data/train/batch_000008.jsonl

{"text": "what we perceive in the world is highly influenced by what we are looking for. that is old news. now european researchers have used this theory to create a convincing and engaging \u2018 mixed reality \u2018, and they have put together a cookbook so others can do it, too. that is new news. reality is wysiwyg : what you see is what you get. but what you see depends largely on what you are looking for. in a famous experiment, a group of volunteers observed a video of two teams, one dressed in black and one in white, passing a ball between them. the volunteers had to count the number of times the ball was passed directly from one player in black to another player in black. they performed the task excellently. what they failed to notice was the man in the gorilla suit who walked on screen and jumped up and down during the game. it proved that what you see is strongly influenced by what you are looking for. in ophthalmology, researchers have found the eye does not see everything you perceive ; neural processing fills in parts of the scene by inferring from those bits that are observed. in quantum physics, researchers discovered that particles change behaviour depending on whether you are looking at them or not. in field after field researchers have discovered that perception is not linear ; it is fuzzy ; and it can be strongly influenced by carefully choosing the right cues. the cues do not necessarily require complex technology. the wii, a very popular gaming platform, abandoned the arms race of ever - more powerful processors and graphics cards and instead incorporated a simple motion sensor. now users ' gestures and reflexes drive the game, changing the pastime from a solitary, passive experience into an active, social one. those two additions, sociability and physicality, dramatically enhance the sense of experienced reality engendered by the game. this is very interesting. up to now technologies, such as virtual and mixed reality, were thought by most to rely on more power, more technologically advanced interfaces, more animation and textures ; but it now seems mixed reality is more powerfully and realistically evoked by combining perceptual dimensions with novel technologies in order to create a greater depth of experience. \u201c the greater the combination of senses engaged, the greater the chance of the user feeling immersed or present in the experience, \u201d explains rod mccall, a researcher at the fraunhofer institute and coordinator of the ipcity project. in ipcity, a major eu - funded mixed reality project, researchers studied dozens of technologies to find", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6182858926410345, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ce8edb2f-38e3-4b9c-b541-ad6a4ce07fd5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:54.511818"}
{"text": "light scattering system nanobiophysics core facility has a full set of light scattering equipment from wyatt including multiangle light scattering ( mals ) device, dynamic light scattering ( dls ) device, and hplc system ( agilent ) linked to mals. light scattering is a non - invasive technique for characterizing macromolecules and a wide range of particles in solution. in contrast to most methods for characterization, it does not require outside calibration standards. in this sense it is an absolute technique. wyatt technology instruments make two different types of light scattering measurements for absolute molecular characterization : * classical light scattering : here, the intensity of the scattered light is measured as a function of angle. for the case of macromolecules, this is often called rayleigh scattering and can yield the molar mass, rms radius, and second virial coefficient ( a2 ). for certain classes of particles, classical light scattering can yield the size, shape, and structure. * quasi - elastic ( qels ) or dynamic light scattering ( dls ) : in a qels measurement, time - dependent fluctuations in the scattered light signal are measured using a fast photon counter. qels measurements can determine the hydrodynamic radius of macromolecules or particles. light scattering is a technique that can be applied in either batch or chromatography mode. in either instance the sample may be recovered at the end of the measurement. since light scattering provides the weight - averaged molar mass for all molecules in solution, it is generally more useful to utilize the chromatography mode, though each technique has its advantages. although absolute molecular weights can be determined also via mass spectrometry, membrane osmometry, and sedimentation equilibrium ( analytical centrifugation ), only light scattering covers so broad a range of macromolecules including their oligomeric states. most importantly, light scattering permits measurement of the solution properties of macromolecules. while a sedimentation equilibrium run may require 72 hours, a size exclusion chromatography / light scattering study may be completed in well under an hour, and a batch mode analysis in a few minutes. these comparatively short run times coupled with the absolute determination of molar mass, size, and a2 make light scattering the method of choice for accurate and fast macromolecular characterization. for more information go to www. wyatt. com core facility will help you with obtaining free downloads of manuals, tutorials and software.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6179056348840792, "token_count": 505, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:383315da-e20e-4bfd-8cad-7c0c4da0230a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:54.538350"}
{"text": "a concept defined by sartre in being and nothingness as the \" in - itself \", of which humans are in the mode of not being. this can be more easily understood when considering it in relation to the temporal dimension of past : one ' s past is what one is in the sense that it co - constitutes oneself. however, to say that one is only one ' s past would be to ignore a significant part of reality ( the present and the future ), while saying that one ' s past is only what one was, would entirely detach it from them now. a denial of one ' s own concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and the same goes for all other kinds of facticity ( having a body \u2014 e. g. one that doesn ' t allow a person to run faster than the speed of sound \u2014 identity, values, etc. ). facticity is both a limitation and a condition of freedom. it is a limitation in that a large part of one ' s facticity consists of things one couldn ' t have chosen ( birthplace, etc. ), but a condition in the sense that one ' s values most likely will depend on it. however, even though one ' s facticity is \" set in stone \" ( as being past, for instance ), it cannot determine a person : the value ascribed to one ' s facticity is still ascribed to it freely by that person. as an example, consider two men, one of whom has no memory of his past and the other remembers everything. they have both committed many crimes, but the first man, knowing nothing about this, leads a rather normal life while the second man, feeling trapped by his own past, continues a life of crime, blaming his own past for \" trapping \" him in this life. there is nothing essential about his committing crimes, but he ascribes this meaning to his past. however, to disregard one ' s facticity when one, in the continual process of self - making, projects oneself into the future, would be to put oneself in denial of oneself, and would thus be inauthentic. in other words, the origin of one ' s projection will still have to be one ' s facticity, although in the mode of not being it ( essentially ). another aspect of facticity is that it entails angst, both in the sense that freedom \" produces \" angst when limited by facticity, and in the sense that the lack", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6152850316015481, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4a11b0a2-0262-4b69-9d8a-f6d2255053f1>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:54.655321"}
{"text": "coupled with its environment seems to be sufficient to make claims. the flow of internal states in such system, guided and limited by associative memory, is similar to the stream of consciousness. minimal requirements for an artificial system that will claim to be conscious were given in form of specific architecture named articon. (... ) nonverbal discrimination of the working memory states of the articon gives it the ability to experience different qualities of internal states. analysis of the inner state flows of such a system during typical behavioral process shows that qualia are inseparable from perception and action. the role of consciousness in learning of skills, when conscious information processing is replaced by subconscious, is elucidated. arguments confirming that phenomenal experience is a result of cognitive processes are presented. possible philosophical objections based on the chinese room and other arguments are discussed, but they are insufficient to refute claims articon \u2019 s claims. conditions for genuine understanding that go beyond the turing test are presented. articons may fulfill such conditions and in principle the structure of their experiences may be arbitrarily close to human. ( shrink ) this paper speculates upon the reasons for peter drucker ' s ongoing and vigorous denial of the relevance of business ethics. it contemplates whether drucker consciously, or even perhaps subconsciously, associates the aims of business ethics with the aims of those associated with the arbeitsfreude movement in germany prior to the outbreak of the second world war. if this is the case the paper questions whether drucker ' s distaste for some of the more notorious outcomes of that movement in germany are reflected in (... ) his hostility to business ethics. drucker ' s reflections regarding the social responsibilities of business are discussed, as are the limitations which he imposes upon such corporate social responsibility. drucker ' s distinction between societal ethics and individual ethics are also discussed. ( shrink ) this paper evaluates the claim that it is possible to use nature \u2019 s variation in conjunction with retention and selection on the one hand, and the absence of ultimate groundedness of hypotheses generated by the human mind as it knows on the other hand, to discard the ascription of ultimate certainty to the rationality of human conjectures in the cognitive realm. this leads to an evaluation of the further assumption that successful hypotheses with specific applications, in other words heuristics, seem to (... ) have a firm footing because they were useful in another", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6033468773964814, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5608ec65-3b09-4b1c-a3ca-d563c5e0d570>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:55.399595"}
{"text": "into believing in less. although i think that flanagan ' s attempt to link the psychological and sociocultural levels of analysis via the concept of transcendence is scientifically premature, his attempt at a naturalistic spirituality raises questions of definition that scholars of religion need to take seriously. ( shrink ) in this article, i discuss the manner in which dieter henrich \u2019 s theory of subjectivity has emerged from the fundamental questions of german idealism, and in what manner and to what extent this theory effects a reinstatement of metaphysics. in so doing, i shall argue that henrich \u2019 s position represents a viable refutation of the attempt of the physicalist explanation of the world to prove the concept of the subject to be superfluous. henrich \u2019 s metaphysics of subjectivity is primarily focused on the \u2018 ultimate (... ) questions \u2019 which also compose \u201c the deep levels of our subjectivity \u201d and concern the factors that should promote stability in our emotional, moral and intellectual life. i argue with henrich that the indisputable facticity of our conscious life is worthy of our special consideration and interpretation, explanation and clarification, just as the deeper meaning ( the individual and collective subconscious structure ) hidden beneath the layers of apparent comprehensibility calls for urgent investigation. such interpretation and elucidation of life \u2019 s meaning has a tripartite character : first, it consists of clarification of the totality of human experience together with the realities playing a part in it ; second, it builds on the process by which the contents of experience are cognized, and the knowledge thereof which results ; thirdly, it embraces the transcendental precondition enabling each and every one of us to consciously lead our lives \u2014 for life, in a human sense, does not merely happen to one. henrich \u2019 s metaphysical foundation of subjectivity is compared with kolak \u2018 s position, according to which individual consciousness is not insular, but integrated into the totality of overall unity that some have called \u201c the universal self \u201d, \u201c the noumenal self \u201d. ( shrink ) there are a number of reasons to be interested in building humanoid robots. they include ( 1 ) since almost all human artifacts have been designed to easy for humans to interact with, humanoid robots provide backward compatibility with the existing human constructed world, ( 2 ) humanoid robots provide a natural form for humans to operate through telepresence since they have the same kinematic design as humans themselves, ( 3 ) by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6153717249076318, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5608ec65-3b09-4b1c-a3ca-d563c5e0d570>", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:55.406073"}
{"text": "the scene : scientist jian chen adjusts optics mounted for an experiment at one of several pulse laser laboratories housed at slac. ( pulse is a joint slac / stanford university laser science institute. ) in this experiment, a small fleck of sample material is held in a special \u201c diamond anvil cell \u201d and torqued to pressures up to 12 gigapascals \u2014 120, 000 times greater than atmospheric pressure, similar to conditions deep inside the earth. chen and colleagues then use three separate, highly precise beams of pulsed laser light, bouncing variously through the specialized optics, to measure the behavior of electrons in the material under pressure. experiments of this sort give scientists clues about the nature and dynamics of the atomic world that could aid in developing new materials with exotic properties. the shot : canon 5d mk ii, 17 - 35mm / f2. 8l lens @ 17mm, f / 7. 1. iso 200, 1 / 40 sec exposure. three lights ( all speedlites ), one triggered with a pocket wizard ii, the others with optical slaves : one camera left ( close, with a red gel ), one camera right ( at full power, to cast the hard shadows ), and one camera left ( farther from the camera, with grid, visible in frame ) to illuminate chen. used a tripod and remote trigger for this one. ( all while wearing the same goggles chen is wearing \u2026 tough way to shoot! )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6231698213663182, "token_count": 295, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa900d17-ee05-43a1-9828-f3db9c23769c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:55.473871"}
{"text": "mobility / stability statistics for 2011 - 2012 definitions of terms used the total ( cumulative ) number of students in membership at any time during the academic year. instructional program service type ( ipst ) : services provided by schools and / or districts for students identified as belonging to one or more of the categories below. students with disabilities : students who have been formally identified as having physical or health conditions that may have a significant impact on the student \u2019 s ability to learn and therefore warrant placing the student on an individual educational program ( iep ). limited english proficient : this designation encompasses all students identified as either non - english proficient or limited english proficient. non - english proficient is defined as a student who speaks a language other than english and does not comprehend, speak, read, or write english. limited english proficient is defined as a student who comprehends, speaks, reads, or writes some english, but whose predominant comprehension or speech is in a language other than english. districts must provide language services to all limited english proficient students. student qualifies for either the free or reduced lunch program. the federal national school lunch act establishes eligibility for the reduced price lunch program for families with income up to 185 percent of the federal poverty level ( in 2009, this amount was $ 39, 220 for a family of four ). families with income up to 130 percent of the federal poverty level qualify for the free lunch program ( in 2009 this amount was $ 27, 560 for a family of four ). students enrolled in a specially designed program for children who are, or whose parent or spouse is a migratory agricultural worker, and who, in the preceding 36 months, in order to obtain, or accompany such parent or spouse in order to obtain, temporary or seasonal employment in agricultural work has moved from one school district to another. students that are identified by the school as failing, or most at risk of failing, to meet the state \u2019 s challenging student academic achievement standards on the basis of multiple, educationally related, objective criteria established by the school. according to the mckinney act, a \u201c homeless individual \u201d : lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. gifted and talented : students who have been formally identified, using district - wide procedures aligned with cde guidelines, as being endowed with a high degree of exceptionality or potential in mental ability, academics, creativity, or talents ( visual, performing, musical arts, or leadership. for additional information, e - mail :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6065631107118616, "token_count": 494, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:78bbb2d7-43c3-4072-b7ea-bb86a3593f19>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:55.957731"}
{"text": "about seven years ago, a brain scientist was working with primate brain signals three floors underground. the scientist was using special neurological amplifiers that amplified micro - volt signals. he called me to solve a strange, sporadic noise problem that had appeared in his amplifier outputs. his laboratory had been in operation for many years before this problem appeared. when confronted with a mysterious problem, i always ask one particular question : \" what is changed, what is different? \" but in this case, the answer was nothing. connecting up a scope, i soon saw a signal on the screen that coincided with a noise from a speaker connected to a neural amplifier output. we heard a distinctive \" click \u201d sound. by slowing the horizontal time period to one second / division, we could see the entire several - millisecond - long noise pulse. but this was no ordinary noise pulse - - it was actually a perfect bipolar square wave. envision a single period of a full sine wave on a scope screen, then convert that same wave pattern to fit a bipolar square wave. that ' s exactly what it was. every few seconds it appeared, but each time, the starting and ending polarity was flipped. there was no question this was an intelligently generated signal - - but from where? soon, a pattern was discernible. pulse spacing was a consistent 5. 5 seconds. remember, this laboratory was about 60 feet underground. the building had corrugated steel plates as the base, with three reinforced concrete floors up above. line of sight with the local radar dish required that you travel through wet dirt, steel, rock, and reinforced concrete for about two miles at a slight upward angle to reach the local airport dish. and microwaves will not travel through any of these materials very well. certain types of microwave sources contain a property few engineers know about - - scalar energy. scalar electromagnetic waves have the e and b fields in phase, unlike normal electromagnetic waves where e and b fields are typically 90 degrees out of phase. there is another interesting characteristic of scalar waves - - they are not stopped by shielding, even by a faraday cage. when e and b fields are in phase, they do not interact with metal molecules like conventional rf does, which makes shielding useless. usually, only distance can stop scalar waves. based on the waveform period, there could be only one source of this signal. i called the local international airport tracon group, which stands for tracking and control. my one question to the engineer on duty was simply this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6244784490797294, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d693ac58-a8f8-4e56-b0ae-f9ef0568c695>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.059344"}
{"text": "a user - interface for proofs and certified software by janet bertot, yves bertot, yann coscoy, healfdene goguen and francis montagnac by making it possible to express the properties of procedures and functions, proofs assistants can be used to help develop certified software. however, these proof assistants are often complicated to use and deserve real user - interfaces to make software development feasible. since 1990, the croap team at inria sophia - antipolis has been studying the development of user - interfaces for theorem provers to reduce this level of complication. we have implemented a powerful prototype, ctcoq, that has been used successfully in the development of certified algorithms for program manipulation or polynomial mathematics. the last version of this proof environment has been released in february 1997. the semantics of programs can be mathematically described using relations between inputs and outputs or using functions from the domain of inputs to the domain of outputs. when these relations and functions are formally described, it is possible to use a computer to check mechanically some of their properties. this leads to the perspective of checking that programs fulfil a formal specification and ultimately to zero - default software. since the correction of a given program may rely on an arbitrarily complex corpus of mathematics, the system used for the verification needs to have very powerful proving capabilities. to date, only the systems known as theorem provers or proof checkers provide enough mathematical capabilities for this task. the coq proof assistant is one such proof checker ( see previous article ). it uses type theory to express the properties of functions and encode powerful mathematical tools such as recursion and algebraic structures. intuitively, the types used in a programming language like pascal or c make it possible to verify simple consistency properties between the components of a software. when using language with more expressive types, the properties that can be expressed using types can actually cover the complete specification of a software system. the ctcoq user - interface is an independent front - end for the coq proof assistant. it uses technologies from the domain of programming environments to help the proof developer in several ways. the first element taken from programming environment technology is the use of syntax directed tools. these tools use a precise description of the proof assistant ' s syntax to help in the rapid construction of syntactically correct logical sentences, specifications, and proof commands. for instance, syntax directed menus make it possible to perform transformations on expressions or commands that respect the syntactic correctness of these expressions, thus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6138419917111473, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a67667a3-9a44-48a3-9476-dff878b94636>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.174808"}
{"text": "help in the rapid construction of syntactically correct logical sentences, specifications, and proof commands. for instance, syntax directed menus make it possible to perform transformations on expressions or commands that respect the syntactic correctness of these expressions, thus reducing the time spent in correcting low - level errors. syntax aware tools also make it easier to recognize usual mathematical notations and render them using multiple - font display, in a wysiwyg fashion. these tools make semantic manipulation of data possible, with interpretation of the user ' s pointing or dragging gestures using the mouse. for instance, pointing at an expression can be interpreted guiding the proof process towards this expression. in the same realm, dragging an expression can be used to rearrange data when the algebraic properties make it possible. other tools taken from programming environments use the analysis of dependence graphs between functions, mathematical objects, and proof commands. this analysis can lead to quicker tools to help finding and correcting errors in specifications, thus making the development of completely proved software quicker. powerful analyses also make it possible to extract natural language presentation from proofs data structures, thus making the results of proof developments understandable by mathematicians and engineers outside the community of coq and ctcoq users. the ctcoq proof environment has been used successfully in the development of algorithms for symbolic computation, trajectory planning, and program partial evaluation. future research around this user - interface aims on one side at a better integration with symbolic computation and computer algebra systems and on the other side at a better use of dependency graphs to make large proof maintenance and re - engineering feasible. publication references for this research can be found at : http : / / www. inria. fr / croap / publications. html the ctcoq system can be retrieved by following the instructions found at : http : / / www. inria. fr / ctcoq / ctcoq - eng. html yves bertot - inria tel : + 33 4 9365 7739", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6121413747927297, "token_count": 402, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a67667a3-9a44-48a3-9476-dff878b94636>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.175646"}
{"text": "mind whose nature is to think and a material body whose nature is to be spatially extended causally interact? \u2013 no longer arises. moreover, many philosophers even reject huxley \u2019 s event - dualism in favor of psychophysical event - identities. according to one version of non - reductive physicalism, for instance, every concrete mental event ( every event token ) is identical to a concrete physical event, although there are no one - one correlations between mental and physical properties ( event types ). since fear is identical to the neurophysiological event which causes the increased heart rate, fear causes the increased heart rate, too, and epiphenomenalism seems avoided. however, the charge of epiphenomenalism re - arises in a different guise. there is a forceful intuition that events cause what they cause in virtue of some of their properties. suppose a soprano sings the word \u201c freedom \u201d at a high pitch and amplitude, causing a nearby window to shatter. the singing which causes the shattering is both the singing of a high c and the singing of the word \u201c freedom. \u201d intuitively, only the former, not the latter, is causally relevant for the singing \u2019 s causing the shattering : \u201c meaningful sounds, if they occur at the right pitch and amplitude, can shatter glass, but the fact that the sounds have meaning is irrelevant to their effect. the glass would shatter if the sounds meant something completely different or if they meant nothing at all \u201d ( dretske 1989, 1 - 2 ). if events cause their effects in virtue of some of their properties but not in virtue of others, the question arises whether mental events ( even if they are identical to physical events ) cause their effects in virtue of their mental, their physical or both kinds of properties. if mental events cause their effects only in virtue of their physical properties, then their being mental events is causally irrelevant and mental properties are, in a certain sense, epiphenomena ( three reasons for thinking that mental properties are causally irrelevant are discussed in section 4b ). following brian mclaughlin, one can thus distinguish between event - or token - epiphenomenalism on the one hand and property - or type - epiphenomenalism on the other ( see mclaughlin 1989, 1994 ). according to the event - or token - epiphenomenalism defended by huxley, concrete physical events are causes, but mental events cannot cause anything. according to the kind of property - or type - epip", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6083641041284064, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.542261"}
{"text": "mclaughlin 1989, 1994 ). according to the event - or token - epiphenomenalism defended by huxley, concrete physical events are causes, but mental events cannot cause anything. according to the kind of property - or type - epiphenomenalism that threatens modern non - reductive physicalism, events are causes in virtue of their physical properties, but no event is a cause in virtue of its mental properties. if event - epiphenomenalism is wrong, mental events can be causes ; but if they are causes solely in virtue of their physical properties, property - epiphenomenalism is still true, and some consider this to be no less disconcerting than huxley \u2019 s original epiphenomenalism ( see arguments in favor of a philosophical theory typically focus on its advantages compared to other theories \u2014 that it can explain more phenomena or that it provides a more economical or a more unifying explanation of the relevant phenomena. there are no arguments for epiphenomenalism in that sense. epiphenomenalism is just not an attractive or desirable theory. rather, it is a theory of last resort into which people are pushed by the feeling that all the alternatives are even less plausible. even epiphenomenalists admit that, from the first - person point of view of a thinking and feeling subject, they don \u2019 t like it. why, then, do people embrace epiphenomenalism? epiphenomenalism required an intellectual climate in which two apparently discordant beliefs about the world were equally well entrenched : a dualism with respect to mind and body on the one hand and a scientific naturalism or mechanism concerning the body on the other. to most thinkers of the eighteenth and nineteenth century, it seemed obvious that human beings enjoy a mental life that resists incorporation into a purely materialist ontology. our thoughts, sensations, desires etc. just seemed to be too dissimilar from ordinary physical phenomena for them to be \u201c nothing but \u201d physical phenomena. at the same time, however, science saw the advent of a decidedly naturalistic attitude towards the human body, motivated by the successes of mechanistic physics in other areas and characterized by a desire to identify the underlying causal structure of every observed phenomenon in terms of matter and motion alone. in particular, neurophysiological research was unable to reveal any mental influence upon the brain or the body. eventually, with the demise of vitalism regarding the forces governing animate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6078443090648732, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.543282"}
{"text": "contrast, ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) concern laws. since \u201c laws are linguistic \u201d ( davidson 1970, 215 ) and thus an intensional affair, particular events fall under laws \u201c only as described. \u201d ( 2 ) says that whenever two events c and e are related as cause and effect, there are descriptions \u201c dc \u201d and \u201c de \u201d of c and e, respectively, under which c and e instantiate a causal law, although there may be descriptions \u201c d * c \u201d and \u201c d * e \u201d under which they do not instantiate a causal law ( although \u201c d * c caused d * e \u201d is nevertheless a true singular causal statement ). given this, it is easy to see why davidson thinks that ( 1 ), ( 2 ), and ( 3 ) entail that mental events which causally interact with other events must be identical to physical events. by ( 1 ), some mental event m causes or is caused by a physical event p. by ( 2 ), m and p must therefore instantiate a strict causal law. that is, there must be descriptions \u201c dm \u201d and \u201c dp \u201d of m and p, respectively, such that \u201c dm - events cause dp - events \u201d ( or \u201c dp - events cause dm - events \u201d ) is a strict causal law. by ( 3 ), this can only be a physical law. hence, \u201c dm \u201d and \u201c dp \u201d must belong to the vocabulary of physics. since events are mental or physical \u201c only as described \u201d and since m has with \u201c dm \u201d at least one physical description, m must thus be a physical event ( davidson 1970, 224 ). however, while causation may admittedly be an extensional relation between particular events, many philosophers have argued that which causal relations an event enters into is determined by which event - types it falls under. the singing \u2019 s being the singing of a high c, it seems, is causally relevant for its causing the shattering, while its being the singing of the word \u201c freedom \u201d is not. according to anomalous monism, davidson \u2019 s critics claim, only the strict laws of physics can be causal laws, and hence events seem to be causally related only in virtue of falling under physical event - types, rendering mental event - types causally irrelevant : davidson \u2019 s argument for anomalous monism shows that any causal relation involving a mental event and a physical event holds only because a strict physical law subsumes the two events", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.627069351247641, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.548598"}
{"text": "physical event - types, rendering mental event - types causally irrelevant : davidson \u2019 s argument for anomalous monism shows that any causal relation involving a mental event and a physical event holds only because a strict physical law subsumes the two events under physical kinds or descriptions. the fact that the mental event is a mental event, or that it is the kind of mental event that it is, appears to be entirely immaterial to the causal relation. [... ] individual mental events [... ] do have causal efficacy, but only because they fall under physical kinds, and the mental kinds that they are have [... ] nothing to say about what causal relations they enter into. the causal structure of the world is wholly determined by the physical kinds and properties instantiated by events of this world. ( kim 2003b, 126 ) this is a prominent objection against anomalous monism ( see, for example, honderich 1982 ; kim 1989a, 1993a ; sosa 1993 ). anomalous monism may avoid token - or event - physicalism, but it seems to succumb to type - or property - epiphenomenalism : mental events, by being identical to physical events, are causally efficacious, but that they are the kind of mental event they are adds nothing to their causal efficacy ( for responses on behalf of anomalous monism see campbell 1997, 1998 ; davidson 1993 ; lepore & loewer 1987 ; mclaughlin 1989 ). anti - individualism or externalism holds that the content of mental states and the meaning of some natural language terms is a relational, or extrinsic, rather than a local, or intrinsic, property ( see burge 1979 ; putnam 1975 ). what are local or relational properties? suppose sarah weighs 110 pounds, is four foot five, has blond hair and is taller than jack. the first three properties seem to be local in the sense that they supervene upon sarah \u2019 s internal make - up and sarah can acquire or loose them only if she herself undergoes some change. the fourth property, in contrast, seems to be relational in the sense that sarah has it only by courtesy of certain external facts, namely, only if there is someone else, jack, who is smaller than she is. if jack grows tall enough, sarah loses the property of being taller than jack, although she herself does not undergo any change. according to hilary putnam, meanings of natural kind terms are relational properties ( see putnam 1975", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6152805979955467, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.549698"}
{"text": ", who is smaller than she is. if jack grows tall enough, sarah loses the property of being taller than jack, although she herself does not undergo any change. according to hilary putnam, meanings of natural kind terms are relational properties ( see putnam 1975 ). what sarah means by an utterance of, say, \u201c water, \u201d \u201c tiger, \u201d \u201c elm, \u201d or \u201c gold \u201d is not determined solely by her internal make - up, but also by her environment. consequently, such terms can mean different things in the mouth of molecularly identical twins that are indistinguishable with regard to their local properties. meanings \u201c just ain \u2019 t in the head, \u201d as putnam famously put it. moreover, the contents of the corresponding thoughts seem to be relational properties, too : what sarah believes when she has a belief she would express as, say, \u201c water is wet \u201d is determined by the way the world is and not solely by how things are \u201c inside \u201d her. tyler burge went even further and argued that natural kind terms are not the only terms whose meaning is determined by external factors and that not only differences in the physical environment can affect the meaning of a term or the content of a belief, but also differences in a subject \u2019 s historical, linguistic, or social environment ( see burge 1979 ). externalism or anti - individualism makes mental causation problematic. causality seems to be an entirely local affair in the sense that a system \u2019 s behavior apparently supervenes upon its internal make - up. consequently, two systems exactly alike in all internal respects will behave in exactly the same way, so that relational properties like being a genuine dollar coin or being a photo of sarah do not seem to make a difference to the behavior of, say, a vending machine or a scanner : as long as the piece of metal inserted into a vending machine has a certain set of local properties, the vending machine will exhibit a certain behavior, no matter whether the piece of mental inserted is a genuine dollar coin or a counterfeit, and a scanner will produce a certain distribution of pixels on the screen, no matter whether the object scanned is a photo of sarah or a piece of paper locally indistinguishable from a photo of sarah. the assumption that causation is a local affair, when combined with externalism or anti - individualism, leads to epiphenomenalism : the meaning or content of a mental state, being a relational property, threatens to be as irrelevant for our", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6466984500621262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.550910"}
{"text": "that causation is a local affair, when combined with externalism or anti - individualism, leads to epiphenomenalism : the meaning or content of a mental state, being a relational property, threatens to be as irrelevant for our behavior as the property of being a genuine dollar coin is for the behavior of a vending machine. in order to avoid epiphenomenalism, we must either eschew anti - individualism or show how relational mental properties can make a causal difference. jerry fodor tried to explicate a notion of \u201c narrow content \u201d according to which the mental states of intrinsically indistinguishable subjects must have the same contents, although their relationally individuated \u201c wide contents \u201d may differ ( see fodor 1987, ch. 1, 1991 ). since narrow contents supervene upon the intrinsic make - up of a subject, fodor held, the charge of epiphenomenalism can be avoided. however, he has recently given up on this idea because it proved extremely difficult to say exactly what narrow contents are ( see fodor 1995 ). frank jackson and philip pettit argue that relational properties can be causally relevant in virtue of figuring in so called \u201c program explanations, \u201d although strictly speaking the causal work is done solely by local properties ( see, for example, jackson & pettit 1990 ). in a similar vein, lynne rudder baker and tyler burge claim that the charge of epiphenomenalism \u201c just melts away \u201d ( baker 1993, 93 ) if we acknowledge that our explanatory practice which undoubtedly treats explanations in terms of relational properties as causal explanations trumps any metaphysical armchair argument to the contrary ( see baker 1993, 1995 ; burge 1993 ). and fred dretske argues that while the triggering causes of behavior are always local, relational mental properties can make a causal difference in virtue of being structuring causes of behavior, that is, in virtue of structuring a causal system in such a way that the occurrence of a triggering neurophysiological cause causes a given behavioral effect ( see, for example, dretske 1988 ). most philosophers nowadays defend some version of non - reductive physicalism. according to non - reductive physicalism, all scientifically respectable entities are physical entities, where entities which cannot be straightforwardly reduced to physical entities \u2014 mental events or properties, for instance \u2014 are physical at least in the broad sense that they superven", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6105786522080819, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.551843"}
{"text": "the elm and the expert : mentalese and its semantics. cambridge, ma : mit press. - foster, j. ( 1996 ). the immaterial self. london : routledge. - haggard, p. & eimer, m. ( 1999 ). on the relation between brain potentials and the awareness of voluntary movements. experimental brain research, 126, 128 - 133. - hodgson, s. ( 1965 ). time and space : a metaphysical essay. london : longmans, green. - honderich, t. ( 1982 ). the argument for anomalous monism. analysis, 42, 59 - 64. - huxley, t. h. ( 1874 ). on the hypothesis that animals are automata, and its history. fortnightly review, 22, 555 - 580. reprinted in collected essays : volume i, method and results, 195 - 250. london : macmillan 1893. - huxley, t. h. ( 1898 ). hume with helps to the study of berkeley. new york : d. appleton and company. - hyslop, a. ( 1998 ). methodological epiphenomenalism. australasian journal of philosophy, 76, 61 - 70. - jackson, f. ( 1982 ). epiphenomenal qualia. philosophical quarterly, 32, 127 - 136. - jackson, f. & pettit, p. ( 1990 ). program explanation : a general perspective. analysis, 50, 107 - 117. - james, w. ( 1879 ). are we automata? mind, 4, 1 - 22. - keller, i. & heckhausen, h. ( 1990 ). readiness potentials preceding spontaneous motor acts : voluntary vs. involuntary control. electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology, 76, 351 - 361. - kim, j. ( 1989a ). the myth of nonreductive materialism. proceedings of the american philosophical association, 63, 31 - 47. reprinted in supervenience and mind : selected philosophical essays, 265 - 284. cambridge : cambridge university press 1993. - kim, j. ( 1993a ). can supervenience and \u2018 non - strict laws \u2019 save anomalous monism?, mental causation, ed. j. heil & a. mele, 19 - 26. oxford : clarendon press. - kim, j. ( 1998 ). mind in a physical world : an essay on the mind -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6175196904333156, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 26, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.577233"}
{"text": "mind, ed. s. guttenplan, 277 - 288. oxford : blackwell. - mill, j. s. ( 1865 ). an examination of sir william hamilton \u2019 s philosophy. collected works of john stuart mill, vol. 9, ed. j. m. robson. toronto : university of toronto press, 1979. - miller, j. & trevena, j. ( 2002 ). cortical movement preparation and conscious decisions : averaging artifacts and timing biases. consciousness and cognition, 11, 308 - 313. - pauen, m. ( 2006 ). feeling causes. journal of consciousness studies, 13, 129 - 152. - pockett, s., banks, w. & gallagher, s. ( 2006 ). does consciousness cause behavior? cambridge, ma : mit press. - popper, k. & eccles, j. ( 1977 ). the self and its brain. new york : springer. - putnam, h. ( 1975 ). the meaning of \u2018 meaning \u2019. minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, 7, 131 - 193. reprinted in mind, language, and reality : philosophical papers, vol. 2, 215 - 271. cambridge : cambridge university press 1975. - robinson, w. ( 1982 ). causation, sensations and knowledge. mind, 91, 524 - 540. - robinson, w. ( 2003 ). epiphenomenalism, the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy ( spring 2003 edition ), hrsg. v. e. zalta, url = < >. - robinson, w. ( 2004 ). understanding phenomenal consciousness. cambridge : cambridge university press. - robinson, w. ( 2006 ). knowing epiphenomena. journal of consciousness studies, 13, 85 - 100. - russell, b. ( 1948 ). human knowledge : its scope and limits. london : allen & unwin. - sosa, e. ( 1993 ). davidson \u2019 s thinking causes, mental causation, ed. j. heil & a. mele, 41 - 50. oxford : clarendon press. - staudacher, a. ( 2006 ). epistemological challenges to qualia - epiphenomenalism. journal of consciousness studies, 13, 153 - 175. - taylor, a. ( 1927 ). plato : the man and his work. new york : macveagh. - taylor, r. ( 1963 ). metaphysics. englewood cliffs :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6012446967390668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bc08d6f0-964c-4257-b3be-da849d757dd4>", "chunk_index": 28, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.579202"}
{"text": "four laws that drive the universe by peter atkins ( oxford university press, usa, hardcover, 9780199232369, 130pp. ) publication date : november 2007 written by peter atkins, one of the worlds leading authorities on thermodynamics, this powerful and compact introduction explains what these four laws are and how they work, using accessible language and virtually no mathematics. guiding the reader a step at a time, atkins begins with zeroth ( so named because the first two laws were well established before scientists realized that a third law, relating to temperature, should precede them - - hence the jocular name zeroth ), and proceeds through the first, second, and third laws, offering a clear account of concepts such as the availability of work and the conservation of energy. atkins ranges from the fascinating theory of entropy ( revealing how its unstoppable rise constitutes the engine of the universe ), through the concept of free energy, and to the brink, and then beyond the brink, of absolute zero. c. p. snow once remarked that not knowing the second law of thermodynamics is like never having read a work by shakespeare. this brief but brilliant book introduces general readers to one of the cornerstones of modern science, four laws that are as integral to the well - educated mind as such great dramatic works as hamlet or macbeth.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6559009094002203, "token_count": 276, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e313392d-83f3-4599-88cc-d8a92122ac02>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:56.589100"}
{"text": "these rings ( 20 \u00b5m across ) have color created by the width of the slits ( see black and white inset ). for example, yellow is produced with slits that are each 90 nm wide. the technique uses light funneling to catch and trap particular wavelengths. researchers at the university of michigan ( u. s. a. ) have found a way to lock in structural color using sub - wavelength structures ( scientific reports 3, 1194 ). if the technique can be developed further, it could be used with e - readers and other reflective displays, as well as for sensors and hyperspectral imagers. diffraction gratings provide structural color, but the predominant color changes with viewing angle. instead of using gratings on the order of the wavelengths, and on the surface of the material, the researchers went vertical. group leader jay guo explains, \" light is funneled into the nanocavity, whose width is much, much smaller than the wavelength of the light. \" surprisingly the longer wavelengths of light get trapped in narrower grooves. to demonstrate their device, the researchers etched nanoscale grooves in glass and coated the grooved glass plate with a thin layer of silver. when light hits the grooved surface, the transverse electric component creates a polarization charge at the metal slit surface, boosting the local electric field near the slit, which preferentially pulls in the transverse magnetic component of a particular wavelength of light. the demonstrated optical device has high absorption, as large as 96 percent in the visible spectrum, with colors that don \u2019 t change over a + / - 80 degree viewing angle. the device also demonstrated wide color tunability throughout the entire visible spectrum and pixel sizes smaller than the diffraction limit. right now, the new device can make static pictures. even static displays, however, can be attractive with bright sunlight - visible color in low - energy - consumption reflective displays.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6178199004866762, "token_count": 386, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3585216f-c5f8-40c4-b9a6-0132a5dd3ff7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:57.161902"}
{"text": "defined the distance between the imported chemical pigment and the biological blue - green ( cyan, to be more precise ) pigment of the jellyfish protein in such a way that the interplay between the two dyes resulted in a completely novel kind of fluorescent chimeric biomolecule. because of the extreme proximity of the two luminescent groups the pale lavender of the synthetic amino acid can no longer be detected ; instead, the typical blue - green color of the fluorescent protein dominates. \" what is special here, and different from the natural gfp, is that, thanks to the synthetically incorporated amino acid, the fluorescence can be excited with a commercially available black - light lamp in place of an expensive dedicated laser apparatus, \" explains sebastian kuhn, who conducted these groundbreaking experiments as part of his doctoral thesis. according to skerra, the design principle of the novel bio - molecule, which is characterized by a particularly large and hard to achieve wavelength difference between excitation and emitted light, should open numerous interesting applications : \" we have now demonstrated that the technology works. our strategy will enable the preparation of customized fluorescent proteins in various colors for manifold future purposes. \" this research project was financially supported by the german research foundation ( dfg ) as part of the excellence cluster \" munich center for integrated protein science \" ( cips - m ). on the net :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6252261389382527, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d3ef8be8-d68b-4d8f-bea4-d1248144d3a5>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:57.272995"}
{"text": "bill scanlon, nrel january 02, 2013 | 3 comments it takes outside - the - box thinking to outsmart the solar spectrum and set a world record for solar cell efficiency. the solar spectrum has boundaries and immutable rules. no matter how much solar cell manufacturers want to bend those rules, they can ' t. so how can we make a solar cell that has a higher efficiency than the rules allow? that ' s the question scientists in the iii - v multijunction photovoltaics group at the u. s. department of energy ' s ( doe ) national renewable energy laboratory ( nrel ) faced 15 years ago as they searched for materials they could grow easily that also have the ideal combinations of band gaps for converting photons from the sun into electricity with unprecedented efficiency. a band gap is an energy that characterizes how a semiconductor material absorbs photons, and how efficiently a solar cell made from that material can extract the useful energy from those photons. \" the ideal band gaps for a solar cell are determined by the solar spectrum, \" said daniel friedman, manager of the nrel iii - v multijunction photovoltaics group. \" there ' s no way around that. \" but this year, friedman ' s team succeeded so spectacularly in bending the rules of the solar spectrum that nrel and its industry partner, solar junction, won a coveted r & d 100 award from r & d magazine for a world - record multijunction solar cell. the three - layered cell, sj3, converted 43. 5 % of the energy in sunlight into electrical energy \u2014 a rate that has stimulated demand for the cell to be used in concentrator photovoltaic ( cpv ) arrays for utility - scale energy production. last month, that record of 43. 5 % efficiency at 415 suns was eclipsed with a 44 % efficiency at 947 suns. both records were verified by nrel. this is nrel ' s third r & d 100 award for advances in ultra - high - efficiency multijunction cells. cpv technology gains efficiency by using low - cost lenses to multiply the sun ' s intensity, which scientists refer to as numbers of suns. friedman says earlier success with multijunction cells \u2014 layered semiconductors each optimized to capture different wavelengths of light at their junctions \u2014 gave nrel a head start. the sj3 cells fit into the market for utility - scale cpv projects. they ' re designed for application under sunlight concentrated to 1, 000 times its", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6050441759609366, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:27f26aae-a3e4-42ab-933d-39c486196c55>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:57.299838"}
{"text": "introduction to integrals the definite integral the definite integral is a convenient notation used the represent the left - hand and right - hand approximations discussed in the previous section. f ( x ) dx means the area of the region bounded by f, the y - axis and the lines x = a and x = b. writing f ( x ) dx is equivalent to writing on the interval [ a, b ], but it is a much more compact way of doing so. note also the similarity between the two expressions. this should serve as a clear reminder that the definite integral is just the limit of right - hand and left - hand approximations. unlike the indefinite integral, which represents a function, the definite integral represents a number, and is simply the signed area under the curve of f. the area is considered \" signed \" because according to the method of calculating the areas by subdivisions, the regions located below the x - axis will be counted as negative, and the regions above will be counted as positive. negative regions cancel out positive regions, and the definite integral represents the total balance between the two over the given interval. for example, find based on the picture of the region being considered, it should be clear that the answer is zero. here, the negative region is exactly the same size as the positive region : properties of the definite integral the definite integral has certain properties that should be intuitive, given its definition as the signed area under the curve : - cf ( x ) dx = c f ( x ) dx - f ( x ) + g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx + g ( x ) dx is on the interval f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx + f ( x ) dx this means that we can break up a graph into convenient units and find the definite integral of each section and then add the results to find the total signed area for the whole region. the fundamental theorem of calculusthe fundamental theorem of calculus, or \" ftc \", offers a quick and powerful method of evaluating definite integrals. it states : if f is an antiderivative of f, then f ( x ) dx = f ( b ) - f ( a ) x 2 dx = ( 1 ) 3 - ( 0 ) 3 = often, a shorthand is used that means the same as what is written above : x 2 dx = x 3 = one interpretation of the ftc is that the area under the graph of the derivative is equal to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6150629439079829, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f092ba97-0d03-497d-811a-07a6f4f4e39d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:57.511537"}
{"text": "this weather balloon is full of helium gas. it is surrounded by earth ' s atmosphere, which is mostly nitrogen and oxygen gasses. helium is \" lighter \" ( less dense ) than nitrogen or oxygen, so the balloon will rise when the scientist lets go of it. click on image for full size image courtesy of the university corporation for atmospheric research. gas is one of the four common states of matter. the three others are liquid, solid, and plasma. there are also some other exotic states of matter that have been discovered in recent years. the air in earth ' s atmosphere is mostly a mixture of different types of gases. a gas usually has much lower density than a solid or liquid. a quantity of gas doesn ' t have a specific shape ; in this way it is like a liquid and different from a solid. if a gas is enclosed in a container, it will take on the shape of the container ( a liquid will too ). the volume of a gas changes if the temperature or pressure changes. there are several scientific laws, called the \" gas laws \", that describe how the volume, temperature, and pressure of a gas are related. the molecules or atoms in a gas are much further apart than in a solid or a liquid. gas molecules or atoms are usually flying around at very high speeds, occasionally bouncing off each other or the walls of the container the gas is in. when a gas is cooled or placed under high pressure, it can condense and turn into a liquid. if a liquid boils or evaporates, it will become a gas. under some circumstances, usually very low pressure, a solid can turn directly into a gas ( without first melting and becoming a liquid ). when a solid turns directly into a gas, it is called \" sublimation \". most of the air in earth ' s atmosphere is either nitrogen or oxygen gas. balloons are often filled with helium gas ; since helium is lighter ( less dense ) than air, helium balloons \" float \" or rise up in air. when liquid water boils or evaporates, it turns into a gas called \" water vapor \". most of the gas in the atmospheres of the giant planets jupiter and saturn is hydrogen gas. in recent years, carbon dioxide gas has become quite famous because of its role in the greenhouse effect and global warming. shop windows to the universe science store! our online store includes fun classroom activities for you and your students. issues of nesta ' s quarterly journal, the earth scientist are also full of classroom activities on different", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6290612615432917, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7bf1d597-0484-4471-8f33-5503ed8fe8ab>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:57.715675"}
{"text": "role in the greenhouse effect and global warming. shop windows to the universe science store! our online store includes fun classroom activities for you and your students. issues of nesta ' s quarterly journal, the earth scientist are also full of classroom activities on different topics in earth and space science! you might also be interested in : solid is one of the four common states of matter. the three others are gas, liquid, and plasma. there are also some other exotic states of matter that have been discovered in recent years. unlike liquids... more plasma is known as the fourth state of matter. the other three states are solid, liquid and gas. almost everything is made up of atoms ( your dog, your science book, this computer... ). the atom has a nucleus... more density is a measure of how much mass is contained in a given unit volume ( density = mass / volume ). put simply, if mass is a measure of how much \u2018 stuff \u2019 there is in an object, density is a measure of how... more most things around us are made of groups of atoms connected together into packages called molecules. molecules are made from atoms of one or more elements. some molecules are made of only one type of... more a snowman, glass of water and steam might look very different but they are made of the same stuff! just like any substance, water has three different forms, called states : solid, liquid and gas. the state... more have you ever left a glass of water out for a long time? did you notice that the water disappears after a few days? that ' s because it evaporated! evaporation is when water passes from a liquid to a gas.... more there is more nitrogen gas in the air than any other kind of gas. about four out of five of the molecules in earth ' s atmosphere is nitrogen gas! a molecule of nitrogen gas is made up of two nitrogen atoms.... more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6768834641241075, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7bf1d597-0484-4471-8f33-5503ed8fe8ab>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:57.716528"}
{"text": "just ask antoine! - a substance which is not normally found in a living thing. - xenon. xe. - element 54, a colorless, inert gas used to fill cathode ray tubes. - a very high energy form of electromagnetic radiation ( though not as high energy as gamma rays ). x - rays typically have wavelengths from a few picometers up to 20 nanometers. x - rays easily penetrate soft tissue, which makes them useful in medical imaging and in radiation therapy. - x - ray crystallography. - determination of three dimensional arrangement of atoms in a crystal by analysis of x - ray diffraction patterns. - x - ray diffraction pattern. - interference patterns created by x - rays as they pass through a solid material. studying x - ray diffraction patterns gives detailed information on the three - dimensional structure of crystals, surfaces, and atoms. - x - ray spectrum. x - ray spectra. - a set of characteristic x - ray frequencies or wavelengths produced by a substance used as a target in an x - ray tube. each element has a characteristic x - ray spectrum, and there is a strong correlation between atomic number and the frequencies of certain lines in the x - ray spectrum. - x - ray tube. - a cathode ray tube that focuses energetic streams of electrons on a metal target, causing the metal to emit x - rays.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6931141664241622, "token_count": 287, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:74237f6d-6f51-4ed9-b068-b8dcfc0b31fa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:57.831568"}
{"text": "dynamic update. or, that functional programming gives the best way to understand mutation. this just seems wrong to me. monads are notoriously difficult to understand, mutation is intuitively easy to understand. that is, i would say : we already understood mutation, now we look at it from a different perspective to try better understand how to combine it with other effects. of course what i just wrote may not be what it means to \u2018 \u201c really \u201d understand mutation / dynamic update \u2019. nevertheless, i would suggest that to \u201c really \u201d understand something entails proving theorems about it that go beyond particular usage examples \u2014 at least, not just \u201c this program gives the correct output on this sample input \u201d but \u201c this program part works on all inputs regardless of the rest of the program \u201d. as soon as we humans who get bored easily try to prove such theorems, we want to capture repeated patterns in our reasoning so as to avoid repeating them. ( hoare logic for reasoning about imperative programs is a great and successful example of such capture, even though it treats mutation specifically and not as a special case of a side effect. ) maybe understanding mutation even entails being confident in a program part that uses mutation and no other side effect, regardless of what side effects occur in the rest of the program. one question i asked yesterday ( last night ) is whether the analogy between quantification and shift / reset yielded insight independent of what kind of semantics one gave for shift / reset : shift / reset can be understood operationally, as a reduction calculus. can quantification? but maybe this is just what qr is. in general, is the transformation to lf a kind of operational semantics? i would answer yes, yes, yes. i take at least 3 lessons from programming - language semantics into natural - language semantics : first, there are different kinds of semantics, not only denotational but also operational and axiomatic, each good for different purposes. operational makes it more obvious how much time and space a program will take ; denotational makes it easier to substitute equals for equals in a larger program. second, we should relate the different kinds of semantics. for example, i \u2019 m a big fan of olivier danvy \u2019 s work on mechanically turning denotational semantics ( well, definitional interpreters ) into operational semantics or back. imagine putting towers into a vending machine and getting qr out or vice versa! finally, it is worth applying specific ideas such as monads in denotational semantics", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6348116712710031, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8273d07f-0654-48a0-821a-96b5185d6549>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:58.028785"}
{"text": "semantics ( well, definitional interpreters ) into operational semantics or back. imagine putting towers into a vending machine and getting qr out or vice versa! finally, it is worth applying specific ideas such as monads in denotational semantics and evaluation contexts in operational semantics. is it only from the point of view of continuations that one can understand ( best ) a programming language that contains control and state? continuations are the best denotational account of control. it makes it easy to prove that the following expressions can be substituted for each other : ( shift c ( and ( c ( mother ' john ) ) ( c ( mother ' mary ) ) ) ) ; john and mary ' s mother ( mother ( shift c ( and ( c ' john ) ( c ' mary ) ) ) ) ; john ' s mother and mary ' s mother do continuations help us understand / reason about order of evaluation per se, or do they help us reason about order of evaluation in the context of a compositional semantics? the latter, and thus the former, no? : ) in general, should the monad / continuation approach give us insights into natural language meaning ( empirically relevant insights ), or should it give us insights into how to analyze natural language meaning in a certain way, compositional semantics? the latter, and thus the former, no? : ) : ) it seems to me that the analogy between computational side effects and \u201c apparently noncompositional \u201d linguistic phenomena could be insightful in the first way, and that these insights would be conceptually prior to any implementation in terms of monads / continuations. sure, if i were patenting all this then i would claim an implementation in terms of monads / continuations as \u201c a preferred embodiment \u201d of the analogy. take weak crossover. the insight is that evaluation order matters. you and ken used continuations to capture this compositionally. but now your account of order - sensitivity is order - independent. this is what we need for traditional, bottom - up compositional semantics. but why do we still want this? or, what is the status of such a semantics? it is often said that a compositional semantics is necessary for humans to understand novel utterances. but i think it is apparent that weak crossover arises not because humans learn a compositional semantics which simulates order - sensitivity, but rather because of the actual order - sensitivity of processing ( we hear from left to right ). what kind of semantic system captures this directly? you probably", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6159256420550555, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8273d07f-0654-48a0-821a-96b5185d6549>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:58.030003"}
{"text": "an entity built for data storage services. these are not available for use outside the boundaries of the application and are often encapsulated behind a services layer. domain model. an object that represents an entity in the problem domain, which may also be annotated or extended to support some application features such as validation or authentication. because these models need to be shared between the server and client browser, they are sometimes contained within view models and used directly for data - binding in html forms. application models and service models are variations of domain models. eavesdropping. exploiting a web application using a network data capture utility to find and record http requests and responses between a website and a client. eavesdropping can lead to disclosure of sensitive information such as passwords, personal, or financial information, and can potentially allow the execution of spoofing, tampering and message replay attacks. flow diagram. a diagram that defines the pages in the site, actions available on those pages, and navigation between pages. this diagram reflects the user stories identified in the requirements. forms authentication. forms authentication enables user and password validation for web applications that do not require windows authentication. form model. an entity that represents all of the fields in an html form that is specific to a controller action. it contains only the data that is passed into the action. generally, this corresponds to whatever form is posting back to the server. form models ( sometimes called request models ) are a special case of view models. view models are more generic in that they may also include additional data needed to render a page. a form model might end up being a property on another view model. fragment identifier. the portion of a url identified by the hash ( # ). with regard to browser navigation, hyperlinks include them to make the hyperlink unique. when used in conjunction with the hashchange event, page content is able to change without performing a full - page reload. given - when - then template. a helpful template for defining acceptance criteria that include the context of the test ( given ), the action being tested ( when ), and the expected outcome ( then ). this template provides clear and concise documentation that can be understood by team members and can be used to generate both manual and automated test scripts. jquery selectors. a syntactical aspect of jquery that allows you to select all dom elements based on specific criteria ( tag name, id, attribute name, value, and more ). once the selection", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6162944955945462, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3c28c4c2-0799-4a7e-9351-e6f62fc6a7fc>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:58.680584"}
{"text": "encryption algorithm more random and less susceptible to attack. sandboxing. technique that allows components of the application to be tested before the entire application is complete. it also makes testing more robust by preventing software defects in one module from blocking or affecting the testing of other modules. single - page interface ( spi ) pattern. a pattern for web applications that reduces the number of full - page reloads during user navigation. when a user performs an action, such as selecting a hyperlink, which traditionally requires the site to load a new web page, the application instead modifies the current web page without reloading it. single - page interface web application. web application where the user is only required to perform a full - page load once. from that point on, all page changes and data loading is performed without a full - page reload. hotmail, office live, and twitter are examples of single - page interface web applications. sliding expiration. a pre - determined amount of time where an authenticated user can use the site. the amount of time is reset whenever the user makes a new request to the server. the advantage of using a sliding expiration is that it does not force the user to authenticate again if he or she maintains a reasonable level of activity in the application. otherwise, the user would be redirected to the authentication page after a fixed amount of time had elapsed after the initial authentication. static web application. web sites consisting of static html pages, css, and images. as each page is navigated to, the browser performs a full - page reload. structure. the html of the page as it relates to the hierarchy of elements that make up the page, rather than the visual appearance or layout of the ui. topic. the message between the publisher and subscriber in a pub / sub environment. this message, also often referred to as an event, represents the contract between the sender and receiver, and is made up of a name and an optional message body. user gestures. a specific action that a user takes in order to interact with an application. traditionally, gestures include mouse clicks and keys presses. however, many modern applications also employ interactions in which a user acts more directly on an application. for example, they may touch a screen to swipe, pinch, or pull content. viewbag. the name / value keyed collection that lets you store any loosely typed data. asp. net mvc 3 introduced the viewbag ( called viewdata in previous versions ) in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6192960292327735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3c28c4c2-0799-4a7e-9351-e6f62fc6a7fc>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:58.688170"}
{"text": "sparks - st. elmo ' s fire instructor / speaker : prof. walter lewin last time i mentioned to you that charge resides at the surface of solid conductors but that it ' s not uniformly distributed. perhaps you remember that, unless it happens to be a sphere. and i want to pursue that today. if i had a solid conductor which say had this shape and i ' m going to convince you today that right here, the surface charge density will be higher than there. because the curvature is stronger than it is here. and the way i want to approach that is as follows. suppose i have here a solid conductor a which has radius r of a and very very far away, maybe tens of meters away, i have a solid conductor b with radius r of b and they are connected through a conducting wire. if they are connected through a conducting wire, then it ' s equipotential. they all have the same potential. i ' m going to charge them up until i get a charge distribution qa here and i get qb there. the potential of a is about the same that it would be if b were not there. because b is so far away that if i come with some charge from infinity in my pocket that the work that i have to do to reach a per unit charge is independent of whether b is there or not, because b is far away, tens of meters, if you can make it a mile if you want to. and so the potential of a is then the charge on a divided by 4 pi epsilon 0 the radius of a. but since it is an equipotential because it ' s all conducting, this must be also the potential of the sphere b, and that is the charge on b divided by 4 pi epsilon 0 r of b. and so you see immediately that the q, the charge on b, divided by the radius of b, is the charge on a divided by the radius on a. and if the radius of b were for instance 5 times larger than the radius of a, there would be 5 times more charge on b than there would be on a. but if b has a 5 times larger radius, then its surface area is 25 times larger and since surface charge density, sigma, is the charge on a sphere divided by the surface area of the sphere, it is now clear that if the radius of b is 5 times larger than a, it ' s true that the charge on b is 5 times the charge on a, but the surface charge density on b is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6372766729060342, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0b039c0b-d2e7-44ec-92d2-bb2f379367ca>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:58.832855"}
{"text": "inside is of course the surface charge density times the area a, divided by epsilon 0, this is gauss ' s law. and so you find immediately that the electric field is sigma divided by epsilon 0. so whenever you have a conductor if you know the local surface charge density you always know the local electric field. and since the surface charge density is going to be the highest here, even though the whole thing is an equipotential, the electric field will also be higher here than it will be there. i can demonstrate this to you in a very simple way. i have here a cooking pan and the cooking pan, i used to boil lobsters in there, it ' s a large pan. the cooking pan i ' m going to charge up and the cooking pan here has a radius, whatever it is, maybe 20 centimeters, but look here at the handle, how very small this radius is, so you could put charge on there and i ' m going to convince you that i can scoop off more charge here where the radius is small than i can scoop off here. i have here a small flat spoon and i ' m going to put the spoon here on the surface here and on the surface there and we ' re going to see from where we can scoop off the most charge. still charged from the previous lecture. so here, we see the electroscope that we have seen before. i ' m going to charge this cooking pan with my favorite technique which is the electrophorus. so we have the cat fur and we have the glass plate. i ' m going to rub this first with the cat fur, put it on, put my finger on, get a little shock, charge up the pan, put my finger on, get another shock, charge up the pan, and another one, charge up the pan, make sure that i get enough charge on there, rub the glass again, put it on top, put my finger on, charge, once more, and once more. let ' s assume we have enough charge on there now. here is my little spoon. i touch here the outside here of the can - - of the pan. and go to the electroscope and you see a little charge. it ' s very clear. what i want to show you now it ' s very qualitative is that when i touch here the handle, it ' s a very small radius, that i can take off more charge. there we go. that ' s all i wanted to show you. so you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6204846102302767, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0b039c0b-d2e7-44ec-92d2-bb2f379367ca>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:58.835359"}
{"text": "those of us with even a passing interest in science are used to the idea that computers play a central role in understanding physics and chemistry, especially high - powered computation used in areas such as weather prediction and molecular visualization. however, over the past few years, a new target for that computation has emerged and begun to attract media attention. it ' s called computational biology ( or more catchy, bioinformatics ) and it refers to the digital storage, categorization, and analysis of biological data. if your most recent encounter with biology took place in high school, you may be surprised by any such crossover with computing. although i always found it fascinating, i remember biology never quite having the rigor of its counterparts in the science curriculum. some cells did this, other cells had that, and different organisms did all sorts of strange things, especially when dissected by over - enthusiastic schoolchildren. but there seemed to be few universal principles equivalent in scope to newton ' s equations or the periodic table of elements. digitizing life - - thanks to the wonders of molecular biology, many such fundamentals are now known to exist. an overview of some of the basics should give an impression of what is involved - bear in mind that we ' re dealing with the natural world in all its complexity, so everything that follows has been vastly simplified. life as we know it is encoded in a set of long molecules called dna, identical copies of which are found in every cell in a living organism such as a human being. everything that happens within an organism can be traced back to its dna - just like the hard disk in a computer. in humans, each cell contains 46 separate dna molecules called chromosomes, analogous perhaps to hard disk partitions. your chromosomes contain a mixture of information duplicated from those of your parents, which is one reason why you inherited so many of their characteristics. any one dna molecule consists of a series of connected nucleotides forming a chain that can run to lengths of many millions. there are only four possible nucleotides, so any dna molecule can be represented as a sequence using only four letters. this is where the digitization begins - the entire set of chromosomes for a human being can be stored in a few gigabytes of space ( even less after compression ) and you can even download a recent draft to your own computer. according to present - day understanding, only a fraction of your dna has a purpose - the other 98 percent or so is affectionately named \" junk. \" the meaningful bits, known as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6285879290349055, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:15312acd-e457-48ad-8cf4-f817fd406dcf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:59.115410"}
{"text": "from physics research archive - page 4 the physics classroom : total internal reflection - sep 16, 2010 the optical fiber in the photo above doesn ' t just guide the beam - - the fiber produces the beam. instead of a tube of helium and neon gas, or a piece of ruby, the \" active medium \" of this laser is added to the glass in the fiber. since the mirrors are just the polished ends of the fiber, there is nothing to go out of alignment, and maintenance is easy. network theory : a key to unraveling how nature works - sep 1, 2010 you are looking at a network diagram that shows the interconnectedness of the world economy. to learn more about this network, visit mapping the world economy. making a supersonic jet in your kitchen - aug 16, 2010 what exactly happens when an object makes a splash in water? the disk shown above was pulled into water in a reproducible way to investigate the splash. the real sea monsters : on the hunt for rogue waves - aug 1, 2010 this \" rogue wave \" broke over the deck of an oil tanker, and was much taller than the other waves on the ocean at the time. see freak waves, rogue waves for graphs of rogue waves building up in the ocean, and for the measurement of one that struck an oil platform in the north sea. from soap bubbles to technology - jul 16, 2010 the soap film you see here, made in between two metal rings, is called a catenoid, and it uses the minimum area to enclose a given volume. click on the image to see another example of a \" minimal surface \" soap film. about dust - jul 1, 2010 this satellite image shows a recent dust storm in china that was so large it spread out to neighboring countries. for more on this storm, see this time magazine article and also about dust. shock diamonds and mach disks - jun 16, 2010 when the speed of the gases in a jet or rocket exhaust exceeds the speed of sound, a dazzling pattern results called \" shock diamonds \" or \" mach disks, \" as shown in this photo of the sr - 71 blackbird. the diamonds are created by crisscrossing shock waves in the exhaust. image credit : nasa, esa, h. bond ( stsci ), r. ciardullo ( penn state ), and the hubble heritage team ( aura / stsci ) ; image source ; larger image stellar evolution - jun 1, 2010 when the sun reaches the end of its life, its outer layers will", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6499044713255988, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:61a1c128-6043-43d5-acf4-3f35e7ec4ab0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:59.834746"}
{"text": "cells rely on tiny molecular motors to deliver cargo, such as mrna and organelles, within the cell. the critical nature of this transport system is evidenced by the fact that disruption of motors by genetic defects leads to fatal diseases in humans. although investigators have isolated these motor to study their function in a controlled environment outside the cell, it has been difficult for researchers to follow these fascinating molecular transporters in their natural environment, the living cell. now, two articles published by cell press in biophysical journal, make use of incredibly tiny, glowing \" quantum dots \" to track the miniscule motions of myosin v in living cells. interestingly, both research groups independently report that myosin v molecules carry their quantum dot cargo either in a straight line or in a manner akin to a drunken walk. myosin v is a motor molecule that \" walks \" in a fashion similar to humans by stepping along actin filament tracks that are assembled in a dense, criss - crossing network inside the cell. a critical feature of these motors is their ability to walk long distances without falling off their tracks. however, this has never been observed within cells. through the binding of quantum dots directly to a single myosin v molecule, both investigative teams used sophisticated microscopes and sensitive cameras to witness the 72 nanometer strides ( equivalent to 1 millionth of an inch ) taken by these motors for the first time in cells. in results published in the may 20th 2009 issue of biophysical journal, dr. giovanni cappello from the institut curie in paris, france tracked the movement of single myosin v molecules with inside living hela cells. dr. cappello and colleagues reported that the myosin v can transport cargo for long distances without falling off its track at velocities higher than would be expected based on earlier studies. \" our approach goes beyond conventional experiments on organelles and opens interesting perspectives for studying intracellular transport pathways and how motors behave in complex filament networks, \" says dr. cappello. dr. david warshaw and colleagues from the university of vermont college of medicine used quantum dots to follow the activity of myosin v in cos - 7 cells. their findings, published in the july 22nd 2009 issue of the journal, suggested that myosin v ' s apparent drunken walk is in fact the motor taking turns at almost every intersection it encounters along the dense and randomly oriented intracellular actin highway. \" cargo delivery in cells can ' t totally be a random process, therefore,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6196070020515694, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5f725809-c65a-4ea3-9c56-3f7abc647b7e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:10:59.992212"}
{"text": ", or, not and near ( known as operators ) to limit, widen, or define your search. most internet search engines default to a boolean and search, but its handy for you to know how to do a basic boolean search. - boolean logic is just the term used to describe certain logical operations that are used to combine search terms in many search engine databases and directories on the net. basic boolean search operator - and using and narrows a search by combining terms ; it will retrieve documents that use both the search terms that you specify, as in this example : adelaide and south australia basic boolean search operator - or using or broadens a search to include results that contain either of the words you type in. or is a good tool to use when there are several common spellings or synonyms of a word, as in this example : computer or pc basic boolean search operator - not - using not will narrow a search by excluding certain search terms. not retrieves documents that contain one, but not the other, of the search terms you enter, as in this example : adelaide not travel. keep in mind that not all search engines and directories support boolean terms. however, most do, and you can easily find out if the one you want to use supports this technique by consulting the faq ' s ( frequently asked questions ) on a search engine or directory ' s home page. further search operators include : - near means you want all the words in that specific order or the actual phrase. - nand means a combination of not and and - nor means a combination of not and or conduct a search with domain names to refine the search : if you know the website you are looking for is specific type of website, for example a website for a government agency or a school can be identified by the last part of its web address. -. com = a commercial business -. edu = an educational institution -. gov = a governmental institution -. org = a non - profit organization -. biz = a business example : to search for a south australian government website you would type \u201c south australia site :. sa. gov. au \u201d into your search engine. you can also select to search for websites from a specific country. -. au = australia -. fr = france -. co. uk = england example : for holiday websites from australia you would type \u201c holidays site :. au \u201d into your search engine.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6033090454428792, "token_count": 496, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e53c7953-637b-4d2b-8fd5-221ab09b29cd>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:11:00.078400"}
{"text": "hypnosis, hypnotherapy : hypnosis is a trance - like state in which a person becomes more aware and focused and is more open to suggestion. hypnotherapy has been used to treat health conditions or to change behaviors. early study suggests that hypnosis may have short and long - term effects for patients with mild high blood pressure. additional research is needed to confirm these findings. - use cautiously with mental illnesses ( e. g. psychosis, schizophrenia, manic depression, multiple personality disorder, or dissociative disorders ) or seizure disorders. iridology is the study of the iris ( colored part of the eye ) with the intention of gaining information about underlying diseases. iridologists believe that the degrees of light and darkness in the iris give clues to the body ' s general health. preliminary studies by a south korean team of researchers using a computerized approach suggest that iridology may assist in the identification of individual predispositions for vascular diseases such as hypertension. further research is needed to confirm the effectiveness of iridology as a diagnostic tool for hypertension, and further teams of researchers would need to conduct parallel work in order for these methods to become validated. - iridology should not be used alone to diagnose disease. studies of iridology have reported incorrect diagnoses, and thus, potentially severe medical problems may go undiagnosed. in addition, research suggests that iridology may lead to inappropriate treatment. iridology is therefore not recommended as a sole method of diagnosis or treatment for any condition. - lutein : lutein and zeaxanthin are found in high levels in foods, such as green vegetables, egg yolk, kiwi fruit, grapes, orange juice, zucchini, squash, and corn. preliminary evidence suggests that pre - eclampsia risk may decrease with increasing concentrations of lutein. additional human studies are needed before a firm recommendation can be made. - avoid if allergic or hypersensitive to lutein or zeaxanthin. use cautiously if at risk for cardiovascular disease or cancer. avoid if pregnant or breastfeeding. - lycopene : lycopene is a carotenoid, which is a naturally occurring class of fat - soluble pigments ( coloring ) found mainly in plants and algae. lycopene is present in human serum, liver, adrenal glands, lungs, prostate, colon, and skin at higher levels than other carote", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6074609562637276, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7df2c02b-3013-4ab0-a13c-4c01a58c76f7>", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T21:11:00.510189"}