wa ly we shall get this same result as follows. if everything that is in motion is moved by something that is in motion, ether this being in motion is an accidental attribute of the movents in question, so that each of them moves something while being itself in motion, but not always because it is itself in motion, or it is not accidental but an essential attribute. let us consider the former alternative. if then it is an accidental attribute, it is not necessary that that is in motion should be in motion : and if this is so it is clear that there may be a time when nothing that exists is in motion, since the accidental is not necessary but contingent. now if we assume the existence of a possibility, any conclusion that we thereby reach will not be an impossibility though it may be contrary to fact. but the nonexistence of motion is an impossibility : for we have shown above that there must always be motion. moreover, the conclusion to which we have been led is a reasonable one. for there must be three things - the moved, the movent, and the instrument of motion. now the moved must be in motion, but it need not move anything else : the instrument of motion must both move something else and be itself in motion ( for it changes together with the moved, with which it is in contact and continuous, as is clear in the case of things that move other things locally, in which case the two things must up to a certain point be in contact ) : and the movent - that is to say, that which causes motion in such a manner that it is not merely the instrument of motion - must be unmoved. now we have visual experience of the last term in this series, namely that which has the capacity of being in motion, but does not contain a motive principle, and also of that which is in motion but is moved by itself and not by anything else : it is reasonable, therefore, not to say necessary, to suppose the existence of the third term also, that which causes motion but is itself unmoved. so, too, anaxagoras is right when he says that mind is impassive and unmixed, since he makes it the principle of motion : for it could cause motion in this sense only by being itself unmoved, and have supreme control only by being unmixed. we will now take the second alternative. if the movement is not accidentally but necessarily in motion - so that, if it were not in motion


in this sense only by being itself unmoved, and have supreme control only by being unmixed. we will now take the second alternative. if the movement is not accidentally but necessarily in motion - so that, if it were not in motion, it would not move anything - then the movent, in so far as it is in motion, must be in motion in one of two ways : it is moved either as that is which is moved with the same kind of motion, or with a different kind - either that which is heating, i mean, is itself in process of becoming hot, that which is making healthy in process of becoming healthy, and that which is causing locomotion in process of locomotion, or else that which is making healthy is, let us say, in process of locomotion, and that which is causing locomotion in process of, say, increase. but it is evident that this is impossible. for if we adopt the first assumption we have to make it apply within each of the very lowest species into which motion can be divided : e. g. we must say that if some one is teaching some lesson in geometry, he is also in process of being taught that same lesson in geometry, and that if he is throwing he is in process of being thrown in just the same manner. or if we reject this assumption we must say that one kind of motion is derived from another ; e. g. that that which is causing locomotion is in process of increase, that which is causing this increase is in process of being altered by something else, and that which is causing this alteration is in process of suffering some different kind of motion. but the series must stop somewhere, since the kinds of motion are limited ; and if we say that the process is reversible, and that that which is causing alteration is in process of locomotion, we do no more than if we had said at the outset that that which is causing locomotion is in process of locomotion, and that one who is teaching is in process of being taught : for it is clear that everything that is moved is moved by the movent that is further back in the series as well as by that which immediately moves it : in fact the earlier movent is that which more strictly moves it. but this is of course impossible : for it involves the consequence that one who is teaching is in process of learning what he is teaching, whereas teaching necessarily implies possessing knowledge, and learning not possessing it. still more


the following argument also makes it evident that the first movent must be something that is one and eternal. we have shown that there must always be motion. that being so, motion must also be continuous, because what is always is continuous, whereas what is merely in succession is not continuous. but further, if motion is continuous, it is one : and it is one only if the movent and the moved that constitute it are each of them one, since in the event of a thing ' s being moved now by one thing and now by another the whole motion will not be continuous but successive. moreover a conviction that there is a first unmoved something may be reached not only from the foregoing arguments, but also by considering again the principles operative in movents. now it is evident that among existing things there are some that are sometimes in motion and sometimes at rest. this fact has served above to make it clear that it is not true either that all things are in motion or that all things are at rest or that some things are always at rest and the remainder always in motion : on this matter proof is supplied by things that fluctuate between the two and have the capacity of being sometimes in motion and sometimes at rest. the existence of things of this kind is clear to all : but we wish to explain also the nature of each of the other two kinds and show that there are some things that are always unmoved and some things that are always in motion. in the course of our argument directed to this end we established the fact that everything that is in motion is moved by something, and that the movent is either unmoved or in motion, and that, if it is in motion, it is moved either by itself or by something else and so on throughout the series : and so we proceeded to the position that the first principle that directly causes things that are in motion to be moved is that which moves itself, and the first principle of the whole series is the unmoved. further it is evident from actual observation that there are things that have the characteristic of moving themselves, e. g. the animal kingdom and the whole class of living things. this being so, then, the view was suggested that perhaps it may be possible for motion to come to be in a thing without having been in existence at all before, because we see this actually occurring in animals : they are unmoved at one time and then again they are in motion, as it seems. we must grasp the fact, therefore, that animals move


be there, and the two events will not be simultaneous, whereas the truth is that a is at b at a sectional point of time and does not occupy time there. in this case, therefore, where the motion of a thing is continuous, it is impossible to use this form of expression. on the other hand in the case of a thing that turns back in its course we must do so. for suppose h in the course of its locomotion proceeds to d and then turns back and proceeds downwards again : then the extreme point d has served as finishing - point and as starting - point for it, one point thus serving as two : therefore h must have come to a stand there : it cannot have come to be at d and departed from d simultaneously, for in that case it would simultaneously be there and not be there at the same moment. and here we cannot apply the argument used to solve the difficulty stated above : we cannot argue that h is at d at a sectional point of time and has not come to be or ceased to be there. for here the goal that is reached is necessarily one that is actually, not potentially, existent. now the point in the middle is potential : but this one is actual, and regarded from below it is a finishing - point, while regarded from above it is a starting - point, so that it stands in these same two respective relations to the two motions. therefore that which turns back in traversing a rectilinear course must in so doing come to a stand. consequently there cannot be a continuous rectilinear motion that is eternal. the same method should also be adopted in replying to those who ask, in the terms of zeno ' s argument, whether we admit that before any distance can be traversed half the distance must be traversed, that these half - distances are infinite in number, and that it is impossible to traverse distances infinite in number - or some on the lines of this same argument put the questions in another form, and would have us grant that in the time during which a motion is in progress it should be possible to reckon a half - motion before the whole for every half - distance that we get, so that we have the result that when the whole distance is traversed we have reckoned an infinite number, which is admittedly impossible. now when we first discussed the question of motion we put forward a solution of this difficulty turning on the fact that the period of time occupied in traversing the distance contains within itself an infinite number of units : there is no absurdity


. if the units are actual, it is not possible : if they are potential, it is possible. for in the course of a continuous motion the traveller has traversed an infinite number of units in an accidental sense but not in an unqualified sense : for though it is an accidental characteristic of the distance to be an infinite number of half - distances, this is not its real and essential character. it is also plain that unless we hold that the point of time that divides earlier from later always belongs only to the later so far as the thing is concerned, we shall be involved in the consequence that the same thing is at the same moment existent and not existent, and that a thing is not existent at the moment when it has become. it is true that the point is common to both times, the earlier as well as the later, and that, while numerically one and the same, it is theoretically not so, being the finishing - point of the one and the starting - point of the other : but so far as the thing is concerned it belongs to the later stage of what happens to it. let us suppose a time abg and a thing d, d being white in the time a and not - white in the time b. then d is at the moment g white and not - white : for if we were right in saying that it is white during the whole time a, it is true to call it white at any moment of a, and not - white in b, and g is in both a and b. we must not allow, therefore, that it is white in the whole of a, but must say that it is so in all of it except the last moment g. g belongs already to the later period, and if in the whole of a not - white was in process of becoming and white of perishing, at g the process is complete. and so g is the first moment at which it is true to call the thing white or not white respectively. otherwise a thing may be non - existent at the moment when it has become and existent at the moment when it has perished : or else it must be possible for a thing at the same time to be white and not white and in fact to be existent and non - existent. further, if anything that exists after having been previously non - existent must become existent and does not exist when it is becoming, time cannot be divisible into time - atoms. for suppose that d was becoming white in the time a and that at another time b, a time


after having been previously non - existent must become existent and does not exist when it is becoming, time cannot be divisible into time - atoms. for suppose that d was becoming white in the time a and that at another time b, a time - atom consecutive with the last atom of a, d has already become white and so is white at that moment : then, inasmuch as in the time a it was becoming white and so was not white and at the moment b it is white, there must have been a becoming between a and b and therefore also a time in which the becoming took place. on the other hand, those who deny atoms of time ( as we do ) are not affected by this argument : according to them d has become and so is white at the last point of the actual time in which it was becoming white : and this point has no other point consecutive with or in succession to it, whereas time - atoms are conceived as successive. moreover it is clear that if d was becoming white in the whole time a, the time occupied by it in having become white in addition to having been in process of becoming white is no more than all that it occupied in the mere process of becoming white. these and such - like, then, are the arguments for our conclusion that derive cogency from the fact that they have a special bearing on the point at issue. if we look at the question from the point of view of general theory, the same result would also appear to be indicated by the following arguments. everything whose motion is continuous must, on arriving at any point in the course of its locomotion, have been previously also in process of locomotion to that point, if it is not forced out of its path by anything : e. g. on arriving at b a thing must also have been in process of locomotion to b, and that not merely when it was near to b, but from the moment of its starting on its course, since there can be, no reason for its being so at any particular stage rather than at an earlier one. so, too, in the case of the other kinds of motion. now we are to suppose that a thing proceeds in locomotion from a to g and that at the moment of its arrival at g the continuity of its motion is unbroken and will remain so until it has arrived back at a. then when it is undergoing locomotion from a to g it is at the same time undergoing also its locomotion to a from g :


at g the continuity of its motion is unbroken and will remain so until it has arrived back at a. then when it is undergoing locomotion from a to g it is at the same time undergoing also its locomotion to a from g : consequently it is simultaneously undergoing two contrary motions, since the two motions that follow the same straight line are contrary to each other. with this consequence there also follows another : we have a thing that is in process of change from a position in which it has not yet been : so, inasmuch as this is impossible, the thing must come to a stand at g. therefore the motion is not a single motion, since motion that is interrupted by stationariness is not single. further, the following argument will serve better to make this point clear universally in respect of every kind of motion. if the motion undergone by that which is in motion is always one of those already enumerated, and the state of rest that it undergoes is one of those that are the opposites of the motions ( for we found that there could be no other besides these ), and moreover that which is undergoing but does not always undergo a particular motion ( by this i mean one of the various specifically distinct motions, not some particular part of the whole motion ) must have been previously undergoing the state of rest that is the opposite of the motion, the state of rest being privation of motion ; then, inasmuch as the two motions that follow the same straight line are contrary motions, and it is impossible for a thing to undergo simultaneously two contrary motions, that which is undergoing locomotion from a to g cannot also simultaneously be undergoing locomotion from g to a : and since the latter locomotion is not simultaneous with the former but is still to be undergone, before it is undergone there must occur a state of rest at g : for this, as we found, is the state of rest that is the opposite of the motion from g. the foregoing argument, then, makes it plain that the motion in question is not continuous. our next argument has a more special bearing than the foregoing on the point at issue. we will suppose that there has occurred in something simultaneously a perishing of not - white and a becoming of white. then if the alteration to white and from white is a continuous process and the white does not remain any time, there must have occurred simultaneously a perishing of not - white, a becoming of white, and a becoming of not - white : for the time of the three


the termination do not coincide, whereas in motion over a circle they do coincide, and so this is the only perfect motion. this differentiation also provides another means of showing that the other kinds of motion cannot be continuous either : for in all of them we find that there is the same ground to be traversed repeatedly ; thus in alteration there are the intermediate stages of the process, and in quantitative change there are the intervening degrees of magnitude : and in becoming and perishing the same thing is true. it makes no difference whether we take the intermediate stages of the process to be few or many, or whether we add or subtract one : for in either case we find that there is still the same ground to be traversed repeatedly. moreover it is plain from what has been said that those physicists who assert that all sensible things are always in motion are wrong : for their motion must be one or other of the motions just mentioned : in fact they mostly conceive it as alteration ( things are always in flux and decay, they say ), and they go so far as to speak even of becoming and perishing as a process of alteration. on the other hand, our argument has enabled us to assert the fact, applying universally to all motions, that no motion admits of continuity except rotatory motion : consequently neither alteration nor increase admits of continuity. we need now say no more in support of the position that there is no process of change that admits of infinity or continuity except rotatory locomotion. it can now be shown plainly that rotation is the primary locomotion. every locomotion, as we said before, is either rotatory or rectilinear or a compound of the two : and the two former must be prior to the last, since they are the elements of which the latter consists. moreover rotatory locomotion is prior to rectilinear locomotion, because it is more simple and complete, which may be shown as follows. the straight line traversed in rectilinear motion cannot be infinite : for there is no such thing as an infinite straight line ; and even if there were, it would not be traversed by anything in motion : for the impossible does not happen and it is impossible to traverse an infinite distance. on the other hand rectilinear motion on a finite straight line is if it turns back a composite motion, in fact two motions, while if it does not turn back it is incomplete and perishable : and in the order of nature, of definition, and of time alike the complete


' density ' or ' rarity ' : for it is by ' combination ' and ' separation ' that the place of these things in their systems is determined. moreover to these we may add those who make soul the cause of motion : for they say that things that undergo motion have as their first principle ' that which moves itself ' : and when animals and all living things move themselves, the motion is motion in respect of place. finally it is to be noted that we say that a thing ' is in motion ' in the strict sense of the term only when its motion is motion in respect of place : if a thing is in process of increase or decrease or is undergoing some alteration while remaining at rest in the same place, we say that it is in motion in some particular respect : we do not say that it ' is in motion ' without qualification. our present position, then, is this : we have argued that there always was motion and always will be motion throughout all time, and we have explained what is the first principle of this eternal motion : we have explained further which is the primary motion and which is the only motion that can be eternal : and we have pronounced the first movent to be unmoved. we have now to assert that the first movent must be without parts and without magnitude, beginning with the establishment of the premisses on which this conclusion depends. one of these premisses is that nothing finite can cause motion during an infinite time. we have three things, the movent, the moved, and thirdly that in which the motion takes place, namely the time : and these are either all infinite or all finite or partly - that is to say two of them or one of them - finite and partly infinite. let a be the movement, b the moved, and g the infinite time. now let us suppose that d moves e, a part of b. then the time occupied by this motion cannot be equal to g : for the greater the amount moved, the longer the time occupied. it follows that the time z is not infinite. now we see that by continuing to add to d, i shall use up a and by continuing to add to e, i shall use up b : but i shall not use up the time by continually subtracting a corresponding amount from it, because it is infinite. consequently the duration of the part of g which is occupied by all a in moving the whole of b, will be finite. therefore a finite thing cannot impart to anything an infinite motion. it is


here is the latest american chemical society ( acs ) office of public affairs weekly presspac with news from acs ’ 34 peer - reviewed journals and chemical & engineering news. this information is intended for your personal use in news gathering and reporting and should not be distributed to others. anyone using advance acs office of public affairs weekly presspac information for stocks or securities dealing may be guilty of insider trading under the federal securities exchange act of 1934. please cite the individual journal, or the american chemical society, as the source of this information. scientists in the united kingdom are reporting an advance toward overcoming one of the key challenges in nanotechnology : getting molecules to move quickly in a desired direction without help from outside forces. their achievement has broad implications, the scientists say, raising the possibility of coaxing cells to move and grow in specific directions to treat diseases. it also could speed development of some long - awaited nanotech innovations. they include self - healing structures that naturally repair tears in their surface and devices that deliver medication to diseased while sparing healthy tissue. the study is scheduled for the october issue of acs nano, a monthly journal. mark geoghegan and colleagues note long - standing efforts to produce directed, controlled movement of individual molecules in the nano world, national science foundation model of atomic structure of where objects are about 1 / 50, 000ththe width of a human hair. the main solutions so far have involved use of expensive, complex machines to move the molecules and they have been only partially successful, the scientists say. the scientists used a special surface with hydrophobic ( water repelling ) and hydrophilic ( water - attracting ) sections. the region between the two sections produced a so - called “ energy gradient ” which can move tiny objects much like a conveyor belt. in lab studies, the scientists showed that plastic nanoparticles ( polymer molecules ) moved quickly and in a specific direction on this surface. “ this could have implications in many technologies such as coaxing cells to move and grow in given directions, which could have major implications for the treatment of paralysis, ” the scientists said. scientists in australia are reporting development and testing in laboratory animals of a potential new material for diagnosing malignant melanoma, the most serious form of skin cancer. their study is scheduled for the september 10 issue of the acs ’ journal of the medicinal chemistry, a bi - weekly publication. ivan greguric and colleagues working within the cooperative research consortium for biomedical imaging develop, an australian government funded research group, note that


of fundamental constants ). which alternative do you prefer? the universe where everything is just right for our existence has been labelled the “ goldilocks ” universe. is it just right by chance or design? your answer will shape your approach to life. can we also put another, even more important truth of gnosticism, on a firm scientific footing that would give atheists pause for thought? illumination does not teach that there are two separate physical universes – one containing the true god and another created by satan. rather, satan ’ s universe physically exists within the greater universe. in other words, the “ big bang ” represents a temporal event within a pre - existing, limitless universe. the universe of the big bang has a beginning and an end, but the universe enfolding it does not. the big bang universe is expanding, but it won ’ t go on expanding forever. it is not expanding ( or stretching ) into nothing as some scientists claim. in fact, the idea of pure nothingness is incoherent since every scientist accepts the concept of the quantum vacuum : a sea of virtual particles, a sea of becoming where being and nothingness are inextricably linked. according to exponents of relational time and space, if all objects were somehow removed from the universe there would be no time and space, but it is now an accepted truth that the quantum vacuum would still be there. in other words, the quantum vacuum takes the place of what newton referred to as absolute space. although time might not be particularly meaningful in the quantum vacuum, it is still possible to talk of a temporal succession of events, so although there is no absolute time ( in a newtonian sense ), there is still time of some description. space and time, as manifested through the quantum vacuum, are integral to the universe. if there is an entity that can be regarded as absolute space – the quantum vacuum – then, at the very least, the expanding universe must be expanding into it. in fact, the big bang universe is expanding into a pre - existing universe – that of the true god. the big bang universe is a finite universe within an eternal, infinite universe. that point must be emphasised. although our universe is vast beyond the imagining, it is of no size at all in comparison with infinity. if our universe ends, that does not imply the end of the greater universe – the macrocosmos. but how can a physical sub - universe exist within a physical super - universe without catastrophic collisions taking place all of the time


in comparison with infinity. if our universe ends, that does not imply the end of the greater universe – the macrocosmos. but how can a physical sub - universe exist within a physical super - universe without catastrophic collisions taking place all of the time? the answer lies in the definition of “ matter ”. illumination teaches that “ matter ” is what exists in a physical universe ( a universe with dimensions ) as opposed to a mental universe without dimensions. but it goes on to draw a sharp distinction between two different types of matter. the matter that illumination condemns as the creation of satan is matter that possesses mass. but there is also other matter that has no mass but still exists within the dimensional universe. light, consisting of massless photons, is matter of this type. light, massless matter, is always contrasted in gnostic thought with mass - matter. it turns out that modern quantum physics provides a precise technical vocabulary for what illumination has always taught. all elementary particles can be divided into two categories : matter particles ( known as fermions ) and force carrying particles ( called bosons ). fermions can be further subdivided into quarks and leptons. as for bosons, there are six types : photons, w and z bosons, gluons, gravitons and higgs bosons ( the existence of the latter two has not yet been experimentally verified ). photons, gluons and gravitons have zero mass. illumination teaches that the super - universe is the province of matter without mass. in the language of ancient times, it is referred to simply as the “ kingdom of light ”. as for satan ’ s sub - universe, the “ kingdom of matter ”, it consists of quarks, leptons, bosons and nothing else ( apart from the fluctuations of the quantum vacuum that pervades all of existence ). the key to the division between the kingdom of light and the kingdom of matter is the higgs boson, sometimes referred to as the “ god particle ”. ( in the armageddon conspiracy, it is named the “ satan particle ” since it is the centrepiece of satan ’ s creation. ) higgs bosons are the particles associated with the higgs field and it is by “ swimming ” through the higgs field that particles acquire their mass. if there were no higgs bosons and no higgs field then nothing in the universe would have mass. critically, photons, being massless, do not interact


is by “ swimming ” through the higgs field that particles acquire their mass. if there were no higgs bosons and no higgs field then nothing in the universe would have mass. critically, photons, being massless, do not interact with the higgs field or with higgs bosons. they don ’ t feel the higgs field. illumination has always taught that light and matter are in opposition and now physics has reflected a sharp divide between photons ( light ) and particles with mass. they can co - exist in the same environment, but whereas fermions interact with the higgs field, photons do not. another astonishing finding of physics is that bosons obey “ bose - einstein ” statistics while fermions obey “ fermi - dirac ” statistics. the key point here is that fermions comply with the pauli exclusion principle : two fermions cannot occupy the same quantum state. bosons are completely different. no exclusion principle applies to them and they can occupy the same quantum state. it is this feature that underlies laser technology. it also underlies something much more remarkable. in the kingdom of light, everything is made of photons. bodies can be created from photons obeying bose - einstein statistics. “ angels ” are made of photons. and they can enter the material universe that we inhabit and return at a later time whence they came. the kingdom of light is not “ perishable ” in the way that the kingdom of matter is. as we have said, the material universe created by the big bang is vast beyond comprehension, and no human will ever escape from it in human form. it is therefore understandable that some people refuse to speculate about what lies beyond. they will never reach the boundary of our universe, so why concern themselves with it? in ancient gnostic thinking, there is a boundary ( “ horos ” ), which prevents entry to the kingdom of light, conceals what happens there, and allows only the elect to pass through to the higher kingdom. ask yourself this : if it is possible to have a universe that envelops this one, from which access to and from this universe is possible ( at the speed of light ), and that can contain bodies that obey bose - einstein statistics rather than fermi - dirac statistics, is this is a legitimate scientific basis for that most elusive of entities that has always haunted the human imagination : the immortal soul? the soul is not an entity from an invisible, unknowable, un


rather than fermi - dirac statistics, is this is a legitimate scientific basis for that most elusive of entities that has always haunted the human imagination : the immortal soul? the soul is not an entity from an invisible, unknowable, unreachable other dimension. it ’ s from the universe of light that surrounds our universe of matter. it is real. it manifests itself as an energy field – an aura – around us. and it can return whence it came. exactly as gnosticism has always taught. most religions assert that heaven and hell exist in a mysterious and unknowable different dimension from that of our existence here on earth. they claim that faith is required to cope with this ineffable enigma. illumination, on the other hand, teaches that knowledge is the key and faith is less than worthless. the kingdoms of heaven and hell ( light and matter ) exist in the same physical realm, the finite kingdom of matter within the infinite kingdom of light, separated by the boundary ( horos ). the boundary can be crossed without invoking spooky, supernatural, metaphysical forces. the process is amenable to study by conventional science. mass - matter can exist only where the higgs field is present. it is not present in the kingdom of light : no mass - matter can exist there. light, on the other hand, can exist in both kingdoms and can travel back and forth. that is the basis of “ angels ” and “ souls ”. do you see? light can exist in two, entirely different universes. light is the key to everything. that is why the iluminati chose that name for their secret society. that is why their religion is called illumination. light – illumination – is the secret of life. light is knowledge. light is thought. light is gnosis. matter, faith and satan are the darkness that must be dispelled. turn to the light. the scientific basis of what is taught by illumination lies in fermions and bosons, fermi - dirac statistics and bose - einstein statistics, mass, photons and the higgs field. although it could be argued that humanity has a vast and impressive knowledge of fermions ( matter particles ), the science of bosons ( photons, gravitons and higgs bosons in particular ) is in its infancy. as mentioned earlier, higgs bosons and gravitons haven ’ t even been experimentally verified as of 2009. by 3009 ( if humanity


to teach. for example, if scientists have developed a material that is robust to all manner of natural forces, following much trial and error, that could be a “ three little pigs ” material, able to protect itself from a “ big bad wolf ” force. if scientists are convinced they have not achieved the best result they could from an experiment and they need to wait for what is coming next, it could be termed “ billy goats gruff ” research, with the boffin taking the role of the deluded troll. and when there is only one solution to a complex problem, scientists could be said to be searching for whatever fits the “ glass slipper ”. it ’ s not just me who is mining this path. this week, there have been reports about the formation of the gamburtsev mountains in antarctica, with theories on how they came to be. it seems that they were covered with ice 34 million years ago and were then, quite literally, frozen in time. or as it is being reported round the world, “ like sleeping beauty, they retained their eerie youthfulness. ” but scientists also need to be careful. once again this week, the world has been reading about the cern research facility in switzerland, and the fact that for the second time, neutrinos seem to be travelling faster than the speed of light. the cern researchers had better be right. if it turns out they are wrong after all, will anybody ever take them seriously again. or will they come to be known as “ scientists who cried wolf ”.


time has played a central role in mathematics from its very beginnings, yet it remains one of the most mysterious aspects of the world in which we live. the beginnings of civilisation on earth required a knowledge of the seasons, and the mysteries surrounding the length of the year, the length of the day and the length of the month began to be studied. all the world religions gave time a central role, be it in astrology, stories of creation, cyclical world histories, notions of eternity, etc. philosophers have tried to come to grips with the concept ; some have argued that time is a basic property of the universe while others have argued that it is an illusion or a property of the human mind and not of the world. a huge effort has been put into making devices to measure time with ever increasing accuracy from the beginnings of recorded history to the present day. quantum mechanics and relativity theory in the 20th century have shown the complexities, and sometime apparent paradoxes, in the notion of time. yet basic mathematics takes time as understood and develops the calculus around a particle whose position at time t is given by x ( t ), its velocity is dx / dt, the derivative of x ( t ) with respect to time, and its acceleration is the second derivative. this requires time to be continuous and a time interval to always be divisible, yet quantum theory tells us that time is quantised and quite unlike mathematical time which forms the basis of applied mathematics. we shall look at the fascinating 20th century developments in understanding time in the article a history of time : 20th century time. in this article we examine how ideas about time developed, culminating in newton ' s universal absolute mathematical time. of course the very title of these articles : " a history of time " is confusing. the idea of " history " already contains the idea of " time ". but let us make it clear that what we intend to investigate in these two articles is a history of how ideas about time have developed and, as always in this archive, we emphasise the mathematical aspects. mathematics almost certainly began through the study of time, particularly the need to record sequences of events. an understanding of the seasons is vital for the successful growing of crops. when should crops be planted? when would the rains come? when would rivers flood? when should one harvest the crops? the natural timekeepers in the sky are the daily passage of the sun and the monthly phases of the moon. the fact that knowing the length of a year was vitally important, yet much less visible


to the belief that time always flows forward. it was only in the middle of the 19th century that the second law of thermodynamics was proposed by clausiusand this was the first law to lack symmetry in the direction of time, see. clausius read a paper to the berlin academy on 18 february 1850 which contained this second law of thermodynamics. he defined entropy which originally measured the amount energy in the form of work that can be extracted from a hot gas but later came to represent a more general measure of the randomness of a system. the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a closed system will always increase, that is its randomness will always increase. this is illustrated by the fact that if we take a box with a membrane across the middle, one side filled with a hot gas, the other with a cold gas, then removing the membrane will result in the hot and cold gases mixing and the temperature will approach the average temperature of the two gases. one would not expect to see the reverse happen. if the box was filled with gas, one would not expect high energy molecules to move to one side of the box and low energy molecules to the other. the system is not time symmetric. despite the difficulties which still existed in understanding the notion of time, by the last part of the 19th century one would have to say that newton ' s universal time had proved extremely effective in providing a basis for laws which had been observed to hold to a high degree of accuracy. although we are far from understanding the notion of time today, the 20th century saw a revolution in the study of time. we may not understand time, but we know that newton ' s absolute time cannot provide the answer. in the article a history of time : 20th century time we examine this revolution. article by : j j o ' connor and e f robertson mactutor history of mathematics


shapes of nanoparticle. these can be produced selectively simply by changing the crystallographic surface features of the strontium titanate substrate on which they form and the physical conditions used to anneal, or fix, the nanoparticles to that surface. in order to characterize the resulting nanoparticle arrays, the team turned to scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) at the emc and synchrotron x - ray scattering at x - ray operations and research / bessrc beamline 11 - id - d at the aps. they found that they could produce nanoparticles in a small size range from 30 to 40 nm by annealing at a temperature of 1450k under a flow of the relatively unreactive gas, nitrogen. the team demonstrated that each array on the strontium titanate surface contains 75 million particles in a square lattice, with a spacing of 200 nm between the particles. the x - ray diffraction and sem measurements show that the particles lock on to the crystal structure of the substrate and are shaped like a cuboctahedron cut in half. the researchers once more used dft calculations to explain how this particular shape arises during the process and suggest that it is due to the partial “ wetting ” of platinum on the strontium titanate during annealing. having produced such perfect platinum nanoparticle arrays, the team then carried out some bulk tests of their catalytic prowess. oxygen - reduction electrocatalytic activity was used to test each of the three arrays produced on different crystal surfaces of strontium titanate with good results. this catalytic test, the researchers say, is one of the most important ways of evaluating electrocatalytic activity. intriguingly, the crystallographic surface form of the nanoparticles displayed activity opposite to what is seen with conventional non - nanoscopic platinum catalysts traditionally modeled with single - crystal extended surfaces. the one that would conventionally be most reactive turned out to be the least catalytically active form, and vice versa. the researchers suggest that this is due to a “ division of labor ” effect arising through the close proximity of the facets of the divided cuboctahedrons, which allows oxygen to be adsorbed onto the conventionally less catalytic surface more effectively than it otherwise would be. such insights regarding the behavior of catalysts are allowing researchers to lay bare the simplistic notion that catalysts simply speed up reactions and are helping them develop novel materials with a wide range of potential applications


catalytic surface more effectively than it otherwise would be. such insights regarding the behavior of catalysts are allowing researchers to lay bare the simplistic notion that catalysts simply speed up reactions and are helping them develop novel materials with a wide range of potential applications. “ this work demonstrates for the first time full control over all possible variables connected with high surface area catalysts, such as size, shape, number, and even the orientation of particles, ” said team member hoydoo you. “ from the standpoint of x - ray scientists, control over spatial orientation of particles and their arrangement in a relatively perfect square lattice would allow single nanoparticle scattering experiments to be performed, but with millions of nanoparticles. ” the team concedes that electron beam lithography, being a serial — or sequential — rather than parallel technique, limits how much surface can be covered with catalytic nanoparticles in a given time. however, they also point out that parallel nanofabrication techniques could be developed to overcome such a limitation. komanicky adds that, “ the aps played a crucial role in the characterization of the arrays produced. since the coverage of platinum catalyst on the sto substrate is relatively low, use of a high - brilliance x - ray source was necessary for confident characterization of the epitaxial relation between the catalyst particles and the substrate, and detection of misoriented particles. ” — david bradley


the beginning of this story has been told many times. in 1985, a confluence of events led to an unexpected and unplanned experiment with a new kind of microscope resulting in the discovery of a new molecule made purely of carbon – the very element chemists felt there was nothing more to learn about. buckyballs – sixty carbon atoms arranged in a soccer ball shape – had been discovered and the chemical world, not to mention the physical and material worlds, would never be the same. a versatile filler for plastics the mechanical ( stiffness, strength, toughness ), thermal and electrical properties of pure buckytube materials enable a multitude of applications, from batteries and fuel cells to fibres and cables to pharmaceutics and biomedical materials. scores of additional applications emerge when one thinks of blending nanotubes with other materials to improve existing properties or to provide new ones. using nanotubes as fillers in thermoplastics and thermosets, for example, has been discussed for several years, and is only recently undergoing rapid investigation and development as sufficient quantities of high - quality buckytube material is becoming available to enable such investigations. one of the most important technology developments of the last half of the twentieth century was the substantial replacement of metals with plastics. most of this replacement has been in structural applications, where plastics have been engineered to outperform steel and other structural metals by providing adequate strength or stiffness at lower weight and cost. a key property that metals will always have over plastics, however, is in electrical conductivity. plastics are amazingly good electrical insulators ; in fact, this property gives rise to many of the most widespread and important uses of plastics. nevertheless, the applications for plastics would be broadened substantially if good solutions existed to make these materials conductive. these application areas include : antistatic, electrostatic dissipative, and electromagnetic shielding and absorbing materials. electromagnetic interference and radiofrequency interference ( emi / rfi ) shielding, for example, is essential in laptop computers, cell phones, pagers and other portable electronic devices to prevent interference with and from other electronic equipment. at present, there is no suitable plastic material for this purpose, and metal, in one form or another, is typically added to provide this function in electronic equipment cases, imposing substantial weight and manufacturing expense. electrically conductive plastics for some applications, plastics have been loaded with conductive materials for years to provide conductivity. the most common filler is carbon black, which is relatively inexpensive


are terrific electrical conductors, as described above. no polymer is a better conductor and none better is likely to be found. ( so - called conductive polymers, a class of long - chain molecules with a conjugated backbone, would be better described as molecular resistors ; they are intrinsically semiconducting. ) second, buckytubes have a phenomenally high aspect ratio. individual tubes are about 1 nm in diameter ( about half the diameter of dna, and about 1 / 10, 000th the diameter of graphite fibres ), and 100 - 1000 nm in length. thus, the aspect ratio of buckytubes is around 100 - 1000, compared with about 1 for carbon black particles. this already changes the game entirely, by pushing the critical loading level downward, as described above. finally, buckytubes naturally form, in fact are born with, a morphology that is probably ideal for conductive filler applications. buckytubes self - assemble into “ ropes ” of tens to hundreds of aligned tubes, running side by side, branching and recombining. when examined by electron microscopy, it is exceedingly difficult to find the end of any of these ropes. thus, ropes form naturally occurring very long conductive pathways that can be exploited in making electrically conductive filled composites. initial indications are that dramatically lower loadings of buckytubes are required to reach a given level of conductivity than for any other conductive fillers. the opportunities for conductive plastics, as well as thermosets, filled with buckytubes are abundant. very low loadings ( < 0. 1 % ) provide for antistatic and electrostatic dissipative applications. one example is in painting automobile body parts, which are increasingly made of plastics. because they are insulators, plastic parts charge up, which cause them to repel electrostatically the paint droplets formed in spray - painting of the body parts. this results in a great deal of wasted paint, which is both an economic and an environmental problem. a conductive primer coat can be applied, but that extra processing step is also quite costly. the ideal situation is to make the part itself sufficiently conductive to drain away charge build up by connecting the part to ground during the painting process. another broad area of application for buckytube - filled plastics is in emi / rfi shielding, which has uses, as described above, in portable electronics, and defence applications. if, as appears likely, good at


the center for nanoscale materials ( cnm ) at the u. s. department of energy ' s ( doe ) argonne national laboratory dedicated its new scanning probing microscopy building recently during its annual users conference. the new building will house a new scanning probe microscope that measures spin - polarized electrons on surfaces. " the spin - polarized scanning probing microscope ( lt - spm ) is a wonderful addition to the many tools available to researchers at the cnm, " said interim cnm director derrick mancini. " nanomagnetism is a burgeoning field, and the lt - spm will provide the most cutting - edge technology for this research. " nanomagnetism research using the lt - spm may lead to more energy - efficient motors, advanced information storage, processing prototype devices, advanced medical therapy and biomagnetic sensing concepts. the lt - spm is a multi - functional scanning probe microscope devoted to the high - resolution properties of spin - polarized surfaces at high magnetic fields ( 9 t ) and low temperatures ( 4. 2 k ). this state - of - the - art instrument expands the cnm programs in nanomagnetism and nanoferroelectrics. with the spin - polarized capabilities and the ability to characterize insulating samples, this instrument will propel the cnm to the forefront of science using scanning probes to pursue fundamental materials research. a new building was constructed adjacent to the cnm to house the lt - spm, which requires a highly stable operating environment that is free of acoustic and vibratory interference. the microscope also produces relatively large stray magnetic fields that are incompatible with instruments in the cnm, which was designed specifically to be free of magnetic fields. the lt - spm is a necessary to tool for important scientific research, so a new building was designed to specifically hold the machine and place it far enough away from the cnm that the magnetic fields would not pose a problem to other instruments in the building. construction on the building was finished at the end of september and the facility will be ready for occupancy by the end of fall. the building cost $ 1. 5 million and was paid for institutional general plant project funds from the laboratory.


properties. so it seems that the research efforts should focus on reducing material cost. once the cost is low enough, as the saying goes : " if you build it, they will come! ". thanks, chuck. this article was focused specifically on carbon composites. both metals you mention are considered for aerospace - - titanium especially is used in various places on aircraft - - but are usually considered far too expensive ( materials ) and / or slow to produce to consider for mass manufacturing of high - volume cars. titanium is sometimes used in high - end race cars. thanks, rob. progress isn ' t very fast, but it is being made. what ' s just happened recently is the formation of these consortia of major players with a lot of r & d dollars committed to making it happen. costs will definitely come down once the processes and materials have been developed that will work in high volumes, since lower - cost materials and processes are among the top goals of all of these efforts. by experimenting with the photovoltaic reaction in solar cells, researchers at mit have made a breakthrough in energy efficiency that significantly pushes the boundaries of current commercial cells on the market. in a world that ' s going green, industrial operations have a problem : their processes involve materials that are potentially toxic, flammable, corrosive, or reactive. if improperly managed, this can precipitate dangerous health and environmental consequences. a quick look into the merger of two powerhouse 3d printing oems and the new leader in rapid prototyping solutions, stratasys. the industrial revolution is now led by 3d printing and engineers are given the opportunity to fully maximize their design capabilities, reduce their time - to - market and functionally test prototypes cheaper, faster and easier. bruce bradshaw, director of marketing in north america, will explore the large product offering and variety of materials that will help cad designers articulate their product design with actual, physical prototypes. this broadcast will dive deep into technical information including application specific stories from real world customers and their experiences with 3d printing. 3d printing is


of things may influence, disrupt, distort, or even condition our thinking. intense heat or cold may make any but the most elementary thinking extremely difficult. low pressure systems in the atmosphere may depress us, and high pressure systems may exhilarate us. our wishes, whether born of material interests or immaterial desires for diversion, may lead us to wrong conclusions. pathological mental states may render us incapable of sound reasoning. our minds do not exist in splendid isolation from our bodies but are rather so much connected with them that we can rarely ignore them for long. if i were bitten by a rattlesnake, i suspect i would have great difficulty even breathing, much less thinking. but all that should be nothing to the point. it is the very office of reason to put at naught all these influences which distort conclusions. if i draw my conclusion as to what is of ultimate importance in this world in the presence of a bengal tiger on the loose, i may be expected to modify it in more serene surroundings, to say nothing of how others might view my conclusion. in like manner, it is the business of reason to remove all discrepancies in thought, whatever their source. the source of the discrepancy does not matter any more than the fact that ezekiel bulver ’ s father was a man mattered in his conclusions about a triangle. the question is whether or not it is possible to construct a triangle any two of whose sides must not be longer combined than the other. if it is not, it matters not at all whether the person who drew the conclusion was a man or woman, a bourgeois or industrial worker, had an inferiority complex or had sublimated his sexual desires. anyone who doubts this axiom about triangles can test it for himself. all else is irrelevant. it evades the issue.


the optical microscope, invented 400 years ago, throughout these years furnished a tremendous amount of knowledge. in particular, the microscope has been used widely in life sciences. after about 300 - year history of instrumenal development and reach harvest of discoveries, it was found by ernst abbe in 1873 that the wave nature of light poses a limit to the resolution power of microscopes due to diffraction, a finding which has become known as abbe ' s diffraction barrier. however, recently it was realized, most notably through the work of stefan hell starting in the 1990 - s, that abbe ' s barrier can be overcome. as a result, new optical microscopes are emerging now, enabling previously unthinkable high, namely, nanometer, resolution, that are most valuable for biological applications. breaking abbe ' s diffraction barrier a confocal microscope, commonly used in fluorescence microscopy studies, eliminates out - of - focus light coming into the detector, improving the imaging ; using multi - photon excitation ( usually, two - photon ), one can slightly increase the resolution power. despite these tricks, until recently the resolution of optical microscopes remained bounded by the abbe ' s diffraction barrier, with the size of the illuminated area limited to approximately 250nm in the focal plane and 500nm in the direction of the optical axis. the state of affairs changed in 1990 - s, when new light microscopy concepts were developed that improve the resolution up to about 30nm, thus breaking abbe ' s barrier. these techniques include 4pi microscopy, i5m microscopy, and stimulated emission depletion ( sted ) microscopy. the 4pi microscope achieves its high resolution along the optical axis ( about 100nm ) by using the coherent light from a laser split into two beams, which are focused at the same point onto a sample. constructive interference of the two beams enhances the focusing of the light ; two - photon illumination is usually employed to further narrow the excitation volume. a newer type of microscopy, sted, allows for even better resolution ( 30nm ) in fluorescent studies, due to the combination of two light pulses separated by a short time : the illumination light pulse and a successive pulse that supresses the fluorescent emission everywhere except the center of the illuminated region. unlike the 4pi microscope, sted setups are not available commercially yet. more on the 4pi and sted microscopes can be found on the web page of stefan hell '


term for any approach to the arts, whether theoretical, critical or historical, that emphasizes the autonomy or primacy of formal qualities. in the case of painting, these qualities are usually understood to be compositional elements such as line, value, colour and texture : they can be distinguished from technique on the one hand and content on the other. because compositional elements can be considered and enjoyed independently of the way in which a picture evokes the visible world, tells a story or expresses philosophical ideas, some formalists have argued that representation of any kind is incidental to art. they may be answered by those who insist that formal values, when elevated to objects of primary interest, in fact perform a kind of representation. the difficulties involved in the use of such terms helps explain why formalism has met with resistance in recent decades ; at the same time, the issues that it attempts to address are so fundamental to art that it is bound to arouse perennial interest. the origins of formalism are deeply rooted in ancient thought, in the belief for example that the universe is governed by numerical relationships, or in the notion of form as the intelligible quality of things, imposed upon or inherent in matter. even in antiquity such ideas were applied to the arts : aristotle understood art ( techne ) as a shaping process analogous to the processes of nature, while vitruvius distinguished the design ( lineamenta ) of a building from its material existence. these applications were developed during the renaissance. the humanist philosopher benedetto varchi, in a lecture ( due lezzione, florence, 1550 ) on one of michelangelo ’ s sonnets, defined the task of the sculptor as the drawing - forth of the ‘ actual ’ from the ‘ potential ’ being. in the enlightenment, with its concern for the psychological nature of knowledge, there arose the notion that the experience of a work of art as a work of art was neither purely sensual nor purely rational and that an ‘ aesthetic ’ experience could be distinguished from other kinds of experience. if in looking at a picture we are moved to religious insights, for example, we are not experiencing the picture aesthetically. kant, on the other hand, in his critique of judgment, formulated the possibility of ‘ adherent ’ as well as ‘ pure ’ beauty and admitted that beauty could be a symbol of the good, that aesthetic experience could thus have a resonance in the realm of morality. friedrich schiller, pushing kant ’ s ideas towards romanticism, emphasized the spiritually therapeutic nature of aesthetic experience, its capacity


researchers in nanomedicine have long dreamed of an age when molecular - scale computing devices could be embedded in our bodies to monitor health and treat diseases before they progress. the advantage of such computers, which would be made of biological materials, would lie in their ability to speak the biochemical language of life. several research groups have recently reported progress in this field. a team at the california institute of technology, writing in the journal science, made use of dna nanostructures called seesaw gates to construct logic circuits analogous to those used in microprocessors. just as silicon - based components use electric current to represent 1 ’ s and 0 ’ s, bio - based circuits use concentrations of dna molecules in a test tube. when new dna strands are added to the test tube as “ input, ” the solution undergoes a cascade of chemical interactions to release different dna strands as “ output. ” in theory, the input could be a molecular indicator of a disease, and the output could be an appropriate therapeutic molecule. a common problem in constructing a computer in a test tube is that it is hard to control which interactions among molecules occur. the brilliance of the seesaw gate is that a particular gate responds only to particular input dna strands. in a subsequent nature paper, the caltech researchers showed off the power of their technique by building a dna - based circuit that could play a simple memory game. a circuit with memory could, if integrated into living cells, recognize and treat complex diseases based on a series of biological clues. this circuitry has not been integrated into living tissue, however, in part because its ability to communicate with cells is limited. zhen xie of the massachusetts institute of technology and his collaborators have recently made progress on this front. as they reported in science, they designed an rna - based circuit that was simpler but could still distinguish modified cancer cells from noncancerous cells and, more important, trigger the cancer cells to self - destruct. both techniques have been used only in artificial scenarios. yet the advances in dna - based circuits offer a new, powerful platform to potentially realize researchers ’ long - held biocomputing dreams.


14. 5 relational model of databases as an example of how data can be organized conceptually, we shall describe the relational data model. in this conceptual model, the data in the database is viewed as being organized into a series of relations or tables of data which are associated in ways defined in the data dictionary. a relation consists of rows of data with columns containing particular attributes. the term " relational " derives from the mathematical theory of relations which provides a theoretical framework for this type of data model. here, the terms " relation " and data " table " will be used interchangeably. table 14 - 2 defines one possible relation to record unit cost data associated with particular activities. included in the database would be one row ( or tuple ) for each of the various items involved in construction or other project activities. the unit cost information associated with each item is then stored in the form of the relation defined in table 14 - 2. table 14 - 2 illustration of a relation description : unit price information attributes using table 14 - 2, a typical unit cost entry for an activity in construction might be : this entry summarizes the unit costs associated with construction of 12 " thick brick masonry walls, as indicated by the item description. the item _ code is a numerical code identifying a particular activity. this code might identify general categories as well ; in this case, 04. 2 refers to general masonry work. item _ code might be based on the masterformat or other coding scheme. the crew _ code entry identifies the standard crew which would be involved in the activity. the actual composition of the standard crew would be found in a crew relation under the entry 04. 2 - 3, which is the third standard crew involved in masonry work ( 04. 2 ). this ability to point to other relations reduces the redundancy or duplication of information in the database. in this case, standard crew number 04. 2 - 3 might be used for numerous masonry construction tasks, but the definition of this crew need only appear once. description : common brick masonry, 12 " thick wall, 19. 0 bricks per s. f. work _ unit : 1000 bricks work _ unit, output and time _ unit summarize the expected output for this task with a standard crew and define the standard unit of measurement for the item. in this case, costs are given per thousand bricks per shift. finally, material ( matl _ unit _ cost ) and installation ( instcosts ) costs are recorded along with the date ( datemcos and dateicos )


error. for example, suppose one queried the database to find the material cost entered on a particular date. this response might be misleading since more than one material cost could have been entered on the same date. similarly, if there are multiple rows with the same itemcode value, then a query might give erroneous responses if one of the rows was out of date. finally, each row has only a single entry for each attribute. the ability to combine or separate relations into new arrangements permits the definition of alternative views or external models of the information. since there are usually a number of different users of databases, this can be very useful. for example, the payroll division of an organization would normally desire a quite different organization of information about employees than would a project manager. by explicitly defining the type and organization of information a particular user group or application requires, a specific view or subset of the entire database can be constructed. this organization is illustrated in fig. 14 - 1 with the data dictionary serving as a translator between the external data models and the database management system. behind the operations associated with querying and manipulating relations is an explicit algebraic theory. this algebra defines the various operations that can be performed on relations, such as union ( consisting of all rows belonging to one or the other of two relations ), intersection ( consisting of all rows belonging to both of two relations ), minus ( consisting of all rows belonging to one relation and not another ), or projection ( consisting of a subset of the attributes from a relation ). the algebraic underpinnings of relational databases permits rigorous definitions and confidence that operations will be accomplished in the desired fashion. example 14 - 3 : a subcontractor relation as an illustration of the preceding discussion, consider the problem of developing a database of possible subcontractors for construction projects. this database might be desired by the cost estimation department of a general contractor to identify subcontractors to ask to bid on parts of a project. appropriate subcontractors appearing in the database could be contacted to prepare bids for specific projects. table 14 - 3 lists the various attributes which might be required for such a list and an example entry, including the subcontractor ' s name, contact person, address, size ( large, medium or small ), and capabilities. table 14 - 3 subcontractor relation example to use this relation, a cost estimator might be interested in identifying large, electrical subcontractors in the database. a query typed into the dbm such as : select from sub


- for a topical guide to this subject, see outline of economics. economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. the term economics comes from the ancient greek οικονομια ( oikonomia, " management of a household, administration " ) from οικος ( oikos, " house " ) + νομος ( nomos, " custom " or " law " ), hence " rules of the house ( hold ) ". political economy was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested " economics " as a shorter term for " economic science " that also avoided a narrow political - interest connotation and as similar in form to " mathematics ", " ethics ", and so forth. a focus of the subject is how economic agents behave or interact and how economies work. consistent with this, a primary textbook distinction is between microeconomics and macroeconomics. microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents ( such as households and firms or as buyers and sellers ) and markets, and their interactions. macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment, inflation, economic growth, and monetary and fiscal policy. other broad distinctions include those between positive economics ( describing " what is " ) and normative economics ( advocating " what ought to be " ) ; between economic theory and applied economics ; between rational and behavioral economics ; and between mainstream economics ( more " orthodox " and dealing with the " rationality - individualism - equilibrium nexus " ) and heterodox economics ( more " radical " and dealing with the " institutions - history - social structure nexus " ). economic analysis may be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, and government, but also to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science. at the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. there are a variety of modern definitions of economics. some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists. scottish philosopher adam smith ( 1776 ) defined what was then called political economy as " an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations ", in particular as : - a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [ with the twofold objectives of providing ] a plent


from quantitative methods such as operations research and programming and from statistical methods such as regression analysis in the absence of certainty and perfect knowledge. a unifying theme is the attempt to optimize business decisions, including unit - cost minimization and profit maximization, given the firm ' s objectives and constraints imposed by technology and market conditions. uncertainty and game theory uncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, whether quantifiable as risk or not. without it, household behavior would be unaffected by uncertain employment and income prospects, financial and capital markets would reduce to exchange of a single instrument in each market period, and there would be no communications industry. given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents ' responses to it. game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents, one kind of uncertainty. it provides a mathematical foundation of industrial organization, discussed above, to model different types of firm behavior, for example in an oligopolistic industry ( few sellers ), but equally applicable to wage negotiations, bargaining, contract design, and any situation where individual agents are few enough to have perceptible effects on each other. as a method heavily used in behavioral economics, it postulates that agents choose strategies to maximize their payoffs, given the strategies of other agents with at least partially conflicting interests. in this, it generalizes maximization approaches developed to analyze market actors such as in the supply and demand model and allows for incomplete information of actors. the field dates from the 1944 classic theory of games and economic behavior by john von neumann and oskar morgenstern. it has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology. risk aversion may stimulate activity that in well - functioning markets smooths out risk and communicates information about risk, as in markets for insurance, commodity futures contracts, and financial instruments. financial economics or simply finance describes the allocation of financial resources. it also analyzes the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation. some market organizations may give rise to inefficiencies associated with uncertainty. based on george akerlof ' s " market for lemons " article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second - hand car market. customers without knowledge of whether a car is a " lemon " depress its price below what a quality second - hand car


the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories. in microeconomics, principal concepts include supply and demand, marginalism, rational choice theory, opportunity cost, budget constraints, utility, and the theory of the firm. early macroeconomic models focused on modeling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations. the aforementioned microeconomic concepts play a major part in macroeconomic models – for instance, in monetary theory, the quantity theory of money predicts that increases in the money supply increase inflation, and inflation is assumed to be influenced by rational expectations. in development economics, slower growth in developed nations has been sometimes predicted because of the declining marginal returns of investment and capital, and this has been observed in the four asian tigers. sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative. expositions of economic reasoning often use two - dimensional graphs to illustrate theoretical relationships. at a higher level of generality, paul samuelson ' s treatise foundations of economic analysis ( 1947 ) used mathematical methods to represent the theory, particularly as to maximizing behavioral relations of agents reaching equilibrium. the book focused on examining the class of statements called operationally meaningful theorems in economics, which are theorems that can conceivably be refuted by empirical data. economic theories are frequently tested empirically, largely through the use of econometrics using economic data. the controlled experiments common to the physical sciences are difficult and uncommon in economics, and instead broad data is observationally studied ; this type of testing is typically regarded as less rigorous than controlled experimentation, and the conclusions typically more tentative. however, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments. statistical methods such as regression analysis are common. practitioners use such methods to estimate the size, economic significance, and statistical significance ( " signal strength " ) of the hypothesized relation ( s ) and to adjust for noise from other variables. by such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense. acceptance is dependent upon the falsifiable hypothesis surviving tests. use of commonly accepted methods need not produce a final conclusion or even a consensus on a particular question, given different tests, data sets, and prior beliefs. criticism based on professional standards and non - replicability


- rappaport, steven ( 1996 ). " abstraction and unrealistic assumptions in economics ", journal of economic methodology, 3 ( 2 ), pp. 215 – 236. abstract, ( 1998 ). models and reality in economics. edward elgar, p. 6, ch. 6 – 8. - friedman, milton ( 1953 ), " the methodology of positive economics ", essays in positive economics, university of chicago press, pp. 14 – 15, 22, 31. • boland, lawrence a. ( 2008 ). " assumptions controversy ", the new palgrave dictionary of economics, 2nd edition online abstract. accessed may 30, 2008. - hodgson, g. m ( 2007 ). " evolutionary and institutional economics as the new mainstream ". evolutionary and institutional economics review 4 ( 1 ) : 7 – 25. retrieved 2010 - 10 - 02. - keynes, j. m. ( september 1924 ). " alfred marshall 1842 – 1924 ". the economic journal 34 ( 135 ) : 311 – 372. doi : 10. 2307 / 2222645. jstor 2222645. - joskow, paul ( may 1975 ). " firm decision - making policy and oligopoly theory ". the american economic review 65 ( 2, papers and proceedings of the eighty – seventh annual meeting of the american economic association ) : 270 – 279, particularly 271. jstor 1818864. - england, paula ( 1993 ). " the separative self : androcentric bias in neoclassical assumptions ", beyond economic man : feminist theory and economics, university of chicago press, pp. 37 – 53. - ferber, m. a. and julie a. nelson, " beyond economic man : ten years later, " in marianne a. ferber and julie a. nelson, eds., feminist economics today : beyond economic man. chicago : university of chicago press, 2003. - marilyn waring ( 1988. ) if women counted. san francisco : harper & row. isbn 0 - 06 - 250933 - 0 - philip mirowski, more heat than light : economics as social physics. new york : cambridge university press, 1989, pp. 377 – 8. - please see partial list of publications, including peer - reviewed papers and books, on john mcmurtry ' s wikipedia page, as well as links to the text of several of his peer - reviewed papers and peer - reviewed secondary references analyzing and discussing his work. - john mcmurtry, the cancer stage of