data/train/batch_000003.jsonl

{"text": "seventh grade - practice vocabulary word list a / b / c / d / e / f / g / h / i / j / k / l / m / n / o / p / q / r / s / t / u / v / w / x / y / z vocabulary words - seventh grade - e : 1 - 25 ( of 26 ) ( adj. ) honest and polite ; serious. ( adj. ) related to the economy. ( adj. ) using time, money, or goods carefully and without wasting any. ( n. ) the financial situation in an area. ( n. ) a group of plants, animals and their environment that work together as a unit. ( n. ) a change that is made on a person or thing. ( adj. ) doing something without wasting time and doing it well. ( adj. ) something that can be stretched. ( n. ) energy carried by wires that you use to provide heat or light or to make machines work. ( v. ) to put into another substance. ( v. ) to do something to the surface of an object. ( v. ) to make something possible. ( n. ) a set of books that give information on many topics. ( n. ) the area where people or animals live. ( v. ) to wish for someone else ' s talents or possessions. ( adj. ) needed ; important. ( v. ) to judge how well something or someone works. ( v. ) to surpass or go beyond what was expected. ( n. ) something left out of the usual rule. ( n. ) a short trip. ( n. ) a manager or supervisor. ( adj. ) related to the job of a manager or supervisor. ( n. ) a display in public. ( v. ) to make a public display. ( v. ) to increase. ( v. ) to treat someone unfairly to make money. ( n. ) when something is made bigger or longer. we ' ve taken all of the words found in our practice vocabulary word lists and created an online vocabulary building game that anyone can play. we call it lemons for literacy. this vocabulary building game is meant to be a fun way to improve vocabulary comprehension, spelling and reading skills, but it is also tool for people to help in the cause of literacy. as you play, and match vocabulary words with their definitions, reading horizons will donate money and it ' s award winning reading software to people in need", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6013311997131343, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:262eb5d5-cd95-4438-a9dc-c17c3eaefa5c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:32.500343"}
{"text": "a precious metal. 1914. sound familiar? the start of wwi. in roughly the same distance in time as from desert storm to now, aluminum went from a rarely used metal in the military with only the german junkers j. i making it to war, to being a strategic commodity ubiquitous in its use from eating utensils to intercontinental bombers. were the fathers of economic aluminum charles martin hall, paul heroult, and karl joseph bayer thinking about how aluminum would change the way war would be fought? no. did the military know right away the way aluminum would transform the strength and performance of established technology? no \u2026 but some had an idea. i thought of the story of aluminum earlier today when another funny sounding word came in my ear ; graphene. do you know what graphene is? well, i think you will more and more \u2013 just as teddy roosevelt \u2019 s generation started to hear aluminum and bauxite more and more as it slowly transformed their world. not overnight, but year by year with a quickening as smart minds saw new ways to take advantage of this new advance. back to the navy. what gets a lot of futurists excited as they look for the next kinetic and / or weaponeering leap? that is easy ; rail guns, lasers, and particle beam weapons. in our early 21st century tool box, what is holding these promising technologies back? what is the long pole in the tent that everything else requires to be there? in a word, energy. many more cards need to come out of the deck \u2013 but if you are interested in the offensive potential of rail guns, and the defensive promise of lasers and particle beam weapons \u2013 but are humbled by the very real limitations there are to making them operational \u2013 then i offer you the below. not revolution, but evolution. evolution with the possibility of a quickening that 100 years ago the world saw with aluminum. graphene based super - capacitors? use the next generation of the ddg - 1000 engineering plant? watch the below if you can or click here, and ponder with me. yes, we live in interesting times as our chinese friends might say \u2013 but rejoice dear hearts ; the future has potential. no, i not writing words of encouragement to veterans suffering with ptsd ; though they are out there and probably need it. no, i am not writing to veterans who are suicidal ; though they are out there and probably need it. no, i am writing to those who are sick of the drumbeat of articles, news stories", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6198612301053831, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:76331367-c12b-45ee-aaeb-9e40ab037d59>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:32.602415"}
{"text": "we have a renewed perception of it through our six sense gates of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. that is, with name and form as condition, six sense gates arise. from this moment we begin to see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think, and we are aware of things as they happen. \u00a8i contact ( spars \u00a1 ca ) : when we perceive an object through our six sense gates, we conceive of six - sense objects such as visible objects, sound, odor, taste, touch, and mental objects. in other words, we see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think. contact is the encounter between the sense gates and the sensory information. that is, with six sense gates as condition, contact arises. \u00a8i feeling ( vedana - ) : when there arises shape, sound, smell, taste, touch and thought of an object through contact, then one or more out of the following three feelings arise - pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral ( neither pleasant nor unpleasant ). all the objects we perceive in this world can generate one or more of these three feelings. with contact as condition, feeling arises. \u00a8i craving ( tr. s. n. a - ) : when one or more of the pleasant, unpleasant and neutral feelings arise depending on feeling, we crave only for the objects that give us the pleasant feeling. even when the objects are not the ones that can give us pleasure, we pour in blind love to make those objects render pleasure. that is, with feeling as condition, craving arises. this craving is far from buddha \u00a1 compassion, but rather close to love based on greed and hunger. \u00a8i clinging ( upa - da - na ) : in response to craving we attach to and pour our love on an object. when this object gives us a pleasant feeling, then naturally we engage in some kind of action to possess it. that is, with craving as condition, clinging arises. \u00a8\u00f0 becoming ( bhava ) : in response to clinging we try to possess the object of pleasure. that is, with clinging as condition, becoming arises. we get to possess a certain material, object or feeling. all the objects in the world did not start out having existence from the beginning, but were made to exist because of clinging. this is called the process of becoming - becoming someone or something other than what is. \u00a8n birth ( jati ) : when we get to possess a certain object or feeling in response to clinging, an", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6065599693332084, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3bcde091-387e-479a-b0f3-72ce70b9b825>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:32.687612"}
{"text": "if you assign a task to the computer. it can only complete the task if it can understand everything you want to say to computer. if your words are signs that you use to deliver the message to computer. the computer will not be able to fulfill the requirement and cannot perform according to your instructions. contextual computing is the source for computer to understand user and to deliver the best services according to the instructions of the users. dictionary definition of context is it is the general situation of an idea that is associated with that idea and helps that idea to be understood by people. in contextual computing the used context enables the computer to understand the user and his situation for a proper output. various contextual computing techniques are working for different fields of life like education, engineering, health - care etc. many applications have no use without contextual computing like gps devices used in cars are useless without proper direction guidelines - top emerging technologiesnew innovative technology moving towards the height of development is called emerging technologies. top 10 disruptive technologies - distributed computing a field of computer sciences being very popular now a day is called distributed computing. - social media networkssocial media network has been very popular during the last few years. - cloud computinga computer based technology that reduces the pain of running a business with a mess of employees. - web mashupsa next step to a largely experimental work in web 2. 0 environment is known as web mashups. - user interfaceinteraction between a computer and a human being is called a user interface. - ubiquitous computinghave you ever thought about an invisible force watching your activities and participating. - contextual computingif you assign a task to the computer. it can only complete the task if it can understand. - augmented realitymost of us can watch cartoons, movies and games which are not actually in real environment. - semanticsa very important area of linguistic study is called semantics. - multicore and hybrid processorsto reduce the consumption of power and increase the performance of a computer.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6097765010760103, "token_count": 403, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:be8c328d-0611-452e-8182-7908000f6143>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.132283"}
{"text": "octet : selected works from the school of visual arts, new york relational aesthetics, a term coined in 2002 by nicolas bourriaud refers to a kind of art that interacts with its onlookers. not based on formal concerns of aesthetic experience, audience participation is a necessary and required aspect of this type of work. like the situationists before them, practitioners in this field aim towards developing collective social experiences, and endeavors to fuse art with life. word as image to conceive of words as flesh, or breath or abstract signs, integrating words with the visual arts has had a cross - cultural history. from the rosetta stone to oracle bones, from bark cloth paintings, to illuminated manuscripts, words turn sounds into a concrete script. simple lines and dots, dabs and flows, arabesques and undulating rhythms displace the articulating voice in the external world. identity and identity politics what does it mean to be human? what does it mean to be part of a marginalized social group? how do race, religion, and / or gender, constitute an identity? the manner in which the self is defined is expressed through physical attributes, shared social values or political persuasions. in heterogeneous societies, such as america, a melting pot of citizens from italian, irish, jewish, arab, african, chinese, hispanic and turkish descent among others, form distinct communities. assimilating variegated cultural identities into the larger fabric of american life creates a multi - racial, multi - ethnic composite population. what does it mean to be an asian - american or a latino in the usa? although we all share the primary structure of dna, making us human, we each are also distinctly unique.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6401929790864466, "token_count": 349, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9b863cdd-5c64-48fa-89fe-4edbf3d08558>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.223137"}
{"text": "in table 4 - 26. gleyic and stagnic properties refer to soil material which is saturated with water at some periods of the year, or throughout the year, in most years, and which show evidence of reduction processes or of reduction and segregation of iron. gleyic properties are related to saturation by groundwater. stagnic properties are related to saturation by surface water within 50 cm. in wrb the water regime is described by : - gleysols : soils having gleyic properties within 50 cm from the soil surface ; - planosols : soils having an eluvial horizon, the lower boundary of which is marked, within 100 cm from the soil surface, by an abrupt textural change associated with stagnic properies above that boundary ; - histosols : soils having : - a folic horizon which one of its characteristics is to have water saturation for less than one month in most years ; - or a histic horizon which one of its characteristics is to have water saturation for at least one month in most years ; - gelistagnic soils present a temporary water saturation at the surface caused by a frozen - gleyic soils are soils having gleyic properties within 100 cm from the soil surface. two specifiers can be used : - endogleyic : soils having gleyic properties between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface ; - epigleyic : soils having gleyic properties within 50 cm from the soil surface. - oxyaquic cryosols : cryosols saturated with water during the thawing period and lacking redoximorphic features within 100 cm from the soil surface ; - planic soils are soils having an eluvial horizon abruptly overlying a slowly permeable horizon within 100 cm from the soil surface ; - rheic histosols : histosols having a water regime conditioned by surface water ; - stagnic soils are soils having stagnic properties within 50 cm from the soil surface ; - endostagnic soils are soils having stagnic properties between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface. gleyic properties refer to soil materials which are, at least temporarily, completely saturated with groundwater for a period that allows reducing conditions to occur and show a gleyic colour pattern. stagnic properties refer to soil materials which are completely saturated with surface water for a period long enough to allow reducing conditions to occur and show a stagnic colour pattern. attributes aglim1 and aglim", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6351927041572656, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d3dbef6b-a4b3-4f9e-9468-5cf3dba27c57>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.318083"}
{"text": "| u. s. naval observatory | | earth orientation department | in 1956, following several years of work, two astronomers at the u. s. naval observatory ( usno ) and two astronomers at the national physical laboratory ( teddington, england ) determined the relationship between the frequency of the cesium atom ( the standard of time ) and the rotation of the earth at a particular epoch. as a result, they defined the second of atomic time as the length of time required for 9 192 631 770 cycles of the cesium atom at zero magnetic field. the second thus defined was equivalent to the second defined by the fraction 1 / 31 556 925. 9747 of the year 1900. the atomic second was set equal, then, to an average second of earth rotation time near the end of the 19th century. the rapid service / prediction center of the international earth rotation service ( iers ), located at the u. s. naval observatory, monitors the earth ' s rotation. part of its mission involves the determination of a time scale based on the current rate of the rotation of the earth. ut1 is the non - uniform time based on the earth ' s rotation. the earth is constantly undergoing a deceleration caused by the braking action of the ocean tides. through the use of ancient observations of eclipses, it is possible to determine the deceleration of the earth to be roughly 2 milliseconds per day per century. this is an effect which causes the earth ' s rotational time to slow with respect to the atomic clock time. since it has been about 1 century since the defining epoch ( i. e., the duration since 1900 ), the difference has accumulated to roughly 2 milliseconds per day. other factors also affect the earth ' s dynamics, some in unpredictable ways, so that it is necessary to monitor the earth ' s rotation continuously. in order to keep the cumulative difference in ut1 - utc less than 0. 9 seconds, a leap second is inserted periodically in the atomic utc time scale to decrease the difference between the two. this leap second can be either positive or negative depending on the earth ' s rotation. since the first leap second in 1972, all leap seconds have been positive ( click here for a list of all announced leap seconds ). this reflects the general slowing trend of the earth due to tidal braking. confusion sometimes arises over the misconception that the occasional insertion of leap seconds every few years indicates that the earth should stop rotating within a few millennia. the confusion arises", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6276651555528134, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad3517d5-9fdc-41be-abb7-3b5ca1eaa42c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.692561"}
{"text": "seconds ). this reflects the general slowing trend of the earth due to tidal braking. confusion sometimes arises over the misconception that the occasional insertion of leap seconds every few years indicates that the earth should stop rotating within a few millennia. the confusion arises because some mistake leap seconds as a measure of the rate at which the earth is slowing. the one - second increments are, however, indications of the accumulated difference in time between the two systems. as an example, the situation is similar to what would happen if a person owned a watch that lost two seconds per day. if it were set to a perfect clock today, the watch would be found to be slow by two seconds tomorrow. at the end of a month, the watch will be roughly a minute in error ( thirty days of the two second error accumulated each day ). the person would then find it convenient to reset the watch by one minute to have the correct time again. this scenario is analogous to that encountered with the leap second. the difference is that instead of resetting the clock that is running slow, we choose to adjust the clock that is keeping a uniform, precise time. the reason for this is that we can change the time of an atomic clock while it is not possible to alter the earth ' s rotational speed to match the atomic clocks. currently the earth runs slow at roughly 2 milliseconds per day. after 500 days, the difference between the earth rotation time and the atomic time would be one second. instead of allowing this to happen a leap second is inserted to bring the two times closer together. the decision of when to introduce a leap second in utc is the responsibility of the international earth rotation service ( iers ). according to international agreements, first preference is given to the opportunities at the end of december and june, and second preference to those at the end of march and september. since the system was introduced in 1972, only dates in june and december have been used. the official united states time is determined by the master clock at the u. s. naval observatory ( usno ). the observatory is charged with the responsibility for precise time determination and management of time dissemination. modern electronic systems, such as electronic navigation or communication systems, depend increasingly on precise time and time interval ( ptti ). examples are the ground - based loran - c navigation system and the satellite - based global positioning system ( gps ). navigation systems are the most critical application for precise time. gps, in particular, is widely used for navigating ships, planes,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6010492330294557, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad3517d5-9fdc-41be-abb7-3b5ca1eaa42c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.699131"}
{"text": "are the ground - based loran - c navigation system and the satellite - based global positioning system ( gps ). navigation systems are the most critical application for precise time. gps, in particular, is widely used for navigating ships, planes, missiles, trucks, and cars anywhere on earth. these systems are all based on the travel time of electromagnetic signals : an accuracy of 10 nanoseconds ( 10 one - billionths of a second ) corresponds to a position accuracy of about 3 meters ( or 10 feet ). precise time measurements are needed for the synchronization of clocks at two or more sites. such synchronization is necessary, for example, for high - speed communications systems. power companies use precise time to control power distribution grids and reduce power loss. radio and television stations require precise time ( the time of day ) and precise frequencies in order to broadcast their transmissions. many programs are transmitted from coast to coast to affiliate stations around the country. without precise timing the stations would not be able to synchronize the transmission of these programs to local audiences. all of these systems are referenced to the usno master clock. very precise time is kept by using atomic clocks. the principle of operation of the atomic clock is based on measuring the microwave resonance frequency ( 9, 192, 631, 770 cycles per seconds ) of the cesium atom. at the observatory, the atomic time scale ( at ) is determined by averaging 60 to 70 atomic clocks placed in separate, environmentally controlled vaults. atomic time is a very uniform measure of time ( one tenth of one billionth of a second per day ). the usno must maintain and continually improve its clock system so that it can stay one step ahead of the demands made on its accuracy, stability and reliability. the present master clock of the usno is based on a system of some 60 independently operating cesium atomic clocks and 7 to 10 hydrogen maser atomic clocks. these clocks are distributed over 20 environmentally controlled clock vaults, to ensure their stability. by automatic inter - comparison of all clocks every 100 seconds, a time scale is computed which is not only reliable but also extremely stable. its rate does not change by more than about 100 picoseconds (. 0000000001 seconds ) per day from day to day. on the basis of this computed time scale, a clock reference system is steered to produce clock signals which serve as the usno master clock. the clock reference system is driven by a hydrogen maser atomic clock. hydrogen masers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6663889448523392, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad3517d5-9fdc-41be-abb7-3b5ca1eaa42c>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.700660"}
{"text": "from day to day. on the basis of this computed time scale, a clock reference system is steered to produce clock signals which serve as the usno master clock. the clock reference system is driven by a hydrogen maser atomic clock. hydrogen masers are extremely stable clocks over short time periods ( less than one week ). they provide the stability and reliability needed to maintain the accuracy of the master clock system. very long baseline interferometry ( vlbi ) is used to determine universal time ( ut1 ) based on the rotation of the earth about its axis. vlbi is an advanced astronomical technique of observing extra - galactic sources ( typically quasars ) with radio telescopes. the information gained using vlbi can be used to generate images of the distant radio sources, measure the rotation rate of the earth, the motions of the earth in space, or even measure how the tectonic plates where the telescopes are located are moving on the surface of the earth. measuring the earth ' s rotational motion is critical for navigation. the most accurate navigation systems rely on measurements using satellite systems which are not tied to the earth ' s surface. these systems can provide a position accurate to a about a meter ( few feet ), but the position of the earth relative to the satellites must also be known to avoid potentially far larger errors. the u. s. naval observatory has been in the forefront of timekeeping since the early 1800s. in 1845, the observatory offered its first time service to the public : a time ball was dropped at noon. beginning in 1865 time signals were sent daily by telegraph to western union and others. in 1904, a u. s. navy station broadcast the first worldwide radio time signals based on a clock provided and controlled by the observatory. a time of day announcement can be obtained by calling 202 - 762 - 1401 locally in the washington area. for long distance callers the number is 900 - 410 - time. the latter number is a commercial service for which the telephone company charges 50 cents for the first minute and 45 cents for each additional minute. australia, hong kong, and bermuda can also access this service at international direct dialing rates. you can also get time for your computer by calling 202 - 762 - 1594. use 1200 baud, no parity, 8 bit ascii. | last modified : 24 october 2001 | | approved by eo dept. head, usno |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6571418523627767, "token_count": 491, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad3517d5-9fdc-41be-abb7-3b5ca1eaa42c>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.702136"}
{"text": "the steps by which molecules in the primordial soup came together to form the genetic backbone of life are largely unknown. one approach to finding out is to artificially create basic life functions in the laboratory and consider if such conditions might have been possible in the earth \u2019 s past. writing in physical review letters, hubert krammer and colleagues at the ludwig maximilian university of munich in germany show they are able to drive the replication of segments of trna ( transfer ribonucleic acid ), the molecule responsible for translating genetic code into the production of specific proteins, using a purely thermal process. krammer et al. begin by rapidly cooling a solution of four halves of trna from high temperatures to so that the molecules form hairpins \u2014 a state where the strand forms a closed loop on itself, except for a snippet of a sequence of bases, called a \u201c toe hold. \u201d it is this toe hold, which, in principle, carries enough information to encode a protein, that the authors try to protect and replicate by using a thermal process to coax the hairpins to open and pair to a complementary strand. when krammer et al. thermally cycle the solution between and, the energy stored in the hairpin ( which prefers it to bind to a complementary pair instead of itself ) compensates for the loss of entropy associated with the molecules pairing up with their partners. this thermally driven process occurs on a relatively fast time scale of about seconds, an important factor since molecules need to replicate faster than they degrade. according to the authors, convection currents in prebiotic liquids could have provided the necessary quenching and thermal cycling. \u2013 jessica thomas", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6227483261703814, "token_count": 338, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4667167f-2026-4584-834a-5892652dce7e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:34.947163"}
{"text": "one of the more interesting microsoft projects is \" simulating biological systems in the stochastic pi calculus. \" the idea is to create a more scaleable way to track \" the behavior of biological systems. \" one approach is to build a so - called stochastic pi machine, a project driven by andrew phillips of microsoft research. so what does stochastic mean? well, a stochastic process is one in which there is a certain amount of randomness. this means that computers and scientists can gather data and analyze the process, but, due to its random nature, cannot make accurate predictions about it. the stochastic pi machine is designed to simulate and model the workings of biological systems. using stochastic pi calculus, biological models can be built step by step, where models of small systems are ultimately built into a model of staggering complexity - - the type of complexity that matches the reality of biological systems themselves. one peek at the science 2020 work and you ' d swear it was tailor made for the bill & melinda gates foundation. not the case. while so many of the goals are identical, they are two entirely separate \" bill has clearly had input into the overall european scientific program. he launched it last year and has provided input on numerous occasions. with the bill & melinda gates foundation there is no formal link with what we ' re doing. however, some of the work that we are doing clearly has an implication for the areas that the foundation is working in, \" says stephen emmott, director of the microsoft research european nevertheless, gates ' foundation is privately funding projects that could just as easily be paid for by microsoft research. while microsoft research obsesses over the human genome, the gates foundation has earmarked $ 2. 5 billion to fight malaria by building a genetic map of the disease. the foundation is also working with glaxosmithkline, a microsoft research partner, to test a new vaccine. beating meningitis is another item on the gates foundation ' s agenda. the foundation, along with the serum institute of india, is working on an inexpensive vaccine that works across all age levels and prevents the disease from being passed from person to person. - - d. b. interestingly enough, computers are built much the same way. they start off simple, but through more and more memory, networks, grids etc., increase in complexity in an additive way. one of the biggest 2020 goals is fighting disease, a goal shared by the bill & melinda gates foundation, which has no formal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6241803027371582, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:feda2b02-9833-44d8-ae80-79c7a46f668a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.049946"}
{"text": "the origins of intel ' s new transistor, and its future a q & a with chenming hu, coinventor of both the finfet and its likely competitor photo : peg skorpinski 9 may 2011 \u2014 last wednesday, intel announced a big change to the electronic switches at the heart of its cpus. going forward, the firm will be using three - dimensional transistors to take the place of long - used planar devices. the new transistors \u2014 dubbed \" tri - gates \" \u2014 are a variation on the finfet, a transistor design that substitutes the flat channel through which electrons flow with a 3 - d ridge, or fin. popping the channel out of plane and draping the gate \u2014 which switches the transistor on and off \u2014 over it will allow intel to shrink the smallest features in its transistors from 32 nanometers to 22 nm while cutting power consumption in half. this feat would be impossible to do with the transistor design the company had been using. how did this 3 - d design win its way into production? we asked the coinventor of the finfet, ieee fellow chenming hu, a professor emeritus at the university of california, berkeley, how the new transistors got their start, why we need them now, and where they will go from here. ieee spectrum : we \u2019 ve been shrinking two - dimensional, or planar, transistors just fine for 50 years. why are we seeing a switch to three - dimensional finfets? chenming hu : i \u2019 ll distill the problem with planar transistors to a single point. it all stems from the fact that it is very difficult to turn off a transistor when it \u2019 s very small. in other words, you can \u2019 t stop the current flowing through the transistor when you don \u2019 t want the current to flow. i \u2019 ll use an analogy to explain this. there is a garden hose lying on a soggy lawn, and you want to stop the water from flowing into this lawn. if there \u2019 s a long hose, you can call your friends to come in and put 10 pairs of hands down, and you can stop the water. now imagine you shorten the hose so you cannot even put one palm on it to stop it. now you shorten it even more, so you can only put one finger on it. it \u2019 s impossible to stop. in the past 10 years, people have dealt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6023961505529358, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:335c8ceb-c907-428b-b8c4-da22363d77a0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.135944"}
{"text": "ieee spectrum : the idea for finfets has been around for a while. how did it all get started? chenming hu : darpa [ the defense advanced research projects agency ] sent out a request for proposals in 1996 for ideas to develop electronic switches beyond 25 nm. at the time, the industry was using 250 - nm transistors, and the general view was that transistors could not be scaled below 100 nm. but my students and i had already been thinking about how to get transistors to scale to 25 nm and beyond. there was a quick meeting probably lasting only five minutes between myself and two colleagues \u2014 professor tsu - jae king liu and professor jeff bokor. the meeting was short because we already knew what to do. i was on a flight to a conference in japan, and i had about 10 hours, so i just wrote down the technical proposal in longhand. i proposed two structures that we \u2019 d been thinking about for a while. one was finfets, and the other is what we call an ultrathin - body silicon - on - insulator ( utb soi ). we got the contract in 1997, and that gave us the resources to demonstrate finfets experimentally. a young graduate student named xuejue \" cathy \" huang made the working device, and the team of three professors and 11 students and visiting researchers published it in 1999. ieee spectrum : how did the industry react to the finfet paper? chenming hu : it was an instant hit. i remember cathy and i were invited to intel santa clara just a couple of months after the publication, and in that same year, 2000, i was invited to intel oregon twice. at the time, people were asking me how long it would take for the idea to get into production. i said about 10 years, so i guess i was off by one. ieee spectrum : was the attention that you got unusual for a new transistor design? chenming hu : extremely unusual. we contributed two things : we figured out a way to make the transistor manufacturable, and we showed how this thing could bring us to 25 nm and to 10 nm. we even figured out how to use the finfet to solve the two top problems plaguing mosfets today \u2014 random variations of impurity atoms and variations in gate length ( roughly the distance from the source to the drain ). so we anticipated a lot of emerging problems and showed that finfets can solve them. that was", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6147968761692715, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:335c8ceb-c907-428b-b8c4-da22363d77a0>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.138167"}
{"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( v ) compel, oblige, obligate ( force somebody to do something ) \" we compel all students to fill out this form \" - direct troponym / full troponym - s : ( v ) force, thrust ( impose urgently, importunately, or inexorably ) \" she forced her diet fads on him \" - s : ( v ) stick, sting ( saddle with something disagreeable or disadvantageous ) \" they stuck me with the dinner bill \" ; \" i was stung with a huge tax bill \" - s : ( v ) walk ( make walk ) \" he walks the horse up the mountain \" ; \" walk the dog twice a day \" - s : ( v ) parade, exhibit, march ( walk ostentatiously ) \" she parades her new husband around town \" - s : ( v ) march ( cause to march or go at a marching pace ) \" they marched the mules into the desert \" - s : ( v ) coerce, hale, squeeze, pressure, force ( to cause to do through pressure or necessity, by physical, moral or intellectual means ) \" she forced him to take a job in the city \" ; \" he squeezed her for information \" - s : ( v ) turn up the heat, turn up the pressure ( apply great or increased pressure ) \" the democrats turned up the heat on their candidate to concede the election \" - s : ( v ) drive ( to compel or force or urge relentlessly or exert coercive pressure on, or motivate strongly ) \" she is driven by her passion \" - s : ( v ) bludgeon ( overcome or coerce as if by using a heavy club ) \" the teacher bludgeoned the students into learning the math formulas \" - s : ( v ) steamroller, steamroll ( bring to a specified state by overwhelming force or pressure ) \" the senator steamrollered the bill to defeat \" - s : ( v ) squeeze for ( squeeze someone for money, information, etc. ) - s : ( v ) dragoon, sandbag, railroad ( compel by coercion, threats, or crude means ) \" they sandbagged him to make dinner for everyone \" - s : ( v ) terrorize", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6094728278204342, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5cb11816-b171-4b8f-aa6f-fb84548d3a3f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.262448"}
{"text": "| direct imaging of asymmetric magnetization reversal | the phenomenon of exchange bias has transformed how data is read on magnetic hard disks and created an explosion in their information storage density. however, it remains poorly understood, and even the fundamental mechanism of magnetic reversal for exchange - biased systems in changing magnetic fields is unclear. by using x - ray photoemission electron microscopy at the als to directly image the magnetic structure of an exchange - biased film, a team from the university of washington and the stanford synchrotron radiation laboratory has identified separate magnetic - reversal mechanisms in the two branches of a hysteresis loop. this advance in fundamental understanding will provide new insights for developing the next generation of information storage and sensing devices where exchange bias is expected to play a critical role. there are two basic energies involved in the manipulation and control of the magnetic properties of materials. exchange controls magnetic order, and anisotropy controls magnetic orientation. a soft ferromagnet such as iron has a large exchange parameter but a small anisotropy, making ferromagnetic order stable at higher temperatures but with an unpredictable orientation of the magnetization, especially in structures of nanoscale dimensions. on the other hand, many antiferromagnets have weak exchange interactions ( low ordering or neel temperatures ) but large anisotropies that result in very stable orientations. exchange bias arises when a thin ferromagnetic film is grown on an antiferromagnet and the resulting heterostructure is cooled in a magnetic field through the neel temperature of the antiferromagnet. as a result of exchange coupling between the layers, the ferromagnet both retains a stable order and gains a higher anisotropy at room temperature. moreover, the unidirectional character of the anisotropy results in a shifted hysteresis loop that is now centered on a non - zero magnetic field. this exchange bias makes the ferromagnet an excellent magnetic reference layer in modern nanolayer magnetic devices because it is very difficult to demagnetize it. more than fifty years of research has provided varying insight into the exchange - bias phenomenon but not yet a comprehensive description of all its salient features. to gain more insight, the washington \u2013 stanford team resorted to x - ray photoemission electron microscopy ( peem ) imaging of high - quality single - crystal ferromagnetic iron epitaxially grown on antiferromagnetic mnpd ( all on an mg", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.626518052184503, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6303857f-0867-4589-b8d6-612b9491697c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.271730"}
{"text": "\u2013 stanford team resorted to x - ray photoemission electron microscopy ( peem ) imaging of high - quality single - crystal ferromagnetic iron epitaxially grown on antiferromagnetic mnpd ( all on an mgo substrate ), samples that had been previously well - characterized magnetically and structurally. at an iron absorption resonance, absorption of circularly polarized x rays at als beamline 184. 108. 40. 206 is sensitive to the angle between the magnetization within a ferromagnetic domain and the polarization vector. with the peem - 2 microscope, this x - ray magnetic circular dichroism ( xmcd ) effect allows an exact determination of the direction of the local domain magnetization at the surface of ferromagnets with a spatial resolution of 50 nm or less. by means of xmcd measurements taken at points in hysteresis loops with the applied field in different crystallographic directions of the iron ferromagnet, the team has accumulated the first direct imaging evidence for an asymmetry in the magnetic - reversal mechanism in exchange - biased systems, evidence that until now has only been inferred indirectly by measurements such as neutron scattering. normally, magnetic reversal in ferromagnets occurs either by coherent rotation of magnetic moments in the domain or by nucleation and growth of reverse domains. generally, the mechanism is determined by the material microstructure and is symmetric with respect to the applied field, i. e., it is the same in both branches of the hysteresis loop. however, the team found that in exchanged - biased ferromagnetic iron, the magnetization reversal occurs by moment rotation for decreasing fields, while it proceeds by domain nucleation and growth for increasing fields. the observed domains are also consistent with the crystallography of the bilayers and favor a configuration that minimizes the overall magnetostatic energy of the ferromagnetic layer. research conducted by p. blomqvist and k. m. krishnan ( university of washington ) and h. ohldag ( stanford synchrotron radiation laboratory ). research funding : u. s. department of energy, office of basic energy sciences ( bes ). operation of the als is supported by bes. publication about this research : p. blomqvist, k. m. krishnan, and h. ohldag, \" direct imaging of asymmetric magnetization reversal in exchange - biased", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6293750853193752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6303857f-0867-4589-b8d6-612b9491697c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.272865"}
{"text": "tau researchers part of team of international scientists to uncover the \" god particle \" wednesday, july 25, 2012 higgs boson particle crucial for explaining how the universe was built tel aviv university ' s prof. yaron oz, dean of tau ' s faculty of exact sciences, and prof. aharon levy of tau ' s school of physics and astronomy were among the theoretical and experimental physicists who made the groundbreaking discovery of a particle known as the higgs boson or \" god particle, \" a key to understanding how the universe was built. the discovery was made at geneva ' s european laboratory for particle physics ( cern ) and announced in early july. first proposed in 1964 by a team of six physicists, including university of edinburgh professor peter higgs, the particle is said to explain the existence of mass. in particle physics, bosons are one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particles. the higgs boson is the final building block, missing until now from the \" standard model, \" which describes the structure of matter in the universe. the model is to physicists what the theory of evolution is to biologists. prof. yaron oz albert einstein would have been \" very happy \" at the discovery, prof. oz noted. the term \" god particle \" originated with prof. max lederman, an american experimental physicist who won the nobel prize in physics for his work with neutrinos. prof. lederman wrote a book using the term, \" by which he meant the mysterious particle that ' s part of everything, \" prof. levy says. \" particle physics aims at understanding what conditions created the big bang that created the universe, to look backwards as much as possible at that event. \" prof. oz congratulated the group of researchers not only on their scientific achievement but also on their ability to put political considerations aside and work together for the good of humanity. calling the huge cern facility \" what the un should be, \" he said that \" everybody is devoted to making the discovery as a team, without any politics or vested interests. i even worked with iranians there, and there was never a harsh word between us. we all just want to understand. it was has already been proven that the nationals of the world can function together harmoniously for joint targets. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6290680297932534, "token_count": 467, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3395d913-9a54-4e42-8af6-a4b4a5198506>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.307397"}
{"text": "translated by w. d. ross. we have treated of that which is primarily and to which all the other categories of being are referred \u2014 i. e. of substance. for it is in virtue of the concept of substance that the others also are said to be \u2014 quantity and quality and the like ; for all will be found to involve the concept of substance, as we said in the first part of our work. and since \u2018 being \u2019 is in one way divided into individual thing, quality, and quantity, and is in another way distinguished in respect of potency and complete reality, and of function, let us now add a discussion of potency and complete reality. and first let us explain potency in the strictest sense, which is, however, not the most useful for our present purpose. for potency and actuality extend beyond the cases that involve a reference to motion. but when we have spoken of this first kind, we shall in our discussions of actuality \u2019 explain the other kinds of potency as well. we have pointed out elsewhere that \u2018 potency \u2019 and the word \u2018 can \u2019 have several senses. of these we may neglect all the potencies that are so called by an equivocation. for some are called so by analogy, as in geometry we say one thing is or is not a \u2018 power \u2019 of another by virtue of the presence or absence of some relation between them. but all potencies that conform to the same type are originative sources of some kind, and are called potencies in reference to one primary kind of potency, which is an originative source of change in another thing or in the thing itself qua other. for one kind is a potency of being acted on, i. e. the originative source, in the very thing acted on, of its being passively changed by another thing or by itself qua other ; and another kind is a state of insusceptibility to change for the worse and to destruction by another thing or by the thing itself qua other by virtue of an originative source of change. in all these definitions is implied the formula if potency in the primary sense. \u2014 and again these so - called potencies are potencies either of merely acting or being acted on, or of acting or being acted on well, so that even in the formulae of the latter the formulae of the prior kinds of potency are somehow implied. obviously, then, in a sense the potency of acting and of being acted on is one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6692132041056017, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.896193"}
{"text": "thing may well be capable of being or coming to be, and yet not be or be about to be. but from the premisses this necessarily follows, that if we actually supposed that which is not, but is capable of being, to be or to have come to be, there will be nothing impossible in this ; but the result will be impossible, for the measuring of the diagonal is impossible. for the false and the impossible are not the same ; that you are standing now is false, but that you should be standing is not impossible. at the same time it is clear that if, when a is real, b must be real, then, when a is possible, b also must be possible. for if b need not be possible, there is nothing to prevent its not being possible. now let a be supposed possible. then, when a was possible, we agreed that nothing impossible followed if a were supposed to be real ; and then b must of course be real. but we supposed b to be impossible. let it be impossible then. if, then, b is impossible, a also must be so. but the first was supposed impossible ; therefore the second also is impossible. if, then, a is possible, b also will be possible, if they were so related that if a, is real, b must be real. if, then, a and b being thus related, b is not possible on this condition, and b will not be related as was supposed. and if when a is possible, b must be possible, then if a is real, b also must be real. for to say that b must be possible, if a is possible, means this, that if a is real both at the time when and in the way in which it was supposed capable of being real, b also must then and in that way be real. as all potencies are either innate, like the senses, or come by practice, like the power of playing the flute, or by learning, like artistic power, those which come by practice or by rational formula we must acquire by previous exercise but this is not necessary with those which are not of this nature and which imply passivity. since that which is \u2018 capable \u2019 is capable of something and at some time in some way ( with all the other qualifications which must be present in the definition ), and since some things can produce change according to a rational formula and their potencies involve such a formula, while other things are nonrational and their potencies are non - rational", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6233590667530855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.901861"}
{"text": "of the kind of potency which is related to movement, let us discuss actuality \u2014 what, and what kind of thing, actuality is. for in the course of our analysis it will also become clear, with regard to the potential, that we not only ascribe potency to that whose nature it is to move something else, or to be moved by something else, either without qualification or in some particular way, but also use the word in another sense, which is the reason of the inquiry in the course of which we have discussed these previous senses also. actuality, then, is the existence of a thing not in the way which we express by \u2018 potentially \u2019 ; we say that potentially, for instance, a statue of hermes is in the block of wood and the half - line is in the whole, because it might be separated out, and we call even the man who is not studying a man of science, if he is capable of studying ; the thing that stands in contrast to each of these exists actually. our meaning can be seen in the particular cases by induction, and we must not seek a definition of everything but be content to grasp the analogy, that it is as that which is building is to that which is capable of building, and the waking to the sleeping, and that which is seeing to that which has its eyes shut but has sight, and that which has been shaped out of the matter to the matter, and that which has been wrought up to the unwrought. let actuality be defined by one member of this antithesis, and the potential by the other. but all things are not said in the same sense to exist actually, but only by analogy \u2014 as a is in b or to b, c is in d or to d ; for some are as movement to potency, and the others as substance to some sort of matter. but also the infinite and the void and all similar things are said to exist potentially and actually in a different sense from that which applies to many other things, e. g. to that which sees or walks or is seen. for of the latter class these predicates can at some time be also truly asserted without qualification ; for the seen is so called sometimes because it is being seen, sometimes because it is capable of being seen. but the infinite does not exist potentially in the sense that it will ever actually have separate existence ; it exists potentially only for knowledge. for the fact that the process of dividing never comes to an end ensures that this activity exists", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6506888103146232, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.903754"}
{"text": "casket is not \u2018 earthen \u2019 nor \u2018 earth \u2019, but \u2018 wooden \u2019 ; for this is potentially a casket and this is the matter of a casket, wood in general of a casket in general, and this particular wood of this particular casket. and if there is a first thing, which is no longer, in reference to something else, called \u2018 thaten \u2019, this is prime matter ; e. g. if earth is \u2018 airy \u2019 and air is not \u2018 fire \u2019 but \u2018 fiery \u2019, fire is prime matter, which is not a \u2018 this \u2019. for the subject or substratum is differentiated by being a \u2018 this \u2019 or not being one ; i. e. the substratum of modifications is, e. g. a man, i. e. a body and a soul, while the modification is \u2018 musical \u2019 or \u2018 pale \u2019. ( the subject is called, when music comes to be present in it, not \u2018 music \u2019 but \u2018 musical \u2019, and the man is not \u2018 paleness \u2019 but \u2018 pale \u2019, and not \u2018 ambulation \u2019 or \u2018 movement \u2019 but \u2018 walking \u2019 or \u2018 moving \u2019, \u2014 which is akin to the \u2018 thaten \u2019. ) wherever this is so, then, the ultimate subject is a substance ; but when this is not so but the predicate is a form and a \u2018 this \u2019, the ultimate subject is matter and material substance. and it is only right that \u2018 thaten \u2019 should be used with reference both to the matter and to the accidents ; for both are indeterminates. we have stated, then, when a thing is to be said to exist potentially and when it is not. from our discussion of the various senses of \u2018 prior \u2019, it is clear that actuality is prior to potency. and i mean by potency not only that definite kind which is said to be a principle of change in another thing or in the thing itself regarded as other, but in general every principle of movement or of rest. for nature also is in the same genus as potency ; for it is a principle of movement \u2014 not, however, in something else but in the thing itself qua itself. to all such potency, then, actuality is prior both in formula and in substantiality ; and in time it is prior in one sense, and in another not. ( 1 ) clearly it is prior in formula ; for that which is in the primary sense potential is potential because it is possible for it to become active ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6323069943622451, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.906550"}
{"text": "the act of building ), yet none the less the act is in the former case the end and in the latter more of an end than the potency is. for the act of building is realized in the thing that is being built, and comes to be, and is, at the same time as the house. where, then, the result is something apart from the exercise, the actuality is in the thing that is being made, e. g. the act of building is in the thing that is being built and that of weaving in the thing that is being woven, and similarly in all other cases, and in general the movement is in the thing that is being moved ; but where there is no product apart from the actuality, the actuality is present in the agents, e. g. the act of seeing is in the seeing subject and that of theorizing in the theorizing subject and the life is in the soul ( and therefore well - being also ; for it is a certain kind of life ). obviously, therefore, the substance or form is actuality. according to this argument, then, it is obvious that actuality is prior in substantial being to potency ; and as we have said, one actuality always precedes another in time right back to the actuality of the eternal prime mover. but ( b ) actuality is prior in a stricter sense also ; for eternal things are prior in substance to perishable things, and no eternal thing exists potentially. the reason is this. every potency is at one and the same time a potency of the opposite ; for, while that which is not capable of being present in a subject cannot be present, everything that is capable of being may possibly not be actual. that, then, which is capable of being may either be or not be ; the same thing, then, is capable both of being and of not being. and that which is capable of not being may possibly not be ; and that which may possibly not be is perishable, either in the full sense, or in the precise sense in which it is said that it possibly may not be, i. e. in respect either of place or of quantity or quality ; \u2018 in the full sense \u2019 means \u2018 in respect of substance \u2019. nothing, then, which is in the full sense imperishable is in the full sense potentially existent ( though there is nothing to prevent its being so in some respect, e. g. potentially of a certain quality", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6044289263999274, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.909446"}
{"text": "in respect of substance \u2019. nothing, then, which is in the full sense imperishable is in the full sense potentially existent ( though there is nothing to prevent its being so in some respect, e. g. potentially of a certain quality or in a certain place ) ; all imperishable things, then, exist actually. nor can anything which is of necessity exist potentially ; yet these things are primary ; for if these did not exist, nothing would exist. nor does eternal movement, if there be such, exist potentially ; and, if there is an eternal mobile, it is not in motion in virtue of a potentiality, except in respect of \u2018 whence \u2019 and \u2018 whither \u2019 ( there is nothing to prevent its having matter which makes it capable of movement in various directions ). and so the sun and the stars and the whole heaven are ever active, and there is no fear that they may sometime stand still, as the natural philosophers fear they may. nor do they tire in this activity ; for movement is not for them, as it is for perishable things, connected with the potentiality for opposites, so that the continuity of the movement should be laborious ; for it is that kind of substance which is matter and potency, not actuality, that causes this. imperishable things are imitated by those that are involved in change, e. g. earth and fire. for these also are ever active ; for they have their movement of themselves and in themselves. but the other potencies, according to our previous discussion, are all potencies for opposites ; for that which can move another in this way can also move it not in this way, i. e. if it acts according to a rational formula ; and the same non - rational potencies will produce opposite results by their presence or absence. if, then, there are any entities or substances such as the dialecticians say the ideas are, there must be something much more scientific than science - itself and something more mobile than movement - itself ; for these will be more of the nature of actualities, while science - itself and movement - itself are potencies for these. obviously, then, actuality is prior both to potency and to every principle of change. that the actuality is also better and more valuable than the good potency is evident from the following argument. everything of which we say that it can do something, is alike capable of contraries, e. g. that of which we say", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6290272499559884, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.910372"}
{"text": "\u2019 s thinking is an actuality ; so that the potency proceeds from an actuality ; and therefore it is by making constructions that people come to know them ( though the single actuality is later in generation than the corresponding potency ). the terms \u2018 being \u2019 and \u2018 non - being \u2019 are employed firstly with reference to the categories, and secondly with reference to the potency or actuality of these or their non - potency or nonactuality, and thirdly in the sense of true and false. this depends, on the side of the objects, on their being combined or separated, so that he who thinks the separated to be separated and the combined to be combined has the truth, while he whose thought is in a state contrary to that of the objects is in error. this being so, when is what is called truth or falsity present, and when is it not? we must consider what we mean by these terms. it is not because we think truly that you are pale, that you are pale, but because you are pale we who say this have the truth. if, then, some things are always combined and cannot be separated, and others are always separated and cannot be combined, while others are capable either of combination or of separation, \u2018 being \u2019 is being combined and one, and \u2018 not being \u2019 is being not combined but more than one. regarding contingent facts, then, the same opinion or the same statement comes to be false and true, and it is possible for it to be at one time correct and at another erroneous ; but regarding things that cannot be otherwise opinions are not at one time true and at another false, but the same opinions are always true or always false. but with regard to incomposites, what is being or not being, and truth or falsity? a thing of this sort is not composite, so as to \u2018 be \u2019 when it is compounded, and not to \u2018 be \u2019 if it is separated, like \u2018 that the wood is white \u2019 or \u2018 that the diagonal is incommensurable \u2019 ; nor will truth and falsity be still present in the same way as in the previous cases. in fact, as truth is not the same in these cases, so also being is not the same ; but ( a ) truth or falsity is as follows \u2014 contact and assertion are truth ( assertion not being the same as affirmation ), and ignorance is non - contact. for it is not possible to be in error", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6234615408987847, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.913612"}
{"text": "not the same ; but ( a ) truth or falsity is as follows \u2014 contact and assertion are truth ( assertion not being the same as affirmation ), and ignorance is non - contact. for it is not possible to be in error regarding the question what a thing is, save in an accidental sense ; and the same holds good regarding non - composite substances ( for it is not possible to be in error about them ). and they all exist actually, not potentially ; for otherwise they would have come to be and ceased to be ; but, as it is, being itself does not come to be ( nor cease to be ) ; for if it had done so it would have had to come out of something. about the things, then, which are essences and actualities, it is not possible to be in error, but only to know them or not to know them. but we do inquire what they are, viz. whether they are of such and such a nature or not. ( b ) as regards the \u2018 being \u2019 that answers to truth and the \u2018 non - being \u2019 that answers to falsity, in one case there is truth if the subject and the attribute are really combined, and falsity if they are not combined ; in the other case, if the object is existent it exists in a particular way, and if it does not exist in this way does not exist at all. and truth means knowing these objects, and falsity does not exist, nor error, but only ignorance \u2014 and not an ignorance which is like blindness ; for blindness is akin to a total absence of the faculty of thinking. it is evident also that about unchangeable things there can be no error in respect of time, if we assume them to be unchangeable. e. g. if we suppose that the triangle does not change, we shall not suppose that at one time its angles are equal to two right angles while at another time they are not ( for that would imply change ). it is possible, however, to suppose that one member of such a class has a certain attribute and another has not ; e. g. while we may suppose that no even number is prime, we may suppose that some are and some are not. but regarding a numerically single number not even this form of error is possible ; for we cannot in this case suppose that one instance has an attribute and another has not, but whether our judgement be true or false, it is implied that the fact is eternal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6030320928189026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f237547b-cb07-4a63-9821-9f0c33cf5612>", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:35.914749"}
{"text": "diamonds are a scientist ' s best friend : research into building better small machines do diamonds really last forever? that ' s the hope of university of wisconsin - madison researchers who are trying to solve the problems associated with building extremely small machines and having them withstand the test of time, wear and tear. the problem is that these machines are so small \u2014 microscopic or smaller \u2014 that their moving parts cannot be assisted by lubricants ; instead, they have to function in a dry state, like a car with no oil. a really, really small car with no oil. \" they no longer behave in the same way as they do at the macro - scale, where materials may be far stronger, have more power to catalyze chemical reactions, be more optically responsive, and more, \" says rob carpick, associate professor of engineering physics. \" that is why it is very interesting to study the fundamental physics of nanoscale materials and also to try to utilize these unique properties for real applications. \" an example of a real application includes the tiny sensors in cars that sense rapid deceleration and deploy airbags. carpick and his colleagues \u2014 including collaborators from argonne national laboratories \u2014 recently published research that is integral to better understanding the issues facing the engineering of both micro - and nanoelectromechanical systems, called mems and nems. the paper, published in the journal advanced materials, explored a material made by their argonne collaborators, ultrananocrystalline diamond ( uncd ) and, in particular, its structure and surface chemistry. \" when you consider fabricating devices with sliding and rotational motion, you need to consider the structure and surface chemistry of the materials at the location of contact, called a tribological interface, \" carpick explains. it ' s this issue of tribology \u2014 the study of friction, lubrication and wear of moving parts \u2014 that ' s particularly interesting when considering mems and nems. just because small machines can be made doesn ' t mean that they can be made to work well and not wear down the researchers say. due to the vast knowledge of its use in microscale fabrication, the material of choice has traditionally been silicon. but because silicon does not respond well to uses that require repetitive sliding or rolling, the machines made from it fail. two solutions to the problem include improving silicon ' s wearability or finding a new material. carpick is putting his money a new material : diamond. the published study reported on data taken exclusively at the sync", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6141757608475598, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f8b963ee-4634-40ec-87aa-10a8405612f9>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:36.005457"}
{"text": "rolling, the machines made from it fail. two solutions to the problem include improving silicon ' s wearability or finding a new material. carpick is putting his money a new material : diamond. the published study reported on data taken exclusively at the synchrotron radiation center, an electron storage ring located at uw - madison that uses the light produced by electrons whizzing around a basketball court - sized ring to conduct spectroscopy \u2014 a method that uses electrons kicked out of the sample by this light like knocking bricks out of a wall \u2014 to analyze the bonding configuration of materials like diamond in detail. \" to our surprise, we found that the structure and surface chemistry of the diamond at the tribological interface is worse than the original diamond. we found that at the tribological interface, the surface is more graphitic in nature, \" explains carpick. \" this would be bad news for a mems device. \" the solution offered by carpick and his colleagues is to coat the surface of the diamond by removing the graphite and attaching hydrogen to the remaining pure diamond. this forms a strongly bonded \" atomic cap \" to the surface. like putting varnish on a wooden table, the diamond surface becomes sealed and the diamond becomes water repellent, a critical feature for a machine that runs without lubrication. \" this means, if one wishes to build mems or nems devices from uncd, then we have shown a way to minimize friction and adhesion, and this will help us to develop more reliable, robust ( and ) long lasting mems devices, \" carpick notes. the next step for carpick includes a collaborative effort with uw - madison physics professor gelsomina \" pupa \" de stasio, who has developed world - renowned spectroscopy methods at the synchrotron radiation center. the team has been awarded a $ 480, 000 grant from the united states air force office of scientific research to tackle the issue of wear and tear on these thin diamond films and to answer the question of whether diamonds can truly last forever \u2014 or at least a really long time.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6342376007102825, "token_count": 426, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f8b963ee-4634-40ec-87aa-10a8405612f9>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:36.006258"}
{"text": "see wikipedia article on chaitin ' s construction, referring to e. g. - computing a glimpse of randomness ( written by cristian s. calude, michael j. dinneen, and chi - kou shu ) - omega and why math has no toes ( gregory chaitin ). 2 basing it on combinatory logic see the prefix coding system described in binary lambda calculus and combinatory logic ( page 20 ) written by john tromp : of course, c, d are meta - variables, and also some other notations are changed slightly. having seen this, decoding is rather straightforward. let us represent it e. g with the following ll1 parser. of course, we can build it on top of more sophisticated parser libraries ( parsec, arrow parsers ) 2. 2. 1 decoding module module decode ( clp ) where import parser ( parser, item ) import cl ( cl, k, s, apply ) import clext ( ( > > ^ ) ) clp : : parser bool cl clp = item ( bool applicationp basep ) applicationp : : parser bool cl applicationp = clp > > ^ clp basep : : parser bool cl basep = item ( bool k s ) kp, sp : : parser bool cl kp = return k sp = return s 2. 2. 2 combinatory logic term modules module cl ( cl, k, s, apply ) where import tree ( tree ( leaf, branch ) ) import basesymbol ( basesymbol, kay, ess ) type cl = tree basesymbol k, s : : cl k = leaf kay s = leaf ess apply : : cl - > cl - > cl apply = branch 22. 214. 171. 124 cl extension module clext ( ( > > ^ ) ) where import cl ( cl, apply ) import control. monad ( monad, liftm2 ) ( > > ^ ) : : monad m = > m cl - > m cl - > m cl ( > > ^ ) = liftm2 apply 126. 96. 36. 199 base symbol module basesymbol ( basesymbol, kay, ess ) where data basesymbol = k | s kay, ess : : basesymbol kay = k ess = s 2. 2. 3 utility modules 188. 8. 131. 52 binary tree module", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6053732448248842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e3a0356c-c3a1-44bc-9b81-c3d19c8b467c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:36.196363"}
{"text": "##ymbol, kay, ess ) where data basesymbol = k | s kay, ess : : basesymbol kay = k ess = s 2. 2. 3 utility modules 188. 8. 131. 52 binary tree module tree ( tree ( leaf, branch ) ) where data tree a = leaf a | branch ( tree a ) ( tree a ) module parser ( parser, item ) where import control. monad. state ( statet, get, put ) type parser token a = statet [ token ] a item : : parser a item = do token : tokens < - get put tokens return token 184. 108. 40. 206 prelude extension module preludeext ( bool ) where bool : : a - > a - > bool - > a bool thenc elsec t = if t then thenc else elsec 2. 3 partial function approach now, chaitin ' s construction will be here - should denote an unary predicate \u201c has normal form \u201d ( \u201c terminates \u201d ) - should mean an operator \u201c decode \u201d ( a function from finite bit sequences to combinatory logic terms ) - should denote the set of all finite bit sequences - should denote the set of syntactically correct bit sequences ( semantically, they may either terminate or diverge ), i. e. the domain of the decoding function, i. e. the range of the coding function. thus, - \u201c absolute value \u201d - should mean the length of a bit sequence ( not combinatory logic term evaluation! ) 2. 4 total function approach here, dc is a partial function ( from finite bit sequences ). if this is confusing or annoying, then we can choose a more haskell - like approach, making dc a total function : dc : : [ bit ] - > maybe cl then, chaitin ' s construction will be where should denote false truth value. 3 related concepts 4 to do writing a program in haskell - - or in combinatory logic : - ) - - which could help in making conjectures on combinatory logic - based chaitin ' s constructions. it would make only approximations, in a similar way that most mandelbrot plotting softwares work : it would ask for a maximum limit of iterations. chaitin - - computation = cl - - coding = tromp - - limit - of - iterations = 5000 - - digits = 10 - - decimal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6189693863282197, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e3a0356c-c3a1-44bc-9b81-c3d19c8b467c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:36.198592"}
{"text": "exploring nonlinear mechanical behaviour of rocks at lance smarts - spectrometer for materials research at temperature and stress atomic - scale stress - strain information obtained from the neutron rietveld data indicate that the strain experienced by the crystalline quartz is ~ 1 / 5 of the macroscopic strain ( the rest taken up by the grain contacts and bonds in the rock ). no hints of nonlinearity whatsoever are evident in the neutron data. conclusion? the grain bond system ( a small fraction of the total rock ) is responsible for all the peculiar quasi - static nonlinearity we see. beamlines at the lansce ( los alamos neutron science center ) / lujan center - lansce produces intense sources of pulsed protons and spallation neutrons from a tungsten target. proton beam currents during all the experiments varied from 100 to 110 \u00b5a. the neutron powder diffractometer has the unique capability of simultaneous high - q rietveld and pair - density function analyses, enabling determination of the average and local structures of complex materials with high accuracy. the questions these experiments are designed to answer are ( 1 ) can neutrons \" see \" the grain bond system and if so, ( 2 ) can neutrons help to ascertain the role ( s ) of intergranular bonds vs. the bulk crystalline volume in the nonlinear behaviour of rocks? results below show evidence of non - crystalline silica in a pure quartz sandstone. above - rietveld analysis shows an excellent match with crystalline quartz ; there are no other crystal phases in fontainebleau sandstone. above - a revised model adding ~ 7 % amorphous silica to the crystal model makes a greatly improved fit. above - when the pdf data ( red crosses ) is compared to a perfect quartz model, there is a large discrepancy in the nearest neighbor peaks. above - pdf data ( red ) of amorphous silica shows that only the nearest neighbor peaks are sharp and correspond with those of the crystal ( blue ). hippo ' s proximity to the neutron spallation source and its numerous detectors mean it can watch atomic plane structures change in real time. counting for 1 minute or less is sufficient for a rietveld analysis of the scattering data. scattering experiments were performed to observe the crystalline structure of sandstone samples undergoing periodic temperature changes. modulus ( resonance frequency ) and temperature was tracked as a function of time. neutron results - unit cell volume - show none of the peculiar macroscopic nonlinear behavior. history - modulus drop observed after a temperature", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6375817520973956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cc2dd5ff-dead-495c-b3ab-c30e87bf94c3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:36.451535"}
{"text": "in 1985, a high school kid is accidentally transported in a time machine, back to the year 1955. but the actions he takes while he is there create a paradox in the space - time continuum. when he returns to the 1985 reality from which he was originally transported, he discovers that the paradox has altered it. this forces him to travel back to the 1955 reality once again in an attempt to rectify the actions of his own self. he now has two selves traveling on the same 1955 timeline, only one of which is aware of the other. none of the people who live in these two realities are aware of anything that is taking place because they \u2019 re just characters in a movie. there is no place in this new kind of physics both for the field and matter, for the field is the only reality. albert einstein in traditional physics, the dimensions of a system are referred to as its \u2018 degrees of freedom \u2019. we perceive material objects to be solid because they vibrate very slowly at the atomic level. so solid, three - dimensional matter doesn \u2019 t have a lot of freedom. but, the fact of the matter is \u2013 there is no matter. the material universe is nothing more than a very dense form of energy. everything that exists in this universe, from the most subtle, refined realms of energetic structures, to the densest realms of matter, is aligned in one field of energy. string theory is a developing branch of physics that combines quantum physics and general relativity into a theory of gravity. this theory attempts to describe the natural forces of gravity, matter, electro - magnetics, and weak and strong interactions, all in a mathematically complete system. some physicists believe that this theory is the correct fundamental description of nature. they believe that the building blocks of the universe are not sub - atomic particles, but rather, they are a more fundamental layer of infinitesimally small filaments of vibrating energy. and these \u2018 strings of energy \u2019 vibrate at different frequencies. according to this theory, we are living in a universe that has 11 dimensions, with parallel dimensions, such as sub - space and hyper - space, which exist alongside it. the mathematics involved in this theory point to the existence of dimensions of reality, or consciousness, which are beyond our familiar world. our true role is to create endlessly from the infinite storehouse of possibilities located at the virtual level. deepak chopra in quantum physics, material objects are possibilities from which consciousness can choose. dimensions border one another in the same way that a radio carries many", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.690500871506706, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6efa531a-3eaa-428f-b615-fb3a760384af>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:37.137995"}
{"text": "existence of any distinction between the nature of a thing and its relationship to other things. post - structuralists generally reject the notion of formulations of \u201c essential relations \u201d in primitive cultures, languages, or descriptions of psychological phenomena being forms of aristotelianism, rationalism, or idealism. another common thread among thinkers associated with the post - structuralist movement is the criticism of the absolutist, quasi - scientific claims of structuralist theorists as more reflective of the mechanistic bias inspired by bureaucratization and industrialization than of the inner - workings of actual primitive cultures, languages or psyches. generally, post - structuralists emphasize the inter - determination and contingency of social and historical phenomena with each other and with the cultural values and biases of perspective. such realities were not to be dissected, in the manner of some structuralists, as a system of facts that could exist independently from values and paradigms ( either those of the analysts or the subjects themselves ), but to be understood as both causes and effects of each other. for this reason, most post - structuralists hold a more open - ended view of function within systems than did structuralists and were sometimes accused of circularity and ambiguity. post - structuralists countered that, when closely examined, all formalized claims describing phenomena, reality, or truth, rely on some form or circular reasoning and self - referential logic that is often paradoxical in nature. thus, it was important to uncover the hidden patterns of circularity, self - reference and paradox within a given set of statements rather that feign objectivity, as such an investigation might allow new perspectives to have influence and new practices to be sanctioned or adopted. in this latter respect, post - structuralists were, as a group, continuing the philosophical project initiated by martin heidegger, who saw himself as extending the implications of friedrich nietzsche ' s work. post - structuralist writing tends to connect observations and references from many, widely varying disciplines into a synthetic view of knowledge and its relationship to experience, the body, society and economy - a synthesis in which it sees itself as participating. structuralists, while also somewhat inter - disciplinary, were more comfortable within departmental boundaries and often maintained the autonomy of their analytical methods over the objects they analyzed. post - structuralists, unlike structuralists, did not privilege a system of ( abstract ) \" relations \" over the specifics to which such relations were applied, but tended to see the notion of \u201c the relation \u201d or of systemization itself as part", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6088971975731098, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d67aa1e6-e3d9-4ae4-b09b-33a2f39390c4>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:38.053256"}
{"text": "binding extra - linguistic value paradigms defining notions of collective identity and ultimate purpose, but rather by our automatic responses to different species of \" language games \" ( a concept lyotard imports from jl austin ' s theory of speech acts ). in his vision of a solution to this \" vertigo, \" lyotard opposes the assumptions of universality, consensus, and generality that he identified within the thought of humanistic, neo - kantian philosophers like jurgen habermas and proposes a continuation of experimentation and diversity to be assessed pragmatically in the context of language games rather than via appeal to a resurrected series of transcendentals and metaphysical unities. - richard rorty ( 1931 \u2013 2007 ) - argues in philosophy and the mirror of nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. in addition, he denounces the traditional epistemological perspectives of representationalism and correspondence theory that rely upon the independence of knowers and observers from phenomena and the passivity of natural phenomena in relation to consciousness. as a proponent of anti - foundationalism and anti - essentialism within a pragmatist framework, he echoes postmodern strains of conventionalism and philosophical relativism, but opposes much postmodern thinking with his commitment to social liberalism. - jean baudrillard ( 1929 \u2013 2007 ), - in simulacra and simulation, introduced the concept that reality or the principle of the \" real \" is short - circuited by the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital technologies. baudrillard proposes the notion that, in such a state, where subjects are detached from the outcomes of events ( political, literary, artistic, personal, or otherwise ), events no longer hold any particular sway on the subject nor have any identifiable context ; they therefore have the effect of producing widespread indifference, detachment, and passivity in industrialized populations. he claimed that a constant stream of appearances and references without any direct consequences to viewers or readers could eventually render the division between appearance and object indiscernible, resulting, ironically, in the \" disappearance \" of mankind in what is, in effect, a virtual or holographic state, composed only of appearances. - fredric jameson ( born 1934 ) - set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the whitney museum, later expanded as postmodern", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6397590327741545, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d67aa1e6-e3d9-4ae4-b09b-33a2f39390c4>", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:38.069272"}
{"text": "individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | philosophy index : aesthetics \u00b7 epistemology \u00b7 ethics \u00b7 logic \u00b7 metaphysics \u00b7 consciousness \u00b7 philosophy of language \u00b7 philosophy of mind \u00b7 philosophy of science \u00b7 social and political philosophy \u00b7 philosophies \u00b7 philosophers \u00b7 list of lists skepticism ( or scepticism ) has many definitions, but generally refers to any questioning attitude of knowledge, facts, or opinions / beliefs stated as facts, or doubt regarding claims that are taken for granted elsewhere. the word may characterise a position on a single matter, as in the case of religious skepticism, which is \" doubt concerning basic religious principles ( such as immortality, providence, and revelation ) \", but philosophical skepticism is an overall approach that requires all new information to be well supported by evidence. skeptics may even doubt the reliability of their own senses. classical philosophical skepticism derives from the ' skeptikoi ', a school who \" asserted nothing \". adherents of pyrrhonism, for instance, suspend judgment in investigations. - ( a ) an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object ; - ( b ) the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain ; or - ( c ) the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics ( merriam \u2013 webster ). in philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. these include propositions about : - ( a ) an inquiry, - ( b ) a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing, - ( c ) the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values, - ( d ) the limitations of knowledge, - ( e ) a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment. - main article : scientific skepticism a scientific ( or empirical ) skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding. most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation using some form of the scientific method. as a result, a number of claims are considered \" pseudoscience \" if they are found to improperly apply or ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. scientific skepticism does not address religious beliefs, since these beliefs are, by definition, outside the realm of systematic, empirical testing / knowledge. - main article : philosophical skepticism in philosophical skepticism, pyrrhonism is a position", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6125820270448238, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:337ff2b9-e6dd-41c2-988d-149c83e5d2fb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:38.798345"}
{"text": "greenhouse effect basics : warm earth, cold atmosphere posted on 29 february 2012 by tom curtis heating and heat flow some physics, everyone knows. in our daily lives we encounter the effects of physics all the time, and as a result, we know what physics predicts in those circumstances at a gut level. we may not be able to put it into numbers. we may not be able to apply it in novel situations. but we know it all the same. one example is as simple as putting on a blanket. we know that if we want warm something up, we can increase the supply of heat - or we can reduce the escape of heat. either is effective. if you have a pot that is simmering and you want to bring it to the boil, you can turn the heat up, or you can put on the lid. if we put on the lid, the pot will go nicely from simmering to boiling, and we don ' t need to turn up the heat even slightly. indeed, if we are not careful to turn down the heat, the pot may well boil over. likewise, if you have two identical motors running with an identical load and speed ( revolutions per minute ), one with the water pump working and one without, we are all physicist enough to say that the second one will run hotter. it does not matter that the energy supplied as fuel is identical in both cases. the fact that heat escapes more easilly with water circulating through the radiator will keep the first cooler. the consequence is that stopping the the water from circulating will lead second motor to disaster. nor do we find people who doubt this. suppose somebody told us their water pump was broken, but that the second law of thermodynamics prohibited transfer of heat from a cooler place ( the water ) to a hotter place ( the engine block ), so they ' ld be fine so long as they didn ' t rev any faster than normal, we ' ld look at them in complete disbelief. or we would if we were too polite to burst out laughing. and if they set out cross country confident in their belief, it doesn ' t matter what destination they claim they ' re heading for. rather, as we all know, they ' re really heading for a breakdown! ( image copyright to istock, and not to be reproduced without their permission. ) heat flow to space this physics that everyone knows is not only true of pots and radiators. it is true of the earth as well. the earth is warmed by our remarkably stable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6083572248445475, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cf658369-b75c-4945-b276-042f88282485>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:38.895133"}
{"text": "\" a hologram is a flat surface that, under proper illumination, appears to contain a three - dimensional image. a hologram may also project a three - dimensional image into the air \u2014 a lifelike image that can be photographed although it cannot be touched. because they cannot be copied by ordinary means, holograms are widely used to prevent counterfeiting of documents such as credit cards, driver ' s licenses, and admission tickets. the word hologram comes from the greek roots holos meaning whole and gramma meaning message. the process of making a hologram is called holography. when a hologram is made, light from a laser records an image of the desired object on film or a photographic plate. \" each cell of a hologram contains the whole message - - the entire picture. when light is shined on it, it reaches into a new dimension ( e. g. a two dimensional picture becomes three dimensional ). in a normal photograph, each cell contains a portion of the picture. in a hologram, each cell contains ' the whole message. ' sheep follow the leader. they go unthinkingly where the leader goes. if the leader is bad, the sheep will follow him to their destruction. my people hath been lost sheep : their shepherds have caused them to go astray, they have turned them away on the mountains : they have gone from mountain to hill, they have forgotten their resting place. only the good shepherd leads the sheep in the paths of righteousness. 1the lord is my shepherd ; i shall not want. 2he maketh me to lie down in green pastures : he leadeth me beside the still waters. 3he restoreth my soul : he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name ' s sake. yet, the object is not to remain sheep but to grow up into the head of christ. the object is for each cell ( person ) to become a complete image of christ, as in a hologram. the object is for each part of the body ( each person ) to become complete and perfected. 2 corinthians 3 : 18 but we all, with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the lord, are changed into the same image from glory to glory, even as by the spirit of the lord. it is my hope that when this happens to enough people ( a critical mass? ), the light of christ will shine on the hologram, showing a picture of christ that will fill the whole earth", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6381541494582144, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5be61697-3124-46cc-b004-3abfe261f3cb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:38.940335"}
{"text": ", nickel, uranium, bismuth, tungsten, and zinc were mined, smelted and partially processed. based on mining and metallurgy, the \u201c industrialization \u201d of the region took place in different historical stages. the component parts of the serial nomination are composed of carefully selected historical witnesses including protected mines and associated over - and underground ensembles, historically distinct landscape features such as pits, heaps, dewatering channels and reservoirs, mining towns and settlements, and other important social buildings related to mining towns and settlements. these witnesses are not limited to work process related issues but particularly include witnesses of the economic, scientific, cultural, and social influences of mining and metallurgy. together the component parts provide a lively comprehensive insight into all aspects of miner \u2019 s world. the component parts reflect also the transboundary nature of the bohemian and saxon erzgebirge. the serial property has to be understood as a geographical, historical and cultural unit illustrating both the mining activities and the interaction between two communities which shared a long common history. mining and metallurgy had formed an important and worldwide recognised trade and economic region which is still today strongly influenced by its mining traditions. especially the developments in the field of mining sciences and technologies contributed to the development of other mining regions in europe and the world. description of the component part ( s ) : in accordance with the spatial distribution of the numerous significant historic mining districts and their specific features, the serial property mining cultural landscape erzgebirge / krusnohori is represented by a selection of 13 significant separate component parts. the saxon part will be represented by 8 individual component parts which are representing the layout of the six historical mining districts of the 19th century and the two historically important districts of uranium and coal mining of the 20th century. the czech republic is represented by 4 large - scale mining landscapes and a single monument. the component parts cover a wide temporal and spatial range to fully illustrate the whole development process of the mining landscape and its culture. each component part features a distinctive character that is composed of three attributes : time depth, diversity of mineral resources, and cultural facets. the cultural facets do not only include work process related issues but also the far - reaching influence of mining activities on seemingly distant areas of life. the individual component parts comprise all witnesses necessary to document their distinctive character on the basis of largely originally preserved valuable monuments and landscapes. each selected component part represents a different chapter of the history. the individual components are of crucial importance to understand the development process of mining, its", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6082477550404086, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5ee23b18-cd34-4945-be18-4ce469ad6aa6>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:39.506536"}
{"text": "| | | | | | | | | | | | | | proceedings of symposia in applied mathematics 1998 ; 275 pp ; hardcover list price : us $ 60 member price : us $ 48 order code : psapm / 55 there exists a history of great expectations and large investments involving artificial intelligence ( ai ). there are also notable shortfalls and memorable disappointments. one major controversy regarding ai is just how mathematical a field it is or should be. this text includes contributions that examine the connections between ai and mathematics, demonstrating the potential for mathematical applications and exposing some of the more mathematical areas within ai. the goal is to stimulate interest in people who can contribute to the field or use its results. included is work by m. newborn on the famous deep blue chess match. he discusses highly mathematical techniques involving graph theory, combinatorics and probability and statistics. g. shafer offers his development of probability through probability trees with some of the results appearing here for the first time. m. golumbic treats temporal reasoning with ties to the famous frame problem. his contribution involves logic, combinatorics and graph theory and leads to two chapters with logical themes. h. kirchner explains how ordering techniques in automated reasoning systems make deduction more efficient. constraint logic programming is discussed by c. lassez, who shows its intimate ties to linear programming with crucial theorems going back to fourier. v. nalwa ' s work provides a brief tour of computer vision, tying it to mathematics - - from combinatorics, probability and geometry to partial differential equations. all authors are gifted expositors and are current contributors to the field. the wide scope of the volume includes research problems, research tools and good motivational material for teaching. graduate students and research mathematicians interested in artificial intelligence ; possibly those interested in philosophy. \" although this book was written to introduce mathematicians to ai, the book is also likely to be a valuable resource for cognitive scientists and mathematical psychologists. \" - - journal of mathematical psychology \" seven excellent papers are included, covering important ai topics. \" - - mathematical reviews table of contents ams home | \u00a9 copyright 2012, american mathematical society", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6342796584351429, "token_count": 435, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2f973b63-67de-47d4-94bc-6d8aa7463c01>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:39.714133"}
{"text": "an open hole. a knitted border on a piece of knitted fabric that keeps the center edge from stretching ; adds a neat trim to an otherwise rough - looking edge ; and creates a place for fastenings such as buttons. most often appears on cardigan sweaters. 1. a type of knitting increase that leaves a horizontal bar under the increased stitch. 2. in filet crochet, a long space that crosses over the two blocks or spaces, or the one lacet, below it. a knitting stitch pattern that creates a fabric that looks like a woven basket. knitting pattern abbreviation for beginning. crochet pattern abbreviation for between. to make a finished edge by securing the knitted stitches in the last row worked, which prevents unraveling. a crochet stitch used to assemble crocheted pieces, adding some stability to the backside of a seam made with long stitches, such as triple crochet. 1. ( verb ) to wet down or steam a piece of knitting or crochet in order to coax it into its final shape. the moisture and / or heat smoothes out uneven stitches and straightens out wavy, rolling edges. 2. ( noun ) the actual crocheted substance of a filet crochet design. wooden sock - or mitten - shaped template with biscuit - type holes cut out to aid air circulation when blocking a knitted or crocheted piece. a flat surface made from a material that you can stick a pin into, often marked with a 1 - inch grid to aid in blocking a knitted or crocheted piece. long, slightly flexible stainless steel wires in various lengths that you thread through the edges of your knitted pieces so that you can pin a knitted or crocheted piece into place for blocking without the edges becoming scalloped at the pin sites. crochet pattern abbreviation for back loop only. a piece of shaped plastic used to keep colored yarns separate while knitting or crocheting with multiple colors and strands of yarn. you wrap one color of yarn per bobbin. commonly used in fair isle and intarsia knitting. a highly bumpy, textured yarn composed of loops. a knitting stitch that has the same look and feel as seed stitch, but on a larger scale. a thick, heavy fabric into which raised patterns have been woven. knit pattern abbreviation for cable 4 back, meaning a cable worked over 4 stitches from behind your work. knit pattern abbreviation for cable 4 front, meaning a cable worked over 4", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6073908243149262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e1911455-8a9f-4e54-9486-6d8723b9ef1d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:40.667786"}
{"text": "larger scale. a thick, heavy fabric into which raised patterns have been woven. knit pattern abbreviation for cable 4 back, meaning a cable worked over 4 stitches from behind your work. knit pattern abbreviation for cable 4 front, meaning a cable worked over 4 stitches in front of your work. knit pattern abbreviation for cable 6 back, meaning a cable worked over 6 stitches from behind your work. knit pattern abbreviation for cable 6 front, meaning a cable worked over 6 stitches in front of your work. a knit pattern in which you cross one group of stitches over another by knitting them out of order. a short knitting needle that ' s point at both ends, has a divot or curve toward the middle, and is used to hold stitches temporarily while you work on their neighbors. when knitting or crocheting with different colors, the process of moving yarn not in use to the next position it will be used by working it into the stitches being made in another color, rather than fastening off and rejoining the yarn with each color change. create a series of loops on one needle as a knitted starting row. the opposite is to bind off or cast off. crocheting or knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for contrasting color. a simple, common crocheting stitch used to make a crochet piece ' s foundation and to start new rows. a type of yarn material ( usually made of rayon or cotton ) with an attractive appearance and velvety texture. knitting pattern that makes the fabric form arrow - like shapes. a crocheting or knitting technique that works the stitches in a continuous, spiral - like fashion without turning the piece ; also called crocheting or knitting in the round. a knitting needle designed especially for circular knitting, made up of one long double - pointed needle in a circular shape. a set of crochet stitches that you work across an equal number of stitches and join together at the top, forming a triangle shape that resembles an upside - down shell stitch. knitting style in which you hold the yarn in your left hand and pick the stitches through each loop. a soft, white natural fiber from plants, often made into yarn. worked like a single crochet stitch, but from left to right, rather than right to left. a style of embroidery that ' s worked with any type of yarn, rather than thread. a kind of needlework in which loops of a yarn are interwoven by means of a single hooked needle, or crochet hook. a specialized needle with a hook at one end used to create cr", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6061784674964974, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e1911455-8a9f-4e54-9486-6d8723b9ef1d>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:40.668905"}
{"text": "a type of lace pattern characterized by small openwork motifs distributed over a solid fabric. a liquid medium that you apply to a worked piece during blocking, which dries invisible and makes your fabric rigid. a kind of knitted lace pattern composed of nothing but the simplest lace - making unit \u2014 a yarn over followed ( or preceded ) by a decrease. knitting technique, also called stranding, that involves color patterns using more than one color in a row. you can work with two strands of yarn, carrying them along the back of your work, and picking up and dropping them as needed. a filet crochet stitch that looks somewhat like a v and is worked across five stitches or the width of two spaces. to cut the yarn in a crocheted piece and then draw it through a loop on the crochet hook at the end of the design or the end of that particular yarn ' s use in the design. to transform knitting or crochetwork into a dense, sturdy fabric by running the finished piece through the washing machine. a crochet technique that imitates a 17th - century form of lace worked on mesh netting stretched across a frame, which has evolved into a series of blocks and spaces that form a design. wool from a sheep or similar animal. the strand on the wrong side of loose stitches that connects those stitches. a soft, loosely twisted thread or yarn used in embroidery. a crochet stitch pattern abbreviation for front loop only. a crochet or knitting stitch pattern abbreviation meaning follows or following. a series of chain stitches that creates your first row of crochet. a border or trimming of cords or threads, hanging loose or tied in bunches. to knit or crochet stitches at an angle on the front ( or right ) side of a fabric, producing a pattern in which the stitches overlap. a type of crochet stitch in which you insert your hook around the post of a stitch that ' s one or more rows below the current row, creating raised patterns on the surface of the fabric facing you. a knitting stitch that you create by simply knitting ( or purling ) every row. the number of knitted or crocheted stitches and rows there are to an inch of fabric. a way to join two knitted pieces that mock knits by using a tapestry needle, creating a very stretchy and almost invisible join. a crochet stitch in between a single crochet and a double crochet in height, which you work by drawing the yarn through", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.612497439870572, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e1911455-8a9f-4e54-9486-6d8723b9ef1d>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:40.671057"}
{"text": "a process to block your crochetwork or knitting by spraying the fabric with water to dampen it, then laying the fabric in the intended shape. a knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for slip, slip, knit the slip stitches together, which creates a left - slanting decrease. a tasteless, odorless substance used to stiffen and shape fabrics. using a steam iron to block the shape of a knitted or crocheted piece. a shortcut used to open up a knitted tube in which you sew or crochet two vertical lines of stitches an inch or so apart, then cut the stitches that fall between those lines. a small ring that you add to your knitting or crochet work to remind you where you need to make a change to your needlework, such as the beginning of a round or the spot to work an increase. a single loop of yarn worked off a needle in knitting or crocheting. a knitting stitch which you create by alternating a knit row with a purl row. to crochet, generally with yarn, onto a crocheted background ; resembles embroidery. 1. ( verb ) to make a sample of knitted fabric for various reasons, including measuring gauge and practice. 2. ( noun ) the knitted fabric sample created by swatching. a tool that looks like a wooden umbrella, which is specially designed to help untwist a hank of yarn. the loose bit of yarn left after you finish knitting or crocheting your pattern. a large - eye needle with a blunt point that you use to sew knitted pieces together. an ornamental tuft of threads of equal length, hanging loosely from a knob or from the knot by which they ' re tied together. 1. ( noun ) a light, fine, string - like length of material made up of two or more spun fibers. 2. ( verb ) to put a thread through the eye of a sewing or tapestry needle, or to work that threaded needle through a fabric. the part of a crochet hook that does the actual hooking of the yarn and pulls that yarn through a stitch. a crocheting and knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for together. a type of closure that has a ring on one end and bar on the other ; the bar slides through the ring vertically and then lays on the ring horizontally to keep it from coming back through. a crochet stitch which is slightly longer than the double crochet and which creates longer openings between the stitches, producing a very loose fabric.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6080032073041536, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e1911455-8a9f-4e54-9486-6d8723b9ef1d>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T19:24:40.676543"}