publishing his results in 1963. alexander brudno ( aleksandr l ' vovich brudno ) ( александр львович брудно ( born 1918 is a russian computer scientist, best known for donald knuth and ronald w. donald ervin knuth ( kəˈnuːθ ( born 10 january 1938 ) is a renowned computer scientist and professor emeritus of the art of computer moore refined the algorithm in 1975 and it continued to be advanced. the benefit of alpha - beta pruning lies in the fact that branches of the search tree can be eliminated. the search time can in this way be limited to the ' more promising ' subtree, and a deeper search can be performed in the same time. like its predecessor, it belongs to the branch and bound class of algorithms. branch and bound ( bb is a general algorithm for finding optimal solutions of various optimization problems especially in discrete and combinatorial the optimization reduces the effective depth to slightly more than half that of simple minimax if the nodes are evaluated in an optimal or near optimal order ( best choice for side on move ordered first at each node ). with an ( average or constant ) branching factor of b, and a search depth of d ply, the maximum number of leaf node positions evaluated ( when the move ordering is pessimal ) is o ( b * b *. in computing, tree data structures and game theory, the branching factor is the number of children of each node. in two - player sequential games a ply refers to one turn taken by one of the players in mathematics big o notation ( so called because it uses the symbol o ) describes the limiting behavior of a function for very small or very large arguments.. * b ) = o ( bd ) – the same as a simple minimax search. if the move ordering for the search is optimal ( meaning the best moves always searched first ), the number of positions searched is about o ( b * 1 * b * 1 *... * b ) for odd depth and o ( b * 1 * b * 1 *... * 1 ) for even depth, or. in the latter case, the effective branching factor is reduced to its square root, or, equivalently, the search can go twice as deep with the same amount of computation. in mathematics, a square root of a number x is a number r such that r 2 = x, or in words a number r whose the explanation of b * 1 *


, the search can go twice as deep with the same amount of computation. in mathematics, a square root of a number x is a number r such that r 2 = x, or in words a number r whose the explanation of b * 1 * b * 1 *... is that all the first player ' s moves must be studied to find the best one, but for each, only the best second player ' s move is needed to refute all but the first ( and best ) first player move – alpha - beta ensures no other second player moves need be considered. if b = 40 ( as in chess ), and the search depth is 12 ply, the ratio between optimal and pessimal sorting is a factor of nearly 406 or about 4 billion times. normally during alpha - beta, the subtrees are temporarily dominated by either a first player advantage ( when many first player moves are good, and at each search depth the first move checked by the first player is adequate, but all second player responses are required to try and find a refutation ), or vice versa. this advantage can switch sides many times during the search if the move ordering is incorrect, each time leading to inefficiency. as the number of positions searched decreases exponentially each move nearer the current position, it is worth spending considerable effort on sorting early moves. an improved sort at any depth will exponentially reduce the total number of positions searched, but sorting all positions at depths near the root node is relatively cheap as there are so few of them. in practice, the move ordering is often determined by the results of earlier, smaller searches, such as through iterative deepening. iterative deepening depth - first search ( iddfs is a state space search strategy in which a depth - limited search is run repeatedly increasing the depth limit with the algorithm maintains two values, alpha and beta, which represent the minimum score that the maximizing player is assured of and the maximum score that the minimizing player is assured of respectively. initially alpha is negative infinity and beta is positive infinity. as the recursion progresses the " window " becomes smaller. when beta becomes less than alpha, it means that the current position cannot be the result of best play by both players and hence need not be explored further. function alphabeta ( node, depth, α, β ) ( * β represents previous player best choice - doesn ' t want it if α would worsen it * ) if node is a terminal node or depth = 0 return the heuri


further. function alphabeta ( node, depth, α, β ) ( * β represents previous player best choice - doesn ' t want it if α would worsen it * ) if node is a terminal node or depth = 0 return the heuristic value of node foreach child of node α : = max ( α, - alphabeta ( child, depth - 1, - β, - α ) ) ( * use symmetry, - β becomes subsequently pruned α * ) if β≤α break ( * beta cut - off * ) return α further improvement can be achieved without sacrificing accuracy, by using ordering heuristics to search parts of the tree that are likely to force alpha - beta cutoffs early. pseudocode is a compact and informal high - level description of a computer programming algorithm that uses the structural conventions of some programming language heuristic ( hyu - ˈris - tik is a method to help solve a problem commonly an informal method for example, in chess, moves that take pieces may be examined before moves that do not, or moves that have scored highly in earlier passes through the game - tree analysis may be evaluated before others. iterative deepening depth - first search ( iddfs is a state space search strategy in which a depth - limited search is run repeatedly increasing the depth limit with another common, and very cheap, heuristic is the killer heuristic, where the last move that caused a beta - cutoff at the same level in the tree search is always examined first. in competitive two - player games the killer heuristic is a technique for improving the efficiency of alpha - beta pruning, which in turn improves the efficiency of the this idea can be generalized into a set of refutation tables. alpha - beta search can be made even faster by considering only a narrow search window ( generally determined by guesswork based on experience ). this is known as aspiration search. in the extreme case, the search is performed with alpha and beta equal ; a technique known as zero - window search, null - window search, or scout search. this is particularly useful for win / loss searches near the end of a game where the extra depth gained from the narrow window and a simple win / loss evaluation function may lead to a conclusive result. if an aspiration search fails, it is straightforward to detect whether it failed high ( high edge of window was too low ) or low ( lower edge of window was too high ). this gives information about what window values


to a conclusive result. if an aspiration search fails, it is straightforward to detect whether it failed high ( high edge of window was too low ) or low ( lower edge of window was too high ). this gives information about what window values might be useful in a re - search of the position. more advanced algorithms that are even faster while still being able to compute the exact minimax value are known, such as negascout and mtd - f. negascout or principal variation search is a negamax algorithm that can be faster than alpha - beta pruning. mtd ( f, an abbreviation of mtd ( nf ( memory - enhanced test driver with node n and value f is a minimax search algorithm better than the basic alpha - beta pruning algorithm since the minimax algorithm and its variants are inherently depth - first, a strategy such as iterative deepening is usually used in conjunction with alpha - beta so that a reasonably good move can be returned even if the algorithm is interrupted before it has finished execution. depth - first search ( dfs ) is an algorithm for traversing or searching a tree, tree structure, or graph. iterative deepening depth - first search ( iddfs is a state space search strategy in which a depth - limited search is run repeatedly increasing the depth limit with another advantage of using iterative deepening is that searches at shallower depths give move - ordering hints that can help produce cutoffs for higher depth searches much earlier than would otherwise be possible. algorithms like sss *, on the other hand, use the best - first strategy. sss * is a search algorithm, introduced by stockman in 1979 that conducts a state space search traversing a game tree in a best - first fashion best - first search is a search algorithm which explores a graph by expanding the most promising node chosen according to some rule this can potentially make them more time - efficient, but typically at a heavy cost in space - efficiency.


this year the volvo xc90, which is being heavily advertised for safety features ( " the first suv in the world with roll stability control " ) and freedom from guilt ( " the first suv in the world to transform ozone into oxygen " ). bradsher objects that consumers are using crossovers to replace cars rather than bigger suvs and that manufacturers use them to game mileage standards by bringing down fleet averages. yet the fact is that since crossovers were introduced, sales of the larger suvs have leveled off. at the beginning of 2003, sellers for the first time were offering huge rebates on the biggest models — as much as $ 8, 500 on the ford expedition and $ 6, 600 on the dodge durango. meanwhile, crossovers have become the fastest growing segment of the automotive market, with unit sales up by 78 percent in 2000, 87 percent in 2001, and 23 percent in 2002. the mileage of crossovers almost equals that of cars. to meet regulatory requirements, their manufacturers still claim that they are capable of off - road travel, but the engineering evidence for this is modest, as in skid plates that protect their engines and transmissions from rock damage or tires that can grip in mud. they could make their way up a rutted mountain road to an owner ' s second home, but not haul a horse trailer or boat. they are easier to handle and park than big suvs, and have a quieter ride. at least for the occupants of other vehicles, they are presumably safer than the higher - riding suvs built on truck frames that puncture their crash objects with steel. one wonders what american highways would look like if car - based utility vehicles had been manufactured at the beginning of the suv boom instead of ten years later. did the menacing version prevail initially because it appealed to the " darkest shadows of human nature, " in bradsher ' s lugubrious phrase, or because the industry ' s economics and the government ' s regulations perversely interacted to propel it to predominance? indubitably popular, it may not in the long run prove to be more so than a scaled - back, smoother riding, more sensible alternative. perhaps it is not claiming too much to interpret crossovers as consumers ' modestly qualified contribution to the current backlash against suvs. if the big ones do suffer a prolonged decline, at least relatively, it is hard to predict the extent to which bradsher ' s book will be credited. easterbrook compares bradsher to nad


conservative dictionary project ( r ) - true conservative meaning - disparaging people or a group of people because of the color of their skin, such as when liberals claim minorities cannot succeed without affirmative action - false liberal redefinition - the idea that society is the reason minorities cannot get ahead - true conservative meaning - a reminder to god and man of god ' s promise to never flood the entire world again. - false liberal redefinition - a symbol used by the homosexuals to promote their agenda ; alternatively, a product of refraction with no spiritual significance - true conservative meaning - a liberal government system designed to by pass the free market and distribute goods and services based on bureaucratic whims. - false liberal redefinition - a way of sharing limited resources. - republican form of government - true conservative meaning - a form of government in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the people and are exercised by the people, either directly or through representatives chosen by the people, and in which individuals retain sovereign prerogative over their person, labor, and property - false liberal redefinition - mobocracy - true conservative meaning - a just claim or title, whether legal, prescriptive, or moral - false liberal redefinition - privileges extended by government at its own pleasure, subject to revocation for the alleged collective good


advanced operating systems advanced systems teaching ( asyst ) labthe asyst lab is organised around 64 - bit computers ( ` ` u4600 ' ' ) based on a 100 mhz mips r4700 processor. the u4600 was developed by kevin elphinstone ( former unsw phd student ) and dave johnson. it is especially designed to allow experimentation with operating systems code. presently, these machines run the l4 microkernel. technical details : the nodes are based on a locally designed and manufactured atx form factor motherboard. the motherboard features : - the nodes are hosted on unix computers, presently pc ' s running solaris. these contain a development environment which allows you to compile code, link it with the l4 microkernel, and download it to the u4600 via ethernet. the hosts also interface to the serial port on the u4600 for console i / o. how to use : make sure that ~ cs9242 / bin is in your path, and that the environment arch is set to pc. i86. linux. the former is normally achieved by using the newclass command, the latter is set up automatically by the default shell initialisation files. also make sure that you are using gnu make ( this is also ensured by the default initialisation files ). use the makefiles supplied with the examples ( like the one in ~ cs9242 / public _ html / src / hello _ world / ). typing note : make must be done locally on the host machine connected to your u4600, or the boot image will end up in the wrong boot directory. you also need to run a terminal emulator on the host to be able to talk to the u4600. use the command turn on the u4600, you should get another greeting message and a if you do not get the prompt, some program is actually executing on the u4600. press the interrupt button ( the smaller of the two buttons on the box ) for about 1 / 2 second, and you should get a ` ` kdbg > ' ' prompt. type if you type note that you are running an operating system, which is not expected to terminate. to stop execution, hit the interrrupt key ( reset button ) on the u4600. this will get you into the l4 kernel debugger, which is unlikely to be of much help for you ( but if you want to try, it is documented in appendix c of the l4 reference manual


archive for october 12th, 2009 most cuckoo clocks today are made in the “ traditional style ” to hang on a wall in your home or office. in the long history of clock making and time keeping, cuckoo clocks play a large role in the appreciation of art in clocks. the traditional style of the cuckoo clock is a wooden case decorated with carved leaves and animals and an automation of a bird that appears through a small door while the clock is striking. a cuckoo clock is typically pendulum driven, striking the hour and half hour, using bellows and pipes that imitate the cuckoo call. today ’ s cuckoo clocks are almost always driven by weights. the weights are made of cast iron in a pine cone shape. as early as 1650, the call of the cuckoo bird in a clock was being heard in parts of east germany and a region of the czech republic. it took nearly a century for the cuckoo clock to find its way to the black forest. the black forest cuckoo clock, as we know it, comes from the region in southwest germany, where a tradition of clock making started late in the 17th century. the cuckoo clock is a favorite souvenir of travelers in germany, where there are several different firms making the whole clock or parts of it. the people who make cuckoo clocks are dedicated craftsmen whose products are works of art. black forest cuckoo clocks and german cuckoo clocks command big prices and are highly sought after in antique stores, flea markets and retail shops. they are valuable because of their elaborate hand carvings and unique artistry. tomorrow, we ’ ll look at “ striking the hour ”


solar power is taking off around the world. europe is planning to deploy various types of solar power to the sahara to provide for the european union ' s energy needs. meanwhile, here in the u. s., california is expanding its solar efforts as well. however, amid the progressing adoption of solar technology, one perpetual criticism that persists is that solar power is inefficient and expensive. to some extents this is true. the current generation of photovoltaic solar panels - - the type of solar power perhaps most associated with the field - - is only around 20 percent efficient and thus costs remain relatively high, like many forms of alternative energy. a new breakthrough from u. s. department of energy ' s national renewable energy laboratory ( nrel ) is looking to solve those problems. it pushes solar cells to uncharted technology with a record 40. 8 percent efficiency. the new work shatters all previous records for photovoltaic device efficiencies. the researchers first used a special type of cell, an inverted metamorphic triple - junction solar cell. the custom cell was designed, fabricated, and independently measured at nrel. the next step was to expose the solar cell to concentrated light of 326 suns, yielding the record - breaking efficiency. a sun is a common measure in the solar power industry which represents the amount of light that hits the earth on average. the new cell targets a variety of markets. one potential market is the satellite solar panel business. satellites natural absorb more intense sunlight, thanks to no atmospheric interference. another possible application is deployment in commercial concentrated pv cells. concentrated pv is a burgeoning field, with several companies currently contracted worldwide to build the first utility grade plants. the new record was welcome news, but little surprise at nrel - - they held the previous record as well. in order to beat their old design, one key was to replace the germanium wafer at the bottom junction with a composite of gallium indium phosphide and gallium indium arsenide. the mixture splits the spectrum into three parts, each of which gets absorbed by one of the junctions. both the middle and bottom junction become metamorphic in the new design. this means their crystal lattices are misaligned, trapping light in the junction and absorbing more of it. this yields an optimal efficiency. one key advantage is the new solar cell can be conveniently processed by growth on a gallium arsenide wafer. it is also both thin and light. the nrel believes


some researchers believe that the solar cycle influences global climate changes. they attribute recent warming trends to cyclic variation. skeptics, though, argue that there ' s little hard evidence of a solar hand in recent climate changes. now, a new research report from a surprising source may help to lay this skepticism to rest. a study from nasa ’ s goddard space flight center in greenbelt, maryland looking at climate data over the past century has concluded that solar variation has made a significant impact on the earth ' s climate. the report concludes that evidence for climate changes based on solar radiation can be traced back as far as the industrial revolution. past research has shown that the sun goes through eleven year cycles. at the cycle ' s peak, solar activity occurring near sunspots is particularly intense, basking the earth in solar heat. according to robert cahalan, a climatologist at the goddard space flight center, " right now, we are in between major ice ages, in a period that has been called the holocene. " thomas woods, solar scientist at the university of colorado in boulder concludes, " the fluctuations in the solar cycle impacts earth ' s global temperature by about 0. 1 degree celsius, slightly hotter during solar maximum and cooler during solar minimum. the sun is currently at its minimum, and the next solar maximum is expected in 2012. " according to the study, during periods of solar quiet, 1, 361 watts per square meter of solar energy reaches earth ' s outermost atmosphere. periods of more intense activity brought 1. 4 watts per square meter ( 0. 1 percent ) more energy. while the nasa study acknowledged the sun ' s influence on warming and cooling patterns, it then went badly off the tracks. ignoring its own evidence, it returned to an argument that man had replaced the sun as the cause current warming patterns. like many studies, this conclusion was based less on hard data and more on questionable correlations and inaccurate modeling techniques. the inconvertible fact, here is that even nasa ' s own study acknowledges that solar variation has caused climate change in the past. and even the study ' s members, mostly ardent supports of agw theory, acknowledge that the sun may play a significant role in future climate changes.


it is very common to confuse cloud computing with virtualization. since they are both relatively new and since organizations are calling it the saving face of new age technology, i assumed we might want to look into what exactly the two technologies are and how diverse they are from each other. cloud is essentially a highly scalable platform where you can store data, build and run applications that can be accessed through the internet only. cloud is a mode to mobilize all applications so that you can remotely access your organization data through any device that has access to internet. data center hosts or collocation hosts who are interested in cloud technology provide software as a service packages to their clients. cloud makes it possible to have your servers in a secure environment in any part of the world and your clients still can access and modify the data if they have required security clearance. cloud makes use of virtualized resources in order to fulfill its requirements. a cloud host provides hardware and hosting facilities depending on the usage requested by the client. virtualization, on the other hand, is a technique of creating a virtual pool of servers, operating systems, storage devices and network resources. it enables a single user to access multiple physical devices at the same time. with this, one operating system can control the operation of multiple computers or vice versa. building your own data center takes a lot of capital investment ; and maintaining it is a nightmare you do not want to go through if your main aim is to focus on your business. hiring a service is a better option. unlike the cloud, in a data center, you have to note that you will merely be storing your servers on someone else ’ s property. so you are responsible for upgrading your servers as and when technology takes a giant leap. the drawback with data centers is the challenge you will face while scaling up as and when the need arises. your data center host must have rack space to accommodate an extra server or two and also must be equipped to handle an increase in cooling and power needs. of course, there is a problem of your resources going on standby mode when not in use, too. cloud may be an ideal solution from an economic point of view. like we have mentioned before, you only pay for the services you are using ; not for idle or standby services. virtualization is all about the control. pure, unparalleled control over multiple devices using a single point of operation. with virtualization, for instance, you can run a very large application even though your system individually cannot support it. in other words,


is all about the control. pure, unparalleled control over multiple devices using a single point of operation. with virtualization, for instance, you can run a very large application even though your system individually cannot support it. in other words, your system interacts with the other systems connected to the virtualization network, notes which system is available and uses part of the available system ’ s resources in addition to your own to run your application. it ’ s like your system has temporarily expanded its capacity to run your application successfully. through virtualization, you can install a software only once and be rest assured that everyone will have access to it. you don ’ t need multiple licences to make the software available to all your employees. since you are technically installing it only on one system, you are not violating any laws either. same is true with storage. this technique avoids the need for data replication, thus saving storage space. so you see, one technology has nothing to do with the other ; and they, most certainly, are not the same thing. virtualization, to an extent, makes the cloud operable. data center talk updates its resources everyday. visit us to know of the latest technology and standards from the data center world. please leave your views and comments on dct forum.


- - sourcetheravada means the ‘ doctrine of the elders ’. the term hinayana has also been used for this form of buddhism, but it is a misnomer. this term has been used by the mahayana buddhists, who reckoned that they were followers of the ‘ greater vehicle ’. the mahayanists to differentiate themselves from the theravadins called the latter hinayana, the lesser vehicle. in the pre - mahayana period there was truly a collateral sect called the hinayana, but this sect is not the theravada of today. this confusion was unfortunate, and therefore, it is better to avoid the term hinayana altogether. any attempt to label two different forms of buddhism as ‘ greater ’ and ‘ lesser ’ is odious. this is confusing to me. the term " hinayana " was used before the break - up of the sangha by theravadan practitioners? what does it mean that the " hinayana " of that time was different from the theravada of today? i ' ve always thought that the term hinayana was only pejorative. but i once saw retro mention that there are appropriate uses for the word. please play nice. i ' m not trying to create divisions or open the door for ridiculing mahayana. i put this in the " discovering theravada " section in hopes of just just getting information and clarification.


the following was written by richard dawkins to his daughter and while written more towards the discussion between religion and science, it contains much useful insight information on how we look at and evaluate health information. i would add in another comment, blind trust of authorities, who sound like they are coming with solid evidence, is not better. we really must learn not only how to evaluate evidence but those who deliver it. ps, i have no comment in regard to his view / comments on religions or mine. to my dearest daughter, now that you are ten, i want to write to you about something that is important to me. have you ever wondered how we know the things that we know? how do we know, for instance, that the stars, which look like tiny pinpricks in the sky, are really huge balls of fire like the sun and very far away? and how do we know that the earth is a smaller ball whirling round one of those stars, the sun? the answer to these questions is ‘ evidence ’. sometimes evidence means actually seeing ( or hearing, feeling, smelling ) that something is true. astronauts have traveled far enough from the earth to see with their own eyes that it is round. sometimes our eyes need help. the ‘ evening star ’ looks like a bright twinkle in the sky but with a telescope you can see that it is a beautiful ball – the planet we call venus. something that you learn by direct seeing ( or hearing or feeling ) is called an observation. often evidence isn ’ t just observation on its own, but observation always lies at the back of it. if there ’ s been a murder, often nobody ( except the murderer and the dead person! ) actually observed it. but detectives can gather together lots of other observations which may all point towards a particular suspect. if a person ’ s fingerprints match those found on a dagger, this is evidence that he touched it. it doesn ’ t prove that he did the murder, but it can help when it ’ s joined up with lots of other evidence. sometimes a detective can think about a whole lot of observations and suddenly realize that they all fall into place and make sense if so - and - so did the murder. scientists ( the specialists in discovering what is true about the world and the universe ) often work like detectives. they make a guess ( called a hypothesis ) about what might be true. they then say to themselves : if that were really true, we ought to see so - and - so. this is called a prediction


the universe ) often work like detectives. they make a guess ( called a hypothesis ) about what might be true. they then say to themselves : if that were really true, we ought to see so - and - so. this is called a prediction. for example, if the world is really round, we can predict that a traveler, going on and on in the same direction, should eventually find himself back where he started. when a doctor says that you have measles he doesn ’ t take one look at you and see measles. his first look gives him a hypothesis that you may have measles. then he says to himself : if she really has measles, i ought to see _ _ then he runs through his list of predictions and tests them with his eyes ( have you got spots? ), his hands ( is your forehead hot? ), and his ears ( does your chest wheeze in a measly way? ). only then does he make his decision and say, ‘ i diagnose that the child has measles. ’ sometimes doctors need to do other tests like blood tests or x - rays, which help their eyes, hands and ears to make observations. the way scientists use evidence to learn about the world is much cleverer and more complicated than i can say in a short letter. but now i want to move on from evidence, which is a good reason for believing something, and warn you against three bad reasons for believing anything. they are called ‘ tradition ’, ‘ authority ’, and ‘ revelation ’. first, tradition. a few months ago, i went on television to have a discussion with about 50 children. these children were invited because they ’ d been brought up in lots of different religions. some had been brought up as christians, others as jews, muslims, hindus, sikhs. the man with the microphone went from child to child, asking them what they believed. what they said shows up exactly what i mean by ‘ tradition ’. their beliefs turned out to have no connection with evidence. they just trotted out the beliefs of their parents and grandparents, which, in turn, were not based upon evidence either. they said things like, ‘ we hindus believe so and so. ’ ‘ we muslims believe such and such. ’ ‘ we christians believe something else. ’ of course, since they all believed different things, they couldn ’ t all be right. the man with the microphone seemed to think this quite proper, and he didn ’ t even try


such and such. ’ ‘ we christians believe something else. ’ of course, since they all believed different things, they couldn ’ t all be right. the man with the microphone seemed to think this quite proper, and he didn ’ t even try to get them to argue out their differences with each other. but that isn ’ t the point i want to make. i simply want to ask where their beliefs came from. they came from tradition. tradition means beliefs handed down from grandparent to parent to child, and so on. or from books handed down through the centuries. traditional beliefs often start from almost nothing ; perhaps somebody just makes them up originally, like the stories about thor and zeus. but after they ’ ve been handed down over some centuries, the mere fact that they are so old makes them seem special. people believe things simply because people have believed the same thing over centuries. that ’ s tradition. the trouble with tradition is that, no matter how long ago a story was made up, it is still exactly as true or untrue as the original story was. if you make up a story that isn ’ t true, handing it down over any number of centuries doesn ’ t make it any truer! most people in england have been baptized into the church of england, but this is only one of many branches of the christian religion. there are other branches such as the russian orthodox, the roman catholic and the methodist churches. they all believe different things. the jewish religion and the muslim religion are a bit more different still ; and there are different kinds of jews and of muslims. people who believe even slightly different things from each other often go to war over their disagreements. so you might think that they must have some pretty good reasons – evidence – for believing what they believe. but actually their different beliefs are entirely due to different traditions. let ’ s talk about one particular tradition. roman catholics believe that mary, the mother of jesus, was so special that she didn ’ t die but was lifted bodily into heaven. other christian traditions disagree, saying that mary did die like anybody else. these other religions don ’ t talk about her much and, unlike roman catholics, they don ’ t call her the ‘ queen of heaven ’. the tradition that mary ’ s body was lifted into heaven is not a very old one. the bible says nothing about how or when she died ; in fact the poor woman is scarcely mentioned in the bible at all. the belief that her body was lifted into heaven wasn ’ t invented until about six centuries


the results could be terrible famines, diseases and wars, caused by overcrowding. of course, even in science, sometimes we haven ’ t seen the evidence ourselves and we have to take somebody else ’ s word for it. i haven ’ t with my own eyes, seen the evidence that light travels at a speed of 186, 000 miles per second. instead, i believe books that tell me the speed of light. this looks like ‘ authority ’. but actually it is much better than authority because the people who wrote the books have seen the evidence and anyone is free to look carefully at the evidence whenever they want. that is very comforting. but not even the priests claim that there is any evidence for their story about mary ’ s body zooming off to heaven. the third kind of bad reason for believing anything is called ‘ revelation ’. if you had asked the pope in 1950 how he knew that mary ’ s body disappeared into heaven, he would probably have said that it had been ‘ revealed ’ to him. he shut himself in his room and prayed for guidance. he thought and thought, all by himself, and he became more and more sure inside himself. when religious people just have a feeling inside themselves that something must be true, even though there is no evidence that it is true, they call their feeling ‘ revelation ’. it isn ’ t only popes who claim to have revelations. lots of religious people do. it is one of their main reasons for believing the things that they do believe. but is it a good reason? suppose i told you that your dog was dead. you ’ d be very upset, and you ’ d probably say, ‘ are you sure? how do you know? how did it happen? ’ now suppose i answered : ‘ i don ’ t actually know that pepe is dead. i have no evidence. i just have this funny feeling deep inside me that he is dead. ’ you ’ d be pretty cross with me for scaring you, because you ’ d know that an inside ‘ feeling ’ on its own is not a good reason for believing that a whippet is dead. you need evidence. we all have inside feelings from time to time, and sometimes they turn out to be right and sometimes they don ’ t. anyway, different people have opposite feelings, so how are we to decide whose feeling is right? the only way to be sure that a dog is dead is to see him dead, or hear that his heart has stopped ; or be told by somebody who has seen


different people have opposite feelings, so how are we to decide whose feeling is right? the only way to be sure that a dog is dead is to see him dead, or hear that his heart has stopped ; or be told by somebody who has seen or heard some real evidence that he is dead. people sometimes say that you must believe in feelings deep inside, otherwise you ’ d never be confident of things like ‘ my wife loves me ’. but this is a bad argument. there can be plenty of evidence that somebody loves you. all through the day when you are with somebody who loves you, you see and hear lots of little tidbits of evidence, and they all add up. it isn ’ t purely inside feeling, like the feeling that priests call revelation. there are outside things to back up the inside feeling : looks in the eye, tender notes in the voice, little favors and kindnesses ; this is all real evidence. sometimes people have a strong inside feeling that somebody loves them when it is not based upon any evidence, and then they are likely to be completely wrong. there are people with a strong inside feeling that a famous film star loves them, when really the film star hasn ’ t even met them. people like that are ill in their minds. inside feelings must be backed up by evidence, otherwise you just can ’ t trust them. inside feelings are valuable in science too, but only for giving you ideas that you later test by looking for evidence. a scientist can have a ‘ hunch ’ about an idea that just ‘ feels ’ right. in itself, this is not a good reason for believing something. but it can be a good reason for spending some time doing a particular experiment, or looking in a particular way for evidence. scientists use inside feelings all the time to get ideas. but they are not worth anything until they are supported by evidence. i promised that i ’ d come back to tradition, and look at it in another way. i want to try to explain why tradition is so important to us. all animals are built ( by the process called evolution ) to survive in the normal place in which their kind live. lions are built to be good at surviving on the plains of africa. crayfish are built to be good at surviving in fresh water, while lobsters are built to be good at surviving in the salt sea. people are animals too, and we are built to be good at surviving in a world full of other people. most of us don ’ t hunt for our own food like lions


it to the next generation of children. so, once something gets itself strongly believed ( even if its completely untrue and there never was any reason to believe it in the first place ) it can go on forever. could this be what happened with religions? belief that there is a god or gods, belief in heaven, belief that mary never died, belief that jesus never had a human father, belief that prayers are answered, belief that wine turns into blood – not one of these beliefs is backed up by any good evidence. yet millions of people believe them. perhaps this is because they were told to believe them when they were young enough to believe anything. millions of other people believe quite different things, because they were told different things when they were children. muslim children are told different things from christian children, and both grow up utterly convinced that they are right and the others are wrong. even within christians, roman catholics believe different things from church of england people or episcopalians, shakers or quakers, mormons or holy rollers, and all are utterly convinced that they are right and the others are wrong. they believe different things for exactly the same kind of reason as you speak english and someone speaks german. both languages are, in their own country, the right language to speak. but it can ’ t be true that different religions are right in their own countries, because different religions claim that opposite things are true. mary can ’ t be alive in the catholic republic but dead in protestant northern ireland. what can we do about all this? it is not easy for you to do anything, because you are only ten. but you could try this. next time somebody tells you something that sounds important, think to yourself : ‘ is this the kind of thing that people probably know because of evidence? or is it the kind of thing that people only believe because of tradition, authority or revelation? ’ and, next time somebody tells you that something is true, why not say to them : ‘ what kind of evidence is there for that? ’ and if they can ’ t give you a good answer, i hope you ’ ll think very carefully before you believe a word they say.


iso sensitivity is the ability of a sensor to provide a defined response for a given level of lighting. photographers use this information to determine the nominal exposure conditions. if the actual iso sensitivity of a digital camera ’ s sensor is lower than the sensitivity set by the user, the image is underexposed ; if the sensitivity is greater, the image is overexposed. to be easily understood by photographers, the iso sensitivity of digital cameras has been defined such that it is similar to the iso sensitivity of photographic film cameras, thus lower sensitivities require longer exposure for the same luminance to produce the same result. however, just as very sensitive films are known to be very grainy, parallels can be drawn for digital cameras, since high sensitivities are related to high gain and noise amplification. while it is a common practice for camera vendors to emphasize high iso settings on their cameras, it must be said that high iso does not mean good image quality. any serious photographer knows that the lowest iso should be used to shoot a scene with a longer exposure time. only when conditions do not allow it ( as in photojournalism, low - light conditions, or sport photography ) should lower exposure time and high iso be used ( typically to limit motion blur ). with film photography, changing the iso meant having to change the film ( which was very annoying ). the intrinsic sensitivity of a digital camera is determined by the silicon structure of the sensor itself and cannot be changed, but the iso of the camera can be artificially increased to arbitrary values by applying a gain to the signal. the price to pay is a proportionate increase of noise and eventually, a decrease of snr for a given output value ( see essential characteristics of noise ). the only trick is that the gain is applied before analog / digital conversion so as to avoid quantization effects. so the fact that a camera attains iso 10000 is no guarantee of image quality ; the noise level at this iso has to be reported as well. iso sensitivity ( also known as iso speed ) is a numerical value calculated from the exposure provided at the focal plane of a digital camera to produce specific camera output signal characteristics. iso standard 12232 defines two ways to measure iso sensitivity. the first relates sensitivity to the exposure necessary to saturate the camera. the second, seldom used, compares the relative exposures to obtain different signal - to - noise ratios. the more common saturation - based method is described below. the saturation focal plane exposure is defined as the


to saturate the camera. the second, seldom used, compares the relative exposures to obtain different signal - to - noise ratios. the more common saturation - based method is described below. the saturation focal plane exposure is defined as the exposure ( illumination multiplied by exposure time in lux. s ) necessary to reach sensor saturation. iso sensitivity is then defined by when a focal plane exposure measurement is not possible, as for a camera with non - removable optics, it is possible to compute the focal plane exposure as l is the scene luminance ( cd / m² ), t is the exposure time ( s ), a is the lens aperture ( f - number ), with t as the transmission factor of the lens, v as the vignetting factor, and θ as the angle of the image point from the optical axis. iso 12232 considers a transmission factor t = 9 / 10, an angle θ = 10°, and a vignetting factor v = 98 / 100, which leads to q = 65 / 100. dxomark measures iso sensitivity at the image center ; thus θ = 0° and v = 1, considering the same transmission factor t = 9 / 10, which leads to q = 71 / 100. iso sensitivity is then defined by with lsat being the minimum luminance necessary to reach sensor saturation. as tests show, the iso settings reported by camera manufacturers can differ significantly from measured iso in raw. this difference stems from design choices, in particular the choice to keep some “ headroom ” to avoid saturation in the higher exposures to make it possible to recover from blown highlights.


this session will focus on introducing the use of negotiated projects and the australian curriculum in a state school prep class. real - life examples of how anne has incorporated negotiated projects and the australian curriculum at beginning of the prep year will be discussed. anne aims to demonstrate how they can be used to fulfil requirements outlined in both the early years curriculum guidelines and the australian curriculum ( c2c ) key ideas will include : • anne ' s ongoing work with maintaining a play based pedagogy in a state school prep class. • focused teaching that compliments projects & the australian curriculum expectations. • examples of how anne has begun to implement projects and the content of c2c and australian curriculum anne pearson is currently a prep teacher at the new mango hill s. s. prior to teaching at mango hill ss anne was a demonstration teacher for qut at kelvin grove sc. anne has experience in prep and preschool settings. anne has previously presented on playing with the australian curriculum at the 2011ecta conference, and is a passionate advocate of appropriate early years pedagogy as recommended by qsa and education queensland. anne is constantly working on ways to best support her students and support the new australian curriculum. opportunities for discussion will be provided in the presentation. relevant qct standards : 2, 9, 10


[ part 1 briefly reviews the differences between analogue and digital synthesis, and discusses voltage control - " one of the major innovations in the development of the synthesizer. " part 2 begins a look at subtractive synthesis with a discussion of vcos, waveforms, harmonic content, and filters. part 3 discusses envelopes - the overall ' shape ' of the volume of a sound, plotted against time. part 4 looks at amplifiers as well as other modifiers, including lfos, envelope followers, waveshapers, and modulation. part 5 shows how a subtractive analogue synthesizer can be a learning tool for exploring some of the principles of audio and acoustics. part 6 considers other methods of analogue synthesis. part 7 deals with the topology of the modules that make up a typical synthesizer and then looks at categorizing types of synthesizers. ] 3. 7 early versus modern implementations electronics is always changing. components, circuits, design techniques, standards and production processes may become obsolete over time. this means that the design and construction of electronic equipment will continuously change as these new criteria are met. the continuing trend seems to be for smaller packaging, lower power, higher performance and lower cost but at the price of increasing complexity, embedded software, difficulty of repair and rapid obsolescence. over the last 25 years, the basic technology has changed from valves and transistors towards microprocessors and custom ics. 3. 7. 1 tuning and stability the analogue synthesizers of the late 1960s and early 1970s are infamous for their tuning problems. but then so are many acoustic instruments! in fact, it was only the very earliest synthesizers that had major tuning problems. the first moog vcos were relatively simple circuits built at the limits of the available knowledge and technology – no one had ever built analogue synthesizers before. the designs were thus refined prototypes which had not been subjected to the rigorous trials of extended serious musical use. it is worth noting that the process of converting laboratory prototypes into rugged, ' road - worthy ' equipment is still very difficult ; and at the time, valve amplifiers and electromechanical devices such as tape echo machines were the dominant technology. modular synthesizers were the first ' all - electronic ' devices to become musical instruments that actually left the laboratory. the oscillators in early synthesizers were affected by temperature changes because they used diodes or transistors to generate the required exponential control law, and these change their characteristics with temperature ( diodes or transistors can be used as temperature sensors! ). once the problem was


synthesizers were affected by temperature changes because they used diodes or transistors to generate the required exponential control law, and these change their characteristics with temperature ( diodes or transistors can be used as temperature sensors! ). once the problem was identified, it was quickly realized that there was a need for temperature compensation. a special temperature compensation resistor called a ' q81 ' was frequently used – they have a negative temperature coefficient which exactly matches the positive temperature coefficient of the transistor. eventually circuit designers devised methods of providing temperature compensation, which did not require esoteric resistors, usually based around differential pairs of matched transistors. developments of these principles into custom synthesizer chips have effectively removed the need for additional temperature compensation. unfortunately, the tuning problems had created a characteristic sound, which is one reason why the ' beating oscillator ' sounds heard on vintage analogue synthesizers are emulated in fully digital instruments that have an excellent temperature stability. tuning problems fall into four categories : - overall tuning - high - frequency tracking because of the differences in the response of components to temperature, the tuning of an analogue synthesizer can change as it warms up to the operating temperature. this can be compensated manually by adjusting the frequency cv or automatically using an ' auto - tune ' circuit ( see later ). some synthesizers used temperature - controlled chips to try and provide elevated but constant temperature conditions for the most critical components : usually the transistors or diodes in the exponential converter circuits. these ' ovens ' have been largely replaced in modern designs by careful compensation for temperature changes. tuning polyphonic synthesizers requires patience and an understanding of the way that key assignment works ( see section 6. 5. 3 ). the tuner needs to know which vco is making the sound ( sometimes indicated by a light emitting diode ( led ) or by a custom circuit addon ), as well as how to cycle through the remaining vcos – often by holding one note down with a weight or a little wedge and then pressing and holding additional notes.


definition of genu genu : the latin word for the knee. when the knee is referred to in medicine, it is just called the knee. however, the word " genu " is also used in medicine as in : genu recurvatum ( hyperextension of the knee ), genu valgum ( knock knee ) and genu varum ( bowleg ). the knee ( or genu, if you are into latin ) is a joint which has three parts. the thigh bone ( femur ) meets the large shin bone ( tibia ) forming the main knee joint. this joint has an inner ( medial ) and an outer ( lateral ) compartment. the kneecap ( patella ) joins the femur to form a third joint, called the patellofemoral joint. the knee joint is surrounded by a joint capsule with ligaments strapping the inside and outside of the joint ( collateral ligaments ) as well as crossing within the joint ( cruciate ligaments ). these ligaments provide stability and strength to the knee joint. the large muscles of the thigh move the knee. in the front of the thigh the quadriceps muscles extend the knee joint. in the back of the thigh, the hamstring muscles flex the knee. the knee also rotates slightly under guidance of specific muscles of the thigh. the knee functions to allow movement of the leg and is critical to normal walking. the knee flexes normally to a maximum of 135 degrees and extends to 0 degrees. the bursae, or fluid - filled sacs, serve as gliding surfaces for the tendons to reduce the force of friction as these tendons move. the knee is a weightbearing joint. each meniscus serves to evenly load the surface during weight - bearing and also adds in disbursing joint fluid for joint lubrication. source : medterms™ medical dictionary last editorial review : 4 / 27 / 2011 5 : 27 : 15 pm medical dictionary definitions a - z search medical dictionary emedicinehealth top news find out what women really need. most popular topics pill identifier on rxlist - quick, easy, find a local pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies


apr 11, 2012 / energy globe award project presentation - " solar houses for siberia " low energy houses which do not require additional energy for heating are almost state of the art here in austria. but how is the situation in the icy regions of the russian far east, like in vadivostok, with records being minus 68 degrees, chilling winds and a soil that is always frozen? people in russia usually heat their homes with millions of tons of oil, gas, coal, and firewood, but still houses get no warmer than 14 degrees. on average, every russian uses 50 % more energy than any citizen of the eu. saving energy is an unknown concept. an innovative architectural design developed by the far eastern federal university of vladivostok is tackling these challenges and brings a new quality of live into the living rooms of people : the " eco house " for everyone has an overall heat insulation made of a special material not only for the roof and walls but also, and especially, for the foundations. so the house stays warm even in the most icy winter, and no longer sinks into the ground, which normally happens when too much heat softens the permafrost soil. with its windbreak architectural form and thanks to solar collectors and heat storage systems now a comfortable 22 degrees can be reached and the house needs only very little energy from external sources even in very cold conditions.


definitions, specifications, and other guidance postconsumer fiber means : - paper, paperboard, and fibrous wastes from retail stores, office buildings, homes, and so forth, after they have passed through their end - usage as a consumer item, including : used corrugated boxes ; old newspapers ; old magazines ; mixed waste paper ; tabulating cards ; and used cordage ; and - all paper, paperboard, and fibrous wastes that enter and are collected from municipal solid waste. - postconsumer fiber does not include fiber derived from printers ' over - runs, converters ' scrap, and over - issue publications. recovered fiber means : postconsumer fiber such as : manufacturing wastes such as : - paper, paperboard, and fibrous materials from retail stores, office buildings, homes, and so forth, after they have passed through their end - usage as a consumer item, including : used corrugated boxes ; old newspapers ; old magazines ; mixed waste paper ; tabulating cards ; and used cordage ; and - all paper, paperboard, and fibrous materials that enter and are collected from municipal solid waste, and manufacturing wastes such as : - dry paper and paperboard waste generated after completion of the papermaking process ( that is, those manufacturing operations up to and including the cutting and trimming of the paper machine reel into smaller rolls or rough sheets ) including : envelope cuttings, bindery trimmings, and other paper and paperboard waste resulting from printing, cutting, forming, and other converting operations ; bag, box, and carton manufacturing wastes ; and butt rolls, mill wrappers, and rejected unused stock ; and - repulped finished paper and paperboard from obsolete inventories of paper and paperboard manufacturers, merchants, wholesalers, dealers, printers, converters, or others. mill broke means any paper waste generated in a paper mill prior to completion of the papermaking process. it is usually returned directly to the pulping process. mill broke is excluded from the definition of " recovered fiber. " also see " measurement " section below. epa recommends that procuring agencies review specifications provisions pertaining to performance and aesthetics and revise provisions that can impede use of postconsumer and recovered fiber, unless such provisions are related to reasonable performance standards. agencies should determine whether performance provisions are unnecessarily stringent for a particular end use. agencies also should revise aesthetics provisions - such as brightness, dirt count, or shade matching - if


akha in the language cloudprint this graph shows the place of this language within the cloud of all living languages. each language in the world is represented by a small dot that is placed on the grid in relation to its population ( in the vertical axis ) and its level of development or endangerment ( in the horizontal axis ), with the largest and strongest languages in the upper left and the smallest and weakest languages ( down to extinction ) in the lower right. the population value is the estimated number of first language ( l1 ) speakers ; it is plotted on a logarithmic scale ( where 100 = 1 ; 102 = 100 ; 104 = 10, 000 ; 106 = 1, 000, 000 ; 108 = 100, 000, 000 ). the value for the development versus endangerment dimension is the estimated level on the egids scale. ( see the pages on development and endangerment for a fuller explanation. ) the language in focus is represented by a large, colored dot. when the population is unknown, a color - coded question mark appears at the bottom of the grid. when there are no known l1 speakers, an x appears at the bottom of the grid. the color coding matches the color scheme used in the summary profile graphs on the navigation maps for the site. in this scheme, the egids levels are grouped as follows : - purple = institutional ( egids 0 - 4 ) — the language has been developed to the point that it is used and sustained by institutions beyond the home and community. - blue = developing ( egids 5 ) — the language is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized form being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable. - green = vigorous ( egids 6a ) — the language is unstandardized and in vigorous use among all generations. - yellow = in trouble ( egids 6b - 7 ) — intergenerational transmission is in the process of being broken, but the child - bearing generation can still use the language so it is possible that revitalization efforts could restore transmission of the language in the home. - red = dying ( egids 8a - 9 ) — the only fluent users ( if any ) are older than child - bearing age, so it is too late to restore natural intergenerational transmission through the home ; a mechanism outside the home would need to be developed. - black = extinct ( egids 10 ) — the language has fallen completely out of use and


age, so it is too late to restore natural intergenerational transmission through the home ; a mechanism outside the home would need to be developed. - black = extinct ( egids 10 ) — the language has fallen completely out of use and no one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated with the language. the egids level indicated by the large, colored dot may be higher than the egids level reported in the main entry for the language. this is because a separate egids estimate is made for every country in which a language is used. our method for calculating the egids level for the language as a whole is not to take an average of all countries, but to report the highest level ( that is, most safe ) for any country. the logic here is that if the egids level of a language is taken as a predictor of its likely longevity, then its longevity will be determined by where it is the strongest. each dot in the cloud is gray at the level of 20 % black. as dots are superimposed on each other, the spot gets darker. thus a spot of total black indicates that at least 5 languages are at the same spot in the cloud. the population scale is continuous ; thus the placement in the vertical axis corresponds exactly to population. the egids scale, however, is discrete. rather than placing all of the dots for a given egids level exactly on the grid line for that level, the dots are “ jittered ” ( that is, the horizontal placement is random within a band around the grid line for the level ).


populations. the researchers conclude that although most of the women in vermont were screened twice as often as the women in norway, the overall rate of cancer detection was similar. given the shorter interval between screens, geller and colleagues were surprised to find a higher interval cancer rate in the vermont women and hypothesize that " vermont women and / or their health care providers may more readily pursue evaluation of symptoms and clinical findings than their norwegian counterparts. " " our results demonstrate that despite its longer screening interzval, the organized population - based screening program in norway achieved similar outcomes as the opportunistic screening in vermont, " the authors write. contact : jennifer nachbur, email @ example. com, ( 802 ) 656 - 7875 citation : hofvind s, vacek pm, skelly j, weaver dl, geller bm. comparing screening mammography for early breast cancer detection in vermont and norway. j natl cancer inst 2008 ; 100 : 1082 - 1091 note to reporters : we have started up an e - mail list to alert reporters when papers are available on the eurekalert site. if you would be interested on being on this list, please let us know at firstname. lastname @ example. org. the content will continue to be available through eurekalert ' s e - mail system and our eurekalert page. the journal of the national cancer institute is published by oxford university press and is not affiliated with the national cancer institute. attribution to the journal of the national cancer institute is requested in all news coverage. visit the journal online at http : / / jnci. oxfordjournals. org /. aaas and eurekalert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to eurekalert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the eurekalert! system.


a 20 percent reduction in 2010 from 2005 levels. the question of whether the 20 percent target is ambitious enough or not has two sides of a coin, and this coin embodies the chinese characteristics of a low carbon economy. on one hand, this target is pegged to gdp, which means a significant gdp growth would still permit a significant growth of energy consumption. given that china ’ s real gdp growth, adjusted for inflation, during 2005 - 2010 is above 60 percent, one might wonder how much energy consumption is really reduced. on the other hand, this reduction target is not an easy task, especially since china is still predominately fuelled by coal, and the transition to a less energy - intensive one will take decades. what was probably unforeseen by ndrc was the outbreak of an economic crisis that pushed the central government to adopt a basket of stimulus programs aiming to boost the nation ’ s economy and global competiveness — with a large part of the benefit accruing to high - energy industries such as steel and cement. in chinese, “ basically ” is understood as “ more or less, ” without referring to an accurate figure. but this is the first time in chinese history that such a clear target on energy consumption has ever been announced, considering the complexity of china energy supply as well as the country ’ s lack of data transparency. furthermore, the target was issued to provincial and city governors as a top - down target, a metric on which their political performances will be evaluated. so the motivation to achieve the 20 percent through real actions is strong, as much as the motivation to present a figure as close as possible or marginally higher. in february, voices of feedback were heard from all over china in the auspicious pre - spring - festival atmosphere, with regional media reporting that most provinces and cities have “ basically met ” the target, with the only exception of xinjiang, which fulfilled a 10. 2 percent reduction. to verify the target ’ s fulfillment, an energy saving evaluation group — consisting of experts from ndrc, the china statistics bureau and china energy bureau — was sent to various cities after the spring festival, in order to conclude with a performance score. to date, the final result is yet to be published. but what about actions so far? the ndrc director once criticized the simplistic action of cutting off or restricting electricity supply adopted in some chinese regions as “ improper. ” let ’ s switch to those proper actions, categorized by a ) policy levers, b )


the future of the dollar january 01, 1974 by henry hazlitt mr. hazlitt is the well - known economist, columnist, editor, lecturer and author of numerous books, including what you should know about inflation which is available in paperback from the foundation for economic education. before we consider the future of the american dollar it may be wise to cast a glance at the glories of its past and examine the main causes that have brought it to its present humiliating state. the logical starting point in this examination is bretton woods. when the representatives of some forty nations met there in 1944, heretical monetary notions were floating in the air. lord keynes, who was there, was their chief spokesman. the most definite of these notions was that the gold standard was a barbarous relic, and neither could nor should be restored. it put every national economy in a strait jacket. it prevented full employment ; it strangled economic growth ; it tied the hands of national monetary managers. and all for no good reason except an outworn mystique. besides, there wasn ’ t enough gold in the world to sustain convertibility. but because some american congressmen and some parliaments were thought to have a lingering prejudice in favor of gold, it seemed prudent to compromise, and to set up something that looked almost like a gold standard — a thinly gold - plated standard. so, through an international monetary fund ( imf ), a sort of world central bank, every other currency was to be pegged at a fixed rate to the almighty dollar. each nation, after fixing an official parity for its currency unit, pledged itself to maintain that parity by buying or selling dollars. the dollar alone was to be convertible into gold, at the fixed rate of $ 35 an ounce. but unlike as in the past, not everybody who held dollars was to be allowed to convert them on demand into gold ; that privilege was reserved to national central banks or other official institutions. thus, everything seemed to be neatly taken care of. when every other currency was tied to the dollar at a fixed rate, they were all necessarily tied to each other at fixed rates. only one currency was tied to the dreadful discipline of gold, and even that in a very limited way. gold was " economized " as never before. it was now the servant, no longer the master. in addition, the bretton woods agreements provided that if any nation or central bank got into trouble, it was entitled to automatic credit from the fund


" economized " as never before. it was now the servant, no longer the master. in addition, the bretton woods agreements provided that if any nation or central bank got into trouble, it was entitled to automatic credit from the fund, no questions asked. thus, not only released from a strict gold standard, but tempted to imprudence, individual nations felt free to expand their paper money and credit supply to meet their own so - called domestic " needs. " the politicians and the monetary managers in practically every country were infected with a keynesian or inflationary ideology. they rationalized budget deficits and continuous monetary and credit expansion as necessary to maintain " full employment " and " economic growth. " as a consequence, there were soon wholesale devaluations. the imf has published hundreds of thousands of statistics ; but the single figure of how many devaluations there were between the opening of the fund and august 15, 1971, when the dollar itself became officially inconvertible into gold, the imf has never published. there were certainly hundreds of devaluations. to my knowledge, practically every currency in the fund, with the exception of the dollar, was devalued at least once. the record of the british pound was much better than that, say, of the french franc, but the pound itself, which had already been devalued from $ 4. 86 to $ 4. 03 when it entered the imf, was devalued again from $ 4. 03 to $ 2. 80 in september 1949 ( an action that touched off 25 more devaluations of other currencies within a single week ), and devalued still again from $ 2. 80 to $ 2. 40 in november, 1967. devaluation, let us remember, is an act of national bankruptcy. it is a partial repudiation, a government welching on part of its domestic and foreign obligations. yet, by repetition by all the best countries, devaluation acquired a sort of respectability. it became not a swindle, but a " monetary technique. " until the dollar went off gold in august 1971 and was devalued in december, we heard incessantly how " successful " the bretton woods system had proved. during the early part of this period, however, the world suffered from what everybody called a " shortage of dollars. " the london economist, among others, even solemnly argued that there was now a permanent " shortage


and other inventories. this leads to an expansion of money and credit which soon makes other prices rise. ( often, of course, the causation is the other way round : an expansion of a country ’ s currency and a consequent rise of its internal price level will soon be reflected in a fall of its currency quotation in the foreign exchange market. ) in brief, internal prices soon adjust to the foreign - exchange quotation of the currency, or vice versa. we can see more clearly how this must take place if we look at a freely transportable international commodity like wheat, copper, or silver. let us say, for example, that copper is 50 cents a pound in new york when the deutsche mark in the foreign exchange market is 25 cents. then purchases, sales, and arbitrage transactions will have brought it about that the price of copper in munich is four times as high in marks as in dollars plus costs of transportation. suppose the dollar is devalued or depreciated so that the mark now exchanges for 40 cents. then, assuming that the price of copper in terms of marks does not change ( and though i have been specifically mentioning marks, dollars, and copper i intend this as a hypothetical and not a realistic illustration ), purchases, sales, and arbitrage transactions will now bring it about that the price of copper in new york will have to rise 60 per cent in terms of dollars. to bring this new adjustment about, more copper will flow from the u. s. to germany. but after this temporary stimulus to american export, the new price adjustment will bring it about that, other things being equal, the relative amount of copper exported may be no different than before the devaluation. a brief period of transition i have been speaking of international commodities, traded on the speculative exchanges, and easily and quickly transportable. in these commodities the international price adjustments will take place in a few days or weeks. the price adjustments of most other goods will, of course, take place more slowly. the main point to keep in mind is that there is a constant tendency for the internal purchasing power of a currency to adjust to its foreign - exchange value — and vice versa. in other words, there is a constant tendency for the internal prices in a country to adjust to the changing foreign - exchange value of its currency — and vice versa. though our modern monetary managers and secretaries of commerce seem to know nothing about this, the purchasing power theory of the exchanges was first explained a century and a half ago


country to adjust to the changing foreign - exchange value of its currency — and vice versa. though our modern monetary managers and secretaries of commerce seem to know nothing about this, the purchasing power theory of the exchanges was first explained a century and a half ago by ricardo. in other words, the alleged foreign trade " advantages " of a devaluation last for merely a brief transitional period. depending on specific conditions, that period may stretch over more than a year or less than twenty - four hours. it tends to become shorter and shorter for any given country as depreciation of its currency continues or devaluations are repeated. internal currency depreciation usually lags behind external depreciation, but the lag tends to diminish. statistical studies have been made of the relationships of the internal and external purchasing power of a currency under extreme conditions — for instance, the german mark during the 1919 - 1923 inflation. ( see the economics of inflation, by constantino bresciani - turroni, 1937. ) it would not be too hard for any competent statistician, with the help of a copy of international financial statistics, published monthly by the imf, to put together revealing comparisons of foreign - exchange rates and internal prices for any country that publishes reasonably honest wholesale or consumers price indexes. it is instructive to recall, incidentally, that at the height of the german hyperinflation, which eventually brought the mark to one - trillionth of its former value, monthly exports, measured in tonnages, fell to less than half of what they had previously been, while the tonnage of imports doubled or tripled. in brief, the pursuit of a more " favorable " balance of payments, or a trade " advantage, " through depreciation or devaluation of one ’ s own currency, is the pursuit of a will - o - the - wisp. any gain of exports it brings to the devaluating nation is temporary and transient, and is paid for at an excessive cost — an internal price rise and all the economic distortions and social discontent and unrest this brings about. the usual criticism of currency devaluation is that it will provoke reprisals ; that other countries will try the same thing, and the world may be plunged into competitive devaluations and trade wars. this objection is, of course, both a valid and a major one. but what i have been trying to emphasize here is a point that few of our monetary managers have grasped — that even if


a mania for inflation, domestic and international. they are convinced that inflation is necessary to maintain " full employment " and to continue " economic growth. " they will probably continue to " fight " inflation only with false remedies, like " income policies " and price controls. the international monetary fund is the central world factory of inflation. nearly all the national bureaucrats in charge of it are determined to continue it. having destroyed the remnants of the gold standard by printing too much paper money, they now propose to substitute special drawing rights, or sdr ’ s, for gold — in other words, they propose to print more international paper money to serve as the " reserves " behind still more issues of national paper monies. the first international step toward sound money, to repeat, would be to abolish the imf entirely. in august, 1973, the present american secretary of the treasury, george p. schultz, named fourteen men as members of a new advisory committee on reform of the international monetary system. these included three former treasury secretaries, all of whom pursued the very monetary policies that brought the united states and the world to its present crisis. the whole list of men in this committee included only two professional economists. i don ’ t want to attack individuals, but to my knowledge not a single man appointed to the new panel believes in the gold standard, has ever advocated its restoration, or has ever spoken out in clear and unequivocal terms even against the chronic increase in paper money issues. but the climate of opinion is now such in the united states that i must confess i would find myself hard put to it to name as many as fourteen qualified americans who could be counted on to recommend a sound international monetary reform. the truth is that everybody is afraid of a return to sound money. nobody in power wants to give up inflation altogether because he fears its abandonment would be followed by a recession. it ’ s true that if we stopped inflation forthwith we might have a recession, for much the same reasons as a heroin addict, deprived of his drug, might suffer agonizing withdrawal symptoms. but such a recession, even if it came, would be a very minor and transient evil compared with the catastrophe toward which the world is now plunging. this article is from a paper delivered at a regional meeting of the mont pelerin society in guatemala, september 4, 1973.


a model to base it on. one of the major denominations of restorationism is the church of jesus christ latter day saints – otherwise known as mormons. they believe that joseph smith jr. was the person chosen to restore the church back to how it was in the early days of the religion as founded by jesus rather than reform to a modern church. the church of latter day saints was first organized in 1830 and is one of the newest denominations of christianity – yet has grown rapidly since. the final type of christian church we shall look at today is the orthodox church. the orthodox church is the second largest christian church communion in the world with approximately 225 million members worldwide. the goal of the orthodox church is to draw yourself continually closer to god – right from the time of baptism as an infant. the process of becoming closer to god is called theosis – and each member of the church strives to become more “ christ like ” throughout their lifetime. they believe in the trinity and they believe that jesus christ was both god and man and that he was born, lived and died. an interesting belief of orthodox christians is that when a person dies the soul is temporarily separated from the body. they believe that after this separation it lingers for a while until it is sent either to paradise or the darkness of hades – this follows the temporary judgment. the final judgment is when the soul and the body will reunite.


the natural rights republic by michael zuckert university of notre dame press 304 pp. $ 34. 95 in the natural rights republic, michael zuckert takes up a question that has long divided american historians and political philosophers : “ was the american founding inspired by classical republican, christian, whig historical, scottish enlightenment, or modern liberal conceptions? ” zuckert unambiguously chooses the latter : america, he says, is the “ natural rights republic ” - not in the sense that liberalism was the only element present at the creation, but in the sense that it was the dominant one, and showed a power to “ make peace with and indeed assimilate important aspects of classical antiquity and christianity. ” nor is zuckert ’ s argument merely descriptive - he is very much an advocate of the natural rights republic. the first part of the book develops the author ’ s account of the natural rights philosophy of the american founding. he offers a painstaking analysis ( textual and structural ) of the declaration of independence, a detailed discussion and critique of other interpretations of the founding ( e. g., garry wills ’ and morton white ’ s ), and a close reading of jefferson ’ s notes on the state of virginia. the declaration is interpreted particularly in conjunction with locke ’ s second treatise on government and with contemporaneous expressions of the “ american mind, ” especially the virginia and massachusetts bills of rights. zuckert ’ s analysis of the declaration is generally convincing : he seems to me correct in his “ structural ” reading of the declaration as a fundamentally “ lockean ” or liberal document. at the same time, his tendency to minimize the importance of religion in the american political tradition as anything more than a useful prop of politics at times appears excessive, as in the quick move, in his analysis of jefferson ’ s handiwork, from “ creator ” to “ nature ” : “ jefferson himself in the declaration traced... rights to the creator, that is, nature. ” the very use of jefferson as the touchstone for understanding natural rights philosophy magnifies the tendency to minimize religion. it tilts the board in favor of a certain understanding of american republicanism that would not have been acceptable to a majority of the people jefferson was writing for when he penned the declaration. on the whole, however, zuckert is very persuasive in making his case for the natural rights republic. his critiques of alternative views are particularly powerful. zuckert confronts his opponents head - on, portraying them fairly, but


on the whole, however, zuckert is very persuasive in making his case for the natural rights republic. his critiques of alternative views are particularly powerful. zuckert confronts his opponents head - on, portraying them fairly, but then going effectively ( if always politely ) for the jugular. zuckert speaks of “ convergences ” in the american political tradition. but for him this means not so much a convergence of equal strands as an assimilation by the natural rights tradition of other traditions : old whig constitutionalism, puritan political theology, and the progressive realization of democracy understood as a variant of classical republicanism. america was indeed, zuckert says, an amalgamation of these views, but “ the natural rights philosophy remains america ’ s deepest and so far most abiding commitment, and the others could enter the amalgam only so far as they were compatible, or could be made so, with natural rights. ” take, for example, the argument that traces american political thought to its puritan roots. zuckert surveys various versions of this position : strong continuity ( the major principles of the founding can be found in the puritans ), minimal continuity ( while accommodating themselves to a christian citizenry, the leading founders held ideas incompatible with puritan political thought ), secularized continuity ( there is continuity through a secularization of christian concepts, e. g., covenant ), and eclectic continuity ( political and social theories of puritanism are one of several major sources for the founding ). zuckert ’ s mode of argument here is essentially negative : his demolition of the strong, secularized, and eclectic continuity theses leaves only minimal continuity in place. the “ lockeanized protestantism ” of the eighteenth century represented a “ substantial break with the reigning political theology of the previous century, ” the god of supernature giving way to the god of nature. the protestant impulse to deny magistrates the power to serve “ the good of the soul, ” which led to a dissociation of the political realm and the spiritual realm, thereby prepared the way for the liberal focus on rights as the central category of politics. having dissected the puritan continuity thesis, zuckert goes on to the “ whig constitutionalism ” thesis of john phillip reid and the “ classical republican ” thesis of scholars such as j. g. a. pocock and gordon wood and shows them to be equally subordinated to natural rights philosophy. over time, zuckert argues, america has developed


of john phillip reid and the “ classical republican ” thesis of scholars such as j. g. a. pocock and gordon wood and shows them to be equally subordinated to natural rights philosophy. over time, zuckert argues, america has developed a successful synthesis of jeffersonian and madisonian republicanism. the large and less strenuously republican madisonian constitutional system is the fundamental frame, but it has become more infused with a jeffersonian spirit ( by, for example, political parties, formal modification of the constitution, and the mass media ), so that it is not so far removed from the people. there are tensions, of course, between the “ expressive ” ( participatory ) and the “ instrumental ” ( rights - protecting ) elements of jefferson ’ s republicanism. zuckert joins madison in criticizing jefferson on two grounds : 1 ) his insufficient attention to the tension between the popular right to control government and the rights to be protected by government, and 2 ) the unlikelihood that jefferson ’ s localized “ ward republics ” would supply the energy, competence, and prudence necessary for effective national government. nonetheless, zuckert says, the validity of jefferson ’ s ideals is reinforced by our persistent concern about the quality of democratic life. we live in a tension between the expressive and instrumental dimensions of republicanism. current debates between liberals and communitarians are simply one manifestation of this tension - a tension that cannot and probably should not be resolved. a question that zuckert needs to take up more explicitly is whether one can move from careful textual analysis of the declaration and other major public documents to such a conclusive characterization of the nature of the american regime. how much do the views of those who are not leading founders, and of the citizenry at large, deserve to be weighed? how much do the premodern elements imbedded in american institutions - e. g., the common law and much state legislation ( including, in many states, religious establishments ) - count? perhaps zuckert would argue that time has told the story : it is the leading founders and the natural rights philosophy they adopted that won out, and those elements have transformed and decisively subordinated the other, nonliberal elements. but an historical argument is not entirely sufficient, since one might view that victory as unfortunate in important ways, as zuckert would think unfortunate some twentieth - century developments away from the natural rights philosophy. zuckert would, i think, argue that the natural rights philosophy is a superior form of


since one might view that victory as unfortunate in important ways, as zuckert would think unfortunate some twentieth - century developments away from the natural rights philosophy. zuckert would, i think, argue that the natural rights philosophy is a superior form of political thought and practice. but that is an argument that requires much more than this book, which is more a detailed explication of natural rights philosophy and its influence than it is a compelling argument for its superiority. some of us who harbor more serious doubts about the liberal / natural rights / republicanism synthesis, and who believe that many contemporary problems cannot find effective solutions in either contemporary liberalism or in an older liberal amalgam, will remain convinced of the need for a healthier dose of religion and of ( non - lockean ) “ natural law ” in some form. whatever one ’ s view of what america needs, however, it is important to understand the general character of the american founding, and zuckert ’ s book is a powerful exposition of the most central political principles of that founding. its elegant articulation of its own thesis, together with its insightful analysis and critique of a wide variety of alternative views, makes it an extremely important contribution to debates on our national origins, which all serious students of the founding and of liberalism will have to confront. christopher wolfe is professor of political science at marquette university.


using local airborne survey companies. in this regard, the csir and sanparks are already working with a south african company to test the viability, as sanparks is considering using lidar surveys for long - term monitoring. research milestone : sustainability of fuelwood for rural energy needs the lidar data from the 2008 flight campaign have enabled researchers to map and measure woody biomass in rural areas such as bushbuckridge, where harvesting of live wood is still the primary source of fuel for cooking and heating even when electricity is available. researchers combined the lidar data with socio - economic data collected from the area over the past 20 years by the wits rural public health and health transitions research unit, and the wits programme for sustaining natural resources in african ecosystems. this shows that at the current rate of fuelwood consumption - three to four tons per year per household - the woodland resources for some rural villages in bushbuckridge may only last another 12 years. with the help of the lidar data and fieldwork, researchers have also found evidence of illegal commercial cutting of fuelwood in the communal rangelands. " there is great concern that the current levels of utilisation are not sustainable, with direct negative impacts on the poor, as well as for biodiversity loss and conservation. our findings to date regarding the sustainability of this ecosystem service warrant further investigation, " says dr mathieu. in all instances, improved estimates will be instrumental to poverty alleviation. research milestones : loss of big trees in conserved areas another significant finding is that large herbivores and fires may have a bigger impact on the loss of big trees in conserved areas than in communal areas, where large trees like the marula are valued for their fruits. over five metres high, many of these trees have taken over 50 years to grow. dr mathieu, " we have detected a 20 % loss of big trees from research sites in a private game reserve next to the knp in just two years, compared to a 10 % loss of big trees from research sites on communal land over the same time period. " this was also the first time in his remote sensing career that he found a 100 % correlation between prediction of a remote sensing system ( the lidar ) and ground verification. but researchers are still puzzled about why and how this is happenin. " at the moment, we think it is because of different reasons, " explains dr mathieu : " in the case of the private game reserve, field work shows that a combination of elephants and fire damage is involved. for instance, the


jump to the main content of this page pacific southwest research station tahoe science projects supported by snplma remote sensing of lake tahoe ' s nearshore environment erin lee hestir, university of california, davis the goal of this research is to use remotely sensed data to retrieve fine sediment, chlorophyll, and colored dissolved organic matter ( cdom ) concentrations from the water column in the near shore, and to map the distribution of periphyton ( attached algae ), aquatic macrophytes ( submerged plants ), clam beds in the nearshore of lake tahoe and variations in sediment type. high spatial resolution multispectral satellite imagery, moderate spatial resolution multispectral satellite imagery, and airborne hyperspectral imagery will be used. we will investigate both empirical and model - driven methods to map fine sediment, chlorophyll, and cdom concentration, macrophyte communities, clam beds, periphyton, and substrate type. the empirical approach will first classify the optically shallow near shore into the different bottom classes using the field data and spectral library first to train and then ( independently ) validate the classifier. this analysis allows the development of statistical correlations ( e. g., regression modeling ) whereby reflectance information can be used to predict the probability of the concentration of water quality constituents above a particular bottom type. upon successful development, the statistical model can then be used to predict water quality in each image pixel given the reflectance value of that pixel. the second approach will use a radiative transfer model that simulates remote sensing reflectance of water given inputs of different aquatic optical properties. one of the key deliverables of the project is a cost - benefit analysis of remote sensing approaches for monitoring the nearshore environment and a manual for implementing remote sensing analysis for monitoring the nearshore environment. relation to other research including snplma science projects the value of remote sensing technologies for evaluation and monitoring in the lake tahoe basin has also been widely recognized, and an increasing number of remote sensing datasets are being acquired over the basin. nasa has been operating a remote sensing validation site at lake tahoe for over a decade and recently the tahoe regional planning agency ( trpa ) and u. s. geological survey have purchased high spatial resolution satellite imagery of the tahoe basin. dr. schladow and dr. steissberg ( uc davis terc ) and dr. hook ( nasa - jpl ) have completed a snplma round 7 -


have purchased high spatial resolution satellite imagery of the tahoe basin. dr. schladow and dr. steissberg ( uc davis terc ) and dr. hook ( nasa - jpl ) have completed a snplma round 7 - funded project, " monitoring past, present, and future water quality using remote sensing ( rs ), " aimed at using remote sensing to quantify changes in lake - wide distributions of secchi depth and chlorophyll distribution. the large pixel size has limited the application to areas outside the nearshore ; however, there will be considerable benefit to this project based on what was learned. several previous snplma science studies will inform this project, including : 1 ) " predicting and managing changes in near - shore water quality, " 2 ) " natural and human limitations to asian clam distribution and recolonization - factors that impact the management and control in lake tahoe, " and 3 ) " development of a risk model to determine the expansion and potential environmental impacts of asian clams in lake tahoe, " as well as a project funded by the us army corps of engineers that is conducting a baseline assessment of benthic species and developing recommendations for future assessments. expected date of final products : | last modified : mar 7, 2013 06 : 28 : 08 pm |


" this paper has very strong implications for the united states staying ahead in magnet technology, which would bring great dividends in research and improvements in medical imaging. " a scientific surprise greets fsu researchers at higher magnetic fields by susan ray research performed by a team at florida state university ' s national high magnetic field laboratory suggests that the benefits of building higher - field superconducting magnets likely will far outweigh the costs of building them. fsu researchers riqiang fu, ozge gunaydin - sen and naresh dalal discovered something they weren ' t expecting while trying to improve the resolution, or quality of image, in the magnet lab ' s unique 900 - megahertz, 21. 1 - tesla magnet. while experimenting with the giant magnet, the three noted an exponential increase in the ease of detecting the " fingerprint " of the chemical compound they were studying as they exposed it to ever - higher magnetic fields. a paper describing their research was published recently in the journal of the american chemical society, a top - tier chemistry journal. the paper can be accessed here. " this paper has very strong implications for the united states staying ahead in magnet technology, which would bring great dividends in research and improvements in medical imaging, " said tim cross, director of the magnet lab ' s nmr user program and a professor of chemistry and biochemistry at fsu. " we need — and are working on — additional fundamental studies that show the benefits of going to higher fields. " nuclear magnetic resonance, or nmr, generates a true - to - life fingerprint — a unique pattern indicating the presence of specific molecules — for a research sample that is being analyzed. as a technique, nmr is very accurate as long as one can detect the sample in the first place. the ease or difficulty of detecting a sample is known as " sensitivity. " low sensitivity has been one of nmr ' s biggest liabilities, because the lower the sensitivity, the longer the experiment takes. such slowness has limited nmr ' s potential applications. " poor signal is like a faint picture in the darkness, " said dalal, the dirac professor of chemistry and biochemistry at fsu. " we ' ve shown that the ' 900 ' ( magnet ) increases the picture ' s brightness by a factor of about 10 relative to low - field images. think of how much more you can see in a room that is that much brighter … and imagine what you ' d see at even higher fields. " theorists had predicted a linear increase in


by a factor of about 10 relative to low - field images. think of how much more you can see in a room that is that much brighter … and imagine what you ' d see at even higher fields. " theorists had predicted a linear increase in both resolution and sensitivity at higher magnetic fields, moving from 14. 1 tesla to 21. 1 tesla, the current state of the art in superconducting magnets. in their experiment, the fsu team members observed an exponential increase — with the sensitivity increasing by a factor of three over what had been predicted. higher sensitivity in a magnet means it takes far less time — or much less of a sample — to conduct an experiment. " the reduction in time is like going from one hour to a couple of minutes, " said fu, an associate scholar / scientist at the magnet lab and the fsu chemistry department. " many experiments take weeks, and such a reduction in time will allow for far more studies to be conducted on a single instrument. " dalal said the shortening of experimental time increases scientists ' ability to fingerprint materials, opening up new areas of scientific investigation in nmr, including the study of materials useful in nanotechnology and medical imaging. the need for less of a sample — up to 18 times less — will open up high - field nmr to the study of enzymes and purified proteins, an area in which samples typically are of limited size. the national high magnetic field laboratory ( www. magnet. fsu. edu ) develops and operates state - of - the - art, high - magnetic - field facilities that faculty and visiting scientists and engineers use for interdisciplinary research. the laboratory is sponsored by the national science foundation and the state of florida and is the only facility of its kind in the united states.