data/train/batch_000022.jsonl

{"text": "the union between them is of an accidental or extrinsic character. descartes thus approximates to the platonic conception of charioteer and chariot. soul and body are really two merely allied beings. how then do they interact? real reciprocal influence or causal interaction seems impossible between two such disparate things. geulincx and other disciples of descartes were driven to invent the hypothesis of occasionalism and divine assistance, according to which it is god himself who effects the appropriate change in either body or mind on the occasion of the corresponding change in the other. for this system of miraculous interferences leibniz substituted the theory of pre - established harmony according to which god has coupled pairs of bodies and souls which are destined to run in parallel series of changes like two clocks started together. the same insoluble difficulty of psycho - physical parallelism remains on the hands of those psychologists and philosophers at the present day who reject the doctrine of the soul as a real being capable of acting on the body which it informs. the ultra - dualism of descartes was immediately followed on the continent by the pantheistic monism of spinoza, which identified mind and matter in one infinite substance of which they are merely \" modes. \" the cognitional question descartes solves by a theory of knowledge according to which the mind immediately perceives only its own ideas or modifications. the belief in an external world corresponding to these ideas is of the nature of an inference, and the guaranteeing of this inference or the construction of a reliable bridge from the subjective world of thought to the objective world of material being, was thenceforth the main problem of modern philosophy. locke similarly taught that the mind immediately apprehends only its own ideas, but he assumed a real external world which corresponds to these ideas, at least as regards the primary qualities of matter. berkeley, accepting locke ' s assumption that the mind immediately cognizes only its own ideas, raised the question : what grounds have we for believing in the existence of a material world corresponding to those ideas? he concludes that there are none. the external cause of these ideas is god who awakens them in our minds by regular laws. the dualistic opposition between mind and matter is thus got rid of by denying an independent material world. but berkeley still postulates multitude of real substantial minds distinct from each other and apparently from god. we have thus idealistic pluralism. hume carried berkeley ' s scepticism a step farther and denied the existence of permanent spiritual substances,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6198926805842135, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b44cf511-507c-404b-ae35-fbba504ca840>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:30.702200"}
{"text": "world. but berkeley still postulates multitude of real substantial minds distinct from each other and apparently from god. we have thus idealistic pluralism. hume carried berkeley ' s scepticism a step farther and denied the existence of permanent spiritual substances, or minds, for grounds similar to those on which berkeley rejected material substances. all we know to exist are ideas of greater or less vividness. kant repudiates this more extreme scepticism and adopts, at least in the second edition of his chief work, a form of dualism based on the distinction of phenomena and noumena. the mind immediately perceives only its own representations. these are modified by innate mental forms. they present to us only phenomena. but the noumena, the things - in - themselves, the external causes of these phenomenal representations, are beyond our power of cognition. fichte rejected things - in - themselves outside the mind, and reduced the kantian dualism to idealistic monism. the strongest and most consistent defenders of dualism in modern philosophy have been the scotch school, including reid, stuart, and hamilton. among english writers in more recent times martineau, mccosh, mivart, and case have carried on the same tradition on similar lines. the problem of dualism, as its history suggests, involves two main questions : - does there exist a material world outside of our minds and independent of our thought? - supposing such a world to exist, how does the mind attain to the cognition of it? the former question belongs to epistemology, material logic, or general philosophy ; the latter to psychology. it is true that dualism is ultimately rejected by the materialist who reduces conscious states to functions, or \" aspects \" of the brain ; but objections from this standpoint will be more suitably dealt with under materialism and monism. the idealist theory since berkeley, in all its forms, maintains that the mind can only know its own states or representations, and that what we suppose to be an independent, material world is, in the last analysis, only a series of ideas and sensations plus belief in the possibility of other sensations. our conviction of the objective reality of a vivid consistent dream is analogous to our conviction of the validity of our waking experience. dualism affirms, in opposition to all forms of idealism, the independent, extramental reality of the material world. among its chief arguments are the following : - our belief in the existence of other minds is an inference from their bodies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6033097047941873, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b44cf511-507c-404b-ae35-fbba504ca840>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:30.703583"}
{"text": ". dualism affirms, in opposition to all forms of idealism, the independent, extramental reality of the material world. among its chief arguments are the following : - our belief in the existence of other minds is an inference from their bodies. consequently the denial of an external material world involves the rejection of all evidence for the existence of other minds, and lands the idealist in the position of \" solipsism \". - physical science assumes the existence of a material world, existing when unperceived, possessing various properties, and exerting various powers according to definite constant laws. thus astronomy describes the movements of heavenly bodies moving in space of three dimensions, attracting each other with forces inversely proportioned to the square of the distance. it postulates the movement and action of such bodies when they are invisible as well as when they are visible through long periods of time and over vast areas of space. from these assumptions it deduces future positions and foretells eclipses and transits many years ahead. observations carried out by subsequent generations verify the predictions. were there not an extramental world whose parts exist and act in a space and time truly mirrored by our cognitions and ideas, such a result would be impossible. the branches of science dealing with sound, light, heat, and electricity are equally irreconcilable with idealism. - the teachings of physiology and psycho - physics become peculiarly absurd in the idealist theory. what, for instance, is meant by saying that memory is dependent on modifications in the nervous substance of the brain, if all the material world, including the brain, is but a collection of mental states? - psychology similarly assumes the extramental reality of the human body in its account of the growth of the senses and the development of perception. were the idealist hypothesis true its language would be meaningless. all branches of science thus presuppose and confirm the dualistic view of common sense. granted, then, the truth of dualism, the psychological question emerges : how does the mind come to know the material world? broadly speaking there are two answers. according to one the mind immediately perceives only its own representations or ideas and from these it infers external material objects as the cause of these ideas. according to the other, in some of its acts it immediately perceives extended objects or part of the material world. as hamilton says : \" what we directly apprehend is the non - ego, not some modification of the ego \". the theory which maintains an", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6231918213881049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b44cf511-507c-404b-ae35-fbba504ca840>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:30.704872"}
{"text": "other, in some of its acts it immediately perceives extended objects or part of the material world. as hamilton says : \" what we directly apprehend is the non - ego, not some modification of the ego \". the theory which maintains an immediate perception of the non - ego he calls natural dualism or natural realism. the other, which holds a mediate cognition of the non - ego, as the inferred cause of a representation immediately apprehended, he terms hypothetical dualism or hypothetical realism. the doctrine of immediate or presentative perception is that adopted by the great body of scholastic philosophers and is embodied in the dictum that the idea, concept, or mental act of apprehension is non id quod percipitur sed medium quo res percipitur - - not that which is perceived but the medium by which the object itself is perceived. this seems to be the only account of the nature of knowledge that does not lead logically to idealism ; and the history of the subject confirms this view. but affirmation of the mind ' s capacity for immediate perception of the non - ego and insistence on the distinction between id quod and id quo percipitur, do not dispose of the whole difficulty. modern psychology has become genetic. its interest centres in tracing the growth and development of cognition from the simplest and most elementary sensations of infancy. analysis of the perceptive processes of a later age, e. g. apprehension of size, shape, solidity, distance, and other qualities of remote objects, proves that operations seemingly instantaneous and immediate may involve the activity of memory, imagination, judgment, reasoning, and subconscious contributions from the past experience of other senses. there is thus much that is indirect and inferential in nearly all the percipient acts of mature life. this should be frankly admitted by the defender of natural dualism, and the chief psychological problem for him at the present day is to sift and discriminate what is immediate and direct from what is mediate or representative in the admittedly complex cognitional operations of normal adult life. in favour of natural dualism : - - rickaby, first principles of knowledge ( new york and london, 1901 ) ; case, physical realism ( new york and london, 1881 ) ; ueberweg, logic, tr. ( london, 1871 ) ; hamilton, metaphysics ( edinburgh and london, 1877 ) ; mccosh, exam. of mill ( new york, 1875 ) ; martineau, a study of religion (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6311881702830895, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b44cf511-507c-404b-ae35-fbba504ca840>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:30.706003"}
{"text": "a double - stranded dna molecule containing one or more mispaired bases. a double - stranded dna in which the base sequences are not completely complementary due to recombination or mutation. a dna molecule that is formed by base pairing between strands that are derived from two dna molecules that are not identical in sequence. a double - helix formed where one strand is rna and the other is dna a double - stranded dna molecule or dna - rna hybrid, where each strand is of a different origin, and consequently containing one or more mismatched ( non - complementary ) base pairs. a dna duplex is prepared by the hybridization of single - stranded dna molecules derived from two different sources. where the two dnas have identical or very similar sequences, a double - stranded molecule will be established, whereas where the two dnas differ in sequence, single - stranded regions will remain. a heteroduplex will be revealed as single - strand \" bushes \" when dna is observed electron microscopically. a map of homologous and non - homologous regions of the two molecules may thereby be constructed. this process is known as heteroduplex mapping. hybrid structure formed by the annealing of two dna strands ( or an rna and dna ) that have sufficient complementarity in their sequence to allow hydrogen bonding. a double - stranded nucleic acid molecule in which each strand has been derived from a different individual. a heteroduplex is a double - stranded ( duplex ) molecule of nucleic acid originated through the genetic recombination of single complementary strands derived from different sources, such as from different homologous chromosomes or even from different organisms. one such example is the heteroduplex dna strand formed in hybridization processes, usually for biochemistry - based phylogenetical analyses.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.616411583012092, "token_count": 360, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d8284f1-6a8e-4958-8ba4-dae59b6c50a1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.275581"}
{"text": "it still is a huge challenge to treat neurodegenerative diseases such as alzheimer, parkinson or huntington, which are increasingly affecting our society as the average life - span of our population increases. one of the main obstacles for successful therapy of these disorders is safe and effective drug delivery to the central nervous system. tightly focused femtosecond laser pulses have been used to modify transparent dielectric materials, to form voids, and to polymerize resists and resins for more than a decade. a high sub - 100 - nm spatial resolution has now been reached making it potentially a nano - fabrication tool. researchers at the university of new mexico have demonstrated a new, simple, and facile approach to the fabrication of various nanopatterned films composed of nanoparticles. the findings could lead to nanoparticle sensors for both biological and chemical species. contouring measurement methods are important for high quality, high speed and productivity machining in order to achieve the high precision required. among the most commonly used methods, no measuring techniques have been available with nanometer resolution except for the grating encoder measurement system. researchers at cornell university have developed a novel quantitative nanoparticle - based sensor of chemical concentrations based on organic dye molecules covalently integrated into the matrix of silica nanoparticles. this is the first work that implements an optimized core - shell architecture for such sensor particles. gold nanoparticles have shown promise for cancer therapy by virtue of their ability to absorb laser light, heat up and thus kill the tumor. however, in order for the gold nanoparticles to have their therapeutic effect they need to be taken up specifically by tumor cells. researchers have now used targeted viral vectors as carriers to bring the gold nanoparticles to the location where they need to work. humidity is a measure of the moisture content of an environment. control of humidity is thus essential for maintaining the desired level of moisture in an enclosure be it in a hospital or in a semiconductor - processing unit or in a laboratory. for humidity control an efficient sensor is an absolute necessity. researchers in israel demonstrated a new technique for creating polymer microlenses. while current processes employed for manufacturing large microlens arrays are not compatible with the need to place single microlenses in very precise, strategic locations ( such as an intersection of two nanochannels, for example ) the israeli group ' s method is specifically designed to do so. they deposit small drops of monomer solution with a nanopipette,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6141969804917686, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f3a23bbc-3435-4ec3-aba6-0d67a4af1a28>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.301746"}
{"text": "different from conventional telescopes, \" ong said. one of the most widely studied astronomical objects in the northern hemisphere, the crab nebula, which is some 6, 500 light - years from earth, was formed when a massive star exploded in a supernova event that was observed on earth in the year 1054. while it is most typical for pulsars to be ejected from the stellar wreckage during a supernova, in the case of the crab system, the pulsar remained at its center, producing radiation that covers the entire electromagnetic spectrum, ong said. he calls the crab system the \" rosetta stone of astronomy, \" because astronomers and astrophysicists have observed this object at every conceivable wavelength of light. \" the crab pulsar is considered among the best understood systems in all of astronomy, yet here we have found something totally new, \" he said. \" it is astronomy in a completely new light ; we are seeing phenomena that you just can ' t explore with optical light or x - rays, or even low - energy gamma rays. \" the crab pulsar is a highly magnetized neutron star with a surface magnetic field a trillion times stronger than that of the earth. the star spins at the dizzying rate of about 30 times a second and emits gamma rays through \" curvature radiation, \" an effect that creates a lighthouse - like beacon that winks on when the beam faces the earth and off when the star pivots away. light detected by the veritas experiment cannot be explained by curvature radiation, however, and likely comes from regions well outside the high \u2013 magnetic field region close to the neutron star, ong said. while such energetic gamma rays have been observed elsewhere in the galaxy, the actual mechanism of how they are created in a pulsar is not fully understood. \" the pulse duration of the radiation we see is almost three times shorter than that seen at other gamma ray energies, \" he said. \" this was very surprising and means this new radiation is probably coming from a different physical region of the star ' s outer magnetosphere. \" the veritas experiment looks for radiation emanating from celestial objects such as pulsars, active galaxies, the center of the milky way and supermassive black holes. it has collected data for nearly 1, 000 hours every year since it began operating in 2007. \" we are trying to understand processes out in the cosmos that can create particles at these extreme energies, beyond what can be produced here on earth, \" ong said", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6048897660940229, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:48c1f916-0234-4f71-a55e-9fde92703c11>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.361437"}
{"text": "| abstract | | this outstanding book is a leading text for symbolic or formal logic courses. all techniques and concepts are presented with clear, comprehensive explanations and numerous, carefully constructed examples. its flexible organization ( all chapters are complete and self - contained ) allows instructors the freedom to cover the topics they want in the order they choose. | | keywords | | logic, symbolic and mathematical predicate ( logic | | buy the book | | $ 26. 00 used $ 50. 00 new $ 58. 35 direct from amazon amazon page | | call number | | bc135. b435 2003 | | through your library | | configure | similar books and articles geraldine brady ( 2000 ). from peirce to skolem : a neglected chapter in the history of logic. north - holland / elsevier science bv. j. l. bell ( 1977 ). a course in mathematical logic. sole distributors for the u. s. a. and canada american elsevier pub. co.. d. s. clarke ( 1973 ). deductive logic. carbondale, southern illinois university press. graeme forbes ( 1994 ). modern logic : a text in elementary symbolic logic. oxford university press. rene cori ( 2000 ). mathematical logic : a course with exercises. oxford university press. sorry, there are not enough data points to plot this chart. added to index2009 - 01 - 28 total downloads1 ( # 274, 652 of 549, 065 ) recent downloads ( 6 months ) 1 ( # 63, 185 of 549, 065 ) how can i increase my downloads?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6187839290400347, "token_count": 328, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39b2b3d4-69fe-4324-b8d6-651961442dc4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.484445"}
{"text": "ion strings make brilliant beams aug 15, 2001 physicists have long struggled to combat heating in the ion beams used in high - energy experiments. laser cooling can be used to reduce collisions between the ions, which create heat and reduce the energy of the beam. now ulrich schramm and colleagues at the university of munich have created the first ' crystalline ' ion beam, which is virtually free from collisions. \" the crystalline beam is the ultimate state for an ion beam in terms of brilliance and stability \", schramm told physicsweb. \" it represents a different phase and has its own properties \" ( t schatz et al 2001 nature 412 717 ). collisions in high - energy ion beams reduce the beam intensity and can be remedied by extra focusing devices or the use of low - density beams. however, physicists predicted 20 years ago that in a sufficiently cool beam, the ions would not collide because their coulomb repulsion would outweigh their kinetic energy. such ' crystallization ' has been achieved before in ion traps - in which the ions are stationary - but it is more difficult in a circulating beam because of the motion of the ions and interactions between the beam and the storage ring. these problems affect both large storage rings - such as the relativistic heavy ion collider at brookhaven - and smaller ones. schramm and co - workers injected magnesium ions into their 0. 36 - metre circumference storage ring, pallas - the paul laser cooling acceleration system. the beam was laser - cooled and its fluorescence monitored. the team found that, at a certain laser wavelength, the diameter of the beam fell and the fluorescence peaked sharply. this pinpoints the transition to the crystalline state, during which the range of ion velocities drops by 75 %. the fluorescence measurements showed that the ring contained around 18 000 ions, and the temperature of the beam fell from 30 to 0. 4 kelvin as the crystalline state emerged. in this new phase, the ions reach a speed of 2800 metres per second - corresponding to a beam energy of 1 electron volt - and resemble a one - dimensional thread. the beam can perform over 3000 revolutions of their storage ring without further cooling according to schramm, the technique could be used for a wide range of experiments. \" crystalline ion beams could aid inertial confinement fusion - which mimics stellar nuclear reactions - while precise experiments with relativistic beams could test special relativity \", he says. about the author katie", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6193990794377369, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc6e3879-d2fd-478e-832b-124df80bfc06>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.513283"}
{"text": "notes to being and becoming in modern physics 1. as translated in wheelwright ( 1960 ). the quote by parmenides in what follows is also from this volume. 2. many recent papers on these issues are collected in oaklander and smith ( 1994 ). gale ( 1967 ) has some good older papers and a useful bibliography. 3. there are many excellent non - technical introductions to the special theory. two fine books that are currently available are mermin ( 1968 ) and born ( 1962 ). a more demanding introduction mathematically is taylor and wheeler ( 1963 ). an excellent philosophical discussion is chapter iv of friedman ( 1983 ). all the concepts needed for the present discussion are outlined briefly in the opening paragraphs of section 4 of shimony ( 1993 ), but there is no substitute for working through in detail at least one presentation of the special theory at whatever level of mathematical sophistication one is equipped to handle. 4. while most popular presentations of special relativity explicitly employ only these two assumptions, friedman ( 1983 ) points out that another assumption of a more technical nature, the flatness of minkowski spacetime, is needed in order to derive all the characteristic results of the theory. we will ignore this refinement here. one should note, however, that the two assumptions explicitly made are assumptions concerning invariance \u2014 the invariance of the speed of light and the laws of physics. that certain other quantities classically thought to be invariant turn out not to be so in special relativity has sometimes obscured the fact that there is a fundamental invariant special relativisic four - dimensional quantity called the spacetime interval that will enter our considerations in due course. 5. hans reichenbach indicated the same view in 1925. see grunbaum ( 1973, p. 318 ). 6. whether this suggested distinction overlaps or is independent of the distinction between tensed and tenseless uses of \u2018 is \u2019 invoked above in the section on newtonian spacetime is an open question. questions about the viability of this distinction are connected to deep questions in ontology and philosophy of language on which carnap, quine, and sellars differed. see the discussion in jay rosenberg ' s entry in this encyclopedia, wilfrid sellars. 7. minkowski spacetime is a time orientable manifold. if one chooses one of the two lobes of the light cone at a point o to be, say, future, that choice can be extended smoothly throughout the whole of the spacetime. we say nothing as to how this choice is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6614125802264252, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5132acbb-61dc-4b6f-80ce-8fbdd21025ef>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.530863"}
{"text": "orientable manifold. if one chooses one of the two lobes of the light cone at a point o to be, say, future, that choice can be extended smoothly throughout the whole of the spacetime. we say nothing as to how this choice is to be made in this entry, but we assume that it has been, somehow, made. 8. the three are free to choose o as the origin of each of their coordinate systems and to assign it spatial coordinate ( 0, 0, 0 ) and temporal coordinate 0. but what position and time values are assigned by each of them to other spacetime points now follows rigorously from the rules, the lorentz transformations, of special relativity. 9. it is the fact the rietdijk - putnam - penrose argument for the fixity of the future does not rely on features of natural laws or causation that leads me to call the thesis chronogeometric fatalism rather than chronogeometric determinism. determinist and fatalist arguments have the same conclusion, that the future is somehow fixed and not within our control, but the former do so from causal or nomological considerations while the later do not. 10. briefly, rxy iff ( y < x or y < < x ). clifton and hogarth ( 1995 ) point out the relation betwen x and each point in ( but not on ) its past light cone also satisfies all the criteria of adequacy specified in the text. 11. this result is implicit in the proofs offered by stein and by clifton and hogarth. it is made explicitly in callender ( 2000 ). 12. following winnie ( 1977 ), i suggest calling this set alex ( e0, e1 ), since it is an open subset in the alexandrov topology. richard arthur, as far as i know, was the first philosopher to use these sets to account for temporal becoming. see arthur ( 2006 ) and savitt ( 2005 ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6213805295766517, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5132acbb-61dc-4b6f-80ce-8fbdd21025ef>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.531669"}
{"text": "- for a gallery of examples for invulnerability, see here. brit ( image comic universe ) punching a metal robot without being scraped or cut. defy all forms of physical injury - impenetrable skin / impervious skin the user is immune or highly resistant to all forms of conventional external physical damage, unable to feel physical pain, is immune to bleeding or loss of limb. death due to old age ( as opposed to preemptive death ) is seemingly the only cause of death to the user. - atomicity : to never be physically divided. - bulletproof durability : a form of invulnerability that only applies to gunfire. - density manipulation : increase one ' s density to make it much harder and more difficult to be harmed. - elasticity : users body simply absorbs attacks. - enhanced regeneration : heal rapidly from any wound - immutability : the ability to be impervious to all forms of external physical change. - impact absorption : absorb mechanical and physical impacts. - intangibility : becoming intangible to allow all offensive attacks to phase through. - mobile invulnerability : a form of invulnerability that only works if the holder of the power is in motion - reactive invulnerability : a form of invulnerability that only works if the user is in danger. - selective invulnerability : a form of invulnerability that only works on a certain attack, similar to evolution. - supernaturally dense tissue : users body - tissue is supernaturally dense making them incredibly hardy. - temporary invincibility : a form of invulnerability that only works for a limited period of time. - absolute defense - reflective immutability - self - molecular manipulation - may be vulnerable to certain conditions, substances or simply have a place that is vulnerable to damage. - may become immobile. - doesn ' t mean immortality unless otherwise bestowed. - may require learning defenses to particular dangers. - may be vulnerable to telepathic abilities", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6207571403346044, "token_count": 419, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6db0ebe0-6e60-42f3-9fc0-caa91acb22cd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.533826"}
{"text": "\u201c \u201d are you thinking what we ' re thinking? telepathy is the alleged transfer of information between individuals ' minds without any apparent detectable connection ( physical, electronic, electromagnetic ). despite considerable testing, \" telepathic \" individuals have been unable to show true telepathy. several governments have studied telepathy with the intention of either using it as a secure means of communication or as a method of obtaining information by \" reading minds \". telepathic mind - reading has often been performed as a stage act. many telepaths simply use suggestive questions to put ideas in the mind of their subjects ( as demonstrated by derren brown in numerous performances ). science fiction stories have used telepathy as a plot device countless times, but quite often it is electronically aided. the modern cell phone comes pretty close to doing the job. a simple explanation? in some cases, people may well think the same thing, due to the same external influences. for example, if one takes a busload of people on a trip through the countryside, it is likely that the individuals will share thoughts about fields, farms, livestock etc later in the day. this accounts for twins ' \" telepathy \", as they are often raised in the same environment, with the exact same influences and many shared experiences. affirmation bias also accounts for why people remember apparent \" telepathy \" and coincidence, but not the numerous examples to the contrary. - \u2191 interview with a techno - enabled telepathy believer. - \u2191 http : / / www. mindhacks. com / blog / 2009 / 05 / us _ military _ pours _ mi. html", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6298365802310568, "token_count": 336, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6ca763b5-81f9-470d-a9f6-c4ee613e043b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:31.632233"}
{"text": "outside the complex system of his body, man has vast and vital dimensions that are not in any way confined by his bodily mechanism. in order to discover those aspects and planes that are beyond the bodily structure and physical dimension of man, one must search out the inward and spiritual structures of man and perceive the broad horizons of his comprehensive nature, together with the delicate and refined manifestations of his feelings and instincts. before he enters the realm of science and knowledge with all its concerns, man is able to perceive certain truths by means of these innate perceptions. but after entering the sphere of science and philosophy and filling his brain with various proofs and deductions, he may forget his natural and innate perceptions or begin to doubt them. it is for this reason that when man moves beyond his innate nature to delineate a belief, differences begin to appear. inclination to religion and belief in god, draw, in their initial stages, on instinctive motives and innate perceptions, but then they develop and evolve with the help of ratiocination and reflection. the roots of innate feeling in the disposition of man are so deep and, at the same time, so clear and evident that if a person purges his mind and his spirit both of religious concepts and of anti religious thoughts and then looks at himself and at the world of being, he will clearly see that he is moving in a certain direction together with the whole caravan of being. without any desire or will on his part, he begins his life at a certain point, and again without willing it, he advances toward another point, one which is unknown to him. the same reality can be observed in all natural creatures, operating in a precise and orderly way. if a clear - sighted man, still in the state of nature, looks at the circumstances surrounding him, he will distinctly feel the existence of a great force that encompasses him and the whole world. in his own being, which is an extremely small part of the great world, he will see knowledge, power and will to exist, and he will ask himself how knowledge, power and will could not exist in the world as a whole. it is the finely calculated order and motion of the world that compels man to accept the existence of a universal intellect that, lying beyond the world of nature, nonetheless designs and commands it ; unless this be accepted, the orderliness of the world cannot be explained. anyone assessing his position in the world can perceive that there is a power which creates him, brings him here, inspires motion in him, and then", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6086302639123811, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f713a45d-b01f-406f-ba41-8cf90e8719ee>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:33.328582"}
{"text": "the causes of phenomena. were it to be possible for us to find in a single being or corner of the universe a sign of absolute self - origination or creativity, we would be justified in extending that one instance to the whole scheme of being. of course, it is not necessary that the law of causality should always manifest itself to us in familiar forms. the variety and multiplicity of causes is such that an investigator concerned with only one phenomenon might not be able to specify all the causes. however, in all the affairs of mankind, particular and general, past and future, in the circumstances of the individual or of society, not a single point can be found that is accidental. not only is there a particular order inherent in the creation of each separate phenomenon ; there is also observable in the relationship of every phenomenon with other phenomena, as well as the relationship of each phenomenon with the environment within which it exists, a subtle and finely calculated order. for example, in the cultivation of a tree, the laws of the heavens and the earth operate in perfect harmony with the structure of its roots and branches. there is also a relationship of animals with that tree insofar as they draw nourishment from it. how is it possible that accident should lie at the origin of such orderly relationships? if a phenomenon were to take shape at a certain level in the structure of being, unconsciously and on the basis of chance, this would furnish an excellent groundwork for the disappearance and destruction of the world. for the slightest disruption in the balance of elements and the smallest disharmony in the radiant laws of the universe would be enough to make things lose their moorings and the heavenly bodies collide, resulting in a massive explosion and the destruction of the world. if the origin of the world were based on accident, why are the theories even of the materialists based on the supposition of a plan, an ordering, an absence of chance? if the whole world is the result of chance and accident, what is it that did not emerge on the basis of chance? if an existent thing came into being not by virtue of chance, what are its distinguishing features and characteristics and can they be applied to the numerous and variegated phenomena of the universe? now since accident is opposed to order and harmony, it follows that whatever bears traces of planning, design and calculation should be disharmonious and discontinuous, because the concepts of planning, design and calculation are opposed to accident and chance. to suppose that accident is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6044604183359907, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f713a45d-b01f-406f-ba41-8cf90e8719ee>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:33.333305"}
{"text": "to order and harmony, it follows that whatever bears traces of planning, design and calculation should be disharmonious and discontinuous, because the concepts of planning, design and calculation are opposed to accident and chance. to suppose that accident is the infrastructure of the universe and its governing principle does not rest on any logical proof or scientific evidence cannot be accepted as a definitive solution to the geometry of the structure of being. when the experimental sciences demonstrate that the elements and natural factors cannot exert any independent influence and do not possess any creativity ; when all of our experiences, our sensory feelings, and our rational deductions point to the conclusion that nothing occurs in nature without a reason and cause and that all phenomena are based on an established system and specific laws, when all of this is the case, it is surprising that some people turn their backs on scientific principles, primary deductions and propositions based on reflection, and deny the existence of the creator. education and environmental factors are among the causes that either prevent man ' s innate perceptions from displaying themselves, or, on the contrary, reinforce them. whatever displays itself from the source of instinct resembles in its orderliness the patterns of nature. those who have been left free to follow the original course of their creation without being imprisoned by habit and whose inner nature has not been colored by words and expressions, are better able to hear the summons of their inner being and to distinguish good deeds from bad and true beliefs from false. irreligion, which is, in fact, a turning away from original nature, is, therefore, rarely to be seen among such individuals. if someone tells them that the world has no indwelling order and that it is the offspring of chance, decking out his words in philosophical terminology, he will have no effect on such people, because they will reject his theories by virtue of their own original nature. those who are caught up in the webs of science may fall prey to doubt and confusion as a result of alluring terminology. the limited knowledge that inspires arrogance in man is like a piece of colored glass placed in front of the aperture of the intellect and the original nature ; whoever possesses this knowledge sees the world tinged with the color of his learning and art. he imagines that the entirety of reality is what he sees through the narrow aperture of his senses and intellect that are a prey to color. of course, we do not mean that man should refrain from developing his intellect in order to safeguard himself against illusion. however, he should not be limited by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.624945613410002, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f713a45d-b01f-406f-ba41-8cf90e8719ee>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:33.335597"}
{"text": "beast of burden ; so if money were not some kind of substance, it could not be called relatively a pledge. wherefore, if the father also is not something in respect to himself then there is no one at all that can be spoken of relatively to something. for it is not as it is with color. the color of a thing is referred to the thing colored, and color is not spoken at all in reference to substance, but is always of something that is colored ; but that thing of which it is the color, even if it is referred to color in respect to its being colored, is yet, in respect to its being a body, spoken of in respect to substance. but in no way may we think, in like manner, that the father cannot be called anything in respect to his own substance, but that whatever he is called, he is called in relation to the son ; while the same son is spoken of both in ret to his own substance and in relation to the father, when he is called great greatness, and powerful power, plainly in respect to himself, and the greatness and power of the greatand powerful father, by which the father is great and powerful. it is not so ; but both are substance, and both are one substance. and as it is absurd to say that whiteness is not white, so is it absurd to say that wisdom is not wise ; and as whiteness is called white in respect to itself, so also wisdom is called wise in respect to itself. but the whiteness of a body is not an essence, since the body itself is the essence, and that is a quality of it ; and hence also a body is said from that quality to be white, to which body to be is not the same thing as to be white. for the form in it is one thing, and the color another ; and both are not in themselves, but in a certain bulk, which bulk is neither form nor color, but is formed and colored. true wisdom is both wise, and wise in itself. and since in the case of every soul that becomes wise by partaking of wisdom, if it again becomes foolish, yet wisdom in itself remains ; nor when that soul was changed into folly is the wisdom likewise so changed ; therefore wisdom is not in him who becomes wise by it, in the same manner as whiteness is in the body which is by it made white. for when the body has been changed into another color, that whiteness will not remain, but will altogether", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6009795494447938, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d21ab407-d6cf-4147-ab3d-65acff79954c>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:33.680424"}
{"text": "today at the ieee international electron devices meeting, ibm scientists unveiled several research breakthroughs that could lead to major advancements in delivering dramatically smaller, faster and more powerful computer chips. for more than 50 years, computer processors have increased in power and shrunk in size at a tremendous rate. however, today ' s chip designers are hitting physical limitations with moore ' s law, halting the pace of product innovation from scaling alone. with virtually all electronic equipment today built on complementary - symmetry metal - oxide semiconductor ( cmos ) technology, there is an urgent need for new materials and circuit architecture designs compatible with this engineering process as the technology industry nears physical scalability limits of the silicon transistor. following years of key physics advances previously only achieved in a laboratory, ibm scientists successfully integrated the development and application of new materials and logic architectures on 200mm ( eight inch ) diameter wafers. these breakthroughs could potentially provide a new technological basis for the convergence of computing, communication, and consumer electronics. ibm has shown racetrack, a computer memory, which combines the large capacity of traditional hard disks with the speed and robustness of flash memory, can be made with standard chip - making tools. proving this type of memory is feasible, today ibm researchers are detailing the first racetrack memory device integrated with cmos technology on 200mm wafers, culminating seven years of physics research. racetrack memory stores data on nanoscale metal wires. bits of information - digital 1s and 0s - are represented by magnetic stripes in those nanowires, which are created by controlling the magnetic orientation of different parts of the wire. writing data involves inserting a new magnetic stripe into a nanowire by applying current to it ; reading data involves moving the stripes along the nanowire past a device able to detect the boundaries between stripes. the researchers demonstrated both read and write functionality on an array of 256 in - plane, magnetized horizontal racetracks. this development lays the foundation for further improving racetrack memory ' s density and reliability using perpendicular magnetized racetracks and three - dimensional architectures. this breakthrough could lead to a new type of data - centric computing that allows massive amounts of stored information to be accessed in less than a billionth of a second. ibm researhcers also how the first - ever cmos - compatible graphene device can advance wireless communications, and enable new, high frequency devices, which can operate under adverse temperature and radiation conditions in areas such as security and medical applications. the graphene integrated circuit, a frequency multiplier, is operational", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6559706355402457, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ef8fa185-b500-4226-b4d7-7be2010fc265>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:33.970199"}
{"text": "- compatible graphene device can advance wireless communications, and enable new, high frequency devices, which can operate under adverse temperature and radiation conditions in areas such as security and medical applications. the graphene integrated circuit, a frequency multiplier, is operational up to 5 ghz and stable up to 200 degrees celcius. while detailed thermal stability still needs to be evaluated, these results are promising for graphene circuits to be used in high temperature environments. new architecture flips the current graphene transistor structure on its head. instead of trying to deposit gate dielectric on an inert graphene surface, the researchers developed a novel embedded gate structure that enables high device yield on a 200mm wafer. ibm researchers also today demonstrated the first transistor with sub - 10 nm channel lengths. while already being considered in varied applications ranging from solar cells to displays, it is expected that computers with in the next decade will use transistors with a channel length below 10 nm, a length scale at which conventional silicon technology will have extreme difficulty performing even with new advanced device architectures. the scaled carbon nanotube devices below 10nm gate length are a significant breakthrough for future applications in computing technology. while often associated with improving switching speed ( on - state ), this breakthrough demonstrates for the first time that carbon nanotubes can provide excellent off - state behavior in extremely scaled devices - - better than what some theoretical estimates of tunneling current suggested.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6321971784493975, "token_count": 293, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ef8fa185-b500-4226-b4d7-7be2010fc265>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:33.971007"}
{"text": "see \u201c stages of labor \u201c ) fourth stage of labor ( see \u201c stages of labor \u201d ) fundus \u2013 the base of an organ, or the part farthest away from its opening. examples include : the lower back part of the bladder, the part of the eye opposite the pupil, and the large upper end of the uterus. forcep \u2013 a surgical instrument resembling a pair of pincers or tongs, used for grasping and extracting during delivery. galea aponeurotica \u2013 a tough layer of dense tissue which covers the upper part of the cranium. gestation \u2013 the development of a fetus from conception until birth ; pregnancy. glucose \u2013 the principal circulating sugar in the blood, and the major energy source of the body. hematocrit \u2013 1. the percentage by volume of red blood cells in a given sample of blood, after it has been spun in a centrifuge. a hematocrit ranging from 42 - 52 % in males and 35 - 47 % in females is typically considered normal. 2. a centrifuge used to determine the relative volumes of blood cells and plasma in a sample of blood ( source : the american heritage dictionary ). hemoglobin \u2013 an iron - containing pigment of red blood cells that caries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body. hie ( hypoxic - ischemic encephalopathy ) \u2013 damage to cells in the central nervous system that occurs when the entire brain is deprived of an adequate oxygen supply. newborn hie might result in cerebral palsy, though research in this area is still inconclusive. hypertension \u2013 abnormally high blood pressure, usually indicated by a systolic pressure of 140 or greater, and a diastolic pressure of 90 or more. hypertension is a risk factor for various conditions, including heart failure, end - stage renal disease, and retinal hemorrhage. hypertonic \u2013 1. having extreme muscle tone or tension 2. ( chemistry ) having a higher osmotic pressure than a surrounding medium. hypotension \u2013 abnormally low blood pressure. hypovolemia \u2013 a blood disorder consisting of a decrease in the volume of circulating blood. hypoxia \u2013 a pronounced deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching body tissues. hypoxia \u2013 ischemia ( h / i ) \u2013 insufficient blood supply in tissues as a result of inadequate blood supplies. hypoxic - ischemic encephalopathy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6031255144998522, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:32120c5a-c202-4908-b2b3-0c1c08583f49>", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.008190"}
{"text": "is visible in a photo when, instead of seeing a black pupil, the camera catches the blood - red retina in the back of the eye. a file that contains a backup of windows registry entries a windows tool that allows you to manually modify the windows registry. a windows tool that you can use to allow a user on another computer to have access your computer so that they can help you correct errors. software within windows that lets you access a pc from a remote location. storage media, such as a cd, dvd, or flash drive, that can be taken away from your pc. when pressing a keyboard key, this is the pause before the key repeats itself on - screen. when pressing a keyboard key, this is the speed at which the key \u2019 s character ( or function ) repeats. a windows 7 tool that tracks how all your system ' s components are being used, focusing primarily on the ram and processor. a snapshot of your hard drive \u2019 s important settings that can be used for a system restore. to copy music from a cd to your pc. this is often accomplished using windows media player. entries in the windows registry. automatically updated content that can be viewed with an rss feed reader. a way of entering windows, primarily for diagnostics and repairs, that bypasses many of the drivers that can cause windows failures. serial advanced technology attachment : a storage technology that tends to run faster and cooler with simpler connections. a tab - based interface for microsoft - based applications, such as wordpad, that contains all the primary commands. signifies the number of dots ( pixels ) on the entire screen. a program that searches documents or the internet for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents or web pages where the keywords were found. lists windows 7 \u2019 s four main security defenses, tells you whether they \u2019 re activated, and provides handy on switches to activate any that may be turned off. a 32 - character unique identifier attached to the header of packets sent over a network that acts as a password when a mobile device tries to connect the network. a type of backup file that automatically saves all previous versions of files. an icon push button, typically placed on your desktop, that allows you to quickly access a program, file, or folder. a topic - specific pop - up menu that appears when you right - click an item. the command on the shutdown menu that powers off the computer. an area along the side of your screen that displays gadgets. these gadgets tell you the time, show pictures", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6064436078005458, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4f42ec32-53fd-49cb-a7cf-97d7f200b125>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.320118"}
{"text": "in a recent breakthrough, researchers at the massachusetts institute of technology ( mit ) have made great strides into what could be the future of solar power. their methods have replicated a process from the natural world that is so basic and universal as to almost beg the question why someone didn \u2019 t come up with it before. that process is photosynthesis. it is how all plants derive energy from sunlight. the scientists captured an essential element of the photosynthesis process, simply called ps - i, and combined it with other \u201c designer \u201d chemicals to construct a solar cell. however, it was not a \u201c simple \u201d matter of harnessing photosynthesis. the scientists also used sophisticated nanotechnology to improve the performance of their cells. by mounting the cells on an array of nanocrystals and nanowires, they increased the surface area and exposure of their cells to sunlight. to be fair, this is not the first attempt at so - called biophotovoltaics. however, with their innovative materials, geometry and design, the scientists claim to have solved problems with previous experiments that made them cumbersome and expensive. they assert their methods led to a simple device of \u201c unprecedented performance. \u201d more specifically, they calculate the output of their cells to be more than 10, 000 times greater than that of any other plant - based cell previously constructed. like most scientific breakthroughs, the promise of its usefulness far exceeds any practical use at this stage. in other words, it will be years before plant - based cells start popping up, or growing for that matter, on rooftops across american suburbia. but one of the great things about renewable power and science in general is to constantly challenge accepted notions of what and how things can be done. the scientists note that ps - i, which is the \u201c central molecule \u201d in photosynthesis, is an abundant raw material that promises \u201c ultra - low - cost \u201d solar cells. it could be a boon for the solar industry, which has always been challenged by its high upfront costs. the scientists noted that these cells could be constructed from abundant sources, such as discarded clippings from agriculture and timber operations. the results of this experiment were included in the february 2012 issue of scientific reports.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6137556565085309, "token_count": 454, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:56ac33c4-65e9-4086-9457-3004c8aa6d26>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.344627"}
{"text": "air chambers - small honeycomb spaced within the sash and frame extrusions which help to insulate andstrengthen the window. argon - a gas that is heavier than air used to fill the dead airspace of an insulated glass unit - argon is a safe, colorless, odorless, tasteless, non - toxic gas which is six times more dense than air. argon provides a significant increase in the insulating value of a glass unit as well as sound insulation. awning window - a window that is hinged at the top, and cranks from the bottom, to open out on a horizontal ( outward and upward ) 45 degree swing. balance ( spiral type, coil type ) - used to tension the sash in the desired position. a balance allows the sash to operate up and down. balance coil case - housing for coil balance of constant force type. balance cover - a cover to improve site lines by covering operating balance. balance shoe - attached to the bottom of balance as a receptacle for the tilt pin to hold the sash and frame together which allows tilting. balance tube / or sleeve - a tube attached to each jamb of a window that gives the moving sash stability when moving up and down. balance winding tool - used to adjust the tension of the spiral balance. bay window - three windows in a single frame. the center lite is always twice as wide as the sidelites, which are generally a combination of a fixed and ( 2 ) operable flankers, ( casement or double hung windows ). the window bay projects out from the wall of the house 30 or 45 degrees. beveled exterior - an extension of the vinyl frame that adds an aesthetically pleasing dimension to the exterior of the window. bow window - 3, 4, or 5 windows in a single frame. all of the windows widths are equal size, which are generally a combination of fixed centers and ( 2 ) operable flankers, ( casement or double hung windows ). the window bow projects out from the wall of the house 15 degrees. a bow is similar to a bay but the combination has a more circular arch appearance. buck frame - wood head, seat, and jambs designed to form a case to contain the window to fit in the rough opening, used on bay and bow windows. buck size - this is the exact window size not including the fin. butterfly clip - this is a \" w \" shaped clip with jamb adjustment screw located at the middle of both jambs of some", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6089606493105679, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6d2d6ea4-70c4-499d-8174-d14c1211a4d2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.518401"}
{"text": "rough opening, used on bay and bow windows. buck size - this is the exact window size not including the fin. butterfly clip - this is a \" w \" shaped clip with jamb adjustment screw located at the middle of both jambs of some replacement models. the screws in a clockwise direction will cause the jamb middles to pull toward the center of window. butyl - a material used to seal glass to the spacer and acts as a sealant to form a dead air space water and air tight unit. cam lock and keeper - the mechanism which pulls sash together when placed in the locked position on single hung, double hung, and slider windows. casement window fixed - a picture window made out of casement window extrusions and does not ventilate. casement window operable - a window that is hinged on the left or right jamb. the window cranks outward on a vertical plane to a full 90 degree swing. the unit may be hinged left or right ( view the unit inside looking out ). caulking - a compound for filing joints to prevent leakage of water and air. weather - proof caulking is made of a silicone base. caulking is used where leakage and / or movement may occur. colonial arch - special shapes window unit that has a half round radius head. condensation resistance factor - a measure of the effectiveness of a window or glazing system to reduce the potential for condensation. the higher the condensation resistance factor, the more efficient the window or glazing system. condensation - the formation of water vapor from the air on any cold surface whose temperature is below thedew point. conduction - energy transfer from one material to another by direct contact. convection - heat transfer by currants that flow from a warm surface to a colder one. cottage window - a double hung or single hung window with a larger proportioned bottom sash. standard configuration is 3 / 5 of the window operates from the bottom. 2 / 5 operates on the top. dead lite - a fixed lite inoperable unit insert only ( no master frame ). desiccated maxtrix - a material used in insulating glass to absorb water vapor which causes fogging. dew point - the temperature above 32 degree f at which visible water vapor begins to deposit on the glass surface. double hung window - a window with an upper and lower moving sash utilizing a tension balance to hold sashes in the desired position. drip cap", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6025807057309868, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6d2d6ea4-70c4-499d-8174-d14c1211a4d2>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.519766"}
{"text": "dew point - the temperature above 32 degree f at which visible water vapor begins to deposit on the glass surface. double hung window - a window with an upper and lower moving sash utilizing a tension balance to hold sashes in the desired position. drip cap - a molding to divert water from the top casing so that water drips beyond the outside of the frame. dual durometer - two hardnesses of vinyl in one extrusion. usually combines rigid and flexible vinyl. mainly used for glazing beads and sashes. egress - the path or opening by means of which one goes out : emergency exit. all egress or rescue windows from sleeping rooms must have a net clear opening. elliptical - special shape where height is at least 1 / 3 of base. equilateral triangle - special shapes window unit having all three sides equal. eyebrow window - special shape that has straight legs coming up from the base and attaching to the radius. fixed lite - a window which is non - operable ( does not open ). flanker - a window unit placed along side of another unit. a picture window may be flanked by a double hung on each side. fusion welded - refers to frames and sash fused together with intense heat. glazing bead - a removable trim that holds the glass in place. glazing - the process of sealing the glass to the sash. grid / muntin - a brass / aluminum or vinyl strip in the dead airspace of the glass unit. available in either colonial or diamond patterns. guts - a slang term used for the internal workings of bay / bow units. ( i. e. : window dimensions, projection, overall depth, etc. head expander - a vinyl cap that fits over the top of the head of a window. used to fill in the gap. infiltration - air is able to flow through cracks and other spaces around the window and at the meeting rail. isosceles triangle - special shapes window unit having two of three sides equal. jamb - the sides of the window frame. j - channel - \" j \" configuration designed into window frame exterior for the primary purpose of receiving siding. keeper rail - the bottom of the top sash on which the keeper is mounted. on sliders, the keeper rail is vertical. lift rail / handle - handle ( applied or integrated ) for raising the sash in a window. lite - a unit of glass. lock rail - an extrusion used on top of the bottom sash on which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6279786522504105, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6d2d6ea4-70c4-499d-8174-d14c1211a4d2>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.520745"}
{"text": "window - a window that has no moveable sash. pitch - roof pitch is the ratio of rise to span. special shapes trapezoid configurations especially will follow roof pitch. plated / polished brass hardware - hardware that is not solid brass but finished as plated. prairie grid - horizontal and vertical grid 4 \" from edge of glass to centerline of grid in windows ( 6 \" in patio doors ). projection - in a bay or bow unit - this measurement is the distance a unit will project past the outside wall. quad - quadruplet is a group of windows mulled in combination of fours. radiation - wave energy transmitted directly from one object to another through the atmosphere or through transparent or translucent materials. the energy radiated is either transmitted, absorbed or reflected, or a combination of all three. rail - horizontal member of a sash. replacement window - a window designed to fit into an existing window opening. right triangle - special shapes window unit having one of three interior angles of 90 degrees. r - value - a measure of resistance to heat flow of material or construction. a higher value indicates a better heat insulating property. safety tempered glass - glass that has been treated with high heat for strength. if safety glass is broken, it will shatter into very small pieces. sash stop - an extrusion molding generally about 2 \" long that covers the joint between window sash and the jamb which stops the operable sash at its maximum opening. sash - the part of the window or door which contains the glass. screw jack - this is a button shaped jamb adjustment screw located at the middle of both jambs of some replacement models. turning the screw in a clockwise direction will cause the jamb middles to pull towardcenter of window. sealant - a compound for filling joints to prevent leakage of water and air. weatherproof sealant is made of a silicone base. sealant is used where leakage and / or movement is expected. shrink or stretch wrap - a plastic coating wrapped around a finished product for protection during shipping and while in storage. sill - the bottom piece of the mainframe. sill angle - an extrusion that is placed on the exterior sill of a replacement window to fill in any gap between the rough opening to the exterior window sill. single hung window - window with a fixed top sash and an operating bottom sash. slider window - window that slides to the left or right. spiral balance - a balance using a spirally wound spring. spring line - the vertical point", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6012388884672413, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6d2d6ea4-70c4-499d-8174-d14c1211a4d2>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.522623"}
{"text": "sill. single hung window - window with a fixed top sash and an operating bottom sash. slider window - window that slides to the left or right. spiral balance - a balance using a spirally wound spring. spring line - the vertical point at which a radius starts for special shapes i. e. eyebrows, colonial arch. stile - vertical member of a sash. tape glazing - a piece of two sided tape that holds the glass in place within the frame. thumb latch - when compressed the tilt latch moves enabling the sash to tilt. ( same as tilt latch or sash release ). tilt latch - mechanisms that locks sash in place ( sash release ). tilt pin - pins in the lift rail of the sash that goes into the balance shoe and joins the sash to the jamb. transom - a horizontal window usually above a door. trapezoid - a four sided window in which one side is taller than the other. triple - triplet is a group of windows mulled in combination of threes. twinning - joining two windows together with mullion. u - value - a value indicating the rate of heat flow transferred through a material. the lower the u value, the slowerthe rate of heat flow. it is also referred to as the overall coefficient of heat transfer. united inch - the width in inched plus the height in inches. universal slide - xo from the outside looking in, the moving lock sash will operate from left to right. weather - strip - material used to seal the opening between the sash and the mainframe. weephole - small holes along the bottom edge of a window or door unit that allows any trapped water to escape outdoors. wet glazing - silicone based substance that holds the sash in place within the frame.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6031509750627577, "token_count": 360, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6d2d6ea4-70c4-499d-8174-d14c1211a4d2>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:34.523372"}
{"text": "wep is the encryption standard that comes with wifi lans. it uses rc4 encryption, which is the same as that used by the security built into standard web browsers ( ssl ). one might think, therefore, that it is sufficiently tried and tested to be trusted. well, there ' s not a great deal wrong with rc4 - - but there is a great deal wrong with its implementation within wifi. put simply, it should not be used in this manner. ( technically, it is a stream cipher being used where a stream cipher should not be used. a block cipher would have been better for wlans. but rc4 was easy and cheap to implement - and with 40 bit keys it was not subject to the then existent us export laws. ) problems with wep were known at the end of year 2000. but in summer 2001, the well - known cryptographers fluhrer, mantin and shamir ( the ' s ' of rsa ) published a new paper in which \u201c we show that rc4 is completely insecure in a common mode of operation which is used in the widely deployed wired equivalent privacy protocol ( wep, which is part of the 802. 11 standard ), in which a fixed secret key is concatenated with known iv modifiers in order to encrypt different messages. our new passive ciphertext - only attack on this mode can recover an arbitrarily long key in a negligible amount of time... \u201d in simple english, this is devastating news for the security of 802. 11 wlans. basically, there is no security. it prompted phil belanger, past chairman and current marketing director of weca, to comment : \u201c we perceive this as serious and different from the previous attacks, and we ' re not going to say ' don ' t worry about it '. however, we ' ve always said that if privacy is a concern, you need to be using end - to - end security mechanisms, like virtual private networks, along with the wlan. \u201d without going into the technical details, rc4 ' s implementation within wifi means that in cryptographic terms it is a trivial matter to break the encryption. to make matters worse, there is a freely available hacking tool on the internet ( airsnort ) that can do all the hard work automatically. as a result, wireless lans using wep encryption are as vulnerable to script kiddies ( wannabee hackers without their technical expertise ) as they are to genuine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6050595966021248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:05d443ac-204a-4a12-8764-5777a516a6c9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:36.290880"}
{"text": "). fan coil \u2013 an indoor component of a heat pump system, used in place of a furnace. it provides additional heating through electric elements on cold days when the heat pump cannot provide adequate heating. freon \u2013 a trademark used for a variety of nonflammable gaseous or liquid fluorinated hydrocarbons employed primarily as working fluids in refrigeration and air conditioning and as aerosol propellants. hvac \u2013 term used for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. hspf \u2013 ( heating seasonal performance factor ) is a measure of the heating efficiency of a heat pump. the higher the hspf number, the more efficiently the heat pump heats your home. horizontal flow \u2013 a type of furnace, installed on its \u201c side, \u201d that draws in air from one side, heats it and sends the warm air out the other side. most often used for installations in attics or crawl spaces. humidifier \u2013 a piece of equipment that adds water vapor to heated air as it moves out of the furnace. this adds necessary moisture to protect your furnishings and reduce static electricity. humidity levels should range from 35 \u2013 50 %. matched system \u2013 a heating and cooling system comprised of products that have been certified to perform at promised comfort and efficiency levels when used together, and used according to design and engineering specifications. natural gas \u2013 this energy fuel is a mixture of naturally occurring combustible gases found underground and is widely used for heating and cooking, as well as for a variety of industrial applications. operating cost \u2013 the day \u2013 to \u2013 day cost of running your home comfort equipment, based on energy use. payback analysis \u2013 is the overall measure of the efficiency and value of your home comfort system. by combining your purchase price and ongoing operating costs, a payback analysis determines the number of years required before monthly energy savings offset the purchase price. r410a refrigerant \u2013 an environmentally sound refrigerant designed to protect the earth \u2019 s ozone layer. federal law requires all manufacturers phase out ozone depleting refrigerants within a certain date. it is approved by the us environmental protection agency as a replacement for freon 22 *. seer \u2013 ( seasonal energy efficiency ratio ) is a measure of the cooling efficiency of your air conditioner or heat pump. the higher the seer number, the more efficient the system is at converting electricity into cooling power. setback thermostat or programmable thermostat \u2013 a thermostat with built \u2013 in memory, can be programmed for different temperature", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6161906534590171, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f22f362a-03fa-4270-a6a7-ed0ff31c0a16>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:36.965311"}
{"text": "are currently concentrated in a few agencies, corporations, and university departments. this segregation of effort limits both the effective use of expensive aircraft and the development of innovative research. for example, integration of gravity and magnetic measurements with major photogrammetric missions could produce significantly more data at a relatively small incremental cost. such coordinated missions would be beneficial to both the funding agencies, which save money, and to the broader scientific community, which gains data and the opportunity to do interdisciplinary research. recommendation 3. to ensure uniform coverage that is sufficiently accurate to resolve both long - and short - wavelength geologic features, technological developments should aim at integrating gps with a broad spectrum of well - calibrated measurement systems. uniform, accurate measurements are needed for both long - wavelength regional studies and short - wavelength process - oriented studies. future technological developments must address both needs to ensure that airborne geophysical methods become routine tools for the scientific, resource, and environmental industries. currently, only a limited number of accurate operational systems are routinely available. these include high - resolution airborne magnetics and photogrammetry, which are commercially available, and airborne gravity, which is available through ocr for page 78 - - > government, industry, and academia. topographic mapping systems are still largely in the developmental stage and are not available for routine scientific operations. other technological advances should focus on the design and implementation of experiments that require multiple measurement systems on a single platform. these applications require well - calibrated, integrated operational systems. the design process should look beyond the proof - of - concept and developmental stages to the practical considerations of an aircraft survey. integrated operational systems will place specific restrictions on equipment size, power requirements, and survey design. recommendation 4. in light of the serious impact on airborne geophysics, particularly for emerging industrial applications, the continuous operation of the antispoofing system should be carefully evaluated. the applications and technological advances discussed in previous chapters depend on access to gps signals that make it possible to locate the aircraft ' s antenna to better than 1 m. when as is on, these applications can be accomplished only if other parts of the positioning system are improved. such improvements include replacing all but one manufacturer ' s existing gps receivers with models that use a different encoded signal for positioning ; installing additional ground tracking systems so that aircraft are never more than tens of kilometers away from a ground station ; or coupling the gps receiver to the inertial guidance system in the aircraft to account for the dynamics of the aircraft. even when as is off, very high resolution applications will require improved navigation and post", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6008947255708778, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b9a2f921-6e8f-4e1f-a88c-fed145320638>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:37.524781"}
{"text": "super - strong yarn for spacesuits and bullet - proof vests fabrics woven using novel carbon - nanotube - loaded yarns. credit : kai liu. super - strong, highly conductive yarns made from extraordinarily thin carbon tubes could one day find use in spacesuits, bulletproof vests and radiation suits, researchers now suggest. carbon nanotubes are hollow pipes just nanometers or billionths of a meter in diameter \u2014 dozens to hundreds of times thinner than a wavelength of visible light. they can possess a range of extraordinary physical and electrical properties, such as being roughly 100 times stronger than steel at one - sixth the weight. scientists have feverishly explored ways to make textiles from carbon nanotubes for years. however, yarns made from these nanotubes lacked the attractive properties seen in lone fibers. the problem is rooted in how the nanotubes are typically about 200 to 400 millimeters long. when these get woven together into a yarn, the connections between the nanotubes act as gaps that weaken the yarn ' s overall conductivity, and these connections are not as strong as the tubes themselves, explained researcher kai liu at the tsinghua - foxconn nanotechnology research center in beijing. simultaneously enhancing both the strength and conductivity of yarns made from these nanotubes has proven difficult. additives that increased the strength of these yarns often inadvertently left behind poorly conductive residues that reduced the overall conductivity of the yarn. on the other hand, treatments with super - acids that boosted the conductivity of these yarns by adding oxygen - containing molecules also weakened the yarns by introducing physical defects. now scientists in china reveal they have made composite yarns from carbon nanotubes and plastic that are both very strong and electrically conductive. the researchers first wove pure carbon nanotube yarns as free of physical defects as possible, to ensure it had good electrical conductivity. they next impregnated a strengthening plastic into the empty spaces inside this yarn, using a solvent that did not leave any leftovers behind that would detract from the yarn ' s electrical properties. the strength of these new yarns \u2014 up to about five times stronger than steel \u2014 combined with their flexibility makes them attractive for protective fabrics such as bulletproof vests. at the same time, the fact they are so electrically conductive means they could be easily heated, making them valuable for use in super - cold environments such as outer space. in addition, since carbon nanotubes can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6498161312094026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:307795aa-61b1-4a23-88a0-a57dc65a9981>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:38.664493"}
{"text": "sign up for a new account or log in here : scientists at ibm \u2019 s t. j. watson research center in yorktown heights, n. y. are making substantial progress on what is expected to be the successor to silicon - based microprocessors. carbon nanotubes have been arranged on the surface of a silicon wafer to create a hybrid chip with more than 10, 000 working transistors. researchers have become increasingly concerned with the possibility that moore \u2019 s law \u2013 the idea that the number of transistors on a chip can be doubled every 12 to 18 months \u2013 might fail sooner rather than later. ibm says the breakthrough is significant and worth getting excited over. silicon has been an incredibly resilient building block over the past 50 years or so but scientists have yet to find a solution beyond the next few generations. carbon nanotubes are expected to allow chip makers to build smaller transistors that can turn on and off much more quickly than their silicon counterparts. supratik guha, director of physical sciences at ibm research, said his group suspected carbon nanotubes would outperform any other switches made from any other material. simulations performed by device physicists showed a factor of five or more improvement over conventional silicon devices. the processor industry as a whole has hit a wall in recent years in terms of overall clock speed. this has forced the industry to shift gears and build multi - core processors to help tackle workloads rather than continuing to ramp up clock speeds. once the new technology has been fully perfected for use by the end of this decade, scientists anticipate future processors will feature much higher clock speeds in addition to even more transistors being crammed onto a single wafer. get free exclusive content, learn about new features and breaking tech news.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6372616518330745, "token_count": 365, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8681d0a8-d8e9-48e9-8ade-9fe9275ac9c5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:38.666719"}
{"text": "light - emitting t - shirts come closer to realitymay 6th, 2009 - 1 : 51 pm ict by ani london, may 6 ( ani ) : light - emitting t - shirts may soon come to be used for electronic displays, thanks to a new japanese screen - printing method of depositing a luminescent gel onto any surface, including paper and fabric. researchers at dai nippon printing in tokyo, who have made this advance, have revealed that the gel consists of a ruthenium compound that emits a bright light when a voltage is applied to it, along with an electrolyte and silica nanoparticles. the electrolyte is a liquid salt, an ionic liquid that does not easily evaporate. it also prevents the ink from degrading, allowing displays to be printed onto surfaces without the need for a protective coating. what makes this ink suitable for use with textiles is the fact that it will not wash off in water, say the researchers. according to them, the silica nanoparticles blend with the light - emitting liquid to form a gel, allowing it to be printed onto different surfaces in discrete blobs, to form pixels. presently, the ink emits only reddish hues, reports new scientist magazine. the researchers, however, are trying to incorporate other metal compounds into their technique so as to emit green and blue light, which will eventually give them the whole spectrum. since the screen - printing technique currently allows only rough pixels to be generated, the images produced currently are fuzzy. the researchers say that they are working on techniques to deposit the gel onto surfaces using an ink - jet printer, which would allow them to create smaller pixels and hence higher resolution at costs lower than those involved in lithographic techniques. the company hopes to market the technology within five years. it believes that its technique may pave the way for light - emitting posters, clothing, flexible displays, and new lighting applications. ( ani ) - innovative method prints colours without inks - aug 13, 2012 - nano - lasers to light future homes - jun 30, 2010 - now, quantum dot display for sharper flexible tv screen images - feb 21, 2011 - raman effect makes cancer detection possible - apr 21, 2011 - ' chameleon ' technology that could make tanks look like a cow! - jan 20, 2011 - growing nanolasers on silicon paves way for on - chip photonics - feb 07, 2011 - ultrathin silicon substitute to revolutionize future electronics", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.605455081396121, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8c4ef2da-8ac4-48bc-8090-327be0ec2c8b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:38.671602"}
{"text": "be used. the \" chair \" lift at a ski resort is likely to have something more similar to a bench than a chair. a beanbag chair is not at all like a stereotypical chair. when we look at the actual usage of the word \" chair \", we find that there is no simple underlying meaning that is totally consistent, but we all have heard the word used often enough that we are familiar with most of the oddities of when it does and does not apply. the fact that words don ' t have fundamental underlying meanings creates problems for language translation. it may be that in some other language, the word with the meaning closest to chair includes sofas, and it another language it might exclude sofas but include chairs without backs that we would call stools. translators will try to pick the closest word that fits the context, but when we read the translation, we may still misunderstand what the original author intended. there are some contexts where word meanings actually are relatively precise. science is one example. scientists go to great pains to define terms to avoid any ambiguity. scientific quantities are often defined in terms of objective measurements that minimize the chance for differences in interpretation by the people doing the measuring. this precision in defining terms is probably one of the key reasons science has been so successful over the years. another area where terms are carefully defined is law. words used in laws and contracts have to be carefully defined because the system will fail if people don ' t know exactly what is required. definition issues that mask substantive issues for most purposes, though, we have to be careful about getting hung up on definitions. when people think that a definition is something worth arguing about, we should be alert for a problem. at one time i was curious about the definition of the word \" disease \". people seemed to take great pains to point out that \" alcoholism \" was a \" disease \". i wondered, what difference does it make? the controversy didn ' t seem to be about the nature of alcoholism so much as whether alcoholism was included in the definition of \" disease \". a person could easily define the word \" disease \" to include or exclude it - alcoholism was still the same thing. eventually it dawned on me that the debate was really about how we should treat alcoholics : in the past we might have ridiculed or jailed them, but if we can persuade people to think of alcoholism as a disease, putting them in hospitals or treatment programs seems more appropriate. there was actually an issue of substance at the root of the question of the definition", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6041348026051949, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2a9bf87d-c926-452a-a6f7-f249dd214bb1>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:38.816756"}
{"text": "humidity ( rh ) level at or above 80 % is in contact with a surface. carried by air currents, mold spores can reach all surfaces and cavities of buildings. if these surfaces and / or cavities are warm, and contain the right nutrients and amounts of moisture, the mold spores will grow and gradually destroy the things they grow on. to control mold growth, designers should focus on controlling moisture indoors and on the temperatures of all surfaces, including interstitial surfaces within walls. in addition to mold, other organisms such as bacteria, mites, cockroaches, and insects that are known to infest buildings also depend on moisture. and finally, excessive high moisture content of thermal insulations reduces effective insulation rates by as much as 50 %. for all these reasons, moisture control must be a primary consideration in both the design of new buildings and in the renovation of existing structures. the remainder of this resource page will focus on the sources of excessive moisture and some strategies to prevent water infiltration into buildings. b. moisture dynamics concepts and definitions psychrometrics : the study of air - water mixtures is called psychrometric. the relationship between air temperature, moisture content, and humidity has been codified in a diagram called the psychrometric chart that is indispensable for understanding condensation. among other things, it indicates the dew point temperature of any air - water vapor mixture. water vapor permeance and permeability : permeability is a material property ; permeance is a product property. for board materials, usually permeability is given ; for thin membranes, it is customary to provide their permeance. - permeance : the rate of water vapor transmission through unit area of a flat product induced by unit vapor pressure between its two surfaces. in inch / pound units, permeance is given in the unit \" perm, \" where one perm equals a transmission rate of 1 grain of water per hour for each square foot of area per inch of mercury ( gr / hft\u00b2in. hg ). ( 1 grain is 1 / 700 of a pound. ) in metric / si units, permeance is given in nanograms of water per second per second for each square meter of area per pascal of vapor pressure ( ng / som2opa ). one perm equals a flow rate of 57 ng / sm\u00b2pa. - permeability : the time rate of water vapor transmission through unit area of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6042879406672664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7c2fabb5-c214-42b9-9d3f-735289d2c64f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:39.107289"}
{"text": "the area that an animal uses in the course of its daily activities. not necessarily defended. \" ( source : sibley ) the process by which an organism maintains constant internal conditions in the face of a varying external environment. ability to maintain constant body temperature in the face of fluctuating environmental temperature ; warm - blooded. a similarity in traits that reflects descent from a common ancestor and which by inference was also present in that common ancestor. a shared character that is due to common hereditary. \" bird whose nest receives eggs laid by brood parasites. the hosts then provide parental care to the unrelated young that hatch from the parasitic egg, often to the detriment of their own young. \" ( source : sibley ) fine particles of organic detritis in soil. \" a collective term for the bones of the tongue and associated connective tissues, found in the upper throat. \" ( source : sibley ) the innermost layer of a snail ' s shell, closest to the snail ' s body. a diploid organism is hemizygous for a particular gene when only one allele for the gene is present. habitat destruction is the process by which natural habitat is damaged or destroyed to such an extent that it no longer is capable of supporting the species and ecological communities that naturally occur there.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6124822469998209, "token_count": 261, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a77a696e-11aa-4c1f-bd98-fcebbc1e7325>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:39.435589"}
{"text": "serving wine usually involves a rather elaborate ceremony in which the host tastes the wine before pouring it for the guests. one reason for this is the possibility that the wine may have been spoiled by exposure to air. certain bacterial enzymes are capable of converting ethanol to ethanoic acidin arrhenius theory, a substance that produces hydrogen ions ( hydronium ions ) in aqueous solution. in bronsted - lowry theory, a hydrogen - ion ( proton ) donor. in lewis theory, a species that accepts a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. ( acetic acid ) when oxygen is present : the same reaction occurs when cider changes into vinegar, which contains 4 to 5 percent acetic acid. acetic acid gives vinegar its sour taste and pungent odor and can do the same thing to wine. acetic acid, ch3cooh, is an example of the class of compounds called carboxylic acids, each of which contains one or more carboxylthe functional group consisting of a carbon atom bonded to a hydroxyl group and doubly bonded to an oxygen atom ; found in carboxylic acids : - c ( = o ) oh. groups, cooh. the general formula of a carboxylic acid is rcooh. some other examples are formic acid ( the name comes from latin word formica meaning \u201c ant \u201c ) is present in ants and bees and is responsible for the burning pain of their bites and stings. butyric acid, a component of rancid butter and limburger cheese, has a vile odor. adipic acid is an example of a dicarboxylic acid \u2014 it has two functional groups \u2014 and is used to make nylon. since the carboxyl group contains a highly polardescribes a molecule that has separated, equal positive and negative charges that consitute a positive and a negative pole ; such a molecule tends to assume certain orientations more than others in an electric field. as well as an oh group, hydrogen bonding is extensive among molecules of the carboxylic acids. pure acetic acid is called glacial acetic acid because its melting pointthe temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid. also called freezing point. of 16. 6\u00b0c is high enough that it can freeze in a cold laboratory. as you can see from the table below, acetic acid boils at a higher temperaturea physical property that indicates whether one object can transfer thermal energy to another object. than any other organic substance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6007358079023721, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e66e40a8-9165-40c0-9c90-f4295980351d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:39.722173"}
{"text": "high enough that it can freeze in a cold laboratory. as you can see from the table below, acetic acid boils at a higher temperaturea physical property that indicates whether one object can transfer thermal energy to another object. than any other organic substance whose molecules are of comparable size and have but one functional group. it is also quite thick and syrupy because of extensive hydrogen bonding. boiling points of some organic compounds whose molecules contain 32 or 34 electrons. below is a jmol model of acetic acid. in the general menu to the left, click on partial charges. each atom in the molecule will be assigned a partial charge. it is clear that the oxygen atomsthe smallest particle of an element that can be involved in chemical combination with another element ; an atom consists of protons and neutrons in a tiny, very dense nucleus, surrounded by electrons, which occupy most of its volume. are sharing electrons unequally and causing other parts of the molecule to gain a partial positive charge in the carboxyl carbon and hydrogen. further, this induces a partial negative charge on the methyl carbon, leading to positive charges on the methyl hydrogen atoms. an even better way to view the electron distribution is with the molecular electrostatic potential ( mep ) surface options. one can look at \" mep on isopotential surface \", which show surfaces where electrostatic potential is the same, but the most informative option here is the \" mep on van der waals surface \" radio button. this shows the potential along the van der waals surface of the molecule. the closer to red on the color spectrum, the more negative the potential at that surface is, the closer to blue, the more positive. one can see that both oxygen atoms are centers of partial negative charge, while the acidic hydrogen atom has a substantial partial positive charge, and the methyl group is also has a partial positive charge. one more way to look at the molecule, is to use the \" mep on a plane \" button. choose the xy plane, and then click \" set plane equation. \" this will show the electrostatic potential along the axis of symmetry for the molecule. while two hydrogen atoms on the methyl group are out of the plane, this view still allows one to see how partial charge is distributed along the backbone of the molecule in a way the van der waals surface does not. from this modeling of the acetic acid molecule, hopefully it is becoming clear how the macroscopic properties we discussed arise. acetic acid is synthesized commercially according to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6197754824561844, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e66e40a8-9165-40c0-9c90-f4295980351d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:39.723593"}
{"text": "behavior of light. as a result, the properites of light were partly unravelled - - that old and subtle stuff that is so important and mysterious that it was felt necessary to arrange a special creation for it when writing genesis. maxwell could say, when he was finished his discovery, ' let there be electricity and magnetism, and there feynman in the feynman lectures on physics, vol. of the jcm foundation at 14 india street.... \" to promote, encourage, and advance the study of, research into, and the dissemination of knowledge of and relating to physics, chemistry and physical chemistry in all their aspects and in particular, but without prejudice to the foregoing generality, colloids and interfaces. \" scotland has honored maxwell in a number of significant ways... and at yale | maxwell himself on how to visualize a single center of electrified force.... \" i am anxious that these diagrams should be studied as illustrations of the language of faraday in speaking of ' lines of force, ' the ' forces of an electrified body, ' etc.... now the quantity of electricity in a body is measured, according to faraday ' s ideas, by the number of lines of force, or rather of induction, which proceed from it. these lines of force must all terminate somewhere, either on bodies in the neighborhood, or on the walls and roof of the room, or on the earth, or on the heavenly bodies, and wherever they terminate there is a quantity of electricity exactly equal and opposite to that on the part of the body from which they proceeded. by examining the diagrams this will be seen to be the case. these diagrams are constructed in the following manner : - first, take the case of a single centre of force, a small electrified body with a charge e. the potential at a is v = ( e / r ) ; hence, if we make r = ( e / v ), we shall find r, the radius of the sphere for which the potential is v if we now give to v the values 1, 2, 3, etc., and draw the corresponding spheres, we shall obtain a series of equipotential surfaces, the potentials corresponding to which are measured by the natural numbers. the sections of these spheres by a plane passing through their common centre will be circles, which we may mark with the number denoting the potential of each. these are indicated by the dotted circles on the right james clerk maxwell, \" an elementary treatise on electricity", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6291169587959087, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:944e23b5-e2d2-48db-9603-b8e7fe4abc96>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:39.781244"}
{"text": "solar power breakthrough claimed by stanford researchers | 9 : 04 : 27 pm, monday, march 14, 2011 | \u201c it \u2019 s the holy grail at clean energy research labs all over the world and something which could address long term energy issues domestically and beyond : more efficient photovoltaic solar. we \u2019 ve told you about scientists studying full - spectrum cells, using textured substrates, trying self - regenerating nanomaterials \u2013 we \u2019 ve even reported on an anti - reflective film inspired by a coating found in moth eyes. now a stanford team is claiming a breakthrough in making cheaper, more efficient panels by adding a single layer of organic molecules to solar cells. the researchers studied this technique on a fairly new type of solar cell that uses tiny particles of semiconductors called quantum dots. quantum dot solar cells are cheaper to produce than traditional silicon cells, but they haven \u2019 t caught on due to their relative inefficiency. for stacey bent, a chemical engineering professor at stanford, this represented something of a challenge. she knew that solar cells made of a single material have a maximum efficiency of about 31 percent, a limitation of the fixed energy level they can absorb, and that quantum dot solar cells didn \u2019 t share this limitation. \u201c quantum dots can be tuned to absorb a certain wavelength of light just by changing their size, \u201d the stanford report on her research says. \u201c and they can be used to build more complex solar cells that have more than one size of quantum dot, allowing them to absorb multiple wavelengths of light. \u201d so bent and her team coated a titanium dioxide semiconductor in their quantum dot solar cell with a very thin single layer of organic molecules. they found that just that single layer, less than a nanometer thick, was enough to triple the efficiency of the solar cells. even with this breakthrough, there \u2019 s still work to do : bent said the cadmium sulfide quantum dots she \u2019 s been using aren \u2019 t ideal for solar cells, so her group plans to try other molecules for the organic layer, while also tinkering with the solar cell increase light absorption. her theory is, said stanford, that once the sun \u2019 s energy creates an electron and a hole, the thin organic layer helps keep them apart, preventing them from recombining and being wasted. the group has yet to optimize the solar cells, and they have currently achieved an efficiency of, at most, 0. 4 percent. but the group can tune several aspects of the cell, and once they do it is said,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6378542328271793, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:157a61c3-4901-4d15-8ee8-204b915999cf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:39.866959"}
{"text": "partition function ( statistical mechanics ) in physics, a partition function describes the statistical properties of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. they are functions of temperature and other parameters, such as the volume enclosing a gas. most of the aggregate thermodynamic variables of the system, such as the total energy, free energy, entropy, and pressure, can be expressed in terms of the partition function or its derivatives. there are actually several different types of partition functions, each corresponding to different types of statistical ensemble ( or, equivalently, different types of free energy. ) the canonical partition function applies to a canonical ensemble, in which the system is allowed to exchange heat with the environment at fixed temperature, volume, and number of particles. the grand canonical partition function applies to a grand canonical ensemble, in which the system can exchange both heat and particles with the environment, at fixed temperature, volume, and chemical potential. other types of partition functions can be defined for different circumstances ; see partition function ( mathematics ) for generalizations. canonical partition function as a beginning assumption, assume that a thermodynamically large system is in constant thermal contact with the environment, with a temperature t, and both the volume of the system and the number of constituent particles fixed. this kind of system is called a canonical ensemble. let us label with s = 1, 2, 3,... the exact states ( microstates ) that the system can occupy, and denote the total energy of the system when it is in microstate s as es. generally, these microstates can be regarded as analogous to discrete quantum states of the system. the canonical partition function is where the \" inverse temperature \", \u03b2, is conventionally defined as with kb denoting boltzmann ' s constant. the exponential factor exp ( \u2212\u03b2es ) is known as the boltzmann factor. ( for a detailed derivation of this result, see canonical ensemble ). in systems with multiple quantum states s sharing the same es, it is said that the energy levels of the system are degenerate. in the case of degenerate energy levels, we can write the partition function in terms of the contribution from energy levels ( indexed by j ) as follows : where gj is the degeneracy factor, or number of quantum states s which have the same energy level defined by ej = es. the above treatment applies to quantum statistical mechanics, where a physical system inside a finite - sized box will typically have a discrete set of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.7199572383107619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d23088a-355c-4d5a-89fb-97e7d23e4b29>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:40.067504"}
{"text": "by the classical hamiltonian, and z reduces to the classical configuration integral. meaning and significance it may not be obvious why the partition function, as we have defined it above, is an important quantity. first, let us consider what goes into it. the partition function is a function of the temperature t and the microstate energies e1, e2, e3, etc. the microstate energies are determined by other thermodynamic variables, such as the number of particles and the volume, as well as microscopic quantities like the mass of the constituent particles. this dependence on microscopic variables is the central point of statistical mechanics. with a model of the microscopic constituents of a system, one can calculate the microstate energies, and thus the partition function, which will then allow us to calculate all the other thermodynamic properties of the system. the partition function can be related to thermodynamic properties because it has a very important statistical meaning. the probability ps that the system occupies microstate s is the partition function thus plays the role of a normalizing constant ( note that it does not depend on s ), ensuring that the probabilities sum up to one : this is the reason for calling z the \" partition function \" : it encodes how the probabilities are partitioned among the different microstates, based on their individual energies. the letter z stands for the german word zustandssumme, \" sum over states \". this notation also implies another important meaning of the partition function of a system : it counts the ( weighted ) number of states a system can occupy. hence if all states are equally probable ( equal energies ) the partition function is the total number of possible states. often this is the practical importance of z. calculating the thermodynamic total energy in order to demonstrate the usefulness of the partition function, let us calculate the thermodynamic value of the total energy. this is simply the expected value, or ensemble average for the energy, which is the sum of the microstate energies weighted by their probabilities : incidentally, one should note that if the microstate energies depend on a parameter \u03bb in the manner then the expected value of a is this provides us with a method for calculating the expected values of many microscopic quantities. we add the quantity artificially to the microstate energies ( or, in the language of quantum mechanics, to the hamiltonian ), calculate the new partition function and expected value, and then set \u03bb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6972106675903583, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d23088a-355c-4d5a-89fb-97e7d23e4b29>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:40.070393"}
{"text": "calculating the expected values of many microscopic quantities. we add the quantity artificially to the microstate energies ( or, in the language of quantum mechanics, to the hamiltonian ), calculate the new partition function and expected value, and then set \u03bb to zero in the final expression. this is analogous to the source field method used in the path integral formulation of quantum field theory. relation to thermodynamic variables in this section, we will state the relationships between the partition function and the various thermodynamic parameters of the system. these results can be derived using the method of the previous section and the various thermodynamic relations. as we have already seen, the thermodynamic energy is the variance in the energy ( or \" energy fluctuation \" ) is the heat capacity is the entropy is partition functions of subsystems suppose a system is subdivided into n sub - systems with negligible interaction energy, that is, we can assume the particles are essentially non - interacting. if the partition functions of the sub - systems are \u03b61, \u03b62,..., \u03b6n, then the partition function of the entire system is the product of the individual partition functions : if the sub - systems have the same physical properties, then their partition functions are equal, \u03b61 = \u03b62 =... = \u03b6, in which case however, there is a well - known exception to this rule. if the sub - systems are actually identical particles, in the quantum mechanical sense that they are impossible to distinguish even in principle, the total partition function must be divided by a n! ( n factorial ) : this is to ensure that we do not \" over - count \" the number of microstates. while this may seem like a strange requirement, it is actually necessary to preserve the existence of a thermodynamic limit for such systems. this is known as the gibbs paradox. grand canonical partition function we can define a grand canonical partition function for a grand canonical ensemble, which describes the statistics of a constant - volume system that can exchange both heat and particles with a reservoir. the reservoir has a constant temperature t, and a chemical potential \u03bc. the grand canonical partition function, denoted by, is the following sum over microstates here, each microstate is labelled by, and has total particle number and total energy. this partition function is closely related to the grand potential,, by the relation this can be contrasted to the canonical partition function above, which is related instead to the helmhol", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.7226997880282322, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d23088a-355c-4d5a-89fb-97e7d23e4b29>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:40.071302"}
{"text": "microstate is labelled by, and has total particle number and total energy. this partition function is closely related to the grand potential,, by the relation this can be contrasted to the canonical partition function above, which is related instead to the helmholtz free energy. it is important to note that the number of microstates in the grand canonical ensemble may be much larger than in the canonical ensemble, since here we consider not only variations in energy but also in particle number. again, the utility of the grand canonical partition function is that it is related to the probability that the system is in state : an important application of the grand canonical ensemble is in deriving exactly the statistics of a non - interacting many - body quantum gas ( fermi - dirac statistics for fermions, bose - einstein statistics for bosons ), however it is much more generally applicable than that. the grand canonical ensemble may also be used to describe classical systems, or even interacting quantum gases. see also - j. r. klauder, b. - s. skagerstam, coherent states - - - applications in physics and mathematical physics, world scientific, 1985, p. 71 - 73. - huang, kerson, \" statistical mechanics \", john wiley & sons, new york, 1967. - a. isihara, \" statistical physics \", academic press, new york, 1971. - kelly, james j, ( lecture notes ) - l. d. landau and e. m. lifshitz, \" statistical physics, 3rd edition part 1 \", butterworth - heinemann, oxford, 1996. - vu - quoc, l., configuration integral, 2008", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6814968890993867, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d23088a-355c-4d5a-89fb-97e7d23e4b29>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:40.071877"}
{"text": "a survey of brdf representation for computer graphics cs348c, winter 1997 whether they are generated from theoretical models or measured, brdfs for computer graphics need efficient representations. we examine the representations that have been proposed, including data tables, analytic models, splines, spherical harmonics, wavelets, and zernike polynomials. this evaluation suggests that most are lacking in flexibility, compactness, or computational efficiency. we propose some approaches to improving on these methods by making greater use of the symmetry of brdfs. historically, the reflection properties modeled by computer graphics renderers have been limited. despite their physical inaccuracy, simple models such as the phong model remain popular. true photorealism, however, requires more sophisticated and elaborate models of surface properties. it is difficult to establish exactly how far one should go in elaborating the surface model. a truly complete representation of the reflective behavior of a surface might take into account such phenomena as polarization, scattering, fluorescence, and phosphorescence, all of which might vary with position on the surface. therefore, the variables in this complete function would be : once we have eliminated all these variables, we are left with a reflectance function of the angles of the incident and reflected angles only. this function is called the bidirectional reflectance distribution function ( brdf ). the brdf is defined on the cross product of two hemispheres, and is therefore a function of four ( scalar ) variables : where e is the irradiance, that is the incident flux per unit area, and l is the reflected radiance, or the reflected flux per unit area per unit solid angle. the units of brdf are thus inverse steradians. intuitively the brdf represents, for each incoming angle, the amount of light that is scattered in each outgoing angle. for a lambertian ( perfectly diffuse ) surface, for example, the brdf is constant, and equal to ( the factor of pi is necessary so that the brdf is correctly normalized. ) more complicated brdfs will, of course, have angular dependence. brdfs to be used in rendering may either be obtained from theoretical models of reflection at a surface, or may be measured directly. each of these presents its own set of challenges. in either case, however, the result is a four - dimensional function ( ignoring color for the moment ), and efficient methods of storing and computing this function must be found. there are many methods presented in the literature,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6034067524167293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:696d6267-ffd3-4250-a409-2888a6668e5b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:40.900411"}
{"text": "these are the spherical analogues of sines and cosines, in that they form a smooth orthonormal basis for functions on the sphere, and are localized in the frequency domain. these properties are useful, since it is easy to project a brdf onto the basis of spherical harmonics, and since smooth, simple brdfs will have fewer nonzero ( or at least nonnegligible ) coefficients than complex ones. the most complete treatment to date of using spherical harmonics to represent brdfs is [ westin 92 ]. it turns out that a naive implementation of brdf representation in terms of spherical harmonics has several problems. first, since the brdf is defined on the product of two hemispheres, rather than two spheres, there is the question of how to fill in the missing hemispheres of data. next, truncation of high - frequency coefficients is likely to cause \" ringing \", because of the sharp edges in frequency space. finally, even moderately complex brdfs require large numbers of spherical harmonic basis functions to be represented correctly. [ westin 92 ] uses a number of mathematical tricks to overcome some of these limitations. first, the authors choose to fill the \" missing \" hemispheres with copies of available data, rather than with zeroes. this has the effect of introducing a symmetry into the function, which causes the coefficients of all odd harmonics to be zero. next, instead of representing just the brdf, the function they actually store is this enforces continuity at the \" equators \" of the spheres, and helps to reduce ringing. they also artificially dampen certain high - frequency coefficients to soften the edges in frequency space, and reduce ringing even further. a final important feature used to simplify the brdf representation and increase its physical correctness is the fact that helmholtz reciprocity is enforced. this principle, arising from the physics of reflection, states that the brdf must remain the same if the angles of incidence and reflection are interchanged. therefore, the ( four - dimensional ) matrix of spherical harmonic coefficients must be symmetric under interchange of incoming and outgoing angles. this not only reduces the storage requirements of the matrix, but also enforces some basic constraints on physical correctness. the spherical harmonic representation is an attractive one for describing brdfs, because of the mathematical and conceptual simplicity of the model. nevertheless, even with westin ' s improvements, the number of coefficients required to represent even moderately complex brdfs is large. very specular surfaces", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6123904909162433, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:696d6267-ffd3-4250-a409-2888a6668e5b>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:40.906738"}
{"text": "variation is a term used in genetic science, and concerns the emergence of different varieties, or species. this genetic phenomenon causes individuals or groups within a given species to possess different features from others. for example, all human beings on earth possess essentially the same genetic information. but thanks to the variation potential permitted by that genetic information, some people have round eyes, or red hair, or a long nose, or are short and stocky in stature. darwinists, however, seek to portray variation within a species as evidence for evolution. the fact is, however, that variations constitute no such thing, because variation consists of the emergence of different combinations of genetic information that already exists, and cannot endow individuals with any new genetic information or characteristics. variation is always restricted by existing genetic information. these boundaries are known as the gene pool in genetic science. ( see the gene pool. ) darwin, however, thought that variation had no limits when he proposed his theory267, and he depicted various examples of variation as the most important evidence for evolution in his book the origin of species. all human beings on earth share basically the same genetic information, but thanks to the variation potential permitted by this genetic information, they often look very different from one another. according to darwin, for example, farmers mating different variations of cow in order to obtain breeds with better yields of milk would eventually turn cows into another species altogether. darwin \u2019 s idea of limitless change stemmed from the primitive level of science in his day. as a result of similar experiments on living things in the 20th century, however, science revealed a principle known as genetic homeostasis. this principle revealed that all attempts to change a living species by means of interbreeding ( forming different variations ) were in vain, and that between species, there were unbreachable walls. in other words, it was absolutely impossible for cattle to evolve into another species as the result of farmers mating different breeds to produce different variations, as darwin had claimed would happen. luther burbank, one of the world \u2019 s foremost authorities on the subject of genetic hybrids, expresses a similar truth : \u201c there are limits to the development possible, and these limits follow a law. \u201d 268 thousands of years of collective experience have shown that the amount of biological change obtained using cross - breeding is always limited, and that there is a limit to the variations that any one species can undergo. indeed, in the introduction to their book natural limits to biological change professor of biology lane p. lester and the molecular biologist raymond g. bohli", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6090364878996151, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cbaed394-8c49-43f9-8158-1c78ccd127c2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:40.940276"}
{"text": "difference between different mixes of laurax, similar to the way most can distinguish different shades of white. more information : weiss, t. et al., perceptual convergence of multi - component mixtures in olfaction implies an olfactory white. proceedings of the national academy of sciences, november 19, 2012. doi : 10. 1073 / pnas. 1208110109 in vision, two mixtures, each containing an independent set of many different wavelengths, may produce a common color percept termed \" white. \" in audition, two mixtures, each containing an independent set of many different frequencies, may produce a common perceptual hum termed \" white noise. \" visual and auditory whites emerge upon two conditions : when the mixture components span stimulus space, and when they are of equal intensity. we hypothesized that if we apply these same conditions to odorant mixtures, \" whiteness \" may emerge in olfaction as well. we selected 86 molecules that span olfactory stimulus space and individually diluted them to a point of about equal intensity. we then prepared various odorant mixtures, each containing various numbers of molecular components, and asked human participants to rate the perceptual similarity of such mixture pairs. we found that as we increased the number of nonoverlapping, equal - intensity components in odorant mixtures, the mixtures became more similar to each other, despite not having a single component in common. with components, most mixtures smelled alike. after participants were acquainted with a novel, arbitrarily named mixture of equal - intensity components, they later applied this name more readily to other novel mixtures of equal - intensity components spanning stimulus space, but not to mixtures containing fewer components or to mixtures that did not span stimulus space. we conclude that a common olfactory percept, \" olfactory white, \" is associated with mixtures of or more equal - intensity components that span stimulus space, implying that olfactory representations are of features of molecules rather than of molecular identity. journal reference : proceedings of the national academy of sciences \u00a9 2012 medical xpress - wake up and smell the sweat nov 21, 2007 | not rated yet | 0 - how odors are sensed : a complex system clarified apr 12, 2006 | not rated yet | 0 - human ability good in tracking odors aug 29, 2005 | not rated yet | 0 - study shows people can guess personality via body odor dec 05, 2011 | not rated yet", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6282545146844123, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4eca1395-d734-4e67-80e0-d3b4fc105a76>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:41.271676"}
{"text": "; because reason is always present, while the laws of nature generally require to be laboriously sought out. and so metaphysics floated to the surface like foam, and like foam, too, no sooner was it gathered up than it dissolved, while another mass of it appeared upon the scene which some were always found eager to grasp ; while others, instead of seeking to penetrate the cause of the phenomenon in question, thought themselves wise in laughing at the futile exertions of the former. the essential feature distinguishing pure mathematical knowledge from all other knowledge a priori, is that it does not proceed from conceptions themselves, but always through the construction of conceptions. ( critique, p. 435. ) since, therefore, in its propositions it must pass out of the conception to that containing the corresponding intuition, these can and ought never to arise from the dissection of conceptions, that is, analytically ; in other words, they are, in their entirety, synthetic. i cannot refrain from remarking on the disadvantage resulting to philosophy from a neglect of this simple and apparently insignificant observation. hume, indeed, feeling it a task worthy of a philosopher, cast his eye over the whole field of pure knowledge a priori in which the human understanding claims such extensive possession. he, however, inconsiderately severed from it an entire, and indeed the most important, province, namely, that of pure mathematics, under the impression that its nature, and, so to speak, its constitution, rested on totally different principles, that is, solely on the principle of contradiction ; and although he did not make such a formal and universal division of propositions as is here done by me, or under the same name, yet it was as good as saying, pure mathematics contains simply analytic judgments, but metaphysics, synthetic judgments a priori. now in this he made a great mistake, and this mistake had decidedly injurious consequences on his whole conception. for if he had not made it, he would have extended his question respecting the origin of our synthetic judgments far beyond his metaphysical conception of causality, and comprehended therein the possibility of mathematics a priori ; for he must have regarded this as equally synthetic. but in the latter case he could, under no circumstances, have based his metaphysical propositions on mere experience, as he would then have been obliged to have subordinated the axioms of pure mathematics themselves to experience, a proceeding for which he was much too penetrating. the good company into which metaphysics would then have been brought", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6022840257851075, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e2372131-adbc-418d-88d6-d46270909022>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:41.373881"}
{"text": ", related phenomena. the term \" technology transfer \" encompasses such a broad range of activities that a general definition brief enough to be useful is impossible to develop. however, operational definitions of technology transfer are easier to devise in a specific context, and are best constructed in terms of specific mechanisms of transfer. a number of different definitions are in use by various institutions and groups, and two of them are included below \u00b7 the technology transfer society ' s brochure defines technology transfer as \" a strategy for achieving organizational goals, as \" a process leading to actual transfer. \" and as \" a discipline involving a multiplicity of skills. \" \u00b7 the american federal laboratory consortium defines technology transfer as \" the process by which existing knowledge, facilities or capabilities developed under federal r & d funding are utilized to fulfill public and private needs. \" that means \" technology transfer consists of efforts and activities intended to result in the application or commercialization of federal laboratory - developed innovations by the private sector, state and local governments, and other domestic users. these activities may include, but are not limited to : o technical / cooperative interactions ( direct technical assistance to private sector users and developers ; personnel exchanges ; resource sharing ; and cooperative research and development agreements ) ; o commercialization activities ( patenting and licensing of innovations and identifying markets and users ) ; and o information exchange ( dissemination to potential technology users of technical information ; papers, articles, reports, seminars, etc. ). \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6232649481578882, "token_count": 290, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5ac247be-c897-4d90-b5db-45a75898ca2b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:41.496746"}
{"text": "mit professor \u2019 s book digs into the eclectic, textually linked reading choices of people in medieval london. imagine a future in which wireless power transfer is feasible : cell phones, household robots, mp3 players, laptop computers and other portable electronics capable of charging themselves without ever being plugged in, freeing us from that final, ubiquitous power wire. some of these devices might not even need their bulky batteries to operate. a team from mit ' s department of physics, department of electrical engineering and computer science, and institute for soldier nanotechnologies ( isn ) has experimentally demonstrated an important step toward accomplishing this vision of the future. the team members are andre kurs, aristeidis karalis, robert moffatt, prof. peter fisher, and prof. john joannopoulos ( francis wright davis chair and director of isn ), led by prof. marin soljacic. realizing their recent theoretical prediction, they were able to light a 60w light bulb from a power source seven feet ( more than two meters ) away ; there was no physical connection between the source and the appliance. the mit team refers to its concept as \" witricity \" ( as in wireless electricity ). the work will be reported in the june 7 issue of science express, the advance online publication of the journal science. the story starts one late night a few years ago, with soljacic ( pronounced soul - ya - cheech ) standing in his pajamas, staring at his cell phone on the kitchen counter. \" it was probably the sixth time that month that i was awakened by my cell phone beeping to let me know that i had forgotten to charge it. it occurred to me that it would be so great if the thing took care of its own charging. \" to make this possible, one would have to have a way to transmit power wirelessly, so soljacic started thinking about which physical phenomena could help make this wish a reality. various methods of transmitting power wirelessly have been known for centuries. perhaps the best known example is electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves. while such radiation is excellent for wireless transmission of information, it is not feasible to use it for power transmission. since radiation spreads in all directions, a vast majority of power would end up being wasted into free space. one can envision using directed electromagnetic radiation, such as lasers, but this is not very practical and can even be dangerous. it requires an uninterrupted line of sight between the source and the device, as well as a sophisticated tracking", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6016398332096888, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:932a0d4d-808f-47dc-9626-2119a724fc15>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:41.899850"}
{"text": ". one can envision using directed electromagnetic radiation, such as lasers, but this is not very practical and can even be dangerous. it requires an uninterrupted line of sight between the source and the device, as well as a sophisticated tracking mechanism when the device is mobile. the key : magnetically coupled resonance in contrast, witricity is based on using coupled resonant objects. two resonant objects of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently, while interacting weakly with extraneous off - resonant objects. a child on a swing is a good example of this. a swing is a type of mechanical resonance, so only when the child pumps her legs at the natural frequency of the swing is she able to impart substantial energy. another example involves acoustic resonances : imagine a room with 100 identical wine glasses, each filled with wine up to a different level, so they all have different resonant frequencies. if an opera singer sings a sufficiently loud single note inside the room, a glass of the corresponding frequency might accumulate sufficient energy to even explode, while not influencing the other glasses. in any system of coupled resonators there often exists a so - called \" strongly coupled \" regime of operation. if one ensures to operate in that regime in a given system, the energy transfer can be very efficient. while these considerations are universal, applying to all kinds of resonances ( e. g., acoustic, mechanical, electromagnetic, etc. ), the mit team focused on one particular type : magnetically coupled resonators. the team explored a system of two electromagnetic resonators coupled mostly through their magnetic fields ; they were able to identify the strongly coupled regime in this system, even when the distance between them was several times larger than the sizes of the resonant objects. this way, efficient power transfer was enabled. magnetic coupling is particularly suitable for everyday applications because most common materials interact only very weakly with magnetic fields, so interactions with extraneous environmental objects are suppressed even further. \" the fact that magnetic fields interact so weakly with biological organisms is also important for safety considerations, \" kurs, a graduate student in physics, points out. the investigated design consists of two copper coils, each a self - resonant system. one of the coils, attached to the power source, is the sending unit. instead of irradiating the environment with electromagnetic waves, it fills the space around it with a non - radiative magnetic field oscillating at mhz frequencies.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6391316169373833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:932a0d4d-808f-47dc-9626-2119a724fc15>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:41.901154"}
{"text": "comes about. the usual non - resonant magnetic induction would be almost 1 million times less efficient in this particular system. \" old physics, new demand witricity is rooted in such well - known laws of physics that it makes one wonder why no one thought of it before. \" in the past, there was no great demand for such a system, so people did not have a strong motivation to look into it, \" points out joannopoulos, adding, \" over the past several years, portable electronic devices, such as laptops, cell phones, ipods and even household robots have become widespread, all of which require batteries that need to be recharged often. \" as for what the future holds, soljacic adds, \" once, when my son was about three years old, we visited his grandparents ' house. they had a 20 - year - old phone and my son picked up the handset, asking, ' dad, why is this phone attached with a cord to the wall? ' that is the mindset of a child growing up in a wireless world. my best response was, ' it is strange and awkward, isn ' t it? hopefully, we will be getting rid of some more wires, and also batteries, soon. ' \" this work was funded by the army research office ( institute for soldier nanotechnologies ), national science foundation ( center for materials science and engineering ), and the department of energy.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6013078145495612, "token_count": 294, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:932a0d4d-808f-47dc-9626-2119a724fc15>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:41.902733"}
{"text": "ido perlman, helga kolb and ralph nelson horizontal cells are the interneurons of distal vertebrate retina. they provide the pathways for both local and long range interactions between photoreceptors. these interactions are called feedback signals. feedback signals adjust the gain of photoreceptor synaptic output, both as seen in the horizontal cells themselves and in the adjacent, proximally projecting bipolar cells. in forming a distal, lateral synaptic network, horizontal cells enrich not only their own physiology but that of presynaptic and postsynaptic partners. they generate spatial opponency in both cones and bipolar cells. they also generate color opponency in cones, bipolar cells, and chromatic horizontal - cell subtypes. the actions of horizontal cells propagate forward in the retina, can be identified in the physiology of retinal ganglion cells, and in visual perception. horizontal cell actions are in turn tuned by neuromodulators released by other retinal neurons. the first intracellular, light - evoked responses recorded in the vertebrate retina were slow, negative going changes in membrane potential that lasted for as long as the light stimulus was present ( fig. 1 ). before the morphological source of these responses became clear, they were called simply s - potentials ( 1 ). as shown in figure 1, s - potentials are membrane hyperpolarizations that last for as long as the light stimulus is present. the graded character of the s - potential is evident in figure 1a. the brighter the stimulus, the larger the amplitude of the s - potential until a saturation level is reached. in figure 1b, the duration of a light stimulus of fixed intensity is altered in order to examine the temporal properties of s - potentials. for long stimuli, the s - potential only changes in duration but the amplitude remains constant ( 2 leftmost responses in fig. 1b ). further reduction in the stimulus duration causes a decrease in amplitude ( fig. 1b ). this illustrates the temporal summation of the s - potential, following bloch \u2019 s law. up to certain stimulus durations, in this case about 10 msec, the amplitude is directly related to the quantal content of the stimulus ( quantal flux multiplied by duration ), while for stimuli of longer duration, the amplitude is related to the quantal flux, that is, the rate of quantal absorption by photoreceptors ( 1 ). in s -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6116571330408946, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd24abcc-2959-4aa1-b92b-47042935f966>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:42.067880"}
{"text": "the stimulus ( quantal flux multiplied by duration ), while for stimuli of longer duration, the amplitude is related to the quantal flux, that is, the rate of quantal absorption by photoreceptors ( 1 ). in s - potentials this \u2018 critical duration \u2019 varies considerably with stimulus conditions ( 2 ). it is likely that s - potentials were named in honor of their discoverer, gunnar svaetichin, although \u2018 slow potential \u2019 is another common interpretation. figure 1. the s - potential of the fish retina. light stimuli of fixed duration and different irradiances ( a ) and light stimuli of fixed irradiance but different durations ( b ) were used to elicit these potentials. lower traces in a and b record light - stimulus duration and provide 100 msec \u2018 tick - marks \u2019. the illustrations are from svaetichin, 1953 ( 1 ). s - potentials puzzled neurophysiologists of the 1950s when they were first described. at that time, neurons were thought only to be depolarized by synaptic inputs ( inside becoming more positive relative to outside ), thus having their inside - negative resting membrane potentials become reduced. this depolarization was thought of as excitation, and if the excitation was large enough, action potentials, or nerve spikes, were generated to transfer signals down the length of the nerve - cell axon. s - potentials, however, were not depolarized by light, but rather hyperpolarized, and did not fire action potentials, even with the brightest light stimuli. at first, the cell type of origin for s - potentials was not really known other than that microelectrode tips were somewhere in the outer retina. in fact, initially svaetichin thought s - potentials arose from cones ( 1 ). however, later intracellular marking techniques, in which dyes were injected from the electrode tips into the cytoplasm of the recorded neuron, revealed that horizontal cells, second order neurons postsynaptic to cones, were the source of the s - potentials ( 3, 4 ). since being first described in fish retinas, s - potentials have been recorded from retinal horizontal cells in all vertebrate classes. these include both cold - blooded vertebrates ( 4 - 13 ), household mammals ( 14 - 20 ) and primates ( 21 - 26 ). horizontal cells have now been studied", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6084772254718106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd24abcc-2959-4aa1-b92b-47042935f966>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:42.068875"}
{"text": "). some other definitions of lambda based on empirical curve fitting of data have also been suggested ( 10, 171 ). for models based on electrical current flow in the horizontal - cell syncytium, receptive field size is directly related to lambda, and lambda is directly related to the membrane resistance of the horizontal cell, and inversely related to the coupling resistance between the horizontal cells. the space constant of the cone signal components in a cat a - type horizontal cell ( fig. 16a ) is 250 \u03bcm. the space constant for the rod signal component in the same cell is 200 \u03bcm ( fig. 16b ). this illustrates the point that even in the same cell, depending on what is being measured ; somewhat different receptive fields can be inferred. the concept of field size is not monolithic. the exceptional width of horizontal - cell receptive fields finds several uses. first, horizontal - cell actions on photoreceptors and bipolar cells, both of which are much narrower in receptive field centers than horizontal cells, can be seen in the distal limbs of area functions in these narrower - field neurons. second, horizontal cell types can be distinguished by the size and properties of receptive fields. in the turtle retina, two types of luminosity horizontal cells were early recognized ; l1 and l2 ( 53 ) or respectively, large receptive field ( lrf ) and small receptive field ( srf ) horizontal cells ( 81 ). the l1 ( lrf ) cells are characterized by receptive fields of large diameter ( > 3 mm ) while the l2 ( srf ) cells have a receptive field diameter of about 2 mm. these two l - type horizontal cells also differ with regards to spectral properties ( 172 ) and responsiveness to surround illumination ( 173 ). the anatomical stains of lrf and srf cells actually reveals that they are two, electrically isolated, parts of the same cell. lrf is the axon terminal of h1, and srf is the cell body ( fig. 2a ) ( 53 ). thus receptive field measurements add further evidence that a single horizontal cell may have 2 independent area summation regions. the horizontal cell syncytium cannot be fully described by static passive electrical models. the resistances within the horizontal cell layer change with illumination and time and therefore, the size of the receptive field ( magnitude of lambda, or the length constant ) changes also ( 169, 174, 175 ). in general, the size of the receptive - field", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6135377690112208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd24abcc-2959-4aa1-b92b-47042935f966>", "chunk_index": 31, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:42.112692"}
{"text": "159, 160, 203, 205 ). although these cells clearly have gaba uptake systems and accumulate gaba, the idea that gaba mediates the negative feedback of horizontal cells to cone photoreceptors has not received universal experimental validation. horizontal - cell gaba could still have a feed - forward action directly upon bipolar cell dendrites or other horizontal - cell processes ( 156, 205 ). alternatively gaba receptors on horizontal cells might simply serve the purpose of limiting transporter - generated membrane depolarizations in the presence of extracellular gaba. figure 21. electron microscopy shows immunolabeling ( dark granules ) for vesicular \u03b3 - aminobutryric acid transporter ( vgat ) in mouse ( a ) and rat ( b ) horizontal cell lateral elements ( arrow heads ) in rod spherules. rod synaptic ribbons are indicated by long arrows. the scale bars are 0. 5 \u03bcm. the illustration is from cueva et al., 2002 ( 192 ). a further feedback model proposes that elevated proton concentration in the synaptic cleft mediates feedback by inhibiting photoreceptor calcium channels ( 206 ). proton buffers, particularly amino sulfonates like hepes, block feedback ( 207 - 212 ). while there is general agreement that some ph buffers block feedback, there is currently disagreement whether alteration of ph in the synaptic cleft is the mechanism ( 213, 214 ). most feedback models propose that modulation of presynaptic calcium channels in the photoreceptor terminals is the key. using voltage - clamp recordings from cones during illumination with spots or annuli of light, verweij et al ( 1996 ) ( 215 ) suggest that feedback modulates the voltage - dependency of the calcium channels in the cone pedicles ( fig. 22a ). the explanation takes off from an old electrical model ( 5 ) and proposes that horizontal cells can initiate large extracellular current flow through hemi - gap - junction channels into the restricted extracellular space within the triad synapse of the cone ( fig. 22b ) ( 68, 70, 72, 189, 216 ). during light stimulation, the l - type horizontal cells hyperpolarize, increasing the magnitude of the inward flow of cations from extracellular space, through hemi - gap - junction channels, into horizontal cell lateral elements. this causes hyperpolarization of the extracellular space. such hemi - gap - junctions,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6000128293256568, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd24abcc-2959-4aa1-b92b-47042935f966>", "chunk_index": 37, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:42.119600"}
{"text": "increasing the magnitude of the inward flow of cations from extracellular space, through hemi - gap - junction channels, into horizontal cell lateral elements. this causes hyperpolarization of the extracellular space. such hemi - gap - junctions, consisting of connexin cx55. 5, have been demonstrated anatomically in horizontal cell lateral elements in zebrafish retinas ( fig. 3d ). the extracellular hyperpolarization activates voltage dependent calcium channels which sense the change in the same way as intracellular depolarization, leading to calcium entry, and an increase in glutamate release. the idea finds some support because when the hemi - channels are blocked with carbenoxolone ( a specific gap junction blocker ), the feedback signal in the cone is eliminated ( 189, 204 ). figure 22. electrical feedback model. a. the activation range of calcium currents in cone synaptic terminals shifts towards more hyperpolarized values during surround stimuli that hyperpolarize horizontal cells. b. the electrical or \u2018 ephaptic \u2019 feedback model argues that the voltage within the enclosed extracellular space surrounding horizontal - cell invaginated dendritic tips is influenced by horizontal - cell membrane polarization. with surround stimulation, these dendrites hyperpolarize, causing extracellular space to hyperpolarize also. this affects synaptic calcium channels in the same way as would intracellular depolarization of the cone terminal. the more hyperpolarized the horizontal cell dendrite, the more calcium enters the cone terminal, and the more neurotransmitter is released. the effect is opposite to the light - induced closing of cone outer segment cation channels that suppress neurotransmitter release. ( i ) calcium channels ( red ) are located on the cone presynaptic membrane, adjacent to the ribbon. gap junction hemichannels ( blue ), polarize adjacent extracellular space. extracellular current flow hyperpolarizes extracellular space to a greater extent in the light ( ii ) than in the dark ( i ) the illustration is from kamermans and fahrenfort, 2004 ( 216 ). further evidence for the importance of connexin 55. 5 and hemi gap - junctions for feedback comes from a genetic knockout in zebrafish. feedback to cones, behavioral contrast sensitivity, and horizontal - cell color opponency were all weakened in this knockout. as this connexin is only expressed in horizontal cells", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6151630569285844, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd24abcc-2959-4aa1-b92b-47042935f966>", "chunk_index": 38, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:42.120606"}
{"text": "the kelvin problem - what packing minimizes the surface area in 3d space? for over 100 years, the kelvin structure composed of truncated octahedrons was believed to be the unit cell, which divided 3d space with minimum surface area. in 1994, the weaire - phelan structure was proposed, which shows 0. 3 % less surface area than the kelvin structure. although monodisperse foams have been used to address this problem and realize the structure, high density difference between gas and liquid and lack of technology to make monodisperse bubbles at micron scale have severely restricted their production and observation. we are studying this problem with monodisperse emulsion drops, instead of foam. microfluidic technique facilitates the production of such small and uniform drops. as continuous phase evaporates, monodisperse drops are densely packed without coalescence, minimizing their interfacial area. therefore, microfluidic approach provides an ideal model system to address kelvin ' s problem. in addition, through polymerization of drops in densely packed state, we can permanently fix the structure and produce monodisperse polyhedron microparticles which are potentially useful as building blocks for assemblies. figure 1 : two layers of monodisperse emulsion drops ( a ) in a low volume fraction of drops ( beehive structure ) and ( b ) in a high volume fraction ( toth structure ). ( c ) polyhedron microparticles templated by toth structure. [ scale bar = 200 microns ] this project is a collaboration with shin - hyun kim.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6120601343954972, "token_count": 324, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:22c351f4-c799-49f1-b990-6898fc55b898>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:42.190442"}
{"text": "logging in or signing up nano robots medicine of the future ashokmateti download post to : url : related presentations : share add to flag embed email send to blogs and networks add to channel uploaded from authorpoint lite insert youtube videos in powerpont slides with as desktop copy embed code : embed : flash ipad copy does not support media & animations wordpress embed customize embed url : copy thumbnail : copy the presentation is successfully added in your favorites. views : 1823 category : science & tech.. license : all rights reserved like it ( 3 ) dislike it ( 1 ) added : march 17, 2011 this presentation is public favorites : 1 presentation description no description available. comments posting comment... premium member presentation transcript slide 1 : medicine of the future ch. poojitha roll no : 12080026 priyadarshini college of pharmaceutical sciences nanorobots 1 presented byslide 2 : nanotechnology nanorobots molecular nanotechnology ( mnt ) how nanorobots will work applications conclusion references contents 2slide 3 : what does nanotechnology mean? nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. it is the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale. 3slide 4 : nanorobots a nanorobot is a tiny machine designed to perform a specific task or tasks repeatedly and with precision at nanoscale dimensions, that is, dimensions of a few nanometer s ( nm ) or less, where 1 nm = 10 - 9 meter they are nanodevices that will be used for the purpose of maintaining and protecting the human body against pathogens. 4slide 5 : molecular nanotechnology ( mnt ) the umbrella science of nanomedicine mnt describes engineered nanosystems ( nanoscale machines ) operating on the molecular scale. mnt is especially associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure. mnt is based on the ability to build structures to complex, atomic specifications by means of mechanosynthesis. 5slide 6 : what is a chromallocyte? what is a respirocyte? what are the risks of nanoscience? what are the potential benefits of mnt ( molecular nanotechnology )? what are the potential dangers of molecular nanotechnology? related wise geek articles 6slide 7 : a chromallocyte is a lozenge - shaped mobile nanorobot, consisting of about four trillion atoms. what is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6047717439619852, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5f0c856e-8119-4c1c-9819-fca110c0a6ad>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:42.347519"}
{"text": "- the magazine what can be said about a glaze? plenty! we have all been in the position of trying to describe our favorite glaze to another potter or to ourselves. if the actual glaze is not present, the verbal account can leave a lot to the imagination, which can produce an inaccurate image. the glaze description language is an agreed - upon meaning to the many characteristics found in glazes. it uses several key words and phrases to define a glaze. the idea, as with all languages, is that everyone understands what is meant by the standardized terms that classify a glaze. the glaze description language allows the listener or reader to formulate an accurate mental image of how the fired glaze looks and functions. one area of potential error occurs when writing or describing glazes. many potters still refer to a glaze formula by its popular name. for example, we have all called glazes randy \u2019 s red or bob \u2019 s blue. while there is a certain personal and informal quality in referring to glazes in such a manner, it can lead to numerous inaccuracies in exchanging or understanding glaze formulas. just referring to a glaze by its common name does not tell us enough about its characteristics, such as color, texture or light transmission. as an added potential for error, the actual glaze formula for randy \u2019 s red could have changed many times since randy developed the glaze. identifying glazes only by their names is an inaccurate attempt to transfer information and can indicate a potter \u2019 s lack of knowledge about glaze formulas. even potters who know better are still drawn into the easy habit of referring to a glaze only by its name. however, there is another method that can transfer information with greater accuracy. once the vocabulary is known, it makes the task of explaining how a glaze looks much easier, faster and more accurate. we ' re not talking about deciphering sanskrit or egyptian hieroglyphics ; just a few simple categories can add to the enjoyment of making and describing ceramic glazes. keep in mind there are no set rules about the number of terms to use in describing a glaze. however, it is critical that any terms used have some universal understanding among potters. in addition, too many descriptive terms can be overly cumbersome to use in actual practice. many potters choose only those descriptions that accurately focus on their particular glaze. listed are several characteristics that will define a glaze in specific terms. firing temperature :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.622647886776319, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c410d8bf-9b61-4920-a471-dd664ec356bd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-23T02:25:43.167009"}