from from non - conservation. fortunately, our model system does have a local conservation law. if you increase the potential in any one cell, it causes an increase in the charge - density in the corresponding cell \u2014 but this increase is exactly counterbalanced by a decrease in the four neighboring cells ( not in some goofy distant cells ). again, this depends on the structure of the laplacian, not on the update algorithm. just below the aforementioned pair of grids is yet another pair of smallish grids, labeled \u201c gauge invariance \u201d. as in most of the other grids, i have imposed born / von - karman periodic boundary conditions. as before, this exhibits global charge neutrality and local charge conservation. this grid is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6126878659538368, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.870615"} {"text": ". the grounded enclosure option does not generally converge to the same limit, as is obvious from the following : using any of the aforementioned spreadsheets, if you have just one object and nothing else, the capacitance of the object is always zero. gauge invariance guarantees it. that is, you can put any potential you like on the singleton object, and it won \u2019 t develop any charge. the only way to produce a charge is to have two ( or more ) objects with different potentials. ( the enclosure, if present, counts as an object like any other. there is nothing special about the enclosure. ) i created another very - similar spreadsheet that solves laplace \u2019 s equation in d = 3 for objects with rotational symmetry about the z axis. it can be found in reference 5. unlike the previous versions, it does not assume translational invariance along the z axis, so you can calculate the behavior of objects shaped like pears, or bowls, et cetera. each cell represents an area dr\u2227dz in polar coordinates. note that i am avoiding the word \u201c cylindrical \u201d because mathematicians use the word to describe anything with translational invariance, while physicists use the same word to describe anything with rotational invariance. sigh. this is the same as the previous spreadsheet, but it uses the formula for the laplacian in polar coordinates as discussed at e. g. reference 6. the potential grid represents a slice through the axis of symmetry. rotational symmetry implies that any such slice has reflection symmetry. if you fill in the left half - plane of the potential grid ( with your chosen objects and other boundary conditions ), the spreadsheet formulas will mirror it in the right half - plane. it is not necessary or desirable for you to manually change anything in the right half - plane. similar remarks apply to the symmetry of the charge - density grid ; it represents a slice through the axis of symmetry. in d = 3 with rotational symmetry about the z axis, the laplacian is ( d / dr ) 2 + ( 1 / r ) ( d / dr ) + ( d / dz ) 2 ; we know the phi - derivative is zero. ( you can contrast this with the previous cases, namely d = 3 with translational symmetry in the z direction, where the laplacian was ( d / dx ) 2 + ( d / dyf ) 2 ; we knew the z - derivative was zero. ) in the cells of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5790297358636126, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.872956"} {"text": "namely d = 3 with translational symmetry in the z direction, where the laplacian was ( d / dx ) 2 + ( d / dyf ) 2 ; we knew the z - derivative was zero. ) in the cells of the spreadsheet, i have simplified the formula by observing that ( 1 / r ) ( d / dr ) is equal to ( 1 / x ) ( d / dx ) on the slice of interest, by cancellation of a factor of sign ( x ). in this spreadsheet there is a fourth grid, just to the right of the grid that shows the charge per unit volume. it shows the charge per unit area ( dr\u2227dz ) in a ring. you can find the total charge on an object by summing the numbers in this grid. there is no point in summing the numbers in the charge - per - unit - volume grid ; that doesn \u2019 t make sense for several reasons, including dimensional analysis. to improve the accuracy, i use a smart estimate of the quantity ( 1 / r ) ( d / dr ). in particular, i take the arithmetic mean of the left - hand difference ( w\u2212b ) / x1 and the right - hand difference ( c\u2212w ) / x2 ; this accounts for an important nonlinearity because the radius is different in the two denominators. validity checks : i verified that a region with a log ( r ) potential produces zero charge density, with high accuracy. i also checked that the field calculation and charge calculation are automatically gauge invariant, because of the structure of the lapacian operator. i implemented periodic boundary conditions in the z direction, and this is the default behavior. i also implemented hall - of - mirrors boundary conditions, which you can optionally use instead. in the r direction, there is only one choice : the perpendicular component of the electric field vanishes on this boundary. this is reminiscent of the hall - of - mirrors boundary condition, but there is no physical interpretation in terms of tiling the universe. instead, this can be viewed as surrounding the region of interest, at each z level, with an annulus extending to infinity. the potential on this annulus depends on z but is independent of r. this means that outside the region of interest, there will be zero charge, although there will be nonzero fields. these fields seem a bit unphysical. to make these fields go away, you can arrange that the potential at the large - r boundary is independent of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6063629493678838, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.873987"} {"text": "models of deliberation. they have all brought commissioners from different perspectives together to talk and argue with an idea of coming up with some action - guiding recommendation. let me give you the most obvious example from recent history : the commission that president clinton put together. shortly after it was formed, dolly was cloned, and president clinton charged the commission with coming up with recommendations on how the government should approach the issue of cloning. the commission deliberated and came up with a report that the president recommended. similarly, on a different issue, shortly after our commission was created, craig venter announced that he had synthesized a genome in a cell that was self - replicating. and president obama has asked our commission to deliberate on that issue and come up with a report in six months that recommends to the federal government policies that the government should undertake, both in reaction to this development and other developments in the field. why did you decide to take on this challenge? my scholarly expertise is political philosophy and ethics of public policy. i spent my entire professional career writing and speaking about ethics of public policy and in particular about the advantages of making democracy more deliberative. i founded an ethics center at princeton - - the university center for human values. i ' ve written books on deliberation and democracy and articles on bioethics. so when the president asked me, it seemed, first, \" how could i not accept a call to serve from the president? \" and, second, it was a sweet spot of mine to be able to bring a group of experts together to deliberate about important issues in bioethics. you are known for this idea of deliberative democracy. could you explain it? the easiest way of understanding it is what it isn ' t : it ' s the opposite of sound - bite democracy. the idea is quite simple, which is : democracies do better to the extent that they allow people to discuss, including robustly argue about, their differences to try to find common ground where possible - - and, where common ground isn ' t possible, to come to the greatest respect possible for reasonable differences of perspective on controversial issues. so it ' s the give - and - take of viewpoints with an aim of finding common ground and reaching mutual respect where common ground isn ' t possible. can you give an example of how this might work? friday, june 18, 2010 according to a new pew global survey, views of the united states remain more favorable than they were a few years ago : the positive views are not unanimous", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5385447565164716, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.934119"} {"text": "t possible. can you give an example of how this might work? friday, june 18, 2010 according to a new pew global survey, views of the united states remain more favorable than they were a few years ago : the positive views are not unanimous. see muslim views of the united states : the survey finds a fair amount of cross - national agreement regarding one aspect of america \u2019 s image : its religiosity. when asked whether the u. s. is too religious or not religious enough, majorities or pluralities in 18 of 22 countries say it is not religious enough. this is especially true in all three arab nations surveyed \u2013 jordan ( 89 % ), egypt ( 81 % ), and lebanon ( 64 % ) \u2013 as well as in indonesia ( 67 % ) and pakistan ( 55 % ). majorities also hold this view in india ( 57 % ), brazil ( 55 % ), mexico ( 56 % ), kenya ( 53 % ) and nigeria ( 57 % ). the exceptions on this question are the economically advanced nations of western europe and japan. in particular, the french are considerably more likely than others to see the u. s. as too religious ( 71 % ). more than four - in - ten feel this way in britain ( 47 % ), germany ( 46 % ) and japan ( 42 % ). the spanish are divided : 38 % think the u. s. is too religious and 40 % believe it is not religious enough. thursday, june 17, 2010 but now all is bright for minor parties. california voters just passed a \" top - two \" primary in which candidates from all parties run in one big mid - year primary and the top two finishers - - regardless of party - - end up on the november ballot. george will writes : it \u2019 s becoming a more familiar story : voters, frustrated by the anti - incumbent malaise sweeping the political landscape, turn on incumbents and put their weight behind underdogs. although good management and fundraising certainly play a role in party growth, today \u2019 s zeitgeist could help make a libertarian boom out of the two - party bust. for the 2010 election, 171 candidates for u. s. congress are running with an \u201c l \u201d beside their names, up from 127 in 2008 and 114 in 2006. at all levels of public office, the party counts 716 candidates running as libertarians this year, compared to 593 in 2008, and 596 in 2006. wes benedict, executive director of the libertarian national committee, said", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5272059297070975, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:37.935093"} {"text": "long terminal repeat ( ltr ) retrotransposons are a widespread kind of transposable element present in eukaryotic genomes. they are a major factor in genome evolution due to their ability to create large scale mutations and genome rearrangements. compared to other transposable elements, little attention has been paid to elements belonging to the metazoan bel / pao subclass of ltr retrotransposons. no comprehensive characterization of these elements is available so far. the aim of this study was to describe all bel / pao elements in a set of 62 sequenced metazoan genomes, and to analyze their phylogenetic relationship. we identified a total of 7, 861 bel / pao elements in 53 of our 62 study genomes. we identified bel / pao elements in 20 genomes where such elements had not been found so far. our analysis shows that bel / pao elements are the second - most abundant class of ltr retrotransposons in the genomes we study, more abundant than ty1 / copia elements, and second only to ty3 / gypsy elements. they occur in multiple phyla, including basal metazoan phyla, suggesting that bel / pao elements arose early in animal evolution. we confirm findings from previous studies that bel / pao elements do not occur in mammals. the elements we found can be grouped into more than 1725 families, 1623 of which are new, previously unknown families. these families fall into seven superfamilies, only five of which have been characterized so far. one new superfamily is a major subdivision of the pao superfamily which we propose to call dan, because it is restricted to the genome of the zebrafish danio rerio. the other new superfamily comprises 83 elements and is restricted to lower aquatic eumetazoans. we propose to call this superfamily flow. bel / pao elements do not show any signs of recent horizontal gene transfer between distantly related species. in sum, our analysis identifies thousands of new bel / pao elements and provides new insights into their distribution, abundance, and evolution. transposable elements ( tes ) are dna sequences that have the ability to replicate within a genome using a variety of mechanisms. they are present in almost all eukaryotic genomes, and they play an important role in genome evolution by creating genetic variation through their mobility. although most new te insertions have a negative effect on the host ' s fitness, they significantly contribute to genome evolution. tes can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5008561502603684, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.005562"} {"text": "namely tas, bel, pao, sinbad, and suzu, no exhaustive analysis of the bel / pao subclass of ltr elements is available. here, we search for bel / pao elements in 62 non - mammalian metazoan and in 11 mammalian genomes. we use a de novo search approach to identify all bel / pao elements in this set of genomes. after separating the elements into families, we study the phylogenetic relationship between these families, and extend the current classification of bel / pao elements. an origin in very early metazoan evolution is often assumed for bel / pao elements, but no conclusive evidence exists. alternatively, bel / pao elements might have evolved later, only in a subset of metazoan genomes, and were then transmitted to other metazoan phyla by horizontal transfer. this might explain why, for example, no bel / pao elements are present in mammalian genomes. our sequence data allows us to address this possibility in a preliminary fashion. figure 1 shows the species in whose genomes we searched for bel / pao elements. species in which our approach did identify bel / pao elements are highlighted in green. species without bel / pao elements are shown in red. the taxonomic range of the species we analyzed is broad. it includes both eumetazoa and parazoa, bilateria and radiata, protostomes and deuterostomes, and comprises species from 11 different phyla. of the 62 genomes we analyzed 27 ( 44 percent ) are from arthropods, reflecting a bias in currently available genome sequences. figure 1. overview over analyzed genome sequences and their taxonomic classification. the names of 62 non - mammalian species whose genomes we analyzed are grouped by phylum. 11 additional mammalian genomes we analyzed are summarized as \" 11 mammals \". next to each species, the number of bel / pao elements we identified is shown. if we were not able to identify any element in one genome, the genome name is shown in red. genome sequences where bel / pao elements had been already identified previously are marked with an asterix ( * ). for completeness we list seven additional species where no complete genome sequence was available but where bel / pao elements had been identified previously ( shown in parentheses ). a : abe et al. ( 2001 ), c1 : cook et al. ( 2000 ), c2 : copeland et al. ( 2005 ), j : jurka and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5422378910259524, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.008626"} {"text": "bel / pao elements had been identified previously ( shown in parentheses ). a : abe et al. ( 2001 ), c1 : cook et al. ( 2000 ), c2 : copeland et al. ( 2005 ), j : jurka and kohany ( 2010 ), l : llorens et al. ( 2008 ), s : steinemann and steinemann ( 1997 ). the majority of species whose genomes we analyzed belong to one of the three eumetazoan phyla nematoda, arthropoda and chordata. in all of these three phyla bel / pao elements had been identified previously. in contrast to previous work, we also had access to species from new superphyla and from the subkingdom parazoa. this allowed us to identify elements in these new metazoan clades as well. for example, no bel / pao element has been identified thus far in the subkingdom parazoa. we identified 24 bel / pao elements in the sponge amphimedon queenslandica, a member of this subkingdom. in addition, we identified new bel / pao elements in the cnidarian, echinoderm, and hemichordate phyla. in total, we identified 7, 861 bel / pao elements in 53 of our 62 genomes, including 20 species where no bel / pao elements have been identified before. these elements include full length elements and fragments with a minimum length of 2, 000 base pairs. previous studies reported around 160 bel / pao families, but in most genomes the copy number of these families has not been reported [ 6, 11, 14, 16, 18, 25 ]. our analysis thus is the first to determine the abundance of bel / pao elements in multiple genomes. the nucleotide sequences of all bel / pao elements are listed in additional file 1. additional file 1. nucleotide sequence of all identified bel / pao elements. nucleotide sequence of all bel / pao elements that we identified de novo in fasta format. each record ( element ) has a unique fasta identifier consisting of three parts : ( i ) element identifier, ( ii ) internal family identifier as listed in additional file 4, and ( iii ) species identifier as listed in additional file 2. all identifier are joined by the underscore symbol ' _ '. for example, the identifier 5 _ nc - 3", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5096626881870707, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.009480"} {"text": "as listed in additional file 4, and ( iii ) species identifier as listed in additional file 2. all identifier are joined by the underscore symbol ' _ '. for example, the identifier 5 _ nc - 3 _ 1 represents element 5 belonging to family nc - 3 and is present in species 1 ( drosophila melanogaster ). format : zip size : 17. 7mb download file variable abundance of elements the abundance of bel / pao elements is highly variable between different species. nine of our 62 studied genomes do not contain any bel / pao elements, and 14 further species contain no more than ten elements. the relative majority of species ( 22 in total ) contain between eleven and 100 elements, and 16 species contain between 101 and 1000 elements. only one species, the yellow fever mosquito aedes aegypti, harbors more than 1000 elements ( a total of 2524 elements ). the number of bel / pao elements in each species ' genome is listed in additional file 2 and in figure 1. previous results reported that no bel / pao elements are present in mammalian genomes. we could confirm this finding using eleven mammalian genomes which we analyzed in addition to the 62 genomes we just discussed ( see methods for list of genome names ). additional file 2. list of used genomes, repbase update, and gypsy database elements. all used metazoan genomes are listed together with an internal identifier. additionally we give the current url from which the genome sequence can be accessed, the accession numbers, number of sequences of the genome included in our analysis, overall number of nucleotides, the number of bel / pao elements we identified in that genome, the number of different bel / pao families we identified in that genome, and to which subkingdom / superphylum / phylum the species belong. additionally we list all mammalian genomes we used and all genomes we excluded from our analysis. furthermore, we give the name of all bel / pao elements from repbase update and from the gypsy database, together with the species name they occur in, and an internal identifier. the internal identifiers are also used for the nucleotide sequences in additional file 1 and in the sequence alignment of additional file 7. format : xls size : 181kb download file this file can be viewed with : microsoft excel viewer because genome size can influence the abundance of elements in a species, we compared the number", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5208915371834282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.010644"} {"text": "file 1 and in the sequence alignment of additional file 7. format : xls size : 181kb download file this file can be viewed with : microsoft excel viewer because genome size can influence the abundance of elements in a species, we compared the number of bel / pao elements per mega base pair ( mbp ) between species. additional file 3 shows a histogram of this ltr element density for the species we studied. the number of bel / pao copies ranges from less than 0. 01 copies per mbp in 17 species to 3. 55 copies per mbp in the fruit fly drosophila ananassae. most genomes contain fewer than one bel / pao element per mbp. only the mosquito and fruit fly genomes contain more. five species have between one to two copies per mbp. these are ( in ascending order of element density ) the mosquito anopheles gambiae ( mean copy number per mbp 1. 14 ), the fruit flies drosophila virilis ( 1. 34 ), drosophila melanogaster ( 1. 37 ), the mosquito aedes aegypti ( 1. 85 ), and the fruit fly drosophila yakuba ( 1. 96 ). two fruit fly species have between two and three copies per mbps ( d. willistoni ( 2. 14 ) and d. persimilis ( 2. 9 ) ). the species with the highest overall copy number ( a. aegypti ) is not the species with the highest density of bel / pao elements. this observation can be explained by the fact that a. aegypti has, with 1. 3 gb, a more than 6 times larger genome than the mosquito and fruit fly genomes. additional file 3 shows that the total copy number per species and the number of copies per mbps show a statistically significant association for the genomes we analyzed ( spearman ' s rank correlation coefficient 0. 78, p = 5 \u00d7 10 - 12, n = 53 ). additional file 3. bel / pao copy number per mbps. a ) the histogram shows the number of genomes containing a given copy number of bel / pao elements per mbps. the inset shows the number of genomes containing between zero and one bel / pao elements per mbps. the eight genomes containing more than one bel / pao element per mbps come from either fruit fly or mosquito species. b ) relationship", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5177458718475969, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.012194"} {"text": "inset shows the number of genomes containing between zero and one bel / pao elements per mbps. the eight genomes containing more than one bel / pao element per mbps come from either fruit fly or mosquito species. b ) relationship between total copy number and copy number per mb for each genome. each point in the graph represents one genome and shows the total bel / pao copy number and the copy number per mbps. note the logarithmic scale on both axes. format : pdf size : 245kb download file this file can be viewed with : adobe acrobat reader bel / pao elements are the second most abundant subclass of ltr retrotransposons to evaluate how important bel / pao elements are as a genome constituent, we compared their abundance to that of the other three ltr element subclasses. figure 2 shows for each genome containing bel / pao elements the fraction of ltr elements that our de novo search identified, and that we were able to classify into one of the four ltr classes. bel / pao, ty1 / copia, ty3 / gypsy and dirs elements are represented by different shades of grey in the figure. ty1 / copia and ty3 / gypsy are commonly considered the most abundant ltr elements, but our analysis invalidates that pattern. although ty3 / gypsy elements still are the most abundant class of ltr elements, they are followed by bel / pao elements, with ty1 / copia a distant third. specifically, while ty3 / gypsy elements constitute an average of 68. 9 percent of classifiable elements in a genome, bel / pao comprise 21. 6 percent, and ty1 / copia elements contribute an average of 6. 7 percent. dirs elements are a distant fourth with 2. 8 percent, and they occur only in 19 genomes. in terms of absolute numbers, we identified 25, 024 ty3 / gypsy elements, 7861 bel / pao elements, 2445 ty1 / copia elements and 1009 dirs elements. the roundworm brugia malayi is the only organism in which we only identified bel / pao elements ( 29 elements ) and no elements belonging to the other three classes. because our identification procedure of transposable elements purposedly excludes small element fragments, we cannot exclude that this organism may have contained elements from other families in the past. we also note that b. malayi is not the sole species containing only elements from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.508186939088158, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.014318"} {"text": "our identification procedure of transposable elements purposedly excludes small element fragments, we cannot exclude that this organism may have contained elements from other families in the past. we also note that b. malayi is not the sole species containing only elements from one ltr subclass. for example, there are also 11 species which do not contain any bel / pao elements ( figure 2 ). figure 2. separation of ltr elements in different classes for each genome. for each genome that contains bel / pao elements, we show the abundance of bel / pao, ty1 / copia, ty3 / gypsy and dirs elements, based on our classification. the horizontal axis indicates the relative abundance of each element class in each genome, normalized to the interval ( 0, 1 ). the difference in the length of each bar to the frequency of one reflects unclassified transposable elements. their frequency is quite large in some genomes. the three most abundant phyla in our data set ( arthropods, nematodes, chordates ) are labeled. many different families we next wished to group our identified bel elements into families based on their sequence similarity on the nucleotide level. to this end, we pursued a graph - based approach. the nodes in the graph we studied are bel / pao elements. edges represent sequence similarity between elements. the approach we pursued clusters the elements in the graph into families, using a fast and scalable unsupervised markov cluster algorithm ( mcl ) for graphs, which is based on the simulation of stochastic flow on graphs [ 27, 28 ] ( see methods for details ). to validate the accuracy of our clustering approach, we first clustered only the bel / pao elements from the especially well - studied genome of d. melanogaster. we then compared our classification of the 178 d. melanogaster elements with ( i ) the annotation of elements in the genome sequence of d. melanogaster, and ( ii ) the d. melanogaster elements in repbase update. our approach resulted in the family classification shown in figure 3, where the 178 bel / pao elements we identified form ten families labeled from a ) to j ). in this figure, each node represents an element and different node colors indicate different families. in the figure, we labeled elements in each family with the established names from the genome sequence ( left name in each panel ), and with the name of the most similar", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5205590982487753, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.015887"} {"text": "this figure, each node represents an element and different node colors indicate different families. in the figure, we labeled elements in each family with the established names from the genome sequence ( left name in each panel ), and with the name of the most similar repbase update element ( right name ). our classification is identical to the previous classification of these elements, with the exception of one family. this family ( d ) ) contains two elements belonging to the previously described ninja - dsim - like family, and one belonging to the aurora family. the other three elements in this family were not previously annotated. additionally, we find three more ninja - dsim - like elements that belong to the family in panel h ) in our classification. in sum, the method we use classifies only one out of 178 ( 0. 6 percent ) d. melanogaster bel / pao elements in a different family than previous annotations and divides one family. this low incidence of misclassification motivated us to apply the method to larger sets of elements. figure 3. markov clustering of d. melanogaster bel / pao elements. we clustered all 178 bel / pao elements from d. melanogaster into ten families based on their sequence similarity using the mcl algorithm from within biolayout. we refer to these families as mcl families. a node in the graph represents one element. edges represent nucleotide sequence similarity between two elements ( see methods for details ). elements clustered into the same family are shown in the same color. the absence of an edge between two elements, indicates that the elements do not share sufficiently high sequence similarity over at least 500 bp ( see methods ). we compared the elements of the mcl families to previous annotation of these elements in the d. melanogaster genome and in repbase update. each mcl family is labeled with two names separated by a slash. the left name is from the drosophila genome annotation, the right name is from repbase update. dashes ' - ' indicate that a family has not been previously annotated. note that one family has two names : 3s18 in the genome annotation and bel in repbase update. elements from family d ) were previously annotated as belonging to two different families. we next applied our method to all 7, 861 bel / pao elements we had identified. this resulted in 817 families with at least two elements and 908 singletons. we assigned", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5391023158750097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.017005"} {"text": "previously annotated as belonging to two different families. we next applied our method to all 7, 861 bel / pao elements we had identified. this resulted in 817 families with at least two elements and 908 singletons. we assigned a unique identifier to each family, which we report in additional file 4. most ( 696 ) families have ten or fewer member elements. only three families have more than 100 copies. one of these families is present in the fruit flies of the melanogaster subgroup ( 143 copies ). this family corresponds to the roo family which has been described earlier to have a high copy number in d. melanogaster. the family with the second highest copy number ( 207 copies ) is present in the fruit fly d. ananassae, and that with the highest copy number ( 397 copies ) in the carolina anole anolis carolinensis, an arboreal lizard. these two families, however, do not share any similarity to families of known elements. table 1 shows the ten families with the highest copy number. additional file 4. bel / pao families and their copy numbers. for each bel / pao family we list the copy number, species, and the superfamily in which they are present. families that we did not use in the phylogenetic tree construction are not assigned to a superfamily. format : xls size : 183kb download file this file can be viewed with : microsoft excel viewer table 1. top ten families with highest copy number only 42 of the families ( 2. 4 percent ) we identified are not restricted to one genome, but contain elements from different genomes. most ( 35 ) of these families occur in the drosophila melanogaster and obscura groups. four families have elements in two mosquito genomes and three families are distributed in the three nasonia wasps. all these families are therefore restricted to closely related species. in addition to the family classification we just described, which clusters elements regardless of which genome they occur in, we carried out an analogous classification, but separately for elements within each genome. the two classifications do not differ dramatically. additional file 5 describes the results of the species - specific classification. additional file 5. species specific family classification. we describe the differences and agreements between the among - species family classification as used in the main text and the within - species family classification. format : pdf size : 16. 4mb download file this file can be viewed with : adobe acrobat reader phylogenetic relationship among bel / pao", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5045061936599985, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.018088"} {"text": "the among - species family classification as used in the main text and the within - species family classification. format : pdf size : 16. 4mb download file this file can be viewed with : adobe acrobat reader phylogenetic relationship among bel / pao families we next wanted to use our large data set to validate the existing classification of bel / pao elements into the previously identified superfamilies bel, tas, suzu, sinbad and pao. to this end, we used the protease, reverse transcriptase and integrase domains of each element. we constructed a consensus sequence for each domain in each of our element families or used the domain sequences themselves for elements that were singletons ( see methods for details ). we then used these ( consensus ) sequences to construct a multiple alignment of each of the domains using mafft ( three alignments in total ). subsequently, we concatenated these alignments and constructed a phylogenetic tree from them using phyml _ alrt, a version of phyml that incorporates an approximate likelihood ratio test to estimate the statistical support of the tree topology. in this tree reconstruction, we included as outgroups the domains of the canonical sequence from the gypsy and copia elements from d. melanogaster, as given by repbase update. the consensus sequences for each of the families and domains we identified are listed in additional file 6. additionally, we provide the relevant alignments in additional file 7. we defined superfamilies in this tree as major, deep - branching clades, which are easily identifiable based on the tree structure, and further discussed below. the complete phylogenetic tree is shown in figure 4a, and in additional file 8 with partly collapsed clades, and representative species names assigned to branches. figure 4b shows an additional version of the tree with collapsed major clades. in figure 4b the triangles represent the divergence between the elements within each major clade, with long triangles indicating great divergence. numbers next to tree branches indicate the statistical support for a clade ranging from 0 ( least significant ) to 1 ( highly significant ). figure 4c shows the same tree for the purpose of comparing it to previously proposed phylogenetic trees of bel / pao elements. for clarity, this panel does not show the divergence within each major clade, and the order of the branches is reorganized to ease the comparison to these previous phylogenetic trees ( shown in figure 4d and 4e ) [ 16, 23 ]. to avoid confusion, we note that if we refer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5220493229949766, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.019239"} {"text": "divergence within each major clade, and the order of the branches is reorganized to ease the comparison to these previous phylogenetic trees ( shown in figure 4d and 4e ) [ 16, 23 ]. to avoid confusion, we note that if we refer to bel / pao elements below, we mean the entire subclass of ltr elements we studied. if we refer to only bel or pao elements, we mean the bel and pao superfamilies, respectively. additional file 6. amino acid sequences of consensus domains. a fasta file with all amino acid sequences for the domain consensus files we used for the phylogenetic tree reconstruction. the identifier consists of the family identifier ( see additional file 4 ) and the domain name, for example nc - 1 _ integrase represents the consensus sequence of the integrase domain of family nc - 1. format : txt size : 548kb download file format : txt size : 1. 3mb download file figure 4. phylogenetic tree of bel / pao families. the phylogenetic tree is based on the concatenated amino acid sequence of the three protein domains protease, reverse transcriptase, and integrase. the tree is based on 893 transposable element families for which we could construct a consensus sequence for all three domains. in addition to data from these families, we used in this analysis all bel / pao elements from repbase update where we could identify all three domains ( total of 92 elements ). some of these repbase update elements are from species whose genomes we did not analyze here. furthermore, we included 16 elements from the gypsy element database gydb, in order to associate clades in the tree to previously described subclades of the bel / pao element class. a list of these elements is found in additional file 2. different colors indicate major clades. a ) same phylogenetic tree as in a ) but with major clades collapsed into triangles indicating superfamily divergence and statistical support values for the branches. we constructed the tree using phyml with an approximate likelihood ratio test to estimate the statistical support of the tree topology. this statistical support is indicated by the numbers at the branches which range from 0 ( least significant ) to 1 ( highly significant ). all branches leading to the major clades have very high support. c ) same phylogenetic tree as in a ) but without divergence triangles, and branches are reorganized to facilitate comparison with trees in d ) and e ). d ) and e ) phylogenetic relationship", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5104978894209657, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.020503"} {"text": "branches leading to the major clades have very high support. c ) same phylogenetic tree as in a ) but without divergence triangles, and branches are reorganized to facilitate comparison with trees in d ) and e ). d ) and e ) phylogenetic relationship of bel / pao clades as described by copeland et al. and llorens et al, respectively. high resolution tree and graphic files are available from the authors upon request. additional file 8. phylogenetic tree of bel / pao elements with species names. the figure shows the same tree as in figure 4 in the main text but with the species names shown in which the elements occur. if a clade of elements contained only element families from the same species or from very closely related species ( e. g. mosquito species ), the clade was collapsed to reduce the size of the tree. all species names are shown at the leaves of the tree. if all species in one clade of the tree belonged to the same genus, such as the genus drosophila, only the genus name is shown, with the number of species in brackets. major clades are highlighted in different colors. format : pdf size : 414kb download file this file can be viewed with : adobe acrobat reader previous studies identified five different superfamilies of bel / pao elements which are named after the first identified element in the subclade : bel, tas, suzu, sinbad and pao. two previous phylogenetic studies both found that bel and tas elements formed one clade and sinbad and pao another one. in both studies, suzu elements alone formed a third clade [ 16, 23 ]. however, the trees that emerged from these two studies differ in one major way. copeland et al. identified elements belonging to the suzu superfamily as more distantly related to the other four clades than these clades are to each other ( figure 4d ). in contrast, the study by llorens et al. grouped the suzu superfamily with the pao / sinbad clade ( see figure 4e ). two new superfamilies of bel / pao elements our phylogenetic analysis shows some similarities to the previous studies. for example, we find that pao and sinbad form part of the same clade as do bel and tas. similar to what copeland et al. ( 2005 ) reported, the elements from the suzu family are more distantly related to the other clades than these clades to each other. however, there are two major differences", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5027427470694736, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.021531"} {"text": "do bel and tas. similar to what copeland et al. ( 2005 ) reported, the elements from the suzu family are more distantly related to the other clades than these clades to each other. however, there are two major differences. first, we found that the pao superfamily groups into two separate clades ( green clades in figure 4a and 4b ). we kept the name pao for the larger of these clades, because it contains the original pao element identified in bombyx mori. we propose the new name dan for the second, smaller clade, because we have identified it in the zebrafish danio rerio, and it currently only contains elements from this organism. second, we identified a new superfamily ( discussed below ), for which we propose the name flow. table 2 shows the number of families and elements per superfamily and additional file 9 the minimal, maximal, and median element and ltr sequence lengths for each superfamily. we note that we could have classified our data into many more superfamilies, but our aim was not to proliferate the number of superfamilies unnecessarily, while preserving previous classifications as much as possible. fortunately, the clear partitioning of our family tree into few major clades made this task easy and unambiguous. we also note that our phylogenetic analysis is based on more than 40 times more sequence data than previous analyses. table 2. number of elements, families, species and phyla for every superfamily additional file 9. structural information of superfamilies. the table shows the minimal, maximal, and median element lengths ( in basepairs ) and the minimal, maximal and median ltr length for the major superfamilies we identified. format : pdf size : 10kb download file this file can be viewed with : adobe acrobat reader table 3 shows the average amino acid similarity in percent between the consensus sequences within a superfamily and among different superfamilies. not unexpectedly, the average similarity of elements within one superfamily ( diagonal in table 3 ) is generally higher than the average similarity of elements in different superfamilies ( off - diagonal in table 3 ). the only exception are elements belonging to the tas superfamily. they are on average slightly less similar to each other than elements in some different families, e. g., elements in the dan and sinbad superfamily. the average similarity within one superfamily varies between 37. 4 percent for the sequences belonging to the tas superfamily, to 63. 53", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5215514360782905, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.022555"} {"text": "to each other than elements in some different families, e. g., elements in the dan and sinbad superfamily. the average similarity within one superfamily varies between 37. 4 percent for the sequences belonging to the tas superfamily, to 63. 53 percent between sequences belonging to the dan superfamily. the average similarity between different superfamilies ranges from 26. 51 percent between elements from the tas superfamily and the suzu superfamily, to 39. 07 percent between elements from the dan and sinbad superfamilies. table 3. average amino acid similarity between bel / pao superfamilies distribution of superfamilies the number of species and phyla covered by each superfamily is shown in table 2 and a list of phyla covered by each superfamily can be seen in additional file 10. some superfamilies are restricted to one phylum. the dan and pao superfamilies have the most restricted host range and occur only in the fish danio rerio and in arthropods, respectively. pao elements occur mainly in the different drosophila and mosquito genomes, with the exception of a few elements that are present in the parasitoid wasp nasonia vitripennis. other superfamilies are present in different phyla and in a wider range of host organisms. an example is the tas superfamily, which is present in cnidaria, nematoda, arthropoda, hemichordata, and porifera. it also occurs in different host organisms within all phyla, e. g., in almost all our nematode genomes ( 11 genomes ). some superfamilies are present in a wide range of phyla but all species are restricted to a certain habitat type, such as aquatic habitats for the suzu superfamily. we note that our study is the first to identify elements of the bel / pao subclass in the subkingdom parazoa. these elements fall into the bel and tas superfamilies. elements of the flow superfamily the five families belonging to the new superfamily we discovered are all present in lower animals that live in aquatic habitats, hence the name flow. one of flow ' s families occurs in the starlet sea anemone nematostella vectensis ( 7 copies ), and two families occur in the fresh water hydra hydra magnipapillata ( 55 copies ). both species belong to the phylum cnidaria. we found the other two families in the plan", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.530644583559925, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.023521"} {"text": "vectensis ( 7 copies ), and two families occur in the fresh water hydra hydra magnipapillata ( 55 copies ). both species belong to the phylum cnidaria. we found the other two families in the planarian schmidtea mediterranea ( 21 copies ), phylum platyhelminthes. the elements are between 3303 to 16272 base pairs long with an average of 7452 base pairs. the five families of the flow superfamily are not highly similar to one another. specifically, the amino acid similarity ranges from 33. 89 percent between the consensus sequence of n. vectensis and one of the consensus sequences from s. mediterranea, to 53. 95 percent between the two consensus sequences from s. mediterranea. the average similarity is with 45. 48 the second lowest similarity within a superfamily. the average similarity to the other bel / pao superfamilies varies from 29. 96 percent ( suzu superfamily ) to 37. 42 percent ( pao superfamily ). highly similar elements in closely related species we used blastn to compare each bel / pao element against all other 7, 860 elements to search for possible signs of horizontal transfer of bel / pao elements between our studied species. if an element is only transferred vertically from parent to offspring, we expect to find no high similarity between elements from distantly related species. in contrast, highly similar elements occurring in very distantly related species might indicate horizontal transfer of an element between these species. in this analysis, we required an identity of at least 80 percent over at least 20 percent of the length of an element, but at least over 300 bp. this criterion is a liberal threshold for recent transfer events and allows for some divergence of sequence since the transfer. using this criterion, we found no signs of similar sequences in very different species. the only similar sequences in different species occurred in closely related species within the same genus, i. e., in fruit flies of the genus drosophila, in parasitoid wasps of the genus nasonia, and in roundworms of the genus meloidogyne. previous work had identified a horizontal transfer of a bel element between the fly drosophila ananassae and the endosymbiont wolbachia. motivated by this observation, we attempted to identify further possible horizontal transfers to endosymbiont genomes and viruses through a blast search of our consensus sequences for the concatenated protease, reverse", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5267452221669606, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.024497"} {"text": "site lists 88 non - mammalian metazoan genomes as \" in progress \" http : / / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov / genomes / leuks. cgi webcite. some of these species cover phyla which have not been studied so far with respect to bel / pao elements. therefore, the results of our study will likely be extended with every new genome release. a ten - fold increase in family number we clustered our bel / pao elements into 1, 725 families ( 817 multi - element families and 908 singletons ) which is more than a ten - fold increase in family number compared to the approximately 160 bel / pao families known so far. part of this increase can be explained by the 251 families identified in the 20 previously not analyzed genomes. however, the bulk of this increase in family number comes from newly identified families in previously studied species. for example, we identified two previously unknown families with a copy number of more than 200 elements. one potential explanation for the high family number might be that our clustering approach divided the elements from one species into too many small families. however, our analysis of the well - studied and well - annotated fruit fly d. melanogaster genome argues against this possibility. this analysis finds that the ten families we identify are largely congruent with previous annotation. the only exception are elements belonging to the ninja - dsim - like family ( nine elements ). our clustering approach divided this family into two families. additionally in one of the two ninja - dsim - like families, we find an element from the aurora family. however, this change in annotation affects only one in 178 elements ( 0. 6 percent ). the aurora element is the only element of that family in d. melanogaster, raising the possibility that one of the ninja - dsim - like elements was falsely annotated as an aurora element. indeed, the alignment of all annotated ninja - dsim - like elements in d. melanogaster shows a high average sequence divergence ( in both ninja - dsim - like families the elements have an average similarity of 64 percent ) and the aurora element is very similar to large parts of some of the ninja - dsim - like elements. overall, the comparison of our families to the previously annotated tes in d. melanogaster shows that our clustering does not separate the elements into too many small families. our approach correctly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5230540825293196, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.029406"} {"text": "the ninja - dsim - like elements. overall, the comparison of our families to the previously annotated tes in d. melanogaster shows that our clustering does not separate the elements into too many small families. our approach correctly classified 177 out of 178 elements. we therefore believe that the high number of bel / pao families we identified is a faithful reflection of actual bel / pao element diversity. major subclades separated early previous studies, which were based on fewer than 25 bel / pao elements, identified five superfamilies of bel / pao elements : pao, sinbad, bel, tas and suzu [ 16, 23 ], named after the first element identified in each superfamily. our phylogenetic tree is based on 893 bel / pao families and it also identified these five known superfamilies. additionally we found one completely new superfamily ( flow ), and a deep separation of the pao superfamily into the two highly divergent superfamilies pao and dan. we separated the dan superfamily from the sinbad superfamily for two reasons. first, one element from the dan clade was previously annotated to belong to the pao superfamily. in contrast, we find that the dan clade is more closely related to the sinbad superfamily. the best way to resolve this conflict, in our view, is to propose dan as a second superfamily. second, because the sinbad superfamily also contains elements from danio rerio, the dan clade is not simply a subbranch of the sinbad superfamily that contains all elements from danio rerio. in sum, we think that the dan clade should be viewed as a separate superfamily. it is very likely that new elements of this superfamily will be identied in genomes that we did not study. the superfamily tree topology we find differs somewhat from previously reported topologies [ 16, 23 ]. we find a very high statistical support for our tree topology ( see figure 4b ). this high support makes it unlikely that our tree topology is not correct, especially as it is also supported by many more sequences than any of the previous studies. additionally the average sequence similarity of elements within one superfamily almost always shows greater amino acid sequence similarity than elements in different superfamilies, which supports our classification into superfamilies. most ( 656 of 893 ) of our families belong to the pao or bel superfamily. this is not surprising because these superfamilies are mainly restricted to arthropod genomes and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5283016412514046, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.030460"} {"text": "supports our classification into superfamilies. most ( 656 of 893 ) of our families belong to the pao or bel superfamily. this is not surprising because these superfamilies are mainly restricted to arthropod genomes and 27 of our genome sequences ( 44 percent ) belong to this phylum. the other five superfamilies show a more diverse distribution of host genomes. here, the host genomes come from more than one phylum and, for the tas and bel superfamily, even from both metazoan subkingdoms. the variation in the host species range that we observe has several candidate explanations that our data cannot resolve. on the one hand, bel / pao superfamilies might have been lost in some phyla. on the other hand, horizontal transfer of bel / pao elements between species belonging to different phyla might be at work. for example, if bel / pao elements originated in the eumetazoa, a horizontal transfer event to amphimedon queenslandica might explain the presence of bel / pao elements in the parazoa. we did not find any evidence of recent horizontal transfer between distantly related species, because no such species contain highly similar bel / pao elements. this, however, does not exclude the possibility of ancient horizontal transfer events. to identify such transfer events is beyond the scope of our study. but regardless of whether element loss or horizontal transfer explains the current bel / pao element distribution, bel / pao elements probably originated early in metazoan evolution. this is because bel / pao elements occur in both metazoan subkingdoms, and in a wide range of host species from different phyla. flow, a new superfamily of bel / pao elements we found a new bel / pao superfamily ( flow ) which consists of five families and a total of 83 elements present in lower animals. we identified three of these families in two species belonging to the phylum cnidaria ( hydra magnipapillata, nematostella vectensis ), and the other two families in a species belonging to the phylum platyhelminthes ( schmidtea mediterranea ). in both phyla, cnidaria and platyhelminthes, only eleven and two bel / pao elements, respectively, had been identified before [ 16, 23, 38 ]. the five flow families are quite diverse ( average similarity 45. 48 percent ). this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5097850979374118, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.031418"} {"text": "complete list of all genomes we analyzed is present in additional file 2. although previous studies did not identify any bel / pao elements in mammalian genomes, we downloaded eleven mammalian genome sequences from the ncbi ' s eukaryotic genome sequencing project site to validate this observation : bos taurus, canis lupus familiaris, equus caballus, monodelphis domestica, mus musculus, ornithorhynchus anatinus, rattus norvegicus, ailuropoda melanoleuca, cavia porcellus, lama pacos, pteropus vampyrus. we used a combination of two de novo identification algorithms to identify all ltr elements in our set of genomes. specifically, we applied the two de novo ltr identification algorithms ltrharvest and find _ ltr to identify all possible ltr elements in our genomes. subsequently, we separated our de novo identified elements into the four ltr classes ty1 / copia, ty3 / gypsy, bel / pao and dirs, merged the two sets of bel / pao elements from each algorithm into one set, and assigned an identifier to each element. we now explain important details of this procedure. ltrharvest and find _ ltr both search for structural features, such as ltr sequences, to identify full length ltr elements in a genome sequence. among all de novo ltr identification programs ltrharvest and find _ ltr give the best results with regard to the number of true ltr elements detected. however, the number of false positives can also be high for both programs. therefore we accepted only candidate elements for further analysis that contained at least one functional domain known to be present in ltr retrotransposons and at least one open reading frame longer than 300 bp. to identify these domains we used hidden markov models obtained from pfam ( asp _ protease, peptidase _ a17, rvt _ 1, rvt _ 2, rve, integrase _ zn, gp36, retrotrans gag, integrase, integrase _ zn, tlv _ coat ) and used hmmer http : / / hmmer. janelia. org webcite to compare these pfam domains to our de novo candidate elements. only if hmmer had found at least one domain with an e - value smaller than 0. 01 in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.502356188330753, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.034231"} {"text": "hmmer http : / / hmmer. janelia. org webcite to compare these pfam domains to our de novo candidate elements. only if hmmer had found at least one domain with an e - value smaller than 0. 01 in an element, we kept the element for further analysis. we used ltrharvest with the minimum distance between two ltr sequences ( option - mindistltr ) set to 2000 base pairs and allowed overlapping hits ( option - overlaps ). we used find _ ltr with default values. both programs, but especially ltrharvest, return overlapping and nested elements. where several elements were nested, we only took the innermost element, because it probably represents the younger element. where elements overlapped, we randomly chose one of the elements for further analysis. to divide our elements from both de novo sets into ty1 / copia, ty3 / gypsy, bel / pao and dirs classes, we constructed specific hidden markov models for each class. to this end, we downloaded all canonical ltr sequences, prototypic sequences that either represent consensus sequences or a sequence example for a te family, for each of the four classes from repbase update, a database containing repetitive dna elements in eukaryotes ( 478, 941, 106 and 68 sequences for ty1 / copia, ty3 / gypsy, bel / pao and dirs, respectively ). we then used the pfam hidden markov models for the domains listed in the previous paragraph, and identified these domains in all sequences from a given class using hmmer ( http : / / hmmer. janelia. org webcite ; e - value < 0. 0001 ). for each ltr class we took all identified domain sequences and aligned the sequences belonging to the same domain using mafft, checked the alignments manually for obvious errors, and constructed a new hidden markov model using hmmer. we next used hmmer to compare each of the new candidate elements that we had identified against these class - specific hidden markov models. for each candidate element and each element class we obtained in this way an e - value that reflects how well the element matches the class. we assigned the candidate element to an element class if it matched this class with the smallest ( most significant ) e - value among all four classes we matched it with. if we did not find a model with an e - value below 10 - 20, we did not classify the element. by the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5110852719994434, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.035680"} {"text": "if it matched this class with the smallest ( most significant ) e - value among all four classes we matched it with. if we did not find a model with an e - value below 10 - 20, we did not classify the element. by the time we had finished this ( time - consuming ) analysis, a larger set of specific hidden markov models for each of the four element classes than our set became freely available. we tested if this new set improved the classification substantially, which was not the case ( results not shown ). at this stage, our analysis had created two sets of elements classified as bel / pao elements, one set from each of our de novo searches. for each species, we then merged these two bel / pao sets into one set of elements according to the following rules : if only one of the search algorithms had identified an element at a given genome position, this element was used for the final set. if both algorithms had identified an element at the same position, we took the element identified by find _ ltr, because in our experience find _ ltr identified the ltr start and end positions more accurately. if both algorithm had identified an element within 20 bp of each other, we took the element identified by find _ ltr. otherwise, if both algorithms had identified an element, and if these elements were overlapping but their start and end positions differed by more than 20 bp, we took the element which had a length between 2, 000 to 15, 000 bp. we chose these length thresholds, because based on known elements they are lower and upper bounds for full length elements. if both elements were within this length range, we randomly chose one element. if neither element fulfilled this length criterion, we eliminated the element from further analysis. this occurred only for 0. 7 percent ( 53 out of 7914 ) of elements we analyzed. the next stage of our analysis began with the bel / pao elements we had identified, and grouped them into different families. to this end, we used the markov cluster ( mcl ) algorithm, a fast and scalable unsupervised markov clustering algorithm for graphs based on simulation of stochastic flow in graphs [ 27, 28 ]. this algorithm subdivides a graph whose nodes are transposable elements, and whose weighted edges reflect sequence similarity among elements, into subgraphs. the algorithm defines a family based on the higher connectivity between elements of one family than to elements of a different family. it can therefore overcome the limitations of a fixed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5530047580804744, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 26, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.036718"} {"text": "the graph - based grouping procedure we used, our elements correspond to nodes and the similarity score between two elements correspond to the edge weight between the two nodes. we loaded the scores into biolayout, a 3d graph visualization tool, and started mcl from within this tool. the inflation option of the mcl algorithm affects the cluster granularity. we tested different inflation values on our set of 178 bel / pao elements from the well studied drosophila melanogaster genome, and compared the resulting clustering to the genome annotation. we found that an inflation value of 4. 0 and a pre - inflation value of 3. 0 best reproduced the known d. melanogaster families. we also used these values for our clustering analysis among genomes. additionally, we set the smallest detectable cluster size to one. biolayout assigns an arbitrary color to each element family, and paints the nodes belonging to a family in that color. changing the length threshold for our blast matches above would influence the number of element pairs we find, and therefore the number of edges in our graph. a lower length threshold would increase the edge number, whereas a higher threshold would decrease it. we explored different length thresholds and did not find qualitative differences between the clustering of the elements. also, the number of families with multiple elements did not vary much. by decreasing the length threshold progressively, however, our approach identified fewer singletons ( families with only one member ), because increasing numbers of singletons got added to existing multi - element families. conversely, increasing the length threshold, results in more singletons, as families become more and more fragmented. these new singletons typically are the most diverged elements in a family. sequence alignment and phylogenetic reconstruction we next describe how we constructed the phylogenetic tree that helped us classify elements into superfamilies. our procedure had three steps. in the first, we defined, separately for each family, a consensus sequence for each of the protease, reverse transcriptase and integrase domains ( three consensus sequences per family ). second, we used these consensus sequences to produce a multiple sequence alignment of elements in all families. third, we constructed a phylogenetic tree from this alignment. we now describe important details of each step. in the first step, we constructed for each of the families we had identified multiple alignments of the protease, reverse transcriptase and integrase domains using mafft version 5. to this end, we used the amino acid sequences of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5530907065666705, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 28, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.038859"} {"text": "of the tree topology. this approach is superior to a bootstrap calculation with respect to accuracy and power, and it is computationally much more efficient. the method assigns to each branch a statistical significance ranging from 0 ( least significant ) to 1 ( highly significant ). we used the default options of phyml _ alrt with the jtt matrix for amino acid substitutions, the proportion of invariable sites set to zero, and with only one category of substitution rate. we chose the \u03c72 - based parametric branch support for approximate likelihood ratio tests. as outgroups we used the domain sequences from the copia and gypsy element in drosophila melanogaster, as given by repbase update [ 47, 48 ]. we then separated our bel / pao families into superfamilies based on the major clades in the phylogenetic tree. using the protdist program from the phylip package we calculated the average percent similarity of sequence pairs within a superfamily, as well as for sequence pairs whose members belonged to different superfamilies. nc carried out the research. nc and aw designed the study and wrote the manuscript. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. we would like to acknowledge support from swiss national science foundation grants 315200 - 116814, 315200 - 119697, and 315230 - 129708. xiong y, eickbush th : origin and evolution of retroelements based upon their reverse transcriptase sequences. [ http : / / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov / pubmed / 1698615? dopt = abstract ] webcite malik hs, henikoff s, eickbush th : poised for contagion : evolutionary origins of the infectious abilities of invertebrate retroviruses. [ http : / / genome. cshlp. org / cgi / content / abstract / 10 / 9 / 1307 ] webcite song su, gerasimova t, kurkulos m, boeke jd, corces vg : an env - like protein encoded by a drosophila retroelement : evidence that gypsy is an infectious retrovirus. [ http : / / genesdev. cshlp. org / cgi / content / abstract / 8 / 17 / 2046 ] webcite miguel c, simoes m, oliveira mm, rocheta m : envelope - like retrotransposons in the plant kingdom : evidence of their presence in gym", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5150057998464175, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 30, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.040785"} {"text": "/ cgi / content / abstract / 8 / 17 / 2046 ] webcite miguel c, simoes m, oliveira mm, rocheta m : envelope - like retrotransposons in the plant kingdom : evidence of their presence in gymnosperms ( pinus pinaster ). [ http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 1007 / s00239 - 008 - 9168 - 3 ] webcite xiong y, burke wd, eickbush th : pao, a highly divergent retrotransposable element from bombyx mori containing long terminal repeats with tandem copies of the putative r region. 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[ http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 1093 / nar / gkq1061 ] webcite llorens c, futami r, covelli l, dominguez - escriba l, viu jm, tamarit d, aguilar - rodriguez j, vicente - ripolles m, fuster g, bernet gp, maumus f, munoz - pomer a, sempere jm, latorre a, moya a : the gypsy database ( gydb ) of mobile genetic elements : release 2. 0. [ http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 1093 / nar / gkq1061 ] webcite nene v, wortman jr, lawson d, haas b, kodira c, tu zj", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.514793362786132, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 33, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.043939"} {"text": ": / / dx. doi. org / 10. 1093 / nar / gkq1061 ] webcite nene v, wortman jr, lawson d, haas b, kodira c, tu zj, loftus b, xi z, megy k, grabherr m, et al. : genome sequence of aedes aegypti, a major arbovirus vector. 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[ http : / / www. nature. com / hdy / journal / v85 / n2 / abs / 6887510a. html ] webcite heredity 2000, 85 ( pt 2 ) : 101 - 106. pubmed abstract swingley wd, blankenship re, raymond j : integrating markov clustering and molecular phylogenetics to reconstruct the cyanobacterial", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5357612140911743, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 34, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.044906"} {"text": "the hydraulic system in the 787 no - bleed architecture is similar to the one in the traditional architecture. there are three independent systems \u2014 left, center, and right \u2014 that collectively support primary flight control actuators, landing gear actuation, nose gear steering, thrust reversers, and leading / trailing edge flaps. the primary power source for the left and right systems are engine - driven pumps mounted on the engine gearbox. in addition, the left and right systems are each powered by an electric - motor - driven hydraulic pump for peak demands and for ground operations. the key difference between the traditional and 787 hydraulic system is the power source for the center system. in the traditional architecture, the center system is powered by two large air - turbine - driven hydraulic pumps, which operate at approximately 50 gallons per minute ( gpm ) at 3, 000 pounds per square inch ( psi ) to meet peak hydraulic demands for landing gear actuation, high lift actuation and primary flight control during takeoff and landing. during the remainder of the flight, two small ( approximately 6 gpm ) electric - driven hydraulic pumps power the center system. in the 787 no - bleed architecture, the center hydraulic system is powered by two large ( approximately 30 gpm at 5, 000 psi ) electric - motor - driven hydraulic pumps. one of the pumps runs throughout the entire flight and the other pump runs only during takeoff and landing. the higher pressure of the 787 ' s hydraulic system enables the airplane to use smaller hydraulic components, saving both space and weight. the 787 uses an electrical system that is a hybrid voltage system consisting of the following voltage types : 235 volts alternating current ( vac ), 115 vac, 28 volts direct current ( vdc ), and \u00b1270 vdc. the 115 vac and 28 vdc voltage types are traditional, while the 235 vac and the \u00b1270 vdc voltage types are the consequence of the no - bleed electrical architecture that results in a greatly expanded electrical system generating twice as much electricity as previous boeing airplane models. the system includes six generators \u2014 two per engine and two per apu \u2014 operating at 235 vac for reduced generator feeder weight. the system also includes ground power receptacles for airplane servicing on the ground without the use of the apu. the generators are directly connected to the engine gearboxes and therefore operate at a variable frequency ( 360 to 800 hertz ) proportional to the engine speed. this type of generator is the simplest and the most efficient generation method because it does", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5437916376798992, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.050549"} {"text": "the apu. the generators are directly connected to the engine gearboxes and therefore operate at a variable frequency ( 360 to 800 hertz ) proportional to the engine speed. this type of generator is the simplest and the most efficient generation method because it does not include the complex constant speed drive, which is the key component of an integrated drive generator ( idg ). as a result, the generators are expected to be more reliable, require less maintenance, and have lower spare costs than the traditional idgs. the electrical system features two electrical / electronics ( e / e ) bays, one forward and one aft, as well as a number of remote power distribution units ( rpdu ) for supporting airplane electrical equipment. the system saves weight by reducing the size of power feeders. a limited number of 235 vac electrical equipment is supplied from the aft e / e bay, while the majority of airplane electrical equipment, being either 115 vac or 28 vdc, are supported by the forward e / e bay and rpdus as shown schematically in figure 3. the rpdus are largely based on solid - state power controllers ( sspc ) instead of the traditional thermal circuit breakers and relays. the \u00b1270 vdc system is supplied by four auto - transformer - rectifier units that convert 235 vac power to \u00b1270 vdc. the \u00b1270 vdc system supports a handful of large - rated adjustable speed motors required for the no - bleed architecture. these include cabin pressurization compressor motors, ram air fan motors, the nitrogen - generation - system compressor used for fuel - tank inerting, and large hydraulic pump motors. the system, as shown in figure 3, features two forward 115 vac external power receptacles to service the airplane on the ground without the apu and two aft 115 vac external power receptacles for maintenance activities that require running the large - rated adjustable speed motors.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.502581812139706, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.051275"} {"text": "survival of the people logic puzzles require you to think. you will have to be logical in your reasoning. there is an island with 10 inhabitants. one day a monster comes and says that he intends to eat every one of them but will give them a chance to survive in the following way : in the morning, the monster will line up all the people - single file so that the last person sees the remaining 9, the next person sees the remaining 8, and so on until the first person that obviously sees no one in front of himself. the monster will then place black or white hats on their heads randomly ( they can be all white, all black or any combination thereof ). the monster will offer each person starting with the last one ( who sees everyone else ' s hats ) to guess the color of his / her own hat. the answer can only be one word : \" white \" or \" black \". the monster will eat him on the spot if he guessed wrong, and will leave him alive if he guessed right. all the remaining people will hear both the guess and the outcome of the guess. the monster will then go on to the next to last person ( who only sees 8 people ), and so on until the end. the monster gives them the whole night to think. devise the optimal strategy that these poor natives could use to maximize their survival rate. 1 ) all the 10 people can easily understand your strategy, and will execute it with perfect precision. 2 ) if the monster suspects that any of the people are giving away information to any of the remaining team members by intonation of words when answering, or any other signs, or by touch, he will eat everyone. 3 ) the only allowed response is a short, unemotional \" white \" or \" black \". 4 ) having said that, i will add that you can put any value you like into each of these words. for example, \" white \" can mean \" my mother did my laundry \" and \" black \" can mean the guy in front of me is wearing a black hat. hint1 ) first hint is an example. here is a simple strategy that will guarantee safety to 50 %. guy # 10 ( when he guesses ) says the color of the hat on guy # 9. thus # 10 may die or may luck out, but # 9 will save himself since he will know his hat color. thus # 8 helps # 7, # 6 helps number # 5, and so on. you thus save numbers 9, 7, 5, 3", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5588723592698448, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.079989"} {"text": "may die or may luck out, but # 9 will save himself since he will know his hat color. thus # 8 helps # 7, # 6 helps number # 5, and so on. you thus save numbers 9, 7, 5, 3, and 1, or half the people. but you can do a lot better than that. 2 ) the best strategy will save a minimum of 90 % of the people. here it is : the first guy to guess ( guy # 10 ) will be the only one to assume the following value for the words \" white \" and \" black \" : the answer \" black \" will mean that there are an odd number of black hats that he sees. the answer \" white \" will mean that there are an odd number of white hats that he sees. this way one by one all the other 9 people will know the color of their hats. let us say that guy # 10 ( first to speak, and sees the hats of the remaining 9 ) says \" white \". that should mean to everybody else that he sees an odd number of white hats. at this time guy # 9 will either be wearing a white or a black hat. if he is wearing a white hat he will only see an even number of white hats, and since guy # 10 said that there is and odd number of white hats, guy # 9 will know that he is wearing white and will say it. but if guy # 9 is wearing a black hat, he will see an odd number of white hats ( just like # 10 did ), and thus will know that he is wearing a black hat and will say it. no matter what # 9 answers, guy # 8 ( who heard guy # 10 and guy # 9 ) can now easily incorporate the color of hat on guy # 9 into the original answer of guy # 10. this will allow # 8 to know if he should see an odd or even number of white hats in front of him to determine his own hat color. the same thing repeats with # 7 - 1. and they all get it right except of course # 10, though he may get lucky. jan 18, 2003 jan 21, 2003 | wow, this one makes a lot of sense logically. great teaser. | jan 25, 2003 | it makes sense but i would never have came to that answer | jan 29, 2003 | what ' s wrong with simply saying the color of the hat of the person infront of you? same survival percentage. | jan 30, 2003 | in reply to \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5410221938647353, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.081270"} {"text": "sense but i would never have came to that answer | jan 29, 2003 | what ' s wrong with simply saying the color of the hat of the person infront of you? same survival percentage. | jan 30, 2003 | in reply to \" asbestos ' \" comment. you would only save 50 % that way. if you say the color of the person in front of you ( lets say black ), he / she still has to say black not to get eaten ( regardless of what the color in front of them is ). so therefore the 3rd person in line will not know their own color since the person before them saved themselves and didn ' t necessarily speak the color of the next person. | feb 06, 2003 | nice teaser... but situation might mess up after the number 9 guess says his answer. and plus the monster might have put them on not white black white black... etc. | feb 07, 2003 | golfer, there ' s nothing wrong with the logic in this teaser. it will work no matter what arrangement of hats the monster uses. also, assumption # 1 states that person number 9 will not mess up. i must say that this is a terrific logic teaser in my opinion. | feb 11, 2003 | this was a great riddle with great logic. the best i could do was save a minimum of five depending on the arrangement of hats. | feb 15, 2003 | i think it was a bit long personally but it does all make sence so great teaser | feb 15, 2003 | the logic works well. actually, even if person 9 makes the wrong answer, the monster will eat that person, which would be a pretty strong indicator that they made the wrong decision. this could also be accounted for. the only person who need be correct is 10, the rest can be saved by their own logic. | feb 15, 2003 | wow, that was an exellent teaser! | feb 15, 2003 | another way to win is if the 10th guy tells everyone that \" white \" means your hat is the same color as the guy in front of you and \" black \" means your hat is a different color from the guy in front of you. therefore, the only two who have to rely on luck are the 1st and the 10th | feb 16, 2003 | this will not work pookie21. you need to say the colour of your hat in order not to get eaten. | feb 17, 2003 | awesome logic teaser, one of the best i have seen. i could only", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5273000332301299, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.082237"} {"text": "16, 2003 | this will not work pookie21. you need to say the colour of your hat in order not to get eaten. | feb 17, 2003 | awesome logic teaser, one of the best i have seen. i could only think of the 50 % solution, so i was going to stand and fight to the death. maybe dig a large spike filled covered hole behind the 10th person as a trap for the monster. but that is not really solving the teaser, it is a captain kirk type of solution. 8 ^ ) | feb 27, 2003 | this is by far the best teaser i ' ve read here. course, i just got here and am going thru the ' most popular list '. | btw, i came up with the even guys sacrifice by saying the color of the guy in front of thems color, like many of you. which would result in at least 50 % survival ( odds - wise more like 70 or 80 % ). think about it... however tyhe solution is brilliant! 90 % guaranteed, with 100 % possible. really cool puzzler! feb 28, 2003 | that ' s going straight to my favourites list... totally a great teaser. it was really fun n. n ; and really hard as well oo ;... i came up with some weird thing that was just a guess... nice brain btw. | apr 11, 2003 | boy, would i not wanna be the last person in line... | may 06, 2003 | wouldn ' t mind being the last guy. being the first guy is a problem. brilliant teaser! | jun 17, 2003 | my solution was that the last person would say black or white depending on how many times the colour changed in front of him. black for even no. of times and white for odd no. of times. from this each person could find out his own colour by seeing the no. of colour changes and deciding whether he is the same colour as the one in front. the given soln. is much simpler, though. | jul 02, 2003 | ya, i got this one. if you know anything about computers, this is the same concept as parity. the way i did it is that white means there are an even number of white hats, while black means odd. take 0 to mean even. great riddle | nov 15, 2003 | great logic! i loved the teaser. | jan 05, 2004 | a 3. 0 / 3. 0 teaser.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5485920845195535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.083198"} {"text": "an even number of white hats, while black means odd. take 0 to mean even. great riddle | nov 15, 2003 | great logic! i loved the teaser. | jan 05, 2004 | a 3. 0 / 3. 0 teaser. one of the best | jan 09, 2004 | thats a hard 1 | feb 01, 2004 | great teaser! | oct 31, 2004 | if the first guy yells out the color of the hat of the guy in front, he ' s got a 50 / 50 shot at guessing right for his own. from then on, everyone knows the color of their own hat. | nov 01, 2004 | oops - that won ' t work. | apr 10, 2005 | it ' s too long! | may 22, 2005 | that was a hard one for me. | may 23, 2005 i think i ' ve done a similar one a long time ago, but it involved 3 people, pink & purple hats, and a wall separating 2 people from the other person... jun 03, 2005 | the whole thing about and odd number of black and white hats deosn ' t make sense. if there are ten hats, and an odd number ( let ' s say 7 ) of white hats, then there are an odd number of black hats too ( 3 in this case ). what does the last guy yell if there are an even number of each? ( let ' s say 4 white and 6 black ). if there are an odd number, then it shouldn ' t matter what color he yells. | jun 04, 2005 | this is in response to ragsdaleam : | if you read the solution carefully, it doesn ' t suggest that you should communicate the color that has an odd number of hats, it suggests that you should communicate weather one specific color ( agreed upon in advance ) will be present in an odd amount or an even amount. in other words if we agreed that \" white \" means that there is an odd number of blacks, and \" black \" means that there is an even number of blacks, we will always be able to relate weather there is an even or odd number of black hats ( independent of how many white hats there are ). jun 04, 2005 | or you can have it done as it states in the solution, where all you are looking for is an indication of weather or not one of the colors is odd or even ( independent of how many hats of the other color there are ). to figure out what you have you just", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5368465796203, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.084194"} {"text": "as it states in the solution, where all you are looking for is an indication of weather or not one of the colors is odd or even ( independent of how many hats of the other color there are ). to figure out what you have you just gotta count. so in your example of 7 black and 3 white. if i know that there is an odd number of whites and i am the 9th guy. i can count what is ahead of me. i will either see 3 whites or 2 in front of me and if i see 2 then i have the third one. same logic for all consecutive players. | jun 06, 2005 | directly form your explanation of the answer : | \" the answer \" black \" will mean that there are an odd number of black hats that he sees. the answer \" white \" will mean that there are an odd number of white hats that he sees. \" so what would he say if there are an even number of both? jun 06, 2005 | you know, funny enough, you are right. i am surpirsed no - one noticed. the solution still works just needs to be rephrased : | the answer \" black \" will mean that there are an odd number of black hats that he sees. the answer \" white \" will mean that there are an even number of black hats that he sees ( zero black hats should be treated as an even number ). aug 10, 2005 | ragsdaleam, your logic is a little off. the tenth person can only see 9 hats, so theres no way that he can see both an odd number of black and an odd number of white hats. | mar 14, 2006 | yes, ever since ragsdaleam ' s comment on the fact that if there are 8 black, then there are 2 whites, everybody has been wrong. number 10 ' s hat color has nothing to do with the puzzle, because he can only see 9 hats. if he sees 3 black hats, then he will see 6 white hats, so he will say black, and therefore save his fellow native ' s, and maybe even his own life ( whether his hat happens to be black or not, he has a 50 / 50 chance ). | apr 20, 2006 | first of all i want to say that this was an excellent riddle. the answer given makes sense and is one solution to the problem, but i believe me and my colleagues have found an alternate solution which results in the same survival rate. check this scenario out : overnight we agree that when the monster", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5543549859101401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.085099"} {"text": "was an excellent riddle. the answer given makes sense and is one solution to the problem, but i believe me and my colleagues have found an alternate solution which results in the same survival rate. check this scenario out : overnight we agree that when the monster asks the color of the hat of native # 10, he will call out the color of the person in front of him. from native # 9 onward we will use a code system, if you answer \" quickly \", that will mean that the color of the person in front of you is white, if you give a \" delayed \" answer, that will mean that the color of the person in front of you is black. in this way you can save a minimum of 90 % of the natives with a possible 100 % if the # 10 guy gets lucky. i think this is a less complex answer and it is simpler to understand. | apr 21, 2006 | for paragon83. your answer would be great actually if not for the \" assumption \" section of the teaser. points ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) have been clarified for that exact purpose. if the monstr suspects any such foul play the risk is that everyone will get eaten. | nov 15, 2007 | hehehe... i don ' t think that the poor natives will understand because they not even know what is odd and what is even. as you said earlier the solution must be simple so that the natives can understand easily. if some of them make a mistake....... the monster will be happy. | mar 10, 2010 | does the ansewer work if the monster uses 5 black and 5 white hats. it doesnt say that in the question | mar 10, 2010 | doesnt * the ansewer only work if he uses 5 of each? | jan 29, 2011 | again you can only assume that the monster doesn ' t pick that combination of hats | jan 22, 2012 | i have a solution that is slightly more optimal than the given one. it involves an arbitrarily high level of precision for the villagers, but given assumption 1 such strategies are valid. the strategy is as follows : | black hats represent 0. white hats represent 1. the last villager sees 9 hats, and thus 9 digits that represent a unique number in binary form. the 10th villager then waits exactly this many ( arbitrarily small ) time units from the time he is prompted to guess his color before giving an answer. all other villagers then have perfect information about", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5484394541144428, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.086053"} {"text": "that represent a unique number in binary form. the 10th villager then waits exactly this many ( arbitrarily small ) time units from the time he is prompted to guess his color before giving an answer. all other villagers then have perfect information about every villager ' s hat from 1 to 9. when it is each villager ' s turn to ' guess, ' they each wait the exact amount of time before giving their answer as did the first villager, so there is no distinction between answers and the monster has no reason to suspect foul play. the reason this solution is slightly more optimal is because it results in a higher probability of the 10th villager surviving. in the given solution, the 10th villager ' s answer is completely determined by the monster ' s configuration of hats, and cannot be changed. in my solution, the 10th villager can give the guess that is statistically favored ( or just a random guess ), thus ensuring a 95 % survival rate in all cases. apr 23, 2012 | this is definitely one of my all time favorites! i worked on this for days and ultimately came up with this overly complicated equation, that as it turns out simply meant that if there were an odd number of white hats # 10 would say white, and if there were an even number of white hats, he ' d say black. i didn ' t even realize that that was the answer i ended up with until i looked at the solution and read back over my answer. i ' m either dumb for a smart guy or smart for a dumb guy. or possibly just lucky for a dumb guy. | as for vecht ' s answer, what a creative solution! i tried to think of a way to make binary code work for me, but i just couldn ' t make it fit. although i think the given answer is a whole lot simpler. and # 10 ' s chances are 50 / 50 no matter what. no amount of statistical analysis will help, because the teaser states that the monster places the hats at random. no matter which color # 10 says, whether he says it because it imparts meaning to the others, or because he was guessing, he will still have a 1 out of 2 chance of getting it right as long as the hat placement was random. but anyway, kudos to sakirski for a killer logic puzzle! feb 22, 2013 | sakiriski, you are now one of my fave teaser - posters. i got the same solution as the answer ( yay! ) but i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5569174905418003, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.087004"} {"text": "raphael a. zoeller, ph. d. associate professor of physiology and biophysics b. s. university of maine ph. d. texas a & m university phone : ( 617 ) 638 - 4010 \u2022 fax : ( 617 ) 638 - 4041 cell and membrane biology lipids are not only structural units of membranes. they also participate in important cellular functions, serving as second messengers, hormones, pheromones and membrane anchors for proteins. although several \u201c active \u201d lipid species have been identified, there are many others that remain undiscovered. to identify functional roles for lipids, we develop mutant animal cell lines that are deficient in the biosynthesis of specific lipid species. using these mutants, we can determine what cellular processes are affected by the loss of the lipid, establishing a role for the lipid in that process. the mutants can also serve as tools for the isolation of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of the lipid. most importantly, the study of these mutants leads to new biochemistry, not achievable through conventional approaches. plasmalogens : endogenous antioxidants. this \u201c subclass \u201d of phospholipids makes up approximately 18 % of the phospholipids in humans and they are enriched in certain cell types or tissues including macrophages, neutrophils, brain and heart. although their presence in mammalian tissue is well characterized, their role in cell function remained unclear. we developed a selection protocol to isolate mutant strains with defects in plasmalogen biosynthesis. using these mutant strains, we have identified two phenotypes that are tied to the loss of plasmalogens. first, the plasmalogen - deficient cells are hypersensitive to reactive oxygen species ( ros ) and this is reversed with the restoration of plasmalogens. this has lead to the suggestion that plasmalogens function as endogenous antioxidants. this may help to explain the rapid development of cataracts in the plasmalogen - deficient patients. the second phenotype associated with plasmalogen loss is a decrease in cholesterol transport. based on our findings using the mutants, we examined the possibility that plasmalogen levels could be increased in normal cells and if this would protect them under conditions in which ros are formed. we found that supplementation of human endothelial cells with a plasmalogen biosynthetic precursor, hexa", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5511167555242029, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.104619"} {"text": "that plasmalogen levels could be increased in normal cells and if this would protect them under conditions in which ros are formed. we found that supplementation of human endothelial cells with a plasmalogen biosynthetic precursor, hexadecylglycerol ( hg ) elevated plasmalogen levels 2 - fold and protected them from damage due to oxidants. importantly, this also protected these cells during chronic hypoxia, a physiologically relevant condition ( figure 1 ). this opens up the possibility of treatment of patients under conditions of chronic hypoxia such as pulmonary dysfunction. we are now attempting to determine the exact mechanism by which hg rescues these cells. mutants in global glycerolipid synthesis the control of glycerolipid biosynthesis, including triacylglycerols is an area of intense interest, particularly with concerns about obesity and diabetes. glycolysis is coordinated with and controls lipogenesis through mechanisms that are still poorly understood. we have developed a procedure for selecting mutants that are deficient in general glycerolipid biosynthesis in an effort to identify factors that are important for lipogenesis in animal cells. we have recently identified one mutant, named grod1, that is defective in the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine ( pe ), phosphatidylcholine ( pc ) ( figure 2 ). these cells are also defective in the synthesis of triacylglycerols. this phenotype is due to a severe reduction in the activity of phosphatidate phosphohydrolase 1 ( pap1 ). expression cloning of the gene responsible for this lesion has revealed a relationship between glycolysis and lipogenesis that was previously unknown. we are currently attempting to explain the mechanics of this relationship using the grod1 cells. we are also screening for additional, novel mutants with additional lesions in glycerolipid biosynthesis to identify additional factors regulating this process. nakahara k, ohkuni a, kitamura t, abe k, naganuma t, ohno y, zoeller ra and kihara a ( 2012 ) the sjogren - larsson syndrome gene encodes a hexadecenal dehydrogenase of the sphingosine 1 - phosphate degradation pathway. molecular cell 46 : 461 - 71. krawczyk sa, haller jf, fe", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5121792397308008, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.105626"} {"text": "larsson syndrome gene encodes a hexadecenal dehydrogenase of the sphingosine 1 - phosphate degradation pathway. molecular cell 46 : 461 - 71. krawczyk sa, haller jf, ferrante t, zoeller ra, corkey be. ( 2012 ) reactive oxygen species facilitate translocation of hormone sensitive lipase to the lipid droplet during lipolysis in human differentiated adipocytes. plos one, 7 : e349042012. haller jf, krawczyk sa, gostilovitch l, corkey be and zoeller ra ( 2011 ) glucose - 6 - phosphate isomerase deficiency results in mtor activation, failed translocation of lipin 1\u03b1 to the nucleus and hypersensitivity to glucose : implications for the inherited glycolytic disease. biochim biophys acta. 1812 : 1393 - 402. anbukumar, d. s., shornick, l. p., albert, c. j., steward, m. m., zoeller, r. a., neumann, w. l., and ford, d. a. ( 2010 ) chlorinated lipid species in activated human neutrophils : lipid metabolites of 2 - chlorohexadecanal. j lipid res. 51 : 1085 - 1092. haller, j. f., smith, c., liu, d., zheng, h., tornheim, k., han, g., carman, g. m. and zoeller, r. a. ( 2010 ) isolation of novel animal cell lines defective in glycerolipid biosynthesis reveals mutations in glucose - 6 - phosphate isomerase. j. biol. chem. 285 : 866 - 877. gaposchkin, d. p., farber, h. w. and zoeller, r. a. ( 2008 ) on the importance of plasmalogen status in stimulated arachidonic acid release in the macrophage cell line raw 264. 7. biochim biophys acta. 1781 : 213 - 219. zheng h, duclos ri jr, smith cc, farber hw, zoeller ra. 2006. synthesis and biological properties of the fluorescent ether lipid precursor 1 - o - [ 9 ' - ( 1 ' ' - p", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5124349118908376, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.106386"} {"text": "- 219. zheng h, duclos ri jr, smith cc, farber hw, zoeller ra. 2006. synthesis and biological properties of the fluorescent ether lipid precursor 1 - o - [ 9 ' - ( 1 ' ' - pyrenyl ) ] nonyl - sn - glycerol. j lipid res. 47 : 633 - 642. liu d, nagan n, just ww, rodemer c, thai tp, zoeller ra. 2005. role of dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase in the biosynthesis of plasmalogens and nonether glycerolipids. j lipid res. 46 : 727 - 735 zoeller ra, grazia tj, lacamera p, park j, gaposchkin dp, farber hw. 2002. increasing plasmalogen levels protects human endothelial cells during hypoxia. am j physiol heart circ physiol. 283 : h671 - 679. zoeller ra, lake ac, nagan n, gaposchkin dp, legner ma, lieberthal w. 1999. plasmalogens as endogenous antioxidants : somatic cell mutants reveal the importance of the vinyl ether. biochem j. 338 : 769 - 776. department of physiology and biophysics boston university school of medicine 700 albany street boston ma 02118 - 2526 fax : ( 617 ) 638 - 4041", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5163954663849385, "token_count": 323, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.106858"} {"text": "\u2014 a gene on chromosome 2, called epas1, involved in red blood cell production and hemoglobin concentration in the blood. originally working separately, the authors of the study first put their findings together at a march 2009 meeting at the national evolutionary synthesis center in durham, nc. \" some of us had been working on the whole of tibetan dna. others were looking at small groups of genes. when we shared our findings we suddenly realized that both sets of studies pointed to the same gene $ mdash ; epas1, \" said robbins, who co - organized the meeting with beall. while all humans have the epas1 gene, tibetans carry a special version of the gene. over evolutionary time individuals who inherited this variant were better able to survive and passed it on to their children, until eventually it became more common in the population as a whole. \" this is the first human gene locus for which there is hard evidence for genetic selection in tibetans, \" said co - author peter robbins of oxford university. researchers are still trying to understand how tibetans get enough oxygen to their tissues despite low levels of oxygen in the air and bloodstream. until then, the genetic clues uncovered so far are unlikely to be the end of the story. \" there are probably many more signals to be characterized and described, \" said co - author gianpiero cavalleri of the royal college of surgeons in ireland. for those who live closer to sea level, the findings may one day help predict who is at greatest risk for altitude sickness. \" once we find these versions, tests can be developed to tell if an individual is sensitive to low - oxygen, \" said co - author changqing zeng of the beijing institute of genomics. \" many patients, young and old, are affected by low oxygen levels in their blood \u2014 perhaps from lung disease, or heart problems. some cope much better than others, \" said co - author hugh montgomery, of university college london. \" studies like this are the start in helping us to understand why, and to develop new treatments. \" the team ' s findings will be published online the week of june 7 in proceedings of the national academy of sciences.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5119775798758721, "token_count": 444, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.117492"} {"text": "03 - 13 - 2006, 01 : 30 am mammal extinct for 11 million years is... well.... not extinct washington ( ap ) - - it has the face of a rat and the tail of a skinny squirrel - - and scientists say this creature discovered living in central laos is pretty special : it ' s a species believed to have been extinct for 11 million years. the long - whiskered rodent made international headlines last spring when biologists declared they ' d discovered a new species, nicknamed the laotian rock rat. it turns out the little guy isn ' t new after all, but a rare kind of survivor : a member of a group until now known only from fossils. nor is it a rat. this species, called diatomyidae, looks more like small squirrels or tree shrews, said paleontologist mary dawson of pittsburgh ' s carnegie museum of natural history. dawson, with colleagues in france and china, report the creature ' s new identity in friday ' s edition of the journal science. the resemblance is \" absolutely striking, \" dawson said. as soon as her team spotted reports about the rodent ' s discovery, \" we thought, ' my goodness, this is not a new family. we ' ve known it from the fossil record. \" ' they set out to prove that through meticulous comparisons between the bones of today ' s specimens and fossils found in china and elsewhere in asia. to reappear after 11 million years is more exciting than if the rodent really had been a new species, said george schaller, a naturalist with the wildlife conservation society, which unveiled the creature ' s existence last year. indeed, such reappearances are so rare that paleontologists dub them \" the lazarus effect. \" another well - known example is the coelacanth, a primitive fish that existed before the dinosaurs and was thought to have gone extinct 65 million years ago, until one was caught in 1938 off the coast of southern africa. \" it shows you it ' s well worth looking around in this world, still, to see what ' s out there, \" schaller said. the nocturnal rodent lives in laotian forests largely unexplored by outsiders, because of the geographic remoteness and history of political turmoil. schaller called the area \" an absolute wonderland, \" because biologists who have ventured in have found unique animals, like a type of wild ox called the saola, barking deer, and never - before - seen bats", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5103495112211647, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.134728"} {"text": "table of contents what is session initiation protocol? components of sip what is the cisco sip ip phone? cisco sip ip phone connections connecting to the network connecting to power using a headset the cisco sip ip phone with a catalyst switch this chapter contains the following information about the cisco sip ip phone : \u2022 what is session initiation protocol? \u2022 what is the cisco sip ip phone? \u2022 cisco sip ip phone connections \u2022 the cisco sip ip phone with a catalyst switch what is session initiation protocol? session initiation protocol ( sip ) is the internet engineering task force ' s ( ietf ' s ) standard for multimedia conferencing over ip. sip is an ascii - based, application - layer control protocol ( defined in rfc 2543 ) that can be used to establish, maintain, and terminate calls between two or more end points. like other voip protocols, sip is designed to address the functions of signaling and session management within a packet telephony network. signaling allows call information to be carried across network boundaries. session management provides the ability to control the attributes of an end - to - end call. sip provides the capabilities to : \u2022 determine the location of the target end point \u2014 sip supports address resolution, name mapping, and call redirection. \u2022 determine the media capabilities of the target end point \u2014 via session description protocol ( sdp ), sip determines the \" lowest level \" of common services between the end points. conferences are established using only the media capabilities that can be supported by all end points. \u2022 determine the availability of the target end point \u2014 if a call cannot be completed because the target end point is unavailable, sip determines whether the called party is already on the phone or did not answer in the allotted number of rings. it then returns a message indicating why the target end point was unavailable. \u2022 establish a session between the originating and target end point \u2014 if the call can be completed, sip establishes a session between the end points. sip also supports mid - call changes, such as the addition of another end point to the conference or the changing of a media characteristic or codec. \u2022 handle the transfer and termination of calls \u2014 sip supports the transfer of calls from one end point to another. during a call transfer, sip simply establishes a session between the transferee and a new end point ( specified by the transferring party ) and terminates the session between the transferee and the transferring party. at the end of a call, sip terminates the sessions between all parties. conferences can consist of two or more users and can be established using multicast", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5346820370568011, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.165456"} {"text": "( specified by the transferring party ) and terminates the session between the transferee and the transferring party. at the end of a call, sip terminates the sessions between all parties. conferences can consist of two or more users and can be established using multicast or multiple unicast sessions. note the term conference means an established session ( or call ) between two or more end points. in this document, the terms conference and call are used interchangeably. components of sip sip is a peer - to - peer protocol. the peers in a session are called user agents ( uas ). a user agent can function in one of the following roles : \u2022 user agent client ( uac ) \u2014 a client application that initiates the sip request. \u2022 user agent server ( uas ) \u2014 a server application that contacts the user when a sip request is received and that returns a response on behalf of the user. typically, a sip end point is capable of functioning as both a uac and a uas, but functions only as one or the other per transaction. whether the endpoint functions as a uac or a uas depends on the ua that initiated the request. from an architecture standpoint, the physical components of a sip network can also be grouped into two categories : clients and servers. figure 1 - 1 illustrates the architecture of a sip network. note in addition, the sip servers can interact with other application services, such as lightweght directory access protocol ( ldap ) servers, a database application, or an extensible markup language ( xml ) application. these application services provide back - end services such as directory, authentication, and billing services. figure 1 - 1 sip architecture sip clients include : \u2022 phones \u2014 can act as either a uas or uac. softphones ( pcs that have phone capabilities installed ) and cisco sip ip phones can initiate sip requests and respond to requests. \u2022 gateways \u2014 provide call control. gateways provide many services, the most common being a translation function between sip conferencing endpoints and other terminal types. this function includes translation between transmission formats and between communications procedures. in addition, the gateway also translates between audio and video codecs and performs call setup and clearing on both the lan side and the switched - circuit network side. sip servers include : \u2022 proxy server \u2014 the proxy server is an intermediate device that receives sip requests from a client and then forwards the requests on the client ' s behalf. basically, proxy servers receive sip messages and forward them to the next sip server in the network", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5156477026376605, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.166620"} {"text": "ip phone user to request forwarding service from the network ( via a third party tool that enables this feature to be configured ). when a call is placed to the user ' s phone, it is redirected to the appropriate forward destination by the sip proxy server. \u2013 call hold \u2014 allows the cisco sip ip phone user ( user a ) to place a call ( from user b ) on hold. when user a places user b on hold, the 2 - way rtp voice path between user a and user b is temporarily disconnected but the call session is still connected. when user a takes user b off hold, the 2 - way rtp voice path is reestablished. \u2013 call transfer \u2014 allows the cisco sip ip phone user ( user a ) to transfer a call from one user ( user b ) to another user ( user c ). user a places user b on hold and calls user c. if user c accepts the transfer, a session is established between user b and user c and the session between user a and user b is terminated. \u2013 three - way calling \u2014 allows a \" bridged \" 3 - way call. when a 3 - way call is established, the cisco sip ip phone through which the call is established acts as a bridge, mixing the audio media for the other parties. \u2013 do not disturb \u2014 allows the user to instruct the system to intercept incoming calls during specified periods of time when the user does not want to be disturbed. \u2013 multiple directory numbers \u2014 allows the cisco sip ip phone to have up to six directory numbers or lines. \u2013 call waiting \u2014 plays an audible tone to indicate that an incoming call is waiting. the user can then put the existing call on - hold and accept the other call. the user can alternate between the two calls. \u2013 direct number dialing \u2014 allows users to initiate or receive a call using a standard e. 164 number format in a local, national, or international format. \u2013 direct url dialing \u2014 provides the ability to place a call using an email address instead of a phone number. \u2013 caller id blocking \u2014 allows the user to instruct the system to block their phone number or email address from phones that have caller identification capabilities. \u2013 anonymous call blocking \u2014 allows the user to instruct the system to block any calls for which the identification is blocked. \u2022 user - defined proxy routing the \" route \" attribute of the template tag in the dial plan template file can be used to indicate which proxy ( default, emergency, fqdn ) that the call should be initially routed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5027890244453809, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.170942"} {"text": "_ \" ; as in \" _ protocol. _ transport. \". the addition of the underscore reduces the risk of the same name being used for unrelated purposes. also in compliance with rfc 2782 and the draft - ietf - sip - srv - 01 spec. is that the system can remember multiple ip addresses and use them properly. in the draft - ietf - sip - srv - 01 spec, it is assumed that all proxies returned for the srv record are equivalent such that the phone can register with any of the proxies and initiate a call using any other proxy. vad can be enabled or disabled with enable _ vad parameter. value 0 for disable, and value 1 for enable. see enable _ vad parameter in modifying the default sip configuration file in \" managing cisco sip ip phones \". three - way conferencing supports one phone conferencing with two other phones by providing mixing on the initiating phone. to set up a 3 - way conference call, see documentation on making conference calls in \" getting started with the cisco ip phone 7960 \". see release note for limitations. if the invite message contains an alert - info header, distinctive ringing is invoked, format of the header is \" alert - info : x \". \" x \" can be any number. this header is only received by the phone and is not generated by the phone. distinctive ringing is supported when the phone is idle or during a call. in the idle mode, the phone rings with a different cadence. the selected ringing type plays twice with a short pause in between. in call - waiting mode, two short beeps are generated instead of one long beep. note for information on how to use the standard telephony features and url dialing, refer to the getting started cisco ip phone 7960 and quick reference cisco ip phone 7960 documents. the cisco sip ip phone supports the following standard protocols : \u2022 domain name system ( dns ) dns is used in the internet for translating names of network nodes into addresses. sip uses dns to resolve the host names of end points to ip addresses. \u2022 dynamic host control protocol ( dhcp ) dhcp is used to dynamically allocate and assign ip addresses. dhcp allows you to move network devices from one subnet to another without administrative attention. if using dhcp, you can connect cisco sip ip phones to the network and become operational without having to manually assign an ip address and additional network parameters. the cisco sip ip phone", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5320842016815803, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.172958"} {"text": "omphalism is a school of thought ( titled after the philip henry gosse work omphalos ) which holds that the entire universe was created with the appearance of age, and thus no date of creation for the universe can be definitively proven. examples of omphalism : - the belief that our memories, experiences, and physical appearances were \" implanted \" into us at our creation, possibly at a time during what we imagine to be our own lifetimes. - that nature shows signs of growth, renewal and damage which were posited into being, rather than occurring \" naturally \". these include trees ( growth rings, fire scares ), mountains ( upheaval, erosion ), and animals ( offspring or supposed \" evolution \" ). - that starlight was \" already \" moving towards earth when god created it, thus disallowing accurate gauging of the universe ' s age. reception among philosophers omphalism has been declaimed by many creationists, as it appears to accuse god of deceit. the movement has been mocked by both creationists and evolutionist atheists as \" last thursdayism \", with the claim that the entire universe, with all the appearances of age and function, could very well have been created at some point in the past ( such as \" last thursday \" ). omphalism occupies a strange place in theology, as, while supporting the notion of god as an omnipotent being, who has provided us with all the signs of a growing, changing word to give our lives context and function ( in addition to instilling many humans with the love and faith of christ ), it does in fact appear to accuse god of deceit, since these emotions and sentiments can be said to be \" programmed \" into humans ex nihilo. it can thus be described as heretical.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5661243920767944, "token_count": 374, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.286687"} {"text": "common lisp the language, 2nd edition several kinds of numbers are defined in common lisp. they are divided into integers ; ratios ; floating - point numbers, with names provided for up to four different floating - point representations ; and complex numbers. x3j13 voted in march 1989 ( real - number - type ) to add the type real. the number data type encompasses all kinds of numbers. for convenience, there are names for some subclasses of numbers as well. integers and ratios are of type rational. rational numbers and floating - point numbers are of type real. real numbers and complex numbers are of type number. although the names of these types were chosen with the terminology of mathematics in mind, the correspondences are not always exact. integers and ratios model the corresponding mathematical concepts directly. numbers of type float may be used to approximate real numbers, both rational and irrational. the real type includes all common lisp numbers that represent mathematical real numbers, though there are mathematical real numbers ( irrational numbers ) that do not have an exact common lisp representation. only real numbers may be ordered using the <, >, < =, and > = functions. a translation of an algorithm written in fortran or pascal that uses real data usually will use some appropriate precision of common lisp ' s float type. some algorithms may gain accuracy or flexibility by using common lisp ' s rational or real type instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5161712326687707, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.309473"} {"text": "anti de - sitter space bubbles, filaments, voids and sheets condensed matter system cosmic microwave background deep field survey degrees of freedom grand unification theory heisenberg uncertainty principle hubble ' s law and constant intercommuting and loop production laws of thermodynamics nematic liquid crystal quantum field theory speed of light strong and electroweak forces surface of last scattering the great attractor theory of everything when dealing with geometries that take place within the universe, we deal not with conventional three - dimensional euclidean geometry, we have to adapt it to represent a four - dimensional spacetime. this results in what is known as a lorentzian manifold. within this geometry, we deal with three types of space, de - sitter space, anti de - sitter space and minkowski space. they are analogues of spherical, hyperbolic and euclidean space with regards to four - dimensional spacetime. this is a type of hypothetical particle of zero electrical charge that has come out of the framework of quantum chromodynamics. it is hypothesised that these were created during the very early universe. they have little mass and do not easily interact with normal matter. no experimental evidence for them exists as of yet, but they are one of the possible contenders for dark matter. a baryon is a category of subatomic particle which is composed of three quarks. this is opposed to a meson, which is composed of one quark and one antiquark. baryons include protons and neutrons and make up the majority of the mass of visible matter in the universe ( i. e. the mass of the universe that is not dark matter or dark energy ). they participate in the strong nuclear force. about thirteen billion years ago, the universe began in a gigantic explosion. every particle started rushing apart from every other particle in an early super - dense phase. the fact that galaxies are receding from us in all directions is a consequence of this initial explosion. projecting galaxy trajectories backwards in time means that they converge to a high - density state. this is one of the possible ends to the universe as we know it. cosmic inflation is expands the universe and gravitation brings matter together. depending on the density of the universe, one of these forces may overcome the other, or alternatively the universe may be of critical density, which would result in a \" flat \" universe. if the universe has a density higher than this critical density, then gravitation will eventually overcome the forces working to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6651551832242637, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.467604"} {"text": "these forces may overcome the other, or alternatively the universe may be of critical density, which would result in a \" flat \" universe. if the universe has a density higher than this critical density, then gravitation will eventually overcome the forces working to expand the universe, and the matter in the universe would start to converge on other matter, until all the matter in the universe converges into a singularity. given that we now know that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it now seems unlikely that this situation will arise. a black hole is a region of spacetime from which nothing can escape, even light. to see why this happens, imagine throwing a tennis ball into the air. the harder you throw the tennis ball, the faster it is travelling when it leaves your hand and the higher the ball will go before turning back. if you were able to throw it hard enough, it would never return ; the gravitational attraction will not be able to pull it back down. the velocity the ball must have to escape is known as the escape velocity. as a body is crushed into a smaller and smaller volume, the gravitational attraction it exerts increases, and the escape velocity required to overcome this gets bigger. things have to be thrown harder and harder to escape. eventually, a point is reached when even light, which travels at 186 thousand miles a second, is not travelling fast enough to escape. at this point, nothing can get out as nothing can travel faster than light. this is a black hole. black hole formation starts when a large star has burnt all its fuel, exploding into a supernova. what remains after the supernova collapses down into a neutron star, which is extremely dense. if the neutron star is too large, its gravity overwhelms its internal pressure and the star collapses to form a black hole. a blackbody is a theoretical construct that absorbs all radiation that strikes it. no known material absorbs all radiation - some is always reflected off of it. such a body would therefore appear completely black to all types of radiation spectrography. blackbody radiation is radiation emitted from the said theoretical construct, a perfect emission of radiation with 100 % efficiency. at a certain temperature, for example, the blackbody would radiate the maximum amount of energy for that temperature. it must emit this radiation across all possible wavelengths and frequencies and is must also absorb all possible wavelengths and frequencies, which means that it can emit radiation at infinite wavelength. named after indian physicist satyendra nath bose, these are particles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6050620468414825, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.470289"} {"text": ". it must emit this radiation across all possible wavelengths and frequencies and is must also absorb all possible wavelengths and frequencies, which means that it can emit radiation at infinite wavelength. named after indian physicist satyendra nath bose, these are particles with full integer spin, i. e. 1, 2, 3. ( as opposed to fermions, which possess half integer spin ). there are two categories of fundamental boson ( bosons not composed of a combination of other particles ) ; gauge bosons, which mediate the fundamental forces of nature ; and scalar bosons, which are constituents of a scalar field, and include the elusive higgs boson. bosons can also be created from other particles whose spin totals an integer, for example, any meson. brane inflation uses fundamental object of string theory, called branes. in this theory, the universe is a three dimensional slide ( a brane ) in a high dimensional space ( the bulk ), which may also contain other branes. these slices of spacetime have mass and can attract each other by gravity, so two almost parallel branes separated by some distance will start moving towards each other. in brane inflation, the closer the two branes get to each other, the more the branes expand, giving rise to inflation. the process ends with the violent collision of the branes, leading to the copious production of radiation and relativistic particles. hence, the new brane resulting from the collision is filled with a hot plasma, which is the starting point of the standard big bang model. there is another prediction in the model : the collision is also accompanied by the production of cosmic strings. these are all types of large - scale structure formed from galactic distribution in the universe. galaxies form clusters and superclusters which arrange into sheets and filaments through the universe. between these sheets of galaxies, there is very low galaxy density, which leads to voids. these fill approximately 90 % of space. bubble nucleation is a form of first - order phase transition. a phase transition occurs when temperatures and densities increase such that matter changes its form and properties, such as in the very early universe, during the big bang. a simple analogy is water, which melts from ice to liquid, and then boils to gas as temperatures increase. for physicists, it is important to note that as the temperature increases, the symmetry of the matter increases. thinking this through, we know that gas is more symmetry than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6568821489824437, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.472653"} {"text": "colour is a degree of freedom that allows quarks to exist together to form hadrons, such as protons or neutrons, in otherwise identical quantum states. this is necessary as otherwise they would be in violation of the pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two identical fermions may occupy identical quantum states simultaneously. comoving distance is the distance between two objects as it appears if the expansion of the universe is factored out. at any given time, it is equal to the proper distance, which is the actual distance between two objects, and will change over time due to the expansion of the universe. the comoving horizon is therefore the actual distance to the edge of what we can see at any given time. condensed matter systems deal with, as the name suggests, condensed matter. this includes matter in the liquid, solid, superconducting phases. condensed matter systems can be used to study the effects of phase transitions on matter. around 370, 000 years after the big bang, the temperature of the universe dropped sufficiently for electrons and protons to combine into hydrogen atoms : p + e = h. from this time onwards, radiation was effectively unable to interact with the background gas, so it has propagated freely ever since, while constantly losing energy as its wavelength is being stretched by the expansion of the universe. originally, the radiation temperature was about 3000 degrees kelvin ( i. e. approximately 3300 degrees celsius, 5000 degrees fahrenheit ), whereas today it has fallen to only 3k. observers detecting this radiation today are able to see the universe at a very early stage. photons in the cmb have been travelling towards us for over ten billion years, and have covered a distance of about a million, billion, billion miles. the cmb was discovered in 1964. these are one - dimensional ( that is, line - like ) objects which form when an axial or cylindrical symmetry is broken. strings can be associated with grand unified particle physics models, or they can form at the electroweak scale. they are very thin and may stretch across the visible universe. a typical gut ( grand unified theory ) string has a thickness that is less then a trillion times smaller that the radius of an hydrogen atom. still, a 10 km length of one such string will weigh as much as the earth itself! originally proposed by einstein as a modification to general relativity to result in a universe which would neither expand nor contract. he later famously called it his greatest mistake after hubble discovered that other galaxies were moving away", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6964831039208053, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.479922"} {"text": "string will weigh as much as the earth itself! originally proposed by einstein as a modification to general relativity to result in a universe which would neither expand nor contract. he later famously called it his greatest mistake after hubble discovered that other galaxies were moving away from us using redshift. different values of the constant can be used to explain different scenarios in which the universe might contract or expand. given that we now know that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, physicists are now looking to the cosmological constant as a possible explanation. specifically, the cosmological constant may be related to the dark energy that pervades our universe, working against gravity to expand the universe. this states that the universe appears the same in every direction from every point in space. it asserts that our position in the universe - on the very largest scales - is in no sense preferred. there is considerable observational evidence for this assertion, including the measured distributions of galaxies and faint radio sources, though the best evidence comes from the near - perfect uniformity of the cosmic microwave background radiation. this means that any observer anywhere in the universe will enjoy much the same view as we do, including the observation that galaxies are moving away from them. it should be noted that this does not mean local structures will be different, i. e. local stars etc. will be different for different observers, but more that the physical laws which govern these observable phenomena will be the same and background effects across the universe will be equal. cosmology is the study of the large scale universe, its origins, evolution, laws and its eventual fate. whereas astronomy is concerned with objects within the universe, cosmologists are more concerned by the universe as a whole. the uk ' s national cosmology supercomputer. it is housed within the department of applied mathematics and theoretical physics, here in cambridge. having recently undergone its ninth iteration, it is the most powerful shared memory system in europe. it is available for use for both academic and non - academic users, and is part of the stfc ' s high - performance computing dirac facility. this reference to the density of our universe. matter density in the universe plays a critical role towards understanding what will happen to the universe in the future, specifically, whether it will continue expanding until perhaps the universe grows so cold that life is unsustainable, or that matter is literally ripped apart, or whether gravitation will eventually overcome expansionary forces and the universe will collapse in some big crunch. a universe with less", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6520914762308265, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.486554"} {"text": "continue expanding until perhaps the universe grows so cold that life is unsustainable, or that matter is literally ripped apart, or whether gravitation will eventually overcome expansionary forces and the universe will collapse in some big crunch. a universe with less than critical density will continue expanding at a forever accelerating rate, whereas a supercritical universe will invariably collapse. in the late 1990s, it was discovered that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. it is expected that due to gravity \u2019 s influence, bringing matter together, would slow down the acceleration of the expansion of the universe. therefore either whatever is responsible for this acceleration is not normal matter, or gravity must get weaker on large scales. this unknown physical phenomenon responsible for this acceleration is known as dark energy. to completely explain the acceleration then there isn \u2019 t only a little dark energy in the universe, there \u2019 s a lot of it. in fact, it must make up 74 % of the mass of the universe. dark matter must make up 22 % of the universe, with only 4 % of the universe being the matter that is currently known to us. there is strong evidence that the universe consists primarily of dark ( non - luminous ) matter, also that this matter is of an exotic, non - baryonic form. baryons are made up of three quarks, a type of elementary particle. baryons include protons and neutrons. a deep field survey is a galaxy survey which looks deeper into the sky than the average galaxy survey. because electromagnetic waves have a speed limit ( the speed of light ), the further away from us that we look, the further back in time we are looking, as the waves that are currently reaching us will have been radiated billions of years ago. hubble ultra - deep field, the deepest image of the universe that we currently have, shows us a time period corresponding to roughly 400 - 800 million years after the big bang. a degree of freedom, in physics ( as opposed to mathematics, which can have different meanings ), is a parameter that can help define the state of an object to differentiate it from others. a simple example would be charge amongst particles. some particles are charged, some are not, and as a result they behave differently. at a quantum level this becomes important because certain particles with the same values for their varying degrees of freedom ( i. e. spin, charge etc. ) cannot exist in the same place at the same time. an object which generates a magnetic field emanates that field from two opposite poles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5551252348203168, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.488390"} {"text": "certain particles with the same values for their varying degrees of freedom ( i. e. spin, charge etc. ) cannot exist in the same place at the same time. an object which generates a magnetic field emanates that field from two opposite poles, an example of this would be a bar magnet, which has a north and south pole. each of these poles is a magnetic monopole. the magnet itself, having two of these poles, is a dipole. this is similar to an electric field, in which the field emanates from positive and negative charges. whereas in electricity, negative and positive charges can be easily isolated in the form of electrons and positrons, magnetic monopole particles have yet to be discovered. for example, when you break up a bar magnet, you do not isolate the two monopoles, you simply have two bar magnets half the size of the previous one. these are two - dimensional objects that form when a discrete symmetry is broken at a phase transition. a network of domain walls effectively partitions the universe into various ' cells '. domain walls have some rather peculiar properties. for example, the gravitational field of a domain wall is repulsive rather than attractive. when the source of a wave moves away from us, we observe a change of frequency of that wave. an example would be an ambulance or fire - truck - we hear a lower pitch in its siren once it has passed us by. this is the doppler - shift. it is not, however, limited to sound waves, but any kind of waves, including electromagnetic. ( b. 1879 d. 1955 ), was a german theoretical physicist who spent much of his career at the kaiser wilhelm institute for physics and princeton university. he is regarded as one of the greatest physicists of the 20th century, and indeed, one of the most academically brilliant minds of all time. awarded the nobel prize in physics in 1921, for his work on the photoelectric effect where he described photons as discrete packets, known as quanta. this was in direct conflict with previous, classical descriptions of physics which defined photons as wave. his theories are now the basis of modern physics. these theories, whilst too numerous to list here, include special relativity, which describes how relative motion can result in different laws of physics being experienced by different observers as well as the energy - mass equivalence relationship, e = mc2, and general relativity, which generalises special relativity with respect to gravity and incorporates this with newtonian laws of gravity to describe a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6559301991924396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.490747"} {"text": "in different laws of physics being experienced by different observers as well as the energy - mass equivalence relationship, e = mc2, and general relativity, which generalises special relativity with respect to gravity and incorporates this with newtonian laws of gravity to describe a how gravity is a geometry property of spacetime. when hitler came to power in 1933, he was on a trip to america and did not return to german, instead opting to become an american citizen. his warning to president roosevelt about the german research into nuclear weapons led to the eventual development of the atomic bomb, a weapon he later denounced and crusaded against. such was einstein ' s genius that upon his death his brain was removed for future study. an elementary particle carrying a negative elementary electric charge ( that is, the most fundamental electric charge, particles do not carry charge smaller than this ). a fermion with spin 1 / 2. it is a lepton and therefore is a constituent of matter, but does not participate in the strong nuclear force. it does interact with electromagnetism, gravitation and the weak nuclear force. energy unit equal to approximately 1. 6 x 10 - 19 joules. it is the amount of energy gained by the charge of one electron as it moves across a one volt electric potential difference. a period in time. in cosmology it is used to refer to different time periods in the chronology of the universe. these include the planck epoch ; the grand unification epoch ; the electroweak epoch ; the quark epoch ; the hadron epoch ; the lepton epoch ; and the photon epoch ( all of the epochs prior to the photon epoch occurred within the first 10 seconds of time! ). time periods after this include nucleosynthesis, recombination and reionization. this is the speed required for any object to break free of another objects gravitational field. for the earth, this is approximately 7, 000 miles per second. mathematically, it is described as the velocity at which the escaping object ' s kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy summate to zero. as the gravitational force exerted by an object on another object increases as the distance between the two decreases, the further away the escaping object is, the lower the escape velocity. for black holes, at the distance known as the event horizon, the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, and therefore nothing can escape. eternal inflation refers to a series of models by which at least one region of the universe is undergoing inflation at any one point in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6709425164821683, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.492349"} {"text": "the distance known as the event horizon, the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, and therefore nothing can escape. eternal inflation refers to a series of models by which at least one region of the universe is undergoing inflation at any one point in time. due to the exponential increase in volume during these periods of inflation, it is theorised that at any given point the majority of the volume of the universe is still expanding. this creates a multiverse, whereby each expanding area of the universe appears, to be its own universe, and the beginning period of expansion equivalent to the big bang. in eternal inflation it is possible for these expanding areas of space to decay into a lower energy phase, resulting in inflation ceasing. named after euclid, a greek mathematician of the third century bc. it is a system of geometry based around the geometry of the three dimensions that we are all taught at school ; x, y and z. points within the system can be described by a set of cartesian coordinates. it is described by a system of postulates, or premises, for example, the parallel postulate, which states that \" if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles \". in contrast to this is non - euclidean geometry, which deals with curved space. the event horizon is the boundary that marks the point where the escape velocity of a black hole exceeds the speed of light. once the event horizon has been crossed, nothing can escape from the black hole \u2019 s gravitational pull, not even light. exotic particles are those made up of theorised particles not currently part of the standard model. an example of this would be the heavier partners of the current set of particles that make up the standard model, that are described within the theory of supersymmetry. full title : the fermi national accelerator laboratory. located near chicago, il., it is a united states department of energy laboratory focussed on high - energy physics. until 2011, it house the tevatron particle accelerator, which until the opening of the large hadron collider at cern, the largest in the world. in 1995 work done at the tevatron led to the discovery of the top quark, one of the six different flavours of quark, and the most massive of them all. these are particles with half integer spin. this is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6374564391480111, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.494645"} {"text": "world. in 1995 work done at the tevatron led to the discovery of the top quark, one of the six different flavours of quark, and the most massive of them all. these are particles with half integer spin. this is opposed to bosons, which have full integer spin. only one fermion can occupy the same quantum state and space at any given time, this is known as the pauli exclusion principle, and does not apply to the other class of particles, bosons. elementary fermions ( those not composed of other particles ) are constituents of visible matter in the universe, and include electrons and quarks. particles composed of fundamental fermions, however, can have full integer spin and therefore can be classed as bosons. a ferromagnet is an object which exhibits the property of ferromagnetism. ferromagnetism is the strongest type of magnetism, and as such ferromagnets are the magnets that the average reader will be familiar with. they are the ones used in physics classes at school, they are the ones used to pick up scrap metal, they are the magnets on your fridge. ferromagnetism is the only type of magnetism that has the strength to produce a force that can be felt. a ferromagnet can be defined as a material that can exhibit a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field. ( b. 1918 - d. 1988 ), was a physicist who spent most of his life working at the california institute of technology ( caltech ). also worked on the manhattan project at los alamos national laboratory, where he helped develop the atomic bomb. won the nobel prize in physics in 1965 for his work in quantum electrodynamics ( qed ). developed the path integral formulation that we use today, and developed an illustrative representation scheme for the behaviour of subatomic particles which has become known as feynman diagrams. caltech has a named chair of physics in his honour. outside of his life in physics, he also was a member of the panel that investigated the space shuttle challenge crash, and wrote two popular science books : \" surely you ' re joking, mr. feynman! \" and \" what do you care what other people think? \". there are four fundamental forces in nature. they are electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force, the strong nuclear force and gravitation. the weak nuclear force is associated with radioactivity", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6879776223787339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.499303"} {"text": "what do you care what other people think? \". there are four fundamental forces in nature. they are electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force, the strong nuclear force and gravitation. the weak nuclear force is associated with radioactivity in unstable nuclei, specifically the decay of a neutron into a proton in the form of beta radiation. the gauge bosons that mediate the force are the w and z bosons. this interaction can cause quarks to change flavours. the strong nuclear force binds together quarks to form nucleons, in turn, it also acts to bind these nucleons together, forming atomic nuclei. the force is mediated by an exchange of gluons, which are a type of gauge boson. the charge associated with this force, analogous to the electric charge associated with electromagnetism, is the colour charge, of which there are three varieties ; red, green and blue. the mathematical theory describing the elementary particles interacting with this force, quarks and gluons, is known as quantum chromodynamics ( qcd ). at atomic levels, it is by far the strongest of all forces, but only interacts on a scale on the order of 10 - 15m, and therefore, whilst incredibly important for the formation of matter, does not play any observable role in day to day life. electromagnetism is a force associated with the electric charge associated with certain molecules. along with gravitation, is is one of the four forces that has a major noticeable effect on day to day human life. it manifests as two different fields electric fields and magnetic fields, although they are aspects of the same force and therefore interact with each other through electromagnetic induction. the gauge boson that mediates this force is the photon, which is also the quanta ( discrete packet ) of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as infra - red radiation ( most thermal radiation ), x - rays, ultraviolet radiation etc.. gravitation is a force of attraction between two massive bodies. objects on earth are attracted to the earth via gravitation, why is why, when an apple falls from a tree, it falls down towards the earth, instead of in any other direction. gravitation also gives weight to objects, weight being the mass of an object multiplied by the gravitational force acted upon it by another object. gravitation on a universal scale is described by einstein ' s theory of general relativity, where it is described as being", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6761282283657482, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.501984"} {"text": "allows us to build up a three dimensional map of the sky, which allows us to gain insight into the large - scale structures within the universe. a gauge group is a set of gauge transformations which effect a system in similar manners. a gauge transformation is a transformation that acts on redundant degrees of freedom within a system, that is, it effects a property that does not really have any physical significance at the level at which the system operates. a gauge transformation which is globally symmetric effects all points of space in the same way. an example of this would be a transformation of voltage that states that voltage1 = voltage2 + c ( a constant ). if we substitute the left hand side of the equation with the right in classical equations dealing with electromagnetism, there is no difference in the outcome and therefore this will hold across any difference in voltage. if we impose a local symmetry on the gauge transformation, also known as gauge invariance, then these transformations become very significant. this is because the transformation holds true, but the transformation is now a function of the position in space and time. through introducing these conditions of gauge invariance into quantum equations, one can extrapolate that for particles that interact with fundamental forces, such as the electron, which carries electrical charge and is acted upon by electromagnetism, there is an underlying field which is also undergoing a gauge transformation. in the case of the electron, it is the electromagnetic field, which physicists were already aware of, however, gauge invariance has postulated the gluon field which is the basis for quantum chromodynamics, the theory which explains the strong nuclear force. this is the modern geometric description of gravity. it says that the gravitational force is related to the curvature of spacetime itself, i. e. to its geometry. to this end, it generalises einstein ' s theory of special relativity, and links it to newton ' s laws of gravity. unlike for non - gravitational physics, spacetime is not just an arena in which physical processes take place, but it is a dynamical field. the gravitational field at a fixed time can be described by the geometry of the three spatial dimensions at that time. these are gauge bosons which mediate the strong nuclear force, one of the fundamental forces. similar to the photons which mediate the electromagnetic force, gluons have no rest mass and so travel at the speed of light. although unlike photons, which whilst mediating the electromagnetic force, are themselves electrically neutral, gluons", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7345358167937688, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.507854"} {"text": ". similar to the photons which mediate the electromagnetic force, gluons have no rest mass and so travel at the speed of light. although unlike photons, which whilst mediating the electromagnetic force, are themselves electrically neutral, gluons have charge associated with the strong nuclear force, or colour. there are 8 different colours of gluon. gluons are confined within hadrons, particles made up of quarks ( which have a colour charge ), and are limited in interaction to a distance of approximately 10 - 15 metres. see grand unified theory. in the aftermath of the big bang, the universe was extremely hot and extremely dense. at these energies, the laws of nature that we know were changed. the fundamental forces that we see in nature were unified - the universe was in a state of grand unification - it is only as the universe expanded and cooled that gravitation, electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces all ceased to be as one. electroweak theory describes the unification of the weak nuclear force and electromagnetism. a grand unified theory will marry up electroweak theory with the strong nuclear force, brining us closer to a unification of the four fundamental forces. gravitational waves are propagating disturbances in spacetime. the effect of a passing gravitational wave is to periodically stretch and compress space in the two directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation. the expected strain on the earth due to these disturbances, which can be caused by black holes merging, is very small, making detection extremely difficult. this is an as yet undiscovered particle that is believed to mediate the force of gravitation. much like the photon, which mediates the electromagnetic force and the gluon which mediates the strong nuclear force, it has no mass, and therefore travels at the speed of light. it has a spins quantum number of 2, and is the only massless particle with that spin number. it has zero electrical charge. experimentally, the graviton is incredibly difficult to observe, and is beyond the reach of current physics. the detection of gravitational waves may lead to some further information about gravitons, but these have not yet been detected. theories of quantum gravity are one of the largest standing issues in cosmology, and there are currently few mathematically consistent theories that can explain it. one of these theories is m - theory, which we believe to be the best explanation at this point in time. this is a type of blackbody radiation emitted by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6780133986432585, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.519700"} {"text": "should contain at most one degree of freedom per planck area. within m - theory, the holographic principle suggests we are the shadows on the wall. the ' room ' is some larger, five - dimensional spacetime and our four - dimensional world is just the boundary of this larger space. if we try to move away from the wall, we are moving into an extra dimension of space - a fifth dimension. ( b. 1889 - d. 1953 ) was one of the main figures of astronomy in the 20th century. using the hooker 100 inch telescope at mount wilson observatory in california, discovered the galaxies are receding away from us and from each other via the changes in frequency that they exhibit - the shifting of frequency of electromagnetic emissions to the red end of the spectrum. this realisation was crucial as evidence for an expanding universe, which, if reversed, supports the notion of a big bang at the beginning of the universe. famously not awarded the nobel prize on the basis that at the time, research in astronomy was not eligible for the nobel prize in physics. hubble ' s law states that all objects in deep space ( i. e. galaxies ) are receding away from us and each other ( as can be seen by the fact that they are doppler - shifted ), and that the velocity of this recession is proportional to their distance away from the earth and other astral bodies. it is summarised mathematically by the equation : v = h0d, where v is the recession velocity, h0 is the hubble constant and d is the distance away from us that the body is. h0 has an approximate value of 70 kms - 1mpc - 1 ( kilometers per second, per megaparsec ), but a there is disagreement over its precise value. according to the theory of inflation, the early universe expanded exponentially fast for a fraction of a second after the big bang. a simple model for the expansion of the universe is to consider the inflation of a balloon. a person at any point on the balloon might consider himself or herself to be at the centre of the expansion, as all neighbouring points are getting further away. during inflation the universe expanded by a factor of about e60 = 1026. this number is a one followed by 26 zeros. it transcends normal political / economic discussions of inflation. this is a hypothetical particle and scalar field associated with the inflation of the universe that occurred moments after the big bang. it is theorized that this occurred because of a phase transition", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6386564798020534, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.533976"} {"text": "surfaces of spheres with the three geometry slicing the sphere in half. they can be used to calculate the quantum process of universe creation, which cannot be described using classical general relativity. they only usually exist for small three geometries, corresponding to the creation of a small universe. note that the concept of time does not arise in this process. universe creation is not something that takes place inside some bigger spacetime arena - the instanton describes the spontaneous appearance of a universe from literally nothing. once the universe exists, quantum cosmology can be approximated by general relativity so time appears. there are properties exhibited by cosmic strings. intercommuting refers to a process whereby strings exchange ends whenever they meet. a loop is produced whenever a string intercommutes with itself. although cosmic strings have not been detected, this process of intercommuting can be seen in certain liquid crystals. an interferometer is a machine that uses a process of wave interference to learn about the waves in question. that is, the waves are superimposed upon themselves to discover their properties. kaluza - klein theory is a theory that seeks to unify two of the four fundamental interactions ; gravitation and electromagnetism. a similar theory, electroweak theory, already unifies the weak nuclear force and electromagnetism. its proposals extend general relativity into five - dimensional spacetime. the si ( or base ) unit for temperature measurement. kelvin and celsius have the same magnitude scale, therefore you can transform one kelvin into celsius by adding 273. 16 to the number. whereas the celsius scale was created by dividing the difference in temperature between water freezing and boiling by one hundred and labelling the freezing point of water as 0, 0 kelvin is the point described by lord kelvin ( after whom the unit is named ) as \" infinite cold \", or absolute zero. this is the mechanism by which cosmic topological defects form during a phase transition. causal effects in the early universe can only propagate at the speed of light. this means that at a time t, regions of the universe separated by more than a distance d = ct can know nothing about each other. in a symmetry breaking phase transition, different regions of the universe will choose to fall into different minima in the set of possible states. topological defects are precisely the ' boundaries ' between these regions with different choices of minima, and their formation is therefore an inevitable consequence of the fact that different regions cannot agree on their choices. these are laws which define the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6924103526669372, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.543618"} {"text": "the set of possible states. topological defects are precisely the ' boundaries ' between these regions with different choices of minima, and their formation is therefore an inevitable consequence of the fact that different regions cannot agree on their choices. these are laws which define the fundamental physical properties which characterize ) thermodynamic systems. these are temperature, energy and entropy ( a property that works systems towards equilibrium ). they are : the zeroth law : if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they must be in thermal equilibrium with each other also. the first law : heat and work are forms of energy transfer. this is the law of the conservation of energy. internal energy in a closed system may change if heat or work are transferred in or out of the system. the second law : the entropy of any isolated system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases. that is, an isolated system will work towards thermal equilibrium. the third law : the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero. this is not, despite the name, a measure of time, but rather a measure of length. it is the length that light will travel in a vacuum in a year, that is 365. 25 days. its exact value is 9, 460, 730, 472, 580, 800 metres, but is approximately given by 9. 4607x1015m. this is calculated by multiplying the number of days ( 365. 25 ) by the number of seconds in each day ( 86, 400 ) and then multiplying that by the speed of light in a vacuum, which is 299, 792, 458 metres per second. in a mathematical function, the highest and lowest values of that function, over the domain of said function, are defined as the maximum or minimum points respectively. a local minimum or maximum value is defined by taking the highest or lowest value in the function over only part of the domain. an example of a function with several local minimum and maximums would be a graph of sin ( x ), which has no overall maximum or minimum value, but several local maximums and minimums of equal respective values. an object ' s ( in our context, an astronomical object ) brightness as measured by the flux, or intensity of electromagnetic radiation, that the object gives out. during the radiation era, shortly after the big bang, the universe consisted of free moving protons, neutrons and electrons and other particles, including helium ions. all radiation was absorbed by these free electrons, making the universe opaque", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6992101556275325, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.545306"} {"text": "the object gives out. during the radiation era, shortly after the big bang, the universe consisted of free moving protons, neutrons and electrons and other particles, including helium ions. all radiation was absorbed by these free electrons, making the universe opaque. when the universe was sufficiently expanded the radiation could no longer interact with the electrons, causing the universe became transparent. this process is called decoupling, and it marked the beginning of the matter era. electrons, now no longer absorbing radiation, instead joined with ions to form neutral atoms. through gravity, these atoms clumped together, eventually forming stars, galaxies and other stellar bodies. these are zero - dimensional ( point - like ) objects which form when a spherical symmetry is broken. monopoles are predicted to be supermassive and carry magnetic charge. the existence of monopoles is an inevitable prediction of grand unified theories ( guts ) ; this is one of the puzzles of the standard cosmology. we have five consistent string theories that can describe both the forces and the matter in our universe. we do not, however, have the tools to explore the theories overall possible values of the parameters in the theories. over the past few years, however, we have been able to explore these theories more thoroughly, and we now believe that these five string theories are all different aspects of the same underlying theory : m - theory. m - theory goes beyond string theory, in that it predicts not ten, but eleven dimensions of spacetime. the theory could have as a fundamental object as a membrane, as opposed to a string, which would look like strings when curled up in the eleventh dimension. it is for this reason that the m in m - theory originally referred to a membrane. nowadays, however, the m doesn \u2019 t specifically refer to anything, and can stand for mystery, or \u201c mother of all \u201d, because m - theory is still largely unknown. vast clouds of interstellar dusk, hydrogen, helium and ionized gas. as the mass of a nebula grows due to the slight gravitational attracts of dust towards each other, the mass compacts enough to form stars. other material within the nebula, such as dust, can clump together to form planets and other planetary objects. originally, any large astronomical object was referred to as a nebula - other galaxies, in particular. a liquid crystal is a phase of matter which exhibits properties somewhere between those exhibited by a liquid and solid crystal. when viewed in high resolution, they can appear to be textured, as the molecules may be free", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6975698645057733, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.551235"} {"text": "nebula - other galaxies, in particular. a liquid crystal is a phase of matter which exhibits properties somewhere between those exhibited by a liquid and solid crystal. when viewed in high resolution, they can appear to be textured, as the molecules may be free to flow in a limited manner around, provided that they stay within a crystal like structure. liquid crystals are used extensively in televisions and computer screens. the nematic phase of a liquid crystal is temperature dependent. when in this phase, clamitic ( rod - like ) molecules align themselves individually roughly parallel to each other on their long - side axis, in a similar way to cigarettes in a package. the result of this is that the molecules are free - flowing within this directional order. in this phase, the crystals can show signs of intercommuting and loop production, which are properties expected to be exhibited by cosmic strings. a neutron star is formed from the collapse of a larger star which has undergone supernova. these stars, as the name suggests, are composed mostly of neutrons. neutron stars are extremely hot. they typically have masses between about 1 and 2 solar masses ( 1 solar mass is approximately 2x1030kg, which is about 333, 000 times the mass of the earth ), despite being somewhere on the order of 1015 smaller in radius than the sun, which makes them extremely dense. the more compact a neutron star is, the more likely it is to form a black hole. this occurs when the star ' s density become so great that the gravitational force it exerts on itself is greater than its internal pressure, causing a collapse into a black hole. this was developed in 1983 by stephen hawking and james hartle. describes a situation whereby the universe can spontaneously come into existence from literally nothing. once the universe exists, quantum cosmology can be approximated by general relativity so that time appears. a particle is a nucleon if it is a particle that forms an atomic nucleus. there are two nucleons : protons and neutrons. these are complicated manifolds which, like calabi - yau manifolds, may be the space in which six extra dimensions proposed by certain string theories are found within. the study of the universe up to around 10 - 11 seconds after the big bang. during this time, the electroweak and strong forces were unified in a grand unified phase, which quickly changed to separate out strong and the electroweak forces. further on in time the electroweak interaction separated to become electromagnetism", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6826451021634714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.556528"} {"text": ". during this time, the electroweak and strong forces were unified in a grand unified phase, which quickly changed to separate out strong and the electroweak forces. further on in time the electroweak interaction separated to become electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force. it is possible to reach temperature regimes within this cosmology, allowing us to experimentally test theories. speculation, however, is still required within this time period. a mathematical approach to non - gravitational quantum theory, introduced by richard feynman of caltech. in the path integral approach, the probability that a system in an initial state a will evolve to a final state b is given by adding up a contribution from every possible history of the system that starts in a and ends in b. for this reason a path integral is often referred to as a ' sum over histories '. for large systems, contributions from similar histories cancel each other in the sum and only one history is important. this history is the history that classical physics would predict. for example, a system in the starting position of a ball on a non - symmetrical hill. the probability that the system will end up in the final position of the ball at the bottom of the hill on the side that is steepest is given by the summation of the probabilities of all paths that that ball could take, including going down the other side of the hill. for mathematical reasons, path integrals are formulated in a background with four spatial dimensions rather than three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. there is a procedure known as ' analytic continuation ' which is used to convert results expressed in terms of four spatial dimensions into results expressed in terms of three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. this effectively converts one of the spatial dimensions into the time dimension. this spatial dimension is sometimes referred to as ' imaginary ' time because it involves the use of so - called imaginary numbers. the path integral formulation of quantum gravity has many mathematical problems. it is also not clear how it relates to more modern attempts at constructing a theory of quantum gravity such as string / m - theory. however it can be used to correctly calculate quantities that can be calculated independently in other ways e. g. black hole temperatures and entropies. a phase transition is the change in properties and form of matter due to temperature changes. for example, water changes from solid ice to liquid water to gaseous steam or vapour. as temperature drops and phase transitions occur, the symmetry of the resulting matter is reduced - again, vapour is more symmetric than water", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6868049740370727, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.560335"} {"text": "due to temperature changes. for example, water changes from solid ice to liquid water to gaseous steam or vapour. as temperature drops and phase transitions occur, the symmetry of the resulting matter is reduced - again, vapour is more symmetric than water, which is more symmetric than ice. in terms of cosmology, when a phase transition in the early universe occurs, topological defects are formed. some of the symmetries that were broken in the early universe led to the four fundamental forces becoming discrete forces. at higher temperatures, they reunite in a unified state. the photon is an elementary particle. it is a gauge boson, in that it mediates one of the fundamental forces. in the case of the photon, it is the electromagnetic force. as mediators of the electromagnetic force, they allow us to see things through the visible light part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and are therefore often interchanged with \" light \". as they have no rest mass, they are able to travel at the fastest possible speed, which is know as the \" speed of light \" ( 299, 792, 458 metres per second ) in a perfect vacuum. their spin is 1 and no electrical charge. this is simply the planck length squared. given that the planck length is a fundamental unit of length, so too is the planck area a fundamental unit of area. this is the size of energy quanta ( discrete packets of energy ) in quantum mechanics - it is therefore the smallest amount of energy that anything can hold. it is the proportionality constant between the energy of a photon and the frequency of the associated electromagnetic wave, as denoted in the planck - einstein equation which links the two : e = hv, where v is frequency, h is planck ' s constant and e is energy. it ' s value is 6. 6260695729\u00d710\u221234 j. s this is the earliest period of time, from the beginning of time to 10 - 43 seconds after the beginning of time. during this period, the fundamental forces of nature were all unified due to the unimaginable temperature of the universe, and it is believed that gravity was as strong as the other forces ( it is now by far the weakest of the forces ). a very, very small unit of length. its precise value is 1. 61619997x10 - 35m. it is a base unit within the planck unit system and it is calculated using the speed of light, c, planck ' s constant, h and the gravitational", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6989977833441636, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.566168"} {"text": ". its precise value is 1. 61619997x10 - 35m. it is a base unit within the planck unit system and it is calculated using the speed of light, c, planck ' s constant, h and the gravitational constant, g. specifically, it is given by the square root of \u0127g / c3 where \u0127 is the reduced planck ' s constant, or planck ' s constant divided by 2\u03c0. it is the shortest measureable length in existence. to discuss length on scale shorter than this would be meaningless because it is a physical impossibility to measure below this length. a theory that could describe physical laws at this level would be of great use in the search for a theory of everything. this is the energy that exists in a body due to its position within a system. forces act upon the body to restore it to a lower energy state or configuration, this difference in the energy states is the potential energy. when the force acts upon the body, the energy held within the body is converted into some other form of energy, this occurs because the conservation of energy law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. an example of potential energy being converted into other energy would be in someone skydiving. the position of the person ( the body in the system ) in the system ( the earth ), i. e. being high up in the air in a plane, gives the person gravitational potential energy. once they leap from the plane, this gravitational potential is turned into kinetic energy as the person falls toward earth. once they have landed, their position, at the surface of the earth, means that they have lower amounts of gravitational potential energy, and they have been restored to a lower energy state. this is the theory that explains the strong nuclear force that is mediated by gluons between different quarks. the charge of this force is known as colour. the force, which occurs due to an exchange of these gluons, does not weaken over distance, as say gravity does, but rather remains constant, on the order of several thousand newtons. this means that at no point does any quark separate from another one, and so quarks can only be observed on a hadron level. this property is called confinement. another property within qcd is asymptotic freedom. this results in a very weak interaction between quarks and gluons during extremely high energy reactions. this is the study of cosmology at temperature regimes where all four fundamental forces were unified. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6678598080699779, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.567715"} {"text": "qcd is asymptotic freedom. this results in a very weak interaction between quarks and gluons during extremely high energy reactions. this is the study of cosmology at temperature regimes where all four fundamental forces were unified. this unification, it is theorised, occurred from the big bang to some 10 - 43 seconds after the big bang. due to the temperatures involved all quantum cosmology is theoretical and highly speculative. quantum field theory is a framework that allows for the extension of quantum mechanics, which deals with individual particles, to field systems operating relativistically. quantum field theories have been used to describe how three of the four fundamental forces act, being mediated by and exchange of particles called bosons. the photon and the gluon, for example, are exchanged between electrons and quarks in the case of electromagnetism and the strong nuclear force respectively. with quantum field theory, these natural fields pervade an area of space. particles that mediate these fields, the gauge bosons associated with the field ( like the aforementioned photon with electromagnetism ), are quanta of these fields, that is, ripples in the field carrying small amounts of energy, other particles that act within the field, for example the electron within the electromagnetic field, are though of in a similar manner., albeit different ripples and excitations. these fields are of variable range. the colour field within the quantum chromodynamic field theory, for example, acts in a range between quarks within a nucleon. other fields, such as the electromagnetic field, are infinite in scope and range. the search for a theory of quantum gravity is the search for a theory that can explain the effects of the fundamental force of gravity as explained by general relativity at a quantum level, and marry these up with quantum mechanics, which is a series of models which explain the other fundamental forces ; the strong nuclear ; weak nuclear and electromagnetic forces. examples of quantum gravity include string theory, loop quantum gravity and m - theory. this phase transmission occurred approximately one millionth of a second after the big bang. this was when quark - gluon plasma underwent a phase transition, resulting in quarks forming into hadronic matter, i. e. nucleons. quintessence is a theory of dark energy, given to explain the acceleration of the universe \u2019 s expansion. it is a dynamic equation, resulting in an attractive or repulsive force depending on the amount of kinetic energy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7189768556829444, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 26, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.568712"} {"text": "e. nucleons. quintessence is a theory of dark energy, given to explain the acceleration of the universe \u2019 s expansion. it is a dynamic equation, resulting in an attractive or repulsive force depending on the amount of kinetic energy relative to potential energy in the universe. as a repulsive force, it overcomes gravity \u2019 s attraction over large scales, resulting in an accelerated expansion. quintessence is hypothesised to have become repulsive approximately 10 billion years ago. this refers to a period of time from just after big bang to approximately 300, 000 years after its beginning. during this time, the universe consisted of free moving protons, neutrons and electrons and other particles. all radiation was absorbed by these free electrons, making the universe opaque. protons and neutrons were combining to form deuterium, a heavy isotope of hydrogen, and then helium, however, the temperature of the universe was so high that these existed as free ions in the plasma that was the universe. it was only when the universe was sufficiently expanded that the electrons no longer absorbed the radiation and instead joined with the ions to form neutral atoms. this forms the beginning of the matter era, in which we still exist. recombination was a time period, approximately 300, 000 years after the big bang, when electrons and protons bound to form atoms of hydrogen. before 300, 000 years had passed, the universe was still too hot for atoms for hydrogen to form. only after the universe had expanded sufficiently did the universe cool down sufficiently, making the formation of hydrogen possible. when the source of a wave moves away from us, we observe a change of frequency of that wave. an example would be an ambulance or fire - truck - we hear a lower pitch in its siren once it has passed us by. this is the doppler effect. it is not, however, limited to sound waves, but any kind of waves, including electromagnetic. this means that as an electromagnetic wave source is moving away from us, the frequency of the wave will decrease. as frequency and wavelength are inversely related, one goes up and the other goes down, the wavelength will increase. this shifts the wavelength closer to the red end of the spectrum ( this, when talking about the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, of course the wavelength may not be in the visible part ). this is redshift, and it is something we detect from far away galaxies and other electromagnetic sources. this leads us to the conclusion that the universe is expanding. these", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6216828559304016, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 27, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.570027"} {"text": "electromagnetic spectrum, of course the wavelength may not be in the visible part ). this is redshift, and it is something we detect from far away galaxies and other electromagnetic sources. this leads us to the conclusion that the universe is expanding. these associate a scalar ( either a number, or a physical quantity ) value to every point in a space within the field. examples of scalar fields include pressure distribution, temperature variation, and gravitational fields. this is a point in spacetime where the curvature of spacetime becomes infinite. it is an area of extremely high density into which matter or light is attracted. singularities can be found both at the centre of black holes and on their own. inside a singularity, the laws of physics are distorted to the point that they are no longer applicable. spacetime is the concept of space and time being part of the same continuum. we use the typical three dimensions that are everyday and commonplace - the x, y and z dimensions used in geometry - ascribing a fourth dimension of time. this allows us to map out any event that takes place in the universe by a set of coordinates ; three of space to give us the location, and one of time to give us when the event occurred. this merging of time and space is important and must be accounted for, because relativity tells us that the observed rate of time passing changes with the respect to an objects velocity relative to the observer. gravitational fields can also change the passage of time. on quantum scales, therefore, it is important to account for time within theoretical frameworks, whereas in classical physics this is unnecessary. the structure of spacetime is detailed in einstein ' s theory of special relativity. this theory lays out the structure of spacetime. it draws on the principle of relativity as laid out by galileo, which states that there is no absolute state of rest, and that all motion is relative to other motion. there are two principles that are laid out in the theory ; that the laws of physics are the same for observers whose motion is uniform relative to each other and that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of any relative motion. this means that with different relative velocities, observers will experience different physical laws. effects of these principles can be seen in various manners. one of the most interesting is time dilation. a clock that is sitting stationary in front of you will tick faster than a clock which is moving away from you. this is has been shown to be true for astronauts, who come", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6741834435416101, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 28, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.571203"} {"text": "in various manners. one of the most interesting is time dilation. a clock that is sitting stationary in front of you will tick faster than a clock which is moving away from you. this is has been shown to be true for astronauts, who come back from space younger than they would have been had they remained on earth. another well known consequence of the theory is the energy - mass equivalence relationship, as defined by the equation e = mc2, probably the most famous equation of all time. this states that energy and mass are interchangeable and are related by a function of the speed of light in a vacuum, c. the speed of light in a vacuum, c, is shown not to be just a speed that photons travel at, it is a key cosmological constant that is related to the nature of space and time. special relativity shows us that any object with rest mass cannot travel at the speed of light. the speed that photons, or indeed any particle with zero rest mass ( as energy and mass are equivalent as shown by the equation e = mc2, a particle that is travelling will have kinetic energy and therefore more mass than a particle at rest ), will travel at in a vacuum. its value is 299, 792, 458 metres per second ( ms - 1 ). as explained in the theory of special relativity, the speed of light is the fastest that any form of energy or information can travel in the universe. an intrinsic quantum property of particles that is defined by a spin number that can be either a whole integer ( 1, 2, 3 etc. ) or a half integer ( 1 / 2, 3 / 2, 5 / 2 etc. ), and can be positive or negative. it is a property that all particles exhibit, the sole known exception being the higgs boson, although other particles with zero spin, such as the inflaton, have been hypothesised. to an extent, it is easy to make an analogy of quantum spin with the classic rotational spin that we encounter in everyday life, for example with a spinning top. particles that are electrically charged, such as electrons or positrons, will generate a magnetic field through their spin, as movement of an electric charge will automatically generate magnetic fields. this analogy, however, only takes us so far. different spin quantum numbers can give us ideas as to the symmetry of these particles. a particle with zero spin looks exactly the same from all sides. a particle with spin will look different if rotated, but will regain its symmetry if it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6720859775846246, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 29, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.572147"} {"text": "us so far. different spin quantum numbers can give us ideas as to the symmetry of these particles. a particle with zero spin looks exactly the same from all sides. a particle with spin will look different if rotated, but will regain its symmetry if it is rotated a certain number of time. in this instance, an analogy of a deck of cards is useful. consider any face card, these are symmetrical every time you spin them half way around, or 180 degrees. consider now the ace of spaces. this card, if places with the point of the space facing up as you look at it, will require a full 360 degree rotation until it looks the same again. a particle with spin 1 will act like an ace of spaces, requiring a full rotation, whereas a spin 2 particle will be symmetrical through 180 degree rotations. a half spin particle will require two rotations to be symmetrical. this kind of rotational symmetry does not have an analogue in the macroscopic world. crucially, whether a particle has half or whole integer spin tells us about how it reacts. particles with half integer spin, or fermions, obey a set of statistics known as fermi - dirac statistics. particles with whole integer spin, or bosons, obey a set called bose - einstein statistics. one of the key differences between these two sets of statistics is that those particles which obey fermi - dirac statistics are subject to the pauli exclusion principle. this states that particles may not occupy the same quantum state as each other. crucially, this means that you cannot make fermions of the same quantum state occupy the same space. this is why fermions are the particles which make up the matter of the universe. they include quarks, which combine to make protons and neutrons, and leptons, a set of particles that include electrons. bosons, which do not obey fermi - dirac statistics and are consequently not subject to the pauli exclusion principle, fulfill other roles, some mediate the fundamental forces of nature, these are the gauge bosons, and the higgs boson gives rise to mass in other particles. also known as the \u03bbcdm or lambda - cdm model, this is the best and most widely used model to explain the expansion of the universe, origins of the cosmic microwave background, nucleosynthesis of light elements and the formation of galaxies and large - scale structure. this is a set of mathematical tools that allow us to study thermodynamical properties, such as work", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6593322772280581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 30, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.573192"} {"text": ", origins of the cosmic microwave background, nucleosynthesis of light elements and the formation of galaxies and large - scale structure. this is a set of mathematical tools that allow us to study thermodynamical properties, such as work, heat and entropy, of a large number of particles, allowing us to look at both atomic level and macroscopic level detail of the system. this allows us to explain thermodynamics in ways that apply to both classical and quantum physics, and allows us to extrapolate macroscopic predictions from microscopic properties. in the standard model of particle physics, particles are considered to be points moving through space, tracing out a line called the world line. to take into account the different interactions observed in nature, one has to provide particles with more degrees of freedom than only their position and velocity. these include mass, electric charge, colour ( which is the \u201c charge \u201d associated with the strong interaction ) and spin. this model was designed within a framework known as quantum field theory ( qft ), which allows us to build theories consistent with both quantum mechanics and the special theory of relativity. these theories describe with great success three of the four known interactions in nature : electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear forces. unfortunately, gravity, as described by einstein \u2019 s general relativity, does not fit into this scheme. string theory replaces these different particle types with a single fundamental building block : a \u201c string \u201d. these can be closed, like loops, or open, like a hair. as the string moves through time it traces out a tube or a sheet ( depending on whether it is closed or open ). this string is free to vibrate, and different vibrational modes of the string represent the different particle types, as difference modes are seen as different masses or spins. one mode of vibration, or \u2018 note \u2019, makes the string appear as an electron, another as a photon. there is even a mode describing the graviton, the particle carrying the force of gravity. this means we can make sense of the interaction of gravitons in a way we could not in qft. it is this ability of string theory to create a valid model that includes all four fundamental interactions that has dubbed it to be a \u2018 theory of everything \u2019. the problem is that there are five different versions of string theory. this is why we now look to m - theory, which has place for all five theories, as the greatest solution to our \u2018 theory of everything \u2019. as a point of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.7589366305655593, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 31, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.574224"} {"text": "\u2019. the problem is that there are five different versions of string theory. this is why we now look to m - theory, which has place for all five theories, as the greatest solution to our \u2018 theory of everything \u2019. as a point of note, string theory predicts that spacetime has ten dimensions. although we only have three dimensions of space and one of time, we can assume that six of these dimensions are curled up very tightly, so that we may never be aware of their existence. having these so - called compact dimensions is very beneficial, as we can suggest that the degrees of freedom, such as electric charge of an electron, can simply arise as motion in the extra compact dimensions. there are four fundamental forces in nature. they are electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force, the strong nuclear force and gravitation. the weak nuclear force is associated with radioactivity in unstable nuclei, specifically the decay of a neutron into a proton. when the temperature is hot enough, such as that of the universe shortly after the big bang, electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force will merge to form the electroweak force. the strong nuclear force binds together neutrons and protons inside nuclei. the mathematical theory describing the elementary particles in this theory, quarks and gluons, is known as quantum chromodynamics ( qcd ). theories that unify the strong nuclear force with electroweak theory are known as grand unified theories, of guts. a supercluster is a vast ( the are some of the largest structures in the universe ) grouping of smaller galaxy clusters and groups. they can span between several hundred million light years to over one billion light years. superclusters can contain galaxy bubbles, sheets, voids and filaments, which are smaller structures within the supercluster. nearly all galaxies are found within superclusters, and inbetween superclusters thee are usually large voids. our own supercluster, called the virgo supercluster, contains the local group, the virgo cluster and some 100 other galactic groups and clusters. its diameter is approximately 100 million light years. supergravity is a theory which follows on from supersymmetry. it is theorised that in the same way that photons mediate the electromagnetism, gluons the strong nuclear force and w and z bosons the weak nuclear force, so to does the as - yet undiscovered gravi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.7119016061214204, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 32, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.575303"} {"text": "theorised that in the same way that photons mediate the electromagnetism, gluons the strong nuclear force and w and z bosons the weak nuclear force, so to does the as - yet undiscovered graviton the gravitational force. in supergravity, the graviton has a heavier superpartner whose spin differs by 1 / 2. so far, as with supersymmetry, there has been no observational evidence for supergravity. this is a very powerful stellar explosion that can quite often outshine galaxies. a star undergoes a supernova either when a very old massive star undergoes sudden gravitational collapse, releasing vast quantities of gravitational energy, or through the reignition of the nuclear fusion reaction in a degenerate star ' s ( such as a white dwarf or neutron star ) core. the explosion releases huge quantities of the star ' s matter, resulting in a supernova remnant. certain types of supernova have luminosities of known quantity, such that they can be used as ' standard candles ', which means that we can detect how far away the object is by comparing its known luminosity with our observed brightness. string theory states that all particles are representations of different vibrations on a fundamental building block ; a string. as a theory, it is able to describe the interactions of the particle that mediates gravitation : the graviton. in this way, and by being able to describe all other particles and interactions thereof, it is able to unite the four fundamental forces in nature, and is therefore a \u2018 theory of everything \u2019. the original string theory only described particles with integer spins, called bosons. these are the particles that mediate the fundamental forces, and include the photon, electron, gluon and graviton. the other class of particle, which have half integer spin, called fermions, were not described. these are particles that constitute matter as we know it, such as quarks and electrons. by introducing supersymmetry to bosonic string theory, we obtain a new theory that describes both the forces and the matter that make up the universe. this is superstring theory. there are three different superstring theories that have no mathematical inconsistencies. in two of them, the fundamental object is a closed string, whilst in the third, the string is open. by mixing the best aspects of bosonic string theory and superstring theory, we can create two other consistent theories of strings, heterotic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6922748614024523, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 33, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.576436"} {"text": "of them, the fundamental object is a closed string, whilst in the third, the string is open. by mixing the best aspects of bosonic string theory and superstring theory, we can create two other consistent theories of strings, heterotic string theories supersymmetry is a theory which postulates that for every elementary particle, there is a more massive \" superpartner \" whose spin is different by 1 / 2. the theory comes about to solve mathematical difficulties related to quantum field theory and the reconciling of general relativity and quantum field theory. these inconsistencies arise because the higgs boson, a gauge boson whose interaction with other particles gives them mass, appears to gain large amounts of mass through interactions with itself. solving these inconsistencies would give physicists a way to marry quantum mechanics and gravity at the smallest scales. these superpartners are a possible candidate for dark matter. no superpartners have yet to be detected and no evidence exists as of yet to support supersymmetry. this is because in order to observe particles of this mass we need to use incredible amounts of energy, which so far we have been unable to generate. it is hoped that the large hadron collider at cern might detect evidence of supersymmetric particles. this is the set of points in space where decoupling occurred, approximately 380, 000 years after the big bang, at the right distance so that we are now seeing these photons reach us as part of the cosmic microwave background relic radiation. this occurs when a system in some state of symmetry moves into a different configuration, resulting in the loss of that symmetry. consider a ball on a hill. the ball is symmetrical. the hills is also symmetrical. if the ball is on top of the hill, the ball and hill in system are symmetrical. if the ball rolls down the hill, the ball and hill are individually still symmetrical, but the system of the ball and the hill is now asymmetrical. this is symmetry breaking. in a cosmological context, this happened as the universe cooled down after the big bang. as this occurred, elementary particles changed state in what is known as a phase transition. as this occurred, symmetry that previously was exhibited by these particles was broken. these symmetries are associated with different fundamental forces. this is why some particles are acted upon by these forces, and others not. these symmetries are restored at higher temperatures, however. these are a type of topological defect that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.7158663647492829, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 34, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.577493"} {"text": "was broken. these symmetries are associated with different fundamental forces. this is why some particles are acted upon by these forces, and others not. these symmetries are restored at higher temperatures, however. these are a type of topological defect that is hypothesised to form when large symmetries are broken. they are unstable and prone to collapse. unlike certain other topological defects, such as magnetic monopoles, these are delocalized and occur over large areas. no evidence has been found of them as yet. this is a gravitational anomaly located in the centaurus supercluster. it is a localized concentration of mass of unknown origin that is equivalent to tens of thousands of galaxies. it mass is so large, that ( as the name suggests ) its gravitational attraction is altering the motion of galaxies and galaxy clusters in a region over hundreds of millions of light years across. in the aftermath of the big bang, the universe was extremely hot and extremely dense. at these energies, the laws of nature that we know were changed. the fundamental forces that we see in nature were unified - it is only as the universe expanded and cooled that gravitation, electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces all ceased to be as one. electroweak theory describes the unification of the weak nuclear force and electromagnetism. a theory of everything will marry up all the fundamental forces. the issue with this is that whilst quantum chronodynamics and the electroweak theory describe the strong and weak nuclear forces and electromagnetism on a well understood quantum basis, there is no consistent theory for describing gravity on such a basis. m - theory, and the associated string theories behind it are being explored as possible candidates. these are configurations of matter that form during matter phase transitions and symmetry breakings, such as occurred during the very early universe. they are configurations of matter in the old, symmetrical phase that remain stable in the new phase where the symmetry that was previously held is now broken. examples of these defects include monopoles, cosmic strings, domain walls and textures. within quantum field theory, particles may move from higher to lower energy states, such as occurred in the very early universe as the universe was expanding and thus cooling. these lower energy states, or vacuum states, may be different whilst possessing the same amount of energy. this means these states are degenerate. the particle, therefore, has a chance of falling into any of these degenerate vacuum states, unless there is something outside the system described here which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.686720262385684, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 35, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.579869"} {"text": "induced seismicity potential in energy technologies ( 2012 ) board on earth sciences and resources each report is produced by a committee of experts selected by the academy to address a particular statement of task and is subject to a rigorous, independent peer review ; while the reports represent views of the committee, they also are endorsed by the academy. learn more on our expert consensus reports. report in brief > > in the past several years, some energy technologies that inject or extract fluid from the earth, such as oil and gas development and geothermal energy development, have been found or suspected to cause seismic events, drawing heightened public attention. although only a very small fraction of injection and extraction activities among the hundreds of thousands of energy development sites in the united states have induced seismicity at levels noticeable to the public, understanding the potential for inducing felt seismic events and for limiting their occurrence and impacts is desirable for state and federal agencies, industry, and the public at large. to better understand, limit, and respond to induced seismic events, work is needed to build robust prediction models, to assess potential hazards, and to help relevant agencies coordinate to address them. - research has provided a better understanding of the factors that induce seismicity. although existing faults and fractures are generally stable, changes in subsurface pore pressure, for example due to the injection or extraction of fluid from earth ' s subsurface, may change the crustal stresses acting on a nearby fault and induce a seismic event. net fluid balance appears to have the most direct correlation to the magnitude of induced seismic events, thus, energy technology projects that maintain a balance between the amount of fluid injected and the amount withdrawn may induce fewer felt seismic events than technologies that do not maintain balance. - although the general mechanisms that create induced seismic events are well understood, scientists are currently unable to accurately predict the magnitude or occurrence of such events due to the lack of comprehensive data on the complex natural rock systems at particular energy development sites. predictions of induced seismicity at specific energy development sites will continue to rely on both theoretical modeling, and data and observations from measurements made in the field. - of all the energy - related injection and extraction activities conducted in the united states, only a very small fraction have induced seismicity at levels noticeable to the public ( that is, above magnitude 2. 0 ). different energy technologies typically use different injection rates and pressures, fluid volumes, and injection duration \u2014 factors that affect the likelihood and magnitude of an induced earthquake. - geothermal energy \u2014 the use of heat from the earth as an energy source \u2014", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5476062503487099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.611333"} {"text": "0 ). different energy technologies typically use different injection rates and pressures, fluid volumes, and injection duration \u2014 factors that affect the likelihood and magnitude of an induced earthquake. - geothermal energy \u2014 the use of heat from the earth as an energy source \u2014 usually attempts to maintain a balance between fluid volumes extracted for energy production and those replaced by injection, which reduces the potential for induced seismicity. however, site - specific characteristics can make a difference. for example, the high - pressure hydraulic fracturing undertaken to produce geothermal energy from hot, dry rocks has caused seismic events that are large enough to be felt. - conventional oil and gas development extracts oil, gas, and water from pore spaces in rocks in subsurface reservoirs. incidences of felt induced seismicity from conventional oil and gas development appear to be very rare. - shale formations may contain oil, gas, and / or liquids. shales have very low permeability that prevent these fluids from easily flowing into a well bore, and so wells may be drilled horizontally and hydraulically fractured to allow hydrocarbons to flow up the well bore. hydraulic fracturing to date has been confirmed as the cause for small, felt seismic events at one location in the world. the process of hydraulic fracturing a well as presently implemented for shale gas recovery does not pose a high risk for inducing felt seismic events. - tens of thousands of waste water disposal wells have been drilled in the united states to dispose of the water generated by geothermal and oil and gas production operations, including shale gas production. water injection for disposal has been suspected or determined a likely cause for induced seismicity at approximately 8 sites in the past several decades. however, the long - term effects of increasing the number of waste water disposal wells on the potential for induced seismicity are unknown, and wells used only for waste water disposal usually do not undergo detailed geologic review prior to injection, in contrast to wells for enhanced oil recovery and secondary recovery. - capturing carbon dioxide and developing means to store it underground could, if technically successful and economical, help reduce carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. however, carbon capture and storage differs from other energy technologies because it involves the continuous injection of very large volumes of carbon dioxide under high pressure, and is intended for long term storage with no fluid withdrawal. the large net volumes of carbon dioxide that would help reduce global carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere may have potential for inducing larger felt seismic events due to increases in pore pressure over time ; potential effects of large - scale carbon capture storage projects require further research", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5320411745731519, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.615100"} {"text": "2d games using silverlight - collision detection implementation this article shows how to implement collision detection in a microsoft silverlight game application. this is the second article in a series which will show how to create a complete working game ( a clone of the classic arkanoid game ). the first article in this series 2d games using silverlight - implementing the game loop introduced the possibility of writing 2d games using silverlight, an approach that has benefits when targeting all of the platforms : windows phone 7, windows phone 8 and windows 8 and internet browsers. the original article covered the creation of the game skeleton for a simple arkanoid clone called jailbreaker, and included the games loop and the game controllable loop. this article extends the game skeleton by adding collision detection. collision detection implementation strategy there are numerous strategies and algorithms for collision detection : broad detection phase, narrow detection phase, how to use dot production to estimate distance, etc. however it does not make sense to re - invent the wheel : for more complicated games there are open source physics engines, and for simple games like this there are often platform apis that can be used to help with collision detection. for this example we use the collision detection functionality built into the platform, along with a good understanding of the simple collision detection required for this game. considering the game environment : - there are few components with complex non - predictable movement - essentially just the club and ball. all other elements either stand still or fall in predictable manner - they do not collide. as a result we only need to consider a single object, the ball, for determining whether a collision has occurred. - we only need to consider collisions in three directions along the active object movement : forward, forward diagonal up, forward diagonal down. this limitation allows us to minimize number of tests required collision detection in the platform : - there is a helper class visualtreehelper in the platform that allows hit test on the component tree ( all visible components in silverlight application form a component tree hierarchy ) - there is a support for object animation based on storyboard that is suitable for steady moving objects - the game movement is based on screen refresh rate, which is not constant across devices. to make object speed the same on different devices / conditions we need to measure the refresh rate before calculation the object next position - during object movement, the object perception will be conducted on the next the object position because we are going to make the calculations in a hook to the screen refresh loop. new module in the project physicalbody the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5244573234426815, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.627694"} {"text": "rate before calculation the object next position - during object movement, the object perception will be conducted on the next the object position because we are going to make the calculations in a hook to the screen refresh loop. new module in the project physicalbody the new class physicalbody is attached to a ui element statically created in xaml. it handles the element : - position update - object collision assessment - checking the class container extends to keep the element position inside the container also it accepts gameover and hitscores ( ) method delegates from the class container the position update is a simple increment of the current position based on the current body speed. note that the body speed defines the body direction according to the coordinate system : positive value is from left to right by x axis, and from top to bottom in y axis and negative value is in the opposite direction. object collision assessment this is the crucial part of the article. the collision detection is implemented in one function and follows the strategy we have declared above in the preceding sections. let us examine the code : private void assesscollision ( ) / / get bounding box and offset the box in movement direction on one step canvas canvas = ( canvas ) body. parent ; / / ( 1 ) for converting screen - to - control coordinates var transform = canvas. transformtovisual ( application. current. rootvisual ) ; / / for converting screen - to - control coordinates var origin = transform. transform ( new point ( canvas. getleft ( body ) + velocityx, canvas. gettop ( body ) + velocityy ) ) ; var boundingbox = new rect ( origin, new size ( body. actualwidth, body. actualheight ) ) ; / / ( 2 ) check whether there are element exist on the body ' s way / / in three directions : forward, forward - diagonal - up and forward - diagonal - down / / ( 3 ) use visualtreehelper helper class to walk through elements hierarchy tree / / ( 4 ) filter out all objects except shapes if ( iscollided ( visualtreehelper. findelementsinhostcoordinates ( new point ( boundingbox. right, boundingbox. bottom ), ( canvas ) body. parent ) ) | | iscollided ( visualtreehelper. findelementsinhostcoordinates ( new point ( boundingbox. right, boundingbox. y ), ( canvas ) body. parent ) ) | | iscollided (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5386118510437989, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.630265"} {"text": ". - nipah virus. virus was discovered in 1999 ; causes disease in swine and in humans through contact with infectious animals ; mode of transmission between animals and from animals to humans is uncertain ( appears to require close contact with infected tissues or body fluids ) ; caused respiratory disease and encephalitis in people in malaysia and singapore ; no drug therapies have yet been proven to be effective in treating nipah infection ; no countermeasures exist. - hendra virus. formerly called equine morbillivirus ; first isolated in 1994 ; the natural reservoir for hendra virus is still under investigation ; human beings and equines seem to be predominately affected ; caused respiratory and neurological disease in horses and humans in australia. the nbaf research mission will be based on current pathogen and disease risk assessments, subject to change as threats and risk assessments change. the nbaf research mission will be based on current pathogen and disease risk assessments, subject to modification as threats and risk assessments change. researchers would focus on developing tests to detect the diseases and countermeasures to prevent the disease. in some cases, we would be studying the disease itself to determine : - what mechanism it uses to enter the animal, - what type of cell the disease affects, - what effects the disease causes on the cells, - how to develop countermeasures to help the animal develop protection against the disease, and - how quickly the animal can become protected from the disease. by knowing what type of cell the disease affects we are able to develop a test to more accurately and quickly determine if the animal is suffering from that specific disease. nbaf is owned by the department of homeland security with the department of agriculture ' s agriculture research service ( usda - ars ) and animal plant health inspection service, veterinary services ( usda - aphis - vs ) as our primary partners. these same agencies are currently working in the plum island facility. the department of health and human services and other agencies may also have space in the facility, in case of some event where the researchers would wish for a particular agency \u2019 s assistance or an event dictates a particular agency needs additional assistance. the departments of homeland security and agriculture work cooperatively to set priorities regarding diseases to be researched. they use a variety of risk assessments, gap analysis and intelligence gathering in order to establish the priorities. ars functions to perform the early research and transition prospective candidates for countermeasure development to homeland security. the department of homeland security further develops these candidates and transitions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5118670143027668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.635711"} {"text": "evolution and the nature of science institutes : lesson plans from cutting edge this website provides access to lesson plans published by the evolution and the nature of science institutes ( ensi ). based on 32 key ideas of scientific thought, the ensi program emphasizes the importance of teaching the nature of modern science before introducing the elements of evolution as an example of modern scientific thinking. this website features lessons in three categories - the nature of science, the origins of life, and evolution. lesson plans are organized into eight sections including an overview of concepts and objectives, logistics such as time, materials, and teaching preparations, and ready - to - use handouts and worksheets for students. these lessons are intended for use in any high school biology course, and may also be used in middle school and / or lower division university courses depending on slight modifications and the experience and level of students. intended for grade levels : type of resource : adobe acrobat reader cost / copyright : copyright 1999 by the evolution & the nature of science institutes. this material may be copied only for noncommercial classroom teaching purposes, and only if this source is clearly cited. dlese catalog id : serc - nagt - 000 - 000 - 000 - 391 this resource is part of ' creating effective web - based learning resources in the geosciences ' resource contact / creator / publisher : contact : dr jean beard evolution & the nature of science institutes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5437947590413964, "token_count": 286, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.659226"} {"text": "you are here : applications and projects earth observation center applications and projects projects : civil security - environment projects : land surface applications and projects : atmosphere according to the current plans of space agencies and satellite operators, in the course of the next two decades over 100 satellite - based instruments will be providing a wealth of data about the earth \u2019 s atmosphere from ground level up to the border to outer space. the spectrum extends from detecting trace gases and aerosols to clouds, precipitation and radiation to global measurement of temperature and wind. in parallel, powerful data communication and analysis systems will be established in order to make these data available in a standardized format and ready to use worldwide in near - real - time. anwendungen und projekte : atmosphare endorse is involved in the user - driven creation of so - called \u2018 downstream services \u2019 for the renewable energies sector of the european union \u2019 s global monitoring for environment and security ( gmes ) programme. based on the gmes services for land, atmosphere and security, specific applications will be developed together with users from the fields of solar energy, wind energy, distributed power networks, bioenergy and daylighting for buildings. the goal of the esa project aerosol _ cci, a climate change initiative, is to design consistent prototype algorithms for the production of long - term aerosol data sets from several european earth observation sensors. the project starts with an in depth analysis and comparison of the retrieval results for several existing algorithms. based on this analysis, elements of community algorithms and harmonized retrieval are then developed. topics of investigation are the different assumptions and approaches for modeling optical aerosol properties, how to deal with surface reflectance and its anisotropy, cloud masking, and the use of auxiliary data sets. within europe \u2019 s family of gmes ( global monitoring for environment and security ) projects, macc - ii ( monitoring atmospheric composition and climate, phase 2 ) deals with the atmosphere. dlr is in charge of the macc solar radiation service and the interface to macc - ii users. furthermore, dlr contributes satellite - based information on stratospheric ozone chemistry, tropospheric trace gases and aerosols. the sahara is a huge reservoir for the introduction of dust into the atmosphere, which can be carried as far as the americas in air currents. in the samum ( saharan mineral dust experiment ) project, the optical effects of mineral dust will be investigated in detail. a team of eight national institutes will take in - situ aerial as well", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5090777596922306, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.666202"} {"text": "can be carried as far as the americas in air currents. in the samum ( saharan mineral dust experiment ) project, the optical effects of mineral dust will be investigated in detail. a team of eight national institutes will take in - situ aerial as well as remote sensing measurements and combine them with models to derive information on the spatial distribution and transport of these dust layers as well as their physical and chemical composition. - volcano monitoring ( promote and exupery ) volcanic eruptions not only endanger the local population, they can also have a negative effect on air traffic. because the eruption clouds of volcanoes threaten the functioning of airplane engines, operators of aircraft needs to be promptly informed about volcanic eruptions so that flight paths can be modified accordingly. virtual institute \" environmental research station schneefernerhaus \" ( ufs ) the environmental research station schneefernerhaus ( 2650 a. s. l. ) on the mountain zugspitze is an internationally linked center of competence for high altitude, climate and environmental research with focus on development, demonstration and operation of innovative technologies in the context of atmospheric and climate research, satellite validation, model verification, quality assurance for value added products ( e. g. in the framework of gmes ), analyses for the understanding of climate system processes, environmental and high altitude medicine, early detection of natural hazards, cosmic radiation and radioactivity. the ufs has the status of a global station within the global atmosphere watch programme ( gaw ) of the world meteorological organization ( wmo ). it is in addition part of the ndacc program and linked with the icsu / wmo world data center for remote sensing of the atmosphere ( wdc - rsat ), which is hosted by dfd. as part of the eu seventh framework program, the energeo project was established to devise a strategy for estimating the influence of the exploitation and use of energy resources on the environment and various ecosystems. this assessment will be based on models and remote sensing data. the strategy is to be demonstrated making use of pilot projects involving a variety of energy sources, including fossil fuels, biomass, solar energy and wind power. helmholtz alliance planetary evolution and life the helmholtz alliance is using an interdisciplinary approach to investigate the relationships between the formation of planets and the evolution of life. entire planets are included in the study, from their outer envelopes of magnetosphere and atmosphere to their core. beginning with earth, other planetary bodies in our solar system will also be studied, such as the earthlike", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5402003315687439, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.668643"} {"text": "children \u2019 s play and early number knowledge recent research at u. c. berkeley \u2019 s institute of human development ( ihd ) suggests that children \u2019 s early number knowledge comes about because as children play with objects, they spontaneously set up correspondences between sets and they track what happens as set sizes change. they seem to understand correspondence and simple arithmetic quite well when they actually play with objects. however, they find it quite difficult to look at object sets and try to judge whether sets are of the same size or not. when children solved number problems in the active method, they succeeded up to three times more frequently than they did when they solved the same problems in the passive method. in the active method tasks, their responses to the correspondence problems were nearly perfect, whereas in the passive method correspondences the children responded correctly only about half of the time. when children solved addition and subtraction problems, they were similarly more successful in the active method than in the passive method. one explanation for these differences is that the active method more closely mimics the sort of \u201c number play \u201d that young children do when they sort objects, when they set up tea parties, when they arrange for each of their friends to have a toy, and so on. these are examples of naturally occurring correspondences. and importantly, these all involve the children \u2019 s actions upon the objects. it is also interesting to note that these early number abilities do not associate directly with children \u2019 s ability to count sets of objects. the children in these studies were younger than three years. they sometimes knew some number words, and perhaps could recite the counting sequence up to five or so, but they were not particularly good at saying how many objects were in front of them. and yet they could solve problems that look remarkably like object based arithmetic when they could act upon the set materials. add your own comment today on education. com workbooksmay workbooks are here! we ' ve got a great round - up of activities perfect for long weekends, staycations, vacations... or just some good old - fashioned fun! get outside! 10 playful activities - kindergarten sight words list - the five warning signs of asperger ' s syndrome - what makes a school effective? - child development theories - why is play important? social and emotional development, physical development, creative development - 10 fun activities for children with autism - test problems : seven reasons why standardized tests are not working - bullying in schools - a teacher ' s guide to differentiating instruction - first grade sight words list", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5313466968623198, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.714593"} {"text": "research project search engineering students win with online game may 17, 2008 - a team of ohio university engineering and technology students won an honorable mention from the environmental protection agency for their online environmental game designed to improve public awareness of chemical exposure, the university announced. the russ college of engineering and technology students competed in the 4th annual national sustainable design expo from april 20 - 22 at the national mall in washington, d. c. nearly 60 teams represented colleges and universities across america. the chemical exposure awareness game, funded by a $ 10, 000 epa grant, is played in the online virtual world second life. modeled on monopoly, the game exposes players to various daily chemicals to teach positive and negative effects. players also are encouraged to strive for more sustainable lifestyles. the expo was the second phase of the epa ' s people, prosperity and the planet, p3, competition. the first phase, for which the team won the grant, asked teams to demonstrate how they planned to research and develop innovative designs to address challenges to sustainability. associate professor of computer science chang liu and professor of civil engineering tiao chang led students ying zhong, yanhui fang, en ye and jourdan siemer in developing the game. \" our team was the only computer game to compete in the expo, \" zhong said in an ou news release. \" our game was very popular at the expo, especially with children. \" \" students waited in lines to play our p3 game, \" liu said. \" i think this was evidence that our team had made progress toward the goal of improving chemical awareness though engaging programming. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5135761444764505, "token_count": 323, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.901364"} {"text": "earth from space : bloom - filled baltic this envisat image captures blue - green algae blooms filling the baltic sea, which is roughly 1600 km long, 190 km wide and has a surface area of about 377 000 sq km. ' algae bloom ' is the term used to describe the rapid multiplying of phytoplankton, microscopic marine plants that drift on or near the surface of the sea. floating freely in the water, phytoplankton are sensitive to sunlight and local environmental variations such as nutrient levels, temperature, currents and winds. the blooms seen here are due to favourable conditions \u2013 lots of sunshine, little wind and an increase of nutrients from run - off following the ice season \u2013 in the area over the past weeks. although algae blooms are a normal and essential phenomenon, they can be harmful to humans and animals when they produce toxic substances, occur too often or last too long, depleting the concentration of oxygen in the water. due to the toxicity of some phytoplankton and marine algae species, it is important to monitor blooms so that fishermen, fish farmers and public health officials know about such events as soon as possible. while individually microscopic, the chlorophyll that phytoplankton use for photosynthesis collectively tints the surrounding ocean waters, providing a means of detecting these tiny organisms from space with dedicated ' ocean colour ' sensors, like envisat ' s medium resolution imaging spectrometer ( meris ). algae blooms impact the ability of radar sensors, such as the advanced synthetic aperture radar on envisat, to detect oil spills because their presence produces a similar dampening effect on the water \u2019 s surface. it is important, therefore, for agencies such as the european maritime safety agency, which monitors european waters for oil spills, to know when algae blooms appear to warn satellite image analysts. visible in the image ( clockwise from bottom left ) are parts of germany, sweden, estonia ( top right ), latvia, lithuania, the russian territory of kalingrad and poland. also visible are the swedish islands of gotland and oland ( middle ) and the danish island of bornholm ( lower left ). meris acquired this image on 11 july 2010 at a resolution of 300 m.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5290818147109589, "token_count": 462, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:38.917609"} {"text": "the egg matrix creating a ubiquitous information architecture and designing across devices the egg matrix is a tool for planning content, features, and scenarios when creating an information architecture that will exist across multiple devices and touch points. where did the idea come from? in college, i had an environmental design professor who described the field as such : architecture is the profession that designs the shell or the structure of the built environment. interior design is the profession that designs the interactions and spaces inside that built environment. landscape architecture is the profession that designs the space outside this structure. environmental design encompasses all three, studying our interactions with the built environment, how we move through it, how we move around it, how we integrate with the natural environment, and so on. i always had the idea of an egg in my head, in part because he described architecture as being like a shell of sorts, and partially because we talked a lot about animal habitats and homes. environmental design is a human - centered design discipline that covers our physical surroundings. it considers the shared ecology between places and spaces, interiors and exteriors, the mechanic and the organic. many of the same principles and ideals carry over into the digital space. when the digital world spills over into the physical world when we design for digital spaces today, it \u2019 s no longer safe to assume that the majority of our users will access our information from a similar static setup in an office or home. digital information travels freely now between devices, locations, and online and offline habitats. in fact, it \u2019 s nearly impossible to know the context or situation that surrounds each of our users. it also seems likely that even before we have mastered the art of designing across desktop and mobile platforms, we will find ourselves creating spaces in cars, kiosks, mirrors, table tops, refrigerators, and many other devices. there is no set of rules that tells us how to create the right mix of content and features so that our users will have a seamless experience whenever and wherever they access our information. the egg matrix the egg matrix is my attempt to create a tool for cataloging the different forces that should be considered when determining the architecture, features, and overall design of a multi - device experience. my hope is that it is flexible enough to be applicable to topical challenges, like designing for mobile vs desktop spaces, but that it also will encompass future needs, such as television or in - car apps. the concept is simple. there is a subset of the experience ( the egg ) that you can directly control. you are responsible for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5459992823252774, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.136133"} {"text": "for mobile vs desktop spaces, but that it also will encompass future needs, such as television or in - car apps. the concept is simple. there is a subset of the experience ( the egg ) that you can directly control. you are responsible for the structure, the content, the messaging, and the interaction that goes into your design. there are also two equally important forces at play that contribute to the experience and overall success of what you \u2019 ve designed. there is the internal composition of the user ( the yolk ) and the extrinsic environment that the experience takes place in ( the nest ). you might be able to influence certain aspects of both areas, and you might be able to design around certain scenarios, but you \u2019 ll never be responsible for the creation of these realms. by breaking each area down into individual factors, you \u2019 ll be able to create a better model for your structure. i \u2019 ve broken each field out into the initial factors that i thought were most crucial, but there is certainly room for expansion, refinement, and feedback. start with a single node of content, and build out from there. what features are needed to interact with that content? how often is the content accessed by the user? what possible contexts might the user be in when accessing the content? what belief systems might he or she be bringing to the experience? the breakdown currently is as follows : the nest covers environment, location, context, and locomotion. the egg covers message, content, task, frequency, urgency, privacy, intimacy, tracking, and measurement. the yolk covers motivations, needs, desires, and knowledge. you may find yourself creating multiple columns for a single content node to cover the array of possible touch points or devices your users might encounter. i included a section called \u201c messaging. \u201d this may relate to a marketing campaign, a company brand message, or a common slogan. it \u2019 s important the spaces you design don \u2019 t contradict the messaging being broadcast to users. i \u2019 ve also included fields for noting tracking and measurements. these are for listing how you plan to measure the experience and what measurement points you \u2019 re going to look for. how do you know if the model is working? like any other model, it has to be put into action and tested. fortunately, this \u201c model \u201d can be tested in several ways. you can gather feed and ask questions of users. you can create a prototype to test. when you \u2019 re satisfied with the performance of a prototype, you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5399550074557043, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.138583"} {"text": "question : i ran a virus scan and my program turned up a bunch of things it labeled \" third - party \" cookies. what are these? answer : when you visit most websites, they place cookies on your browser. these are small bits of data that store your site settings for future visits. this is why you don ' t have to constantly log into facebook any time you browse to a new facebook page. those are first - party cookies. third - party cookies are when an advertiser or other third - party service on a site places a cookie. these can often be related to advertising tracking, so it ' s best to opt out of them in your browser. try a service like selectout. q : i bought a new computer to replace my 6 - year - old desktop. should i just throw out the old one? a : no, no and no! computers contain hazardous materials that make it dangerous to just throw them out. instead, you could try recycling it with help from a site like earth911. it will tell you where you can take it and any special considerations. of course, you could give it to a friend or family member that needs a pc, too. just remember to completely wipe your personal information.. q : i just gave my teenage daughter her first cell phone. what can i do to make sure she ' s not visiting any adult sites with it? a : if she does most of her surfing on the house ' s wi - fi, you can use opendns. it filters content at your network router so it protects her from inappropriate sites no matter what gadget she surfs on. if she starts using her gadget ' s 3g or 4g connection to circumvent those blocks, you can download a filtering browser like bsecure. on iphones, however, apple doesn ' t have an official way to change the default browser from safari. you should have a chat with your daughter and make sure she knows what sites are appropriate. q : i keep seeing online that people recommend buying solid - state hard drives instead of conventional drives. what ' s the point? a : a solid - state drive is a little brick of flash memory, like a large usb drive. ssds can make a laptop faster, lighter and more energy efficient. the catch is they can raise the price of a laptop $ 200 to $ 300 and they usually don ' t offer a lot of storage. if you want a performance boost and don ' t store too many large files on your", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5189518589495854, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.156372"} {"text": "a ton of things posted. the next step was to take what was added to the prezi and organize it into topics such as \u201c nile river \u201d or \u201c pyramids \u201d or \u201c religioni. \u201d this forced the students to do some thinking as to which category each piece of info went into. - keep it fresh : there is a multitude of tools that can be used through your blog. create a comic on pixton to help students learn / review in a more fun way. have the students post a thought / comment on wall - wisher. have the students create an imaginary conversation between them and someone of their choice about a topic. post some online flashcards for them with flashcardmachine. hold a debate on your blog, which allows everybody to have a voice, instead of just one kid getting called on. share student work, post interesting videos. the possibilities are endless! keep in mind, you want your blog to be something that the students want to go to. so don \u2019 t \u201c over blog \u201d but try to keep new and useful / interesting things going. start building momentum and remind / show the students how helpful it can be. soon, the students will \u201c buy in \u201d to your blog and jump on board. and when that happens, you shall have a dynamic blog. my name is dan klumper and i live and teach in brandon, sd. i have taught 6th grade social studies for the past six years. i am originally from worthington, mn. i attended augustana college in sioux falls, sd. i have a passion for technology in education because i believe it can make a huge impact on today \u2019 s students. thank you. twitter : @ danklumperemail : daniel. klumper @ k12. sd. us", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5004658712814043, "token_count": 360, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.164194"} {"text": "what is a retrofit? main entry : ret \u00b7 ro \u00b7 fit pronunciation : \\ \u2019 re - tro - \u2019 fit, \u2018 re - tro - \u2019 fit \\ function : transitive verb 1 : to furnish ( as a computer, airplane, or building ) with new or modified parts or equipment not available or considered necessary at the time of manufacture 2 : to install ( new or modified parts or equipment ) in something previously manufactured or constructed 3 : to adapt to a new purpose or need 4 : to save a lot of money on energy costs! 5 : to update your current lighting system innovation and continuous improvement in the field of lighting have given rise to tremendous energy - saving opportunities. lighting is an area in which there is enormous energy - efficient potential, starting at the design stage by incorporating modern energy - efficient lamps and luminaries. following responsible operational practices also can significantly reduce associated energy costs. lighting is not only a very high priority when considering facility retrofitting, but also is a high - return, low - risk investment. by installing new lighting technologies such as dimmers, photo sensors, occupancy sensors, and timers, facilities can reduce the amount of electricity consumed and energy costs associated with lighting. there are several types of energy efficient lighting and affordable lighting technology : compact fluorescents lights, light - emitting diodes ( leds ), and lighting controls. below are a few examples of energy - saving opportunities with efficient lighting! \u2022 installation of energy - efficient fluorescent lamps in place of conventional fluorescent lamps for example converting to t8 or t5 lamps from t12 lamps. \u2022 installation of compact fluorescent lamps ( cfls ) in place of incandescent lamps. \u2022 installation of high pressure sodium ( hps ) lamps for applications where color rendering is not critical. metal halide lamps should also be considered when correct color is important. \u2022 installation of led exit signs to replace incandescents. \u2022 installation of high frequency ( hf ) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts. \u2022 installation of occupancy sensors, an inexpensive way to ensure that unused lights do not remain on. \u2022 installation of microprocessor - based controllers. \u2022 installation of photocells, devices that automatically detect the natural light level in a room and adjust the intensity of the artificial light accordingly. \u2022 replacing incandescent wall lights and exit sign lighting with cfl or led - lit units will not only save a considerable amount of energy, it also will significantly reduce labor costs associated with changing light bulbs,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5970938860671406, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.167453"} {"text": "l a b s a f e t y the national association of biology teachers recognizes the importance of laboratory activities using human body samples and has developed minimum safety guidelines to minimize the risk of transmitting serious disease. ( \" the use of human body fluids and tissue products in biology, \" news & views, june 1996. ) these are summarized below : the mouthwash method of dna isolation does generate liquid waste ; however, the risk of spreading an infectious agent is much less likely than from natural atomizing processes, such as coughing or sneezing. several elements further minimize any risk of spreading an infectious agent that might be present in mouthwash samples : consent and confidentiality student particpation in this experiment raises real - life questions about the use of personal genetic data : there is concensus that a human dna sample should be obtained only with the willing consent of a donor, who understands the purpose for which it is being collected. thus, the experiments should be explained ahead of time and students given the option to refrain from participating. ( some teachers may wish to have parents sign a consent from, such as those filled out for a field trip. ) there is also consensus that a dna sample be used only for the express purpose for which it is collected. thus, student dna samples should be thrown away after completing the experiments in this unit. ( in fact, the cheek cell samples are not stable enough for long term storage. ) the alu pv92 insertion and mt control region polymorphisms used in these experiments were specifically selected because they are phenotypically neutral. neither locus encodes a protein, nor has any known relationship to disease states, sex determination, or any other phenotype. even though there is no chance of disclosing phenotypic information about the experimenters, all student polymorphism data stored at our allele server and sequence server sites are anonymous. online submission forms identify students only by number and have no entry fields for personal identifiers. we recommend that each student select a four - digit personal identification number ( pin ) and label their experiment with this number. under this system, there is no chance that a student can ever be linked to his / her sample in the database. alternately, students can be assigned a sequential number, with no permanent key maintained by the teacher. all polymorphisms are inherited in a mendelian fashion and can give indications about family relationships. the pv92 polymorphism has an inherently low information content \u2013 usually there are at least several parental genotypes that could account for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5535372045118354, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.182295"} {"text": "gnu mix development kit ( mdk ) mix is donald knuth ' s mythical computer as described in his monumental work the art of computer programming. as any of its real counterparts, the mix features registers, memory cells, an overflow toggle, comparison flags, input - output devices, and a set of binary instructions executable by its virtual cpu. you can program the mix using an assembly language called mixal, the mix assembly language. so, what ' s the use of learning mixal? the mix computer is a simplified version of real cisc computers, and its assembly language closely resembles real ones. you can learn mix / mixal as an introduction to computer architecture and assembly programming : see the mdk documentation for a tutorial on mix and mixal. mdk ( mix development kit ) offers an emulation of mix and mixal. the current version of mdk includes the following applications : - mixasm a mixal compiler, which translates your source files into binary ones, executable by the mix virtual machine. - mixvm a mix virtual machine which is able to run and debug compiled mixal programs, using a command line interface with readline ' s line editting capabilities. - gmixvm a mix virtual machine with a gtk + gui which allows you running and debugging your mixal programs through a nice graphical interface ( see screenshots ). - mixguile a guile interpreter with an embedded mix virtual machine, manipulable through a library of scheme functions. - mixal - mode. el an emacs major mode for mixal source files editing, providing syntax highlighting, documentation lookup and invocation of mixvm within emacs ( since version 22, mixal - mode is part of the standard emacs distribuition ). - mixvm. el an elisp program which allows you to run mixvm within an emacs gud window, simultaneously viewing your mixal source file in another buffer. using the mdk tools, you ' ll be able to - write, compile and execute mixal programs, - set breakpoints and run your programs step by step, - set conditional breakpoints ( register change, memory change, etc. ), - collect execution timing statistics, - trace executed instructions, - inspect and modify the mix registers, flags and memory contents at any step, - simulate mix input - output devices using the standard output and your file system. the user ' s manual", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5372144355442621, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.199347"} {"text": "what if each new fragrance we test was actually leeching away our brain \u2019 s processing power? that \u2019 s the first thing i thought when i read an article on salon. com reporting the findings of dr. eric spangenberg, an environmental psychologist and the dean of washington state university \u2019 s college of business. dr. spangenberg carried out a study in a home - goods store in switzerland and two others with his undergraduates in the us to compare the effects of three olfactive environments : unscented, scented with orange, and scented with a more complex blend of orange, basil and green tea ( the two scents both tested as similarly pleasant ). it turns out the single - note scent was the only one to make a difference : in the swiss store, customers spent 20 percent more, while the undergraduates solve more computerized anagrams more quickly. no - scent and complex scent environments yielded identical results. it would make sense that a pleasant scent, if it is compatible with the environment, would drive customers to linger in a store and therefore be exposed to more temptations. it \u2019 s also quite possible that the smell of oranges lifts the mood of students solving anagrams, therefore enhancing their intellectual performance because they \u2019 re less stressed out. when i reached out to dr. spangenberg to discuss these issues, this is what he answered : \u201c our interpretation of fluency theory suggests that it is either, as you suggest, increased affect for the simple scent and therefore they are in a better mood, or the scent enhances cognitive capacity ( and isn \u2019 t too complex and therefore taking up processing capacity ). it could be some combination of both explanations which would help explain why we found no difference in response behaviors between complex and no - scent, and simple scent was better ( significantly ) that both of those conditions. \u201d the processing fluency theory he refers to is \u201c the ease with which information is processed in the human mind \u201d ( according to wikipedia ). it seems that \u201c high fluency is subjectively experienced as positive \u201d : in other words, we feel good when we can suss something out easily. in this theory, fluency has a bearing on what we find beautiful based on symmetry, familiarity, etc. this would explain why the orange - basil - tea, though as pleasant as the orange, doesn \u2019 t produce the same effect when people experience it without being aware of it. their brains are actually using up processing resources to identify the notes \u2013 a bit like a background program slowing other software down", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5330678789462595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.217263"} {"text": "- tea, though as pleasant as the orange, doesn \u2019 t produce the same effect when people experience it without being aware of it. their brains are actually using up processing resources to identify the notes \u2013 a bit like a background program slowing other software down. because the fragrance itself becomes a problem to be solved, they are less engaged by other stimuli ( buying napkins or solving anagrams ). it \u2019 s like a nagging, subconscious \u201c i \u2019 ve got it on the tip of my tongue \u201d feeling. this may be why i, for one, refrain from testing a new fragrance \u2013 or even from wearing fragrance at all \u2013 when i \u2019 m about to tackle a tricky intellectual task. as though i needed to shut the \u201c background program \u201d, the floating attention required to turn my impressions of a fragrance into words as i experience it over the hours. but on the other hand, floating attention \u2013 as opposed to knitted - brow, \u201c pick out the notes \u201d sessions over blotters \u2013 is usually what yields the most creative results. it \u2019 s when i forget the fragrance that i find the words. they pop up while i \u2019 m performing some mindless activity like walking or taking a shower. which is where processing fluency must kick in : i \u2019 ve trained the smell = > words paths in my brain, so the connection happens spontaneously when i \u2019 m not trying to force it. all perfume lovers are familiar with that eureka moment. this makes me wonder whether it \u2019 s possible that some fine fragrances, despite their complexity, achieve a harmony that makes people process them fluently without even being aware of it. not necessarily because they are simple, figurative and / or familiar, but because somehow their olfactory forms make as much sense as the smell of oranges, echoing proportions, or achieving the same relationship between their notes, as something produced by nature. perhaps that is the key to the success of some original fragrances \u2013 as opposed to copycats : people perceive these proportions subconsciously and respond to their harmony. it ' s also possible that becoming more fluent in the language of scent, dedicated perfume lovers may experience the pleasurable feelings procured by fluent processing more frequently. in that case, though testing different scents drains some of our brainpower, we \u2019 d be benefitting because this fluent processing would subtly enhance our mood, and maybe even our cognitive capacities. that \u2019 s probably not something that can be tested in labs, but it \u2019 s a damn sight more reassuring than to think all those vials around my computer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5601207226715568, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.218324"} {"text": "is a rapist? \" she thought carefully, then responded by telling her that a rapist is someone who touches you where you do not want to be touched. morgan seemed satisfied with this explanation. the following morning as morgan was saying goodbye to her mother, she said \" bye mommy, i hope no one rapes your eyes today. \" at that point janelle realized that her explanation was not clear and had been misunderstood. over the next several months, janelle began explaining the difference between healthy and unhealthy sexual experiences. with this as a background, janelle was able to give a more clear explanation of a rapist. it is tempting to give vague explanations when we are unsure of what children know and understand. begin by asking the child what she thinks the answer is. this can help guide parents in giving a more clear explanation. have reasonable expectations children need time to process information. sometimes the questions they ask trigger a great deal of emotion and parents become eager for the child to respond in a certain way to the advice they have given. when the child feels pressure to conform, she will often respond with resistance. it is best to offer suggestions and further questions instead of giving orders. empathize with your child growing up is difficult. a child ' s perspective is often very different than a parent ' s perspective. take time to consider the child ' s point of view. think about her individual temperament, circumstances, relationships, and other factors. all of these issues affect the child ' s development. children need to feel that they are understood, even when they cannot understand themselves.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5194455296480962, "token_count": 321, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.253288"} {"text": "part 4 - darwinists ' methods of deception of the world - 5 10. darwinists try to use the similarities between monkeys and humans we have already mentioned that darwinism is based on a most simplistic logic and tends to account for life in a most superficial and facile way. as a result, one of darwinists ' most important propaganda tools are monkeys. due to various aspects of their anatomical characteristics, monkeys really are created to be similar to be humans. these similarities are something that deceive most darwinists, and thus lead them to mislead others. in order to be able to make use of the similarity between humans and monkeys, darwinists look at a monkey and emphasize various aspects of its behavior, such as use of tools or ability to learn. the aim is to supposedly legitimize the famous darwinist deception that humans are descended from apes and cause people to form that impression. once some people have been exposed to such conditioning, and go to the zoo or watch a documentary about monkeys, they develop a specific opinion along those lines. so influenced do they become by this darwinist deception that they are easily able to believe that a living thing they see could easily turn into human being \" if it grew a bit, shaved off its fur and ate better food. \" a few technical similarities laid the foundation for successful darwinist conditioning. programs about monkeys that have learned various primitive forms of behavior similar to those in human beings appear again and again on darwinist tv stations and internet sites. some viewers who see what a monkey can do when trained, and who have little knowledge of darwinism, come to possess a completely erroneous perspective because of the darwinist conditioning they are subjected to. intelligent behavior exhibited by monkeys is shown over and over again in order to strengthen the propaganda regarding these creatures being man ' s supposed earliest forebears. yet this is just another darwinist deception. it is true that monkeys do have some characteristics that resemble those in humans. but this does not alter the fact that humans and monkeys are two completely different entities. by allah ' s leave, so long as there are monkeys in this world they will never be anything other than monkeys. no matter how much they are trained they will never turn into humans with characteristics such as the ability to think, perceive, interpret, foresee, behave intelligently, make judgments, act in a planned and conscious manner or speak. no matter how much they repeat their efforts, monkeys will never be able to design airplanes, build skyscrapers, write poems or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5048992132929022, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.290260"} {"text": ", perceive, interpret, foresee, behave intelligently, make judgments, act in a planned and conscious manner or speak. no matter how much they repeat their efforts, monkeys will never be able to design airplanes, build skyscrapers, write poems or study human beings in the laboratory. no matter how much training they receive, they will never be able to design a project, or produce a superior civilization through reflection and planning. this is because a monkey is an entity with the anatomical features specially bestowed on it by allah, but bereft of the ability to speak and, most importantly, bereft of the human consciousness, of mind and soul. the fact it has a few abilities is definitely not proof of the claim that it is the ancestor of man. in making these claims, darwinists try to make forget the main difference between humans and monkeys. man is an entity capable of saying \" i am, \" who is aware of his own existence and why he is created, who is capable of reflecting on the reason for his existence and of making judgments. for that reason, man is a totally different entity to other life forms. compared with this, anatomical similarities and abilities have only a minor differential capacity. a conscious entity, aware of its own existence and capable of saying \" this is me, \" cannot be accounted for in any materialist terms. no materialist account can explain a supposed transition from a life form unconscious and unaware of its own existence into one with a soul and aware of its existence. darwinists can produce as much false evidence for this unscientific account as they wish ( and all the fossils so far produced have been fraud ), but they will never be able to account for the human soul and consciousness. that is what darwinists do not wish to speak of and that inflicts total despair on them as they speak of the co - called evolution of man and try to impose a whole series of false skulls as evidence for this. in addition to all this, there are other living things that display far more intelligent characteristics than monkeys, whose abilities darwinists imagine are the greatest form of evidence. crows, bees, beavers and termites sometimes behave far more intelligently than monkeys, and behave in a way that requires far more ability. for that reason, this claim based on ability and skills is totally misleading. first and foremost, darwinists need to account for what makes human beings human ; how they are affected by what they see and hear, how they think about these, use reason, possess feelings such as respect", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5309841493651415, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.291695"} {"text": "based on ability and skills is totally misleading. first and foremost, darwinists need to account for what makes human beings human ; how they are affected by what they see and hear, how they think about these, use reason, possess feelings such as respect, love and loyalty, and possess a soul that enables them to make decisions and judgments. this mindset, that believes in the absolute existence of matter and that regards human consciousness as simply a collection of neurons, is totally speechless in the face of the existence of the soul. for a long time now, darwinists have been working on the origin of consciousness and on imaginary evolution ; or, to put it another way, they have been producing propaganda methods on the subject. but since it is impossible for them to account for matter with a concept that has no material existence, or even to produce an alternative interpretation, they make no claims on that subject at all. indeed, the origin of consciousness, the soul that makes human beings human, belongs to allah. allah has bestowed this as a blessing from himself, and in this way has made humans different to other life forms. the darwinist deception is speechless and baffled on this matter. allah reveals in the qur ' an that he creates man from his own spirit : he who has created all things in the best possible way. he commenced the creation of man from clay ; then produced his seed from an extract of base fluid ; then formed him and breathed his spirit into him and gave you hearing, sight and hearts. what little thanks you show! ( surat as - sajda, 7 - 9 ) an intelligent crow crows from the species corvus moneduloides living on new caledonia in the pacific islands are far superior to chimpanzees when it comes to making tools. researchers investigating crows in their natural habitat on the island of new caledonia in 2003 concluded that the knowledge of tools these animals employed revealed a \" technological progress \" handed down between generations and individuals. the final example of this miraculous behavior is the behavior of a crow called betty studied in a laboratory in oxford university. betty turned a metal rod into a tool by bending it, with no outside intervention. when her beak was unable to reach food at the bottle of a deep bowl, she found a metal rod for herself in the laboratory and bent the end, turning it into a hook. she was then easily able to extract the food. there is one very important point here that really amazed scientists ; betty was able to realize how the length and flexibility of a material she had never encountered", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5470901324011508, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.293273"} {"text": "and bent the end, turning it into a hook. she was then easily able to extract the food. there is one very important point here that really amazed scientists ; betty was able to realize how the length and flexibility of a material she had never encountered before would be of use to her. she managed to bend that flexible material in a manner entirely appropriate to her needs. when scientists wishing to establish whether this achievement of betty ' s was the work of coincidence tested the crow, she achieved the same success 9 times out of 10. the scientists stated that despite tiny betty ' s brain she exhibited a level of intelligence far higher than that of chimpanzees. the bbc, which maintains its darwinist prejudices, commented that \" betty has put our closest relatives to shame. \" betty is just one of many birds capable of \" intelligent \" behavior. much research into this is going on is the scientific world. ( for details see, the miracle of talking birds by harun yahya ) these all reveal that evolutionist claims about chimpanzee behavior are largely for propaganda purposes. all comments based on the intelligence of chimpanzees, and claims of a family link between human beings and chimpanzees, are obviously false. 11. darwinists try to spread their visual conditioning and bewitchment you have probably seen this in all darwinist publications. for years, they attempted to portray nebraska man as the most important evidence for evolution. a familiar picture accompanies the articles written about this fictitious creature. an ape - man with a slight stoop, with his wife, habitat, the weapons he used for hunting etc. etc. so detailed is the picture that people have developed a sufficient mental image of this mythical entity. the darwinist aim has been achieved for readers with little opportunity to do their own research and with little knowledge of the subject. readers unaware of the darwinist deception have easily been convinced of the existence of an ape - man living with his family in a primitive environment. but this is not true. the fictitious entity known as nebraska man was based on a single tooth. as we have already described in detail, the tooth in question belonged to a wild pig. in other words, a conviction formed by conditioning people with visual stimuli was produced on the basis of a molar tooth belonging to a wild pig. images of the mythical family of nebraska man were then produced in some way from this pig tooth. to put it another way, enormous cheating went on, and people were blatantly lied to. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5232284691341667, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.294670"} {"text": "a molar tooth belonging to a wild pig. images of the mythical family of nebraska man were then produced in some way from this pig tooth. to put it another way, enormous cheating went on, and people were blatantly lied to. this method of conditioning is still going on. pictures of fish starting to move from the sea onto dry land and whose fins are gradually turning into legs are total figments of the imagination. darwinists use the same methods in order to make people believe in such a passage, which is devoid of any evidence. placing a series of monkeys gradually becoming more and more erect and turning into humans alongside such reports in scientific journals or web sites carrying this deception makes it possible for the issue to be equated with evolution. shown this report and accompanying visual indoctrination, any reader may perceive this as part of, or even evidence for evolution. most of the time they do not even read the words in the reports, but these pictures reminiscent of evolution remain in their memories. the same people are subjected to the same conditioning from pictures of evolution placed alongside reports about cloning or the human genome project, but which actually have nothing to do with it. the impression is given that any scientific progress in the human genome project is actually scientific proof of evolution. this fraudulent visual conditioning is a typical element of darwinist propaganda. it is one of the most frequently employed psychological conditioning techniques. the fact remains, however, that elaborate reconstructions based on a fossil skull are just works of art that if nothing else, certainly reflect the imaginative powers of different artists. just as in the example of nebraska man. this had absolutely nothing to do with science. not anything to do with evolution. all that is happening is fraudulent indoctrination rather than the production of any scientific evidence. jonathan wells summarized this darwinist fraud : this remarkable set of drawings shows clearly how a single set of fossil bones can be reconstructed in a variety of ways. someone looking for an intermediate form to plug into ape - to - human sequence could pick whichever drawing seems to fit best. the reason why darwinists can perpetrate such fraud so easily is that they can take fossils of extinct life forms, shape them as they wish, and give them whatever appearance they so choose. darwinists use these reconstructions they manufacture so intensively that a book about evolution many volumes in size could be filled with these false pictures alone. indeed, these reconstructions may be the only materials in the possession of a museum of natural history. they show people these false pictures and models", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.546800633020131, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.296856"} {"text": "manufacture so intensively that a book about evolution many volumes in size could be filled with these false pictures alone. indeed, these reconstructions may be the only materials in the possession of a museum of natural history. they show people these false pictures and models over many years and give the impressions that the subject really once existed. of course, many people who visit such museums may not admit to the possibility that everything exhibited in a museum of natural history, with official backing and supervised by professors and scientists, is actually a lie and a fraud. they may be affected in this way by what they see and form the opinion that such a mythical life form, with a tiny head, a huge jaw, a stooped gait and a body covered in hair must indeed once have existed. many people there will not know, and will never investigate, that the subjects of these false statues and pictures never lived at all, that they are completely fraudulent, that not a single fossil remain exists to corroborate them and that, on the contrary, the fossil record totally refutes them. the conditioning they are subjected to is so powerful, and the people supporting it so eminent, that even questioning its veracity may seem utterly illogical to them. but in this way, they are constantly deceived, and a mendacious environment is created. when people go to museums of natural history, they are generally shown such false models or drawings rather than the fossils themselves. darwinists cannot produce fossils, because all fossils belong to perfectly formed entities. all fossils show that life forms millions of years ago were perfectly and fully formed. moreover, fossils also show that present - day life forms were around millions of years ago, and have never changed since. this is why fossils, which should be a paleontology museums ' sole reference material, are left out of the equation. since all fossils prove the fact of creation, darwinists kept all the 300 million - plus fossils that had been found hidden away. they never put them on show or displayed them for people. darwinists also use various scientific magazines as tools for visual conditioning. since darwinist journals cannot provide any scientific evidence, they concentrate on propaganda instead. as a requirement of this propaganda, they regard it as sufficient to use striking cover designs, the colors used on the cover and inside pages, the photographs chosen and the language employed in order to send the desired message to the reader. the spell concealed under this mask ensures that the person reading the magazine will be influenced by its visual appearance and the photos within it,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5058721134847538, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.297946"} {"text": "the cover and inside pages, the photographs chosen and the language employed in order to send the desired message to the reader. the spell concealed under this mask ensures that the person reading the magazine will be influenced by its visual appearance and the photos within it, and hugely impressed by the strange, almost mystical latin terminology employed in it. every opportunity, from advertising to movies, from music clips to song lyrics, cartoons, books and newspaper and magazine articles are used to prevent this spell from being broken. the aim is for people to memorize certain words and cliched sentences and be familiarized with certain images. every moment of people ' s lives are filled with the fictitious transitional stages between monkeys and man, mendacious images of transitional fossils, and fraudulent reconstructions of primitive humans. there is huge concentration on this in newspapers and magazines, great or small, in the form of a single word of much more comprehension. the aim is to prevent the effect of the darwinist spell on people being broken. the language deliberately developed against creation, and what they foolishly imagine to be a mocking attitude, are also intended to complete the effect of this spell. the reason for all the jokes, articles, talk and cartoons about belief in allah ( surely allah is beyond that ) is to familiarize people with darwinist indoctrination. this unpleasant spectacle, intended to eliminate any tendency in people towards belief in allah and to lay the foundation for darwinism in their minds, is part of the dajjal ' s stratagem. but this spell has at last been broken. the supporters of the dajjal fail to understand the position in which they find themselves. there can be no question of people continuing to believe in the theory of evolution once they have been told, just one time, of all the evidence that disproves darwinism. that is why, as in all their propaganda techniques, darwinists resort to complicated verbiage, latin terminology and visual conditioning. but all it takes is to tell the true facts just one time, using a very simple form of language, to reveal the evidence that demonstrates the invalidity of darwinism. even someone who has been exposed to a lifetime of darwinist conditioning can never continue to believe in the lie that is darwinism in the face of these irrefutable facts, because he now knows the truth. all it takes is for someone in a pitch dark room to see the sun behind the drapes for just a second. no matter how dark the room he is in, it will no longer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.549245659289032, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.299233"} {"text": "be strong, and that behaving unjustly can benefit him, will constantly suffer the pains of these unpleasant misconceptions. the moral vice he exhibits rebounds against him. the physical and psychological damage inflicted by living in an environment where nobody loves anybody else, where nobody makes sacrifices for anyone else, where nobody protects or watches over anybody else and where there is no justice, love or compassion wears his life away. in short, the darwinist inculcation of irresponsibility is not, as some people imagine, something that makes their lives easier, but rather and on the contrary makes their lives ugly and unpleasant and inflicts material and spiritual suffering. this can be better realized when one considers the social collapse going on in many western countries. believing in darwinism may seem rather more acceptable for some people who prefer not to think about all this. because some people may have a predisposition to take things easy, imagining this will \" simplify \" their lives. most people see nothing wrong in thinking of themselves as irresponsible beings descended from animals. and that is what darwinism does, literally equating human beings with flies or insects. the evolutionist and paleontologist stephen jay gould summarizes this way of thinking : humans represent just one tiny, largely, fortuitous, and late - arising twig on the enormously arborescent bush of life. 179 the bus posters supported by the atheist richard dawkins in various countries are a clear and explicit instance of the ugly propaganda in question. the posters backed by dawkins indoctrinate people with atheism and thus foolishly advise people to \" enjoy life free of any responsibilities. \" this call may seem quite realistic to someone who does not think too deeply, and he will quickly receive the darwinist conditioning in question. everything is set out so simplistically that such a person will be unaware of the error he has fallen into and how he has been deceived. the fact is that these posters constitute a great fraud and a grave error. even if one does not believe, one still sees the proofs of allah ' s sublime existence all the time and one still lives the destiny appointed by allah, whether one wishes to or not. the proofs of faith are everywhere \u2013 for people who can truly see and think. people can only achieve happiness and enjoy what they experience through faith and love of allah. of course allah, who creates the delights of this world as a blessing, will bestow most of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5251492858536562, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.301659"} {"text": "everywhere \u2013 for people who can truly see and think. people can only achieve happiness and enjoy what they experience through faith and love of allah. of course allah, who creates the delights of this world as a blessing, will bestow most of the beauty and joy of these blessings on those who love him most and who are closest to him. since unbelievers forget that it is allah who bestows blessings and pleasures, they imagine they can attain happiness by living irresponsibly and without restraint. but the fact is that living heedless of allah, in an unrestrained and irresponsible manner, always inflicts stress, troubles and sorrows on them. blessings have always turned into afflictions and pleasures to be enjoyed have always ended in disappointment. since these people are unable to reflect on the beauty of being close to, and believing in, allah and since they fail to comprehend that allah bestows all blessings, they imagine they can succeed by the use of such false propaganda techniques. but the fact is that they cannot live pleasant and peaceful lives, and neither can they influence the people around them. ( the bus posters espoused by dawkins attracted a great deal of criticism in many countries. bus drivers in european countries such as finland boycotted them because of the extreme reactions they attracted, bus companies decided not to use the posters, and they were also torn up by members of the public. ) as a result, the posters in question were banned in many places. 180 ) another place where this conditioning is carried out on an intensive basis is schools. biology, a university text book, teaches students that in learning about the \" nature of life \" they must always bear in mind that \" evolution is random and not designed \". 181 students reading the university text book life : the science of biology encounter the following passage : \" darwinian world view \" means accepting not only the processes of evolution, but also the view that... evolutionary change is not directed toward a final goal or state. \" 182 there can be no doubt that an education system that teaches the lie that man came into being by chance, as the result of blind and unconscious coincidences means regarding the poisoning of young minds by ideas that encourage anarchy, conflict, slaughter and selfishness as legitimate, and people receiving such indoctrination can be directed as desired. for example, the error taught to students in douglas futuyma ' s text book evolutionary biology is this : futuyma ' s unscientific statement continues", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5440291273658063, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.302900"} {"text": ", and people receiving such indoctrination can be directed as desired. for example, the error taught to students in douglas futuyma ' s text book evolutionary biology is this : futuyma ' s unscientific statement continues : but this is all a deception. human beings are not freed from their responsibilities by regarding everything as simple and unconscious. and it is impossible for a feeling of avoiding one ' s responsibilities to make people happy. once people cast off this feeling, they will not suddenly enjoy earthly pleasures or at once be freed from all their worries. there is a very important truth that atheists and darwinists either do not know, or refuse to admit : allah creates all things. it is also allah who creates blessings and pleasures in this world. and it is therefore allah who bestows the sensation of enjoying earthly pleasures and a pleasant life. if allah so wishes he can make a person suffer the worst unhappiness and torment in the midst of all blessings and in great plenty and abundance. no matter how much a person may strive to have unlimited enjoyment of all delights, it is still allah who bestows pleasure and happiness on him. one of atheists ' and darwinists ' gravest errors is that they ignore this reality. everyone who thinks he has no responsibilities is also searching for love, comfort and security, just like everyone else. but he will possess none of these in a society made up of individuals like himself. throughout his life, the irresponsible person tries to forget that he will one day die. but he is in fact constantly in the shadow of death. he sees the deaths of people around him and constantly witnesses sickness and accidents. even the death of an insect will remind him of the death he is trying to get away from. no matter how much he tries to deny the fact of death, the fear of it will eventually enfold his entire body. he grieves for people around him who die and, according to his own beliefs, just cease to exist. he begins to find it impossible to deny that his own body cannot withstand the ravages of time, and that death is drawing closer all the time. far from comforting him, denying the fact of death will bring with it fear, stress and worry. living irresponsibly in fact opens the door to all troubles and difficulties. a person who fails to properly appreciate that everything is under allah ' s control will be terrified of the future. a person who fails to appreciate that all profit and loss lies with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.530298358279575, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.304455"} {"text": "beyond that. ) the sole reason for the endeavor to prop up darwinism, put forth with the assumption that matter is the only absolute reality, and for all the deceptions and frauds perpetrated for that purpose, is to try to prevent acceptance of the fact that an almighty and sublime creator brought all things into being. darwinists have pursued that objective for the last 150 years and struggle hard to retain it. and that is the only reason for the adoption of darwinism as a false religion. but this fact is generally kept concealed, because for people to know it would prevent large masses of people from feeling any sympathy for darwinism. in particular, it will have a negative impact on people who believe in and respect allah. the fact that darwinism is a theory opposed to belief in allah attracted criticism from religious circles in darwin ' s time, and the theory was not easily adopted by people of the day. it began being adopted as a result of darwinist conditioning and propaganda. people who are currently taught in schools that human beings are descended from apes, and that dinosaurs grew wings and took to the air, generally imagine the theory of evolution to be a harmless one. they are unaware of the true face of the theory. they do not know that it is this perverse theory, devoid of any scientific foundation, that lies at the root of irreligion, dictatorial regimes, degeneration, terror and the martyrdom of so many troops in turkey. darwinists also try to conceal the true face of the theory they espouse. that is why they propagate the lie that darwinism is not incompatible with religion, in order to mislead the masses of people who believe in allah, to supposedly portray darwinism as harmless and to gain support from those people, as well. they believe that by these means they can win supporters and weaken the intellectual struggle against the theory of evolution. despite being exceedingly illogical and inconsistent, the lie of \" evolutionary creation \" they propagate to that end is secretly supported and raised by darwinists at every available opportunity. to that end they even resort to the deception that darwin was himself a devout religious believer. the atheist and darwinist richard dawkins admits the existence of a darwinist lobby serving that very purpose as follows : but the fact is that evolution is in no way compatible with religion. even though darwinists do not themselves believe in allah, and make a god out of chance ( surely allah is beyond that ), are totally opposed to the fact of creation and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5449603129519143, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.310809"} {"text": ": but the fact is that evolution is in no way compatible with religion. even though darwinists do not themselves believe in allah, and make a god out of chance ( surely allah is beyond that ), are totally opposed to the fact of creation and are engaged in a struggle against it, they suddenly become the greatest exponents of the false concept that allah created the universe through evolution. yet because of their blind devotion to materialism, darwinists never accept belief in allah. being a darwinist means rejecting belief in allah. the only reason why someone supports this pagan religion, devoid of any scientific evidence, that deifies chance, is to be able to deny the existence of allah ( surely allah is beyond that ). and there is nothing that darwinists will not do to turn people away from belief in allah. that is why people must always be on their guard against this deception! in his documentary expelled : \" no intelligence allowed, \" which explains how darwinism is a false religion based on indoctrination, the journalist larry witham makes the following statement : so even though darwinists definitively oppose belief in allah, they still play this unpleasant trick on people. but the people who believe in this nasty deception fail to consider the fact that almighty allah is certainly powerful enough to create all things by a variety of means. had he wished, our lord could have created living things by way of evolution. but he did not. all living things came into being on earth in a single moment, created from nothing. not a single verse of the qur ' an points to evolution. according to the qur ' an, the universe and all living things were created by allah commanding them to \" be! \" allah has revealed, with all the divine religions he has sent to man, that he created the entire universe, that he created it with a single command and that he creates in the form he wishes. indeed, when we look at the evidence on earth, we see that creation took place just as described in the qur ' an. the fossils of all life forms are perfect. they emerged suddenly, with perfect appearances, and never changed thereafter. living things never changed over millions of years. there is no chance of life emerging from inanimate matter. it is impossible for even a single protein to form spontaneously. the idea of extraordinarily complex life forms turning into one another is totally unscientific. there is no mechanism that can endow a life form with new, beneficial information. science has revealed with incontrovertible and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5255327816154161, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.312932"} {"text": "spontaneously. the idea of extraordinarily complex life forms turning into one another is totally unscientific. there is no mechanism that can endow a life form with new, beneficial information. science has revealed with incontrovertible and certain evidence that all living things possess a glorious complexity, right down to their proteins and even atoms, that they appeared in a single moment and that they never turned into one another. therefore, the idea that allah created through evolution is a monstrous lie, and part of the darwinist deception. ( for detailed information on the subject, see, harun yahya, why darwinism is imcompatible with the qur ' an ) everything created is evidence of allah ' s infinite might. allah tells us of this sublime creation in many verses of the qur ' an : [ allah is ] the originator of the heavens and earth. when he decides on something, he just says to it, ' be! ' and it is. ( surat al - baqara, 117 ) the likeness of ' isa in allah ' s sight is the same as adam. he created him from earth and then he said to him, ' be! ' and he was. ( surat al - ' imran, 59 ) it is he who created the heavens and the earth with truth. the day he says ' be! ' it is. his speech is truth. the kingdom will be his on the day the trumpet is blown, the knower of the unseen and the visible. he is the all - wise, the all - aware. ( surat al - an ' am, 73 ) our word to a thing when we desire it is just to say to it ' be! ' and it is. ( surat al - nahl, 40 ) does he who created the heavens and earth not have the power to create the same again? yes indeed! he is the creator, the all - knowing. his command when he desires a thing is just to say to it, ' be! ' and it is. ( surah ya sin, 81 - 82 ) modern - day science shows the invalidity of the materialist - evolutionist claim. contrary to what the theory of evolution maintains, the evidence of every piece of creation that surrounds us proves that there is no room for chance in the universe. if any evidence were found on earth that allah uses evolution as his instrument in creating, and if allah had revealed such a thing in the qur ' an, then people would of course at once", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5432209649206445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.314121"} {"text": "proves that there is no room for chance in the universe. if any evidence were found on earth that allah uses evolution as his instrument in creating, and if allah had revealed such a thing in the qur ' an, then people would of course at once sign up to and espouse the idea that \" our lord created through evolution. \" but allah reveals in the qur ' an that he creates with the command \" be! \" and there are no verses suggestive of creation through evolution. moreover, there is most definitely not a single piece of scientific evidence for evolution. the facts are therefore clear. every detail emerging from an investigation of the earth and sky, and all living things, is proof of the great might and power of allah. all living things came into being from nothing at our almighty lord allah ' s command. allah certainly has no need of natural causes in order to create. ( surely allah is beyond that. ) this is the most important point that darwinists need to grasp. allah reveals in one verse that : what about the one who argued with ibrahim about his lord, on the basis that allah had given him sovereignty? ibrahim said, ' my lord is he who gives life and causes to die. ' he said, ' i too give life and cause to die. ' ibrahim said, ' allah makes the sun come from the east. make it come from the west. ' and the one who was an unbeliever was dumbfounded. allah does not guide wrongdoing people. ( surat al - baqara, 258 ) those who seek to suggest that allah creates through evolution also have to account for how the djinn and angels were created. these people are silent when the issue of the creation of the djinn and angels is raised. allah reveals the creation of djinn and angels in verses : we created mankind out of dried clay formed from fetid black mud. we created the jinn before out of the fire of a searing wind. ( surat al - hijr, 26 - 27 ) praise be to allah, the bringer into being of the heavens and earth, he who made the angels messengers, with wings \u2013 two, three or four. he adds to creation in any way he wills. allah has power over all things. ( surah fatir, 1 ) those who maintain that man and living things came into being through evolution are of course unable to account for angels, created from light, and djinn, created from fire, in terms of evolution. for people who fail", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5195414237084709, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.315739"} {"text": "fully grown ; and when i taught you the book and wisdom, and the torah and the gospel ; and when you created a bird - shape out of clay by my permission, and then breathed into it and it became a bird by my permission ; and healed the blind and the leper by my permission ; and when you brought forth the dead by my permission ; and when i held back the tribe of israel from you... \" ( surat al - ma ' ida, 110 ) the bird made from clay by the prophet jesus ( pbuh ) suddenly, by allah ' s leave and at his choosing, turned into a living, fully formed and flawless bird with wings, capable of flying, reproducing and feeding. this creation from nothing is a great miracle that darwinists can never account. and it is also proof that all living things on earth are created. all this reveals a manifest reality. darwinists, who claim that evolution does not conflict with belief in allah, are trying to inflict a huge deception on devout believers and are seeking to take improper advantage of their faith. darwinism is one of the greatest dangers to, and opponents of, belief in allah today. darwinism is the most wide - ranging and effective snare of the dajjal, who is engaged in a direct campaign against faith in allah. true believers in allah must realize this danger and engage in intensive intellectual activities against it. supporting this danger by regarding it as harmless merely strengthens it and supports a perilous movement engaged in a struggle against belief in allah. it must not be forgotten that darwinism is a false and perverse pagan religion whose sole aim is to lead people to irreligion. 177 michael j. behe, darwin ' s black box : the biochemical challenge to evolution, free press, p. 233 178 jonathan wells, the icons of evolution, january 2003, p. 202 179 ibid., p. 209 181 miller and levine, biology 182 pirves, orians, heller ve sadava, life : the science of biology 183 jonathan wells, the icons of evolution, january 2003, pp. 190 - 191 184 ben stein, expelled \" no intelligence allowed \", 2008", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5080066908657257, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.317701"} {"text": "the synthesis of peroxisomes have been identified in humans. these genes are called pex genes, and the proteins they code for are called peroxins. disorders caused by abnormalities of peroxin proteins are often called \" peroxisomal biogenesis \" disorders. the pex7 gene codes for a peroxisomal component that helps transport other important proteins into the peroxisome. the proteins to be transported contain a signal, called \" pts2 \" ( peroxisome targeting sequence 2 ) that is recognized by the receptor on the peroxisome. when pex7 is abnormal, the receptor that usually recognizes and helps transport the pts2 proteins is abnormal. thus, the abnormality of this one receptor has a cascade effect on many other proteins. rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata is quite rare. it occurs in fewer than 1 / 100, 000 births. the incidence of peroxisomal biogenesis disorders is approximately 1 / 50, 000 births ; rcdp accounts for fewer than one fifth of these. signs and symptoms \" rhizomelic \" refers to shortening of the bones near the center of the body ( the bones of the thighs and upper arms more so than the bones of the forearms and lower legs ). \" chondro \" refers to cartilage and \" dysplasia \" to abnormal development. \" punctata \" refers to specific abnormalities seen on radiological studies such as x ray. the ends of the bones near joints appear to be spotted. the spots represent dense, abnormal cartilage. the spots are also called \" punctate calcifications. \" other abnormalities include frozen joints ( called contractures ), abnormal facial features, cataracts, hearing loss, severe mental retardation, and profound psychomotor retardation. people with rcdp may also have other bone abnormalities, small heads, coarse and sparse hair, and dry, red skin. the proximal shortening of the bones causes short stature, which is apparent before birth. growth after birth is retarded as well. the rhizomelic shortening is severe, and occurs to the same degree on both sides of the body. the stippling ( spotting ) of the bones mainly involves the ends of the bones near the hip, knee, elbow, and shoulder. \" severe \" mental retardation describes cognitive deficits worse than those of typical down syndrome. some researchers have described degeneration of brain tissue after", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5450143628956058, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.333901"} {"text": "the bones mainly involves the ends of the bones near the hip, knee, elbow, and shoulder. \" severe \" mental retardation describes cognitive deficits worse than those of typical down syndrome. some researchers have described degeneration of brain tissue after birth. researchers are not sure of the reason for this ; it may be due to toxic effects of excess phytanic acid. cataracts are symmetrical and occur in both eyes. the abnormal facial features have been called \" koala bear facies. \" facial features include a broad forehead and a saddle nose. a subset of people with rcdp do not have some of the typical symptoms, such as shortening of proximal bones and / or severe mental retardation. the diagnosis in these individuals was confirmed to be rcdp. therefore, the spectrum of features in rcdp is variable ; although suspicion of rcdp is raised by the physical and radiographic features, the diagnosis is made by laboratory testing. people with rcdp have very specific biochemical abnormalities, i. e. abnormal levels of particular substances in bodily fluids. these abnormalities are due to the underlying defect in the peroxisome. the specific abnormalities are : 1 ) deficient plasmalogen synthesis with very low plasmalogen levels in red blood cells, 2 ) inability to process ( oxidize ) phytanic acid leading to elevated levels of phytanic acid in the blood, and 3 ) an unprocessed form of peroxisomal thiolase. phytanic acid levels are normal at birth and increase to at least ten times normal by one year of age. some experts recommend that confimatory studies be performed on cells obtained by skin biopsy. the biochemical studies diagnostic of rcdp can be performed prenatally on cells obtained by chorionic villus sampling ( cvs ) or amniocentesis. cvs is usually performed at 10 \u2013 12 weeks of pregnancy and amniocentesis is usually performed after 15 weeks of pregnancy. rcpd may be suspected in a fetus based on ultrasound findings. each feature of rcdp is seen in many other conditions, for example rhizomelic limb shortening is seen in other conditions that cause dwarfism. chondrodysplasia punctata is seen in many inherited conditions but can also be caused by prenatal exposure to the anticoagulant drug, warfarin. doctors who specialize in diagnosing rare genetic conditions use subtle differences between the symptoms of these", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5148891562929255, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.334924"} {"text": "- hhmi news - scientists & research - janelia farm - science education - resources & publications browse all resources by typeanimation ( 3 ) book / manual ( 4 ) cd ( 1 ) classroom activity ( 12 ) college course ( 6 ) curriculum ( 11 ) game ( 1 ) kit ( 1 ) lab ( 9 ) lesson plan ( 5 ) publication ( 23 ) software ( 3 ) tutorial ( 5 ) video ( 24 ) website ( 47 ) wiki ( 2 ) by topicbiochemistry ( 14 ) biodiversity ( 3 ) bioengineering ( 3 ) bioethics ( 3 ) bioinformatics ( 8 ) biology ( 104 ) biotechnology ( 9 ) cell biology ( 3 ) chemistry ( 17 ) earth science ( 1 ) ecology ( 9 ) engineering ( 1 ) evolution ( 10 ) general science ( 15 ) genetics ( 29 ) genomics ( 13 ) immunology ( 2 ) infectious diseases ( 1 ) life science ( 65 ) mathematics ( 9 ) medicine ( 6 ) microarrays ( 5 ) microbiology ( 3 ) molecular biology ( 34 ) neuroscience ( 7 ) physics ( 5 ) plants ( 2 ) professional development ( 35 ) research methods ( 12 ) science communication ( 2 ) systems biology ( 1 ) by grade levelk - 16 ( 1 ) 4 - 8 ( 1 ) k - 5 ( 6 ) medical school ( 6 ) k - 3 ( 2 ) k - 8 ( 2 ) k - 12 ( 9 ) 6 - 8 ( 18 ) 9 - 12 ( 52 ) college ( 101 ) graduate ( 21 ) number sense : a 1st and 2nd grade math event this curriculum, developed by the science education partnerships program at oregon state university, contains all the tools a teacher or administrator needs to organize a family math program at an elementary school. using the powerpoint presentation and timing guide available online, the speaker ( a teacher or volunteer ) leads student - parent pairs through a series of games and activities designed to develop students ' number sense and strategies for addition and subtraction. the math event focuses on listening to students ' mathematical thinking and helping parents understand how they can tailor the games to their child ' s ability level. at the end of the event, parents take home handouts, which are also available in spanish, for playing simple card games, building number sense and nurturing a \" mathematically powerful student. \" the curriculum includes templates for the games and a check - off list for organizing the event, which can be held in individual or multiple classrooms during the school day or in the evening.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5360239028580083, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.357187"} {"text": "strong tradition of non - violence or ahimsa. it believes that god is present in all nature, in all creatures, and in every human being regardless of their faith or lack of it. \u2019 dr. david frawley we hindus are always proud to hear others praise our culture. we publish them, discuss them in social circles but rarely follow the unparalleled teachings in our scriptures. lord ganesha, holy cow, worship of mountains, worship of nagas ( snakes ), tulsi and the numerous other plants and animals that form part of hindu worship are nothing but messages incorporated by wise hindu saints to teach us that we humans are part of nature and not outside it and above it. the hindu concept of brahman, the supreme soul, suggests that all animate and inanimate and all born and yet to be born are part of brahman. therefore an imbalance in a particular part will affect all other parts. the supreme being then finds out a method to transform that defective part. since brahman is present in all, it is easy to transform. and we humans might term such a transformation as the end or death or total annihilation. for the supreme soul, it is a small repair work carried out by a minute virus. mother nature is not dependent on human beings but human beings are. ancient seers knew it and therefore they worshiped nature. modern humans termed it as animism and replaced it with more refined worships. and the result of such a refined worship... \u2018 in our arrogance and ignorance we have destroyed the environment of this planet. we have polluted the oceans, we have made the air unbreathable, we have desecrated nature and decimated wildlife. but the vedantic seers knew that man was not something apart from nature, and, therefore, they constantly exhort us that, while we work for own salvation, we must also work for the welfare of all beings. \u2019 karan singh only a people \u2019 s movement can save the earth from destruction. we are armed with wise teachings of our saints. now what we need is its implementation. courtesy : quotes from vedas as found in the articles of dr. s kannan and dr. karan singh", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5356138901200113, "token_count": 455, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.369259"} {"text": "no correlation between oxygen depletion and increased pollutant concentrations. there ' s no way you ' re ever going to get the ods to go off unless you have a way oversized heater in a tiny room, he says. in a 1983 department of energy study, traynor and six other researchers, including mike apte ( author of unvented heaters : drainless sinks? he, sept / oct ' 96, p. 9 ) found that the heaters pose a potential threat to the health of occupants of houses where such appliances are used. meanwhile, a new study from the university of connecticut reports that co can cause permanent brain damage without any single traumatic poisoning. oregon, however, is like most other states where the devices are allowed. legislatures and code officials are reluctant to outlaw the vent - free heaters, for lack of conclusive evidence that they are harmful. as of march 1996, only eight states and eight canadian provinces prohibited the appliances, and codes are steadily becoming more accommodating. the tide turning? today, unvented heaters are being carefully scrutinized in california and new york. after contentious legislative battles in those states, both states ' health officials are seeking reliable sizing guidelines. they hope that by sizing the heaters correctly for the amount of ventilation in a house and for the local climate, they can keep the heaters from hurting anyone. with these developments on the horizon, in march, 1996, the gas research institute ( gri ) released what it hoped would be universally acceptable sizing guidelines. in 1997, the gri guidelines were nominated for incorporation into the ansi national safety standard for unvented gas heaters, z21. 11. 2. these proposed guidelines have turned into a lightning rod for criticism. the gri guideline has been criticized for flawed assumptions and weak science. for example, one indoor air quality researcher with the california air resources board ( carb ) says, the report assumes that a loose house has one air change per hour ( ach ), while a tight house has 0. 35 ach. but 0. 35 ach is probably about average for the good new houses being built in california today, and we often see houses much tighter than this. tom greiner ( author of the case of the co leak : solving the mysteries of carbon monoxide exposure, he nov / dec ' 97, p. 21 ) adds, no attention whatever is paid to a ' worst - case ' or even a less than favorable [ ventilation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.526091406593585, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.395623"} {"text": "of the case of the co leak : solving the mysteries of carbon monoxide exposure, he nov / dec ' 97, p. 21 ) adds, no attention whatever is paid to a ' worst - case ' or even a less than favorable [ ventilation ] scenario. the gas industry traditionally uses worst - case scenarios, and then adds additional safety factors when designing equipment or developing standards. greiner also criticizes the gri assumption that the heaters will be used at most four hours at a time. he cites a homeowner who uses an unvented heater all the time, but calls it a supplemental heater because it heats only part of the house. ken giles of the consumer product safety commission ( cpsc ) agrees. in the burn belt of the south, he says, unvented heaters have traditionally been used as primary heat for many homes without central heaters. the cpsc recommends that indoor heaters not be used while residents are asleep, and produces safety brochures encouraging homeowners to use co alarms. the new york state research and development authority ( nyserda ) produced a peer - reviewed critique of the gri standard. among other things, it criticizes the gri ' s indoor air quality guideline of 0. 5 ppm ( parts per million ) for nitrogen dioxide. no international, federal, or state guidelines that have been adopted are as high as 0. 5 ppm. if an air quality guideline of 0. 25 ppm is used for nitrogen dioxide, air quality will quickly reach unacceptable levels for homes in climates with more than 2, 000 heating degree - days. some such climates include mild santa barbara, california ; st. louis, missouri ; and washington, d. c. the nyserda report also criticized the gri ' s science. the heater sizes recommended, it says, are larger than the heater sizes which were used to calculate indoor air contaminant levels. potential moisture problems are cited by stuart brooks, an architect with energy design associates incorporated of eagle river, alaska. in his eight years at the alaska energy programs office and since then in private practice, he has encountered several unvented heaters. they do create a large condensation problem for houses here in the anchorage area, as well as carbon shadowing on walls and ceilings, he says ( see black stains in houses : soot, dust, or ghosts, p. 15 ). while the vent - free alliance ' s video vent - free iaq research states that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5506947228594594, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.396775"} {"text": "as well as carbon shadowing on walls and ceilings, he says ( see black stains in houses : soot, dust, or ghosts, p. 15 ). while the vent - free alliance ' s video vent - free iaq research states that a humidity level of 60 % is desirable, brooks says that in very cold weather, more than 40 % continuous relative humidity is almost a surefire level of condensation problems. icing on windows, not just condensation, becomes a problem. it is too early to tell whether criticisms of the proposed ansi standard will affect california ' s and new york ' s sizing guidelines. but regardless of what guidelines eventually prevail, one source familiar with california ' s indoor air quality politics points out, it ' s dubious whether sizing standards could be enforced. after all, the heaters are sold as do - it - yourself retrofits at large retailers nationwide. when customers buy and install their units, they may use whatever size they feel fits their needs. crisis or annoyance? for all the problems, there is no epidemic of deaths caused by unvented heaters. even a harsh critic at carb says the current standards, combined with the ods, are likely to prevent fatalities. the vent - free alliance claims that such heaters have caused no fatalities since the ods was first required in the early 1980s. the consumer products safety commission logged over 15 co poisoning events, including 10 fatalities, from unvented gas heaters between december 1994 and january 1997. some of the poisonings were clearly caused by new heaters, but it is unclear whether the fatalities were caused by pre - ods heaters. some manufacturers have experimented with including co detectors with their unvented heaters, but this is not even being considered as part of the revision to the ansi standard. weisner still suffers from reduced stamina and dizziness that were not present before her poisoning. however, because she was not seriously disabled, she has been unable to find an attorney willing to sue fmi. they think the prospective award would be too small to pay the necessary expert witnesses. but with millions of unvented heaters now installed nationwide, she feels it ' s only a matter of time before more people are poisoned. it could have been my grandchildren, she adds. | back to contents page | home energy index | about home energy | home energy can be reached at : email @ example. com - first page - previous page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5136022235751712, "token_count": 502, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.397922"} {"text": "\u201d ( 242 ). teachers tend to use one instructional approach at the expense of all others, and to be honest, i have seen some hostility among teachers regarding this issue. teachers who prefer direct instruction tend to see teachers who favor constructivism as irresponsible, unknowledgeable, lazy, and at worst, dangerous. it is not unheard of to hear that constructivists are the downfall of education as we know it, and don \u2019 t you know, education was so much better before these hippie yahoos came along and changed it all. on the other hand, i see constructivists characterize teachers who favor direct instruction as dour, boring, and punitive. in other words, they are the entire reason why kids hate school, and if they just weren \u2019 t teaching, why think of all we could change! in fact, i think we call all admit there are times when we want to learn things ourselves using a constructivist approach, and i don \u2019 t know about you, but i have certainly listened to some fascinating lectures. the point of the chapter is not necessarily to advocate one method of instruction over another, but to emphasize that what method you choose needs to be based upon what your desired results are. all of a sudden the necessity for backward design \u201c clicks. \u201d how can you figure out whether lecture or a socratic seminar would be best if you don \u2019 t know what you want the students to understand? in the words of bob the nutrition unit designer, \u201c what is the best use of our limited time together? \u201d this should be the mantra of teachers planning instruction. the two pages of formative assessment techniques are well worth some study ( 248 - 249 ). i like the index card summary idea. one of my colleagues uses hand signals with good results. actually, her approach is slightly different from that of the book. she asks students to hold up one finger for one answer, two for another, and three for a third. it \u2019 s a very quick way to engage all the students and see who understands and who doesn \u2019 t. i tend to rely too much on discussion, which means if you talk a lot in class, i know what you know. i need to utilize methods of \u201c hearing \u201d from silent students more often ( and not necessarily calling on them more often, although that would help ; students are sometimes intimidated and afraid to say \u201c i don \u2019 t get it \u201d ). i want to put a question box in my room, too. i think i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5043411458838809, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.433677"} {"text": "##ity. in sharp contrast to the former soviet union and the united states, recent chinese foreign policy has not been devoted to advancing any higher international ideological interests such as world communism and are generally cynical about the motives of nations, particularly the united states, who claim that they are motivated by higher goals such as spreading freedom, democracy and justice. this cynicism partially comes from chinese thinking in which ideology is secondary to advancing national interest. in this sense, chinese foreign policy makers may be seen to adhere to the realist rather than the liberal school of international relations theory. while this cynicism strikes many as selfish, others have pointed out that the \" selfish \" nature of chinese foreign policy has made chinese foreign policy extremely flexible and also prevents china from involving itself in the affairs of other nations on ideological grounds. still others point out that in an era of increasing scarcity such selfishness will breed international altercations. in much of the 20th century, chinese foreign policy was based on a sense of victimhood ( of centuries - long western and japanese colonialism ) and a determination to fight back perceived humiliations. at the start of the 21st century, there appears to be a shift in chinese foreign policy and calls from within china to reduce its victim mentality ( \u5fc3, shouhaizhe xintai ) and recognize that with a generation of economic growth, that china has begun to fulfil its ambitions of becoming a great power once again and should adopt a great power mentality ( \u5927 \u56fd \u5fc3, daguo xintai ) to use its power responsibly and optimistically. these ideas form part of the new security concept which is china ' s vision for the post - cold war era in which nations interact economically and diplomatically for mutual benefit and avoid forming exclusive alliances and / or blocs. modern foreign policy in recent years, china ' s communist leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and the prc has sought a higher profile in the un through its permanent seat on the united nations security council and other multilateral organizations. closer to home, the prc has made efforts to reduce tensions in asia ; it has contributed to stability on the korean peninsula, cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the association of southeast asian nations ( asean ) ( brunei, myanmar, indonesia, laos, malaysia, philippines, singapore, thailand, vietnam ), and participated in the asean regional forum. in 1997, the asean member nations and the people ' s republic of china, south korea and japan agreed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5032234518315671, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.459130"} {"text": "be checked through alliances with second tier powers such as russia or the european union. this assessment of united states power was reconsidered after the united states intervention in kosovo, and as the 20th century drew to a close, the discussion among thinktanks in china involved how to reorient chinese foreign policy in a unipolar world. this discussion also occurred in the context of china ' s new security concept which argued that the post - cold war era required nations to move away from thinking in terms of alliances and power blocs and toward thinking in terms of economic and diplomatic cooperation. the shift away from a balancing strategy could be seen in china ' s actions after the september 11, 2001 attacks, the united states invasion of iraq, and the accession of hu jintao. although there were some initial fears that american intervention in afghanistan and iraq would lead to an increase in american power and the encirclement and tighter containment of china, the actual consequence was a shift in focus by the united states to the middle east, which resulted in a desire to avoid crises in east asia. after the september 11, 2001 attacks, the blue team in the united states which argued that china was the largest security threat to the united states became much more muted. china was instrumental at brokering talks with north korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by china to improve relations with the asean nations and form a common east asian market. these foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as china ' s peaceful rise. much of the new diplomatic activity appears to be the result of a change in china ' s self - image. with the accession of the fourth generation of chinese leaders, china appears to be seeing itself less as a victimized developing nation, but rather more as an assertive but responsible regional power. in 2005, there has been talk of the european union lifting its arms embargo, however the united states has objected to this.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5346432842693386, "token_count": 400, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.462578"} {"text": "foods for special dietary uses. \u201d codex alimentarius committee on codex general standard for labeling of and claims for foods for special dietary uses ( 1985 ). - certain additional provisions were required for labeling medical foods. specifically, medical foods must label the energy value and the content of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, and if applicable, amino acids or essential fatty acids. osmolality and acid - base balance, where appropriate, must also be on the label. report of the sixteenth session of the codex committee on nutrition and foods for special dietary uses, alinorm 89 / 26. national policy and regulatory medical foods developments - defines a \u201c food for special dietary use \u201d as a food that has been specially processed or formulated to meet the particular requirements of a person : ( a ) in whom a physical or physiological condition exists as a result of a disease, disorder, or injury ; or ( b ) for whom a particular effect, including but not limited to weight loss, is to be obtained by a controlled intake of food. 9. 9 foods for special dietary use [ division 24, fdr ] - compiles european union rulings and resources relating to foods for special medical purposes. - vitamin - mineral amendments, pub. l. no. 94 - 278 ( 1976 ) - prohibited the fda from classifying vitamin and mineral supplements as drugs based solely on their combinations or potency, unless drug claims were made. the legislation also incorporated fda \u2019 s 1941 definition of special dietary use into the food, drug, and cosmetic act. - federal food, drug, and cosmetic act, pub. l. no. 75 - 717, \u00a7 201 ( f ), ( g ), 52 stat. 1040, 1041 ( 1938 ), as amended 21 u. s. c \u00a7 321 ( f ), ( g ) ( 1982 ) - medical foods were regulated as drugs prior to 1972 according to federal food, drug, and cosmetic act, 21 u. s. c. 321 ( g ) ( 1 ) ( b ). - orphan drug act, pub. law. 97 - 114 ( 1983 ) - congress amended orphan drug act to formally define a medical food in 1988 ; reaffirmed in 1992, and again in 1996. - nutrition labeling and education act of 1990 and subsequent amendments give the fda authority to require nutrition labeling of most packaged foods regulated by fda and requires all nutrient claims and health claims meet fda regulations. the legislation incorporated the definition of medical foods from the federal food, drug", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.508442548931437, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.607225"} {"text": "climate clinic : libdem conference professor kevin anderson : point of no return without immediate action, catastrophic and irreversible climate change is surely on its way. that is why december ' s summit in copenhagen is so important monday 21 september 2009 the importance of the international climate summit to be held in copenhagen later this year cannot be over - emphasised ; 2009 is literally a make - or - break year in terms of climate - change negotiations. after almost two decades of increasingly heated debate on how to tackle climate change, and notwithstanding the current recession, emissions of global greenhouse gases \u2013 from energy use, agriculture, deforestation and industrial processes \u2013 are rising at a faster rate now than they have done throughout our history. as we enter the second decade of this new millennium, the international community is faced with a very clear and stark choice : to cut emissions urgently and radically, or to lock the next and future generations into \" dangerous climate change \". for far too long now, scientists, politicians, the media and the public, while broadly accepting the science and implications of climate change, have stubbornly refused to acknowledge the scale of rising emissions. so while the rhetoric of low - carbon action has been notched up year after year, the reality is that collectively we have been on a high - carbon binge. unfortunately, most of the emissions we have put into the atmosphere over the 17 years since the earth summit in rio and the 12 years since the start of the kyoto process, will remain there for another century \u2013 added to, year on year, by our increasingly carbon - profligate lifestyles. it is this cumulative nature of emissions, whereby the concentration of greenhouses gases builds up in the atmosphere, combined with our abject failure even to curtail emissions ' growth rate, that has brought us to this political tipping point. either our politicians step up to the plate in copenhagen and agree to implement an immediate reversal in emissions trends, or we consciously accept a continued and rapid build - up of emissions in the atmosphere with all the implications that entails. we no longer have the luxury of lengthy negotiations such as those associated with the kyoto protocol. as for the scale of reductions necessary, again here we have all been party to downplaying the severity of the issue and are now faced with the consequences of this delusion. in this regard i and my colleagues in the scientific community are particularly responsible. for too long we have, with notable exceptions, been reluctant to spell out clearly the true implications of our analysis, instead couching our conclusions as challenging", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5069967673839788, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.617539"} {"text": "of this delusion. in this regard i and my colleagues in the scientific community are particularly responsible. for too long we have, with notable exceptions, been reluctant to spell out clearly the true implications of our analysis, instead couching our conclusions as challenging but politically palatable. however the scientific climate congress held in copenhagen earlier this year, as a prelude to the political event in december, witnessed a sea - change in attitude among many in the scientific community. the message to policy - makers, businesses and the public is unambiguous. radical reductions are needed now to give us even a small chance of avoiding the 2\u00b0c threshold between \" acceptable \" and \" dangerous \" climate change. putting this into everyday language, the wealthy, oecd, nations need to reduce their total emissions by at least 40 per cent by 2020, including emissions from aviation and shipping, and without buying emission reductions from poorer nations. complete decarbonisation of the oecd ' s energy system needs to be in place by 2030. however these figures may be massaged, such reduction rates are incompatible with the current framing of economic growth. new low - carbon technologies are available, but for them to dominate our energy system will take at least two decades, time we simply don ' t have, as in the interim our emissions continue to build up in the atmosphere. only once our energy system is carbon - free and our meat - eating substantially curtailed can we again consider seriously having a growing economy \u2013 provided it can be reconciled with the other demands of sustainability. however, even such draconian reductions by the oecd nations leave only limited opportunities for the poor and less - wealthy nations to continue to increase their emissions. consequently, while emissions in these nations will rise as their welfare improves, this rise needs to be kept to a minimum through comprehensive low - carbon technologies and policies. ultimately, all nations across the globe will need to establish carbon - free societies over the coming few decades, completely counter to the rapid emission growth we have experienced since 2000. while much of this rise has been driven by the newly industrialising nations of china and india, the problem to which they are now contributing is one caused by our emissions and to which we still are a major contributor. according to the department of food and rural affairs ( defra ), absolute uk emissions have risen by 18 per cent since 1990, and show no clear of signs of bucking this trend in the near term. the recent and much - heralded us waxman - markey bill requires no reductions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5278388948690731, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.618847"} {"text": "this page is now located at an updated please update your bookmarks! the new address is posted below. you will be redirected to the new page in just a few seconds. catharine cox miles ( may 20, 1890 - october 11, 1984 ) - stanford university ( b. a., 1911 ) - stanford university ( m. a. in german language and literature, 1913 ) - stanford university ( ph. d., 1925 ) - under lewis terman - spent a year at the university of jena and the university of berlin ( 1914 ) - instructor to full professor, the college of the pacific ( 1915 - 1920 ) - chief psychologist for the central mental hygiene clinic in cincinnati general hospital, the children \u2019 s hospital, and the diagnostic center of the veterans bureau ( 1925 - 1927 ) - research associate to terman on the project leading to the construction of the terman - miles m - f test at stanford university ( 1927 - 1932 ) - clinical professor of psychology, yale university ( 1932 - 1953 ) - sole - authored volume 2 of terman ' s genetic studies of genius - calculated iq estimates for 301 historic geniuses - estimated the correlation between iq and eminence - assessed 67 character traits for 100 historic geniuses - determined the early mental and physical health of 282 geniuses ideas and contributions catharine cox entered the stanford \u2019 s graduate program in psychology about the time that her mentor terman was beginning his ambitious longitudinal study of intellectually gifted children. because this project did not afford her with the suitable opportunity for a dissertation subject, she proposed a complementary investigation. whereas terman \u2019 s inquiry was psychometric and prospective, cox would conduct a study that was historiometric and retrospective. in particular, she would estimate iq scores for highly eminent but deceased creators and leaders and then show that these scores correlated with eminence measures that j. m. cattell ( 1903 ) had previously provided. just one year after publishing the stanford - binet intelligence scale terman ( 1917 ) had already shown how an iq score might be computed for a historical figure, in his case assigning an iq of near 200 to francis galton. cox \u2019 s approach was extremely conscientious and methodical. using more than 3, 000 biographical sources she carefully compiled developmental histories for 301 geniuses, and then she and a team of independent raters \u2013 including terman and florence goodenough \u2013 used these data to derive the iq estimates. in addition, she showed that estimated iq correlated with achieved eminence. furthermore,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5295875240127258, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.625337"} {"text": "301 geniuses, and then she and a team of independent raters \u2013 including terman and florence goodenough \u2013 used these data to derive the iq estimates. in addition, she showed that estimated iq correlated with achieved eminence. furthermore, for a subset of 100 geniuses she computed ratings on 67 character traits. on the basis of these scores she was able to conclude that motivation, determination, and persistence were also critical to high achievement. the resulting doctoral thesis was sufficiently impressive that terman had it published as volume 2 in his genetic studies of genius. not only was this the only volume that did not involve the longitudinal study of his \u201c termites, \u201d but it is also the only volume that did not include terman as an author or co - author. at 842 printed pages, it can easily be considered the most ambitious historiometric investigation ever published. moreover, many of her key findings have been replicated in subsequent research. unfortunately, cox was soon diverted from this work by ( a ) her collaboration with terman on a masculinity - femininity measure and ( b ) her marriage to walter miles ( a recent widower with two teenagers ). she also started publishing under her married name miles rather than cox. however, a decade later she returned to the historic geniuses that were the subject of her thesis. miles and wolfe ( 1936 ) specifically scored the geniuses on early mental and physical health. their aim was to show that intellectual giftedness was also positively associated with both mental and physical well - being. cox. c. ( 1926 ). the early mental traits of three hundred geniuses. stanford, ca : stanford university press. miles, c. c. ( 1928 ). a human clock. journal of general psychology, 1, 602 - 603. miles, c. c., & terman, l. m. ( 1929 ). sex difference in the association of ideas. american journal of psychology, 41, 165 - 206. miles, c. c. ( 1931 ). the otis s - a as a fifteen - minute intelligence test. personnel journal, 10, 246 - 249. miles, c. c. ( 1931 ). individual mental hygiene. in b. s. dyment ( ed. ). health and its maintenance ( pp. 159 - 192 ). stanford univ. : stanford univ. press. miles, c. c., & miles, w. r. ( 1932 ). the correlation of intelligence scores and chronological age from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5174334065329026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.626345"} {"text": "health and its maintenance ( pp. 159 - 192 ). stanford univ. : stanford univ. press. miles, c. c., & miles, w. r. ( 1932 ). the correlation of intelligence scores and chronological age from early to late maturity. american journal of psychology, 44, 44 - 78. miles, c. c ( 1934 ). influence of speed and age on intelligence scores of adults. journal of general psychology, 10, 208 - 210. miles, c. c. & wolfe, l. s. ( 1936 ). childhood physical and mental health records of historical geniuses. psychological monograph, 47, 390 - 400. miles, c. c. ( 1938 ). intelligence and social adjustment. mental hygiene, 22, 544 - 566. terman, l. m., & miles, c. c. ( 1936 ). sex and personality. new haven, ct, us : yale university press. rogers, k. b. ( 1999 ). the lifelong productivity of the female researchers in terman \u2019 s genetic studies of genius longitudinal study. gifted child quarterly, 43, 150 - 169. sears, r. r. ( 1986 ). catharine cox miles ; 1890 - 1984. american journal of psychology, 99, 431 - 433. simonton, d. k. ( 2009 ). the \" other iq \" : historiometric assessments of intelligence and related constructs. review of general psychology, 13, 315 - simonton, d. k., & song, a. v. ( 2009 ). eminence, iq, physical and mental health, and achievement domain : cox \u2019 s 282 geniuses revisited. psychological science, 20, 429 - 434. written by prof. dean keith simonton, university of california - davis, with contributions by meihua qian, indiana university. home | interactive map | alphabetic index | time hot topics | map - pdf | references | contributors | comments for further information please contact content questions : dr. jonathan plucker ( jonathan. plucker at uconn. edu ) 16 may 2013", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5580835305473457, "token_count": 435, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.627200"} {"text": "protecting yourself from cybercrime ( bpt ) - gone are the days when hackers were the weekend enthusiasts you tolerated on the golf course, when viruses were the things that gave you the flu or a cold, and phish was a popular jam band who served as the inspiration for your favorite flavor of ben and jerry ' s. with the rise of the internet and electronic devices has come the rise of cyber - related crime. cybercrime, as it is called, is defined as a criminal activity using computers or other electronic devices to victimize people, organizations or businesses. \" despite a global recession, improved security and international crackdown efforts, cybercrime has thrived over the last decade, growing by double digits year after year, \" says clint kirkwood, a professor of criminal justice at argosy university, orange county and 28 - year veteran and retired commanding officer of the vice section of the narcotics division of the detroit police department. while estimates of the cost of cyber crime to businesses and the private sector vary, a 2011 publication released by javelin strategy and research, the annual cost of identity theft alone was $ 37 billion. \" today, some of the most successful criminals do not have to leave the comfort of their own homes to pull off crimes bigger than ever. all they need is an internet connection, a little tech savvy and a lot of bad will, \" says kirkwood. the internet crime complaint center received more than 300, 000 complaints in 2011, which included such crimes as fbi - related scams, identity theft, advance fee fraud and a host of romance, work - from - home, auto auction, loan intimidation and other scams. \" since the take - off of social networking and the paperless way of conducting business, cyber - based criminal activity has skyrocketed in many corners of the world, \" says gary gonzales, a professor in the criminal justice program at argosy university, san diego and police detective in his 16th year of service with the san diego police department. \" criminals are masking themselves as potential customers, clients or even professionals to lure innocent people into a web of deception and greed. from copyright infringement and cyber bullying to child pornography and spamming, the impact is enormous. \" knowing the threats you face online and the tools available to help you keep a watchful eye is critical in protecting yourself in the digital world. there are simple precautions that computer, mobile phone and other digital users can take to ensure their safety. do not open emails / attachments from unknown or suspicious", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5584647925823704, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.683555"} {"text": "[ jahsonic. com ] - [ next > > ] related : ego - individual - person - self consciousness - self medication - self injury - self - referentiality - identity - the total, essential, or particular being of a person ; the individual : an actor ' s instrument is the self ( joan juliet buck ). - the essential qualities distinguishing one person from another ; individuality : he would walk a little first along the southern walls, shed his european self, fully enter this world ( howard kaplan ). - one ' s consciousness of one ' s own being or identity ; the ego : for some of us, the self ' s natural doubts are given in mesmerizing amplification by way of critics ' negative assessments of our writing ( joyce carol oates ). - one ' s own interests, welfare, or advantage : thinking of self alone. - immunology. that which the immune system identifies as belonging to the body : tissues no longer recognized as self. - - american heritage dictionary in philosophy, the self is the idea of a unified being which is the source of an idiosyncratic consciousness. moreover, this self is the agent responsible for the thoughts and actions of an individual to which they are ascribed. it is a substance, which therefore endures through time ; thus, the thoughts and actions at different moments of time may pertain to the same self ( see john locke ' s theory of consciousness as the basis of personal identity ). as the notion of subject, the \" self \" has been harshly criticized by nietzsche at the end of the 19th century, on behalf of what gilles deleuze would call a \" becoming - other \". to another person, the self of one individual is exhibited in the conduct and discourse of that individual. therefore, the intentions of another individual can only be inferred indirectly from something emanating from that individual. the particular characteristics of the self determine its identity. - - http : / / en. wikipedia. org / wiki / self _ % 28philosophy % 29 [ feb 2006 ] the self is a key construct in several schools of psychology. usages differ between theorists and fields of study, but in general the self refers to the conscious, reflective personality of an individual. the study of the self involves significant methodological problems, especially concerning consciousness. some of these are taken up in philosophy of mind and metaphysics. a psychological school of thought focused on the self was originally proposed by heinz kohut ( 1913 - 1981 ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6011442849263395, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.688262"} {"text": "188. 688. 01 global sustainability & health seminar students and faculty discuss the causes, consequences, and implications of key global environmental challenges that we are facing and that are likely to become more challenging over time. specifically addresses how land use ( e. g., patterns of urban growth and suburban sprawl ), energy use, food production and distribution, water use, and population growth are causing climate change, ecosystem degradation, biodiversity losses, species extinctions, and other resource depletion, and how all this is in turn is a threat to human health as individuals, in communities, and globally. focuses on discussion and not lectures and will utilize a mix of movies, guest discussants, and student directed discussions. this seminar will prepare students to : 1 ) define the aspects of land use, energy use, food production and distribution, water use, and population growth that contribute to environmental degradation. 2 ) analyze how peak petroleum ( aka \" after peak oil \" ), political obstacles, economic interests, and federal indebtedness influence how we address these issues. 3 ) define how the \" drivers \" in # 1 above cause climate change, ecosystem degradation, species losses, biodiversity losses, and other resource depletions. 4 ) begin to develop an analytic framework for how we should address these issues to prevent the major health risks they present. - thursday 12 : 00 - 1 : 20 global environment and public health, 180. 611. 01", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5448320280134943, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.693736"} {"text": "caroline apprend a nager elle prend des lecons de in a coordinate plane, the points ( 2, 4 ) and ( 3, - 1 ) are on a line. which of the following must be true? 1. the line crosses the x - axis. 2. the line passes through ( 0, 0 ). 3. the line stays above the x - axis at all times. 4. the line rises from the lower left to the upper right.... x = 2 is that right ms. sue? i will spell algebra correctly from now on thanks for your help. solve the equation 15 ( x + 3 ) = 75 sorry mr. reiny i could not find the page where i had asked the question on sunday when i went back to look, thanks for the link and the answer. please show me step by step how to make a table of solutions for the equation, and then use the table to graph the equation. y = 2x - 1 who was the best president make a table of solutions for the equation, and then use the table to graph the equation. just graph one of them. y = 2x - 1 how do i make one, may i use microsoft excel? sorry mr. reiny, i guess i should of figured that out since you are so smart at doing the math problems. i do not have an option key on my windows 7 keyboard but i bet there is another way i can do the underline thing. thanks again for taking time out of your day to help us ma... thanks reiny, you assumed correct, how did you get the line under the greater than sign? you are a very smart and kind woman to have been such a great help, thanks! for further reading", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5049178800827236, "token_count": 358, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.696574"} {"text": "in kansas and throughout the northern midcontinent area, excepting parts of oklahoma and arkansas, definition of the lower limit of pennsylvanian rocks is one of the most evident in the rock succession ( fig. 3 ). not only are the types of sedimentary rocks on opposite sides of the boundary very dissimilar generally, but there is evidence of pre - pennsylvanian erosion of the underlying strata and varyingly prolonged break in sedimentation. the basal pennsylvanian rocks rest on different parts of the mississippian succession, from high in the system down to the bottom - most beds, and at many places, both at the outcrop in missouri and in the subsurface of kansas and nebraska, the pennsylvanian overlaps on to pre - mississippian rocks. the oldest pennsylvanian deposits in most of this territory are clearly much younger than rocks classed as belonging to the system elsewhere. accordingly, there is no problem in marking the base of pennsylvanian strata in the kansas region. figure 3. diagrammatic east - west section of rocks in kansas showing prominent unconformity at base of the pennsylvanian system. the section, drawn on the base of the kansas city group as a datum, shows essential conformity of succession from pennsylvanian into permian parts of the section. ( after moore, am. assoc. petroleum geologists ; data from section by betty kellett, kansas geol. soc., 1932. ) a larger version of this figure is available. definition of the boundary between rocks classed as pennsylvanian and permian in the kansas region has led to much debate and disagreement. ulrich ( 1911, p. 376, pl. 26 ) proposed to avoid the difficulty by not recognizing permian at all and by defining as pennsylvanian all of the rocks between mississippian and triassic. this procedure might be defended on the basis of the stratigraphic succession in the midcontinent area, but it is evidently unsuited to world - wide application. because beds having pennsylvanian and permian fossils lie parallel and are seemingly conformable in kansas and adjoining states, attempts to define the base of the permian in this area have been based chiefly on study of fossils. consideration has been given also to lithologic features and the desirability of selecting a convenient cartographic datum. judgment has been generally expressed that any adopted boundary is measurably arbitrary. the general tendency during the 90 years since permian deposits were first recognized in kansas and in north america as a whole has been to lower", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.504418291041334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.723414"} {"text": "to use on the starboard! - fractions - list of fraction websites - fun 4 the brain - lots of fun activities for math. addition, subtraction, etc. - fun brain measurement activity - learn more about measures. - funbrain - - geometric shapes and tanagrams - - geometry - 2nd grade - egames - robopacker - geometry - interactive tangrams - - geometry - perimeter and area - - geometry - symmetry - level 3 - volume1 - - geometry - tanagrams - - geometry - 2nd grade - icy slides, flips, and turns - home school math - great activities for area and perimeter. - ixl - 3rd grade math skills - numbers and comparing, place value, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, graphs, measurement, etc. - ixl - math practice site - practice makes perfect, and ixl makes math practice fun. with unlimited math questions in more than 1, 000 topics, students improve their skills and confidence and always have new challenges to meet. - interactive clock - mrs. jenkins found this website! - lemonade stand ii - - map math - - math facts - - math play - at math play you can find a wide variety of fun games that you can play online. most games are suitable for elementary and middle grades. they are organized by grade level, content, and game type. - math word problems - - math - grade 2 - addition, subtraction and multiplication - mr. wolf ' s interactive math games - - multiplication quizzes online - - multiplication. com - this site contains the techniques, tips, and secrets used by master teachers! - place value activities - - primary games - math - - robo packer game - - shodor interactivate - interactive activies in math and science - stop the clock five - army time - drag the five digital times to the correct analog clock. then press stop the clock to record your time. - stop the clock three - drag the five digital times to the correct analog clock. then press stop the clock to record your time. - think central math - - virtual manipulatives : fraction tiles - fraction tiles are a good way for students to explore and understand how parts make up a whole. teachers and parents can utilize this resource when giving a lesson on fractions with students. content by web master, mrs. matherly, kmatherly @ cusd15. k12. il. us last revised fri apr 19 6 : 56 : 26", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5260464506700553, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.780148"} {"text": "scientists have discovered ancient pockets of water, which have been isolated deep underground for billions of years and contain abundant chemicals known to support life. scientists have developed a new valve \u2014 made from zirconia \u2014 used to restore vocal function for patients with throat cancer. it lasts eight times longer than silicone valves. a new design tool interprets hand gestures, enabling designers and artists to create and modify three - dimensional shapes using only their hands as a \" natural user interface \" instead of keyboard and mouse. carbon aerogels can absorb organic solvents and oils up to 106 to 312 times its own weight because of its high porosity and hydrophobility. this makes it an ideal candidate for cleaning up oil spills. scientists have reported the development of an \u201c exceptionally \u201d effective new retardant that works in two ways and appears to be safer and more environmentally friendly. announcements at google ' s sixth annual conference for software developers included new features for online games, maps and search, a new music - streaming service and enhancements to its google plus social network, including tools for sharing and enhancing photos. engineers have combined layers of flexible materials into pressure sensors to create a wearable heart monitor thinner than a dollar bill. researchers have found that the key to purple bacteria \u2019 s light - harvesting prowess lies in highly symmetrical molecules. colorful vegetables are promoted as key to a healthy diet, but white vegetables, especially potatoes, shouldn ' t be forgotten. the navy, for the first time, launched an unmanned aircraft the size of a fighter jet from a warship in the atlantic ocean. a surprising new report questions public health efforts to get americans to sharply cut back on salt, saying it ' s not clear whether eating super - low levels is worth the struggle. a new report assesses the state of high - field magnet science, engineering and technology in the u. s. and finds it very strong. tuber processing giant j. r. simplot co. asked the u. s. government to approve five varieties of biotech potatoes that resist browning and are designed to produce lower levels of potentially cancer - causing acrylamide when fried. nanometer - scale alloys possess the ability to emit light so brightly they could have potential applications in medicine. researchers are considering the brain \u2019 s superior ability to send electrical signals along massively parallel channels : if a supercomputer was like a brain it would learn, adapt, hypothesize and then suggest answers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5323386021953741, "token_count": 496, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.792546"} {"text": "introduction for the teacher to prepare yourself spiritually to teach this lesson, please read and ponder the following : the holy ghost is a member of the godhead, along with heavenly father and jesus christ. he is a personage of spirit ( see d & c 130 : 22 ). the mission of the holy ghost is to testify of the father and the son and of the truth of all things ( see 3 nephi 11 : 36 ; moroni 10 : 5 ). he can also guide us to make righteous choices and comfort us ( see d & c 31 : 11 ). the way the holy ghost speaks to us is described in the scriptures as a \u201c still small voice \u201d ( see 1 kings 19 : 11 \u2013 12 ). begin with a gathering activity. for ideas, see page 3. invite a child to give the opening prayer. tell the children that you are going to sing a song about heavenly father. sing or say the words to the first verse of invite the children to say \u201c spirit. \u201d tell them that another name for the spirit of god is the holy ghost. invite the children to say \u201c holy ghost. \u201d explain that the holy ghost helps us know that heavenly father loves us. tell the children that when we do what is right, the holy ghost helps us know we made a good choice. invite the children to join you as you role - play doing things that are right. for example : it \u2019 s the right thing to go to church. let \u2019 s pretend to walk to church ( swing arms as you walk in a circle ). repeat with other examples, such as sharing a toy, helping mother sweep the floor, and so on. explain that the holy ghost can also help us when we are afraid. tell the following story : one day there was a bad storm outside david \u2019 s house. there was loud thunder ( have children cover their ears ) and lots of wind ( have children blow to mimic the wind ) and rain ( have children mimic the rain with their fingers ). david was afraid. his mother told him that when she is afraid she prays to heavenly father ( show the picture on page 30 ). david and his mother prayed that heavenly father would keep them safe. then david felt safe and happy. his mother said that heavenly father had sent the holy ghost to give him those feelings so he wouldn \u2019 t be afraid. invite the children to say \u201c holy ghost. \u201d share your testimony of the holy ghost. this could include a simple, brief experience from your own life when you were guided", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.523654565688971, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.815538"} {"text": "easyli done! series tutorials all easyli done! series tutorials are designed to accomplish specific tasks on a step - by - step basis! two computers together to share files using a crossover cable to setting up a secured wireless network connection, these online tutorials are extremely easy to follow. although all tutorials were put together with the novice user ( beginner ) in mind, advanced users will find a few tricks to put to use also, such as ' how to force windows to shutdown ' when it just won ' t shutdown normally. before downloading or using any content or software on this site, please read the end user license agreement did you know? if you access the internet without having a firewall turned on, your computer could be attacked by hackers, viruses, spyware and adware. you should at least have a software - based firewall installed on your computers and turned on, before making the connection to the internet. the best internet protection you can get for computers is a hardware - based firewall, also known as a router. routers hide your computers from the internet by implementing network address firewalls provide excellent protection against many viruses, adware, hackers, spyware and malware programs, by preventing those types of malicious programs from being able to automatically download themselves from the internet onto computers. malicious programs are able to infect computers that do not have a firewall installed on them, by scanning the computers for open ports, and once an open port is found, the malicious program automatically downloads itself onto that computer through that open port. firewalls block open ports and prevent malicious programs from being able to get into computers. did you know? firewalls can block you from accessing the internet! firewalls are great, but if not properly configured, they can cause many problems. for instance, games that used to work fine begin to start crashing ( freezing ) the computer, problems sending and receiving e - mail begin to surface, and problems viewing web pages ( ' the page cannot be displayed... ', ' cannot find server... ' ) if you are experiencing problems after installing the mcafee personal firewall plus, walkthrough the tutorial below and learn how to configure the firewall so that it does not cause any further problems on your computer or network of computers. follow the steps below to configure the mcafee personal firewall", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5084183032287852, "token_count": 496, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.849389"} {"text": "challenges to india \u2019 s patent regime : pharma industry the works of the founder of the states, law givers tyrant destroyers and heroes cover but narrow spaces, and endure but for a little time, while the work of the inventor though of less pomp is felt everywhere and last forever. ( francis bacon ) a patent is an exclusive right granted to a person who invented a new article or an improvement of an existing article or a new process of making an article. it consists of an exclusive right to manufacture the new article invented or manufacture an article according to the invented process for a limited period. object of patent law : the object of granting a patent is to encourage and develop a new technology and industry. an inventor may disclose the new invention only if he is rewarded, otherwise he may work it secretly. thus the theory upon which the patent system is based upon is that the opportunity of acquiring exclusive rights in an invention stimulates technical progress in four ways : \u2022 that it encourages research and invention \u2022 that it induces an inventor to disclose his discoveries instead of keeping them as trade secret ; \u2022 that it offers the reward for the expenses of developing invention to the stage at which they are commercially practicable ; and \u2022 that it provides an inducement to invest capital in new lines of production which might not appear profitable if many competing producers embark on them simultaneously ; value of patent system : some controversy exists as to precise extent of the contributions made by the patent system to the economic development of a country. but the adoption of some kind of the patent production for inventions in all most all countries, and the ever increasing number of applications for patents received by the patent offices in all industrially advanced countries is an indication of the universal recognition of the value of the patent system. most of the inventions and discoveries made in technology in all fields are published in the patents specifications field in the patent offices of different countries. a world wide exchange of technical information has been made possible only by the publications of such patent specifications. in a sense patents have assumed an international character. the increasing number of applications for patents from foreigners received in almost all countries in recognition of fact. attempts are being made from time to time by international associations for the protection of individual property and to introduce more and more uniformity and harmonization among national patents systems. the international convention for the protection of industrial property ( paris convention ) and gatt and trips agreement are examples of attempts at harmonization of the law of patents & other forms intellectual property. main provisions associated with trips agreement the trips consistent indian patent law addressed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5765632057204344, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.869426"} {"text": "the international convention for the protection of industrial property ( paris convention ) and gatt and trips agreement are examples of attempts at harmonization of the law of patents & other forms intellectual property. main provisions associated with trips agreement the trips consistent indian patent law addressed three important issues relating to patent of products : i ) adoption of definition of \u201c pharmaceutical substance \u201d ; ii ) exclusion of \u201c mere discovery of a new form of known substance \u201d and \u201c new use for a known substance \u201d ; and ( iii ) protecting the interests of those who are already producing the products which may be granted patent protection in the new regime. the patent regime adopted in trips by the developed countries is somehow of the capitalists nature and it prioritizes the profit motive over the social responsibilities. in continuation to these discrepancies, trips also rule out any discrimination between the technological sectors and advocates the same protection for all the technological inventions fulfilling the criteria. even after the acceptance of the trips agreement, the following five major areas still controversial for both the parties to the trips : 1 ) iprs and access to medicines, 2 ) iprs, community property rights and indigenous knowledge, 3 ) iprs and biodiversity, 4 ) iprs, biotechnology and agriculture, 5 ) ipr policy and trade. there is no doubt that \u201c product patent regime \u201d have spurred the r & d for diseases - notably, those with the lucrative potential market in the industrialized world. however, trips has failed and will continue to fail to stimulate sufficient r & d for diseases that primarily affect poor countries. trips had forced all the developing countries to switch over to product patent regime from process patent regime and hence, restrict the access of the cost effective essential medicines to their people. challenges to patent regime in india india enjoys several strengths amongst others developing and least developing countries, particularly, in case of the production of the food grains and drugs, and proudly hosts world cheapest pharma industries. even with these impressive facts, one billion indians, spend the same amount on medical drugs per year as seven million men and women in switzerland. the amount spent on drugs here in india roughly corresponds to the profit made by a single pharma mnc \u201c novartis \u201d in a typical year. these figures are enough to reflect the dying conditions of the public health services in india. it is now almost a well established fact that trips provisions have already started affecting a person \u2019 s human right to access health services ( india and the wto ) hiv / aids alone have caused death of about 3 million people in 2002, including", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5140646677616694, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.871711"} {"text": "the letter and spirit in which india transitioned into the new patent regime has been put to litmus test by novartis which sued india with the institution of a writ petition before the high court of judicature at madras. several countries praised india \u2019 s contribution to life saving drugs and requested novartis not to challenge. however, novartis filed its case with indian court at chennai and sought patentability of its product gleevac filed under emr provisions on the grounds alleging : ( i ) illegality in procedure adopted and also the text of 3 ( d ) of the act which was in violation of article 27 ( 1 ) and 27 ( 2 ) of trips agreement ; ( ii ) arbitrariness by the controller general of patents & designs, chennai and ignoring rationality underlying articles 253 and 51 ( c ) of the indian constitution whereby national laws are required to be harmonized with international treaties ; ( iii ) provision relating to discovery of \u201c new form \u201d contained in 3 ( d ) is illogical and against the concept of patents which encourages innovation and intervention by rewarding the person associated with such acts beneficial for society ; ( iv ) deliberate incorporation after approval of its product gleevac under the earlier prevailing emr provisions resulted in disturbing the level playing field laid under the act in compliance with conditionality under trips agreement. the technical expert group on patent law issues with mr. mashelkar as it \u2019 s chairman ( mashelkar committee ) submitted its report to the government of india on its terms of reference which favoured incremental modifications / innovations for qualifying for the grant of patent as new chemical entities ( nce ). several ngos opposed the case filed by novartis and urged the doctors and medical professionals to boycott its products in india. the indian court rejected the plea of novartis on patent of gleevac for violation of trips agreement. this patent case is considered to be a threat to developing nations and the treatment of aids patients will be seriously impaired if novartis ultimately succeeds in obtaining favourable award on its patent matter from the higher courts in india revival of yoga and impact of baba ramdev baba ramdev revived pranayama which acts as the best medicine involving rhythmic control of breath through bodily exercises and awakens divine powers essential for curing disease and enabling creation of \" disease free society - medicines free world \". yoga pranayama & the ayurvedic & herbal medicines used at baba ramdev \u2019 s yoga camps have scientifically proved to provide cure for most of the diseases including : ( i ) control &", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5042562623971047, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.876455"} {"text": "written by jonny williamson lubricants are used across many industries throughout the world, predominantly to cool tools and parts from overheating and breaking by reducing friction and carrying away debris. industrial processes such as drilling, turning, grinding, cutting and milling all benefit from lubricants, often made from 90 percent mineral oils. there are a number of drawbacks to using mineral oils ; it isn \u2019 t an ideal way to dissipate heat caused by friction, it is flammable and it does carry some health concerns, not to mention the fossil oil comes from a finite resource. the safe use, handling and eventual disposal of mineral oil lubricants can amount to a constant drain on a manufacturers finances, so a global focus has been on finding an alternative. + more from manufacturing digital - web elements manufacturers need in the digital age - mas reports shows uk manufacturing is on the rise - manufacturers need more government support says survey researchers from the fraunhofer institute for process engineering and packaging ivv, in the german town of freising, have carried out two tests where lubricating oils were replaced with water. dr. michael menner, a fraunhofer researcher, said : \" at ivv here in freising, we have been looking at the issue of cooling lubricants for some considerable time. in two projects, supported by the federal ministry of education and research, we have successfully replaced oil with water. \u201d to enable the water to act as a sufficient lubricant, additives were added to better simulate the performance of oil. another researcher, andreas malberg, who also worked on both studies, commented : \u201c the additive is a biopolymer, a product you can buy wherever you want. \u201d malberg was not able to state the name of the exact biopolymer employed by the researchers, but what is known is that it acts as a thickening agent. the standard viscosity of water is 1mpa, but the addition of the agent raises it to 40mpa, similar to that of oil. the further addition of a water - soluble additive enabled the enhanced water to have the extra benefit of providing anti - corrosive properties. aside from the water - based lubricant having a much lower environmental impact, components and machines which use the lubricant are easier to clean, health and safety concerns are eliminated, and the cost of companies having to convert is relatively inexpensive, the alternative lubricant has already won the german raw", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5538760704470794, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.931261"} {"text": "yes - of course it does. without \" random \" in front choice is an attribute with no object. i didn ' t actually do it, but thats what would happen - \" choice is not defined blahblah \" is that the same as saying its not a \" global namespace \"? i ' d have to consult a reference book to be 100 % sure. i ' m not certain how a pure object oriented language treats namespaces compared to a procedural language ( ie, c + + is both procedural and oop - i need to do a review for example, in c + + you explicitly state your namespaces - in 99 % of cases students do this by adding a line ' using namespace std ; ' ( std = standard ) near the top of their file, which is frowned upon with most real projects. by doing this they don ' t have to put the namespace std in front of functions defined in std. cout < < \" hello \" < < endl ; / / prints hello std : : cout < < \" hello \" < < std : : endl ; / / prints hello now say you have a special cout function that prints ascii numbers instead of the letters to the console. you can define a namespace in your file called manta and do this.... manta : : cout < < \" hello \" < < std : : endl ; / / prints 90 88 96 96 99 ( just guessing the ascii values ) in practice, namespaces are used in procedural languages to avoid name clashes. when a project gets large enough, you start running out of good descriptive variable names, so it is better to create seperate namespaces and reuse these descriptive names instead of resorting to complicated naming gyrations. \" it looks to me like random might be a static class with static methods, hence, no need to instantiate anything. \" yes - a very good way to say it. how come the texts don ' t say that? got me - maybe i should write a book. this is just what i think is happening... i ' d have to consult python. org to be sure. do java and c + + have modules? please describe or give a definition to me for that. no. java has the following.... packages - groups of related classes form a package. example : javax. swing is the package for the swing classes example : java.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5261957579040162, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.934538"} {"text": "modules? please describe or give a definition to me for that. no. java has the following.... packages - groups of related classes form a package. example : javax. swing is the package for the swing classes example : java. lang contains the core classes of the java language classes - you know what these are.... math is a class containing fields and methods related to math jbutton is a class for instantiating a button in swing and you can create your own packages.... there are a few rules for doing this. in c + +, which supports both procedural and oop, the main library is called the stl - standard template library, which uses the namespace std like i showed you above. instead of using a package, c + + has a keyword called friend - imo, friends are the most unfriendly thing i ' ve seen in any language and i much prefer java ' s use of packages. my language class didn ' t cover python - c + +, java, ada, lisp, fortran, prolog, cobol and some others - here is what one of the tutorials says... you can use a module to organize a number of python definitions in a single file. < snip > a package is a way to organize a number of modules together as a unit. python packages can also contain other packages. so python has both modules and packages where it looks like a module is a related to group of classes and functions, and a package is a related group of modules and other packages. here is a link that i think will explain it in detail.... i plan on reading it later tonight.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5571927354384231, "token_count": 349, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.935215"} {"text": "grief is a collection of feelings that everyone experiences when there are losses in their lives. grief is not the same as depression. it can come from any type of loss. the loss of a relationship can cause feelings of grief. many people grieve when they realize that they have lost some of their physical abilities due to agin... mcphersonsentinel - mcpherson, ks updated mar. 15, 2013 @ 10 : 52 am updated mar. 15, 2013 @ 10 : 52 am \u00bb social news grief is a collection of feelings that everyone experiences when there are losses in their lives. grief is not the same as depression. it can come from any type of loss. the loss of a relationship can cause feelings of grief. many people grieve when they realize that they have lost some of their physical abilities due to aging, injury or disease. some may grieve over past friendships or even when they retire and lose their identity as a worker. the most common cause for grief is the death of a spouse, child, parent, friend or pet. when someone very close to you dies it may initially feel as if you will never be happy again. you may experience many emotions including anger, anxiety, loneliness, guilt, helplessness and sadness. sometimes people report feeling numb at first. all of these feelings are normal. you may even have good and bad days when you are grieving. it is normal to have times of laughter and happiness during the grieving process. sometimes grief can turn into depression or what is referred to as \" complicated grief. \" if grief turns into depression, the feelings of despair and emptiness become constant. loss of motivation, hopelessness, fatigue, withdrawal, and difficulty concentrating are also signs of depression. people with complicated grief get stuck in the feelings and don ' t move on, deny the death, become preoccupied with the person who died, or avoid things related to the person. completing the grief process is important because it can help you to recognize and adapt to the reality of the loss and to live a healthy life without the person who died. there is no right way to grieve or a set time to complete it. all losses are unique and reflect the quality of the relationship with the deceased, the characteristics of the griever, prior experiences with loss, and the circumstances of the loss. a loss that occurs as a result of a prolonged illness will be different from the grief resulting from a sudden death. grief from a sudden death may be more intense since there has been no opportunity to prepare for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5369156582569655, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.943746"} {"text": "loss, and the circumstances of the loss. a loss that occurs as a result of a prolonged illness will be different from the grief resulting from a sudden death. grief from a sudden death may be more intense since there has been no opportunity to prepare for the loss. grief resulting from the death of a child is different than that from death of a parent. some people try to avoid the painful feelings of grief by keeping very busy and pretending that they are all right. failure to address the feelings that come with the normal grieving process can prolong the grief process and possibly lead to depression later. the grief process involves recalling a collection of memories and stories about the person that died. it may involve talking and writing about the good and bad memories about your time with the person. it is common to have regrets about things that you believe you should have said or done and you will need to let go of them. grieving means allowing yourself to acknowledge, experience, and release the many feelings that occur when you lose someone. grief recovery can be defined as acceptance of the death of a loved one and return to your previous healthy level of functioning. a sign that you have completed the grief process may be the ability to increasingly choose happiness and smile when you remember the person. just as an injured body gradually weaves itself back in a whole, death of a loved one tears at the spirit but grieving allows it to heal. david gannon, ph. d., psychological and family consultants, canton, ohio.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.534183140643835, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.944491"} {"text": "this article is - freely available bacterial bio - resources for remediation of hexachlorocyclohexane pilot plant of industrial and microbiological processes ( proimi ), conicet, av. belgrano y pasaje caseros, 4000 tucuman, argentina natural sciences college and miguel lillo institute, national university of tucuman, miguel lillo 205, 4000 tucuman, argentina north university of saint thomas aquines, 9 de julio 165, 4000 tucuman, argentina biochemistry, chemistry and pharmacy college, national university of tucuman, ayacucho 471, 4000 tucuman, argentina these authors contributed equally to this work. * author to whom correspondence should be addressed. received : 6 september 2012 ; in revised form : 29 september 2012 / accepted : 17 october 2012 / published : 15 november 2012 abstract : in the last few decades, highly toxic organic compounds like the organochlorine pesticide ( op ) hexachlorocyclohexane ( hch ) have been released into the environment. all hch isomers are acutely toxic to mammals. although nowadays its use is restricted or completely banned in most countries, it continues posing serious environmental and health concerns. since hch toxicity is well known, it is imperative to develop methods to remove it from the environment. bioremediation technologies, which use microorganisms and / or plants to degrade toxic contaminants, have become the focus of interest. microorganisms play a significant role in the transformation and degradation of xenobiotic compounds. many gram - negative bacteria have been reported to have metabolic abilities to attack hch. for instance, several sphingomonas strains have been reported to degrade the pesticide. on the other hand, among gram - positive microorganisms, actinobacteria have a great potential for biodegradation of organic and inorganic toxic compounds. this review compiles and updates the information available on bacterial removal of hch, particularly by streptomyces strains, a prolific genus of actinobacteria. a brief account on the persistence and deleterious effects of these pollutant chemical is also given. keywords : organochlorine pesticides ; \u03b3 - hexachlorocyclohexane ; bioremediation ; streptomyces genus article statisticsclick here to load and display the download statistics. notes : multiple requests from the same ip address are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5012352250296805, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.948706"} {"text": "pesticides ; \u03b3 - hexachlorocyclohexane ; bioremediation ; streptomyces genus article statisticsclick here to load and display the download statistics. notes : multiple requests from the same ip address are counted as one view. cite this article mdpi and acs style alvarez, a. ; benimeli, c. s. ; saez, j. m. ; fuentes, m. s. ; cuozzo, s. a. ; polti, m. a. ; amoroso, m. j. bacterial bio - resources for remediation of hexachlorocyclohexane. int. j. mol. sci. 2012, 13, 15086 - 15106. alvarez a, benimeli cs, saez jm, fuentes ms, cuozzo sa, polti ma, amoroso mj. bacterial bio - resources for remediation of hexachlorocyclohexane. international journal of molecular sciences. 2012 ; 13 ( 11 ) : 15086 - 15106. alvarez, analia ; benimeli, claudia s. ; saez, juliana m. ; fuentes, maria s. ; cuozzo, sergio a. ; polti, marta a. ; amoroso, maria j. 2012. \" bacterial bio - resources for remediation of hexachlorocyclohexane. \" int. j. mol. sci. 13, no. 11 : 15086 - 15106.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5076288903538264, "token_count": 323, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.949234"} {"text": "from our 2012 archives young puzzle - solvers may be tomorrow ' s engineers latest healthy kids news friday, march 2 ( healthday news ) - - playing with puzzles when they ' re 2 to 4 years old can help children develop better spatial skills, a new study indicates. spatial skills refers to the ability to think about objects in three dimensions. university of chicago researchers examined the interaction between 53 pairs of children and parents, and found that children who played with puzzles between 26 and 46 months of age had better spatial skills when they were 54 months old. the researchers also found that : higher - income parents tended to encourage their children to play with puzzles more often ; boys played with more complicated puzzles than girls ; and parents of boys used more spatial language during children ' s puzzle play and were more engaged in puzzle play than the girls ' parents. \" the children who played with puzzles performed better than those who did not, on tasks that assessed their ability to rotate and translate shapes, \" psychologist susan levine, an expert on mathematics development in young children, said in a university news release. she noted that this type of ability is an important predictor of children choosing science, technology, engineering and math courses, degrees and careers later in life. the study was published online in the journal developmental science. \" further study is needed to determine if the puzzle play and the language children hear about spatial concepts is causally related to the development of spatial skills - - and to examine why there is a sex difference in the difficulty of the puzzles played with and in the parents ' interactions with boys and girls, \" levine said. - - robert preidt copyright \u00a9 2012 healthday. all rights reserved. source : university of chicago, news release, february 2012 get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox free!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.535616813300719, "token_count": 363, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.962002"} {"text": "sudden dietary changes, weaning, cold, drafts, dampness, dust, high levels of ammonia, poor ventilation in general, and the mixing of widely divergent age groups all play a role in respiratory disease in groups of animals. stress and mixing of animals from several sources should be avoided or minimized. establishing individual animal identification, making accurate clinical and postmortem diagnoses, and maintaining a record system of diagnosis and treatment are important to minimize or control outbreaks of pneumonia. transportation over long distances is another stress factor that plays a major role in the pathogenesis of respiratory infections in large animals. immunization can help control respiratory infection. however, control may be compromised by improper timing, use of ineffective or inappropriate vaccines, or overwhelmingly negative management practices. in most cases, severe insults to the natural defenses cannot be reversed later by therapeutic agents and biologicals. the mucosal surfaces of the respiratory tract contain lymphoid follicles that exchange cells with other parts of the body. however, most of the lymphocytes in the respiratory lining produce only iga, whereas the cells in the lymph nodes of the respiratory tract produce igm and igg. depending on the agent involved, various cell - and antibody - mediated immune responses occur in the respiratory tract and include opsonization, agglutination, immobilization, neutralization of toxins and viruses, blockage of adherence to cells, lysis, and chemotaxis. variation in the type of immune response occurs because of age, species, and the means to respond to specific virulence mechanisms of the pathogens involved. species vary in the type of immune response available at different sites in the respiratory tract. large antigen droplets may immunize the upper tract with iga, but small replicating particles may be necessary to immunize the lower tract. to develop adequate antibody levels to protect the lungs, repeated doses of antigen plus adjuvant, or a replicating antigen, are often necessary. these results are seldom achieved under field conditions ( eg, many field trials using respiratory vaccines in cattle have not demonstrated statistically significant efficacy ). environmental management is an essential part of therapy in allergic respiratory diseases. for example, clinical signs in horses with heaves ( recurrent airway obstruction ) or cattle with hypersensitivity pneumonitis may be effectively controlled by preventing exposure to molds present in hay. last full review / revision march 2012 by ned f. kuehn, dvm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5032336353485002, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.966459"} {"text": "both wearing pfds, row a boat around a 100 - yard course that has at least two turns. demonstrate forward strokes, turns to both sides, and backstrokes. - a. identify five different kinds of aircraft, in flight if possible, or from models or photos. - b. ride in a commercial airplane. - c. explain how a hot - air balloon works. - d. build and fly a model airplane. ( you may use a kit. every time you do this differently, it counts as a completed project. ) - e. sketch and label an airplane showing the direction of forces acting on it ( lift, drag, and load ). - f. make a list of some of the things a helicopter can do that other kinds of airplanes can ' t. draw or cut out a picture of a helicopter and label the parts. - g. build and display a scale model airplane. you may use a kit or build it from plans. 7. things that go - a. with an adult ' s help, make a scooter or a cubmobile. know the safety rules. - b. with an adult ' s help, make a windmill. - c. with an adult ' s help, make a waterwheel. - d. make an invention of your own design that goes. 8. cub scout band - a. make and play a homemade musical instrument - cigar - box banjo, washtub bull fiddle, a drum or rhythm set, tambourine, etc. - b. learn to play two familiar tunes on any musical instrument. - c. play in a den band using homemade or regular musical instruments. play at a pack meeting. - d. play two tunes on any recognized band or orchestra instrument. - a. do an original art project and show it at a pack meeting. every project you do counts as one requirement. here are some ideas for art projects : cub scout art belt loop # 2, or pin # 2, # 4, # 5, # 6, # 7, # 8, # 9, # 10, or # 11 - mobile or wire sculpture - acrylic painting - watercolor painting - clay sculpture - silk screen picture - b. visit an art museum or picture gallery with your den or family. cub scout art pin # 1 - c. find a favorite outdoor location and draw or paint it. cub scout art belt loop # 2 or pin # 11 cub scout art pin # 11 - a. make a simple papier - mache mask. -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5105859530357076, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:39.980242"} {"text": "bilberry fruit has been used in traditional european medicine for nearly one thousand years. due to its tannin content, it is used internally to treat acute diarrhea, particularly in children, and externally to treat mild inflammation of oral mucous membranes. bilberry is used as a component in a few astringent tea preparations. fruit preparations are used to treat microcirculatory disorders, which include varicose veins, atherosclerosis, venous insufficiency, and degenerative retinal conditions, such as macular degeneration, glaucoma, and cataracts. possible mechanisms of action for its effects on ophthalmic conditions include its ability to protect against the breakdown of rhodopsin ( retinal purple ), a light sensitive pigment located in the rods of the retina, and its ability to regenerate rhodopsin. it may also provide vasoprotection by decreasing capillary fragility and permeability. several human clinical studies have been found in the literature investigating possible new uses for bilberry, particularly visual dysfunctions, including those caused by impaired microcirculation and diabetes mellitus. bilberry fruit preparations have been investigated for their effects on vision acuity in dim light, on patients with pigmentary retinitis when taken with beta - carotene, on night vision in normal subjects, on patients with diabetic retinopathy when taken in combination with beta - carotene, on patients with significant hemeralopia ( diminished vision in bright light ), on patients with macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal inflammation, or retinitis pigmentosa, and on patients with progressive myopia. additional studies also investigated bilberry ' s effects on the progression of cataract formation in patients. bilberry fruit extracts may offer relief for vascular disorders including capillary weakness, venous insufficiency, and hemorrhoids. it is also used as a secondary treatment for spasmodic colitis. bilberry fruit contains high concentrations of tannins, substances that act as both an anti - inflammatory and an astringent. the latter quality in particular may help wounds heal more quickly. bilberry is believed to help people with diarrhea by reducing the intestinal inflammation associated with the condition. a close relative of the cranberry, bilberry fruits contain flavonoid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5268631356726357, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.014785"} {"text": "what is bipolar disorder? bipolar disorder, or manic depression, is a medical illness that causes extreme shifts in mood, energy, and functioning. these changes may be subtle or dramatic and typically vary greatly over the course of a person \u2019 s life as well as among individuals. over 10 million people in america have bipolar disorder, and the illness affects men and women equally. bipolar disorder is a chronic and generally life - long condition with recurring episodes of mania and depression that can last from days to months that often begin in adolescence or early adulthood, and occasionally even in children. most people generally require some sort of lifelong treatment. while medication is one key element in successful treatment of bipolar disorder, psychotherapy, support, and education about the illness are also essential components of the treatment process. what are the symptoms of mania? mania is the word that describes the activated phase of bipolar disorder. the symptoms of mania may include : - either an elated, happy mood or an irritable, angry, unpleasant mood - increased physical and mental activity and energy - racing thoughts and flight of ideas - increased talking, more rapid speech than normal - ambitious, often grandiose plans - risk taking - impulsive activity such as spending sprees, sexual indiscretion, and alcohol abuse - decreased sleep without experiencing fatigue what are the symptoms of depression? depression is the other phase of bipolar disorder. the symptoms of depression may include : - loss of energy - prolonged sadness - decreased activity and energy - restlessness and irritability - inability to concentrate or make decisions - increased feelings of worry and anxiety - less interest or participation in, and less enjoyment of activities normally enjoyed - feelings of guilt and hopelessness - thoughts of suicide - change in appetite ( either eating more or eating less ) - change in sleep patterns ( either sleeping more or sleeping less ) what is a \" mixed \" state? a mixed state is when symptoms of mania and depression occur at the same time. during a mixed state depressed mood accompanies manic activation. what is rapid cycling? sometimes individuals may experience an increased frequency of episodes. when four or more episodes of illness occur within a 12 - month period, the individual is said to have bipolar disorder with rapid cycling. rapid cycling is more common in women. what are the causes of bipolar disorder? while the exact cause of bipolar disorder is not known, most scientists believe that bipolar disorder is likely caused by multiple factors that interact with each other to produce a chemical imbalance affecting certain parts of the brain. bipolar disorder often runs in families, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5255350077804944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.032147"} {"text": "by patrick j. kiger the creators of jousting intended it as test of martial prowess and character, but math and physics also seem to play a significant role. in 2002, erik m. berg and roger l. lampe, who at the time were undergraduate science students at worcester polytechnic institute, wrote this paper in which they mathematically modeled the collision of two jousters and analyzed how the a number of different variables \u2014 ranging from the size of the knights and the muscular strength of their grip of their saddles, to the velocity their horses achieve \u2014 influence the outcome. berg and lampe found that one critical factor is the alignment of a knight \u2019 s lance, and the location and angle at which it strikes the opponent \u2019 s shield or armor. a straight - on blow that hits an opponent in the center of the torso is likely to bend his upper body directly backward. that sort of strike could shatter a lance, if the collective mass and velocity exceed the wooden shaft \u2019 s tolerance for bending. in order to unhorse an opponent and win more points, however, a knight probably needs for his lance to strike at to one side and at an angle in that direction. if delivered with sufficient force, that type of impact will cause the opponent to rotate to one side as well as backward, and create a greater strain upon his grip on his saddle and horse. the ideal target for a knight, they concluded, is the upper left part of the opponent \u2019 s armor, just far enough away from the pivot point of the opponent \u2019 s spine to achieve the maximum torque, but not so far toward the edge that the lance would strike a glancing blow off the armor and not achieve a solid hit. but another key factor in determining a victor is how strongly the knight holds on to his own horse while scoring a hit with his lance. if a knight doesn \u2019 t have a strong enough grip on his horse, when his lance strikes the opponent, he may end up being knocked out of the saddle himself. finally, assuming that both knights have a similar grip on their horses and both score hits, the critical factor seems to be who strikes first. if the black knight \u2019 s lance makes contact with the gray knight first, the gray knight will be twisted and pushed back when his lance hits the black knight. that will weaken the gray knight \u2019 s position atop his horse, and increase the chance that he will be the one who hits the ground. cookies are very small text files that are stored on your computer when you visit some websites. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5042439090992071, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.044404"} {"text": "every coin has two sides uncovering the model minority myth what group comes to mind when you read the following : top of the class, high test scores, and hard working? if you guessed asian americans, you are seeing the power of the \u201c model minority \u201d stereotype. it is true that asian americans, examined statistically as a single group, have in many ways done extraordinarily well. among the major racial and ethnic minority groups in the u. s., asian americans have the highest rate of college degree attainment, the highest number of advanced degrees, and the highest percentage of workers in high - skill occupations. because of this success, some have held asian americans out as the defining example of what it means to achieve the american dream, declaring asian americans as the \u201c model minority. \u201d yet, if we take a closer look at the numbers, they reveal a more complex side to this remarkable story. without question, the model minority myth has camouflaged the unique history and socioeconomic characteristics of widely - differing asian american and pacific islander communities. in particular, it has hidden the widespread challenges facing southeast asian and pacific islanders in the public education system. this month we explore the dropout crisis through the eyes of three sisters who attend mckinley high school in hawaii, which has the highest percentage of asian pacific islanders in the country. nea members in hawaii point to cultural and language barriers in the classroom as well as prejudice and unrealistic expectations as contributors to the academic hurdles faced by asian pacific islander students and the high school \u2019 s 15 percent dropout rate. the myth that all asian americans are high - achievers can be detrimental because it fails to address those students who need help, support, and focused resources to succeed. team nea, to continue to allow these challenges to go unnoticed and unaddressed would be irresponsible and perilous to a community that is seeking our help. in response, we are urging a number of initiatives to improve api achievement. they include expanding the research on apis by disaggregating the data and experiences of each ethnicity. this will lead to the creation of support services and instruction where they are most needed. nea also supports federal policies to ensure schools have more capacity to serve english - language learners and to ensure that there is more outreach to api parents, including bilingual support. providing every child, regardless of race, income or ethnicity, with a quality education is a basic right that our public schools and policymakers must deliver. to make this happen, we must provide all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5354633346928849, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.077572"} {"text": "gbms are the most common and most malignant of the primary cns neoplasms, representing 15 % to 20 % of these tumors. approximately half of all astrocytomas are gbms. gbm is the most common supratentorial neoplasm in adults. gbms usually occur in patients over 50 and are unusual in patients under 30. like anaplastic astrocytomas, gbms can occasionally be found at any age ; anaplastic astrocytomas and gbms are among the four most common primary brain tumors in infants and children under 2 years of age. various symptoms occur with gbm, including seizure, focal neurological deficits, and stroke like syndromes. the first symptom of a brain tumor of any type can be a headache, since these tumors act as masses within the boney skull and thus cause increased pressure in the brain. the headache associated with a brain tumor, is frequently worse in the morning and is accompanied by vomiting. other symptoms of a brain tumor can include seizures, weakness or numbness of a side or part of the body, or such subtle symptoms such as changes in mood, thinking or general state of well being. sometimes increased pressure in the brain can cause blurred, double, or lost vision. if a patient has any of the above symptoms, without any obvious explanation, further work - up is warranted. these tumors can be seen best by magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) since the degree of detail is much greater than that provided by ct scans. as with other tumors and most particularly with any of the gliomas, once a mass is confirmed by any of the imaging techniques, the diagnosis needs to be established by a biopsy of the mass. the biopsy is usually done in conjunction with aggressive resection of the tumor. the biopsy identifies the particularities of the tumor and differentiates it from other types of masses, such as infection. along with primary cns lymphoma, gbms have the worst prognosis of all primary brain tumors. gbms disseminate early, rapidly, and widely. central nervous system spread is common, but distant metastasis is rare. in selecting the treatment of high grade malignant astrocytomas, it should be kept in mind that the following three ( 3 ) statistically independent factors affect the length of survival : 1 ) age at the time of diagnosis, 2 ) histological features ( grade of the tumor and additional characteristics such as mitotic index ), and 3 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5081282293141632, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.108750"} {"text": "that the following three ( 3 ) statistically independent factors affect the length of survival : 1 ) age at the time of diagnosis, 2 ) histological features ( grade of the tumor and additional characteristics such as mitotic index ), and 3 ) performance status ( the level of the patient ' s older patients with high grade malignant brain tumors, who are in poor neurological condition at the time of surgery, do less the primary initial therapy is to gain control of the increased intracranial pressure ( icp ). often times, these patients have significant brain swelling, in addition to the presence of and as a consequence of the tumor. pre - treatment with a course of high dose intravenous steroids, may well improve the condition of the patient prior to surgery. in some cases, this may mean a strategic delay of surgical intervention for three ( 3 ) to seven ( 7 ) days. the wait can be rewarded by a far better initial outcome. aggressive surgical excision of the tumor is advocated in most patients. the goal is to reduce the maximum amount of the tumor. in some cases this may mean an extensive frontal or temporal lobectomy. when tumor is within the middle or posterior portions of the temporal lobe, the parietal or anterior or middle occipital lobe, an aggressive internal decompression of the tumor is warranted. it is imperative to understand that there are surgical limitations in the removal of these \" infiltrative \" tumors because they \" spread \" along the interconnecting fiber pathways ( tracts ) of the brain. as such, these tumors can rarely be entirely removed there are some advanced technologies that currently assist in the extent of resection. the ability of the surgeon to \" visualize \" tumor is somewhat limited. magnification of vision, intraoperative ultrasound imaging, intraoperative mri scanning and intraoperative fluorescence techniques ( see below ) are a few of the adjunctive technologies that may be available to assist maximum resection, while limiting the risk of injuring adjacent functioning fluorescence is one of the most advanced concepts for the surgical management of an infiltrative brain tumor and the only method that permits the neurosurgeon to visually identify the tumor that infiltrates brain tissue. this technique ( developed primarily in europe ) involves the ingestion of a medication ( 5 - aminolevulinic acid or \" ala \" dissolved in water ) that is taken up in certain molecules of the tumor which when subjected to a special violet - blue light beamed through the neurosur", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5584790899829606, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.109775"} {"text": "involves the ingestion of a medication ( 5 - aminolevulinic acid or \" ala \" dissolved in water ) that is taken up in certain molecules of the tumor which when subjected to a special violet - blue light beamed through the neurosurgical operating microscope actually ( \" lights up \" ) glows. once \" seen \" under the neurosurgical operating microscope, the surgeon can remove the fluorescent portion by using any of several methods. the neurosurgeons of neurosurgical consultants firmly believe that aggressive resection of the tumor, is the first definitive step in the treatment of these tumors. the surgeon may choose to reserve a small part of the tumor for tissue culture in the laboratory followed by sensitivity testing against various chemotherapeutic agents. it can be helpful to know beforehand, if a certain drug has any or limited effectiveness against this particular tumor, in this particular patient. these additional technologies have helped to improve outcomes. we now routinely culture the tumor and subject it to sensitivity testing against various chemotherapy agents prior to initiating chemotherapy. radiation therapy continues to have an important place in the treatment of most of these patients and is the standard adjunct therapy against which other treatments are compared. refinements have been made that make this treatment less toxic than in previous years. for most patients, this will be the second major treatment option, in a comprehensive therapeutic program. chemotherapy is the third arm of this comprehensive effort to prolong and maintain a high quality of life. traditional management has been to use \" standard \" forms of chemotherapy. currently there are some unconventional chemotherapeutic alternatives that offer considerable hope for improved quality and length of survival. one of our has utilized these newer medications such as temodar ( temozolamide ), avastin ( bevacizumab, an anti - angiogenesis agent ) and cpt - 11, either alone ( or more commonly ) in combination or with other drugs, to produce encouraging results. additional information regarding these treatments is available at the in some tumor cases we choose to place a special chamber called an \" ommaya reservoir \" under the scalp, with an attached catheter residing in the \" bed \" of the tumor, after resection has been completed. this permits the neuro - oncologist to instill chemotherapeutic medications directly into the tumor bed. this is a far more effective methodology than placing \" chemotherapy wafers in the tumor bed. there are several treatment concepts that have considerable interest. perhaps the most attractive is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5186747994317263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.110801"} {"text": "virtopsy : the virtual autopsy multi - slice computed tomography ( msct ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ), when used with 3 - d imaging technology, create vivid images of the interior of the human body. dr. richard dirnhoter and dr. michael thali and thier team of specialists at the university of bern ' s institute of forensic medicine, switzerland are using these new imaging technologies to develop \" virtopsy \" \u2014 a bloodless and minimally invasive \" virtual autopsy \" procedure to examine bodies for causes of death. virtopsy detects internal bleeding, bullet paths, and hidden fractures hard to find in a traditional autopsy. the msct and mri aid in picturing fracture patterns, bone and missile fragmentation, brain contusion, 3 - d bullet localization, gas embolism, and blood aspiration to the lung. unlike traditional autopsy, virtopsy does not destroy human tissue. it can be used when religious beliefs prohibit, or families object to, the cutting open of the body. the developers of virtopsy do not envision the procedure as a replacement for traditional autopsy but as a tool to be used in cases where dissection of the body is not feasible or where forensic evidence is particularly hard to visualize.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5609473328807837, "token_count": 262, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.118267"} {"text": "the nobel prize in physics 1906 joseph john thomson was born in cheetham hill, a suburb of manchester on december 18, 1856. he enrolled at owens college, manchester, in 1870, and in 1876 entered trinity college, cambridge as a minor scholar. he became a fellow of trinity college in 1880, when he was second wrangler and second smith ' s prizeman, and he remained a member of the college for the rest of his life, becoming lecturer in 1883 and master in 1918. he was cavendish professor of experimental physics at cambridge, where he succeeded lord rayleigh, from 1884 to 1918 and honorary professor of physics, cambridge and royal institution, thomson ' s early interest in atomic structure was reflected in his treatise on the motion of vortex rings which won him the adams prize in 1884. his application of dynamics to physics and chemistry appeared in 1886, and in 1892 he had his notes on recent researches in electricity and magnetism published. this latter work covered results obtained subsequent to the appearance of james clerk maxwell ' s famous \" treatise \" and it is often referred to as \" the third volume of maxwell \". thomson co - operated with professor j. h. poynting in a four - volume textbook of physics, properties of matter and in 1895 he produced elements of the mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism, the 5th edition of which appeared in 1921. in 1896, thomson visited america to give a course of four lectures, which summarised his current researches, at princeton. these lectures were subsequently published as discharge of electricity through gases ( 1897 ). on his return from america, he achieved the most brilliant work of his life - an original study of cathode rays culminating in the discovery of the electron, which was announced during the course of his evening lecture to the royal institution on friday, april 30, 1897. his book, conduction of electricity through gases, published in 1903 was described by lord rayleigh as a review of \" thomson ' s great days at the cavendish laboratory \". a later edition, written in collaboration with his son, george, appeared in two volumes ( 1928 and 1933 ). thomson returned to america in 1904 to deliver six lectures on electricity and matter at yale university. they contained some important suggestions as to the structure of the atom. he discovered a method for separating different kinds of atoms and molecules by the use of positive rays, an idea developed by aston, dempster and others towards the discovery of many isotopes. in addition to those just mentioned, he wrote the books, the structure of light (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5437562748443183, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.122369"} {"text": "separating different kinds of atoms and molecules by the use of positive rays, an idea developed by aston, dempster and others towards the discovery of many isotopes. in addition to those just mentioned, he wrote the books, the structure of light ( 1907 ), the corpuscular theory of matter ( 1907 ), rays of positive electricity ( 1913 ), the electron in chemistry ( 1923 ) and his autobiography, recollections and reflections ( 1936 ), among many other publications. thomson, a recipient of the order of merit, was knighted in 1908. he was elected fellow of the royal society in 1884 and was president during 1916 - 1920 ; he received the royal and hughes medals in 1894 and 1902, and the copley medal in 1914. he was awarded the hodgkins medal ( smithsonian institute, washington ) in 1902 ; the franklin medal and scott medal ( philadelphia ), 1923 ; the mascart medal ( paris ), 1927 ; the dalton medal ( manchester ), 1931 ; and the faraday medal ( institute of civil engineers ) in 1938. he was president of the british association in 1909 ( and of section a in 1896 and 1931 ) and he held honorary doctorate degrees from the universities of oxford, dublin, london, victoria, columbia, cambridge, durham, birmingham, gottingen, leeds, oslo, sorbonne, edinburgh, reading, princeton, glasgow, johns hopkins, aberdeen, athens, cracow and philadelphia. in 1890, he married rose elisabeth, daughter of sir george e. paget, k. c. b. they had one son, now sir george paget thomson, emeritus professor of physics at london university, who was awarded the nobel prize for physics in 1937, and one daughter. from nobel lectures, physics 1901 - 1921, elsevier publishing company, amsterdam, 1967 this autobiography / biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series les prix nobel. it was later edited and republished in nobel lectures. to cite this document, always state the source as shown above. for more updated biographical information, see : thomson, joseph john, recollections and reflections. g. bell and sons : london, 1936. j. j. thomson died on august 30, 1940. copyright \u00a9 the nobel foundation 1906 mla style : \" j. j. thomson - biography \". nobelprize. org. 22 may 2013 http : / / www. nobelprize. org / nobel _ prizes / physics / laureates / 1906 / thomson - bio. html", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5887030316942523, "token_count": 507, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.123274"} {"text": "the story of \" the lyingstones \u201d and beringer \u2019 s study of fossils and the famous beringer fossilhoax. how they train : luge time ' s sean gregory gets pushed down an ice track as he follows olympic hopeful erin hamlin while she trains for the games in vancouver. crohns disease module 8 : going to school learn what to do if youre not feeling well or wondering whether or not to tell classmates why you may be missing class. this module will address the following questions : how do we make a school aware of the illness? who do we work with to make an accommodation plan? dealing with controversial issues this program examines how social studies teachers in any grade level can encourage open and informed discussions with their students while dealing with controversial issues. topics range from stereotypes and gender \u2013 based discrimination to the conflict in the middle east. through clearly identifying issues, listening to multiple perspectives, and formulating personal positions, teachers can explore a variety of strategies that can be used to teach challenging issues such as these in thei learning as synaptic change this module presents researchers investigating the structural changes involved in learning. research conducted at the pasteur institute in paris shows that the learning process involves the formation of new brain connections and the elimination of others. other researchers dispel the myth of brain loss in aging, present evidence of changes at the cellular level, and revi perception : inverted vision the peculiar image inversion process that takes place in the normal visual system is examined in this module. the program traces the experiences of an art student who volunteers to wear lenses that invert her visual world, connecting the adaptation process she undergoes with how the visual system functions. graphic animations reinforce understanding of the mechanism invo waves, beaches and coasts this program shows the dynamic interaction of two geologic agents : rocky landmasses and the energy of the ocean. aspects of waves \u2014 their types, parts, movement, and impact on the shore \u2014 are illustrated. the program also covers shoreline characteristics, currents, sea barriers, tides, and how the greenhouse effect could impact sea level and coastal lands.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5649263946257215, "token_count": 421, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.137875"} {"text": "how to draw arms on a cartoon girl in this clip the arms are added to the character. step - by - step narration by artist danny page. english captions. ( 2 : 15 ) teaching kids about money values this how - to video gives parents ideas about how to teach kids about money values and what amount each coin and dollar represents. this is demonstrated by showing how to add the sum of the coins and dollars on a worksheet. ( 1 : 35 ) treating dyslexia. part of the series : dyslexia. treating dyslexia begins with early diagnosis and teaching at the mastery level, where a student masters a grade level of materials before pursuing the next level. ( 3 : 11 ) how to secure a wireless internet connection wireless connection should be secured so that only authorized people can access the network. find out how most wireless configuration utilties are browser - based - go to a specific web address and you will be able to access the settings. how to set up your home network the first step in setting up a home network is obtaining a router, running tests for connectivity, connecting the router to the dsl or cable modem and connecting the computer. learn about following the manufacturer ' s instructions to configure a router. computer networking tutorial - 5 - osi model data link layer this is an informative video on the data link layer of the osi model. run time 05 : 37. ten things i hate about you / taming of the shrew this is a clip from the film remake of the the shakespeare play starring heath ledger. he is serenading julia stiles ' character and can be used in a unit on persuasion or changes in plot. electrical systems current ( sv ) how does current work? find out as this teacher from dallas, texas, helps you learn. this video is in lecture format - with the teacher speaking into the camera and a dry erase board behind her. she focuses much of her time on the formulas for currents and amps. some key words include : matter, positive charge, negative charge, repel, attract, electron, coulombs, current, flow, and amp. run time 04 : 00. after oersted ' s 1820 discovery that electric currents create magnetism, it was obvious that in some way magnetism should be able to create electric currents. the discovery of electromagnetic induction, in 1831, by michael faraday and joseph henry was one of the most important of the 19th century, not only scientifically,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.524018405769885, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.142181"} {"text": ", it was obvious that in some way magnetism should be able to create electric currents. the discovery of electromagnetic induction, in 1831, by michael faraday and joseph henry was one of the most important of the 19th century, not only scientifically, but also technologically, because it is the means electromagnetic induction makes it easy and natural to generate alternating current. use of transformers makes it practical to distribute ac over long distances. although nikola tesla understood all this, thomas edison chose not to, and thereby hangs a tale. alternating current circuits obey a differential equation identical to the harmonic oscillator resonance equation how does a solenoid work? a solenoid works by having electricity flow through its copper wire that is provided by a power supply and a switch. learn how a solenoid becomes a magnet when electricity is supplied to it with information from a science teacher in this video. what is an electrical inverter? an electrical inverter is a device that can create an alternating current from a direct current, allowing the current to go backwards and forwards instead of in only one direction. find out how an electrical inverter works from a science teacher in this voltage and current, part 1 this video describes voltage, the potential difference or \" pressure \" that pushes electric charges through conductors. the kidney and nephron this is an overview of how the nephrons in the kidney filter blood and re - absorb water and other molecules. mr. khan uses computer software ( with different colors for clarification and emphasis ) to illustrate his points. sal khan is the recipient of the 2009 microsoft tech award in education. the history of roman catholicism this is a brief history of roman catholicism. it is narrated by a woman as historical pictures are flashing across the screen. drawing cartoon insects : drawing cartoon dragonflies add character to a cartoon dragonfly with a dragon - like nose. watch and learn from the artist ' s drawing. step - by - step narration by artist daniel page. english captions. ( 2 : 25 ) the pacific war - iwo jima clip ( in color ) this documentary includes rare color footage of the u. s. marines in action in the pacific during world war ii. for years the world has watched films of world war ii in black and white. now for the first time, follow alongside those who experienced the war first hand in this remarkable and moving portrait revealing never - before - seen footage shot in full color. on december 7, 1941, japan launched its attack on pearl harbor resulting in the united states being thrust", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5253142373492382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.143303"} {"text": "graduate student at the harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics ( cfa ) who first spotted the hint of the planet among the data. \" it is much smaller, cooler, and more earthlike than any other known exoplanet. \" berta added that some of the planet ' s water should be in the form of exotic materials like ice vii ( seven ) - - a crystalline form of water that exists at pressures greater than 20, 000 times earth ' s sea - level atmosphere. astronomers found the new planet using the mearth ( pronounced \" mirth \" ) project - - an array of eight identical 16 - inch - diameter rc optical systems telescopes that monitor a pre - selected list of 2, 000 red dwarf stars. each telescope perches on a highly accurate software bisque paramount and funnels light to an apogee u42 charge - coupled device ( ccd ) chip, which many amateurs also use. \" since we found the super - earth using a small ground - based telescope, this means that anyone else with a similar telescope and a good ccd camera can detect it too. students around the world can now study this super - earth! \" said david charbonneau of cfa, lead author and head of the mearth project. mearth looks for stars that periodically decrease in brightness because planets cross in front of, or transits, their stars. during such a mini - eclipse, the planet blocks a small portion of the star ' s light, making it dimmer. using innovative data processing techniques, astronomers can tease out the telltale signal of a transiting planet and distinguish it from \" false positives \" such as eclipsing double stars. nasa ' s kepler mission also uses transits to look for earth - sized planets orbiting sun - like stars. however, such systems dim by only one part in ten thousand. the higher precision required to detect these transits means that such worlds can only be found from space. in contrast, a super - earth transiting a small, red dwarf star yields a more pronounced decrease in brightness that can be detected from the ground. astronomers then use instruments like the harps ( high accuracy radial velocity planet searcher ) spectrograph at the european southern observatory to measure the companion ' s mass and confirm it is a planet, as they did with this discovery. when astronomers compared the measured radius of gj1214b to theoretical models, they found that the observed radius exceeds the model ' s prediction, even assuming a pure water planet. something more than the planet ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5267002729643739, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.182692"} {"text": "##m? id = 187 research channel interview with charbonneau about his life ' s work : / news / longurl. cfm? id = 188 david charbonneau : discover magazine ' s scientist of the year : http : / / discovermagazine. com / 2007 / dec / scientist /? searchterm = charbonneau david charbonneau, nsf ' s 2009 alan t. waterman awardee release : http : / / www. nsf. gov / news / news _ summ. jsp? cntn _ id = 114304 & org = nsf & from = news nsf and nsb pay tribute to top american scientists, including brief charbonneau statement : http : / / www. nsf. gov / nsb / news / news _ summ. jsp? cntn _ id = 114819 & org = nsf the national science foundation ( nsf ) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. in fiscal year ( fy ) 2012, its budget was $ 7. 0 billion. nsf funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2, 000 colleges, universities and other institutions. each year, nsf receives about 50, 000 competitive requests for funding, and makes about 11, 500 new funding awards. nsf also awards about $ 593 million in professional and service contracts yearly. get news updates by email useful nsf web sites : nsf home page : http : / / www. nsf. gov nsf news : http : / / www. nsf. gov / news / for the news media : http : / / www. nsf. gov / news / newsroom. jsp science and engineering statistics : http : / / www. nsf. gov / statistics / awards searches : http : / / www. nsf. gov / awardsearch /", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5340731965939033, "token_count": 402, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.184533"} {"text": "woah. death came to two digital music pioneers within just a couple of days of each other. max matthews, widely considered the father of computerized music, died on april 21st. two days later, the inventor of the compact disc, sony \u2019 s norio ohga, also passed away. in 1957, matthews, then working for bell labs, wrote a program called \u201c music, \u201d which played back synthesized sounds according to the user \u2019 s input. his work is the foundation upon which all subsequent computer music, including his own additional innovations, have been built. ohga, who led sony \u2019 s immense growth as president from 1982 through 1995, pushed for the development of the media - revolutionizing compact disc. in addition to determining the size of the disc, the classical music lover and former aspiring opera singer famously mandated the cd \u2019 s 75 - minute running time so that it would fit the entirety of beethoven \u2019 s symphony no. 9. ah, when music fans were in charge \u2026 digital music evolved greatly in the intervening years and beyond. matthews \u2019 initial forays inspired more the actual creation of synthesizer music, rather than the development of digital formats. it wasn \u2019 t until 1975 that betamax developed high - fidelity digital audio to their compact video cartridges ( ultimately falling to the competing vhs format, which quickly caught up to beta \u2019 s audio quality ). 1978 similarly saw an audio development married to a video format in the laserdisc, the first optical disc storage format available commercially, which offered unparalleled audio quality in terms of home video. however, due to the high cost of discs and players alike, along with its inconvenient size ( about that of a vinyl lp, but heavier ), the laserdisc never truly caught on. but both of these developments were important steps in the evolution of digital music. the laserdisc is essentially a giant cd and led directly to the game - changing success of that smaller format, first made available in 1982 by norio ogha \u2019 s sony. the cd itself inspired further innovations \u2014 the high definition cd and minidisc are obviously direct descendants, and digital audio tape ( dat ) owes more to the cd than the compact cassette. then around 1988, apple inc. introduced the audio interchange file format ( aiff ), a non - compressed digital file that could store pieces of audio for personal use. aiff is still widely used today by audio professionals, along with the waveform audio file format ( wav ) and digidesign \u2019 s sound designer ii ( sd", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5027703271717916, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.374083"} {"text": "symptom onset most often occurs in the sixth decade of life. symptoms may include balance difficulties, sudden falls, stiffness ( rigidity ), slowness of movement ( bradykinesia ), an impaired ability to perform certain voluntary eye movements and visual disturbances. affected individuals may also develop slurred speech, swallowing difficulties, personality changes, dystonia, sudden involuntary \" shock - like \" muscle contractions ( myoclonus ) or other abnormalities. psp usually occurs randomly for unknown reasons ( sporadically ) ; however, there are some reports of families with multiple affected members, suggesting a possible hereditary component to the disease. this degenerative disease causes poor balance leading to frequent falls. eventually there will be problems with eye movement leaving a person unable to look down or up. the disease progresses far quicker than parkinson \u2019 s and there are no specific medical treatments. this degenerative brain disorder produces the symptoms of parkinsonism. with this comes early dementia, hallucinations, a low attention span and poor problem solving skills. levodopa can make the hallucinations worse. lbd is an umbrella term for two related diagnoses. lbd refers to both parkinson \u2019 s disease dementia and dementia with lewy bodies. the earliest symptoms of these two diseases differ, but reflect the same underlying biological changes in the brain. over time, people with both diagnoses will develop very similar cognitive, physical, sleep, and behavioral symptoms. while it may take more than a year or two for enough symptoms to develop for a doctor to diagnose lbd, it is critical to pursue a formal diagnosis. early diagnosis allows for important early treatment that may extend quality of life and independence. lbd is a multisystem disease and typically requires a comprehensive treatment approach. this approach involves a team of physicians from different specialties who collaborate to provide optimum treatment of each symptom without worsening other lbd symptoms. many people with lbd enjoy significant improvement of their symptoms with a comprehensive approach to treatment, and some can have remarkably little change from year to year. some people with lbd are extremely sensitive or may react negatively to certain medications used to treat alzheimer \u2019 s or parkinson \u2019 s in addition help is a phone call away! ( 303 ) 861 - 1810", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.51383748596852, "token_count": 463, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.388833"} {"text": "what is multivitamin? multivitamins are a combination of many different vitamins that are normally found in foods and other natural sources. multivitamins are used to provide vitamins that are not taken in through the diet. multivitamins are also used to treat vitamin deficiencies ( lack of vitamins ) caused by illness, pregnancy, poor nutrition, digestive disorders, and many other conditions. multivitamins may also be used for other purposes not listed in this medication guide. many vitamins can cause serious or life - threatening side effects if taken in large doses. do not take more of this medication than directed on the label or prescribed by your doctor. if you have any medical conditions, ask your doctor before taking a multivitamin. if you have certain conditions, you may need a certain vitamin formulation or special tests while taking a multivitamin. do not take multivitamins without telling your doctor if you are pregnant or plan to become pregnant. some vitamins and minerals can harm an unborn baby if taken in large doses. you may need to use a prenatal vitamin specially formulated for pregnant women. multivitamins can pass into breast milk and may harm a nursing baby. do not use this medication without telling your doctor if you are breast - feeding a baby. avoid taking more than one multivitamin product at the same time unless your doctor tells you to. taking similar vitamin products together can result in a vitamin overdose or serious side effects. avoid the regular use of salt substitutes in your diet if your multivitamin contains potassium. if you are on a low - salt diet, ask your doctor before taking a vitamin or mineral supplement. do not take this medication with milk, other dairy products, calcium supplements, or antacids that contain calcium. calcium may make it harder for your body to absorb certain ingredients of the multivitamin. back to top seek emergency medical attention if you think you have used too much of this medicine. an overdose of vitamins a, d, e, or k can cause serious or life - threatening side effects. certain minerals contained in a multivitamin may also cause serious overdose symptoms if you take too much. overdose symptoms may include stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, loss of appetite, hair loss, peeling skin, tingly feeling in or around your mouth, changes in menstrual periods, weight loss, severe headache, muscle or joint pain, severe back pain, blood in your urine, pale skin, and easy bruising or bleeding", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5375042795604157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.441581"} {"text": "i stand at the edge of a dream, my breath a cloud. snow has transformed my familiar landscape and chilled my toes. this careless arm of the east verde where my grandchildren splashed away the summer has frozen over and snow has rendered abstract the shapes of rocks and junipers. water gleams in all its forms about me \u2014 still flowing in the stream, gathered in vapor on my breath, crystallized into snow on every hand, frozen into ice underfoot. i wish i knew the proper prayer \u2014 the light step of the ritual dance \u2014 the intonation of the chant \u2013 to offer at such a moment. instead, i kneel at the edge of the stream and study the ice, perhaps the most unlikely of water \u2019 s forms. here \u2019 s a nugget to suck on : chill any other liquid and the jittery molecules will slow down \u2014 bouncing about less as the temperature drops. eventually, the liquid will settle into a stable crystal lattice \u2014 which takes up less space than the liquid did. that \u2019 s why all other liquids most sensibly condense when they freeze. but not water, thank the lord. water \u2019 s made of one molecule of hydrogen linked to two molecules of oxygen. these amiable molecular companions actually share electrons to keep everyone happy. moreover, a water molecule has a slight positive electrical charge at one end and a faint negative electrical charge at the other end. this accounts for the nearly miraculous chemistry of water \u2014 on which life on the planet depends utterly. for starters, as water cools below 32 degrees f the molecules slip into a strange and counter - intuitive crystalline lattice. once they click into place, they actually take up about 9 percent more space than they did as a warm liquid. now, that didn \u2019 t work out so well for folks in rim country who left the water on in empty houses during the big freeze, since the expanding ice in the neglected pipes can split open even copper or steel. but water \u2019 s demented determination to expand when it ought to contract makes life on the planet possible. if water contracted as it froze, then sea ice would form at the surface every winter and sink to the bottom. over time, the oceans would freeze solid \u2014 and we could not be here. we could go on and on about the fortunate strangeness of water. for instance, the positive and negative ends of water molecules account for surface tension \u2014 so useful to water skiers, stone - skippers and water bugs. but it also explains what \u2019 s called \u201c capillary action, \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5928866843354175, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.458387"} {"text": "okay, i ' ll chime in... the purpose of reinforcement is to increase the occurrence of a behavior. one of the main principles of any learning theory ( whether it be classical or operant conditioning ) is that they, for the most part, follow aristotle ' s laws of association, of which there are four. now, many behaviorists maintain that the laws of similarity and contrast don ' t play as major a role in conditioning as do the other two : the law of contiguity and law of frequency. law of frequency is easy to understand : the higher the frequency in which two things are linked together, the more likely they are to be strongly associated. law of contiguity predicts that things that occur close together in space and time, will be more likely to be associated. now, take these laws and apply them to learning theory. the more frequently you pair food with a behavior, the more likely the organism will be to perform the behavior. why? because the behavior has, in the past, brought about an appetitive consequence. but, you have to also take into consideration the law of contiguity. things that occur together in space and time. so, if the dog gets the treat, right after it comes to you, then you are positively reinforcing that behavior. in reality, this is how many of us teach a recall to our dogs. we call dog, dog comes to us, dog gets treat! so, why would we even say that we are \" resetting \" the dog by getting it to come to us, when, in reality, you ' re just teaching it to come to you. now, is there such a thing as delayed reinforcement? yes, but there is not a ton of empirical support for the idea that it is as effective. in fact, most researchers cite skinner ' s ( 1938 ) original study using immediate reinforcement and reinforcement occurring at 2, 3, and 4 second delays in their arguments against the efficacy of delayed reinforcement. in fact, skinner found that while the rats could acquire the behavior when reinforcement was delayed ( 2, 3, and 4 seconds ), it was severely retarded as compared to immediate reinforcement. now, if we look at marker training ( which is actually referred to as a conditioned reinforcer by behaviorists ), many studies have shown that the conditioned reinforcer functions in much the same was as a primary reinforcer, where a primary reinforcer is simply a reinforcer that is inherently good, and the organism does not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5777159520697994, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.532867"} {"text": "a conditioned reinforcer by behaviorists ), many studies have shown that the conditioned reinforcer functions in much the same was as a primary reinforcer, where a primary reinforcer is simply a reinforcer that is inherently good, and the organism does not have to \" learn \" it ' s value ( the most common examples of primary reinforcers are food, water, and sex ). a conditioned, or secondary, reinforcer on the other hand is one in which the \" goodness \" of it is learned ( for example, the clicker in clicker training ) through classical conditioning ( the pairing of a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus )... however, this only occurs if the proper classical conditioning trials take place for that previously neutral stimulus. as a side note, seconary reinforcers are also the primary mechanism in our economic system ( i. e., you aren ' t born knowing that money is good, but you do learn that it can be used to get you other things, which is good ) which is basically a larger scale token economy ( commonly used in mental hospitals and prisons ). therefore, to me, you don ' t need to use this \" reset \" with a dog if you ' re also using other consequences in your training with the right frequency and contiguity... and, no, people, i ' m not simply talking about a prong collar correction... even something as simple as turning your back - negative punishment - used in conjunction with positive reinforcement can gain the behavior you want ( i ' ve done all of axo ' s training using these two consequences, and greg has even made a comment that he ' s starting to look incredible with his behaviors, all things considered ( his age, etc ) )... see, this is what happens when you catch me while i ' m writing a lecture for learning!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5126581000987691, "token_count": 383, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.534538"} {"text": "journal issue : children with disabilities volume 22 number 1 spring 2012 this issue of the future of children explores childhood disability \u2014 its prevalence, nature, treatment, and consequences. with unprecedented numbers of u. s. children now being identified as having special medical and educational needs and with the nation ' s resources for addressing those needs increasingly constrained, the topic is timely. public discussion of childhood disability, by the media, parents, scholars, and advocates alike, tends to emphasize particular causes of disability, such as autism, asthma, cystic fibrosis, or attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( adhd ). in this volume, however, we focus not on individual disabilities, but rather on cross - cutting themes that apply more broadly to the issue of children with disabilities. to this end, we commissioned a group of experts to review research on childhood disability, including its definition ( itself a challenge ), its prevalence and trends over time ( likewise ), and the costs it imposes both on the individual child and on the child ' s family. our contributors also consider disability within the context of the nation ' s educational, health insurance, and medical systems ; the impact of emerging technologies on the experience of disability ; and the definition of health care quality. the volume concludes with a discussion of the prevention of childhood disability.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5254986360571214, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.554426"} {"text": "psc provides major support for unprecedented noaa and university of oklahoma storm - forecast experiment psc improved performance of the forecast model, automated the daily runs and coordinated a dedicated high - bandwidth link. pittsburgh, may 10, 2007 \u2014 spring on the great plains brings one of nature ' s most awesome performances of fierce weather, as the may 5th weekend in kansas tragically demonstrated. many residents of greensburg, kansas credited the national weather service, which gave a half - hour advance warning, with preventing an even worse disaster. nevertheless, tornados are notoriously hard to predict, and better warnings - hours in advance, instead of minutes, with greater reliability in the prediction - could save countless lives. to that end, noaa ( the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ) this spring has mounted an unprecedented experiment in forecasting severe storms. to support it the pittsburgh supercomputing center ( psc ) has brought to bear an awesome array of technology, its cray xt3 - a lead system of the national science foundation ( nsf ) teragrid - and a dedicated high - bandwidth network link between pittsburgh and oklahoma contributed by cisco systems, inc. a major goal of the 2007 noaa hazardous weather testbed ( hwt ) spring experiment is to assess how well \" ensemble \" forecasting - a very computationally demanding approach - works to predict thunderstorms, including the \" supercells \" that spawn tornados. it is the first time ensemble forecasts, multiple runs of the same forecast model ( to measure the uncertainty inherent in weather forecasts ), are being carried out at the spatial resolution at which storms occur ( finer than operational forecasts, thereby requiring more computing ). it is also the first time ensemble forecasts are being carried out in real time in an operational forecast environment. \" ensembles have been used extensively in larger - scale models, \" said steven weiss, science and operations officer of the noaa storm prediction center ( spc ) in norman, oklahoma. \" but they have never before been used at the scale of storms. this is unique - both in terms of the forecast methodology and the enormous amount of computing. the technological logistics to make this happen are nothing short of amazing. \" collaborators in the experiment, in addition to psc and spc, are the center for analysis and prediction of storms ( caps ) at the university of oklahoma, norman ; the noaa national severe storms laboratory in norman ; lead ( linked environments for atmospheric discovery ), an nsf large information technology research grant program and teragrid science", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5034640564656137, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.581902"} {"text": "for analysis and prediction of storms ( caps ) at the university of oklahoma, norman ; the noaa national severe storms laboratory in norman ; lead ( linked environments for atmospheric discovery ), an nsf large information technology research grant program and teragrid science gateway ; and the national center for supercomputing applications ( ncsa ) in illinois, a lead teragrid resource provider. to implement caps ' daily forecast runs on psc ' s cray xt3 using the wrf ( weather research and forecast ) model, psc provided technological and staff assistance at several levels : - psc networking staff coordinated with onenet, a regional network of the state of oklahoma, and national lambda rail ( nlr ), a network initiative of u. s. universities, and with cisco systems, who contributed use of a dedicated \" lambda \" ( a 10 - gigabit - per - second optical - network ) for up to a 12 - month period. - psc implemented the lambda at its end in january, using existing equipment in the pittsburgh metro and local - area network. the backbone is provided by nlr and onenet provides the link from tulsa to norman, oklahoma. - this dedicated link - from the cray xt3 to onenet in tulsa to a supercomputer at the university of oklahoma ( which ingests and post - processes the data ) - makes possible the transfer of 2. 6 terabytes of data per forecast day. - psc staff optimized the latest version of the wrf model to run on the cray xt3, gaining a threefold speedup in input / output ( i / o ) of the wrf code, substantially improving overall performance. - psc also optimized the i / o for post - processing routines used to visualize and analyze the forecast output, achieving 100 - fold speedup. - psc modified the reservation and job - processing logic of its job - scheduling software to implement auto - scheduling of wrf runs and related post - processing, 760 separate jobs each day, demonstrating the teragrid ' s ability to use the cray xt3, a very large \" capability \" resource, on a scheduled, real - time basis. the noaa hwt spring experiment forecasts require more than a hundred times more computing daily than the most sophisticated national weather service operational forecasts. to meet this need, psc ' s cray xt3 ( 2, 068 2. 6 ghz dual - core processors, 21 teraf", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5201700456371703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.583128"} {"text": "more than a hundred times more computing daily than the most sophisticated national weather service operational forecasts. to meet this need, psc ' s cray xt3 ( 2, 068 2. 6 ghz dual - core processors, 21 teraflops peak ) is the most powerful \" tightly - coupled \" system ( designed to optimize inter - processor communication ) available via the teragrid. each night, from april 15 until june 1, caps transmits weather data to the cray xt3, which runs a 10 - member ensemble ( 10 runs of the model ) in addition to a single higher - resolution wrf run, in time to produce a forecast for the next day by morning. the forecast domain extends from the rockies to the east coast, two - thirds of the continental united states. the ensemble runs are at four - kilometer horizontal resolution, with the single wrf forecast at two kilometers. a scientific objective is to assess the value of ensemble forecasts in relation to the higher - resolution forecast, and the xt3 and the high - bandwidth link to oklahoma make it possible to do both of these demanding runs daily under real - time constraints. along with ensemble forecasts and use of the cray xt3, the dedicated lambda is also unprecedented. \" there ' s no other traffic on this lambda, \" said wendy huntoon, psc director of networking. \" this is probably the first time a lambda has been dedicated to a single research effort. all of us involved in this experiment are grateful to cisco. \" huntoon, who is also director of operations for nlr, helped to coordinate among onenet, nlr and cisco to implement the contributed lambda. \" the forecast runs at pittsburgh ship terabytes of data back to oklahoma every day, \" said ming xue, director of caps. \" it wouldn ' t be possible without this network connection. \" \" this experiment represents an enormous leap forward, \" said university of oklahoma meteorologist kelvin droegemeier, who directs lead and, as former director of caps, has led several spring forecasting experiments over the past decade. \" ensembles open up a new array of interpretative capabilities to forecasters analyzing how good the forecast is. with ensembles, you ' re not only forecasting the weather, you ' re forecasting the accuracy of the forecast. \" other parts of the experiment use capabilities developed by lead to test \" on - demand \" forecasts. these forecasts, run in response to continental u. s. forecasts that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5070361145165867, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.584487"} {"text": "weather, you ' re forecasting the accuracy of the forecast. \" other parts of the experiment use capabilities developed by lead to test \" on - demand \" forecasts. these forecasts, run in response to continental u. s. forecasts that predict severe storms, are at fine spacing ( two km ) over smaller domains where initial forecasts indicate high storm likelihood. they use teragrid computing resources at ncsa. since the mid - 90s, psc has collaborated with caps and noaa in spring experiments, and with steady advances in computational technology helped to achieve corresponding advances in the ability to predict storm - scale weather. in the last major experiment, during the 2005 season, using psc ' s lemieux, the first terascale system available via the teragrid, caps and noaa learned that with sufficient high - resolution it ' s possible, in some cases, to predict the details of thunderstorms 24 - hours in advance, a milestone in storm forecasting, suggesting that weather at this scale is inherently more predictable than previously thought. rolling thunder preview ( projects in scientific computing 2005 ) the pittsburgh supercomputing center is a joint effort of carnegie mellon university and the university of pittsburgh together with westinghouse electric company. established in 1986, psc is supported by several federal agencies, the commonwealth of pennsylvania and private industry, and is a partner in the national science foundation teragrid program.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5212181754974853, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.585904"} {"text": "understanding hyperbaric oxygen therapy hyperbaric oxygen therapy : hyperbaric oxygenation ; hyperbaric therapy ; hyperbaric medicine ; hbot ; hbo2 pronounced : hi - purr - bear - ick ox - a - jen the - ra - pee hyperbaric oxygen therapy ( hbot ) is a treatment in which a patient breaths 100 % oxygen while in a hyperbaric chamber ( pressure vessel ) at a barometric pressure greater than sea level. the dosage of oxygen is increased proportional to the increase in chamber pressure ; i. e. breathing 100 % oxygen at 3 atmospheres absolute pressure is the equivalent of getting 300 % oxygen. the air we breathe each day has 21 % oxygen. most chambers are capable of pressurizing to 1. 5 to 3 times normal atmospheric pressure. the hyperbaric physician determines what pressure the chamber needs to go to for any given treatment. see conditions we treat. there are two main types of hyperbaric chamber. monoplace : single patient, chamber pressurized with 100 % oxygen, patient directly breaths the ambient chamber oxygen. some units offer intermittent air breaks. multiplace : multiple patients, attendant ( s ) accompany patient, chamber pressurized with air, patient breaths 100 % oxygen via a breathing circuit. air breaks are done by removing patient from breathing circuit. p / sl has a multiplace chamber. reasons for hyperbaric therapy hyperbaric oxygen therapy has been used to treat many health problems, including : - an air bubble ( embolism ) which gets into the circulatory system and blocks blood flow - decompression sickness, which can occur when divers or miners come to the surface too quickly - carbon monoxide poisoning - wound healing, especially in patients with poor circulation - radiation therapy injuries following treatment for cancer - skin grafts, flaps, or burns what to expect during hyperbaric oxygen therapy prior to procedure - wear comfortable clothes. - bring a book or an activity that you can do in the chamber. - you will be asked to change into hospital provided clothing. - you will be seen by the technical, nursing and physician staff. during hyperbaric treatment depending on your medical condition you will either sit or lie down. along with the possibility of other patients in the chamber, you will always be accompanied by a hyperbaric staff person. an outside technician will gradually pressurize the chamber. you will be able to talk to the inside attendant who will instruct you to : - relax and breathe normally. - follow ear", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5087217552620955, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.593380"} {"text": "rearing dairy replacements on the atherton tableland, queensland. i. effect of suckling system, bucket feeding and protein supplementation australian journal of experimental agriculture and animal husbandry 17 ( 84 ) 25 - 30 ninety - six calves, born between october 1973 and march 1974, were either bucket fed once daily on a commercial milk replacer, or multiple suckled at four calves cow - 1 with either free or limited access ( two calves in the morning and two in the afternoon ). bucket reared and limited access suckled calves were supplemented ad libitum with either maize or a 5 : 1 maize, bloodmeal mix. free access suckled calves received ad libitum maize or were unsupplemented. weaning was at 56 days of age. growth rates of calves from birth to eight weeks were 0. 36, 0. 44 and 0. 47 kg day - 1 for the bucket fed, free access suckled and limited access suckled calves respectively. major differences in growth rate occurred from birth to four weeks of age. growth rate of calves with free access suckling from four to eight weeks of age was increased by maize supplementation ( 0. 57 kg vs. 0. 44 kg calf - 1 day - 1 ). no response to protein supplementation was measured. incidence of scouring was higher in bucket reared calves ( p < 0. 01 ). the relevance of these results to the local dairy industry is discussed. full text doi : 10. 1071 / ea9770025 \u00a9 csiro 1977", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5064988991760497, "token_count": 312, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.597366"} {"text": "a timely manner with minimal risk of contamination. the genexpert system is the only system to combine on - board sample preparation with real - time pcr ( polymerase chain reaction ) amplification and detection functions for fully integrated and automated nucleic acid analysis. the system is designed to purify, concentrate, detect and identify targeted nucleic acid sequences thereby delivering answers directly from unprocessed samples. modular in design, the genexpert system has a variety of configurations to meet the broad range of testing demands of any clinical environment. this press release contains forward - looking statements that are not purely historical regarding cepheid \u2019 s or its management \u2019 s intentions, beliefs, expectations and strategies for the future, including those relating to product performance and future market opportunities. because such statements deal with future events, they are subject to various risks and uncertainties, and actual results could differ materially from the company \u2019 s current expectations. factors that could cause actual results to differ materially include risks and uncertainties such as those relating to : regulatory developments and changing therapeutic practices regarding testing levels and methods ; the failure of products to perform as expected, whether due to manufacturing errors, defects or otherwise ; the impact of competitive products and pricing ; reimbursement rates for the products ; and underlying market conditions worldwide. readers should also refer to the section entitled \u201c risk factors \u201d in cepheid \u2019 s annual report on form 10 - k for 2008 and in its most recent quarterly report on form 10 - q, each filed with the securities and exchange commission. all forward - looking statements and reasons why results might differ included in this release are made as of the date of this press release, based on information currently available to cepheid, and cepheid assumes no obligation to update any such forward - looking statement or reasons why results might differ. contacts : for media inquiries : for cepheid investor inquiries : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - jared tipton jacquie ross cepheid corporate communications cepheid investor relations 408 - 400 - 8377 tel : ( 408 ) 400 8329 firstname. lastname @ example. org investor. email @ example. com", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.536172606078096, "token_count": 495, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.626532"} {"text": "with the mechanism. but that would have drastically changed the life of my wife, whom i married later, and our children would never have been born. of course, she and i might have married other spouses, changing both their lives and our own, and each of us would have had quite different children, who would have grown up to change the lives of many others and themselves engender children. the consequences of that accident at the grade crossing are almost infinite and incalculable, for, of course, we should have to consider also the victims and the results of their death. \" valla \u2019 s explanation did not too greatly perturb contemporary churchmen, for christian ditheism then attributed such things to its anti - god, who either had on this earth a power that his celestial antagonist could not overcome or sneaked in to promote the dirty work when god wasn \u2019 t looking. everyone knew, after all, that the devil was so powerful that he had been able to carry a third of the christian god up to high mountains and there try to bribe him. but with the current tendency to make christianity a monotheism, the problem has to be faced. it is probably impossible to devise for a monotheism a theodicy that will satisfy the aryan mind. at least, no one has done it yet. there is one more topic that must be considered in our hurried sketch of the evolution of religions with reference to what we suppose to be the innate mentality of our race. when we speak of any religion today, we automatically think of its priests, a specialized and professional clergy. that is not a necessary connection. go to chapter 5 back to table of contents the origins of christianity by r. p. oliver, to be published by historical review press ( 160pp \u00a310 inc p & p ). please order now via e - mail firstname. lastname @ example. org copyright \u00a91999 kevin alfred strom. back to revilo p. oliver index", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5315368407027299, "token_count": 404, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.681542"} {"text": "the brain is apparently programmed from birth to develop the ability to determine sunrise and sunset, new research on circadian rhythms at the university of chicago shows. the research sheds new light on brain plasticity and may explain some basic human behaviors, according to brian prendergast, associate professor in psychology at the university of chicago and co - author of a paper published april 27 in the journal plos one. the lead author is august kampf - lassin, an advanced graduate student at the university. \" this finding may show us why infants of many species eventually learn to discriminate daytime from nighttime, \" said prendergast, a researcher on biological rhythms. in a series of experiments, researchers were able to show that although the ability to see visual stimuli, such as movement, is lost when a developing eye is not exposed to light, the ability to determine light and dark cycles was not affected. the ability to make that distinction between night and day develops as an animal grows, they found. other research has found that primates as well as humans adapt naturally to a rhythm of sleeping during the night. but this research shows that the pathway in the circadian system that allows synchrony between the brain and day - night rhythms in the environment is probably an innate feature of development, he said. \" for the first time, we have established that the ability to coordinate circadian rhythms with daily changes in light exposure is not subject to very much plasticity at all \u2014 that it is not influenced by changes in the amount of light the brain receives during development, \" kampf - lassin said. the results of the study are reported in the article \" experience - independent development of the hamster circadian visual system, \" which was drawn from a series of challenging experiments with hamsters. shortly after the hamsters ' eyes opened, but before they were exposed to light, experimenters placed a contact lens that completely blocked light over one of their eyes. keeping one eye shut and one open, called monocular deprivation, is a standard method scientists use to study use - dependent plasticity of visual development. the hamsters then grew up in a light - dark cycle such that only the non - deprived eye was able to send light information into the brain. in adulthood, the lenses were removed, and the function of the hamsters ' previously deprived eye was assessed. the researchers found that the hamsters ' brains were blind to all classical visual stimuli presented to the deprived eye, such as food or moving stimuli. nevertheless, the deprived eye perfectly retained the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5375962183838837, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.761604"} {"text": "june 8, 1999 built in record time in just 12 months, quikscat, nasa ' s new ocean - observing satellite, will be launched on a titan ii rocket from california ' s vandenberg air force base at 7 : 15 p. m. pacific daylight time on june 18. this satellite will be nasa ' s next \" el nino watcher \" and will be used to better understand global weather abnormalities. the quick scatterometer, or quikscat, will provide climatologists, meteorologists and oceanographers with daily, detailed snapshots of ocean winds as they swirl above the world ' s oceans. the mission will greatly improve weather forecasting. winds play a major role in every aspect of weather on earth. they directly affect the turbulent exchanges of heat, moisture and greenhouse gases between earth ' s atmosphere and the ocean. to better understand their impact on oceans and improve weather forecasting, the satellite carries a state - of - the - art radar instrument called a scatterometer for a two - year science mission. \" knowledge about which way the wind blows and how hard is it blowing may seem simple, but this kind of information is actually a critical tool in improved weather forecasting, early storm detection and identifying subtle changes in global climate, \" said dr. ghassem asrar, associate administrator of nasa ' s office of earth science, washington, dc. the mission will help earth scientists determine the location, structure and strength of severe marine storms - hurricanes in the atlantic, typhoons near asia and mid - latitude cyclones worldwide - which are among the most destructive of all natural phenomena. the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ), a chief partner in the quikscat mission, will use mission data for improved weather forecasting and storm warning, helping forecasters to more accurately determine the paths and intensities of tropical storms and hurricanes. as nasa ' s next \" el nino watcher, \" quikscat will be used to better understand global el nino and la nina weather abnormalities. changes in the winds over the equatorial pacific ocean are a key component of the el nino / la nina phenomenon. quikscat will be able to track changes in the trade winds along the equator. scatterometers operate by transmitting high - frequency microwave pulses to the ocean surface and measuring the \" backscattered \" or echoed radar pulses bounced back to the satellite. the instrument senses ripples caused by winds near the ocean ' s surface, from which scientists can compute the winds ' speed and direction. the instruments", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5189937123866384, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.769818"} {"text": "the ocean surface and measuring the \" backscattered \" or echoed radar pulses bounced back to the satellite. the instrument senses ripples caused by winds near the ocean ' s surface, from which scientists can compute the winds ' speed and direction. the instruments can acquire hundreds of times more observations of surface wind velocity each day than can ships and buoys, and are the only remote - sensing systems able to provide continuous, accurate and high - resolution measurements of both wind speeds and direction regardless of weather conditions. the satellite is the first obtained under nasa ' s indefinite delivery / indefinite quantity program for rapid delivery of satellite core systems. the procurement method provides nasa with a faster, better and cheaper method for the purchase of satellite systems through a \" catalog, \" allowing for shorter turnaround time from mission conception to launch. total mission cost for quikscat is $ 93 million. fifteen times a day, the satellite will beam down collected science data to nasa ground stations, which will relay them to scientists and weather forecasters. seawinds will provide ocean wind coverage to an international team of climate specialists, oceanographers and meteorologists interested in discovering the secrets of climate patterns and improving the speed with which emergency preparedness agencies can respond to fast - moving weather fronts, floods, hurricanes, tsunamis and other natural disasters. by combining quikscat ' s wind data with information on ocean height from another ocean - observing satellite, the joint nasa - french topex / poseidon mission, scientists will be able to obtain a more complete, near - real - time look at wind patterns and their effects on ocean waves and currents, said dr. timothy liu, quikscat project scientist at nasa ' s jet propulsion laboratory, pasadena, ca. he added that quikscat will complement data being collected by other earth - monitoring satellites such as nasa ' s currently orbiting tropical rain measurement mission ( trmm ) and terra, which will be launched later this year. the 870 - kilogram ( 1, 910 - pound ) quikscat satellite, provided by ball aerospace & technologies corp., boulder, co, with its 200 - kilogram ( 450 - pound ) radar instrument, called seawinds, will be placed in a circular, near - polar orbit with a ground speed of 6. 6 kilometers per second ( 14, 750 miles per hour ). the satellite will circle earth every 101 minutes at an altitude of 800 kilometers ( 500 miles ). a press kit with detailed information on the quikscat launch and mission is available on the internet at http : / /", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5424152850346526, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.771000"} {"text": "may 28, 2009 a procedure that uses heat generated by radio waves to treat barrett ' s esophagus, a condition caused by acid reflux ( severe heartburn ), can eliminate signs of the potentially cancer - causing disorder and reduce the risk that the disease will progress. findings from the first multicenter trial of the procedure, called radiofrequency ablation, could mean patients have an alternative to surgery for treating barrett ' s esophagus. the procedure uses a scope inserted through the mouth to destroy the abnormal tissue. \" patients with barrett ' s esophagus can go on to develop esophageal cancer, \" says steven a. edmundowicz, m. d., lead investigator at the study site at washington university school of medicine in st. louis. \" cancer of the esophagus usually is deadly. less than 15 percent of patients with esophageal adenocarcinoma survive for five years, and in those with advanced barrett ' s esophagus, the risk that the condition will advance to become cancer is about 6 percent per year. \" in barrett ' s esophagus, part of the lining of the esophagus is replaced with cells that resemble intestinal cells. as the condition progresses, these cells become increasingly disordered. long - standing acid reflux disease is common in those who develop barrett ' s esophagus, which affects about 1 percent of adults in the united states. a total of 127 patients at 19 sites took part in the study, which used endoscopes to diagnose the disease and then to deliver radiofrequency ablation to the abnormal lining of the esophagus. the technique heats the abnormal tissue to destroy it while leaving the deeper layers of the esophagus undamaged. all patients in the study had the disordered, cellular growth called dysplasia associated with more advanced barrett ' s esophagus. patients were classified as having either low - grade dysplasia or high - grade dysplasia. regardless of how they were classified for the study, patients received the anti - reflux medication esomeprazole ( nexium ), to keep their reflux disease in check as much as possible. led by nicholas j. shaheen, m. d., at the university of north carolina at chapel hill, the investigators at the various study sites randomly selected patients to either receive radiofrequency ablation or to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5337201012072312, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.805475"} {"text": "as much as possible. led by nicholas j. shaheen, m. d., at the university of north carolina at chapel hill, the investigators at the various study sites randomly selected patients to either receive radiofrequency ablation or to undergo a sham procedure in which endoscopes were inserted through the mouth and the lining of the esophagus was examined, but no radio waves were delivered. two patients received the actual treatment for every one who got a sham procedure. those who received the ablation treatment could get up to four treatments during the 12 months of the study. following the study period, those who had not received ablation therapy were given the option of getting the treatment. in the patients who had the treatment, dysplasia disappeared in just over 90 percent of patients with low - grade disease and in more than 80 percent of those with high - grade disease compared to about 23 percent of the low - grade patients and 19 percent of the high - grade patients who had sham procedures rather than the ablation therapy. in 78 percent of treated patients, not only did dysplasia disappear, but all the abnormal intestinal - type cells were eliminated as well. \" during the 12 - month study period, we detected fewer cancers in the ablation group than in the control group, \" says edmundowicz, a professor of medicine in the division of gastroenterology. \" but because cancers occurred in a total of only five study patients, the numbers are not as powerful regarding cancer as they are regarding eradication of barrett ' s esophagus. \" the risk of progressing from barrett ' s esophagus to esophageal cancer is approximately 1 percent for those with low - grade dysplasia and 6 percent for those with high - grade disease. \" from these short term results, it appears we may have another useful tool in our treatment arsenal, \" says edmundowicz, who is a staff physician at barnes - jewish hospital and a gastroenterologist at the siteman cancer center. \" additional follow - up will be necessary to demonstrate the true effectiveness of radiofrequency ablation in preventing esophageal cancer in patients with barrett ' s esophagus. \" most study subjects tolerated the treatments very well, he says. \" the one side effect that most ablation patients experienced was soreness in the chest following therapy, this was easily managed with medications, and they were less sore than if they had surgery, which has been the primary treatment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5145488450843957, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.808542"} {"text": "131 sixth graders followed a similar procedure with the difficult anagrams and discussions with a researcher. an additional group of students took a simpler anagram test that could be solved, and this group was not told that learning is difficult. all of the students then completed a reading comprehension test. the children who were told that learning is difficult scored higher than the other groups, including the students who had just succeeded on the simple test. how students think about failure may be more important than their own success when learning challenging skills, the study noted. a third experiment with 68 sixth graders measured reading comprehension and asked questions that measured students ' feelings about their own academic competence. the group that was told that learning is difficult performed better in reading comprehension and reported fewer feelings of incompetence. the study noted that the students ' improvement on the tests most likely was temporary, but the results showed that working memory capacity may be improved simply by boosting students ' confidence and reducing their fear of failure. \" our research suggests that students will benefit from education that gives them room to struggle with difficulty, \" autin said. \" teachers and parents should emphasize children ' s progress rather than focusing solely on grades and test scores. learning takes time and each step in the process should be rewarded, especially at early stages when students most likely will experience failure. \" other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - frederique autin, jean - claude croizet. improving working memory efficiency by reframing metacognitive interpretation of task difficulty.. journal of experimental psychology : general, 2012 ; doi : 10. 1037 / a0027478 note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.532040304792065, "token_count": 343, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.839707"} {"text": "may 4, 2012 researchers in spain have found that at least some of the individuals claiming to see the so - called aura of people actually have the neuropsychological phenomenon known as \" synesthesia \" ( specifically, \" emotional synesthesia \" ). this might be a scientific explanation of their alleged ability. in synesthetes, the brain regions responsible for the processing of each type of sensory stimuli are intensely interconnected. synesthetes can see or taste a sound, feel a taste, or associate people or letters with a particular color. the study was conducted by the university of granada department of experimental psychology oscar iborra, luis pastor and emilio gomez milan, and has been published in the journal consciousness and cognition. this is the first time that a scientific explanation has been provided for the esoteric phenomenon of the aura, a supposed energy field of luminous radiation surrounding a person as a halo, which is imperceptible to most human beings. in basic neurological terms, synesthesia is thought to be due to cross - wiring in the brain of some people ( synesthetes ) ; in other words, synesthetes present more synaptic connections than \" normal \" people. \" these extra connections cause them to automatically establish associations between brain areas that are not normally interconnected, \" professor gomez milan explains. new research suggests that many healers claiming to see the aura of people might have this condition. the case of the \" santon de baza \" one of the university of granada researchers remarked that \" not all ' healers ' are synesthetes, but there is a higher prevalence of this phenomenon among them. the same occurs among painters and artists, for example. \" to carry out this study, the researchers interviewed some synesthetes including a ' healer ' from granada, \" esteban sanchez casas, \" known as \" el santon de baza \". many local people attribute \" paranormal powers \" to el santon, because of his supposed ability to see the aura of people \" but, in fact, it is a clear case of synesthesia, \" the researchers explained. according to the researchers, el santon has face - color synesthesia ( the brain region responsible for face recognition is associated with the color - processing region ) ; touch - mirror synesthesia ( when the synesthete observes a person who is being touched or is experiencing pain, s / he experiences the same ) ; high empathy ( the ability to feel what other person is feeling ), and schizoty", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6134807440201255, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.848866"} {"text": "- mirror synesthesia ( when the synesthete observes a person who is being touched or is experiencing pain, s / he experiences the same ) ; high empathy ( the ability to feel what other person is feeling ), and schizotypy ( certain personality traits in healthy people involving slight paranoia and delusions ). \" these capacities make synesthetes have the ability to make people feel understood, and provide them with special emotion and pain reading skills, \" the researchers explain. in the light of the results obtained, the researchers remarked on the significant \" placebo effect \" that healers have on people, \" though some healers really have the ability to see people ' s ' auras ' and feel the pain in others due to synesthesia. \" some healers \" have abilities and attitudes that make them believe in their ability to heal other people, but it is actually a case of self - deception, as synesthesia is not an extrasensory power, but a subjective and ' adorned ' perception of reality, \" the researchers state. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : - e. g. milan, o. iborra, m. hochel, m. a. rodriguez artacho, l. c. delgado - pastor, e. salazar, a. gonzalez - hernandez. auras in mysticism and synaesthesia : a comparison. consciousness and cognition, 2012 ; 21 ( 1 ) : 258 doi : 10. 1016 / j. concog. 2011. 11. 010 note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5621133955224031, "token_count": 325, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.849506"} {"text": "a study in the journal of cell biology shows how a transcription factor called stat3 remains in the axon of nerve cells to help prevent neurodegeneration. the findings could pave the way for future drug therapies to slow nerve damage in patients with neurodegenerative diseases. in lou gehrig ' s disease ( als ) and other neurodegenerative diseases, nerve cells usually die in stages, with axons deteriorating first and the cells themselves perishing later. axon degeneration may represent a turning point for patients, after which so much nerve damage has accumulated that treatments won ' t work. researchers have tested several proteins for their ability to save axons. one of these molecules, cntf, rescues axons in rodents and extends their lives. but it caused severe side effects in patients during clinical trials. \" acting on the same pathway but farther downstream could be an ideal way to improve the situation for motor neuron disease \" and possibly for other neurodegenerative diseases, says senior author michael sendtner from the university of wuerzburg in germany. a jcb study shows how the protein cntf activates the transcription factor stat3 ( green ), which lingers in the axon ( blue ) and helps stabilize microtubules by inhibiting a protein called stathmin ( magenta ). stat3 and stathmin colocalize in axonal branch points ( arrowheads ) and growth cones ( arrow ). to discover how cntf works, sendtner and his colleagues studied mice with a mutation that mimics als. the researchers found that cntf not only prevented shrinkage of the rodents ' motor neurons, it also reduced the number of swellings along the axon that are markers of degeneration. it is known that cntf indirectly turns on the transcription factor stat3, so the researchers wanted to determine if stat3 is behind cntf ' s protective powers. they tested whether cntf helps motor neurons that lack stat3 and discovered that, in the mutant mice, axons lacking stat3 were half as long as those from a control group after cntf treatment once it has been activated, stat3 typically travels to the nucleus of the neuron to switch on genes. but the researchers were surprised to find that most of the axonal stat3 did not move to the nucleus and instead had a local effect in the axon. specifically, the team found that activated stat3 inhibited stathmin, a protein that normally destabilizes microtub", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5196784857686116, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.875902"} {"text": "( sen ) - inventive techniques using observations with some of the world ' s biggest telescopes have allowed astronomers to discover five new planets orbiting one of the closest stars to the earth. tau ceti, which lies only 12 light - years away and can easily be spotted on a clear night, is a star similar to the sun and also single. one of the new worlds around it is in its habitable zone, so named because water could exist on it in liquid form. the new planets all have sizes, or masses, between two and six times that of the earth, making the new solar system one of the least massive yet found. but that is not altogether surprising because smaller worlds are bound to be easier to detect when they are closer to us. the discoveries, which come just two months after the announcement of an earth - sized planet in the nearest star system to us, alpha centauri, were made by an international team from the uk, chile, the usa and australia. they examined the starlight from tau ceti using spectrographs on three telescopes - harps on the 3. 6m telescope at the european southern observatory in la silla, chile, ucles on the anglo - australian telescope in siding spring, australia, and hires on the 10m keck telescope on mauna kea, hawaii ( 567 data points ). after making more than 6, 000 measurements, the team using computer modelling techniques and managed to improve the sensitivity of their observations so that smaller planets than normal revealed themselves in the data. the team ' s leader, mikko tuomi from the university of hertfordshire in the uk, explained : \u201c we pioneered new data modelling techniques by adding artificial signals to the data and testing our recovery of the signals with a variety of different approaches. this significantly improved our noise modelling techniques and increased our ability to find low mass planets. \" hugh jones, also from the university of hertfordshire, said : \" we chose tau ceti for this noise modelling study because we had thought it contained no signals. and as it is so bright and similar to our sun it is an ideal benchmark system to test out our methods for the detection of small planets. \" where to spot tau ceti in the night sky. credit : university of hertfordshire the new worlds add to a harvest of more than 800 exoplanets that have been discovered around other stars since 1995. most of those found have been \" hot jupiters \" - gas giants zipping round close to their host stars in just days. team member steve vogt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5036103374773487, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.888151"} {"text": "according to jerry ostriker ( plumian professor, cambridge ; professor of astrophysics, princeton ; provost, princeton ), \" surveys aren \u2019 t just something that astronomers do, they are the only thing astronomers do. \" these words are understandable, given prof. ostriker \u2019 s intimate association with the sloan digital sky survey that is presently transforming our view of the optical universe. the ability to systematically survey one quarter of the sky, with the dynamic range and spatial resolution to zoom in to study individual objects, is providing us with the first truly 3 - dimensional map of the nearby cosmos. the optical portion of the spectrum unveils the moderately energetic and hot components of the universe, but the physics of the cool constituents is probed at radio wavelengths. [ new paragraph ] the allen telescope array ( ata ) of 350 telescopes, each 6. 1 m in diameter, will do for the radio sky what the sloan digital sky survey has done for the optical sky. and it will do it so rapidly that it will also provide the first systematic look at the transient radio universe. the ata provides simultaneous access to any frequency between 500 mhz and 11. 2 ghz, with four separate frequency channels feeding a suite of signal processing backends that can produce wide - angle radio images of the sky in 1024 colors, and at the same time, study up to 32 point sources of interest within its large field of view. this new approach to commensally sharing the sky allows seti ( the search for extraterrestrial intelligence ) and traditional radio astronomical science to both use the telescope nearly all the time : our tools are beginning to be commensurate with the size of the vast explorations of the radio sky that we wish to undertake. [ new paragraph ] this talk will put the ata into context with the rest of the seti activities around the world and describe the initial seti observations we intend to conduct.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5609169565621948, "token_count": 387, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.892195"} {"text": "understand anything intelligible. but as soon as someone shows or tells you what to listen for, you can hear the message. such is the power of suggestion and the way of audio perception. hearing is a constructive process, like vision, in that bits of sensory data are \" filled in \" by the brain to produce a visual or auditory perception that is clear and distinct, and in accord with your expectations. consider the following from an interview with dr. irene pepperberg, morgana ' s inspiration, who has been studying alex, an african grey parrot, for many years : we were doing demos at the media lab [ at mit ] for our corporate sponsors ; we had a very small amount of time scheduled and the visitors wanted to see alex work. so we put a number of differently colored letters on the tray that we use, put the tray in front of alex, and asked, \" alex, what sound is blue? \" he answers, \" ssss. \" it was an \" s \", so we say \" good birdie \" and he replies, \" want a nut. \" well, i don ' t want him sitting there using our limited amount of time to eat a nut, so i tell him to wait, and i ask, \" what sound is green? \" alex answers, \" ssshh. \" he ' s right, it ' s \" sh, \" and we go through the routine again : \" good parrot. \" \" want a nut. \" \" alex, wait. what sound is orange? \" \" ch. \" \" good bird! \" \" want a nut. \" we ' re going on and on and alex is clearly getting more and more frustrated. he finally gets very slitty - eyed and he looks at me and states, \" want a nut. nnn, uh, tuh. \" not only could you imagine him thinking, \" hey, stupid, do i have to spell it for you? \" but the point was that he had leaped over where we were and had begun sounding out the letters of the words for us. this was in a sense his way of saying to us, \" i know where you ' re headed! let ' s get on with it, \" which gave us the feeling that we were on the right track with what we were doing. * dr. pepperberg thinks the bird is responding cognitively to her questions rather than simply responding to a stimulus. she thinks the bird is getting frustrated, but she has stipulated earlier in the interview : i never claim that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.57884546966506, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.927352"} {"text": "with what we were doing. * dr. pepperberg thinks the bird is responding cognitively to her questions rather than simply responding to a stimulus. she thinks the bird is getting frustrated, but she has stipulated earlier in the interview : i never claim that alex has full - blown language ; i never would. i ' m not going to be able to put alex on a \" t \" stand and have you interview him the way you interview me. so, whereas you or i might say \" give me the nut or this interview is over \" were we parrots with intentionality and language, the parrot ' s movements and sounds have to be less direct and more complex, so that they have to be interpreted for us by pepperberg. in her view, alex is \" clearly getting more frustrated \" and his frustration culminates with a \" very slitty - eyed \" expression. but this is pepperberg ' s interpretation, as is her hearing the bird sound out the letters of the word ' nut '. it could have been a stutter for all we know, but pepperberg is facilitating alex ' s communication by telling us what she hears. the final paragraph indicates that pepperberg is having a hard time drawing the line between imagining what a parrot might be thinking and projecting those thoughts into the parrot ' s movements and sounds. she ' s also having a hard time getting grant money ( nih turned her down ), so she started her own private foundation, the alex foundation. when news of n ' kisi broke on the pages of bbc online, there was no mention in the article by alex kirby of the parrot having conversations with people other than aimee morgana. ( the story was originally told in usa today in the february 12, 2001, edition. ) despite the headline \" parrot ' s oratory stuns scientists, \" there was no evidence given that the parrot had stunned anyone during a conversation. it seems that aimee is to her parrot what the facilitator is to her client in facilitated communication, except that the parrot is actually providing data to interpret and is more like clever hans, the horse that responded to unconscious movements of his master, than a disabled human who may not be providing any content or direction at all to the facilitator. it is aimee who gives intentionality to the parrot ' s sounds. she is the one who attributes ' laughter ' to his shrieks and conscious awareness to his responses, though those responses could be due to any one of many stimuli, consciously or unconsciously provided by aimee or items in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5247439510804686, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.930506"} {"text": "to the parrot ' s sounds. she is the one who attributes ' laughter ' to his shrieks and conscious awareness to his responses, though those responses could be due to any one of many stimuli, consciously or unconsciously provided by aimee or items in the immediate environment. nevertheless, dr. jane goodall, who studies chimpanzees, met n ' kisi and said that he provides an \" outstanding example of interspecies communication. \" there is some evidence, however, that much of the work with language - using primates also mistakes subjective validation by scientists for complex linguistic abilities of their animal subjects ( wallman 1992 ). according to mr. kirby, n ' kisi not only uses language but has been tested for telepathy and he passed the test with flying colors : in an experiment, the bird and his owner were put in separate rooms and filmed as the artist opened random envelopes containing picture cards. analysis showed the parrot had used appropriate keywords three times more often than would be likely by chance. kirby doesn ' t provide any details about the experiment, so a reader might misinterpret this claim as implying that this parrot did about twice as well as people did in the ganzfeld telepathy experiments. in those experiments, subjects in separate rooms were monitored as one tried to telepathically send information from a picture or video to the other. typically, there was a 20 % chance of guessing what the item was but results as high as 38 % were reported in some meta - analyses. if the parrot scored three times better than chance, then he would have gotten 60 % correct. the odds of a parrot randomly blurting out words that match up 60 % of the time with pictures being looked at simultaneously in another room are so high that there is virtually no way that this could happen by chance. however, as you might suspect, kirby ' s claim is a bit misleading. i assume that kirby was writing about an experiment that was part of the n ' kisi project, a joint effort by morgana and rupert sheldrake to test not only the parrot ' s language - using abilities but his telepathic talents as well. sheldrake has already validated the telepathic abilities of a dog and thinks the \" findings [ of this experiment ] are consistent with the hypothesis that n ' kisi was reacting telepathically to aimee ' s mental activity. \" * the full text of sheldrake ' s study published in the peer reviewed journal of scientific", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5557711528375922, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.931690"} {"text": "findings [ of this experiment ] are consistent with the hypothesis that n ' kisi was reacting telepathically to aimee ' s mental activity. \" * the full text of sheldrake ' s study published in the peer reviewed journal of scientific exploration is available online. the title of the paper would send most journal editors to their grave, killed by laughter : \" testing a language - using parrot for telepathy. \" fortunately for sheldrake and his associates there will always be a sympathetic editor for another story like that of j. b. rhine and the telepathic horse, \" lady wonder. \" at least sheldrake ' s protocols show some measure of sophistication, unlike rhine ' s. even so, as the editor at the journal of scientific exploration commented : \" once again, we have suggestive results, a level of statistical significance that is less than compelling, and the devout wish that further work with refined protocols will ensue. \" * so, we ' ll just have to wait and see whether further study of n ' kisi supports the telepathic hypothesis. anyway, here is how sheldrake set up the experiment. he first compiled a list of 30 words from the bird ' s vocabulary that \" could be represented by visual images. \" a package of 167 photos from a stock supplier was used for the test. since only 20 of the photos corresponded to words on the list, the word list was reduced to 20. the word ' camera ' was removed from the list because ' n \u2019 kisi \" used it so frequently to comment on the cameras used in the tests themselves. \" thus, they were left with 19 words. during the tests, n \u2019 kisi remained in his cage in aimee \u2019 s apartment in manhattan, new york. there was no one in the room with him. meanwhile, aimee went to a separate enclosed room on a different floor. n \u2019 kisi could not see or hear her, and in any case, aimee said nothing, as confirmed by the audio track recorded on the camera that filmed her continuously. the distance between aimee and n \u2019 kisi was about 55 feet. aimee could hear n \u2019 kisi through a wireless baby monitor, which she used to gain \u2018 \u2018 feedback \u2019 \u2019 to help her to adjust her mental state as image sender. both aimee and n \u2019 kisi were filmed continuously throughout the test sessions by two synchronized cameras on time - coded videotape. the cameras were mounted on tripods and ran continuously without interruption", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5794249949937007, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.933283"} {"text": "help her to adjust her mental state as image sender. both aimee and n \u2019 kisi were filmed continuously throughout the test sessions by two synchronized cameras on time - coded videotape. the cameras were mounted on tripods and ran continuously without interruption throughout each session. n \u2019 kisi was also recorded continuously on a separate audio tape recorder. ( sheldrake and morgana 2003 ) according to sheldrake : we conducted a total of 147 two - minute trials. the recordings of n \u2019 kisi during these trials were transcribed blind by three independent transcribers.... he scored 23 hits : the key words he said corresponded to the target pictures.... if n \u2019 kisi said a key word that did not correspond to the photograph, that was counted as a miss, and if he said a key word corresponding to the photograph, that was a hit. ( sheldrake and morgana 2003 ) however, sixty of the trials were discarded because in those trials n ' kisi either was silent or uttered things that were not key words, i. e., showed no signs of telepathy. a few other trials were discarded because the transcribers did not agree on what n ' kisi said. in short, sheldrake ' s statistical conclusions are based on the results of 71 of the trials. i ' ll let the reader decide whether it was proper to omit 40 % of the data because the parrot didn ' t utter a word on the key word list during those trials. some might argue that those sessions should be counted as misses and that by ignoring so much data where the parrot clearly did not indicate any sign of telepathy is strong evidence that sheldrake was more interested in confirming his biases than in getting at the truth. n ' kisi ' s misses were listed at 94. ten of the 23 hits were on the picture that corresponded to the word ' flower ', which n ' kisi uttered 23 times during the trials. the flower image, selected randomly, was used in 17 trials. the image corresponding to water was used in 10 of the trials. the bird said ' water ' in twelve trials and got 2 hits. it seems oddly biased that almost one - third of the images and more than half the hits came from just 2 of the 19 pictures. one of the peer reviewers thought that the fact that the flower word and picture played so heavy a role in the outcome that the paper ' s results were distorted and that the paper", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5590888847131409, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.934279"} {"text": "and more than half the hits came from just 2 of the 19 pictures. one of the peer reviewers thought that the fact that the flower word and picture played so heavy a role in the outcome that the paper ' s results were distorted and that the paper should not be published. the other reviewer accepted sheldrake ' s observation that even if you throw out the flower data, you still get some sort of statistical significance. this may be true. however, since the bird allegedly had a vocabulary of some 950 words at the time of the test, omitting sessions where the bird said nothing or said something not on the key list, is unjustifiable. furthermore, there is no evidence that it is reasonable to assume that when the parrot is by itself uttering words that it is trying to communicate telepathically with morgana. or are we to accept sheldrake ' s assumption that the parrot turns his telepathic interest off and on, and it was on only when he uttered a word on the key list? that assumption is no more valid that morgana ' s belief that the telepathy doesn ' t work as well when she makes an effort to send a telepathic message to her parrot. in any case, i wonder why sheldrake didn ' t do a baseline study, where the parrot was videotaped for two - minutes at a time while morgana was taking an aromatherapy bath or meditating or doing something unrelated to the key word pictures. had he made several hundred such clips, he could then have randomly selected 71 and compared them to the 71 clips he used for his analysis. if there was no significant difference between the randomly selected clips and the ones that emerged during the experiment, then the telepathy hypothesis would not be supported. on the other hand, if he found a robust statistically significant difference, then the telepathy hypothesis would be supported. i suggest he do something along these lines when he attempts to replicate his parrot telepathy test. in some trials, n \u2019 kisi repeated a given key word. for example, in one trial n \u2019 kisi said \u2018 \u2018 phone \u2019 \u2019 three times, and in another he said \u2018 \u2018 flower \u2019 \u2019 ten times, and in the tabulation of data the numbers of times he said these words are shown in parentheses as : phone ( 3 ) ; flower ( 10 ). for most of the statistical analyses, repetitions were ignored, but in one analysis the numbers of words that were said more than once in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5701857935107776, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.935617"} {"text": "numbers of times he said these words are shown in parentheses as : phone ( 3 ) ; flower ( 10 ). for most of the statistical analyses, repetitions were ignored, but in one analysis the numbers of words that were said more than once in a given trial were compared statistically with those said only once for both hits and misses. for each trial, the key word or words represented in the photograph were tabulated. some images had only one key word, but others had two or more. for example, a picture of a couple hugging in a pool of water involved two key words, \u2018 \u2018 water \u2019 \u2019 and \u2018 \u2018 hug. \u2019 \u2019 ( sheldrake and morgana 2003 ) he calculated 51 hits and 126 misses when repetitions were included. i ' m not going to bother with any more detail because by now the overall picture should be clear. once the statisticians went to work on the data, they were able to provide support for the claim that the data were consistent with the telepathic hypothesis. but nowhere in sheldrake ' s paper can i find a claim that the parrot did three times better than expected by chance. in any case, i have to agree with the editor who published sheldrake ' s parrot paper : the results have a statistical significance that is less than compelling. however, unlike that editor, my devout wish is that when such studies as these are published in the future, responsible journalists continue to ignore them and recognize them for the rubbish they are. on the other hand, if you happen to think your parrot is psychic, drop dr. sheldrake a line. he ' s set up a page just for you. sheldrake has responded to this article. his comments and my responses are posted here. books and articles new grey parrots use reasoning where monkeys and dogs can \u2019 t \" christian schloegl and his team at the university of vienna, let six parrots choose between two containers, one containing a nut. both containers were shaken, one eliciting a rattling sound and the other nothing. the parrots preferred the container that rattled, even if only the empty container was shaken.... thus, grey parrots seem to possess ape - like reasoning skills.... \" [ / new ] last updated 16 - aug - 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5351896090233967, "token_count": 473, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.937234"} {"text": ". \u2022 compound ( or catadioptric ) telescopes, which use a combination of lenses and mirrors, offer compact tubes and relatively light weight ; two popular designs are called schmidt - cassegrains and maksutov - cassegrains. the objective ' s focal length ( f or fl ) is the key to determining the telescope ' s magnification ( \" power \" ). this is simply the objective ' s focal length divided by that of the eyepiece, which you ' ll find on its barrel. for example, if a telescope has a focal length of 500 mm and a 25 - mm eyepiece, the magnification is 500 / 25, or 20x. most telescopes come supplied with one or two eyepieces ; you change the magnification by switching eyepieces with different focal lengths. your telescope will need something sturdy to support it. many telescopes come conveniently packaged with tripods or mounts, though the tubes of smaller scopes often just have a mounting block that allows them to be attached to a standard photo tripod with a single screw. ( caution : a tripod that ' s good enough for taking your family snapshots may not be steady enough for astronomy. ) mounts designed specifically for telescopes usually forgo the single - screw attachment blocks in favor of larger, more robust rings or plates. some telescopes come with small motors to move them around the sky with the push of a keypad button. in the more advanced models of this type, often called \" go to \" telescopes, a small computer is built into the hand control. once you ' ve entered the current date, time, and your location, the scope can point itself to, and track, thousands of celestial objects. some \" go to \" s let you choose a guided tour of the best celestial showpieces, complete with a digital readout describing what ' s known about each object. but go to scopes aren ' t for everyone the setup process may be confusing if you don ' t know how to find the bright alignment stars in the sky. and lower - priced go to models come with smaller apertures than similarly priced, entry - level scopes that have no electronics. a telescope can literally open your eyes to a universe of celestial delights. with a little care in selecting the right one, you ' ll be ready for a lifetime of exploring the night sky!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5046424296667793, "token_count": 483, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.942312"} {"text": "dynamic nasopharyngoscopy ( dn ) is a simple method of : the examination is performed with the patient lying on their back and under local anesthetic with topical lidocaine that is sprayed onto the back of the throat and into the nasal passages. the flexible fiberoptic endoscope is introduced through the nose and advanced into the pharynx. note is taken of any fixed obstructions such as a deviated septum, nasal polyps, and enlarged adenoids and tonsils. the tip of the endoscope is then positioned at the level of the hard palate and the patient is asked to perform a series of maneuvers. note is taken of the size and shape of the airway. this patient has a heart - shaped airway because of narrow insertion of the posterior tonsillar pillars and edema. note is taken of the degree of collapse that occurs when the patient attempts to inspire with their mouth closed and nostrils pinched shut. | with jaw thrust this simulates the wearing of a dental appliance that advances the mandible. this patient could use such a device if the overnight oximetry shows mild disease. opening of the jaw opening the mouth to breathe relaxes the pharynx and promotes backward collapse of the tongue. this increases the likelihood of apnea. interpretation of the findings requires a detailed knowledge of the anatomy of the upper airway and a good understanding of the physical principles that determine why certain structures are stable and others are not. back to dynamic nasopharyngoscopy page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.558779212310186, "token_count": 313, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.955019"} {"text": "it security is, generally, defined as a defensive approach to protect a company and its assets from unauthorized access by an intruder. it security efforts include network security appliances, honeypots, robust authentication, limiting authorization to least necessary privileges, as well as other perimeter security defenses. however, these approaches do not provide definitive protection of the company ' s most valuable asset, its data, because a single intrusion could result in sensitive data being compromised. additionally, in today ' s workplace culture the disgruntled employee may be as much of a threat as any external threat. data encryption is a direct response to internal and external security threats that may also meet compliance regulations. encryption provides strong security for data \" at - rest \" ; in our case, the data stored in the database, but to be effective should be implemented as a part of a broader security plan. there are many issues involved with the implementation of encryption, details that require decisions and actions to ensure the success of the implementation and the security of the data. this document will discuss the issues associated with database encryption implemented using sql server ' s native transparent database encryption ( tde ) mechanism. encryption has been integral to human history beginning with the babylonian use of intaglio other historical examples include the caesar cipher, scytale transposition cipher, enigma, and even jimkryptos sculpture. throughout history our society has enjoyed the ability to protect information using cryptographic methods including steganography, microdots, invisible ink, digital watermarks, and encryption which may be defined as the conversion of data so as to keep its meaning private. as the amount of sensitive data collected by commercial entities continues to grow the regulatory requirements for protecting the sensitive data will become more robust ; meeting the regulatory requirements will necessarily require the continued use of data encryption methods. encryption requires the application of an algorithm to transform the target data into a form that is unusable to anyone that does not have access to the encryption process used. in practical terms encryption applies a cryptographic algorithm with a \" key \" to the target data producing the encrypted form of the data which cannot be accessed without the key used to encrypt the data. the two primary forms of key encryption are symmetric and asymmetric which are distinguished by the number of keys used in the encryption / decryption process. symmetric encryption uses a single key while asymmetric encryption uses a pair of keys generally referred to as public and private keys. while asymmetric encryption appears ideal for implementation because only the public key need ever be shared", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6579975905196664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.991699"} {"text": "encryption / decryption process. symmetric encryption uses a single key while asymmetric encryption uses a pair of keys generally referred to as public and private keys. while asymmetric encryption appears ideal for implementation because only the public key need ever be shared there are disadvantages with regard to performance. a sampling of asymmetric algorithms includes rsa, dsa, elgamal, ecdsa, and xtr. figure 1 demonstrates the asymmetric encryption process. figure 1 asymmetric key encryption / decryption process symmetric algorithms require a single key for both encryption and decryption which allows for high - performance ; however, with this approach the strength of the encryption is dependent on the security of the key. common symmetric algorithms include aes / rijndael, blowfish, des, triple des, serpent, and idea to name only a few. figure 2 demonstrates the symmetric encryption process. figure 2 symmetric key encryption process both symmetric and asymmetric encryption approaches are vulnerable to brute force attacks and cryptanalysis. brute force is an attack during which every possible permutation of the key value is attempted. cryptanalysis, on the other hand, applies computational techniques to circumvent the encryption. in general, the use of sufficiently long keys will mitigate these attacks. in summary, a symmetric key algorithm is fast but less secure than an asymmetric algorithm. another approach is a hybrid wherein a symmetric key is used to encrypt the data while an asymmetric key is used to encrypt the symmetric key. it may be important to know in order to maintain perspective that there is only one encryption algorithm that is impossible to crack, one - time pad ( otp ), any other algorithm may be broken given sufficient time and / or computer resources. security concerns, in general, and encryption, specifically, are new concepts for most it professionals ; therefore, a glossary of security / encryption terms is included as an appendix for reference. overview of transparent database encryption the primary benefit of transparent database encryption ( tde ) is the ability to encrypt data without affecting any application that uses the data while providing security for the entire database. tde is implemented at the database - level, unlike cell - level encryption tde does not require modification to applications or database column data types ; furthermore, database - level encryption allows for higher performance than cell - level encryption. however, tde may allow more data leakage because encrypted data is decrypted when read into the buffer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6657562873210803, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.992773"} {"text": "to applications or database column data types ; furthermore, database - level encryption allows for higher performance than cell - level encryption. however, tde may allow more data leakage because encrypted data is decrypted when read into the buffer pool ; therefore, the data is not protected if the operating system writes data from memory to disk during paging operations, or during hibernation, or memory dumps, nor is the data protected while in memory. database encryption is achieved by leveraging the data protection api ( dpapi ) in windows\u00ae which protects the service master key ( smk ) which protects the database master key ( dmk ) which is used to protect the certificate or asymmetric keys which are used to protect the database encryption key ( dek ). these dependencies create a security chain from the operating system to the data eliminating user interaction thus strengthening security. the relationships and dependencies between keys is represented in figure 3 below : figure 3 sql server encryption key hierarchy with tde and ekm ( source : bol - http : / / msdn. microsoft. com / en - us / library / cc278098. aspx ) the hierarchy of keys in tde is protected from the dpapi to the dek allowing the server to manage encryption and decryption automatically. the dmk and the certificate are stored in the master database while the dek is stored in the user database. this hierarchy and the key management chain provide tde the capability to transparently encrypt and decrypt the database. the process for encrypting a database is conceptually simple : - create a master key - obtain an authentication certificate - create dek - enable tde on the database however, significant complexity will be introduced if the database encryption strategy is undertaken without proper planning that addresses important implementation issues. those issues are discussed in the following section. the level of security necessary to protect the database should be documented during the planning phase. individually and in combination the following encryption mechanisms are available to secure the database : - encrypting file system ( efs ) - transparent database encryption ( tde ) discussion of the benefits and performance implications of each mechanism and their combinations is beyond the scope of this paper. data encryption must address two equally important issues : encryption technology and cryptographic key ( key ) management. encryption technology provides for variable granularity of data protection, performance, and integration with existing applications, as well as ease of implementation and management. however,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.617087641918359, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.993771"} {"text": "encryption must address two equally important issues : encryption technology and cryptographic key ( key ) management. encryption technology provides for variable granularity of data protection, performance, and integration with existing applications, as well as ease of implementation and management. however, the success of the selected encryption strategy may depend most on key management policies and processes. key management issues include : key access, key storage, and cryptographic algorithm. key management is one of many important issues that must be considered when planning the encryption project. the important issues to consider during the planning phase of the encryption project are listed below : - encryption algorithm : des, triple des, triple _ des _ 3key, rc2, rc4, 128 - bit rc4, desx, 128 - bit aes, 192 - bit aes, and 256 - bit aes - key management : key storage, hardware security module ( hsm ), key scheduling, key availability / mobility / security - performance impact. encryption / decryption - microsoft claims 3 - 5 % ; however, independent tests indicate 6 - 12 %.. - tempdb encryption - encryption of any one db will encrypt tempdb. - transaction log is encrypted. - log shipping implementation changes - encrypted database log shipping requires the recipient database to possess the key in order to apply the logs. - backup and recovery plan changes - encrypted databases cannot be recovered to a different instance without the key. - disaster recovery plan changes - encrypted databases cannot be recovered to a different instance without the key. - increased disk space requirements - no sql server native backup compression. third party tools may be available ; however, in general, encrypted data cannot be significantly compressed. - tde operates during i / o ; therefore, any data written to disk outside of the buffer pool is not protected - no support for filestream data - type the diagram in figure 4 represents a nominal encryption project planning process with each major area of consideration represented. the end result of the planning process is to produce a document detailing the decisions made that address the issues related to encrypting the database. figure 4 encryption planning process a comprehensive it security policy provides a layered defense against threats to the system. however, even the most thorough perimeter network and physical defenses do not obviate the vulnerability of plaintext data stored in databases. data encryption provides a means to protect sensitive data from unauthorized access as a part of a coordinated it security policy that includes network security, robust authentication", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6284510270340689, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.994869"} {"text": "most thorough perimeter network and physical defenses do not obviate the vulnerability of plaintext data stored in databases. data encryption provides a means to protect sensitive data from unauthorized access as a part of a coordinated it security policy that includes network security, robust authentication and authorization, as well as other physical security considerations. sql server and windows\u00ae provide several mechanisms for the protection of data either at the file, database, or data levels. transparent database encryption ( tde ) is a new technology available in sql server 2008 enterprise edition which provides a simplified the data encryption option. tde is a database - level encryption mechanism that reduces the implementation complexity by negating the need to modify the data and / or the client applications. however, the benefits of performance and simplicity are balanced by tde ' s potential for data leakage ; therefore, for the most sensitive data tde alone may not suffice as a data security strategy. any data protection strategy must weigh the costs and benefits of implementation to arrive at a usable solution that meets the security requirements defined by the business. tde ' s protection of sensitive data in low to moderate threat environments may be sufficient for some business requirements while highly sensitive data or data in high threat environments will require the combination of tde with other encryption mechanisms such as cell - level encryption, efs, or bitlocker.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6097740639195963, "token_count": 269, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:40.996168"} {"text": "are you entangled in difficult relationships or painful emotions? do you suffer from childhood trauma? do you suffer from your parents ' drama, your partner ' s demands, your boss ' s moods? systemic solutions can help you untangle your life and reclaim your freedom. delay, prevent and reverse aging people are born with an energy for living that, unless continuously restored, will fade with age. after about age 25, unless care is taken to replenish energy, many people stop growing up and begin growing old. aging is optional and controllable for most motivated people, and degeneration may be delayed, and, in some cases, reversed. degenerated body tissues are unlikely to be replaced, except perhaps by major surgery. the degeneration of aged tissues is far easier to prevent than to repair. aging & life coaching the deterioration of bodily functions that accompany old age is often considered a one - way road towards suffering and death. although many theories explain one or two aspects of aging ; no single theory explains all aging phenomena. yet many changes associated with old age are not from natural aging - but from diseases which occur more frequently with increased age. with appropriate care, people can delay, prevent many of the problems of old age, and even reverse the aging process. systemic coaching can help you delay and prevent your fragmentation and loss of mental resources associated with ageing. as time passes, cellular damage accumulates and impairs the function of a tissue. if the damage interferes with metabolism, whole organs may malfunction. an example of this is adult - onset diabetes, which can often be controlled by diet and exercise. one theory of aging assumes that the life span of a cell or organism is genetically determined. another theory of aging assumes that cell death is the result of the formation of enzymes that do not work efficiently. yet another theory assumes that aging is due to the gradual accumulation of mutant cells that do not perform normally. ( the natural mutation may be increased dramatically by toxins, radiations and carcinogens associated with diseases of old age old age & the cardiovascular system the heart changes with advancing age, gradually losing muscle, and reducing in performance. heart diseases are the biggest cause of death after age 65. - the heart does not contract as rapidly in older people. in response to exercise, the heart can double or triple the amount of blood pumped, although the maximum output diminishes with age. - arteriosclerosis ( hardening of the arteries ) is a progressive disorder and is present in most people", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5684226696695535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.019839"} {"text": "response to exercise, the heart can double or triple the amount of blood pumped, although the maximum output diminishes with age. - arteriosclerosis ( hardening of the arteries ) is a progressive disorder and is present in most people by middle age, and increases markedly with age. - blood vessels become less elastic with age, with a progressive thickening of the walls of blood vessels. these changes may increase blood pressure, increasing the work of the heart. old age & digestion the overall digestion of sugar, proteins, vitamins, and minerals are similar to young people. most nutritional deficiencies can be avoided if the diet assures all nutritional elements. deficiencies are most likely to develop from poor eating habits, such as excessive sugars and refined flour. the loss of teeth in elderly people is often a result of long - term neglect. old age & the nervous system human behavior requires the brain to integrate information from the eye and ear, skin and internal organs. there is only a slight loss of brain cells in old age, however, brain cells are extremely sensitive to oxygen deficiency. consequently, it is likely that loss of brain cells results from heart disease, which reduces oxygen delivery to the brain. old age & vision from about age 50 there is an accelerated decline in the ability to discriminate detail, usually compensated for by spectacles and increased illumination. aging reduces the ability to focus the eyes for viewing near objects, so that distant objects can be seen more clearly than close objects. sensitivity to darkness and glare is also greater in the old than in the young, and the incidence of eye disease, such as glaucoma and cataracts, increases with age. a rare childhood disease is characterized by many aspects of aging, such as baldness and thin skin. children with this disease rarely usually die of old age - as teenagers. premature aging is associated with lifestyle - such as sunlight, smoking, alcohol and overeating. causes of aging people exposed to hard radiation die younger, although the only definite effect of continuous irradiation throughout life is cancer. diseases such as leukemia increase after irradiation. natural radioactivity in the body, from the earth and from cosmic rays, are not major contributors to aging, but increase the incidence of cancer. many organisms live longer at low temperatures. a rate - of - living theory holds that an organism ' s life span depends on critical substances that are used faster at higher temperatures. some aging may occur as a result of heat destruction of proteins, but this does", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5328799425233366, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.020893"} {"text": "organisms live longer at low temperatures. a rate - of - living theory holds that an organism ' s life span depends on critical substances that are used faster at higher temperatures. some aging may occur as a result of heat destruction of proteins, but this does not seems to be a strong contributing factor. the psychological features of aging are impaired short - term memory and longer reaction times. yet some aged people become fearful and depressed, withdraw from social contact, or act like children to their own children. some aged people commit suicide or passively invite death with self - destructive, unhealthy lifestyle choices. elderly people can acquire new information and remember it as well as the young. age differences in learning increase with the difficulty of the material to be learned. people who \u201c age successfully \u201d often maintain their mental alertness by continuing to learn and by social contacts with younger people. stress. depression. suicide. anxiety parenthood and aging human life, including old age and death, is focused on successfully creating and raising children. old age is linked to the reproductive process. although the onset of old age is gradual, without specific systemic or environmental cause ; an early manifestation of age is a decline in sexual performance. the proportional contribution of an individual to a family or community diminishes as the number of living children increases. this implies an optimum number of children that reflects the survival of those children to maturity. in many developing countries, the number of living children is proportional to the food supply. before medical advances, an optimum number of children would balance those who could be expected to die from disease. in modern industrial countries, the optimum number of children reflects the beliefs and values of the parents. children, and later grandchildren, provide a natural focus and purpose for older people. in many cultures, there is a special relationship between grandparents and grandchildren. the children often gain indulgent \" second parents \", while most grandparents enjoy caring for their children ' s children. advantages of aging in most traditional cultures, the elders represented the knowledge of the community, and were the teachers of the young. in western cultures, old people are often seen as liabilities, and inexperienced young adults teach \" academic subjects \" instead of the wisdom of life experience. if older relatives are perceived to limit the freedom of the young ; then \" old folks homes \" may be perceived older people tend to have more time and patience, acting as family and community mentors. they have seen more of life ; they have solved more problems and they are not so easily shocked. they have seen", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5744555763645711, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.022624"} {"text": "objectivescommunication | collaboration | team strategy - 1 \u2019 x 1 \u2019 squares of cardboard or foam or rubber baseball bases work well also ( half to two - thirds as many squares as people in the group ) - you can also substitute 8. 5 \" x 11 \" pieces of paper - 2 pieces of rope ( or masking tape or 4 cones ) - several blindfolds ( optional ) create a river by marking two river banks with the rope. make the river wide enough to be a challenge for the group to get from one side to the other ( look at about 15 \u2013 25 ft. ). distribute the cardboard squares \u2013 1 piece for every 2 people. the object of the activity is to get all members of the group safely across the river. they must go as one big group, not multiple smaller ones. also stress that everyone must be on the river before anyone can get off the river, forcing the entire group to be engaged at once. participants cannot touch the water ( floor / grass ) and therefore must use rafts ( cardboard squares ) to cross. the water is filled with piranhas. therefore if someone loses their balance and touches a hand in the water it gets eaten ( put behind the back ). same goes for a foot. if a person completely comes off the raft they are gone and since this is a team exercise everyone must start over. i recommend using this motto with the group, \" start as a team end as a team. \" you can also be creative and add challenges in as the group crosses. for instance you can say a fish jumped up and tail slapped someone in the eyes so now they cannot see ( blindfolded ). tell them the river is acidic and when two people share a raft it tipped and now their legs are fused together ( tie ankles together ). use these tools to help take away the natural leaders or more outspoken participants and it forces the others to step up and take on more substantial roles. no scooting or sliding on the squares. this can be a safety issue and it emphasizes individual work versus teamwork. rafts must be in contact with a human at all times or they will be swept away with the current. once the group has started the process, your role is to take cardboard squares that are \u201c swept away by the current \u201d and to watch for safety issues. use this to your advantage as well. the participants will invariably slip up and leave some rafts here or there with no one contacting them, those you should steal. when the first group members get", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5211164104508397, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.060613"} {"text": "the current \u201d and to watch for safety issues. use this to your advantage as well. the participants will invariably slip up and leave some rafts here or there with no one contacting them, those you should steal. when the first group members get to the other side immediately start to encourage them to hurry and get off the river. nearly every time the first few people will rush off the rafts leaving them unattended for you to steal and stranding some of their team - mates. work this into your debrief, when working with a team you can ' t forget about your mates. just because you have made it to the finish line someone else may not have. - participants must stay in constant contact - each raft represents a symbol named by participants - river sections - the tiles can only go forward. they cannot move backwards - no one can finish until everyone has left the \u201c bank \u201d of the river - choose to add challenges like muting individuals, using only 1 arm, eyes closed / blindfolded, no one can talk, others can be \" gators \" in the river and try to impede those crossing the river, stand in front of the group with arms outstretched to simulate tree they must go around. - give group an object that they need to carry with them to safety and discuss what that might represent - create situations for them to draw from that are connected directly to their group - what happened during the process? what worked? what didn \u2019 t or what hindered the process? - what leadership was demonstrated during the process? how so? what did you observe? - what were the individual roles people played? were members comfortable with their roles? - who knew what the process for crossing was? who didn \u2019 t? how did you communicate the plans to group members? - what might the different aspects of the exercise represent in your group : the squares, the river, the loss of squares, the facilitator, etc? - when the first people rushed off the river and stranded some of you how did that feel?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.51224457171733, "token_count": 414, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.062010"} {"text": "tuned for fluorine - mri reporter genes that increase the iron content of cells ( see below ). radionucleotide imaging : positronemission tomography eduardo marban, director and mark siegel family foundation chair, cedars - sinai heart institute, los angeles, california. marban, a cardiologist, aims to use stem cells to repair the muscle damage resulting from a heart attack. he hopes stem cells will provide the necessary signals to make the heart convert scar tissue into healthy muscle. unfortunately, the heart is a tricky target for stem cells \u2014 once injected, the heart pumps them right back out again. within an hour, only 10 % of the graft is left in the heart, and only 1 % of cells remain after three weeks, he laments. \u201c if we could boost those values, then we could get more bang for the buck with stem - cell therapy, \u201d marban says. in a recent study, he and his colleagues managed to improve retention rates by slowing or stopping the heart or dabbing a bit of fibrin glue in the injection site. ( j am coll cardiol, 54 : 1619 - 26, 2009 ). the scientists transplanted cardiac - derived stem cells from healthy rats into the hearts of those that had undergone surgically - orchestrated heart attacks. to label the transplanted stem cells, they first incubated them with the radioactive tracer 18fdg, a form of glucose toting a radioactive fluorine, that was internalized by the cells. using a pet scanner, they were able to follow the cells and show that after an hour, 20 \u2013 75 % of the transplanted cells remained in the heart if its beat was slowed by drugs or if glue was dabbed into the injection site. - \u201c it \u2019 s the only reliable quantitative method, other than destructive methods, \u201d marban says, because the half - life of the tracer is known. - pet is already available in clinics. - minimal background signal. - pet is limited by the half - life of the tracer ; signals from 18 - fluorine, for example, last for six to eight hours because the isotope \u2019 s half - life is 110 minutes. - pet does not indicate cell viability \u2014 the tracer could leak out of the cell or show up in macrophages that devoured the original stem cells. - this method requires the use of radioactive substances, with the associated risks to cells, animals, and personnel. a pet scanner from philips healthcare runs between $", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5000308874076507, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.478386"} {"text": "out of the cell or show up in macrophages that devoured the original stem cells. - this method requires the use of radioactive substances, with the associated risks to cells, animals, and personnel. a pet scanner from philips healthcare runs between $ 1 million and $ 1. 5 million, and the machines have become standard equipment in hospitals. radioactive tracers are also required ; a human - size dose of 18fdg costs $ 200 - 250 at cedars - sinai. to acquire the tracers, one needs to be within a few hours of a cyclotron that can generate the radioactive fluorine ion for coupling to the glucose ; most major universities have one, wu says. - single - photon emission computed tomography ( spect ) - combining pet with computed tomography helps scientists localize the radioactive signal within the animal \u2019 s anatomy. genetic reporters for pet frank bengel, chairman of the department of nuclear medicine, hannover medical school, germany both pet and mri only reveal where the labels are. \u201c the cell may die and you may still get the signal, \u201d bengel says. plus, preloading the cells only works as long as the tracers last \u2014 hours or days for pet tracers. bengel is developing reporter genes that allow living cells to produce their own pet signal at any time. the technique relies on genes whose products force the cell to grab onto radioactive tracers. for example, the herpes simplex virus enzyme thymidine kinase ( hsv - tk ) phosphorylates a guanine homolog called fhbg. unphosphorylated fhbg travels freely in and out of cells. but once phosphorylated \u2014 as only happens in cells having the hsv - tk gene \u2014 it \u2019 s negatively charged, and stuck on the inside. by engineering stem cells to express the transgene before transplantation, then treating the animal with radioactive fhbg, researchers can observe the transplants on a pet scan. - only live cells show up : \u201c if you don \u2019 t see a signal, there are no cells, \u201d wu says. - with promoters specific for different cell types, these reporters could also indicate whether the stem cells go on to differentiate. - hsv - tk provides a built - in fail - safe : the viral kinase phosphorylates the antiviral drug ganciclovir, turning the drug cytotoxic. should transplanted cells cause trouble \u2014 for example,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5179045502272079, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.484643"} {"text": "in the simplest of terms, a virus is an infectious agent. it operates like a computer virus, replicating and dispersing itself in all directions, while crippling the normal function of the host. a virus has genes, but no cellular structure, so it ' s not considered a living organism. and like parasites, viruses can ' t survive on their own. bacteria, on the other hand, are tiny cells that reproduce and can survive independently, with the ability to transport dangerous toxins. epidemiologists generally rely on an international but informal network of colleagues to get wind of a disease outbreak fast, even when it starts in a remote corner of the world. but while patients may be lining the hospital corridors in jakarta, veracruz or pittsburgh, activating a worldwide emergency response protocol is not instantaneous. laboratory tests must first isolate the virus, microbe, toxin or other mechanism of injury. usually, scientists in the field must collaborate with researchers in other countries to identify the culprit. and only when the team is absolutely sure about the agent and its cause will entities like the centers for disease control ( cdc ) and world health organization ( who ) spring into action. that ' s when the country alerts go out, a vaccine ( or other remedy ) gets developed, and the counterattack begins. getting ahead of the curve in 1999, the cdc initiated the laboratory response network ( lrn ), a group of local, state, federal, and international labs that can test for disease agents and develop vaccines in a fast, efficient manner. an estimated ninety percent of the u. s. population now live within a 100 miles of a designated lab. this close proximity insures a quick turnaround as evidence in the field is procured, then shipped to epidemiologists ready to analyze it. to help get a jump on the next global pandemic, the cdc also dispatches scientists worldwide each year to sniff out virulent strains that may be on the prowl. the epidemic intelligence service ( eis ) recruits 70 - 80 college graduates annually for two - year, post - graduate assignments performing surveillance and study in the field. influenza viruses that affect humans are divided into two basic groups. \" a \" viruses have pandemic potential. \" b \" viruses don ' t. to qualify as a pandemic, an \" a \" virus must also be \" novel \", which means there ' s no pre - disposed immunity to it and no existing vaccines. furthermore, the bug must have the potential for human to human", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5446106223570921, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.539031"} {"text": "u. s. government. over 200 million doses, for instance, were ordered at the start of the h1n1 pandemic. in addition to pandemic vaccines, drug manufacturers produce the annual flu shot vaccine and chilhood immunization drugs for polio, chicken pox, german measles, etc. immunizations for adults include hepatitus, malaria and tetanus. some of these shots have only a short - term effectiveness. in the case of tetanus, for instance, a \" booster \" shot is recommended every ten years. vaccines are divided into other categories based on how the drug intends to destroy the targetted microbe or pathogen. since viruses, bacteria and toxins attack the body in different ways, the epidemiologist must design a solution that works best for the circumstances. here are his choices : live, attenuated vaccines these contain a version of the living microbe that has been weakened in the lab so it can \u2019 t cause disease. like firefighters setting small fires in advance of a mega - blaze, this small dose of the killer pathogen is easy for the immune system to fight off, thereby achieving lifelong immunity with one or two doses. however, people with compromised immune systems are considered too weak to overcome a live vaccine. besides that, the microbe that ' s injected may on occasion morph into something worse than it was initially. these vaccines are likewise not suitable for some geographical locations, since a \" live \" vaccine must be kept alive through refrigeration. samples of the disease - causing microbe are first destroyed with chemicals, heat, or radiation. these vaccines are more stable and safer than live vaccines, since the dead microbes can \u2019 t mutate back to their disease - causing state. inactivated vaccines usually don \u2019 t require refrigeration, and they can be easily stored and transported in a freeze - dried form, which makes them accessible to people in developing countries. on the down side, they trigger a weaker immune system response and therefore require multiple doses over time or booster shots to be effective. these use only parts of the killer microbe, specifically the antigens, which are responsible for triggering the production of antibodies to fight the microbe. it takes a long time to develop a subunit vaccine, but once it ' s perfected, adverse reactions are much lower than with live or inactivated vaccines. these vaccines are a good choice for people with compromised immune systems. some bacteria secrete toxins or harmful chemicals, which can cause a serious", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5006201062440017, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.541629"} {"text": "vaccine, but once it ' s perfected, adverse reactions are much lower than with live or inactivated vaccines. these vaccines are a good choice for people with compromised immune systems. some bacteria secrete toxins or harmful chemicals, which can cause a serious illness all by themselves. the toxins can in some cases be neutralized by treating them with formalin, which is a solution of formaldehyde and sterilized water. such \u201c detoxified \u201d toxins are called toxoids and are safe for use as vaccines. when injected, the toxoid causes the immune system to fight off the natural toxin and produce antibodies that will block the real toxin. diphtheria and tetanus are examples of diseases that toxoid vaccines can prevent. the immature immune systems of infants and younger children don ' t always recognize or respond to certain types of coatings around bacteria, so this special type of subunit vaccine has been developed to address the problem. still in the experimental stages, these vaccines show great promise ( according to nih ), and several types are currently being tested in humans. these vaccines dispense with the microbe and its parts, and instead use the genes of those all - important antigens. recombinant vector vaccines also in the experimental stage, these are similar to dna vaccines, but they use an attenuated virus or bacterium to introduce microbial dna to cells of the body. \u201c vector \u201d refers to the virus or bacterium used as the disease carrier. ( for instance, mosquitoes carry malaria, so it ' s considered a \" vector - bourne \" disease. ) in addition to antigens that alert the immune system to an infectious agent, vaccines may also contain substances called adjuvants, which nih says improve the immune response produced by the vaccines. currently, the only adjuvant licensed for human use in the united states is an \u201c alum \u201d adjuvant, which is composed of aluminum salts. vaccines may also contain substances to prevent contamination, as well as maintain a vaccine \u2019 s potency at less - than - optimal temperatures, or act as a preservative. one such controversial ingredient in this catgegory is a compound call thimerosal. autism advocacy organizations oppose the use of thimerasol and other mercury - based additives in vaccines. they allege that autism is caused in part by these ingredients when multiple childhood immunizations are administered at one time. the claim is virulently rejected by the cdc and much of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5014089559369268, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.542679"} {"text": "autism and aspergers - 04 - 10 - 2007, 08 : 07 am ( taken from wikipedia ) autism is classified by the world health organization ( who ) and american psychological association as a developmental disability that results from a disorder of the human central nervous system. it is diagnosed using specific criteria for impairments to social interaction, communication, interests, imagination and activities. the causes, symptoms, etiology, treatment, and other issues are controversial. autism manifests itself \" before the age of three years \" according to the who ' s international classification of diseases ( icd - 10 ) children with autism are marked by delays in their \" social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play \" ( diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ). autism, and the other four pervasive developmental disorders ( pdd ), are all considered to be neurodevelopmental disorders. they are diagnosed on the basis of a triad, or group of three behavioral impairments or dysfunctions : 1. impaired social interaction, 2. impaired communication and 3. restricted and repetitive interests and activities. these three basic characteristics reflect dr. leo kanner ' s first reports of autism emphasizing \" autistic aloneness \" and \" insistence on sameness. \" from a physiological standpoint, autism is often less than obvious in that outward appearance may not indicate a disorder. diagnosis typically comes from a complete patient history and physical and neurological evaluation. the incidence of diagnosed autism has increased since the 1990s. reasons offered for this phenomenon include better diagnosis, wider public awareness of the condition, regional variations in diagnostic criteria, or simply an increase in the occurrence of asd ( autism spectrum disorders ). the united states centers for disease control ( cdc ) estimate the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders to be about one in every 150 children. in 2005, the national institute of mental health ( nimh ) stated the \" best conservative estimate \" as 1 in 1000. in 2006, nimh estimated that the incidence was 2 - 6 in every 1000. there are numerous theories as to the specific causes of autism, but they have yet to be fully supported by evidence ( see section on \" causes \" below ). proposed factors include genetic influence, anatomical variations ( e. g. head circumference ), abnormal blood vessel function and oxidative stress. their significance as well as implications for treatment remain speculative. conversely, some autistic children and adults are opposed to attempts to cure autism. these people see autism as part of who they are, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5224630820276611, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.571556"} {"text": "abnormal blood vessel function and oxidative stress. their significance as well as implications for treatment remain speculative. conversely, some autistic children and adults are opposed to attempts to cure autism. these people see autism as part of who they are, and in some cases they perceive treatments and attempts of a cure to be unethical. on the surface, individuals who have autism are physically indistinguishable from those without. some studies show that autistic children tend to have larger head circumferences but the significance in the disorder is unclear. sometimes autism co - occurs with other disorders, and in those cases outward differences may be apparent. individuals diagnosed with autism can vary greatly in skills and behaviors, and their response to sensory input shows marked differences in a number of ways from that of other people. certain stimulations, such as sounds, lights, and touch, will often affect someone with autism differently than someone without, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected can vary greatly from one individual to another. autistic children may display unusual behaviors or fail to display expected behaviors. normal behaviors may develop at the appropriate age and then disappear or, conversely, are delayed and develop quite some time after normal occurrence. in assessing developmental delays, different physicians may not always arrive at the same conclusions. much of this difference between diagnosis is due to the disputed criteria for autism. deciding how a child should behave is also difficult because diagnostic tests have to be objective, which is not a simple thing to accomplish. because of this practitioners and researchers in pediatrics, child psychology, behavior analysis, and child development are always looking for early indicators of autism. the diagnosis of autism must meet specific criterion but there are also many characteristics that are idiosyncratic. thus, autism is not a \" one size fits all \" label. in other words the spectrum disorder encompasses a very wide range of behaviors and symptoms. some behaviors cited by the national institute of child health and human development ( listed below ) may simply mean a normal delay in one or more areas of development, while others are more typical of asds \u2014 autistic spectrum disorders. the list below is not all - inclusive, and generally applies to children and not adults. furthermore, while some of these behaviors might be seen in a person with autism, others may be absent. noted behaviors in children", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5305661768785982, "token_count": 474, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.573438"} {"text": "inorganic matter in a wheat berry is heavily concentrated in the outer layers, such as the bran, various seed coatings, and the germ. as you traverse from the outer coatings to the outer endosperm and then to the inner endosperm, the concentration of inorganic matter steadily drops. during milling, the flour is ground, then sifted, then ground again, and sifted again repeatedly. when the milling process is complete, a large number of bins of product will result from very coarse to very fine, and from very dark to very light flours. the whitest flours will have less ash content, and the darker flours will have more ash content. at this point, various grades of flour may be created by blending the flour from the bins. ash content then summarizes how much of the outer layers made it in to the final flour, regardless of how it may have been milled, sifted, and blended. the importance of measuring ash content was immediately obvious to me as i tried to mill and sift at home on my own. an infinite number of possible permutations of grinding and milling could be imagined. for example, i tried grinding very coarsely, then sifting, then grinding the coarser results of the sifting again, then sifting again. another version was grinding very finely and sifting into more and finer sizes. i also tried grinding coarsely, then regrinding, then sifting. of course, the possibilities are endless. in each of these cases, flour resulted that made good bread, seemed light in color, and fine in texture. the difference to the eye and the feel in the hand was not great between one and the other, at least not to me, a first - time home miller. measuring ash content of my results would make it possible to know at least approximately how much of the outer layers had made it into each type of flour resulting from the various grinding and sifting processes tried. also, once a given process is adopted and used consistently, calculating the right blend of the various outputs of the milling process to achieve a desired ash content, depending on the type of flour needed, should also be fairly easy. distilled water doesn ' t conduct electricity. however, if some salt is dissolved in distilled water, it will conduct electricity. the ions contributed by the salt are charged particles that will travel through the water in the field created by the voltage difference on the electrodes of the conductivity meter to create a flow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.518810555479347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.590465"} {"text": "salt is dissolved in distilled water, it will conduct electricity. the ions contributed by the salt are charged particles that will travel through the water in the field created by the voltage difference on the electrodes of the conductivity meter to create a flow of electric current. the higher the concentration of salt, the higher the conductivity of the water and salt solution will be. the diverse mineral content in the inorganic matter that makes up the \" ash content \" of the flour ionizes the water in the same way described above for salt. if the flour has a larger amount of \" ash content \" it will also contribute a larger quantity of ionizing compounds to water, increasing the conductivity. to measure conductivity you need a conductivity meter. in the field of water quality measurement, \" total dissolved solids \" is a standard measurement, but it is essentially a measure of the conductivity of the water being tested. so, you can use either a \" conductivity meter \" or a \" tds meter \". in my case, i had obtained a hanna 9813 ph meter a number of years ago, and it turns out it also had a conductivity meter function. however, it was easy to discover conductivity meters on the internet, by searching on terms like \" conductivity meter \", \" tds \", \" total dissolved solids \", \" water quality meter \", and so on. one place i found was http : / / www. technika. com. also searching on \" hannah meter \" might work, since that ' s the brand of meter i have that has both ph and conductivity meters, both useful functions for flour measurement. you might wonder why a standard digital multi - meter wouldn ' t work. i tried to use one unsuccessfully. first of all, you would have to carefully mount the probes to maintain the same distance apart and total surface area exposed to the water. however, it gets worse. the dc current used by a digital multi - meter to measure resistance causes the ions to build up on the electrodes, so the measurement just goes higher and higher the longer you leave the electrodes in the water. conductivity meters made for measuring water impurities use ac current to measure the conductivity so the above problem with an ohm - meter doesn ' t occur, have probes made of less reactive conductors, and are designed to maintain proper spacing of the electrodes. i found a couple of papers on the internet describing methods of measuring ash content with conductivity. one was especially useful for home", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5039126002716812, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.592420"} {"text": "this category will be for all the current classroom essentials teacher binders that are currently listed. keep in mind that you can also grab the matching csss lesson planning packs and ccss complete vocabulary programs to coordinate as well in those categories! enjoy! for back - to - school, assessment, and more, this category will be where you will need to head! this category is all about pd from the comfort of your own home! grab a cup of your favorite beverage, put your feet up, and enjoy learning! if you are using, or going to adopt the common core standards, you are going to want to make your life a while lot easier by checking out these lesson planning packs for grades k - 5! the standards used are the national common core state standards - if you are unsure whether your state has adopted them, please check this map for more information. there are also common core pacing guides available! make sure to also check out the coordinating theme classroom essentials sets and complete vocabulary programs! are you required to display the common core standards word - for - word in your classroom? do you, the parents, and students even know what all of the words within the standards mean? if your answers are yes and no, this program is for you! and they coordinate perfectly with the ccss lesson planning packs and classroom essentials sets! there are also common core pacing guides available! need a helping hand in figuring out when to teach which standards with the new ccss? look no more! this category will be all you need! need more ccss resources? common core lesson planning packs and complete vocabulary programs also available! looking to stay organized and plan for the year ahead? make sure to check out all the different themes in the personal planning calendars category! they coordinate perfectly with the classroom essentials sets, common core lesson planning packs, and complete vocabulary programs! this new category brings learning and classroom organization together as a team! check out the possibilities when you combine great looking displays and fun learning objectives! reading, writing, and spelling items will all be waiting for you to check out here! all math products all in one place! just for you science teachers ( or those who wish they could be science teachers ) : ) from the super popular posts on the organized classroom blog ' s facebook fan page! now, you can download and print all of your favorites! this category is for customers would would like to order more than one set of the same designer dots ccss pack. the shopping cart feature will not allow you to place more than one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5036904648545956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.609909"} {"text": "page! now, you can download and print all of your favorites! this category is for customers would would like to order more than one set of the same designer dots ccss pack. the shopping cart feature will not allow you to place more than one of the same item into the cart, so this is a solution for those customers! this will allow for purchases of 2 - 5 copies of the same file. for those that need to order 20 + copies of the dot ccss packs in total, please contact me at my email address ( found in the top navigation bar of the site ). if you are ordering less than 20 copies, and none of them are the same, please just add your choices to the shopping cart in the usual way. the designer dot theme is the most popular and is the only item that can be purchased this way. thanks so much! if you are a blogger, this category is just for you! you now have access to some great tips and tricks for your very own blog! if you would like to be able to purchase these items at a savings of 50 %, make sure to check out teaching blog traffic school, as all membership purchasers have the opportunity to buy at half off the list price! for more great teaching blog marketing ideas, find us on facebook and pinterest! see you there! this category has all the seasonal items you need to keep the novelty running at full speed in your classroom! enjoy! the organized classroom blog brings you tons of great free resources that you can download and use today! enjoy! as a reminder, if you look at the freebies category on the blog, you will also find additional files that are not located here. : ) pinterest scavenger hunt pin # 4! please pin the image below, along with the description : \" freebies galore at the organized classroom blog! http : / / theorganizedclassroomblog. com / index. php / ocb - store \" clue for pin # 5 : you will find your last pin on the blog post with a tag of data binder. : ) click to read the newest issue! < a href = \" http : / / theorganizedclassroomblog. com \" > < img src = \" http : / / www. theorganizedclassroomblog. com / uploads / ocblogbutton - 200pxw. png \" alt = \" the oc blog button \" width = \" 200 \" height = \" 150", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5005130292121793, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.612621"} {"text": "the study involved the first - ever use on an infectious disease of a new research technique called chemical genetics. every virus presents scientists with a new kind of genetic code \u2014 the challenge is to figure out how to decipher it to gain a fuller understanding of how the virus works and how to combat it. in the past, such research was often slow and laborious. but thanks to chemical genetics \u2014 which allows scientists to quickly test how a new virus reacts with thousands of different chemicals \u2014 viruses that might have remained indecipherable for years can now be at least partially unlocked in months or even weeks. \" instead of testing out keys in a lock one by one, it ' s like trying out 50, 000 keys all at once, \" says yuen. the point of both chemical and classical genetic research is to figure out which genes do what \u2014 in effect, to learn to read an organism ' s genetic language. in classical genetics, scientists usually mutate an organism, see how its functions have changed ( a mutated virus might no longer be infectious ) and then work back and identify which gene mutated. if a mutated virus loses its ability to infect a cell, then that gene probably has something to do with infectivity. in chemical genetics, explains dr. richard kao, the lead researcher on the hku study, scientists try do the same by testing thousands upon thousands of chemicals on virus samples. the vast majority won ' t have any effect, but a handful will. researchers can then take those virus samples and use further tests to figure out which viral gene has been affected by which chemical. \" if we discover that interfering with a certain gene stops the virus from replicating, then we know that gene ' s function likely has to do with replication, \" says kao, a biochemist who brought his passion for chemical genetics to hku from harvard university, where the process was first pioneered in the early 1990s. in hku ' s sars study, kao and his colleagues filled the tiny wells of a small, waffle - like board with samples of the coronavirus cultured in cell lines. microscopic amounts of different chemical compounds were introduced into each separate well using a $ 180, 000 machine called an automated high - throughput screening platform. once the chemicals had time to interact with the virus, scientists could examine the results with an inverted microscope. the process was repeated until all 50, 240 compounds in their chemical library had been tested, which took a few months. \" you ' d think it '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5230201000985177, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.658909"} {"text": "interest. i think that a man should not live beyond the age when he begins to deteriorate, when the flame that lighted the brightest moment of his life has weakened. letter from prison, 1953 regarding human rights with what moral authority can they speak of human rights \u2014 the rulers of a nation in which the millionaire and beggar coexist ; the indian is exterminated ; the black man is discriminated against ; the woman is prostituted ; and the great masses of chicanos, puerto ricans, and latin americans are scorned, exploited, and humiliated? speech in 1978 quotes regarding fidel castro. by jesse jackson the most honest, courageous politician i have ever met. during 1984 visit to havana - - - books you may like include : - - - - one minute to midnight : kennedy, khrushchev and castro on the brink of nuclear war by michael dobbs. in october 1962, at the height of the cold war, the united states and the soviet union appeared to be sliding inexorably toward a nuclear conflict ove... the dark side of camelot by seymour m. hersh. if the kennedys are america ' s royal family, then john f. kennedy was the nation ' s crown prince. magnetic, handsome, and charismatic, his perfectly coi... brothers : the hidden history of the kennedy years by david talbot. for decades, books about john or robert kennedy have woven either a shimmering tale of camelot gallantry or a tawdry story of runaway ambition and rec... one hell of a gamble : khrushchev, kennedy, and castro, 1958 - 1964 by aleksandr fursenko. the berlin wall has been rubble for a decade and the memories of the cold war are growing dim. and yet no one is ever likely to forget the cuban miss...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5023119556559138, "token_count": 376, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.709450"} {"text": "here is an example of how to make a cylinder, naming it \" rod \" for future reference : the center of one end of this cylinder is at x = 0, y = 2, and z = 1. its axis lies along the x axis, with length 5, so that the other end of the cylinder is at ( 5, 2, 1 ), as shown in the accompanying diagram. you can modify the position of the cylinder after it has been created, which has the effect of moving it immediately to the new position : rod. pos = ( 15, 11, 9 ) # change position ( x, y, z ) rod. x = 15 # only change pos. x if you create an object such as a cylinder but without giving it a name such as rod, you can ' t refer to it later. this doesn ' t matter if you never intend to modify the object. since we didn ' t specify a color, the cylinder will be the current \" foreground \" color ( see controlling one or more visual display windows ). the default foreground color is white. after creating the cylinder, you can change its color : rod. color = ( 0, 0, 1 ) # make rod be blue this will make the cylinder suddenly turn blue, using the so - called rgb system for specifying colors in terms of fractions of red, green, and blue. ( for details on choosing colors, see specifying colors. ) you can set individual amounts of red, green, and blue like this : rod. red = 0. 4 rod. green = 0. 7 rod. blue = 0. 8 the cylinder object can be created with other, optional attributes, which can be listed in any order. here is a full list of attributes, most of which also apply to other objects : position : the center of one end of the cylinder ; default = ( 0, 0, 0 ) a triple, in parentheses, such as ( 3, 2, 5 ) axis the axis points from pos to the other end of the cylinder, default = ( 1, 0, 0 ) x, y, z essentially the same as pos. x, pos. y, pos. z, defaults are all 0 radius the radius of the cylinder, default = 1 length length of axis ; if not specified, axis determines the length, default = 1 if length is specified, it overrides the length given by axis color color of object, as a red - green - blue ( r", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5059816248378906, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.760296"} {"text": "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, as astronomer carl sagan once said. sagan was talking about ufos and aliens, but his words now stand as a watchword for skepticism in science. but how do we know when a claim is extraordinary? say, maybe when the aliens don ' t arrive from space? consider the controversial \" arseniclife \", short for arsenic - based life, bacteria study. rather than arriving on a ufo, the microbe was unveiled at nasa headquarters, announced at an \" astrobiology \" news briefing on dec. 2, 2010, as \" the first known microorganism on earth able to thrive and reproduce using the toxic chemical arsenic. \" arsenic is a poison. how did the finding that the bacteria called gfaj - 1 replaced phosphorus, a basic chemical constituent of biochemistry, with arsenic even in its dna make its way into the hallowed journalscience, and onto the stage at nasa? the idea turned out to be too good to be true, as two studies also published by science that refuted the claim showed this summer. both showed that the microbe, discovered in california ' s mono lake, in fact seems to need some minuscule amount of phosphorus to survive. it ' s just tough, not completely alien, in its biochemistry. \" science magazine is perhaps the most important publication in the united states for communicating science to the public. therefore, when science publishes something funded by nasa that is likely to broadly interest the public, nasa is effectively required to hold a press conference, \" says chemist steven benner of the foundation for applied molecular evolution in gainesville, fla. benner served as the outside skeptical voice at the nasa press conference announcing the finding. \" this all assumes, of course, a very high quality of peer review at science magazine, \" benner says. and that might be the rub. a usa today investigation suggests that the problems with the arseniclife story started with science ' s \" peer review \" of the findings before it ever took the nasa stage. peer review is the basic process in science where anonymous outside experts eyeball a study for journal editors, acting as gatekeepers on publications. in the case of the 2010 gfaj - 1 study, three anonymous reviewers, along with science editor caroline ash, asked the authors 32 questions about the study, which were answered by the authors a month ahead of the press conference. and they made a few general comments on the paper. here are some : \" the results are exceptional, \" said reviewer 1. \" it ' s a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5378672214707922, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.769562"} {"text": "important piece of work and also comment that it is clearly presented. \" \" judging from the quotes, the three reviewers were enthusiastic about the paper. indeed, these reviews would be described by most scientists as ' glowing, ' \" says biologist patricia foster of indiana university in bloomington. in particular, she notes at least three striking things about the reviews lost in these glowing comments. \" first, there is little biology mentioned - the reviewers questioned only mildly the authors ' assumption that there was too little phosphorus in the medium to support growth. this assumption was a major point of disagreement voiced by scientists after the paper appeared. \" second, the reviewers didn ' t question wide variation in chemistry analysis of the medium that the bugs grew in ( specifically, how much contaminating phosphorous was in it ), something that later critics saw as a major shortcoming. finally, they only commented, rather than inquiring, on the biochemistry implied by the results, the central extraordinary claim that arsenic was acting in place of phosphorus in the metabolism of the gfaj - 1 bacteria. \" in conclusion, i believe that nasa would have had no reason to doubt the results of the paper based on these reviews. in fact, nasa officials would have felt encouraged to publicize the paper, \" foster says. foster does note that the study authors added a figure ( and a few more authors ) to the paper, suggesting the gfaj - 1 bug had arsenic in its dna, as a result of the review wanting to see more evidence of arsenic inside the bacteria. the figure became another point of controversy in the debate over the study. ( wager says that adding a new figure and authors is \" perfectly acceptable \" during peer review and wouldn ' t necessarily trigger a re - review of a study. ) basically, the reviewers took at face value the fundamental claim by the study authors that the gfaj - 1 bug was growing without any phosphorus, says microbial ecologist norman pace of the university of colorado. \" once you accept that, everything else follows, \" pace says. \" you just have to have a certain expertise to know that is nearly impossible ; removing phosphorus is just very hard. \" in general, pace says that he believes peer review improves studies and works as a \" pretty strong \" corrective to error in science. \" there is lots of poor science out there, but important claims like this one are checked up on and proven true or false, as this ( arseniclife ) one was, so i think things are not actually so suspect out there", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5177295426364921, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.773136"} {"text": "error in science. \" there is lots of poor science out there, but important claims like this one are checked up on and proven true or false, as this ( arseniclife ) one was, so i think things are not actually so suspect out there in science. in essence, this was all found out in due course. my belief is the peer - review system is fundamentally sound. \" regardless, pace says there was \" poor judgment at multiple levels \" in the arseniclife case, from an \" overly exuberant \" interpretation of the study results by the authors to the peer reviewers missing \" the big crux of the results : the claim of absence of phosphorus, \" to nasa repeating some of the mistakes that caused the agency trouble in 1996, when it publicized results suggesting a martian meteorite contained microscopic signs of life. still, pace had actually recommended the publication of that 1996 paper, he says. \" i do think it is important to get noteworthy results out there. \" in 2011, science editor - in - chief bruce alberts echoed that comment in a statement on the arseniclife study. \" we hope that the study and the subsequent exchange being published today will stimulate further experiments - whether they support or overturn this conclusion. in either case, the overall result will advance our knowledge about conditions that support life, an important outcome for science and education, \" alberts says. worth noting is that nasa scientist michael new and original study lead author wolfe - simon, now of the lawrence berkeley ( calif. ) national laboratory, both still supported the original 2010 study ' s findings this summer when the refuting studies were published. \" science is continuously evaluating its peer - review policies and procedures with the goal of a rigorous and fair process, \" magazine spokeswoman ginger pinholster said in response to questions about whether the journal has changed its peer - review practices since 2010. this year, the journal added an additional step to the review process. once all reviews are in on a manuscript, all the reviewers are invited to read them and comment. \" this step allows the reviewers to react to the comments of the other reviewers and may help the editor to calibrate the reviewer comments, \" pinholster says by e - mail. kruglyak cautions against looking back too harshly at the reviewers of the arseniclife study. \" in hindsight we can see what went on, but that ' s how hindsight works, \" kruglyak says. \" it was a pretty spectacular claim. in the big picture, i ' m", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5178401098734616, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.774702"} {"text": "what rh factor testing screens for the rh factor is a protein carried by red blood cells in some people, and not in others. if you have the protein, you are rh positive. if not, you are rh negative. ( and you are special : only about 15 percent of the population is rh negative. ) in blood typing, everyone is either type a, b, or o ; the plus or minus sign after the letter refers to the rh factor. both rh negative and rh positive are entirely normal, healthy blood characteristics. problems can arise, however, if an rh - negative mom - to - be carries an rh - positive baby. the mother ' s body may mistake the baby ' s blood cells as intruders and start making antibodies to attack them. left unchecked, this condition ( known as fetal rh disease ) can threaten the health of the baby. this almost never happens in a first pregnancy ( since the baby ' s blood is unlikely to enter the mom ' s bloodstream until delivery ). however, if untreated in the first pregnancy, it can threaten subsequent pregnancies. so as a preventive measure, all rh - negative women are given injections of a substance called rhogam ( rh - d immune globulin, which prevents the antibodies from forming ) at various times during each pregnancy \u2014 starting with the first. these injections save the lives of an estimated 10, 000 babies per year in the united states alone. who rh factor testing is forall pregnant women will have their rh factor determined. rh - negative woman will have follow - up testing and treatment. how rh factor testing is doneblood samples are taken from a vein in your arm. if you are rh - negative, a rhogam injection goes into your muscle tissue in your arm or your backside. you might be given a choice ; or your practitioner might favor one spot or the other. the injection is somewhat painful and the soreness can last for a couple of days. ask your practitioner about taking a pain reliever to alleviate the discomfort. when rh factor testing is done rh testing is usually done during a woman ' s first blood test during pregnancy. rhogam injections for rh - negative women are given at 28 or 29 weeks and again within 72 hours of delivery. the rhogam injection is also administered after any genetic testing that could result in mixing of maternal and fetal blood, such as cvs ( cho", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5187180401078262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.785964"} {"text": "pi : amy bower ( whoi ) deep ocean convection is limited to a small number of isolated regions worldwide, including the labrador sea, but it has a profound impact on the ocean \u2019 s thermohaline circulation and climate. while the convection process itself has been studied intensively over the last decade, the restratification of the water column after convection, which will directly impact convection during subsequent winters, is not as well - studied. it has recently been suggested that the decay of coherent, long - lived, anticyclonic eddies shed from a surrounding warm boundary current are potentially important in restratifying convection regions. this idea is most developed in the labrador sea, where anticyclonic eddies containing a core of warm, salty water from the irminger current ( a remnant of the gulf stream ) have been observed. the goal of the proposed research is to advance our understanding of the role of irminger rings in deep convection by collecting new information on their initial structure and on the evolution of their core properties as they propagate across the labrador sea. to meet this goal, we plan to deploy one densely instrumented mooring in the northeastern labrador sea near, but offshore of the eddy formation site to document the full water column hydrographic and velocity structure of about 12 new rings where they detach from the boundary and enter the interior. the mooring will also serve as the \u201c launch pad \u201d for the automatic release of a profiling float each time an eddy sweeps by the mooring. trapped within the eddies by the strong azimuthal velocities, the floats will track the eddy trajectories and measure changes in eddy core properties as they move from the formation site toward the convection region. when this research program is completed, we will have unprecedented information on the structure and heat and salt content of nascent irminger rings that have separated from the boundary, improved estimates of the heat and freshwater fluxes associated with rings, and new information on where and how their anomalous core properties are spread within the labrador sea. oceaninsight : irminger rings project overview link to oceaninsight irminger rings project overview popular science : fieldwork the unseen currents on the labrador sea, the scientific crew of the research vessel knorr hunts for underwater storms, sinks a two - mile mooring \u2014 and gathers clues to the planet \u2019 s fate. march, 2011. furey, h., a. bower, and t. mckee. an irminger", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5398481947101162, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.789602"} {"text": "minimum inhibitory concentration minimum inhibitory concentration ( mic ), in microbiology, is the lowest concentration of an antimicrobial that will inhibit the visible growth of a microorganism after overnight incubation. minimum inhibitory concentrations are important in diagnostic laboratories to confirm resistance of microorganisms to an antimicrobial agent and also to monitor the activity of new antimicrobial agents. mics can be determined by broth dilution methods usually following the guidelines of a reference body such as the clsi, bsac or eucast. another, more modern method is the e - test method using strips of a gradient of antibiotic concentration. clinically, the minimum inhibitory concentrations are used not only to determine the amount of antibiotic that the patient will receive but also the type of antibiotic used, which in turn lowers the opportunity for microbial resistance to specific antimicrobial agents. - \u2191 andrews, j. m. determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations. journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy 48 ( suppl. 1 ) : 5 - 16, ( 2001 ). pmid 11420333. there is no pharmaceutical or device industry support for this site and we need your viewer supported donations | editorial board | governance | licensing | disclaimers | avoid plagiarism | policies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5200660980951717, "token_count": 267, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.791077"} {"text": "these is a drawing of the interior of io. click on image for full size interior of io the diagram to the left shows the interior of io. when the galileo spacecraft flew by io it took measurements which showed that io was separated into two layers, as shown in this picture. thus scientists think that io has a large core, covered with a rocky material. there is no ice within io. shop windows to the universe science store! our online store on science education, ranging from evolution, classroom research, and the need for science and math literacy you might also be interested in : differentiation is a scientific term which really means \" to separate \". in their earliest history, elements which made the planets would part into separate regions, if the planet were warm enough. this... more galileo is a spacecraft that has been orbiting jupiter for eight years. on september 21, 2003, galileo will crash into jupiter. it will burn up in jupiter ' s atmosphere. the crash is not an accident! the... more amalthea was discovered by e barnard in 1872. of the 17 moons it is the 3rd closest to jupiter. amalthea is about the size of a county or small state. amalthea is named after the goat in greek mythology... more callisto was first discovered by galileo in 1610. it is the 2nd largest moon in the solar system, and is larger than the earth ' s moon. it is about as big as the distance across the united states. callisto... more measurements by the galileo spacecraft have been shown that callisto is the same inside from the center to the surface. this means that callisto does not have a core at the center. this means that, unlike... more many different types of surface are shown in this picture. in the front is a huge crater, which goes for a long way over the surface. this crater could be compared to that of mimas. they both show that... more the surface of callisto is deeply marked with craters. craters are the little white marks in the picture. it looks like it might be the most heavily cratered body in the whole solar system. and some of... more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5167035379612722, "token_count": 445, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.798627"} {"text": "a new look at the human genome suggests that unappreciated variations in its fundamental architecture, rather than point - by - point mutations, may be responsible for most genetic difference among people. point - by - point mutations, called single nucleotide polymorphisms, involve simple changes to dna lettering. they ' re the best - studied type of variation, the target of most genomic disease hunts, and the substance of commercially available personal more complex yet less - studied are structural variations, which involve large - scale changes : wholesale duplications and reversals, or unexpected additions and omissions, of long dna sequences. traditional genome sequencing techniques are too fuzzy and piecemeal to make sense of these, yet \" our observations suggest that structural variations are more specific to individuals than single nucleotide polymorphisms are, \" wrote researchers led by jun wang of the beijing genomics institute in a 24 july nature biotechnology study. it might seem counterintuitive that big changes have been harder to detect than small ones, but it ' s a consequence of how genomes are read. every method involves breaking long dna sequences - - the human genome contains three billion dna pairs - - into pieces, then trying to reassemble them. the methods vary according to fragment size and reassembly technique, but as a rule it ' s far less expensive and time - intensive to use small fragments. as a result, most genomic studies, including genome - wide association surveys, involve sequences reassembled from small pieces. as with a jigsaw puzzle or a book, however, larger fragments would work better. if the pieces are too small, or the text blocks just a few letters long, it ' s difficult to be certain what the final product ought to look like. it ' s possible to compare two pieces, but not puzzle sections or paragraphs. \" one reason you ' ve heard more about single nucleotide polymorphisms, that they ' ve come to the fore even though they ' re a more minor form of variation than these structural variants, is that they were easier to see, \" said yale university bioinformaticist mark gerstein, who was not involved in the in the new study, wang and colleagues used algorithms that assemble long, relatively intact genome sequences from small fragments, allowing them to see more structural variation than is usually possible. in a high - profile earlier study, they ' d used it to sequence a giant panda genome ; this time they compared structural variations across 106 people from the 1000", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5434444038875718, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.801294"} {"text": "this teacher - submitted, secondary lesson plan appeared in the badger history bulletin. please adapt it to fit your students ' needs. author : joni shahrani, sennett middle school, madison students will investigate the meaning of \" change \" in our society and grasp the way wisconsin ' s progressive traditions have affected changes in many aspects of life. they will make the connection between wisconsin as a progressive leader, and the inventions and legislative acts that are documented on the wisconsin firsts poster. then students will choose one of the items listed on the poster to research and report on in class. this lesson plan requires two to three class periods. students will gain a greater understanding of how change can be viewed in society. students will think critically and make intelligent inferences. students will be able to distinguish between industrial and legislative firsts. students will analyze and draw conclusions about how these \" firsts \" reflect the wisconsin people who made and used them. the wisconsin firsts poster has been created by the office of school services for students of all ages. the following lesson idea can motivate middle - level students to discuss and research the great state of wisconsin. - begin the lesson by asking students these questions : - what is change? - why is there change? - lead students to the idea that change can be anything new and innovative. - once students understand a good working definition of change, ask them if change will happen more easily if it benefits an individual or a large number of people? why? now have students also generate a working definition for the word \" progressive. \" at this point, ask students to draw parallels between their working definitions of \" change \" and \" progressive. \" enable students to understand that the state of wisconsin is seen as a progressive state in many areas. display the wisconsin firsts poster to show the many wisconsin firsts. these \" firsts \" exhibit why wisconsin is considered a progressive state. now ask students to brainstorm categories of \" firsts \" from the poster. two categories that work well are \" inventions \" and \" legislative firsts. \" there will be a few \" firsts \" that will not fit into these two categories. direct individual or pairs of students to research the \" first \" of their choice. their research should explain what the innovation was and its impact on industry and human rights, or laws. the information from these reports can be related to middle school history curriculum such as industrialism and reforms in the united states. - help students to see that change is much easier on a society if many people benefit as opposed to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5864669505177842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.804143"} {"text": "century dictionary and cyclopedia - n. the destroyer : a name given ( only in rev. ix. 11 ) to the angel of the bottomless pit, answering to the hebrew abaddon. gnu webster ' s 1913 - n. the destroyer ; - - a name used ( rev. ix. 11 ) for the angel of the bottomless pit, answering to the hebrew - ancient greek \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03c5\u03c9\u03bd ( \" apollyon, the destroyer \" ), from \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03c5\u03bc\u03b9 ( \" destroy \" ) ( wiktionary ) \u201c apollyon comes from a greek word meaning the destroyer. \u201d \u201c now, phineas, be content ; apollyon is beaten down. \u201d \u201c \u201c have you ever heard of a company called apollyon associates? \u201d \u201d \u201c in revelation he is the king of hell, for says the apostle, \" and they had a king over them, which is the angel of the bottomless pit, whose name in the hebrew tongue is abaddon, but in the greek tongue hath his name apollyon \" ( rev. 9 : 1. 1 ). \u201d \u201c for what is the very name apollyon, but an occult prophecy concerning the great conqueror of europe! nothing can be plainer! \u201d \u201c without entering upon the thing in its reality, i shall only observe, 1st, that it is neither in his power, or of his nature, to be a saviour of men ' s lives ; he is called apollyon the destroyer. \u201d \u201c without entering upon the thing in its reality, i shall only observe ; that it is neither in his power or of his nature to be a saviour of men ' s lives ; he is called apollyon the destroyer. \u201d \u201c the leader of this legion of tormenting scorpions was apollyon, meaning \u201c the destroyer. \u201d \u201d \u201c be warned though that it investigates the heavy sounds even more ( \" apollyon \" ). \u201d \u201c his voice is strongest on the golden gate bridge ; if you stop and look down you can hear the whisper of apollyon. \u201d \u2018 apollyon \u2019 hasn ' t been added to any lists yet. looking for tweets for apollyon.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.509919525970598, "token_count": 463, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.810973"} {"text": "- idiomatic there ain ' t no such thing as a free lunch ; something advertised as being \" free \" will invariably have hidden costs. - acronym, originating in the early 20th century, and popularized by robert heinlein ' s novel, the moon is a harsh mistress. ( wiktionary ) \u201c the acronym tanstaafl was used by robert heinlein, the science fiction writer, in his 1966 novel, \u201d \u201c wealthy taxpayers must have gotten their gains at someone else ' s expense, since tanstaafl. \u201d \u201c \u00bb heinlein on national health care : tanstaafl heinleinblog heinleinblog \u201d \u201c but then i think that most people who cite tanstaafl have never read \u201c mistress \u201d, have no understanding that it applies only in a closed system, and are still looking for their own free lunches. \u201d \u201c heinlein gets the last word \" is kurt vonnegut ' s new york times article on the literary importance of heinlein and the uncut stranger in a strange land ( free registration required, or use our gift to you : username / password = heinlein100 / tanstaafl ). \u201d \u201c the moon is a harsh mistress by robert heinlein - the concept known as tanstaafl, or \" there ain ' t no such thing as a free lunch \". \u201d \u201c i thought of tanstaafl when he said that and wonder if he every read that book. \u201d \u201c somebody threw bob heinlein at me, so let me respond with him : tanstaafl. \u201d \u201c tanstaafl - - there ain ' t no such thing as a free lunch. \u201d \u201c \u00bb heinlein, tanstaafl evoked to defend gas tax heinleinblog heinleinblog \u201d these user - created lists contain the word \u2018 tanstaafl \u2019. signs like ; - ) are excluded as they wouldn ' t appear as wordnik items anyway looking for tweets for tanstaafl.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5506175940792885, "token_count": 421, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.819396"} {"text": "given that only half of global warming is due to co2, while another half is caused mainly by methane, world - leading scientists such as professor of global environmental health kirk smith and nasa \u2019 s prof. james hansen call for methane reduction strategies, for instance through reducing livestock, to be implemented rather than risky and untried geoengineering carbon sequestration strategies. dr smith writes : \u201c one tonne of methane is responsible for nearly 100 times more warming over the first five years of its lifetime in the atmosphere than a tonne of co2. methane is removed from the atmosphere much more rapidly than co2, with a half - life of 8. 5 years compared with many decades for co2. \u201d according to nasa article entitled \u201c global warming in the twenty - first century : an alternative scenario \u201c, co - authored by professor hansen : \u201c rapid warming in recent decades has been driven mainly by non - co2 greenhouse gases ( ghgs ), such as chlorofluorocarbons ( cfcs ), methane ( ch4 ), and nitrous oxide ( n2o ), not by the products of fossil fuel burning. if sources of methane and ozone ( o3 ) precursors were reduced in the future, the change in climate forcing by non - co2 ghgs in the next 50 years could be near zero. \u201d source : global warming in the twenty - first century : an alternative scenario nasa site \u2013 abbreviated version \u2013 proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( pnas ) \u2013 full article date : 25 june 2009", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5102671412997919, "token_count": 315, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.823676"} {"text": "field trip - flagstaff middle school pond at the flagstaff middle school pond, students get their first outdoors hands - on practice at water quality testing. the students were instructed to follow protocols set by the global learning and observations to benefit the environment ( globe ). globe is an international network of scientists, educators and students conducting scientific research. within view of the san francisco peaks, students listened to hydrologist, dr aregai tecle, speak about the importance of hydrology. dr tecle covered topics ranging from our dry southwestern climate, declining water supplies in underground aquifers and the need to be conscious of our own water use. he also addressed these topics to get students to think more about a college education and careers in hydrology. with a degree in hydrology students will be able to return their communities in order to address their environmental problems. dr. tecle was very excited to be working with summer scholars because as a hydrologist, he is concerned about the future of our water resources. \u201c here, it is the scientific method they are learning \u2026 to engross their interest in academics, that way they have something to aspire for, \u201d tecle said. students used this field trip to practice the water quality protocols : temperature, ph, conductivity, turbidity and dissolved oxygen ( do ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5007276673285939, "token_count": 265, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.849940"} {"text": "as if one must look like liz taylor to get a date. have you boys ever realized that you don \u2019 t look like clark gable? \u2026 i believe that if given a chance the girls that aren \u2019 t so beautiful would prove cute enough for your adorable personalities \u2026 give the wake forest coeds a chance. \u201d the newspaper received several responses from the male population in varying degrees of dissatisfaction. winston - salem also took notice to this \u2018 rivalry \u2019. in 1966 a reporter for the winston - salem journal surveyed the girls at 8 colleges and universities and reported that they found wake forest men to be \u201c rude, crude, and unacceptable \u201d and \u201c retarded mashers. \u201d \u201c since admissions standards for men were lower, women tended to be more ambitious and intelligent, and they found it difficult to locate a marriageable man on the campus, \u201d ( history of wake forest iv, p. 307 - 308 ). another aspect the collection provides interesting insight into is the creation and upkeep of the societies. the societies the collection offers information on includes the fideles, rigels, petales, les soeurs, s. o. p. h., thymes, laurels, and strings. \u201c the societies themselves are primarily social in their function. they hope to offer the coed a broader scope of social living and at the same time to make some contribution to the life of the college and the community as well as to the lives of the society members. \u201d the student affairs committee held open - hearings in order to properly evaluate how the societies were functioning - around campus and this is what they found. it appears that the societies are most important for the girls during their freshman and sophomore years : in other words, they apparently fill a need for entering girls as they orient themselves to ready - made identity groups and make minor loyalties and friendships within the larger loyalty to wake forest college. according to our findings, senior girls rank them at the lower side of the list of factors most important in their collegiate career. apparently there is already operating an unconscious phasing - out of society - identity in the lives of some students who are most mature, more self - reliant, more scholarly. therefore, we recognize the role of societies in this maturing process of the individual student and in their contribution to the loyalty to the academic community, but we think that for those girls who tend to outgrown them, we would encourage a procedure whereby their membership could relapse into an honorary status. overall the deans record group, dean of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5131015450448086, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.872229"} {"text": "the class of 2013 represents the first totally 21st - century educated young people in america. so what you may ask. the \u201c so what \u201d is that they are different than previous generations. they grew up with internet service at home, not just at school. by eighth grade, most carried a touchscreen smartphone with wireless internet access. by the time they reached high school, their phones could not only access the internet faster, but could also store an entire library of photographs and digital music files. they have literally been on the crest of the technology tidal wave. as most of them now prepare to go off to college, many of the fields of study they will enter have been revolutionized by the same changes in technology and society that have shaped that generation. for example, math has changed in that there used to be just one way to solve problems, where now there might be four different strategies \u2013 a revolutionized education system. what is different about this generation is that information is no longer difficult to ferret out, so there is no longer the same requirement for students to retain information. the old - fashioned rote memorization style of education was based on a world where having data on instant recall was a valuable skill. today instant recall is not only unnecessary, it \u2019 s downright frowned upon. why clutter one \u2019 s mind with useless facts when it can better be used to play thanks to google, bing and yahoo search engines? these high school graduates retain less information because they don \u2019 t have to recall it \u2013 they can find it \u2013 but reportedly that doesn \u2019 t make them any less intelligent. education is even shifting its focus away from the retention of information and toward the use of information, because electronically, information is retained for us. but technology isn \u2019 t the only thing that has shaped the lives of this year \u2019 s graduates. none of them have any clear memory of a time when the united states wasn \u2019 t engaged in a war in afghanistan \u2014 a war that began in 2002 when they were in first grade. it was always on the news, when as adolescents they would see the list of the people that died that day. despite growing up in a time of turmoil throughout world, they seem to have developed a culture a greater tolerance and diversity than in previous generations. for example, interracial dating, which in earlier times would have ignited controversy and actually was illegal in some states, is something they hardly even notice. part of that is a reflection of the rapidly changing demographics of the nation. from 2000 to 2010, according to the u", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5076664011694512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.875741"} {"text": "community perceptions of malaria and vaccines in two districts of mozambique malaria is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in mozambique, with nearly three - quarters of the country ' s malaria - related deaths occurring in children younger than five years. a malaria vaccine is not yet available, but planning is underway for a possible introduction, as soon as one becomes available. in an effort to inform the planning process, this study explored sociocultural and health communications issues among individuals at the community level who are both responsible for decisions about vaccine use and who are likely to influence decisions about vaccine use. researchers conducted a qualitative study in two malaria - endemic districts in southern mozambique. using criterion - based sampling, they conducted 23 focus group discussions and 26 in - depth interviews. implementation was guided by the engagement of community stakeholders. community members recognize that malaria contributes to high death rates and affects the workforce, school attendance, and the economy. vaccines are seen as a means to reduce the threat of childhood illnesses and to keep children and the rest of the community healthy. perceived constraints to accessing vaccine services include long queues, staff shortages, and a lack of resources at health care facilities. local leaders play a significant role in motivating caregivers to have their children vaccinated. participants generally felt that a vaccine could help to prevent malaria, although some voiced concern that the focus was only on young children and not on older children, pregnant women, and the elderly. probed on their understanding of vaccine efficacy, participants voiced various views, including the perception that while some vaccines did not fully prevent disease they still had important benefits. overall, it would be essential for local leaders to be involved in the design of specific messages for a future malaria vaccine communications strategy, and for those messages to be translated into local languages. acceptance of routine childhood vaccines bodes well for a future malaria vaccine. vaccinating children is a well - established routine that is viewed favourably in mozambique. a communications strategy would need to build on existing immunization efforts and use trusted sources - - - including current government dissemination arrangements - - - to deliver health information. copyright by the authors listed above - made available via biomedcentral ( open access ). please make sure to read our disclaimer prior to contacting 7thspace interactive. to contact our editors, visit our online helpdesk. if you wish submit your own press release, click here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5135063823277408, "token_count": 486, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.896996"} {"text": "in molecular psychiatry in june 2004, just months after the iom report, showed that thimerosal caused autism - like damage in genetically - susceptible mice. another study by boyd haley of the university of kentucky, usa, showed that mercury reduced an essential protein in nerve cells, tubulin. the protein is important for the growth of neurons and its depletion has been linked to the alzheimer \u2019 s disease. thimerosal has also been implicated in other nerve disorders. for instance in 2003, david baskin of the department of neurosurgery at baylor college of medicine demonstrated that this preservative can cause membrane and dna damage, and kill nerve cells, even when administered in small amounts. the debate has some positive fallout in the us. w ith legislation to remove mercury from vaccines, the levels of the heavy metal in vaccines administered to infants in their first six - months has currently come down to 3 \u00b5g from 187. 5 \u00b5g in the 1980s. experts are waiting to see if this intervention reduces the incidence of autism. the debate can, however, compound the vaccine - related predicaments of developing countries like india, especially with the increasing awareness on the link between mercury and autism. a senior - delhi - based paediatrician sums this apprehension quite aptly : \u201c the fear of mercury in vaccines might deter people from innoculating their children \u201d. but what about alternatives to thimerosal? we do have alternative preservatives like 2 - phenoxyethanol. drug manufacturers around the world are also considering the use of other preservatives like benzalkonium chloride and benzethonium chloride. but says varaprasad reddy, ceo of shantha biotechnics, a hyderabad - based pharmaceutical company, \u201c we have manufactured vaccines withot thimerosal. it \u2019 s not difficult to produce them. but the who does not permit us to supply such vaccines to the unicef \u201d. besides, the use of these alternatives would require a complete change in the licensing regime. for, indian pharmacoepia \u2014 a document that contains guidelines on drug constituents \u2014 makes it mandatory for vaccines to have mercury. that \u2019 s not all. extensive safety data would be needed for licensing. in fact, in the us, 2 - phenoxyethanol is used in dpt vaccines manufactured by aventis pasteur. but a study dating back to 2000 indicates that this preservative also has neurotoxic properties.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5156088808419109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.927761"} {"text": ", in the us, 2 - phenoxyethanol is used in dpt vaccines manufactured by aventis pasteur. but a study dating back to 2000 indicates that this preservative also has neurotoxic properties. occupational exposure to this chemical for more than a year can lead to cognitive impairments. there are some other alternatives as well for example, the u niject device developed by the international ngo path, obviates the need for preservative - dependant multi - dose vials. but many experts are not too sure if the device could be a viable alternative. the device is costlier than even conventional single - dose vaccines, says reddy. the latter costs about rs 25 per vial, while the new device costs as much as rs 34. apathy and concern there is another problem far graver than costs of alternative preservatives. many experts do not see the need to shift over to mercury - free vaccines. one of them suresh jadhav, executive director, serum institute of india ltd, pune, asserts, \u201c there is no proof of the harm done by vaccines, only perceptions. using mercury - free, single - dose vaccines is also not feasible as multi - dose vaccines are far cheaper, \u201d he adds. indian pharmacoepia is quite categorical that even single - dose vaccines contain thimerosal. reddy agrees that this anomaly should be corrected, but is not sure that this would make much difference considering the expenses involved in manufacturing single - dose vaccines. there are other problems. it \u2019 s not incumbent on vaccine manufacturers to put down information about the presence of thimerosal in the literature that accompanies the vaccine vials. so, some of the vaccines produced in the country such as those produced by, gsk bharat biotech do not mention the presence of preservative. this lack makes it difficult for parents to take the kind of action taken by their counterparts in the us. the union minister of health and family welfare is not totally impervious to such problems. the national technical advisory group on immunisation, a body of this ministry, is supposed to convene a meeting soon to assess the safety data related to vaccines. if needed, the group will put an alternative vaccination strategy in place. but this meeting is long overdue. \u201c there should be policy changes. but these should be implemented quickly without creating a scare, \u201d suggests a senior paediatrician. other experts assert that the government", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5011681219302238, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.929016"} {"text": "there are, and have been, many theories about alcoholism. the most prevailing theory, and now most commonly accepted, is called the disease model. its basic tenets are that alcoholism is a disease with recognizable symptoms, causes, and methods of treatment. in addition, there are several stages of the disease which are often described as early, middle, late, treatment and relapse. while it is not essential to fully define these stages, it is useful to understand them in terms of how the disease presents itself. this series of articles describes the signs and symptoms of each stage as well as exploring treatment options. - early or adaptive stage - middle stage - late stage - treating alcoholism - relapse to drinking 1 \u2013 the early or adaptive stage of alcoholism the early or adaptive stage of alcoholism is marked by increasing tolerance to alcohol and physical adaptations in the body which are largely unseen. this increased tolerance is marked by the alcoholic \u2019 s ability to consume greater quantities of alcohol while appearing to suffer few effects and continuing to function. this tolerance is not created simply because the alcoholic drinks too much but rather because the alcoholic is able to drink great quantities because of physical changes going on inside his or her body. the early stage is difficult to detect. by appearances, an individual may be able to drink a great deal without becoming intoxicated, having hangovers, or suffering other apparent ill - effects from alcohol. an early stage alcoholic is often indistinguishable from a non - alcoholic who happens to be a fairly heavy drinker. in the workplace, there is likely to be little or no obvious impact on the alcoholic \u2019 s performance or conduct at work. at this stage, the alcoholic is not likely to see any problem with his or her drinking and would scoff at any attempts to indicate that he or she might have a problem. the alcoholic is simply not aware of what is going on in his or her body.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5267237281854571, "token_count": 385, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:41.985420"} {"text": "sep ' 11 - nov ' 11 we learn at elementary school that the morning sunlight took eight minutes to arrive. each ray of light from the sun acts as an exiled messenger who indicates whether the star is on or off. when the sun dies, it will take eight minutes for its last message to reach the earth. as stephen hawking states in a brief history of time, \u2018 the death of the sun does not affect us immediately because we are not in its future light cone \u2018. since the fastest way we can perceive distant events is through light, its direction and speed of travel limits how quickly we can experience an event. mapped through time, the event forms a conical horizon around itself whose width is determined by the speed of light rays ; if the observer is within its boundary, we can perceive the event ; if outside, there is no way we can know of it. in other words, our universe is structured so that we are always looking at the past. throughout history, light had been the signal that bridges past, present, and future, and brings about the beginning and end of time. according to ancient hebrew belief, life takes a linear path, beginning with the genesis creation myth where god said, \u201c let there be light! \u201d. in the judeo - christian worldview, the eschaton \u2013 the end of time \u2013 was crucial in establishing the belief that linear time justified a particular system of ethics and law. in the myth of the eternal return, the mythologist and religious historian mircea eliade describes a worldview where the universe is cyclical and is destined to repeat itself in a self - similar form for an infinite number of times across time and space. this worldview was inherent in indian ( and later egyptian ) philosophy, and was later taken up by followers of pythagoras as well as the stoics. the cyclical view of time was more in keeping with pre - historical, agrarian communities in which seasons and daily cycles had more significance than the progress of civilization and history. the linear view of time tends to dominate modern thought, and we obsess over possible environmental and apocalyptic endings to human history. however, some contemporary astrophysicsts, following einstein, have analyzed the behaviour of light and the nature of space - time as an infinite universe, with implications similar to cyclical views of time and history. ( left ) an event is visible through time, like a pebble thrown into a bond creates outward waves / / / ( right ) an event in the present can only be perceived in a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5770722119944025, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.034820"} {"text": "with implications similar to cyclical views of time and history. ( left ) an event is visible through time, like a pebble thrown into a bond creates outward waves / / / ( right ) an event in the present can only be perceived in a certain region of space - time. knowing that our time in the sun is limited, sometimes we try to capture time and light with images. albrecht durer \u2019 s etching, \u201c melancholia i \u201d associates light with order and darkness with chaos. the composition places the products of the imagination \u2013 geometry, mathematics, tools, and architecture \u2013 within the timeframe of an hourglass running out. in this picture, the imagination succeeds in creating a mental zone that overrides both astrophysics and religion \u2013 it holds together past, present and future with rays of perpetual sunlight \u2013 messengers of time etched in metal. / / / next week : skin, shell and skeleton part i nuclear bomb test, bikini atoll, 1946. the small black figures just outside the cloud are decommissioned world war ii battleships from the us navy. / / in addition to an urban investigation into the power structures of moscow, i ' ve been looking at ideas about the sublime and its relation to... - - yesterday china launched tiangong - 1 ( heavenly palace - 1 ), its first step towards a manned orbital space station. i remembered reading that the last space shuttle mission, sts - 135, finished earlier this year, signalling an end to america \u2019 s utopian dream of colonizing space. as i read more... i ' ve just started on the cooper union march ii course, and am excited to be here in new york to say the least! i ' ll be sharing my project work for studio, sculpture, and elsewhere over the upcoming year. for this first post i thought i ' d share something i wrote for a course appropriately titled...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6230828941548731, "token_count": 382, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.035622"} {"text": "modernism is one of most influential and independent movements in history of architecture. at the same time, it can be seen as one of most ignorant and blind minded, mainly because of its trailblazing character attacking tradition. western europe countries suffered even more from this believe, due to the socialist - realism interpretation of original modernistic manifestos. while in most parts of europe modernism follows modernization, in the countries from under influence of soviet union, socialist - realism mutation of modernism was rather a tool in hands of the government to mentally trigger progress. results of transformations, applied due to this spirit onto xix century urban tissue of warsaw, can be visible till now days. setting up progress and modernity as an main national value, network of new transportation aortas was drown across destroyed city, with no relation what so ever to historical reminiscence and worked out across the centuries urban tissue divisions. presented plot is one of those places where xix century urban block was literally cut off by new urban plan, leaving piece of vacant land between blank wall and the street ( pic. 01 ). six stories high blind wall is situated right in the centre of the city, between office building and holiday in hotel, creating a part of highly eclectic and aesthetically doubtful urban elevation of jana pawla ii street. twelve meter wide plot seems to be perceived as worthless by investors despite its amazing orientation. it is not only located next to shopping mall, office business centre and some historical sites of warsaw, but it is also standing for communication node of the city ( next to the grand central and planed metro station ) ( pic. 02 ). all of those attributes can be easily transformed into valuable architectural that will stood for both, rebuilding place aesthetics and generating new value for surrounding area. in the broadest common definition, accelerator is a system or a device capable of increasing efficiency of other systems. on of the ways to achieve acceleration in physical systems is ordering and rooting flows depending on their specification, segregating, buffering and upgrading each item it the system before releasing ordered flow into the main stream. same systematics can be applied while dealing with urban flows, their quality and efficiency. correctly located local system can considerably affect city animation positive factor in global scale. presented design ( pic. 03 ) approaches problems of the sites, offering not only new aesthetic quality for the place, but also using its specific location to accelerate transportation efficiency within the city. proposed structure contains two main functional areas. first one, located an the bottom of the building, open and transparent, is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5559602113051422, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.040157"} {"text": "sites, offering not only new aesthetic quality for the place, but also using its specific location to accelerate transportation efficiency within the city. proposed structure contains two main functional areas. first one, located an the bottom of the building, open and transparent, is a orange ramp - shaped bicycle parking integrated with the city bike transportation system ( pic. 04 ). second one is stack of independent container - like units, providing cheep sleeping and shower opportunity on daily basis for the less demanding travelers. both functionalities were partly enclosed by simplistic building skin. historical reference was achieved by both, extruded reduced shaped on a historical building as straightforward connection and alien contradiction of main facade, designed as an partial, cross - section like division. this solution was meant to underline discontinuity and sudden ending of existing form, showing that a part of original building is missing, and what is left, is literally cut along the new urban division line. this cutting line was used in the design to reveal surprising, aesthetically, etheric and contemporary insides of the building ( pic. 03 ). strict centre of warsaw ; around palce of culture and main railway station ; is dedicated to nobody. insufficient roads grid and not enough parking spaces makes it very problematical to communicate to, and from downtown, by car. small number of bicycle and pedestrian paths, not enough small architecture and green areas make it uneasy and unpleasant to go by foot or drive a bicycle. as far as every architect, urbanist, and member of the city council has his own view on for whom the city centre should be, there is still no decision which way should we go, what improvements must be undertaken. presented proposal suggest to close the city centre for private cars as to make space and good conditions for pedestrians and cyclists - to give back the heart of warsaw its personal look, real flow. people in cars just drive through while people walking or driving by bike must stop, need a drink, meet with friends - they are not just commuters, they are real citizens, animators of their habitat, performers of action. accelerator makes it easier for them to use warsaw. because it is rather informal ( to hop - in, hop - out ), accelerator can be used by more people in shorter amount of time ; it reflects fast pulse of the city. status : school project location : warsaw, pl", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5415079126653544, "token_count": 476, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.041164"} {"text": "a video and paper in current biology about a veined octopus, amphioctopus marginatus, that carries coconut halves to deploy as a shelter has gotten a lot of play in the popular press. the story is usually accompanied by the claim that this is the first reported case of invertebrate tool use. maybe this is true amongst the squishies ( cephalopods ), but i think that arthropods accomplish much more exciting feats of tool use every day. coconut octopus, meet coconut crab. earlier, i talked a little about coconut crabs, mentioning that they use mollusk shells when they are small, and eventually discard them as they grow. they also have an intermediate size behavior where they use hollowed out coconut shells as a shelter. photos : finn et al., 2009 and nancy and neil. first a disclaimer : i think cephalopods are awesome. they are probably the second coolest animal group behind mantis shrimp. also, this video and paper represent a really interesting finding, and any antagonism in this post is meant to be humorous. i only take exception to the tool use claim. i, of course, realize that any assessment of \u201c tool use \u201d is completely dependent on how you define \u201c tool use. \u201d however, even by the researchers own exclusive definition, arthropods still beat their motile mollusk to the punch. let \u2019 s see how they define tool use in order to exclude the numerous arthropod examples : \u2026 simple behaviours, such as the use of an object ( or objects ) as shelter, are not generally regarded as tool use, because the shelter is effectively in use all the time, whereas a tool provides no benefit until it is used for a specific purpose. this rules out examples such as the use of gastropod shells by hermit crabs, but includes situations where there is an immediate cost, but a deferred benefit, such as dolphins carrying sponges to protect against abrasion during foraging and where an object is carried around in a non - functional form to be deployed when required. actually, i don \u2019 t see how this definition even negates hermit crabs from tool use. there is no benefit for the crab in dragging around a heavy shell or coconut on its back while it forages. it is only beneficial later, when the animal wants to rest or block an attack. i would say that is a fairly specific deferred purpose with an immediate cost. regardless, there are a bunch of other examples of art", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5138084756719574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.046971"} {"text": "this is the second book wrote by lee lehman and presents in a very detailed manner the astrological dignities. it was published in 1989 by whitford press. in chapter 1 - two unsung revolutions in astrology the author explains how the copernican revolution changed the way astrologers understand dignities. at page 18 one can find a table with traditional and modern essential dignities. chapter 2 - using traditional rulerships here you ' ll find many practical examples of charts analyzed using traditional dignities. there are presented five countries ( confederate states of america, italy, iran, switzerland, ussr ), five corporations ( general motors, ford, chrysler, coca - cola, pepsi ), five individuals ( jane austen, lewis carroll, doyle arthur, niccolo machiavelli, mark twain ) and one horary chart. of course, it is always nice to see how the theory applies in practice, but i was expecting from these examples to emphasize the different results which appears when analyzing the charts with traditional and modern dignities. unfortunately, this is not happening, the charts are analyzed using only traditional dignities. in chapter 3 - the origin of rulerships : a botanical interlude you can find out which planer or sign rules every planet. you ' ll see that onion is ruled by mars, beans by venus, holly by saturn etc. also, there is a table with the medicinal uses of jupiter - ruled plants. i didn ' t test these, but it may be helpful. chapter 4 - modern \u201c rulerships \u201d : do they work? the author is trying to prove that modern rulerships aren ' t working well and to find arguments. she points out that : \u201c when modern astrologers discuss the modern rulerships the criterion appears to be : which body ( planet, asteroid or comet ) has qualities which most resembles the sign in question? \u201d so, modern rulerships are assigned counting if a planet qualities are similar with the sign qualities and not looking at the planet strength in a sign. see another quotation : \u201c we haven ' t any evidence that the ancients thought that pisces and jupiter were synonymous. it was a question of the strength of jupiter in pisces, not the similarity of jupiter and pisces. \u201d now, i think the idea is pretty clear. i must say that i totally agree with this point of view. then the charts of marie curie, jeddu krishnamurti, adolf hitler and death of dracula are analyzed. this time,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5523573386079452, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.063415"} {"text": "\u201d now, i think the idea is pretty clear. i must say that i totally agree with this point of view. then the charts of marie curie, jeddu krishnamurti, adolf hitler and death of dracula are analyzed. this time, lee lehman makes an analogy between the charts interpretations with modern and traditional rulerships. the results are pretty good and the lecture enjoyable. only one problem, from my point of view. it is analyzed the chart \u201c death of dracula \u201d, where lee writes things like : \u201c i have been fascinated by charts of people who are, so to speak, energy sucks \u201d, \u201c scorpio sun ( life of the vampire ) \u201d, etc. hei, i am from romania and i tell you there is no vampire. dracula is just a myth assigned to a romanian prince, vlad iii of wallachia. it is true that he was cruel and liked to kill people by impaling them on a sharp pole, but everything else is imagination. chapter 5 \u2013 the meaning of each of the essential dignities in this chapter you ' ll find some general characteristics for the five essential dignities : ruler, exaltation, triplicity, term and face. at page 127 is a table with key words associated with these dignities. starting from these key words lee lehman gives many descriptive explanations for dignities, but it just seems to much! there are the same things explained over and over again, it seemed pretty boring to me. in chapter 6 \u2013 a statistical interlude the author is trying to determine the influence of terms ( both chaldean and egyptian ) making a few tests. she selected a number of charts from different categories ( suicide, scientist, sport champions ) and counted the terms for each planet. in the final, we can see that the planet that rules the category ( for example, mars for sport champions ) obtained more points that usually, on a normal pattern. even the results apparently validates the importance of terms i won ' t give to much credit to such a test. why? because i don ' t see terms so important to determine a person belong to a category or another. for example, more points in the term of saturn won ' t drive you to suicide because can be many other ( not even major ) aspects that can change this influence. probably, i just don ' t believe terms are so important an if lee lehman is making those test it is clear that she also has doubts. chapter 7 \u2013 detriment, falls and peregrines means several", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5740182966756495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.065441"} {"text": "aspects that can change this influence. probably, i just don ' t believe terms are so important an if lee lehman is making those test it is clear that she also has doubts. chapter 7 \u2013 detriment, falls and peregrines means several pages where you can find short descriptions for every planet detriment and fall. in chapter 8 \u2013 conclusions there are the final words. my evaluation : 6 conclusion. if i would have to say quickly, at my first impression, some words about this book i think would be : \u201c too much noise for nothing \u201d. but, then, if you think for a moment you realize that you can ' t say \u201c for nothing \u201d because dignities are a very important part in astrology and one could write a whole interesting book about this subject. so, back to my reasoning, why this impression? why \u201c too much noise for nothing? \u201d. maybe, because this book presents shortly the five dignities associated with some main characteristics, ideas repeated in different chapters, but the rest of the book is somewhat near the subject. you can read about history, botany, statistics, all connected with dignities, but the book doesn ' t seem to touch the essential points. it is a surface play. it doesn ' t have those clear, rational statements that gives you a better understanding of the subject. if a medium astrologer reads this book i don ' t think will have much to learn and to integrate in his astrological system. maybe i am a little too harsh, but it is my purpose here to criticize and to present a clear point of view about the astrological books i read. my evaluation is 6.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5471225189620614, "token_count": 339, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.066323"} {"text": "velocity : 35. 5 km / s - apparent magnitude : + 1. 47 to - 0. 24 on december 3, 2012, the planets mercury, venus, and saturn will align with the giza pyramids in egypt. this will be the first planetary / pyramid alignment in 2, 737 years! now, the three giza pyramids are also in perfect alignment with the three stars of orion \u2019 s belt. in 1983, robert bauval proposed this orion correlation theory and published this idea in discussions in egyptology in 1989. the giza pyramids were built in the 3rd millennium b. c. the alignment is very curious. could the egyptians have built the giza pyramids that way on purpose? - eccentricity of orbit : measures the ellipticity of orbit ( ranges 0 - 1, with 0 as spherical and 1 as very elliptical ) - density : mass per unit volume ; mass in grams and volume in cubic centimeters - oblateness : measures how much the middle section of the planet bulges - surface gravity : the larger the surface gravity, the thicker the atmosphere as gravity pulls in more gases - albedo : measures the fraction of light reflected compared to the amount of light received from the sun ; the higher the albedo, the more reflective the surface - escape velocity : minimum speed or velocity needed to escape the planet \u2019 s gravitational pull - rotation : most planets rotate in counter - clockwise direction ( prograde ) ; others rotate in the clockwise direction ( retrograde ) - rotational period is shortest for gaseous planets and longest for venus - roche limit : about two and a half times the radius of the planet ; within the roche limit, matter cannot accretes to form moons because the tidal force of the planet tears matter apart to form rings giant planets : giant planets have lighter elements such as hydrogen and helium in their atmospheres. they have stronger gravity and are at larger distances from the sun. jupiter, saturn, and neptune are stormy with great spots of lasting storms and belts and zones. however, uranus is comparatively bland and uniform. all giant planets are home to convection, or hot gases rising and cold gases falling. terrestrial planets : terrestrial planets have heavier elements such as carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. mercury is most heavily cratered while earth is least cratered. larger terrestrial planets have plate tectonics. earth has a sizable magnetic fields that can protect it from solar wind particles and van allen belts. earth has the \u201c goldilocks phenomenon, \u201d or the right conditions for the development of life. \u201c the planets", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5221052096401397, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.076723"} {"text": "easton ' s bible dictionary a contract or agreement between two parties. in the old testament the hebrew word berith is always thus translated. berith is derived from a root which means \" to cut, \" and hence a covenant is a \" cutting, \" with reference to the cutting or dividing of animals into two parts, and the contracting parties passing between them, in making a covenant ( genesis 15 ; jeremiah 34 : 18, 19 ). the corresponding word in the new testament greek is diatheke, which is, however, rendered \" testament \" generally in the authorized version. it ought to be rendered, just as the word berith of the old testament, \" covenant. \" this word is used ( 1 ) of a covenant or compact between man and man ( genesis 21 : 32 ), or between tribes or nations ( 1 samuel 11 : 1 ; joshua 9 : 6, 15 ). in entering into a convenant, jehovah was solemnly called on to witness the transaction ( genesis 31 : 50 ), and hence it was called a \" covenant of the lord \" ( 1 samuel 20 : 8 ). the marriage compact is called \" the covenant of god \" ( proverbs 2 : 17 ), because the marriage was made in god ' s name. wicked men are spoken of as acting as if they had made a \" covenant with death \" not to destroy them, or with hell not to devour them ( isaiah 28 : 15, 18 ). ( 2. ) the word is used with reference to god ' s revelation of himself in the way of promise or of favour to men. thus god ' s promise to noah after the flood is called a covenant ( genesis 9 ; jeremiah 33 : 20, \" my covenant \" ). we have an account of god ' s covernant with abraham ( genesis 17, comp. leviticus 26 : 42 ), of the covenant of the priesthood ( numbers 25 : 12, 13 ; deuteronomy 33 : 9 ; nehemiah 13 : 29 ), and of the covenant of sinai ( exodus 34 : 27, 28 ; leviticus 26 : 15 ), which was afterwards renewed at different times in the history of israel ( deuteronomy 29 ; joshua 1 : 24 ; 2 chronicles 15 ; 23 ; 29 ; 34 ; ezra 10 ; nehemiah 9 ). in conformity with human custom, god ' s covenant is said to be confirmed with an oath ( deuteronomy 4 : 31 ; psalm 89 : 3 ), and to be accompanied", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5231181986706158, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.106689"} {"text": "fled to christ and accepted his righteousness. convenant of grace, the eternal plan of redemption entered into by the three persons of the godhead, and carried out by them in its several parts. in it the father represented the godhead in its indivisible sovereignty, and the son his people as their surety ( john 17 : 4, 6, 9 ; isaiah 42 : 6 ; psalm 89 : 3 ). the conditions of this covenant were, ( 1. ) on the part of the father ( a ) all needful preparation to the son for the accomplishment of his work ( hebrews 10 : 5 ; isaiah 42 : 1 - 7 ) ; ( b ) support in the work ( luke 22 : 43 ) ; and ( c ) a glorious reward in the exaltation of christ when his work was done ( philippians 2 : 6 - 11 ), his investiture with universal dominion ( john 5 : 22 ; psalm 110 : 1 ), his having the administration of the covenant committed into his hands ( matthew 28 : 18 ; john 1 : 12 ; 17 : 2 ; acts 2 : 33 ), and in the final salvation of all his people ( isaiah 35 : 10 ; 53 : 10, 11 ; jeremiah 31 : 33 ; titus 1 : 2 ). ( 2. ) on the part of the son the conditions were ( a ) his becoming incarnate ( galatians 4 : 4, 5 ) ; and ( b ) as the second adam his representing all his people, assuming their place and undertaking all their obligations under the violated covenant of works ; ( c ) obeying the law ( psalm 40 : 8 ; isaiah 42 : 21 ; john 9 : 4, 5 ), and ( d ) suffering its penalty ( isaiah 53 ; 2 corinthians 5 : 21 ; galatians 3 : 13 ), in their stead. noah webster ' s new international dictionary of the english language 1. ( n. ) a mutual agreement of two or more persons or parties, or one of the stipulations in such an agreement. 2. ( n. ) an agreement made by the scottish parliament in 1638, and by the english parliament in 1643, to preserve the reformed religion in scotland, and to extirpate popery and prelacy ; - - usually called the solemn league and covenant. 3. ( n. ) the promises of god as revealed in the scriptures, conditioned on certain terms on the part of man, as obedience, repentance, faith,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.515692296003198, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.108674"} {"text": ". in surveys from 2006 to 2010 by donald l. mccabe, a co - founder of the center for academic integrity and a business professor at rutgers university, about 40 percent of 14, 000 undergraduates admitted to copying a few sentences in written assignments. perhaps more significant, the number who believed that copying from the web constitutes \u201c serious cheating \u201d is declining \u2014 to 29 percent on average in recent surveys from 34 percent earlier in the decade. sarah brookover, a senior at the rutgers campus in camden, n. j., said many of her classmates blithely cut and paste without attribution. \u201c this generation has always existed in a world where media and intellectual property don \u2019 t have the same gravity, \u201d said ms. brookover, who at 31 is older than most undergraduates. \u201c when you \u2019 re sitting at your computer, it \u2019 s the same machine you \u2019 ve downloaded music with, possibly illegally, the same machine you streamed videos for free that showed on hbo last night. \u201d ms. brookover, who works at the campus library, has pondered the differences between researching in the stacks and online. \u201c because you \u2019 re not walking into a library, you \u2019 re not physically holding the article, which takes you closer to \u2018 this doesn \u2019 t belong to me, \u2019 \u201d she said. online, \u201c everything can belong to you really easily. \u201d a university of notre dame anthropologist, susan d. blum, disturbed by the high rates of reported plagiarism, set out to understand how students view authorship and the written word, or \u201c texts \u201d in ms. blum \u2019 s academic language. she conducted her ethnographic research among 234 notre dame undergraduates. \u201c today \u2019 s students stand at the crossroads of a new way of conceiving texts and the people who create them and who quote them, \u201d she wrote last year in the book \u201c my word! : plagiarism and college culture, \u201d published by cornell university press. ms. blum argued that student writing exhibits some of the same qualities of pastiche that drive other creative endeavors today \u2014 tv shows that constantly reference other shows or rap music that samples from earlier songs. in an interview, she said the idea of an author whose singular effort creates an original work is rooted in enlightenment ideas of the individual. it is buttressed by the western concept of intellectual property rights as secured by copyright law. but both traditions are being challenged. \u201c our notion of authorship and originality was born, it flourished, and it may be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5083228450601295, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.135553"} {"text": "in enlightenment ideas of the individual. it is buttressed by the western concept of intellectual property rights as secured by copyright law. but both traditions are being challenged. \u201c our notion of authorship and originality was born, it flourished, and it may be waning, \u201d ms. blum said. she contends that undergraduates are less interested in cultivating a unique and authentic identity \u2014 as their 1960s counterparts were \u2014 than in trying on many different personas, which the web enables with social networking. \u201c if you are not so worried about presenting yourself as absolutely unique, then it \u2019 s o. k. if you say other people \u2019 s words, it \u2019 s o. k. if you say things you don \u2019 t believe, it \u2019 s o. k. if you write papers you couldn \u2019 t care less about because they accomplish the task, which is turning something in and getting a grade, \u201d ms. blum said, voicing student attitudes. \u201c and it \u2019 s o. k. if you put words out there without getting any credit. \u201d the notion that there might be a new model young person, who freely borrows from the vortex of information to mash up a new creative work, fueled a brief brouhaha earlier this year with helene hegemann, a german teenager whose best - selling novel about berlin club life turned out to include passages lifted from others. instead of offering an abject apology, ms. hegemann insisted, \u201c there \u2019 s no such thing as originality anyway, just authenticity. \u201d a few critics rose to her defense, and the book remained a finalist for a fiction prize ( but did not win ). that theory does not wash with sarah wilensky, a senior at indiana university, who said that relaxing plagiarism standards \u201c does not foster creativity, it fosters laziness. \u201d \u201c you \u2019 re not coming up with new ideas if you \u2019 re grabbing and mixing and matching, \u201d said ms. wilensky, who took aim at ms. hegemann in a column in her student newspaper headlined \u201c generation plagiarism. \u201d \u201c it may be increasingly accepted, but there are still plenty of creative people \u2014 authors and artists and scholars \u2014 who are doing original work, \u201d ms. wilensky said in an interview. \u201c it \u2019 s kind of an insult that that ideal is gone, and now we \u2019 re left only to make collages of the work of previous generations. \u201d in the view of ms. wilens", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5495935006142094, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.136867"} {"text": "big data is one of the hottest topics out there. big data is a foundational element in it \u2019 s quartet of next big things : social, mobile, analytics and cloud. but, as the real world keeps reminding us, it is possible to make bad predictions and decisions even if you use tons of big data to make them. the 9 / 11 attacks showed how even highly sophisticated intelligence agencies can fail to pick out highly relevant signals amidst the mountains of data being analyzed. our recent financial crisis showed how even the best and brightest can fail to detect an approaching catastrophic storm. the failure of so many professional forecasters to accurately predict the 2012 presidential election shows that you can find almost any answer you want in all that big data. big data is indeed incredibly useful in all kinds of endeavors, but only in the hands of talented professionals who know what they are doing and are aware of its pitfalls and limitations. what are some of these limitations? in thinking about this question over the last few years, i started to notice that a number of subtle, non - intuitive concepts that i learned many years ago as a physics student seem to apply to the world of big data and information - based predictions in highly complex systems. let me explain. over 300 years ago, isaac newton laid down the foundations of classical mechanics with the publication of his laws of motion. the elegant mathematical models of newtonian physics depict a world in which objects exhibit deterministic behaviors, that is, the same objects, subject to the same forces, will always yield the same results. these models make perfect predictions within the accuracy of their human - scale measurements. classical mechanics works exceptionally well for describing the behavior of objects that are more or less observable to the naked eye. it accurately predicts the motion of planets as well as the flight of a baseball. but, the idea of scientific determinism, which would in principle enable us to predict the future behavior of any object in the universe, began to fall apart in the early 20th century. classical mechanics could not explain the counter - intuitive and seemingly absurd behavior of energy and matter at atomic as well as cosmological scales. once you start dealing with atoms, molecules, exotic subatomic particles, black holes and the big bang, you find yourself in a whole different world, with somewhat bizarre behaviors like the tunneling effect, which are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics and relativity. the orderly, deterministic world of classical physics gives way to a world of wave functions, probability distributions, uncertainty principles, and wave -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6014717446504702, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.148633"} {"text": "with somewhat bizarre behaviors like the tunneling effect, which are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics and relativity. the orderly, deterministic world of classical physics gives way to a world of wave functions, probability distributions, uncertainty principles, and wave - particle dualities. instead of a deterministic world, we now have a world based on probabilities. you cannot predict all the future states of an object or a particle based on its present state. you can map out its behavior, but only as probability distributions of all the possible states it could be at. moreover, the heisenberg uncertainty principle tells you that it is impossible to know the exact state of a particle. you cannot simultaneously determine its exact position and velocity with any great degree of accuracy no matter how good your measurement tools are. the world is intrinsically unpredictable. in addition, there is no such thing as absolute reality. in classical mechanics something either has the properties of a particle, e. g., a planet, a baseball ; or of a wave, e. g, light, sound. in quantum mechanics all objects exhibit both kinds of properties. the concept of wave - particle duality explains that reality depends on what question you are asking and what experiment you perform to answer the question. the very act of observing an object will change the object being observed. any instruments used to measure its properties will invariable alter the properties being measured. this transition, from a world view based on scientific determinism to one based on probability distributions, uncertainty principles and subjective reality is not intuitive and difficult to get used to. even albert einstein had trouble accepting it, and famously said \u201c god does not play dice with the universe. \u201d stephen hawking, one of world \u2019 s top theoretical physicists, concluded in this brilliant lecture : \u201c... it seems einstein was doubly wrong when he said, god does not play dice. not only does god definitely play dice, but he sometimes confuses us by throwing them where they can \u2019 t be seen... the universe does not behave according to our pre - conceived ideas. it continues to surprise us. \u201d but, the worlds of the very small, as well as the very large, are not the only ones that exhibit counter - intuitive, seemingly magical behaviors. so is the world of highly complex systems, especially those systems whose components and interrelationships are themselves quite complex, as is the case with systems biology and evolution. such is also the case with organizational and sociotechnical systems whose main components", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.7115132897072494, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.149672"} {"text": ". so is the world of highly complex systems, especially those systems whose components and interrelationships are themselves quite complex, as is the case with systems biology and evolution. such is also the case with organizational and sociotechnical systems whose main components are people. even though these chaotic systems are in principle deterministic, their dynamic, non - linear nature renders them increasingly unpredictable and accounts for their emergent behavior. new terms, like long tails, freakonomics and black swan theory, \u2013 every bit as fanciful as quarks, charm and strangeness, \u2013 have begun to enter our lexicon. artificial intelligence ( ai ) is an example of a discipline that has transitioned from its original classical, deterministic approach to an approach more suitable to a highly complex, inherently unpredictable topic like intelligence. ai was one of the hottest areas in computer sciences, in the 1960s and 1970s. many of the ai leaders in those days were convinced that you could build a machine as intelligent as a human being based on logical deductions and the kind of step - by - step reasoning that humans use when solving puzzles or proving theorems. they obtained considerable government funding in the us, uk and japan to implement their vision. but eventually it became clear that all these various projects had grossly underestimated the difficulties of developing any kind of ai system based on logic programming and deductive reasoning. the field went through a so - called ai winter in the 1980s. but things started to change in the 1990s when ai switched paradigms and embraced data mining and information analytics, the precursors of today \u2019 s big data. instead of trying to program computers to act intelligently, ai embraced a statistical, brute force approach based on analyzing vast amounts of information using powerful computers and sophisticated algorithms. we discovered that such a statistical, information - based approach produced something akin to intelligence or knowledge. moreover, unlike the earlier programming - based projects, the statistical approaches scaled very nicely. the more information you had, the more powerful the supercomputers, the more sophisticated the algorithms, the better the results. deep blue ibm ' s chess playing supercomputer, demonstrated the power of such a statistical approach by beating then reigning chess champion gary kasparov in a celebrated match in may of 1997. since that time, analyzing or searching large amounts of information has become increasingly important and commonplace in a wide variety of disciplines. today, most of us use search engines as the primary mechanism for finding information in the world wide web. researchers have been developing sophisticated question -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5947283350625758, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.150792"} {"text": "time, analyzing or searching large amounts of information has become increasingly important and commonplace in a wide variety of disciplines. today, most of us use search engines as the primary mechanism for finding information in the world wide web. researchers have been developing sophisticated question - answering systems, which can successfully analyze the nuances and context embedded in a complex, natural language question and come up with the right answer. watson, ibm \u2019 s question answering computer, which in february of 2011 won the jeopardy! challenge against the two best human jeopardy! players, is an example of such a system. economics is another discipline that has had to make the transition from a world of relatively simple mathematical models to one governed by the sophisticated analysis of real world information. during the 1960s, a number of economists, most prominently those associated with the chicago school of economics, based their work on what ny times columnist david brooks referred to as \u201c the era of economic scientism : the period when economists based their work on a crude vision of human nature ( the perfectly rational, utility - maximizing autonomous individual ) and then built elaborate models based on that creature. \u201d paul krugman called such models, an \u201c idealized vision of an economy in which rational individuals interact in perfect markets... gussied up with fancy equations \u201d in a 2009 ny times magazine article, how did economists get it so wrong? the elegant, mathematic theories of economic scientism managed to convince a number of powerful government leaders that free markets could self - adjust to just about any problems, thus requiring a very limited, circumscribed role for government. alan greenspan, the chairman of the federal reserve from 1987 - 2006, for example, was one of the believers in this well - behaved, self - adjusting economic order. even when the financial system began to show signs of the coming crisis, greenspan continued to hold on to his beliefs that derivatives and other financial instruments were extraordinarily useful in distributing risks, thus lessening the need for regulating the increasingly complex financial markets. it wasn \u2019 t until october of 2008 that, in testimony before congress, greenspan finally acknowledged that perhaps he may have been partially wrong and was now in \u201c a state of shocked disbelief. \u201d a whole slew of new ideas is now sweeping the field of economics. the new breed of economists are creating a field that has much more in common with empirical sciences than with pure math. following in the best tradition of physics, chemistry, biology and the social sciences, they are grounding economics on observation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5858282782013553, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.151865"} {"text": "field of economics. the new breed of economists are creating a field that has much more in common with empirical sciences than with pure math. following in the best tradition of physics, chemistry, biology and the social sciences, they are grounding economics on observation and experiments. theories arise out of empirical analysis, and must reflect the realities, and therefore the inconsistencies and messiness of the real world they aim to explain. they are trying to take into account the social, cognitive and emotional factors that go into the economic decisions that people make. in discipline after discipline, we are beginning to learn how to deal with the very messy world of big data and complex systems, and how to best apply our learning to make good decisions and good predictions. one of the hardest parts of that learning is the need to let go of our preconceived notions of scientific determinism and get used to living in a world of probabilities, uncertainties and subjective realities. god does indeed like to play games with the universe, but he leaves enough hints around so we too can play the game and keep moving forward. irving wladawsky - berger is a former vice - president of technical strategy and innovation at ibm. he is a strategic advisor to citigroup and is a regular contributor to cio journal.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5696960634595363, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.152421"} {"text": "of that kind ; of the like kind ; like ; resembling ; similar ; as, we never saw such a day ; - - followed by that or as introducing the word or proposition which defines the similarity, or the standard of comparison ; as, the books are not such that i can recommend them, or, not such as i can recommend ; these apples are not such as those we saw yesterday ; give your children such precepts as tend to make them better. having the particular quality or character specified. the same that ; - - with as ; as, this was the state of the kingdom at such time as the enemy landed. certain ; - - representing the object as already particularized in terms which are not mentioned. such in afrikaans is so ' n such in dutch is dusdanige, dergelijke, zo ' n, zulk een such in french is tel, pareille, pareil, autant such in german is solche, solch, derartig, solch such in hungarian is ilyen such in italian is cosiffatto such in latin is talis such in portuguese is tais such in spanish is tal share with your friends everyone likes a good quote - don ' t forget to share.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5051758379465787, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.161513"} {"text": "relationships and limited contact between parents and children in the early rearing years. ( compare, for example, stereotypes of 19th century upper - class english families. ) the scroll in the boy ' s hand as he recites his lesson to a teacher raises questions about many aspects of education, such as the availability of \" books, \" importance of oral performance and memory, and existence of schools and private tutors. it also sparks discussion of children ' s modes of play, their engagement with animals ( helping put young regulus ' pets in context ), and children ' s place in the family. the second sarcophagus also depicts an infant ( in the arms of one of the parents in the carriage ride on the right - hand side of the stone ) and play ( as a toddler with a wheeled pusher or scooter, and a little older with a pet goose ). but the last scene is of death, foreshadowed by the torches, often symbols of funerals, at each end of the sarcophagus. the parents again ride in a carriage, with the slightly older child between them, and they are led by a winged cupid foreshadowing the child ' s soul ascending to heaven. at some stage in the discussion, students often raise the issue of the nature of the sarcophagus as an artifact. this leads to some questions about the disposal of the dead and how frequently sarcophagi were used. epitaphs for children lead to issues of demography. cremation remained dominant for many centuries, so why the growing popularity of sarcophagi in the 2nd century, well before any real impact of christianity? students also discuss the role of fashion and the greater scope of sarcophagi for sculptural decoration. close examination of the sarcophagi usually increases students ' ability to read art and artifacts, and thus their pleasure in viewing such material. this is partly an aesthetic experience, but also a methodological lesson. students learn that documents can include all kinds of evidence of the past and realize that there can be more than one reading of a document. they realize the importance of assessing the author, his / her authorial intention, the intended reader or viewer, and the societal context. the importance of contextualization also emerges as students realize that a quick, impressionistic reading of any of these documents in isolation yields less understanding than a comparison and some attention to background. moreover, the importance of dating the documents shows the increasing interest in representations of children,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5305660025864708, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.232733"} {"text": "and giovanni sostero. can you see the slight movement of the comet against the stationary star field? as you read the original article, look for answers to the following questions : - in what year was hartley 2 discovered? - why does the moon play a factor in viewing comets? - what does the epoxi spacecraft \u2019 s name stand for? - how close will the spacecraft get to the comet? - what does the number 2 mean in \u201c hartley 2 \u201d? - why was this comet beyond visual discovery until after 1982? learn more about the exoxi mission by visiting the official mission web site. from the home page, click mission on the left and read the 10 phases of the mission. what is the purpose of the earth fly - bys? what happens during the comet approach phase? what will scientists be looking for during the encounter phase? what data will be gathered? finish your online study of comets this week by comparing comets. this is a student activity developed by nasa in which students can make their own observations based on photos of two different comet nuclei. print this worksheet or follow along online and record your answers separately. follow the directions on each page. on page 2, as you are looking at the two photos of comet surfaces, listen to this audio recording of students making their own observations about the comets in a teacher - led discussion. comets are not easy to study. because of their speed and orbit, it is ( currently ) impossible for humans to travel to comets to make firsthand observations. instead, scientists send up remotely controllable probes to intercept comets, take photographs, and make a variety of different measurements. this practice is not limited to astronomers. for centuries humans have been creating tools used to measure, weigh, count, or in many other ways analyze things that are beyond our physical senses. in a current or recent issue of the e - edition, look for news stories that cite examples of people using tools to measure or analyze. a good example might be dna testing for criminal evidence, but you will find many others. based on your findings, how important have these tools become in our daily lives? why is it becoming increasingly important to measure, collect, and analyze information?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5233554651698712, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.247534"} {"text": "dershowitz is most urgently concerned to reclaim his cherished declaration from the christian right, whose suggestion that america is a christian nation inspires him to fiery sermons that consume about a third of his book. but ultimately \u2014 and he is not shy about saying so \u2014 he would reclaim the declaration from thomas jefferson, himself, and from the revolutionaries of 1776. words, as you may have read in any one of a million sacred academic texts, and as you will read again on every fourth or fifth page of dershowitz ' s non - academic book, have \" different meanings \" for different people in different times and places. the most famous and distinctive words of the declaration, according to dershowitz, have fundamentally different meanings ( they bear different ideas and principles ) for us in \" the twenty - first - century world \" than they had for jefferson and the revolutionaries who proclaimed them 200 - some years ago. to explain this miracle of the lost meanings, dershowitz invokes a hodgepodge of academic articles of faith with which every college freshman has been catechized \u2014 under threat of excommunication \u2014 for the past forty years. but he turns eventually to the highest authority of his own sect \u2014 \" legal realism. \" certainly the most distinctive and well - known words of the declaration are found in its proclamation : \" we hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights.... \" a few score years after 1776, these words still conveyed to abraham lincoln the most essential \" meaning \" of the american revolution. this \" abstract truth, applicable to all men and all times \" was america ' s \" philosophical cause. \" it was the distinctive american expression of natural right and natural law, the recognizably american way of acknowledging a moral truth, accessible to human reason and independent of human enactments, by which americans and all other lovers of liberty might guide their political choices and destinies. all \" nonsense on stilts, \" according to dershowitz ( with thanks to jeremy bentham ). \" the american school of legal realism \u2014 beginning with holmes and reaching its zenith in the mid - 20th century \u2014 changed all of that. \" presto - chango : \" rights \" and \" equality \" are purely \" human inventions, \" \" legal or moral fictions. \" \" the reality is that natural law simply does not exist. \" dershowitz thinks that the gospel according to holmes has been so successful", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.530683710748928, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.258262"} {"text": ": \" rights \" and \" equality \" are purely \" human inventions, \" \" legal or moral fictions. \" \" the reality is that natural law simply does not exist. \" dershowitz thinks that the gospel according to holmes has been so successful that, \" [ w ] ith few exceptions \" today, everyone believes that \" morality \" and \" even truth are ever - changing. \" these \" evolve with experience, \" with the \" views of the age. \" he may exaggerate the conversion rate, but he is absolutely right that this is the virtually unquestioned orthodoxy of american law schools today. dershowitz thus faithfully reads the declaration as practically every first - year law student, these days, is taught to read the constitution, as \" a text whose meaning may [ indeed, must ] differ from generation to generation with changing experiences. \" now alan dershowitz wants to proselytize for \" equality \" and \" rights \" \u2014 and for decency, truth, morality, the rule of law, democracy, justice, and government by consent, among other things. on page after page, he writes about these and other desiderata not as mere words, but as if they were full of \" meaning \" ; just as he writes categorically, and as if his words had meaning, about the evils of this world : \" [ s ] lavery is wrong, \" and so on. he wants others to join him in the faith, and he wants to provide them firm ground from which to wage what he thinks of as a righteous struggle. but since the principles and ideas, the meanings, of jefferson and lincoln have miraculously vanished, he must find a new foundation, a new rock on which to build his church of the \" higher morality. \" \" [ f ] or the millions of good and moral people who do not believe in god [ or natural law, natural rights, unchanging truth, immutable principles of right or wrong, or human equality ]... there must be other sources of morality, law, and rights, \" etc., than the principles and ideas of the declaration. \" what, then, is the source of [ this ] higher morality, \" asks dershowitz. he answers : \" it is human experience! trial and error!... [ w ] e recognize our past mistakes and try to build a better system of morality to avoid repetition of those mistakes! \" experience!, which is to say history!, becomes the new source of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5481639338227133, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.260090"} {"text": "human experience! trial and error!... [ w ] e recognize our past mistakes and try to build a better system of morality to avoid repetition of those mistakes! \" experience!, which is to say history!, becomes the new source of meaning, the god of the dispossessed. the exclamation points bear a heavy burden. they are ( momentary ) expressions of a blind faith that the god of human experience! will somehow recognize his \" mistakes! \" in a universe where mistakes!, like truth and morality, are ever - changing. when he is moved by this faith, dershowitz writes as an optimistic progressive : experience! is on the side of alan dershowitz and the \" higher morality. \" we can be expected to have a higher morality than the ten commandments, for example, because \" we have much more human experience on which to base our rules than did those who wrote the bible. \" \" morality [ god bless darwin ] evolves with experience. \" but experience! turns out to be a fickle and mysterious god, and dershowitz ' s faith wavers. sometimes dershowitz recognizes and accepts the abject deference to convention required by his new deity. in these moments, he concludes that our meanings must be whatever the consensus of people today allegedly think. \" [ t ] he authority to give [ rights ] any real meaning lies with people. \" in other passages he recognizes that, by the \" people, \" he really means the powerful. the jews in hitler ' s germany, for example, got \" rights \" solely because hitler lost world war ii. if hitler had won, these jews would not, in the eyes of dershowitz ' s god, have had any rights that any man was bound to respect. this is how we must understand dershowitz when he says, sincerely, that \" slavery is wrong. \" he means that the slave power lost the war. otherwise, his god would have no objection to slavery. elsewhere, seeing the problem, he asserts his \" right \" to dissent from the consensus or from the latest majority ; it is an assertion that can by his own reasoning have no more \" meaning \" than the latest consensus or the latest coup. dershowitz does not let his argument get bogged down in consistency. such impasses drive dershowitz, against some of his strongest passions and prejudices, to a final leap of faith. he grabs onto the \" spirit \" of the \" words and ideas \" of the american revolution as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5813333977467714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.263502"} {"text": "##ged down in consistency. such impasses drive dershowitz, against some of his strongest passions and prejudices, to a final leap of faith. he grabs onto the \" spirit \" of the \" words and ideas \" of the american revolution as if it were a lone piece of salvific drift wood in an endless ocean of meaningless experience. he is reborn, in effect, a faithful originalist, cleaving not to the original meaning or intent of his sacred text, however, but to its original and enduring spirit. nowhere does he offer a reason why his disciples should not discard the revolution ' s spirit even as he has discarded its ideas. he has no reason to offer. the \" spirit \" of ' 76, in the hands of this evangelical legal realist, cannot help being as evanescent as the \" meanings \" ; it becomes, transformed by his deepest faith, a spirit of the times. when the saints go marching in, alan dershowitz will be among the simplest believers in the most naive, fundamentalist academic faith of his time, which would replace god, reason, nature, human nature, natural right, and abstract truths about right and wrong with the latest zeitgeist. until then, he is a ghost dancer in a three - piece suit.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5095020815244282, "token_count": 265, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.264196"} {"text": "et al, 2010 ). as well as using less energy and emitting less greenhouse gas than private vehicles do, mass transit has many other environmental benefits. as just noted, much larger numbers of people can be transported within a given space and period of time than private vehicles can transport, and this contributes to higher densities. in denser urban areas, less energy and other resources are required per urban resident for the provision not only of roads, but also of all the other services these residents need \u2013 footpaths, bicycle paths, electricity, gas, telecommunication lines, water, sewerage, stormwater drainage, and so on. and in denser urban areas people travel shorter distances for work, shopping, leisure and social purposes, and this leads to further energy savings. and despite being denser, if cities have clean, efficient mass transit they will have less of the crowding, noise and pollution that cars, motor - bikes, motor - scooters and other private vehicles generate. pollutants like particulates from diesel are major causes of asthma and other respiratory diseases. a well - designed mass transit city will also have good networks of safe walkways and cycleways to enable residents to walk or cycle for short trips, or to walk or cycle to transit stations for longer ones. these non - motorised means of travel are of course completely non - polluting and, to the extent that they replace trips using other transport modes, they help to reduce overall pollution and greenhouse gas emission levels. figure 5 summarizes energy efficiency data by mode in 84 cities. in some cities exceptionally low energy usage can be found, such as 0. 05 mj / pass - km in chinese light - rail, due mainly to high loadings. when estimating greenhouse gas reduction potential from mass transit it is also necessary to consider the \u2018 transit leverage \u2019 factor, i. e. the tendency for every kilometre travelled on transit to replace between 5 and 7 kilometres of total travel. [ media : image : 5 ] comparing the costs of various modes of mass transit is fraught with difficulty as so many local factors can make costs vary hugely for each mode. the costs of going above ground or underground are always higher than on - ground though this may just not be possible in some dense cities. the main consideration is the capacity of the system to attract patronage and the mode that is best able to do that needs to then be assessed against the costs of the cars that will be cramming the city if the system is not built. high capacity systems like fast", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5168432270386076, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.299585"} {"text": "api for probabilities. finite - distributions full namespace name : clojure. contrib. probabilities. finite - distributions finite probability distributions this library defines a monad for combining finite probability public variables and functions usage : ( certainly v ) returns a distribution in which the single value v has probability 1. usage : ( choose & choices ) construct a distribution from an explicit list of probabilities and values. they are given in the form of a vector of probability - value pairs. in the last pair, the probability can be given by the keyword : else, which stands for 1 minus the total of the other probabilities. variant of the dist monad that can handle undefined values. usage : ( cond - prob pred dist ) returns the conditional probability for the values in dist that satisfy the predicate pred. monad describing computations on fuzzy quantities, represented by a finite probability distribution for the possible values. a distribution is represented by a map from values to probabilities. usage : ( join - with f dist1 dist2 ) returns the distribution of ( f x y ) with x from dist1 and y from dist2. usage : ( make - distribution coll f ) returns the distribution in which each element x of the collection has a probability proportional to ( f x ) usage : ( normalize weights ) convert a weight map ( e. g. a map of counter values ) to a distribution by multiplying with a normalization factor. if the map has a key : total, its value is assumed to be the sum over all the other values and it is used for normalization. otherwise, the sum is calculated explicitly. the : total key is removed from the resulting distribution. usage : ( prob pred dist ) return the probability that the predicate pred is satisfied in the distribution dist, i. e. the sum of the probabilities of the values that satisfy pred. usage : ( uniform coll ) return a distribution in which each of the elements of coll has the same probability. usage : ( zipf s n ) returns the zipf distribution in which the numbers k = 1.. n have probabilities proportional to 1 / k ^ s.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5780425881369029, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.305084"} {"text": "autism is a genetic disorder. we ' ve known this ever since the 1970s when studies by susan folstein and michael rutter showed that genetically identical twins are much more likely to both be autistic than non - identical twins. these findings were incredibly important at the time and fundamentally changed the way people think about autism. but they didn ' t tell us which genes cause autism or, perhaps more importantly, how they do it. i ' ve just been attending the autism brain research meeting in san diego. much of the first day was dedicated to genetic research and animal models of autism. the gist of the talks was that, while there are some genetic variations that carry a high risk for autism, these are probably very rare and only account for a very small proportion of cases. most ' genes for autism ' will actually carry a very low risk of the person actually having autism, so identifying these genes is going to be difficult. however, a recent study, just out in science translational medicine, offers a new perspective. ashley scott - van zeeland and colleagues focused on one particular gene - cntnap2 - apparently referred to colloquially as the \" catnap \" gene. previous studies have linked cntnap2 to autism, but also to specific language impairment, adhd, tourette syndrome, and schizophrenia. it encodes a protein, caspr2, which is thought to be involved in the migration of cells during brain development and is expressed in frontal and temporal lobes in humans. in the first part of the study, the authors conducted a genetic test on the saliva of 32 children, half of whom had a diagnosis of autism. across the whole sample, they identified 9 kids who carried the allele ( variant ) of the cntnap2 gene that has been linked to autism. it ' s not clear how many of the 9 ' at risk ' kids were in the autism group, but reading between the lines it seems like a 5 : 4 split. then, rather than comparing the autism group to the non - autism group, they compared the 9 children with the ' risk allele ' to the remaining 23 children fmri was used to record brain activity while participants completed a reward - guided implicit learning task in which they were given a monetary reward for correct responses. the first main finding was that the ' non - risk ' group showed reduced activity in the medial prefrontal cortex ( mpfc ). this might sound a bit counter - intuitive, but the mpfc is part of what is termed the ' default", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5134039640770952, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.320467"} {"text": "the first main finding was that the ' non - risk ' group showed reduced activity in the medial prefrontal cortex ( mpfc ). this might sound a bit counter - intuitive, but the mpfc is part of what is termed the ' default mode network ' - a collection of brain regions that show reduced rather than increased activity during cognitive tasks. so the risk allele was associated with a reduction in normal reduction in mpfc activity. if that makes sense. previous studies have reported abnormal patterns of mpfc activity in autism during theory of mind tasks, as well as abnormalities of the default mode network. so this finding fits nicely with the autism research, except for the fact that it ' s looking at the cntnap2 gene, irrespective of autism diagnosis. the authors also conducted connectivity analysis on residual time series. put simply, this involved subtracting out activity related to actually completing the task and then looking at which brain regions showed a similar pattern of changes in activity over time as the mpfc. individuals with the risk allele showed greater connectivity between the mpfc and neighbouring right frontal cortex, but reduced connectivity with more distant regions including the medial occipital cortex and the lateral temporal cortices *. this fits in nicely with the idea that \" the frontal cortex in autism might be only talking to itself \". except again this a study relating to a risk allele, not to autism per se. just to be sure, the authors then analysed the data from a second study, using a completely different task and a completely different group of subjects. this time none of the subjects were autistic. but the connectivity analysis showed a very similar pattern of results. individuals with the risk allele showed stronger local connectivity and weaker long - range connectivity with the mpfc. so really, this study isn ' t about autism. it ' s showing a link between a gene associated with autism ( cntnap2 ) and individual differences in patterns of brain activity that have been associated with autism. having this gene doesn ' t mean that you ' ve got autism. it doesn ' t even mean there ' s a high risk of autism. but it may have a subtle effect on the way the brain is wired up and this may put you at an ever - so - slightly higher risk of having autism. or schizophrenia. or language difficulties. presumably, all depending on a host of other genetic and environmental risk factors to which you ' re also exposed. one thing i ' d really like to know is whether non", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5571357293835292, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.321459"} {"text": "so - slightly higher risk of having autism. or schizophrenia. or language difficulties. presumably, all depending on a host of other genetic and environmental risk factors to which you ' re also exposed. one thing i ' d really like to know is whether non - autistic individuals with the ' risky ' variant of the cntnap2 gene differ in terms of their behaviour or cognitive processes. are there subtle differences, for example, in language or perceptual processing, or their social characteristics? or are they only observable at the brain level? looking at this might help us work out which particular aspects of autism might be linked to this neural / genetic pathway. * the authors also reported that the non - risk group showed focal patterns of connectivity between the mpfc and regions in the left hemisphere classically associated with language processing, including left inferior frontal gyrus, insula, anterior temporal pole, superior temporal gyrus, and angular gyrus. in contrast, the at - risk group showed much more widespread connectivity across both left and right hemispheres. however, while tantalising, it doesn ' t appear that these differences were statistically significant when direct comparisons were made between the two groups. - virginia hughes ( as per usual ) had the scoop on this research last year. - discover and time also covered the study - lindsay at autist ' s corner has recently written about the cntnap2 gene and has covered some other autism genetics stories here and here scott - van zeeland aa, abrahams bs, alvarez - retuerto ai, sonnenblick li, rudie jd, ghahremani d, mumford ja, poldrack ra, dapretto m, geschwind dh, & bookheimer sy ( 2010 ). altered functional connectivity in frontal lobe circuits is associated with variation in the autism risk gene cntnap2. science translational medicine, 2 ( 56 ) pmid : 21048216", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5069145822448586, "token_count": 400, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.322308"} {"text": "ball & beam : system modeling a ball is placed on a beam, see figure below, where it is allowed to roll with 1 degree of freedom along the length of the beam. a lever arm is attached to the beam at one end and a servo gear at the other. as the servo gear turns by an angle, the lever changes the angle of the beam by. when the angle is changed from the horizontal position, gravity causes the ball to roll along the beam. a controller will be designed for this system so that the ball ' s position can be manipulated. for this problem, we will assume that the ball rolls without slipping and friction between the beam and ball is negligible. the constants and variables for this example are defined as follows : ( m ) mass of the ball 0. 11 kg ( r ) radius of the ball 0. 015 m ( d ) lever arm offset 0. 03 m ( g ) gravitational acceleration 9. 8 m / s ^ 2 ( l ) length of the beam 1. 0 m ( j ) ball ' s moment of inertia 9. 99e - 6 kg. m ^ 2 ( r ) ball position coordinate ( alpha ) beam angle coordinate ( theta ) servo gear angle - settling time < 3 seconds - overshoot < 5 % the second derivative of the input angle actually affects the second derivative of. however, we will ignore this contribution. the lagrangian equation of motion for the ball is then given by the following : linearization of this equation about the beam angle,, gives us the following linear approximation of the system : the equation which relates the beam angle to the angle of the gear can be approximated as linear by the equation below : substituting this into the previous equation, we get : 1. transfer function taking the laplace transform of the equation above, the following equation is found : rearranging we find the transfer function from the gear angle ( ) to the ball position ( ). it should be noted that the above plant transfer function is a double integrator. as such it is marginally stable and will provide a challenging control problem. the transfer function can be implemented in matlab as follows : m = 0. 111 ; r = 0. 015 ; g = - 9. 8 ; l = 1. 0 ; d = 0. 03 ; j = 9. 99e - 6 ; s = tf ( ' s ' ) ; p _ ball = - m * g * d / l / ( j / r", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5595568801602969, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.330169"} {"text": "8 ; l = 1. 0 ; d = 0. 03 ; j = 9. 99e - 6 ; s = tf ( ' s ' ) ; p _ ball = - m * g * d / l / ( j / r ^ 2 + m ) / s ^ 2 p _ ball = 0. 21 - - - - s ^ 2 continuous - time transfer function. the linearized system equations can also be represented in state - space form. this can be done by selecting the ball ' s position ( ) and velocity ( ) as the state variable and the gear angle ( ) as the input. the state - space representation is shown below : however, for our state - space example we will be using a slightly different model. the same equation for the ball still applies but instead of controlling the position through the gear angle,, we will control the torque of the beam. below is the representation of this system : note : for this system the gear and lever arm would not be used, instead a motor at the center of the beam will apply torque to the beam, to control the ball ' s position. the state - space equations can be represented in matlab with the following commands ( these equations are for the torque control model ). h = - m * g / ( j / ( r ^ 2 ) + m ) ; a = [ 0 1 0 0 0 0 h 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ] ; b = [ 0 0 0 1 ] ' ; c = [ 1 0 0 0 ] ; d = ; ball _ ss = ss ( a, b, c, d ) ball _ ss = a = x1 x2 x3 x4 x1 0 1 0 0 x2 0 0 7 0 x3 0 0 0 1 x4 0 0 0 0 b = u1 x1 0 x2 0 x3 0 x4 1 c = x1 x2 x3 x4 y1 1 0 0 0 d = u1 y1 0 continuous - time state - space model.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5599504007698157, "token_count": 414, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.331283"} {"text": "concept 39 a genome is an entire set of genes. cross pure - bred pea plants to identify dominant flower color. hi! one of the first steps in locating a disease gene is screening families with the disease for markers that are linked to the gene. scientists use short tandem repeats ( str ) as markers. these repeats can vary from ten to hundreds of base pairs, and are usually found in multiple copies. different people will have different numbers of these repeats. in this example, a has two copies and b has four copies of the tandem repeat. the dna sequences flanking the repeats are unique sequences found in everyone. pcr primers can be made to the unique flanking sequences and the intervening fragments can be amplified. these fragments are different sizes because of the number of repeats present in the individuals. the size difference can be seen when the fragments are electrophoresed on a gel. assuming that a and b are homozygous for the length of an str, what would the gel pattern look like for their progeny c? no, if c is the progeny of a and b, then it should have both bands. no, if c is the progeny of a and b, then it should have two bands. no, if c is the progeny of a and b, then it should not have a different size band. a progeny from a cross between a and b will be heterozygous for the length of the str. in other words, c will have the smaller - size fragment from a and the larger - size fragment from b. the size differences of strs are markers that can be associated with the occurrence of a disease or genetic trait. which of the following gels and associated pedigrees shows an str linked with an autosomal, recessive disease gene? no, two affected individuals have different str patterns ; there is no linkage. no, two unaffected individuals have different str patterns ; there is no linkage. no, both the affected and unaffected parent have the same str pattern ; there is no linkage. in this example, the str is linked to an autosomal, recessive disorder. carriers and the affected individual all have the same str fragment. this is only a very small sample size. larger, multi - generational analysis can confirm the linkage of this str with the disease trait. gene hunters try to find two markers linked to one gene. which two markers ( labeled 1 and 2 ) will be most useful?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5785005175676322, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.355192"} {"text": "astrocytoma is type of brain tumor. it is a malignant ( cancerous ) tumor. this type of tumor begins from small, star - shaped cells in the brain. they are called astrocytes. astrocytes are one of several types of supporting cells in the brain. these types of cells are called glial cells. an astrocytoma is a type of the larger group of brain tumors called gliomas. astrocytoma is the most common form of glioma. it may occur anywhere in the brain. it is most commonly found in : - the cerebrum in adults \u2014 the largest part of the brain - the cerebellum \u2014 a smaller part of the brain in the rear - brainstem \u2014 connects the brain to the spinal cord - optic nerves in children \u2014 nerve that leads from the brain to the eye when an astrocytoma is diagnosed, the most important factors are : - grade of tumor ( how aggressive it looks under a microscope ) - degree of side effects from the tumor - age of the patient these factors will determine the symptoms, outlook, and treatment. the exact cause is unknown. some possible causes of brain tumors include : - certain occupations - environmental factors the exact risk factors for astrocytomas have not been identified. some studies suggest the following risk factors increase your chance of this tumor : - genetic disorders ( including neurofibromatosis and tuberous sclerosis ) occupational exposure to : - oil refining - rubber manufacturing the first symptoms of any brain tumor can be caused as the tumor grows. the growth can increase pressure in the brain. symptoms may include : - visual changes - personality changes - problems with memory, thinking, and concentration - problems with walking symptoms will vary depending on the location of the tumor. for example : - frontal lobe \u2014 gradual changes in mood and personality, loss of muscle function on one side of the body - temporal lobe \u2014 problems with coordination, speech, and memory - parietal lobe \u2014 problems with sensation, writing, or fine motor skills - cerebellum \u2014 problems with coordination and balance - occipital lobe \u2014 problems with vision, visual hallucinations the doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. a physical exam will be done. your doctor may need to look at pictures of your brain. this can be done through : you may also have biopsy / resection to remove a sample of brain tissue to test it for cancer cells. a specialist will determine the grade of the tumor. astrocytomas", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.515202299862026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.407121"} {"text": "ed home ( text ) - trc home - sciencelines index fermilab prairie project organizers teach volunteers to recognize particular plants and then clip the ripe flower heads for seeds. fermilab uses the seeds to enrich newer prairie tracts at fermilab and to share with other prairie restoration projects. although a mechanical harvest is also done, the public harvest is vital for grassland growth. \" with mechanical harvesting, prairie keepers can ' t get as many of the specialized plants as when the volunteers go out, \" said bob lootens, lead grounds - keeper. \" the seed is used to enrich young prairie and help build diversity into the grasslands, \" lootens added. the fall event is becoming increasingly popular, with about 180 people participating last year, including many families and school classes. prairies, or native american grasslands, are thriving communities rich with plant and animal life, all interrelating in a complex ecosystem. tallgrass prairies once blanketed northern illinois, \" the prairie state. \" however, during the area ' s settlement in the 19th century, agriculture consumed all but a tiny remnant of the native grasslands. fermilab, the nation ' s premier high - energy physics laboratory, has a longstanding dedication to restoring the prairie, working for more than 20 years to revive the historical grasslands on its batavia site. more than 1, 000 acres of tallgrass prairie are in various stages of reconstruction, thanks in part to the effort of volunteers who have participated in past seed harvests. this year ' s harvest will take place on saturday, september 28 and saturday, november 2, from 10 a. m. to 2 p. m. volunteers are welcome to spend as much or as little time as they wish, and refreshments will be provided. persons interested in participating should wear field clothing and gloves, and are encouraged to bring pruning shears and paper grocery bags, if possible. on - site directional signs will direct volunteers to harvest sites. in case of bad weather on the scheduled dates, please call the fermilab switchboard at 630 - 840 - 3000 to see if the harvest is canceled. for more information, call the fermilab public affairs office at 630 - 840 - 3351. additional opportunities for participating in harvesting activities are available through the kane county forest preserve district. these workdays are hosted by the volunteer stewards and the forest preserve staff. participants learn special techniques related to restoration work and enjoy a tour of the site. new volunteers are especialy encouraged and welcome to these", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5016153457934251, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.412742"} {"text": "primitives are objects that you can render. there isn \u2019 t really much else in a fluxus scene, except lights, a camera and lots of primitives. the normal way to create a primitive is to set up some state which the primitive will use, then call it \u2019 s build function and keep it \u2019 s returned id ( using with - primitive ) to modify it \u2019 s state later on. ( define myobj ( with - state ( colour ( vector 0 1 0 ) ) ( build - cube ) ) ) ; makes a green cube ( with - primitive myobj ( colour ( vector 1 0 0 ) ) ) ; changes its colour to red so primitives contain a state which describes things like colour, texture and transform information. this state operates on the primitive as a whole \u2013 one colour for the whole thing, one texture, shader pair and one transform. to get a little deeper and do more we need to introduce primitive data. primitive data arrays [ aka. pdata ] a pdata array is a fixed size array of information contained within a primitive. each pdata array has a name, so you can refer to it, and a primitive may contain lots of different pdata arrays ( which are all the same size ). pdata arrays are typed \u2013 and can contain floats, vectors, colours or matrices. you can make your own pdata arrays, with names that you choose, or copy them in one command. some pdata is created when you call the build function. this automatically generated pdata is given single character names. sometimes this automatically created pdata results in a primitive you can use straight away ( in commands such as build - cube ) but some primitives are only useful if pdata is setup and controlled by you. in polygons, there is one pdata element per vertex \u2013 and a separate array for vertex positions, normals, colours and texture coordinates. so, for example < code > ( build - sphere ) < / code > creates a polygonal object with a spherical distribution of vertex point data, surface normals at every vertex and texture coordinates, so you can wrap a texture around the primitive. this data ( primitive data, or pdata for short ) can be read and written to inside a with - primitive corresponding to the current object. ( pdata - set! name vertnumber vector ) sets the data on the current object to the input vector ( pdata - ref name vertnumber ) returns the vector from the pdata on the current object returns", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5737567487344648, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.428331"} {"text": "current object. ( pdata - set! name vertnumber vector ) sets the data on the current object to the input vector ( pdata - ref name vertnumber ) returns the vector from the pdata on the current object returns the size of the pdata on the current object ( the number of vertices ). the name describes the data we want to access, for instance \u201c p \u201d contains the vertex positions : ( pdata - set! \u201c p \u201d 0 ( vector 0 0 0 ) ) sets the first point in the primitive to the origin ( not all that useful ) ( pdata - set! \u201c p \u201d 0 ( vadd ( pdata - ref \u201c p \u201d 0 ) ( vector 1 0 0 ) ) ) the same, but sets it to the original position + 1 in the x offsetting the position is more useful as it constitutes a deformation of the original point. ( see deforming, for more info on deformations ) pdata - ref procedures are useful, but there is a more powerful way of deforming primitives. map and fold relate to the scheme functions for list processing, it \u2019 s probably a good idea to play with them to get a good understanding of what these are doing. ( pdata - map! procedure read / write - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) maps over pdata arrays \u2013 think of it as a for - every pdata element, and writes the result of procedure into the first pdata name array. an example, using pdata - map to invert normals on a primitive : ( define p ( build - sphere 10 10 ) ) ( with - primitive p ( pdata - map! ( lambda ( n ) ( vmul n - 1 ) ) \" n \" ) ) this is more concise and less error prone than using the previous functions and setting up the loop yourself. ( pdata - index - map! procedure read / write - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) pdata - map! but also supplies the current pdata index number to the procedure as the first argument. ( pdata - fold procedure start - value read - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) this example calculates the centre of the primitive, by averaging all it \u2019 s vertex positions together : ( define my - torus ( build - torus 1 2 10 10 ) ) ( define torus - centre ( with - primitive my - tor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5323626734317685, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.429182"} {"text": "this example calculates the centre of the primitive, by averaging all it \u2019 s vertex positions together : ( define my - torus ( build - torus 1 2 10 10 ) ) ( define torus - centre ( with - primitive my - torus ( vdiv ( pdata - fold vadd ( vector 0 0 0 ) \u201c p \u201d ) ( pdata - size ) ) ) ) ) ( pdata - index - fold procedure start - value read - pdata - name read - pdata - name... ) pdata - fold but also supplies the current pdata index number to the procedure as the first argument. sometimes retained mode primitives can be unwieldy to deal with. for instance, if you are rendering thousands of identical objects, or doing things with recursive graphics, where you are calling the same primitive in lots of different states \u2013 keeping track of all the ids would be annoying to say the least. this is where instancing is helpful, all you call is : will redraw any given object in the current state ( immediate mode ). an example : ( define myobj ( build - nurbs - sphere 8 10 ) ) ; make a sphere ( define ( render - spheres n ) ( cond ( ( not ( zero? n ) ) ( with - state ( translate ( vector n 0 0 ) ) ; move in x ( draw - instance myobj ) ) ; stamp down a copy ( render - spheres ( - n 1 ) ) ) ) ) ; recurse! ( every - frame ( render - spheres 10 ) ) ; draw 10 copies built in immediate mode primitives to make life even easier than having to instance primitives, there are some built in primitives that can be rendered at any time, without being built : ( draw - cube ) ( draw - sphere ) ( draw - plane ) ( draw - cylinder ) ( define ( render - spheres n ) ( cond ( ( not ( zero? n ) ) ( with - state ( translate ( vector n 0 0 ) ) ; move in x ( draw - sphere ) ) ; render a new sphere ( render - spheres ( - n 1 ) ) ) ) ) ; recurse! ( every - frame ( render - spheres 10 ) ) ; draw 10 copies these built in primitives are very restricted in that you can \u2019 t edit them or change their resolution settings etc, but they are handy to use for quick scripts with simple shapes.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5403961501000981, "token_count": 503, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.430783"} {"text": "a - level geography / as ocr geography / investigation paper spearman ' s rank this is a concept to find the statistical significance of the correlation between the two variables. first, a null hypothesis needs to be made. mann - whitney u test mann - whitney u test is a test for difference between 2 data sets. using a critical values table, the level of confidence in the relationship can be established, and the null hypotheses can be accepted or rejected. there are both advantages and disadvantages which accompany this statistical test for analysis of statistical data. one advantage is that it can compare two data sets that are different sizes. this makes the test much more versatile, and can be applied to a range of different data sets. secondly, the test is not based on observed values. this means that there are no assumptions made about the distribution of the data. this is particularly useful in geography because most of the data we collect will be either positively or negatively skewed. finally, mann - whitney u uses non - parametric ( non - grouped ) data. this is an advantage because the trends in the data cannot be generalised, and thus producing a more statistically sound result. it does however carry some disadvantages with it, one being the fact that it cannot be applied to more than 2 data sets at one time. this is because it is non - parametric data. if the test was done using parametric ( grouped ) data, you would be able to compare multiple data sets at once. an example of this is the student \u2019 s \u201c t \u201d test. this is because parametric data provides a result in proportion to the data, and can therefore be contrasted with many data sets. also, mann - whitney becomes increasingly less effective as the data sets get larger. this reduces its effectiveness because the calculation becomes too long - winded, and it takes a very long time to complete. it also reduces the precision of the result, as with a bigger sample size there is more margin for error. in conclusion, despite the obvious flaws with the test, it is a very effective way of looking at the differences between 2 pairs of data sets. five sections of investigation pragmatic = essentially safety and accessibility. for example, if a student is carrying out a river investigation they might use pragmatic sampling methods meaning only areas that were easily accessible and did not pose a risk would be studied. it is reliable and practical. random = not as one might assume randomly selecting a site or throwing a quadrat, in order to use random", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5369310339074602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.437110"} {"text": "pragmatic sampling methods meaning only areas that were easily accessible and did not pose a risk would be studied. it is reliable and practical. random = not as one might assume randomly selecting a site or throwing a quadrat, in order to use random sample methods either a calculator, grid or computer is needed to generate random statistics that have not been influenced by human decision. systematic = this type of technique would be used if progressional change over distance or time was being studied. a transect would be measured and data recorded at regular intervals along said transect, so that change over time or distance could be observed. for example, if a student wished to study psammosere succession, a transect might be measured from the sea to the climax environment ( woodland ) and at every 25m or so measurements would be taken. stratified = to be completed by magneto and river ' s landmass. statistics : mode most = mode the most frequent sample number. this is the sample figure which occurs the most times e. g. 7, 8, 9, 5, 4, 3, 5, 6, 7, 5, 5, 5, 5, 3, 5, 5 = mode comes from the french word \" la mode \" for fashion statistics : median this is the middle sample when all the samples are placed in arithmetic order. e. g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 5 = median statistic : range the area which the samples stretch from. statistics : standard deviation to describe the data regarding an infiltration rate statistically i would use the mean and the standard deviation as a measure of central tendency and dispersion. these two are always used together. the mean is simply the sum of all values of x ( infiltration rate ) divided by n ( total number of samples ) the standard deviation is more complicated and requires the use of the formula ; where x is the individual infiltration rate and x bar is the mean of x \u2019 s ( as above ) this is simply done by listing the value of x on a table, and subtracting x bar from each. in the next column, square the subsequent result. then add up all the values of ( x - xbar ) \u00b2 ( \u03c3 ( x - xbar ) \u00b2. divide this by n ( 100 in this case ), and then square root the answer. these methods are the most powerful and sensitive, because they include all the values of all the data. they do not exclude", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5433870491223962, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.438439"} {"text": "a helium \u2013 neon laser or hene laser, is a type of gas laser whose gain medium consists of a mixture of helium and neon inside of a small bore capillary tube, usually excited by a dc electrical discharge. history of hene laser development the first hene laser emitted at 1. 15 \u03bcm in the infrared and was the first gas laser. however a laser that operated at visible wavelengths was much more in demand, and a number of other neon transitions were investigated to identify ones in which a population inversion can be achieved. the 633 nm line was found to have the highest gain in the visible spectrum, making this the wavelength of choice for most hene lasers. however other visible as well as infrared lasing wavelengths are possible, and by using mirror coatings with their peak reflectance at these other wavelengths, hene lasers could be engineered to employ those transitions ; this includes visible lasers appearing red, orange, yellow, and green. lasing transitions are known from over 100 \u03bcm in the far infrared to 540 nm in the visible. since visible transitions at wavelengths other than 633 nm have somewhat lower gain, these lasers generally have lower output powers and are more costly. the 3. 39 \u03bcm transition has a very high gain but is prevented from lasing in an ordinary hene laser ( of a different intended wavelength ) since the cavity and mirrors are lossy at that wavelength. however in high power hene lasers having a particularly long cavity, superluminescence at 3. 39 \u03bcm can become a nuisance, robbing power from the lasing medium, often requiring additional suppression. the best known and most widely used hene laser operates at a wavelength of 632. 8 nm in the red part of the visible spectrum. it was developed at bell telephone laboratories in 1962, 18 months after the pioneering demonstration at the same laboratory of the first continuous infrared hene gas laser in december 1960. construction and operation the gain medium of the laser, as suggested by its name, is a mixture of helium and neon gases, in approximately a 10 : 1 ratio, contained at low pressure in a glass envelope. the gas mixture is mostly helium, so that helium atoms can be excited. the excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms, exciting some of them to the state that radiates 632. 8 nm. without helium, the neon atoms would be excited mostly to lower excited states responsible for non - laser lines. a neon laser with no helium can be constructed but it is much more difficult without this means of energy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5733890675673781, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.611015"} {"text": "radiates 632. 8 nm. without helium, the neon atoms would be excited mostly to lower excited states responsible for non - laser lines. a neon laser with no helium can be constructed but it is much more difficult without this means of energy coupling. therefore, a hene laser that has lost enough of its helium ( e. g., due to diffusion through the seals or glass ) will most likely not lase at all since the pumping efficiency will be too low. the energy or pump source of the laser is provided by a high voltage electrical discharge passed through the gas between electrodes ( anode and cathode ) within the tube. a dc current of 3 to 20 ma is typically required for cw operation. the optical cavity of the laser usually consists of two concave mirrors or one plane and one concave mirror, one having very high ( typically 99. 9 % ) reflectance and the output coupler mirror allowing approximately 1 % transmission. commercial hene lasers are relatively small devices, among gas lasers, having cavity lengths usually ranging from 15 cm to 50 cm ( but sometimes up to about 1 meter to achieve the highest powers ), and optical output power levels ranging from 0. 5 to 50 mw. the red hene laser wavelength of 633 nm has an actual vacuum wavelength of 632. 991 nm, or about 632. 816 nm in air. the wavelength of the lasing modes lie within about 0. 001 nm above or below this value, and the wavelengths of those modes shift within this range due to thermal expansion and contraction of the cavity. frequency - stabilized versions enable the wavelength of a single mode to be specified to within 1 part in 108 by the technique of comparing the powers of two longitudinal modes in opposite polarizations. absolute stabilization of the laser ' s frequency ( or wavelength ) as fine as 2. 5 parts in 1011 can be obtained through use of an iodine absorption cell. the mechanism producing population inversion and light amplification in a hene laser plasma originates with inelastic collision of energetic electrons with ground state helium atoms in the gas mixture. as shown in the accompanying energy level diagram, these collisions excite helium atoms from the ground state to higher energy excited states, among them the 23s1 and 21s0 long - lived metastable states. because of a fortuitous near coincidence between the energy levels of the two he metastable states, and the 3s2 and 2s2 ( paschen notation ) levels of neon, collisions between these helium", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5856199701724023, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.614381"} {"text": "- lived metastable states. because of a fortuitous near coincidence between the energy levels of the two he metastable states, and the 3s2 and 2s2 ( paschen notation ) levels of neon, collisions between these helium metastable atoms and ground state neon atoms results in a selective and efficient transfer of excitation energy from the helium to neon. this excitation energy transfer process is given by the reaction equations : - he * ( 23s1 ) + ne1s0 \u2192 he ( 1s0 ) + ne * 2s2 + \u03b4e - he * ( 21s ) + ne1s0 + \u03b4e \u2192 he ( 1s0 ) + ne * 3s2 where ( * ) represents an excited state, and \u03b4e is the small energy difference between the energy states of the two atoms, of the order of 0. 05 ev or 387 cm\u22121, which is supplied by kinetic energy. excitation energy transfer increases the population of the neon 2s2 and 3s2 levels manyfold. when the population of these two upper levels exceeds that of the corresponding lower level neon state, 2p4 to which they are optically connected, population inversion is present. the medium becomes capable of amplifying light in a narrow band at 1. 15 \u03bcm ( corresponding to the 2s2 to 2p4 transition ) and in a narrow band at 632. 8 nm ( corresponding to the 3s2 to 2p4 transition at 632. 8 nm ). the 2p4 level is efficiently emptied by fast radiative decay to the 1s state, eventually reaching the ground state. the remaining step in utilizing optical amplification to create an optical oscillator is to place highly reflecting mirrors at each end of the amplifying medium so that a wave in a particular spatial mode will reflect back upon itself, gaining more power in each pass than is lost due to transmission through the mirrors and diffraction. when these conditions are met for one or more longitudinal modes then radiation in those modes will rapidly build up until gain saturation occurs, resulting in a stable continuous laser beam output through the front ( typically 99 % reflecting ) mirror. the gain bandwidth of the hene laser is dominated by doppler broadening rather than pressure broadening due to the low gas pressure, and is thus quite narrow : only about 1. 5 ghz full width for the 633 nm transition. with cavities having typical lengths of 15 cm to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6428275553371852, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.615516"} {"text": "by doppler broadening rather than pressure broadening due to the low gas pressure, and is thus quite narrow : only about 1. 5 ghz full width for the 633 nm transition. with cavities having typical lengths of 15 cm to 50 cm, this allows about 2 to 8 longitudinal modes to oscillate simultaneously ( however single longitudinal mode units are available for special applications ). the visible output of the red hene laser, long coherence length, and its excellent spatial quality, makes this laser a useful source for holography and as a wavelength reference for spectroscopy. a stabilized hene laser is also one of the benchmark systems for the definition of the meter. prior to the invention of cheap, abundant diode lasers, red hene lasers were widely used in barcode scanners at supermarket checkout counters. laser gyroscopes have employed hene lasers operating at 0. 633 \u03bcm in a ring laser configuration. hene lasers are generally present in educational and research optical laboratories. red hene lasers have many industrial and scientific uses. they are widely used in laboratory demonstrations in the field of optics in view of their relatively low cost and ease of operation compared to other visible lasers producing beams of similar quality in terms of spatial coherence ( a single mode gaussian beam ) and long coherence length ( however since about 1990 semiconductor lasers have offered a lower cost alternative for many such applications ). a consumer application of the red hene laser is the laserdisc player, made by pioneer. the laser is used in the device to read the optical disk. see also - c. s. willet \" an introduction to gas lasers \" pergamon press 1974, pages 407 \u2013 411 - a. d. white and j. d. rigden, \" continuous gas maser operation in the visible \". proc ire vol. 50, p1697 : july 1962. - a. d. white, \" recollections of the first continuous visible laser \". optics and photonics news vol. 22, p34 - 39 : october 2011. - javan, a., bennett, w. r. and herriott, d. r. : \" population inversion and continuous optical maser oscillation in a gas discharge containing a he - ne mixture \". phys. rev. lett. 63, 106 \u2013 110 ( 1961 ). - \" sam ' s laser faq - helium - neon lasers : \". - nieb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5831241554074752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.616675"} {"text": "line - of - sight propagation refers to electro - magnetic radiation or acoustic wave propagation. electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. the rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles. at low frequencies ( below approximately 2 mhz or so ) radio signals travel as ground waves, which follow the earth ' s curvature due to diffraction with the layers of atmosphere. this enables am radio signals in low - noise environments to be received well after the transmitting antenna has dropped below the horizon. additionally, frequencies between approximately 1 and 30 mhz can be reflected by the f1 / f2 layer, thus giving radio transmissions in this range a potentially global reach ( see shortwave radio ), again along multiple deflected straight lines. the effects of multiple diffraction or reflection lead to macroscopically \" quasi - curved paths \". however, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects are significant. thus any obstruction between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense. therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna ( disregarding the limitations of the eye ' s resolution ) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the propagation characteristic of high - frequency radio is called \" line - of - sight \". the farthest possible point of propagation is referred to as the \" radio horizon \". in practice, the propagation characteristics of these radio waves vary substantially depending on the exact frequency and the strength of the transmitted signal ( a function of both the transmitter and the antenna characteristics ). broadcast fm radio, at comparatively low frequencies of around 100 mhz, are less affected by the presence of buildings and forests. radio horizon the radio horizon is the locus of points at which direct rays from an antenna are tangential to the surface of the earth. if the earth were a perfect sphere and there were no atmosphere, the radio horizon would be a circle. the radio horizon of the transmitting and receiving antennas can be added together to increase the effective communication range. antenna heights above 1, 000, 000 feet ( 189 miles ; 305 kilometres ) will cover the entire hemisphere and not increase the radio horizon. radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as : the simple formulas", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6031072419447783, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.706985"} {"text": "increase the radio horizon. radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. simple formulas that include the effect of the atmosphere give the range as : the simple formulas give a best - case approximation of the maximum propagation distance but are not sufficient to estimate the quality of service at any location. earth bulge and atmosphere effect earth bulge is a term used in telecommunications. it refers to the circular segment of earth profile which blocks off long distance communications. since the geometric line of sight passes at varying heights over the earth, the propagating radio wave encounters slightly different propagation conditions over the path. the usual effect of the declining pressure of the atmosphere with height is to bend radio waves down toward the surface of the earth, effectively increasing the earth ' s radius, and the distance to the radio horizon, by a factor around 4 / 3. this k - factor can change from its average value depending on weather. geometric distance to horizon assuming a perfect sphere with no terrain irregularity, the distance to horizon from a high altitude transmitter ( i. e., line of sight ) can readily be calculated. let r be the radius of earth and h be the altitude of a telecommunication station. line of sight distance d of this station is given by the pythagorean theorem ; since the altitude of the station is much less than the radius of the earth, if the height is given in metres, and distance in kilometres, if the height is given in feet, and the distance in miles, the actual service range the above analysis doesn \u2019 t take the effect of atmosphere on the propagation path of the rf signals into consideration. in fact, the rf signals don \u2019 t propagate in straight lines. because of the refractive effects of atmospheric layers, the propagation paths are somewhat curved. thus, the maximum service range of the station, is not equal to the line of sight ( geometric ) distance. usually a factor k is used in the equation above k > 1 means geometrically reduced bulge and a longer service range. on the other hand, k < 1 means a shorter service range. under normal weather conditions k is usually chosen to be 4 / 3. that means that, the maximum service range increases by % 15 for h in meters and d in km. for h in feet and d in miles ; but in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. ( in extreme cases k can be less than 1. ) that is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5290510358050583, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.708150"} {"text": "in meters and d in km. for h in feet and d in miles ; but in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. ( in extreme cases k can be less than 1. ) that is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in earth radius and an increase of earth bulge. in normal weather conditions, the service range of a station at an altitude of 1500 m. with respect to receivers at sea level can be found as, line - of - sight propagation as a prerequisite for radio distance measurements travel time of radio waves between transmitters and receivers can be measured disregarding the type of propagation. but, generally, travel time only then represents the distance between transmitter and receiver, when line of sight propagation is the basis for the measurement. this applies as well to radar, to real time locating and to lidar. this rules : travel time measurements for determining the distance between pairs of transmitters and receivers generally require line of sight propagation for proper results. whereas the desire to have just any type of propagation to enable communication may suffice, this does never coincide with the requirement to have strictly line of sight at least temporarily as the means to obtain properly measured distances. however, the travel time measurement may be always biased by multi - path propagation including line of sight propagation as well as non line of sight propagation in any random share. a qualified system for measuring the distance between transmitters and receivers must take this phenomenon into account. thus filtering signals traveling along various paths makes the approach either operationally sound or just tediously irritating. impairments to line - of - sight propagation low - powered microwave transmitters can be foiled by tree branches, or even heavy rain or snow. if a direct visual fix cannot be taken, it is important to take into account the curvature of the earth when calculating line - of - sight from maps. the presence of objects not in the direct visual line of sight can interfere with radio transmission. this is caused by diffraction effects : for the best propagation, a volume known as the first fresnel zone should be kept free of obstructions. reflected radiation from the ground plane also acts to cancel out the direct signal. this effect, combined with the free - space r\u22122 propagation loss to a r\u22124 propagation loss. this effect can be reduced by raising either or both antennas further from the ground : the reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain. mobile telephones although the frequencies used by mobile phones ( cell phones ) are in the line - of - sight range, they still function in cities. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5433665452932912, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.709177"} {"text": "or both antennas further from the ground : the reduction in loss achieved is known as height gain. mobile telephones although the frequencies used by mobile phones ( cell phones ) are in the line - of - sight range, they still function in cities. this is made possible by a combination of the following effects : - r\u22124 propagation over the rooftop landscape - diffraction into the \" street canyon \" below - multipath reflection along the street - diffraction through windows, and attenuated passage through walls, into the building - reflection, diffraction, and attenuated passage through internal walls, floors and ceilings within the building the combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly complex, with multipath effects and extensive rayleigh fading. for mobile phone services these problems are tackled using : - rooftop or hilltop positioning of base stations - many base stations ( a phone can typically see six at any given time ) - rapid handoff between base stations ( roaming ) - extensive error correction and detection in the radio link - sufficient operation of mobile phone in tunnels when supported by split cable antennas - local repeaters inside complex vehicles or buildings other conditions may physically disrupt the connection surprisingly without prior notice : - local failure when using the mobile phone in buildings of concrete with steel reinforcement - temporal failure inside metal constructions as elevator cabins, trains, cars, ships see also - anomalous propagation - field strength in free space - knife - edge effect - non - line - of - sight propagation - over - the - horizon radar - radial ( radio ) - rician fading, stochastic model of line - of - sight propagation - christopher haslett, essentials of radio wave propagation, cambridge university press, 2008 052187565x pages 119 - 120 - mean radius of the earth is \u22486. 37 x 106 metres = 6370 km. see earth radius - r. busi : technical monograph3108 - 1967 high altitude vhf and uhf broadcasting stations, european broadcasting union brussels, 1967 - this analysis is for high altitude to sea level reception. in microwave radio link chains, both stations are high altitudes. - article on the importance of line of sight for uhf reception - attenuation levels through roofs - approximating 2 - ray model by using binomial series by matthew bazajian", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5395427850809295, "token_count": 464, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.710337"} {"text": ". the metadata also helps avoiding commercials from being recorded along with the songs. satellite radio timetrax has developed software that can record the audio broadcast on xm satellite radio. the software saves songs as individual mp3 files after identifying the name and the artist. timetrax is both a software and hardware solution : the timetrax software can interface with any pc - compatible satellite receiver, and the adapter box is necessary to allow certain receivers to interface with a pc. the xm pcr was the first device to allow audio stream ripping from xm radio. the device itself is simple enough : an xm \" can \" ( the actual receiver and decoding hardware ) is enclosed in a box with a usb interface chip and audio connector. the pcr plugs into a pc usb port and line - in jack. timetrax, or some other similar software, then controls the radio and records the incoming audio. after a legal battle, the timetrax software is no longer being sold. to end the problem for good, xm discontinued the xm pcr receiver. however, timetrax almost immediately released a hardware companion product that turned virtually any device capable of receiving xm satellite radio and its primary competitor at the time, sirius satellite radio. timetrax went on to also include the ability to rip and tag music from the online music streaming services that were being provided by both xm and sirius. notably, timetrax went on to extend its technology in a seamless package for fm radio, and further, any music source. it developed this portion of its technology hardware and software offering with swedish company popcatcher. timetrax was the first company that offered music ripping ( aka audio disambiguation, ripping and tagging, de - aggregation ) for the 3 largest and widespread music distribution methods : satellite radio, internet streaming and traditional broadcast. the original timetrax software was developed by scott maclean, a canadian citizen. it went viral and a corporation and formal management team along with funding were brought in the form the enterprise around maclean ' s discovery. the company was led by business executive elliott frutkin. fm radio there are three ways of ripping songs from an fm broadcast. radio data system some fm receivers are capable of receiving a data stream known as radio data system or rds. this provides artist and title information that can be shown on the display of a compatible fm receiver. a compatible receiver, connected to the computer, can tag saved audio streams with this data. the disadvantage of rds is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5100303737512542, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.755127"} {"text": "prosecution in criminal cases, with business in antitrust cases, with employers in labor cases, and with the government in speech cases \". although rehnquist was often a lone dissenter in cases early on, his views would later often become the majority view of the court. professor david shapiro of harvard law school suggested that rehnquist ' s votes were guided by three basic propositions : - conflicts between an individual and the government should, whenever possible, be resolved against the individual ( this also holds for conflicts between an individual and an employer, including civil rights litigation ). - conflicts between state and federal authority should, whenever possible, be resolved in favor of the states. - questions of the exercise of federal jurisdiction should, whenever possible, be resolved against such exercise. in 1977s national league of cities v. usery, rehnquist ' s majority opinion invalidated a federal law extending minimum wage and maximum hours provisions to state and local government employees. rehnquist wrote that \" this exercise of congressional authority does not comport with the federal system of government embodied in the constitution. \" as chief justice, rehnquist presided over what law professor erwin chemerinsky has called a \" federalist revolution, \" during which the court limited federal power in cases such as new york v. united states, united states v. lopez, printz v. united states, and united states v. morrison. similarly, cato institute scholar roger pilon has said that \" [ t ] he rehnquist court has revived the doctrine of federalism... only at the edges and in very easy cases. \" equal protection, civil rights, and abortion rehnquist rejected a broad view of the fourteenth amendment ; he believed that it was meant only as a solution to the problems of slavery, and was misapplied when applied towards abortion rights or prisoner ' s rights. rehnquist believed that the court \" had no business reflecting society ' s changing and expanding values \" and argued that this was the domain of the congress. rehnquist tried to weave his view of the amendment into his opinion for fitzpatrick v. bitzer, but it was rejected by the other justices. rehnquist later extended what he said he saw as the scope of the amendment, writing in trimble v. gordon : \" except in the area of the law in which the framers obviously meant it to apply \u2013 classifications based on race or on national origin \". he voted against the expansion of school desegregation plans and the establishment of legalized abortions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5001747705591302, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.822012"} {"text": ": \" except in the area of the law in which the framers obviously meant it to apply \u2013 classifications based on race or on national origin \". he voted against the expansion of school desegregation plans and the establishment of legalized abortions, dissenting in roe v. wade, 410 u. s. 113 ( 1973 ). rehnquist expressed his views about the equal protection clause in cases like trimble v. gordon : unfortunately, more than a century of decisions under this clause of the fourteenth amendment have produced.... a syndrome wherein this court seems to regard the equal protection clause as a cat - o ' - nine - tails to be kept in the judicial closet as a threat to legislatures which may, in the view of the judiciary, get out of hand and pass ' arbitrary ', ' illogical, ' or ' unreasonable ' laws. except in the area of the law in which the framers obviously meant it to apply \u2014 classifications based on race or on national origin, the first cousin of race \u2014 the court ' s decisions can fairly be described as an endless tinkering with legislative judgments, a series of conclusions unsupported by any central guiding principle. other issues rehnquist held a restrictive view of criminals ' and prisoners ' rights, and held the view that capital punishment is constitutionally permissible. he supported the view that the fourth amendment permitted a warrantless search incident to a valid arrest. in 1977s nixon v. administrator of general services, rehnquist dissented from a decision upholding the constitutionality of an act that gave a federal agency administrator certain authority over former president nixon ' s presidential papers and tape recordings. he dissented solely on the ground that the law was \" a clear violation of the constitutional principle of separation of powers. \" during oral argument in duren v. missouri ( 1978 ), the court faced a challenge to laws and practices that made jury duty voluntary for women in that state. at the end of ruth ginsburg ' s oral presentation rehnquist asked her, \" you will not settle for putting susan b. anthony on the new dollar, then? \" rehnquist wrote the majority opinion in diamond v. diehr, 450 u. s. 175 ( 1981 ), which began a gradual trend toward overturning the ban on software patents in the united states first established in parker v. flook, 437 u. s. 584 ( 1978 ). in sony corp. of america v. universal city studios, inc., pertaining to video", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5022379097861187, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.823059"} {"text": "overinclusive to survive equal protection analysis. in dissent, rehnquist attacked powell ' s opinion, saying : if legislative bodies are to be permitted to draw a line anywhere short of the delivery room, i can find no judicial standard of measurement which says the ones drawn here were invalid. shapiro writes that rehnquist ' s opinion implied : that there is no constitutionally significant difference between a classification that encompasses virtually no one outside the scope of its purpose and a classification so overinclusive that the vast majority of those falling within are beyond its intended scope. rehnquist ' s dissent in united states department of agriculture v. murry illuminates his view that a classification should pass muster under the rational basis test so long as that classification is not entirely counter - productive with respect to the purposes of the legislation in which it is contained. shapiro alleges that rehnquist ' s stance \" makes rational basis a virtual nullity. \" relations on the court rehnquist built warm personal relations with his colleagues, even with ideological opposites. justice william brennan, jr. \" startled one acquaintance by informing him that ' bill rehnquist is my best friend up here. ' \" rehnquist and justice william o. douglas bonded over a shared iconoclasm and love of the west. the brethren claims that the court ' s \" liberals found it hard not to like the good - natured, thoughtful rehnquist \", despite finding his legal philosophy \" extreme \", and that justice stewart regarded rehnquist as \" excellent \" and \" a \" team player, a part of the group in the center of the court, even though he usually ended up in the conservative bloc \". since rehnquist ' s first years on the supreme court, other justices criticized what they saw as his \" willingness to cut corners to reach a conservative result \", \" gloss [ ing ] over inconsistencies of logic or fact \" or distinguishing indistinct cases to reach their destination. in jefferson v. hackney, for example, douglas and justice thurgood marshall charged that rehnquist ' s opinion \" misrepresented the legislative history \" of a federal welfare program. rehnquist did not correct what the brethren characterizes as an \" outright misstatement,... [ and thus ] publish [ ed ] an opinion that twisted the facts \". rehnquist ' s \" misuse \" of precedents in another case \" shocked \" justice john paul stevens. for his part, rehnquist was often", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5050727087116843, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.825354"} {"text": "scaling back congressional power over the states had little practical impact. chief justice rehnquist voted with the majority in city of boerne v. flores ( 1997 ) and would later refer to that decision as precedent for requiring congress to defer to the court as regards interpretation of the fourteenth amendment ( including the equal protection clause ) in a number of cases. boerne held that any statute that congress enacted to enforce the provisions of the fourteenth amendment ( including the equal protection clause ) had to show \" a congruence and proportionality between the injury to be prevented or remedied and the means adopted to that end \". the rehnquist court ' s congruence and proportionality theory replaced the \" ratchet \" theory that had arguably been advanced in katzenbach v. morgan ( 1966 ). according to the \" ratchet \" theory, congress could \" ratchet up \" civil rights beyond what the court had recognized, but congress could not \" ratchet down \" judicially recognized rights. according to the majority opinion of justice anthony kennedy, which chief justice rehnquist joined in boerne : there is language in our opinion in katzenbach v. morgan, 384 u. s. 641 ( 1966 ), which could be interpreted as acknowledging a power in congress to enact legislation that expands the rights contained in \u00a7 1 of the fourteenth amendment. this is not a necessary interpretation, however, or even the best one.... if congress could define its own powers by altering the fourteenth amendment ' s meaning, no longer would the constitution be ' superior paramount law, unchangeable by ordinary means. ' the rehnquist court ' s congruence and proportionality standard made it easier to revive older precedents preventing congress from going too far [ clarification needed ] in enforcing equal protection of the laws. one of the rehnquist court ' s major developments involved reinforcing and extending the doctrine of sovereign immunity, which limits the ability of congress to subject non - consenting states to lawsuits by individual citizens seeking money damages. in both kimel v. florida board of regents ( 2000 ) and board of trustees of the university of alabama v. garrett ( 2001 ), the court held that congress had exceeded its power to enforce the equal protection clause. in both those cases, chief justice rehnquist was in the majority that held discrimination by states based upon age or disability ( as opposed to race or gender ) need satisfy only rational basis review as opposed to strict scrutiny. though the eleventh amendment by its terms applies only to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5140051986932767, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.829763"} {"text": "., john g. ( october 24, 2006 ). \" william h. rehnquist : a remembrance \". vermont law review. retrieved august 8, 2011. - rosen, jeffrey ( 2005 ). \" rehnquist the great? \". the atlantic. retrieved may 30, 2010. - it means, in direct translation to english : reindeer twig. - lane, charles. \" head of the class : fresh from service in world war ii, william rehnquist went west unsure of his future. what he found on the farm changed his life, and the future of the country. \", stanford magazine, july / august 2005. accessed september 17, 2007. \" so, for the brainy kid they had called \" bugs \" back home at suburban shorewood high school, just outside milwaukee, weather was a key criterion in selecting a college. \" - christopher l. tomlins ( 2005 ). the united states supreme court. houghton mifflin. isbn 978 - 0 - 618 - 32969 - 4. retrieved october 21, 2008. - biskupic, joan. sandra day o ' connor : how the first woman on the supreme court became its most influential justice. new york : harper collins, 2005 - debbie kornmiller, \" o ' connor ' s class rank an error that will not die \", arizona daily star ( july 10, 2005 ). - biskupic, joan. \" rehnquist left supreme court with conservative legacy \". usa today. september 4, 2005. - william rehnquist, \" a random thought on the segregation cases \", s. hrg. 99 - 1067, hearings before the senate committee on the judiciary on the nomination of justice william hubbs rehnquist to be chief justice of the united states ( july 29 \u2013 31, and august 1, 1986 ). - 1971 confirmation hearings. - \" 132 cong. rec. 23548 ( speech of senator paul sarbanes ) \". 1986. - justice william o. douglas wrote : \" in the original conference there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional. those four were black, burton, minton, and myself. \" see bernard schwartz, decision : how the supreme court decides cases, page 96 ( oxford 1996 ). likewise, justice felix frankfurter wrote : \" i have no doubt that if the segregation cases had reached decision last term, there would have been four dissenters \u2014 vinson, reed, jackson, and clark. \" ibid. -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5091546062524258, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.848686"} {"text": "a three - ccd camera is a camera whose imaging system uses three separate charge - coupled devices ( ccds ), each one taking a separate measurement of the primary colors, red, green, or blue light. light coming into the lens is split by a trichroic prism assembly, which directs the appropriate wavelength ranges of light to their respective ccds. the system is employed by still cameras, telecine systems, professional video cameras and some prosumer video cameras. compared to cameras with only one ccd, three - ccd cameras generally provide superior image quality through enhanced resolution and lower noise. by taking separate readings of red, green, and blue values for each pixel, three - ccd cameras achieve much better precision than single - ccd cameras. by contrast, almost all single - ccd cameras use a bayer filter, which allows them to detect only one - third of the color information for each pixel. the other two - thirds must be interpolated with a demosaicing algorithm to ' fill in the gaps ', resulting in a much lower effective resolution. the combination of the three sensors can be done in the following ways : - composite sampling, where the three sensors are perfectly aligned to avoid any color artifact when recombining the information from the three color planes - pixel shifting, where the three sensors are shifted by a fraction of a pixel. after recombining the information from the three sensors, higher spatial resolution can be achieved. pixel shifting can be horizontal only to provide higher horizontal resolution in standard resolution camera, or horizontal and vertical to provide high resolution image using standard resolution imager for example. the alignment of the three sensors can be achieved by micro mechanical movements of the sensors relative to each other. - arbitrary alignment, where the random alignment errors due to the optics are comparable to or larger than the pixel size. three - ccd cameras are generally more expensive than single - ccd cameras because they require three times as many elements to form the image detector, and because they require a precision color - separation beam - splitter optical assembly. some design goals for a prism assembly are : - that the light path lengths for the three colors are the same ( with correction for the different index of refraction of the glass at different colors ). - that the separation works regardless of the polarization of the incoming light ; this polarization is quite challenging in practice, and there are various strategies for dealing with the resulting polarization - dependent color separation. - that the output images are oriented the same way around (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5126246279658218, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.907139"} {"text": "separation works regardless of the polarization of the incoming light ; this polarization is quite challenging in practice, and there are various strategies for dealing with the resulting polarization - dependent color separation. - that the output images are oriented the same way around ( in the case of ccd image sensors ). in the prism assembly illustrated above, where the red light is the direct path, the blue path is reflected once and the resultant image is not laterally inverted, unlike the red and green. in cameras using vacuum tube video pickup devices this was solved by merely reversing the connections for the line scan coils ; with cmos imagers, the row or column address sequence is simply reversed. but with ccd sensors it is necessary to build a mirror image sensor for one channel. the philips prism assembly ( center right ) has all three color channels laterally inverted and can thus use three similar ccds. the concept of cameras using three image pickups, one for each primary color, was first developed for color photography on three glass plates in the late nineteenth century, and in the 1960s through 1980s was the dominant method to record color images in television, as other possibilities to record more than one color on the video camera tube were difficult. three - ccd cameras are often referred to as \" three - chip \" cameras ; this term is actually more descriptive and inclusive, since it includes cameras that use cmos active pixel sensors instead of ccds. camcorders with three chips were called \" 3ccd \" earlier and some are still called \" 3mos \" ( derived from 3xcmos, panasonic ) today. dielectric mirrors can be produced as low - pass, high - pass, band - pass, or band - stop filters. in the example shown, a red and a blue mirror reflect the respective bands back, somewhat off axis. the angles are kept as small as practical to minimize polarization - dependent color effects. to reduce unwanted reflections, air - glass interfaces are minimized ; the image sensors may be attached to the exit faces with an index - matched optical epoxy, sometimes with an intervening color trim filter. the philips type prism includes an air gap with total internal reflection in one light path, while the other prism shown above does not. a typical bayer filter single - chip image sensor absorbs at least two - thirds of the visible light with its filters, while in a three - ccd sensor the filters absorb only stray light and invisible light, and possibly a little more for color tuning, so that the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5777117122788327, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.915994"} {"text": "page : popular science monthly volume 23. djvu / 236 by gordon a. stewart. the worst of our social evils, personal wrongs, and political sins arise from the ununiform operation of our marriage and divorce laws. the loose manner in which a contract of marriage may he entered into and the reckless facility with which a marriage contract may be dissolved are a disgrace to our high civilization and professed christianity. however learned commentators and jurists may differ as to the correct definition of marriage, it is not only a partially executed agreement to marry, but is a contract continuous in its obligations governing the status of the parties, until it is dissolved by the death of one of the parties, or by one of them obtaining a divorce for some wrongful or invalidating act committed by the other. in nearly all of the states marriage is recognized as a civil contract only, and has no ecclesiastical obligation so far as society and the state are concerned. the contracting parties are subjects of the law. the person performing the ceremony by which the contract is publicly acknowledged by the parties, whether he be magistrate, parson, or layman, becomes a civil officer by authority of the law for that occasion. generally, however, the marriage contract is solemnized by a clergyman, agreeably to the rules and regulations of the religious denomination to which he belongs, and for which one or the other of the parties has a religious attachment or preference ; or, because a religious solemnization in church gives a better opportunity to gratify the desire for social rivalry and display. but perhaps most persons, especially when young and looking forward to a long future of connubial happiness, consider the act of marriage more as a religious rite than a civil contract, and hence the forms and ceremonies of the church accord more agreeably with the sentiment of love and affection than the business - like and informal words of the magistrate, who, in response to their acknowledgment of intention to marry, simply pronounces them man and wife. this sentiment, no doubt, is largely the result of a lingering belief in marriage as a divine institution and a sacrament of the church, as taught when the ecclesiastical court had exclusive jurisdiction of marriage and divorce. it is perhaps not until later, not until they have become dissatisfied with the conditions of the solemn obligation they had agreed to faithfully perform through life, that they discover it is simply a civil contract that binds them, and from which the law has generously provided unlimited means of escape. lawful marriage is the basis of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5675259907896669, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.927722"} {"text": "definition from wiktionary, the free dictionary double - dip ( plural double - dips ) - ( informal ) an ice cream cone with two scoops of ice cream. - we each got double - dips with chocolate on top and strawberry on the bottom. - ( roller coasters ) a hill that levels off for a while about halfway down. - ( informal ) to dip a piece of food ( e. g. a chip ) into a communal sauce container after already having taken a bite of the food. - i don ' t mind double - dipping when eating with my family, but i ' d be embarrassed to do it when out with friends. - ( informal ) to be illegitimately compensated a second time for the same activity. - he got caught double - dipping by billing the government directly as well as the primary contractor. - 2006, wulf kansteiner, in pursuit of german memory : history, television, and politics after auschwitz - they worried about the possibility that some forced laborers, in particular jewish survivors, might be double - dipping, that is, that they might be collecting compensation for their work as forced laborers while continuing to receive payments as holocaust survivors and thus absorbing funds that should be directed toward other groups of victims... - ( informal ) to draw a government pension or benefit for one job while also working in the government at another job or to draw two pensions at the same time as a result of reaching the retirement criteria twice for the same entity. - ( entertainment industry ) to re - release a movie or tv series, sometimes as a compilation or with additional features. - ( us, finance ) to use a single debt instrument to obtain interest tax expense ( and therefore a lower tax base ) in two or more tax jurisdictions. as long as the practice follows the tax law of each jurisdiction, the practice is legal and can be likened to the use of a tax loophole. - ( softball ) to defeat a team twice in the finals. - spc ladies double dipped the sudbury storm in the nsa canadian world series.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5661727394418772, "token_count": 415, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:42.934081"} {"text": "highlighting the history of french radio astronomy. 3 : the wurzburg antennas at marcoussis, meudon and nancay orchiston, wayne, lequeux, james, steinberg, jean - louis, and delannoy, jean ( 2007 ) highlighting the history of french radio astronomy. 3 : the wurzburg antennas at marcoussis, meudon and nancay. journal of astronomical history and heritage, 10 ( 3 ). pp. 221 - 245. | pdf ( published version ) - repository staff only - requires a pdf viewer such as gsview, xpdf or adobe acrobat reader | view at publisher website : http : / / www. jcu. edu. au / school / mathphys / as... during the 1940s and 1950s ex - world war ii 7. 5m worzburg radar antennas played a crucial role in the early development of radio astronomy in a number of european nations. one of these was france, where three different antennas began to be used during the late 1940s. two of these were associated with the ecole normale superieure in paris, and were in itially sited at marcoussis, near paris, before being transferred to the nan9ay field station in 1957. the third worzburg antenna was used by staff from the institut d ' astrophysique de paris, and was installed at meudon observatory on the outskirts of paris. this paper describes the three antennas, lists the personnel involved. discusses the observations made, evaluates the significance of this research in a national and international context, and comments on their current whereabouts. | item type : | | article ( refereed research - c1 ) | reproduced with permission from journal of astronomical history and heritage | keywords : | | astronomical history ; radio astronomy | | for codes : | | 02 physical sciences > 0299 other physical sciences > 029999 physical sciences not elsewhere classified @ 100 % | | seo codes : | | 97 expanding knowledge > 970102 expanding knowledge in the physical sciences @ 100 % | | deposited on : | | 07 may 2009 15 : 59 | | last modified : | | 10 nov 2011 18 : 02 | last 12 months : 0 repository staff only : item control page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.510926768057155, "token_count": 459, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.010811"} {"text": "esrl science making a difference in real - time gps positioning scientists at esrl ' s global systems division ( gsd ) are known for transferring their advances in science and technology to operations and have made exciting progress with a product called noaatrop. noaatrop was developed to improve gps positioning, navigation and timing accuracy using real - time weather data. the california spatial reference center ( csrc ) at scripps institution of oceanography recently started using noaatrop for real - time engineering applications in southern california. \" this is the first known operational application of a weather model being used to improve high accuracy gps surveying, \" said seth gutman, noaa scientist whose years of research at esrl ' s global systems division in boulder have made this advancement possible. almost everyone has heard of gps - the satellite global positioning system. gps was developed by the u. s. department of defense to tell us basically three things - where we are, how to get where we want to be, and what time it is right now. this is commonly referred to as \" pnt \" which stands for positioning, navigation, and timing. gps is a \" dual - use \" system in that it has both military and civilian applications. to facilitate the development of civilian applications, the u. s. government makes the radio signals broadcast by the gps satellites available to every user free of fees. as a result of this policy, a multi - billion dollar industry has developed to exploit the benefits of gps for civilian applications. for example, a commercial gps navigation system in your car tells you where you are on an electronic map that is constantly updated as you move. computer software in the navigation system tells you the best route to take to get to your destination. wireless communications between your navigation system and a traffic management system tell you the best route to take to avoid delays or hazards. according to gutman, \" the largest source of pnt error comes from the slowing and bending of the gps radio signals as they pass through the earth ' s atmosphere \" scientists involved in using gps for very high accuracy positioning applications, like the ones at noaa ' s national geodetic survey, developed techniques to treat the atmosphere as a source of noise or measurement error and remove it to improve their gps positioning accuracy. gutman continued, \" we realized that most of the \" noise \" actually comes from water vapor in the lower atmosphere, and that improved ways to monitor water vapor would lead to improved weather forecasts and climate monitoring. \" the operational use of this new and here", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5190348331488985, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.027038"} {"text": "continued, \" we realized that most of the \" noise \" actually comes from water vapor in the lower atmosphere, and that improved ways to monitor water vapor would lead to improved weather forecasts and climate monitoring. \" the operational use of this new and heretofore unavailable water vapor information by the national centers for environmental prediction ( figure 1 ) has resulted in substantial improvement in u. s. weather forecast accuracy in recent years. it did not take long for esrl scientists to realize that if they could use gps data to improve weather forecasts, then improved weather model assimilating gps observations could probably be used to estimate and correct for the atmospheric signal delays that are a major source of gps pnt error. to verify this, they developed noaatrop, a model that uses the esrl rapid update cycle ( ruc ) weather prediction model to calculate real - time atmospheric correctors for high accuracy gps positioning applications. figure 2 is a map of the continental u. s. highlighting three regions where the use of the noaatrop model has been independently evaluated by three universities. the table in this figure compares gps positioning accuracy using the noaatrop model with the accuracy achieved using a conventional correction method known as the saastamoinen model. this model does not use information about the atmosphere per se, but uses information about how the atmosphere changes on average over north america. the smallest improvement in real - time positioning accuracy ( about 9 % ) is seen in the southeast u. s. where moisture variability is high and terrain relief is low. the largest improvement ( about 25 % ) is seen in the western u. s. ( california ) where moisture variability is low but terrain relief is high. in between is the great lakes region ( michigan ) where terrain and moisture variability vary widely. the improvement here is better than 16 %. the ruc forecast model is reinitialized every hour using the latest observations including approximately 300 gps precipitable water vapor measurements made every half - hour over the united states. \" ruc is the highest frequency noaa weather model and particularly well suited for this unique real - time application, \" stated gutman. figure 3 illustrates how it works. initial tests in california using noaatrop as part of the csrc height modernization project were very positive, yielding 15 - 25 % improvement in accuracy with the greatest improvement shown in height measurements made during rapidly changing weather conditions. \" from csrc ' s perspective, using noaatrop increases the accuracy and productivity of field surveys for its user community,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5158698078807957, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.030070"} {"text": "pashtunwal - the code of the pashtuns in the pashto language, \" - wal \" is a suffix that most strongly resembles \" - ness \" in english. pashtunwal, sometimes jokingly translated as \" pashtunity \", is the traditional code of ethics and behavior for ethnic pashtuns. the pashtuns have a dubious and likely impenetrable ancient history. oral tradition post - islam is that the pashtuns are a lost tribe of israel, and will compose the most important part of the mahdi army during the end times. interestingly enough, there are a few shreds of genetic evidence to support the claim, but nothing conclusive. scattered accounts of various tribes of the region in the histories of herodotus and his predecessors seem to indicate that the ancestors of today ' s pashtuns have existed largely unchanged for thousands and thousands of years. it should be no surprise then, that an extremely tribal society based on the ideal of the warrior - poet should not fail to produce a fairly consistent and rigid code of behavior, even without the advantage of a written language. pashtunwal, sometimes called a code of honor, is passed down not just as a set of stories, but as the fabric of pashtun society. there are several general principles that show up with consistent emphasis. they are, in english alphabetical order : aitbar ; badal ; jirga ; melmastia ; nanawatey ; namus ; nang ; saz ; and tor. there are of course many, many more parts and sub - parts, some of which will be detailed along with the major points., or \" to trust \", is an acknowledgement and systemization of the reality of conducting contractual business without a written language. the customs of aitbar include the public swearing of oaths, and conducting contractual business like the sale of land with respected witnesses, usually tribal elders and members of family. translates variously to \" exchange \", \" reciprocation \", and \" retribution \", depending on the context. it is chiefly the latter with which the idea of badal in the context of pashtunwal is concerned. in fact, badal is often translated as \" vengeance \". badal takes many forms, practically speaking, but is generally seen in the form of long - held grudges and feuds. there is a very strong tradition of retribution in kind, particularly for injuries or murders, and the problem", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5029540000839018, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.058585"} {"text": "word, nang would be it. however, it ' s not untranslatable, it just requires quite a bit of illustration and explication. one ' s nang would be preserved by killing a rival ' s son in retaliation for the death of one ' s own son even if it meant escalating an exchange of badal. one ' s nang would be utterly destroyed by killing, accidentally, in the course of badal, or otherwise, a rival ' s daughter. one ' s nang would be preserved by the ritual murder or forced suicide of one ' s own daughter who sullies her own namus by sneaking off with a boy. one ' s nang would be tarnished perhaps beyond repair by covering the incident up and trying to backdate a marriage proposal with the boy ' s family. in the incident above, the boy ' s own nang would be severely damaged, and in fact, his life is probably forfeit to preserve the nang and namus of his family and avoid badal. ( for this particular instance, see \" tor \" below ) one ' s nang would be strengthened by accepting the nanawatey and blood money from the person who accidentally killed your brother. one ' s nang would be restored for offering nanawatey and paying the blood price for accidentally killing someone ' s brother. one ' s nang would be ruined for not carrying out badal, or, on the flipside, for letting badal drag on to the detriment of the family or tribe when one is originally at fault. also known as \" swarah \", saz is compensation for murder, often known in english as blood money. it is sometimes money or other tangibles, but also often takes the form of intermarriage ; one who is penitent for murder, or wishes to go beyond nanawatey will approach the jirga and make the offer to pay saz. this is sometimes a direct offer, and sometimes the result of the jirga ' s mediation, and will be very much driven by individual circumstance and standards. the acceptance of saz by the wronged party carries with it complete forgiveness and in the case of intermarriage, usually very close future ties between the families in question. intermarriage for grievances is usually a very complex social and political game ; the severity of the grievance, the social standing of both families, the available matches, and more will all go into determining the match. in some", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5097867020907098, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.065518"} {"text": ". intermarriage for grievances is usually a very complex social and political game ; the severity of the grievance, the social standing of both families, the available matches, and more will all go into determining the match. in some instances, the marriage of one ' s best daughter to the other ' s finest son is just barely sufficient ; in other cases, having one ' s least desirable daughter marry off to the wronged party ' s distant cousin is enough. tor literally translates as \" black \", but is used in the pashto language to mean many things, including blame, accusation, wrongdoing, guilt, and shame. as a concept relating to pashtunwal, tor is the absolute and inflexible treatment of violations of namus. given that description, in a typically contradictory and paradoxical fashion, tor is situation - dependent. for example, if a couple elopes without permission, but are officially married ( usually by a sympathetic or unwitting outside mullah ) they may only face essential exile from their entire extended families, with the families both suffering a good deal of embarrassment. however, in the case of adultery or premarital relations of any sort, even between a couple who is formally betrothed, the punishment is almost always death for both, to cleanse the namus of both families and avoid badal. in the case of rape, the woman is traditionally not held responsible, though there is usually unfortunately a social stigma. instead, the rapist is handed over, usually by his own family, to the woman ' s family. the woman ' s family has, essentially, two options : they can kill him, or hand him over to the jirga, who will almost always sentence him to death in any case. if he is handed over to the jirga, his family avoids badal by disowning the son prior to his execution. if the woman ' s family kills him, the family is effectively exiled from the community. in the event that the rapist ' s family refuses to hand him over, or he flees justice, the woman ' s family has the right to kill the rapist ' s brother or father, and in some cases the entire male line. even if the rapist ' s brother or father are killed in his place, his life is still considered forfeit and it is not uncommon for the male relatives of the woman to hunt him down later. one saying regarding tor is \" \u06cc\u0648\u0627\u0632\u06cc \u062a\u0648", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5147869752997096, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.066586"} {"text": "posted aug 24, 2003 by joe otten the thing that has always puzzled me about black holes is what happens to the entropy of objects that fall into them? by its description, a single infinitely dense point seems to have a very low entropy. but if we then let a high entropy object fall into a black hole, we appear to have a contradiction to the second law of thermodynamics. this topic is an active one in the field of astrophysics and quantum gravitation. in general, however, it is required of a black hole that its event horizon always increase, much like the total entropy of a closed system ( i. e. - the universe ). this thought lead to the hypothesis that a black hole ' s entropy is proportional to its event horizon ' s surface area. this came to be the bekenstein - hawking formula : if a black hole has an entropy, then it follows all the other laws of thermodynamics and has a temperature, also. so the black hole will radiate energy. this is where things start getting fuzzy. how can something that is impossible to escape radiate anything? i ' m afraid i don ' t know much about what ' s new in that field of thought. thanks for that. there is hawking radiation, but i guess that is not what you are talking about. could it be a mistake to consider a black hole demarcated by its event horizon to be an object, and thus to apply thermodynamic principles to that object. after all the event horizon is not a physical structure and need not be in the same place from one moment to the next. ( that episode of voyager where the ship was stuck inside the event horizon of a black hole, looking for a crack to get out would have been hilarious if it had been slightly less obtuse. ) the natural answer is that the laws of physics break down in a black hole. the entropy just vanishes. entropy is a property of the universe, and all properties of the universe break down at the event horizo of a black hole. please note that not panicking ltd is not responsible for the content of any external sites listed. the content on h2g2 is created by h2g2 ' s researchers, who are members of the public. unlike edited guide entries, the content on this page has not necessarily been checked by a h2g2 editor. in the event that you consider anything on this page to be in breach of the site '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5531162675950623, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.159779"} {"text": "[ privatier ] wrote in to let us know about lxardoscope, his project that lets you use an arduino as hardware input for a linux - based oscilloscope display. this implementation offers two channels with about 3000 samples per second from each. he touts some of the gui options like vertical resolution between 2mv and 10v per division. that part kind of stumps us because we don \u2019 t see how a measurement of 10v ( or more ) can be taken using the schematic included. but you \u2019 re comprehension may surpass ours so do take a look yourself. he is using an arduino uno for his testing. but to get around some issues he \u2019 s experienced with other usb - based solutions he implemented a serial port connection instead. you \u2019 ll need to remove the atmega chip from the arduino board after flashing the code to it, and then build a circuit around it which includes a power source where - 2. 5v is ground and 2. 5v is vcc. all in all, you \u2019 ll need a 16 mhz crystal, hef4069 hex inverter, atmega8 - family microcontroller, and a few passive components to build this on a breadboard.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5131058257658084, "token_count": 260, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.171339"} {"text": "the sample based on a percentage click the percentage option, then type the value that represents the percentage of all the features you want to include in the sample in the text box. note : the value specified for the percentage is divided by 100. for example, if you want to sample 50 percent of the features, type 50 not. 5. to create the sample based on automatic calculation click the auto calculate option, then click the confidence level drop - down arrow to choose the confidence level for the data, click the margin of error drop - down arrow to choose the acceptable margin of error for the data, or click the acceptable error drop - down arrow and choose the acceptable level of error for the sample. to create the sample using a polygon grid click the use grid option. click the drop - down arrow in the grid parameters area to choose the polygon grid or click browse to load one. click the unique id field drop - down arrow and choose the field that contains the field you want to use to identify the grid cell. type the number of cells you want to use in the sample in the number of grids to sample text box. tip : the value you choose from the unique id field drop - down list populates the qc _ grid cell in the reviewer table. - if necessary, type descriptive text for the check results in the notes text box in the reviewer remarks area. if necessary, click the severity drop - down arrow and choose a value that indicates the priority of the check ' s results in the reviewer remarks area. the severity indicates the importance of the check result. the values range from 1 to 5, with 1 being the highest priority and 5 being the lowest. click the run data check button on the data reviewer toolbar. the features to validate dialog box appears. choose an option in the features to validate area. - selection set \u2014 the check is run on the features that are currently selected in the map. - current extent \u2014 the check is run on the current map extent, which is controlled by the map scale. - definition query \u2014 the check is run on the features that are displayed based on definition queries that have been created for the feature class. - full database \u2014 the check is run on all the features in the feature class. to run the check only on features that have been edited in a versioned workspace, check the changed features only check box. the changed features only option is available only for a versioned database. - click ok. a progress window appears while the sample is being", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5024726627411067, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.192219"} {"text": "handwaved answer to your first question is that the national identity as a big thing likely emerged as a result of a 30 - year - war ( more specifically, peace of westphalia ), with nation - state being an efficient unit for maintaining balance of power that the westphalian system demanded. to quote from wiki : the edicts agreed upon during the signing of the peace of westphalia were instrumental in laying the foundations for what are even today considered the basic tenets of the sovereign nation - state. aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal ( as well as for the newer ones created afterwards ), the peace of westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. in earlier times, people had tended to have overlapping political and religious loyalties. now, it was agreed that the citizenry of a respective nation were subjected first and foremost to the laws and whims of their own respective government rather than to those of neighboring powers, be they religious or secular. why has national identity or being part of a country, become so important, as opposed to being part of a neighborhood, a city or the whole world? as far as why not whole world, it ' s not an easy question. the best answer probably lies in the fact that anything beyond a nation usually has has too divergent interests, and is too large to effectively govern long term absent a strong central tyrant ( see alexander ' s empire, or ghengizids ). you can see it happening in eu issues in 2011 - greeks and germans just can ' t exist as a single unit, since either one culture will feel as if they are being taken advantage of ( germans don ' t want to pay for \" lazy not - working - enough greeks \" social spending ), or some strong central power - which doesn ' t exist in europe - must mandate and enforce uniform rules. as far as \" why not city / neighborhood \" - because the modern system of the world, both military and industrial and economy, makes things much more efficient when unification synergies are realized, and make the world uniform enough ( due to literacy / printing press, among other things - thus peace of westphalia as a start ) that uniting many cities into a nation doesn ' t present that much of a conflict of interest. answer to your second question is \" absolutely yes \". as a random example, plenty of immigrants from ussr to usa feel 100 % american and zero percent either soviet or russian. if you want a reference to specific example, you are reading his writing this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5033743409126609, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.198848"} {"text": "a bit of gyan ( knowledge ) the internet is maturing at an extremely fast rate day - by - day, and the world - wide - web ( www ) has become a central hub for information available worldwide. nowadays, communication between the far ends of the world has become trivial. the dot - com boom happened in the mid - 1990 \u2032 s and companies have started depending hugely on the internet since then. this has paved way to a huge number of possibilities, along with risks. companies and customers and retailers can buy and sell online and e - commerce has become substantially important because of this. what i \u2019 ve found is that however fast technology grows, people \u2019 s minds don \u2019 t change. no matter how secure you tend to keep your transaction between the client and server, e - commerce \u2019 s growth has not increased very much because of the constant fear in people \u2019 s minds \u2013 \u201c how can i trust this fellow when i cannot even see him? what if i pay online but don \u2019 t get my package? \u201d. a typical example is the huge number of credit card frauds over the decades, which has just increased the fear in people \u2019 s minds. each time a vulnerability is discovered on a particular website, it has been exploited and has incurred huge losses for the company hosting that website. time and again, people have tried to keep websites as secure as possible. theoretically, algorithms ( used in security ) have been proven to be secure ( till date ) and yet, attackers have always found ways and means to breach security. in my opinion, it is just plain ignorance of the designer to ignore the security aspects to make his work easier. though development of technology is rapidly increasing and we learn new things everyday, secure coding practices are not learnt in the process. this in turn leads to security holes in the implementation of software, which are then exploited by attackers causing huge losses to companies. let \u2019 s try to answer some simple questions : - how do you host webpages over the world - wide - web? - in most cases, web pages are accessed using the http ( s ) or ( s ) ftp protocols. if a person wants to host a website over the world - wide - web, ( s ) he has to first register his / her domain name. this means that the domain name will get mapped to a particular ip address which is reachable from anywhere in the world ( called as \u2018 public ip \u2019 ). next, the person has to enable the website to be accessible from the machine having the assigned ip", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5268730095558443, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.223548"} {"text": "means that the domain name will get mapped to a particular ip address which is reachable from anywhere in the world ( called as \u2018 public ip \u2019 ). next, the person has to enable the website to be accessible from the machine having the assigned ip address, which is generally done using a web server to host his / her website. now, the website is available to anyone who either knows the public ip or the registered domain name. - what programming language can be used while implementing the same? - there are a huge number of scripting languages available, which designers can use to create websites. examples are php, jsp, asp, etc. programming constructs differ in each language, but end up doing the same things. there is also cgi ( common gateway interface ) where you can use scripting languages such as python, perl, ruby, etc. to do the same job. - what should one do to make my web application secure? - this question cannot be answered in one paragraph. anyway, i \u2019 ll try listing a few : - firstly, it requires a good knowledge of the exact working of the code which designers write. talking with an example, it means that knowing that \u201c strcpy ( ) \u201d function copies one string to another is not enough, but rather the programmer needs to know how exactly it copies and why it is made so. - secondly, the programmer who implements the software needs to have deep knowledge about secure coding practices \u2013 what, why and how. secure coding practices try to ensure that there are minimal security holes in software being designed, thus ensuring safety, security and stability of software. other factors such as reliability, integrity tag along if these conditions are met. now, based on the three questions answered above, we can come to a standpoint as to what factors determine how secure a website is. in decreasing order of importance and difficulty : - knowledge of the programmer. - network layout being used. - configurations being used in software. we know that the only way to access a website hosted on a public ip is through the internet. without the internet, the world - wide - web becomes a big joke. when we look at how the internet is designed, we see that networking plays a huge role. hence, the protocols being implemented during transfer of data have to be secure. no matter how secure the application is, if the networking protocols being implemented are insecure, security is threatened. this is one basic fact that all web designers have to understand. most of the devices used in the internet today", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5481359533149197, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.224590"} {"text": "data have to be secure. no matter how secure the application is, if the networking protocols being implemented are insecure, security is threatened. this is one basic fact that all web designers have to understand. most of the devices used in the internet today, use the 5 layer hybrid protocol stack. this protocol stack is known to be insecure, and is prone to mitm attacks ( dns cache poisoning, arp spoofing, ip spoofing, etc. ) management of a website is normally done through configuration settings. these configuration settings determine how users of the website can access data and with what level of permissions. these configuration settings for the website can be divided into two parts \u2013 configurations of web server and the configurations of the user who is accessing the website. configurations of the web server mean those configurations which affect all users accessing the website, whereas user - specific configurations apply to single users accessing the website. an example of a web - server configuration is the \u201c directory listing \u201d option, where a user can list the contents of a directory accessible through the website, without a webpage displaying it. an example of a user - specific configuration is the access control being specified to each user, controlled by an acl ( access control list ). programming languages sometimes influence how these user - specific configurations are specified. can we make the world - wide - web \u2018 entirely \u2019 secure? a simple answer would be \u201c entirely secure?! i don \u2019 t think so! \u201d. but there are a lot of factors to consider while answering this question. let \u2019 s look at some of them. firstly, the programmer implementing the software has a good knowledge of secure coding practices. he / she has to know exactly how the code is being implemented and how secure it is. this is where programming languages play an important role. some programming languages provide very high - level programming constructs to make the job easier for the programmer, but this actually blinds the programmer from the inner implementation of the constructs and how secure they are. thus security does not only rely on how the the programmer codes, but also how the code is being implemented by the compiler / interpreter of that particular programming language. the programmer has to take care of this, carefully considering the programming language that is being used and how it is actually being implemented. there isn \u2019 t much that can be done about the security level of the entire protocol stack. this is because if we have to modify the protocols in the protocol stack to make it secure ( below the application layer ), then", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5638547734164396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.225671"} {"text": "is actually being implemented. there isn \u2019 t much that can be done about the security level of the entire protocol stack. this is because if we have to modify the protocols in the protocol stack to make it secure ( below the application layer ), then we would have to change the firmware in every hub, switch, router and computer all around the world. for a long time, people have been changing the protocols at the application layer to secure ones ( such as ssl ), trying to prevent mitm attacks at the application layer. but then we have to understand that whatever is done on the application layer is specific only to that layer. the security mechanisms used in the application layer are totally blind to attacks happening at the lower layers. thus, if we actually would have to make the network layout totally secure, that wouldn \u2019 t be possible. but what we can do is to provide more encryption mechanisms at the application layer, hoping for the best. so from the network point of view, the world - wide - web is still insecure and will continue to be until the entire protocol stack can be made secure. in most of today \u2019 s websites, vulnerabilities arise due to insecure configurations being used. the programmer is lazy, thus leaving insecure configurations on the website, paving way for information leak and potential exploits. though this is relatively easier to handle when compared to the other factors, it is important when it comes to security of a website. the very need of security arises because of the fact \u2013 all of us are not responsible citizens. there would be no need for policemen if there were no thieves. but this is definitely not achievable, because changing hardware and software is a lot easier than changing people! there is a reason that i \u2019 ve said that \u201c knowledge of the programmer \u201d is more important and harder to achieve than \u201c making the network layout secure \u201d. what i mean is that it is easier to change all the hubs, switches, routers and computers all over the world to achieve security, than to strive to achieve that every programmer has to have the knowledge of secure coding practices! during my under - graduation, a professor had once said \u201c it is a never - ending race between designers, attackers and security experts \u201d. designers keep developing technology, while attackers keep finding security holes in the implementation of that technology, and security experts try to come up with workarounds to patch these holes. this seems to be true, not only with computers, but with any technology used in this world! we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5832442035175951, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.226686"} {"text": "the theme of 4aos is big stuff - astronomy - and small stuff - macro and microscopy - and anything else that takes my fancy in between. the title, the four ages of sand, is taken from a speech by the great douglas adams in 1998 : \" there are some oddities in the perspective with which we see the world. the fact that we live at the bottom of a deep gravity well, on the surface of a gas covered planet going around a nuclear fireball 90 million miles away and think this is perfectly normal is obviously some indication of how skewed our perspective tends to be, but we have done various things over intellectual history to slowly correct some of our misapprehensions. curiously enough, quite a few of these have come from sand, so let ' s talk about the four ages of sand... \" we use sand to make glass, glass to make lenses, and lenses to make telescopes. through astronomy, we discovered the universe was a very different place than we expected, and so began the first age of sand. next we used lenses to make microscopes and discovered that life itself was very different to what we had believed. then we discovered something else we can make from sand : silicon chips. the computer is the basis of the next stage in our intellectual evolution ; the third of sand. what else can we make from sand? fibre - optics. fibre - optics allowed us to connect computers together, and the fourth age of sand - the internet - was born.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5901113613502321, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.230797"} {"text": "for function calls, this is the name of the function. for complex expressions, the system will generate a generic name. the as keyword is optional, but only if the new column name does not match any postgresql keyword ( see appendix c ). to avoid an accidental match to a keyword, you can double - quote the column name. for example, value is a keyword, so this does not work : select a value, b + c as sum from... but this does : select a \" value \", b + c as sum from... for protection against possible future keyword additions, it is recommended that you always either write as or double - quote the output column name. note : the naming of output columns here is different from that done in the from clause ( see section 184. 108. 40. 206 ). it is possible to rename the same column twice, but the name assigned in the select list is the one that will be passed on. after the select list has been processed, the result table can optionally be subject to the elimination of duplicate rows. the distinct key word is written directly after select to specify this : select distinct select _ list... ( instead of distinct the key word all can be used to specify the default behavior of retaining all rows. ) obviously, two rows are considered distinct if they differ in at least one column value. null values are considered equal in this comparison. alternatively, an arbitrary expression can determine what rows are to be considered distinct : select distinct on ( expression [, expression... ] ) select _ list... here expression is an arbitrary value expression that is evaluated for all rows. a set of rows for which all the expressions are equal are considered duplicates, and only the first row of the set is kept in the output. note that the \" first row \" of a set is unpredictable unless the query is sorted on enough columns to guarantee a unique ordering of the rows arriving at the distinct filter. ( distinct on processing occurs after order by sorting. ) the distinct on clause is not part of the sql standard and is sometimes considered bad style because of the potentially indeterminate nature of its results. with judicious use of group by and subqueries in from, this construct can be avoided, but it is often the most convenient alternative.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5222392164723708, "token_count": 479, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.237042"} {"text": "this size would have 7 - day q2 values ranging from 0. 1 to 1. 0 cfs. skelton ( 1976 ) also estimated that the 7 - day q10 would be zero for drainage basins less than 200 miles2 in this region, with about 70 % of the streams with drainage basins of 200 to 1, 000 miles2 having 7 - day q10 values of zero. the remaining 30 % would have 7 - day q10 values ranging from 0. 1 to 1. 5 cfs. data from the platte river basin for seven day low - flows at two and ten year intervals were reported in skelton ( 1970 ) and skelton ( 1976 ), and these are presented in table hy06. the slope index ( the ratio of the 7 - day q2 to 7 - day q20 ) for the platte river at agency was 73. 3, and this high value indicates extremely high variability in annual low flows and poor groundwater supply. the average slope index for ten streams within the dissected till plains region was 25 ( todd et al. 1994 ), and ranged from 8. 7 in the grand river near gallatin to 73. 3 for the platte river. channelization and watershed modifications were attributed to the wide range in slope index values within northern missouri ( todd et al. 1994 ). dam and hydropower influences smithville lake, a 7, 190 - acre impoundment on the little platte river, and mozingo lake, a 1, 000 - acre impoundment on mozingo creek, are the two largest impoundments within the basin. in 1984, there were 59 impoundments greater than two surface acres within the missouri portion of the basin, and these totaled 635 acres ( mdnr 1995 ). although no information exists on the total number of impoundments within the iowa portion of the basin, ten public impoundments totaling 1, 042 acres were identified. undoubtedly, the number of impoundments greater than two acres has increased dramatically throughout the basin since 1984 in association with pl 83 - 566, salt, earth, and other erosion control projects. concern exists on what effects these impoundments have on low flow conditions because they intercept runoff and provide little or no provisions for maintenance of stream flows. there are no hydropower facilities within the platte river basin.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5078149131654269, "token_count": 481, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.267049"} {"text": "about this base converter base - 2 to base - 62 are accepted. \" a \" stands for 10, \" z \" for 35, \" a \" ( lower - case ) for 36 and \" z \" ( lower - case ) for 61. decimals are supported. this is a custom function because php ' s base _ convert ( ) doesn ' t accept decimals and only goes up to base - 36. it ' s only as precise as php is, so don ' t blindly copy the smallest decimal thinking it will always be correct. is there any standard for displaying numbers higher than base - 36? i ' ve used lowercase letters to go up to base - 62, but i couldn ' t find if that ' s what is commonly done. ( then again, i guess nothing is commonly done, since anything beyond base - 16 doesn ' t really have much use, to my knowledge. ) fun game : enter your name and supply base - 36 ( or higher ) as the starting base and see what number you get in another base. my first name in base - 38 for instance returns epkco in base - 42. what ' s this about? a base is the system with which numbers are displayed. if we talk about base - n, the system has n characters ( including 0 ) available to display a number. numbers are represented with digits which are smaller than n. therefore, 3 in base - 3 is 10 : because that system doesn ' t have a \" 3 \", it starts over ( 1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 100, etc. ). the base we usually use is base - 10, because we have 10 ( when including 0 ) digits until we start over again ( 8, 9, 10 ). in base - 2 ( binary ), we only have 2 characters, i. e. 0 and 1, until we start over again. following this example, the binary number 10 is 2 in our ( base - 10 ) system. does it make sense that a finite fraction ( \" decimal \" ) is infinite in another base? it totally does. if you want to convert 645 from base - 8 to base - 10, you do 6 * 82 + 4 * 81 + 5 * 80 = 421. after the comma you keep on decrementing the exponent, meaning that if you have 21. 35 in base - 7 you get to its base - 10 equivalent by doing 2 * 71 + 1 * 70 + 3 * 7 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.502329117231094, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.292905"} {"text": "by gina trapani everyone ' s got files they ' d like to keep out the the hands of intruders or casual passerby. ever concerned you ' ll lose the thumb drive where you backed up four years of post - graduate research? every worried your 5 - year - old will accidentally open the um, grownup files just meant for mommy and daddy? worry no more. today we ' ll go over a simple way to encrypt sensitive files or entire external disk drives to protect them from prying eyes. recently - featured truecrypt is a free, open source encryption application that works on windows and linux. given the right credentials, truecrypt will create a virtual hard drive that will read and write encrypted files on the fly. huh - wha? fear not ; this ' ll make sense once we get it set up. let ' s get started. set up the encrypted volume location - download truecrypt, install and launch. - hit the \" create volume \" button to launch the wizard that prepares the encrypted drive location. choose \" create a standard truecrypt volume \" and hit next. hit the \" select file \" button and navigate to a location to store your encrypted files and type a name for it. i ' m going with \" c : \\ documents and settings \\ gina \\ my documents \\ gtrapani. 4meonly \" as shown. ( click to enlarge. ) ( that. 4meonly extension is my own creation ; your file can have any - or no - extension. ) keep in mind that this isn ' t the file you want to encrypt ; it ' s a big file container that will store the files you want encrypted all scrambled up like eggs inside it. hit next. - choose your encryption algorithm. the curious can flip through the dropdown and view info on each option, but you pretty much can ' t go wrong here ; the default aes selection will work for most purposes. ( hey, if it works for top secret government files, it probably will work for you. ) hit next. choose the size of the virtual drive - for example, 100mb, as shown. ( click to enlarge. ) yes, it ' s a pain to have to commit to a size beforehand, but the advantage here is that the file will always look like it ' s exactly 100mb, giving no hint to the actual size of its", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5727328061615387, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.317857"} {"text": "to enlarge. ) yes, it ' s a pain to have to commit to a size beforehand, but the advantage here is that the file will always look like it ' s exactly 100mb, giving no hint to the actual size of its contents. hit next. - choose your volume password. truecrypt wants something totally badass, like 20 characters with letters and numbers mixed together, something hard to crack. the whole point here is to keep snoopers at bay, so make your password reasonably difficult to crack or guess. - format the \" volume. \" this part is cool : truecrypt gathers random information from your system - including the location of your mouse pointer - to format the file drive location with random data to make it impossible to read. hit the format button to go ahead with this operation, which may slow down your computer for a few seconds. ( and don ' t be scared by the word \" format \" ; you ' re not erasing your hard drives or anything, you ' re just formatting the drive location file - in this example, the gtrapani. 4meonly file - you just created. ) congrats! your encrypted volume location is ready for use. store and retrieve files from the encrypted volume now you ' ve got a truecrypt file that can hold all your highly - sensitive data files locked up tight as a drum. here ' s how to get to it. - from truecrypt, choose \" select file \" and navigate to the volume file you created above, as shown. ( click to enlarge. ) - select an available drive letter from the list in truecrypt, like z :. hit the \" mount \" button, and enter the volume password you created above. - if you enter the correct password, the virtual drive z : will be mounted. go to my computer and listed alongside all the other drives on your computer, there will be a new one listed \" local disk z :. \" drag and drop all your sensitive data to this drive and work from it as if you would any other disk. - once you ' re finished working with the data, in truecrypt, select the mounted drive ( like z : ) and hit the \" dismount \" button. the z : drive will no longer be available, and all you ' ll have left is the gtrapani. 4meonly file you created, which can be dropped onto a thumb drive, email", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5384249184677461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.319398"} {"text": "hit the \" dismount \" button. the z : drive will no longer be available, and all you ' ll have left is the gtrapani. 4meonly file you created, which can be dropped onto a thumb drive, emailed to yourself, burned to cd or placed on your ipod, totally encrypted. note : using truecrypt you can secure an entire drive - like a usb thumb drive. to do so, instead of hitting \" select file, \" use \" select device \" and choose your thumb drive. alternate method : openssl the downside to truecrypt is that it has to be installed everywhere you want to access the passworded files, and it ' s not compatible with mac os x. ( note : reader pmhesse says you can carry around the truecrypt files on a thumb drive and use it from there instead of installing the whole app on every computer you need it. ) for those of you comfortable on the command line, there ' s an alternative way to password a file using the free utility openssl. say you want to password protect a tar archive of documents called unencrypted - data. tar. from the command line, type : $ openssl des3 - salt - in unencrypted - data. tar - out encrypted - data. tar. des3 enter des - ede3 - cbc encryption password : verifying - enter des - ede3 - cbc encryption password : $ that command will encrypt the unencrypted - data. tar file with the password you choose and output the result to encrypted - data. tar. des3. to unlock the encrypted file, use the following command : $ openssl des3 - d - salt - in encrypted - data. tar. des3 - out unencrypted - data. tar enter des - ede3 - cbc encryption password : $ this method works with cygwin on windows, os x and linux. how do you keep your sensitive files from getting into the wrong hands? let us know in the comments or to tips at lifehacker. com. gina trapani, the editor of lifehacker, is currently encrypting all the terrible poetry and humiliating love stories she ' s ever written. her semi - weekly feature, geek to live, appears every wednesday and friday on lifehacker. subscribe to the geek to live feed to get", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5003049560399284, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.320568"} {"text": "tuesday, april 19, 2011 three billion years b. c. as we turn back the cosmic clock the rate of accumulation of material increases. the pockmarked lunar surface has served as a proxy for reconstructing the history of asteroidal and cometary impact on the earth. without an atmosphere or significant geophysical activity the moon has an excellent memory of impacts, while the earth had eroded and resurfaced itself in continual reinvention. this record has indicated that during a period between about 4. 1 and 3. 8 billion years ago the earth must have been subject to a particularly brutal pummeling. a substantial fraction of the outer shell of our planet could have been laid down during what has become known as the late heavy bombardment. it ' s a fascinating time in the history of our world. the first indications that microbial life might have been at work come not so very long after this quite cataclysmic episode ended. the reason for this infall of material seems likely to be connected to a period of dynamical evolution in the outer planets. models suggest that both neptune and uranus could have migrated outwards and dug into a rich belt of outer, kuiper or trans - neptunian objects. many of those distant small bodies would have been pushed into orbital paths that would eventually lead to passage through the inner solar system and collision with the earth. at the same time, jupiter and saturn would have migrated inwards and could have scattered material from the asteroid belt onto inbound trajectories. once the dynamical reorganization of the giant planets was finished the late heavy bombardment would have tailed off. a settling planet earth then gave rise to the tentative steps of biochemistry and single - celled organisms. or so we thought. new evidence is emerging from the terrestrial rock record that the earth actually continued to be pounded by very significant impacts from 3. 8 billion years ago all the way up to around 2. 5 billion years ago. \" life killer \" type asteroid impacts seem to have happened roughly every 40 million years during this timespan, rather than every 500 million years as had previously been thought. so what gives? where did these chunks of material come from? w. bottke and colleagues have studied the gravitational dynamics of the teenage solar system and suggest that a now - depleted inner belt of material between mars and jupiter could have been scattered onto an inclined set of orbits - out of the plane of the planets. this population would then slowly \" leak \" into earth - crossing paths, thereby greatly extending the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5247349758593172, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.327081"} {"text": "that a now - depleted inner belt of material between mars and jupiter could have been scattered onto an inclined set of orbits - out of the plane of the planets. this population would then slowly \" leak \" into earth - crossing paths, thereby greatly extending the tail of the late heavy bombardment over another billion years or so. the leftovers of these bodies are still there, known as the hungaria asteroids. it all looks to fit rather well. the dynamics are believable, and provide a mechanism for the impacts that littered the planet with the molten globs of rock that geologists find in layers of ancient strata. there ' s just one teensy question. what are the implications for the evolution of life on earth? while evidence of microbe - built structures like stromatolites from 3. 5 to 3. 8 billion years ago remain a little controversial, the presence of a diverse planet - wide biosphere is pretty incontrovertible in the 3 to 2. 5 billion year ago span. apparently microbial life not only dealt with continual destructive asteroid impacts but really did rather well for itself. this raises another intriguing issue. as w. bottke and colleagues point out, this prolonged period of heavy impacts does effectively stop around 2. 5 billion years ago. that is suspiciously coincident with the first signs of a rising oxygen content in the earth ' s atmosphere ( the \" great oxidation event \" ), and the eventual emergence of multi - cellular life somewhere around 1. 6 to 2 billion years ago. is there a connection? could the continual accumulation of planetary material have held back the full - on evolutionary party of early life? it ' s highly speculative, but one is tempted to think that this might be further evidence for the incredible resilience of life and its near - relentless nature once it becomes entrenched on a planet.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5105240720769628, "token_count": 374, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.330292"} {"text": "the first televised presidential debate in 1960 gave rise to an enduring media myth \u2014 the notion that television viewers and radio listeners interpreted the encounter quite differently. vancil and pendell noted that reports of viewer - listener disagreement in the first of four debates between john f. kennedy and richard m. nixon in 1960 typically were impressionistic and anecdotal. moreover, they wrote, the few surveys that hinted at a viewer - listener disconnect were too small and unrepresentative to allow confident or sweeping judgments. vancil and pendell also challenged the notion that nixon \u2019 s haggard appearance and sweaty brow contributed powerfully to television viewers \u2019 perceptions about the debate, which took place september 26, 1960. \u201c appearance problems, such as nixon \u2019 s perspiring brow, could have had a negative impact on viewer perceptions, \u201d vancil and pendell wrote, \u201c but it is also possible for viewers to be sympathetic to such problems, or to interpret them as evidence of attractive or desirable qualities. \u201d they also wrote that \u201c the inference that appearance problems caused nixon \u2019 s loss, or kennedy \u2019 s victory [ in the debate ] is classic post hoc fallacy. \u201d their debunking notwithstanding, the myth of viewer - listener disagreement tends to resurface at or near the anniversaries of the first kennedy - nixon debate. the commentary describes the first kennedy - nixon debate as \u201c a bellwether \u201d and asserts that \u201c listeners tuning in via radio considered the debate a draw or even a slight win for nixon. but the 65 million who tuned in by tv saw something very different. kennedy appeared vigorous yet relaxed, while nixon looked pale and nervous. \u2026 those viewing the debate on television judged kennedy as the clear winner. \u201d but as vancil and pendell reported years ago, there is no persuasive, compelling evidence to support such claims. not only that, but contemporaneous evidence, including public opinion polls, offer scant support for the notion that television audiences \u201c judged kennedy as the clear winner. \u201d to be sure, not all observers saw it that way in late september 1960. in its post - debate editorial, the washington post declared, for example : \u201c of the two performances mr. nixon \u2019 s probably was the smoother. \u201c he is an accomplished debater with a professional polish, and he managed to convey a slightly patronizing air of a master instructing a pupil. \u201d and the los angeles times said in an editorial ( beneath the headline \u201c a slow fight to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5074199989293975, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.355508"} {"text": "- discuss with your merit badge counselor the history of the game of chess. explain why it is considered a game of planning and strategy. - discuss with your merit badge counselor the following : - a. the benefits of playing chess, including developing critical thinking skills, concentration skills, and decision - making skills, and how these skills can help you in other areas of your life - b. sportsmanship and chess etiquette - demonstrate to your counselor that you know each of the following. then, using scouting ' s teaching edge, teach the following to a scout who does not know how to play chess : - a. the name of each chess piece - b. how to set up a chessboard - c. how each chess piece moves, including castling and en passant captures - do the following : - a. demonstrate scorekeeping using the algebraic system of chess notation. - b. discuss the differences between the opening, the middle game, and the endgame. - c. explain four opening principles. - d. explain the four rules for castling. - e. on a chessboard, demonstrate a \" scholar ' s mate \" and a \" fool ' s mate. \" - f. demonstrate on a chessboard four ways a chess game can end in a draw. - do the following : - a. explain four of the following elements of chess strategy : exploiting weaknesses, force, king safety, pawn structure, space, tempo, time. - b. explain any five of these chess tactics : clearance sacrifice, decoy, discovered attack, double attack, fork, interposing, overloading, overprotecting, pin, remove the defender, skewer, zwischenzug. - c. set up a chessboard with the white king on e1, the white rooks on a1 and h1, and the black king on e5. with white to move first, demonstrate how to force checkmate on the black king. - d. set up and solve five direct - mate problems provided by your merit badge counselor. - do one of the following : - a. play at least three games of chess with other scouts and / or your merit badge counselor. replay the games from your score sheets and discuss with your counselor how you might have played each game differently. - b. play in a scholastic ( youth ) chess tournament and use your score sheets from that tournament to replay your games with your merit badge counselor. discuss with your counselor how you might have played each game differently. - c.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5177369817430839, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T11:05:43.366427"}