data/train/batch_000013.jsonl

{"text": "latest and most convincing idea concerning the formation of the universe come from inflation theory. the prominent physicist alan guth worked out the basic idea. physicists predicted as early as 1922 and confirmed in the 1960s that the universe came from a tiny point that exploded into a fireball of extreme heat and density. this point became known as a singularity, it is believed that at the time of the singularity all the known forces of the universe were unified. the four forces are gravity, electromagnetism, the strong, and the weak nuclear forces. fairly recently all of these forces, except gravity, have been unified in what is now called a grand unified theory or gut. understanding gravity at the atomic level has been elusive ; gravity at the cosmic plane is well known having been described by newton several centuries ago. at the level of stars and galaxies, gravity is a powerful force pervading the universe, but is almost undetectable at subatomic levels. a theory of quantum gravity will have to be understood before all four forces of nature can be unified. nonetheless, gravity is essential to holding everything together, and from coming apart. prior to inflation theory scientists knew little about how the big bang, as it is called, came into being. inflation solved many riddles about the beginning of creation that have come to be accepted by most physicists and cosmologists today. within a second of this explosive period the universe expanded by 25 orders of magnitude. this means that the universe expanded from a point a billionth the size of a proton, which is one of the building blocks of matter, to the size of a marble. it then slowed and cooled over time to the size it is today, and is still expanding. this is equivalent to a pearl exploding to the size of the milky way. the power of this fireball is unimaginable, within the first fraction of a second ( approximately a decimal point followed by 33 zeros and a one ) the forces of raw energy began splitting apart. guth surmises that the whole universe may be a \u201c free lunch. \u201d 23 this is not an easy concept to explain. one reason is that it comes out of the weird world of quantum mechanics. quantum theory holds that in any physical system probability rules over absolutes. it is impossible to predict the properties of an atom, although one can predict the properties of atoms in general. now think of a pure vacuum ; it seems counter intuitive, and even contradictory to say that something can come out of nothing, but due to quantum uncertainties", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.650909053776905, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:70ecee62-2f05-442f-9e5e-0f4cc0d00ef4>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:08.409715"}
{"text": "to predict the properties of an atom, although one can predict the properties of atoms in general. now think of a pure vacuum ; it seems counter intuitive, and even contradictory to say that something can come out of nothing, but due to quantum uncertainties something can come out of nothing. in cloud chamber experiments particles do materialize out of a vacuum and disappear back into it, but only for a micro second. physicists call it a vacuum fluctuation. even empty space contains a slight energy field. out of this primordial vacuum came a hot plasmic stew from which bubbled subatomic particles that existed for only a short time. inflation theorists call this eruption a false vacuum. since the universe is still expanding from the initial big bang, the false vacuum is considered to have a repulsive gravitational force. as the expansion doubled exponentially, so too did the energy of gravity, and hence the doubling of matter, such as particles of electrons, positrons, and neutrinos. to explain the emergence of matter, cosmologists say that some state of the false vacuum decayed ; this is an important aspect of creation. einstein recognized this possibility when he realized that energy and matter are essentially equivalent \u2013 as in e = mc2. after about 300, 000 years, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow simple atoms to form, like hydrogen, helium, and lithium. the dense fog that existed before dissipated, and the universe became very dark ; there were as yet no stars. before getting too far ahead, it is necessary to incorporate m - theory into the scenario being created in this essay. the purpose is to present the latest ideas and theories in physics and cosmology that are consistent with m - theory. it should be very important that any attempt to explain ultimate reality cannot be complete until it includes the very consciousness that formulates the explanation. it should be emphasized that this is a theory without much evidence to back it up ; other than it makes logical sense, and brings metaphysics and physics together in a common purpose. as discussed in the exegesis, theoretically, all the energy being sucked into a black hole disappears as it passes through the event horizon, and comes out as a singularity forming a new universe. m - flux comes through as the source of cosmic consciousness carrying with it the universal laws. gravity manifests both as a repulsive force driving the expansion, and the attractive force pulling matter together. the brief period before inflation has been referred to as the era of quantum gravity. quantum gravity has never been", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6504414710928714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:70ecee62-2f05-442f-9e5e-0f4cc0d00ef4>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:08.410692"}
{"text": "consciousness carrying with it the universal laws. gravity manifests both as a repulsive force driving the expansion, and the attractive force pulling matter together. the brief period before inflation has been referred to as the era of quantum gravity. quantum gravity has never been detected, but has to be assumed for the sake of theory, once its nature is discerned it should fit in with the other three known forces ; this will be a rare moment for science. the repulsive gravitational field, or m - force, or false vacuum, had the power to explode from an incredibly dense point into a universe. with the doubling of energy and its subsequent decay into particles of simple matter, we might think of this as the first act of creation. matter and energy separated out of the m - force to become opposing entities. after the inflationary period ended the m - force returned to a less energetic state, forming the primordial m - flux as stars were born, now governed by the classic laws of newtonian mechanics. about a century ago albert einstein observed the universe as it appeared, unmoving and static with stars and galaxies fixed in their positions. but he also realized that the gravitational attraction between these bodies would slowly pull them together, although that did not seem to be happening. so he introduced a few calculations into his general theory of relativity that created an opposing force to counter gravity. he called it lambda, and it later became known as the cosmological constant. in 1929 edwin hubble using the new 100 - inch telescope on mt. wilson discovered that the stars and galaxies were actually moving away from each other, and that the universe was expanding. einstein quickly dropped lambda. soon new ideas arose concerning the shape of the universe and the geometries that determine it. einstein \u2019 s theory of relativity entailed a non - euclidean geometry that resulted in a closed universe because space bends in on itself ; it has a finite volume and the shape of a sphere. ironically, a spaceship traveling in a straight line will eventually return to where it started. in a closed universe gravity will overcome the expansion and begin to contract ; all the stars and galaxies will be pulled back into what is called a big crunch. in another cosmological model, a universe with very little mass will lack enough gravitational force to stop the expansion, so space is open, or infinite in volume, and the universe will expand forever. there is a third model that is precisely the borderline between a closed and an open universe. it is the exact point between eternal expansion and eventual collapse ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6321249005302431, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:70ecee62-2f05-442f-9e5e-0f4cc0d00ef4>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:08.411691"}
{"text": "expansion, so space is open, or infinite in volume, and the universe will expand forever. there is a third model that is precisely the borderline between a closed and an open universe. it is the exact point between eternal expansion and eventual collapse ; cosmologists say that it has reached critical mass density. amazingly the universe is at that point today ; amazing because theorists are at a loss to explain why those values are so precise, and because there is no compelling necessity that they should be. when in perfect balance scientists say that omega equals one ; if less than one, an open universe results ; if more, a closed universe. a universe in which omega equals one is said to be flat. ( referring to its euclidean geometry ). the conservation of energy in a flat universe is maintained due to the perfect equilibrium of all the negative energy of gravity and all the positive energy of matter. precise measurements of the energy left over from the big bang, called the cosmic background radiation, confirmed that omega equals one. if energy and mass are equivalent, then enough gravity will preserve the balance required to keep omega at one. \u201c paul steinhardt of princeton university theorizes that the delicate balance between energy and matter would be suspicious if there were no communication between the two. he proposes that repulsive energy senses the presence of matter and changes its strength and distribution to maintain a balance of densities. \u201d 24 this is consistent with m - theory, and may hint at something mystical going on. while this may all be very interesting, it is crucial to understanding how m - flux, here associated with dark matter, came to be identified, and why its role is so important in this discussion. when astronomers attempt to tally up all the matter in the universe they come up 90 to 99 percent short of what should be out there. it is interesting to wonder what astronomers are thinking when they look through their telescopes, knowing that maybe they are only seeing one percent of what is in the heavens. the m - flux, or dark matter, exists throughout the universe, but remains elusive until revealing itself through its gravity. this is most apparent around galaxies and clusters of galaxies. as galaxies bunch within huge clumps of dark matter, the light coming from behind these galaxies bends to reveal the outline of this invisible stuff. super computer simulations predict that bright galaxies will group tightly together under powerful gravitational forces within huge concentrations of dark matter. it is almost as if a parent were gathering its children unto itself. recent studies have surprised the scientific community with the realization that the expansion of the universe", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6141304649976985, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:70ecee62-2f05-442f-9e5e-0f4cc0d00ef4>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:08.414220"}
{"text": "m - theory presumes that the big bang erupted from something prior, rather than nothing, suggesting an eternal cycle. big bang theory postulates a beginning of time and space in our universe giving it a sense of temporality and finiteness that occurred about thirteen thousand million years ago. life on earth began between one and two thousand million years ago. humans diverged from primates about seven or eight million years ago. the development of human intelligence has taken many thousands of years, but it has only been in recent times that early civilizations began to use mathematics as a tool to improvise new theories and methods of construction. in the last few thousand years alone the leap in knowledge has been exponential. m - factor, sentient life, rests on three pillars : mind, matter, and energy. like the universe, they are in perfect balance, proportion, and unity. while we may think of ourselves as being rather insignificant in the vast scheme of things, it may actually be the other way around. on the following page is a graphic representation of how this hypothetical theory might work in the diagram of the three circles. it depicts our inner relationship to the outer world that gives existence a meaning and purpose. the center where the three circles overlap represents a mandala of the soul, the self is the dot at that center. i want to thank to dr. gary bowman of the physics and astronomy dept. at northern arizona university for his helpful suggestions and comments.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6094040094682868, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:70ecee62-2f05-442f-9e5e-0f4cc0d00ef4>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:08.418190"}
{"text": "the subjects in this study. significant correlations were found between confucian dynamism and the variables power ( p [ less than ]. 05 ), future ( p [ less than ]. 001 ), and past ( p [ less than ]. 00l ). future was also significantly correlated cor \u00b7 re \u00b7 late v. cor \u00b7 re \u00b7 lat \u00b7 ed, cor \u00b7 re \u00b7 lat \u00b7 ing, cor \u00b7 re \u00b7 lates 1. to put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. to indiv ( p [ less than ]. 0l ) and uncert. additionally, past was related to uncert ( p [ less than ]. 05 ) and future ( p [ less than ]. 05 ). two significant correlations were found among hofstede ' s initial dimensions : between indiv and uncert ( p [ less than ]. 01 ) and between mascul and power ( p [ less than ]. 01 ). hypothesis 1 claimed that individual scores on confucian dynamism will be positively related to power distance, negatively related to individualism, and unrelated to masculinity. table 2 shows the results from the multiple regression multiple regression the estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. analysis performed to test hypothesis 1. the omnibus omnibus : see bus. f - test, which is used to determine if the overall model is significant, was statistically significant ( f = 1. 697 ; p [ less than ]. 10 ). as hypothesized the relationship between power distance and confucian dynamism was positive and significant ( standardized standardized pertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures. standardized morbidity rate see morbidity rate. standardized mortality rate see mortality rate. =. 124 ; p [ less than ]. 05 ). further, no significant relationship was evident between masculinity and confucian dynamism. while there was a negative relationship for individualism, as hypothesized, it was not significant. thus, hypothesis 1 is partially supported with power distance as the only hypothesized variable that was significant. table 3 contains the regression results that pertain to pertain to verb relate to, concern, refer to, regard, be part of, belong to, apply to, bear on, befit, be relevant to, be appropriate to, appertain to the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6065998251335674, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a97577a-d841-4f10-b153-046cdf9b93c8>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:08.638401"}
{"text": "click the study aids tab at the bottom of the book to access your study aids ( usually practice quizzes and flash cards ). study pass is our latest digital product that lets you take notes, highlight important sections of the text using different colors, create \" tags \" or labels to filter your notes and highlights, and print so you can study offline. study pass also includes interactive study aids, such as flash cards and quizzes. highlighting and taking notes : if you ' ve purchased the all access pass or study pass, in the online reader, click and drag your mouse to highlight text. when you do a small button appears \u2013 simply click on it! from there, you can select a highlight color, add notes, add tags, or any combination. if you ' ve purchased the all access pass, you can print each chapter by clicking on the downloads tab. if you have study pass, click on the print icon within study view to print out your notes and highlighted sections. to search, use the text box at the bottom of the book. click a search result to be taken to that chapter or section of the book ( note you may need to scroll down to get to the result ). view full student faqs 8. 6 exceptions to the octet rule - to assign a lewis dot symbol to elements not having an octet of electrons in their compounds. lewis dot structures provide a simple model for rationalizing the bonding in most known compounds. however, there are three general exceptions to the octet rule : ( 1 ) molecules, such as no, with an odd number of electrons ; ( 2 ) molecules in which one or more atoms possess more than eight electrons, such as sf6 ; and ( 3 ) molecules such as bcl3, in which one or more atoms possess less than eight electrons. odd number of electrons because most molecules or ions that consist of s - and p - block elements contain even numbers of electrons, their bonding can be described using a model that assigns every electron to either a bonding pair or a lone pair. molecules or ions containing d - block elements frequently contain an odd number of electrons, and their bonding cannot adequately be described using the simple approach we have developed so far. bonding in these compounds will be discussed in chapter 23 \" the \". there are, however, a few molecules containing only p - block elements that have an odd number of electrons. some important examples are nitric oxide ( no ), whose biochemical importance was described in earlier chapters ; nitrogen dioxide ( no2 ), an ox", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6080964950382528, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4807bf0-7776-4f95-9ce8-0987ba67ee2e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.206504"}
{"text": ", however, a few molecules containing only p - block elements that have an odd number of electrons. some important examples are nitric oxide ( no ), whose biochemical importance was described in earlier chapters ; nitrogen dioxide ( no2 ), an oxidizing agent in rocket propulsion ; and chlorine dioxide ( clo2 ), which is used in water purification plants. consider no, for example. with 5 + 6 = 11 valence electrons, there is no way to draw a lewis structure that gives each atom an octet of electrons. molecules such as no, no2, and clo2 require a more sophisticated treatment of bonding, which will be developed in chapter 9 \" molecular geometry and covalent bonding models \". more than an octet of electrons the most common exception to the octet rule is a molecule or an ion with at least one atom that possesses more than an octet of electrons. such compounds are found for elements of period 3 and beyond. examples from the p - block elements include sf6, a substance used by the electric power industry to insulate high - voltage lines, and the so42\u2212 and po43\u2212 ions. let \u2019 s look at sulfur hexafluoride ( sf6 ), whose lewis structure must accommodate a total of 48 valence electrons [ 6 + ( 6 \u00d7 7 ) = 48 ]. if we arrange the atoms and electrons symmetrically, we obtain a structure with six bonds to sulfur ; that is, it is six - coordinate. each fluorine atom has an octet, but the sulfur atom has 12 electrons surrounding it rather than 8. the third step in our procedure for writing lewis electron structures, in which we place an electron pair between each pair of bonded atoms, requires that an atom have more than 8 electrons whenever it is bonded to more than 4 other atoms. the octet rule is based on the fact that each valence orbital ( typically, one ns and three np orbitals ) can accommodate only two electrons. to accommodate more than eight electrons, sulfur must be using not only the ns and np valence orbitals but additional orbitals as well. sulfur has an [ ne ] 3s23p43d0 electron configuration, so in principle it could accommodate more than eight valence electrons by using one or more d orbitals. thus species such as sf6 are often called expanded - valence moleculesa compound with more than an octet of electrons around an atom.. whether or not such compounds really do use d orbitals in bonding is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6420713722102249, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4807bf0-7776-4f95-9ce8-0987ba67ee2e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.207750"}
{"text": "one or more d orbitals. thus species such as sf6 are often called expanded - valence moleculesa compound with more than an octet of electrons around an atom.. whether or not such compounds really do use d orbitals in bonding is controversial, but this model explains why compounds exist with more than an octet of electrons around an atom. there is no correlation between the stability of a molecule or an ion and whether or not it has an expanded valence shell. some species with expanded valences, such as pf5, are highly reactive, whereas others, such as sf6, are very unreactive. in fact, sf6 is so inert that it has many commercial applications. in addition to its use as an electrical insulator, it is used as the coolant in some nuclear power plants, and it is the pressurizing gas in \u201c unpressurized \u201d tennis balls. an expanded valence shell is often written for oxoanions of the heavier p - block elements, such as sulfate ( so42\u2212 ) and phosphate ( po43\u2212 ). sulfate, for example, has a total of 32 valence electrons [ 6 + ( 4 \u00d7 6 ) + 2 ]. if we use a single pair of electrons to connect the sulfur and each oxygen, we obtain the four - coordinate lewis structure ( a ). we know that sulfur can accommodate more than eight electrons by using its empty valence d orbitals, just as in sf6. an alternative structure ( b ) can be written with s = o double bonds, making the sulfur again six - coordinate. we can draw five other resonance structures equivalent to ( b ) that vary only in the arrangement of the single and double bonds. in fact, experimental data show that the s - to - o bonds in the so42\u2212 ion are intermediate in length between single and double bonds, as expected for a system whose resonance structures all contain two s \u2013 o single bonds and two s = o double bonds. when calculating the formal charges on structures ( a ) and ( b ), we see that the s atom in ( a ) has a formal charge of + 2, whereas the s atom in ( b ) has a formal charge of 0. thus by using an expanded octet, a + 2 formal charge on s can be eliminated. note the pattern in oxoanions of the heavier p - block elements, the central atom often has an expanded valence shell. less than an octet of electrons molecules with atoms that possess less than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6699131364554362, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4807bf0-7776-4f95-9ce8-0987ba67ee2e>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.208698"}
{"text": "2 formal charge on s can be eliminated. note the pattern in oxoanions of the heavier p - block elements, the central atom often has an expanded valence shell. less than an octet of electrons molecules with atoms that possess less than an octet of electrons generally contain the lighter s - and p - block elements, especially beryllium, typically with just four electrons around the central atom, and boron, typically with six. one example, boron trichloride ( bcl3 ) is used to produce fibers for reinforcing high - tech tennis rackets and golf clubs. the compound has 24 valence electrons and the following lewis structure : the boron atom has only six valence electrons, while each chlorine atom has eight. a reasonable solution might be to use a lone pair from one of the chlorine atoms to form a b - to - cl double bond : this resonance structure, however, results in a formal charge of + 1 on the doubly bonded cl atom and \u22121 on the b atom. the high electronegativity of cl makes this separation of charge unlikely and suggests that this is not the most important resonance structure for bcl3. this conclusion is shown to be valid based on the three equivalent b \u2013 cl bond lengths of 173 pm that have no double bond character. electron - deficient compounds such as bcl3 have a strong tendency to gain an additional pair of electrons by reacting with species with a lone pair of electrons. note the pattern molecules with atoms that have fewer than an octet of electrons generally contain the lighter s - and p - block elements. note the pattern electron - deficient compounds have a strong tendency to gain electrons in their reactions. draw lewis dot structures for each compound. - becl2 gas, a compound used to produce beryllium, which in turn is used to produce structural materials for missiles and communication satellites - sf4, a compound that reacts violently with water include resonance structures where appropriate. given : two compounds asked for : lewis electron structures a use the procedure given earlier to write a lewis electron structure for each compound. if necessary, place any remaining valence electrons on the element most likely to be able to accommodate more than an octet. b after all the valence electrons have been placed, decide whether you have drawn an acceptable lewis structure. a because it is the least electronegative element, be is the central atom. the molecule has 16 valence electrons ( 2 from be and 7 from each cl ). drawing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6334388942836687, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4807bf0-7776-4f95-9ce8-0987ba67ee2e>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.209748"}
{"text": "have been placed, decide whether you have drawn an acceptable lewis structure. a because it is the least electronegative element, be is the central atom. the molecule has 16 valence electrons ( 2 from be and 7 from each cl ). drawing two be \u2013 cl bonds and placing three lone pairs on each cl gives the following structure : b although this arrangement gives beryllium only 4 electrons, it is an acceptable lewis structure for becl2. beryllium is known to form compounds in which it is surrounded by less than an octet of electrons. a sulfur is the central atom because it is less electronegative than fluorine. the molecule has 34 valence electrons ( 6 from s and 7 from each f ). the s \u2013 f bonds use 8 electrons, and another 24 are placed around the f atoms : the only place to put the remaining 2 electrons is on the sulfur, giving sulfur 10 valence electrons : b sulfur can accommodate more than an octet, so this is an acceptable lewis structure. draw lewis dot structures for xef4. molecules with an odd number of electrons are relatively rare in the s and p blocks but rather common among the d - and f - block elements. compounds with more than an octet of electrons around an atom are called expanded - valence molecules. one model to explain their existence uses one or more d orbitals in bonding in addition to the valence ns and np orbitals. such species are known for only atoms in period 3 or below, which contain nd subshells in their valence shell. - general exceptions to the octet rule include molecules that have an odd number of electrons and molecules in which one or more atoms possess more or fewer than eight electrons. what regions of the periodic table contain elements that frequently form molecules with an odd number of electrons? explain your answer. how can atoms expand their valence shell? what is the relationship between an expanded valence shell and the stability of an ion or a molecule? what elements are known to form compounds with less than an octet of electrons? why do electron - deficient compounds form? list three elements that form compounds that do not obey the octet rule. describe the factors that are responsible for the stability of these compounds. what is the major weakness of the lewis system in predicting the electron structures of pcl6\u2212 and other species containing atoms from period 3 and beyond? the compound aluminum trichloride consists of al2cl6 molecules with the following structure ( lone pairs of electrons removed for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6077320403402238, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4807bf0-7776-4f95-9ce8-0987ba67ee2e>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.210692"}
{"text": "macroscopic properties and microscopic models as a simple example of how the macroscopic properties of a substancea material that is either an element or that has a fixed ratio of elements in its chemical formula. can be explained on a microscopic level, consider the liquida state of matter in which the atomic - scale particles remain close together but are able to change their positions so that the matter takes the shape of its container mercury. macroscopically, mercury at ordinary temperatures is a silvery liquid which can be poured much like water \u2014 rather unusual for a metalan element characterized by a glossy surface, high thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, and ductility.. mercury is also the heaviest known liquid. its densitythe ratio of the mass of a sample of a material to its volume. is 13. 6 g cm \u2013 3, as compared with only 1. 0 g cm \u2013 3 for water. when cooled below \u2013 38. 9\u00b0c mercury solidifies and behaves very much like more familiar solid metals such as copper and iron. mercury frozen around the end of a wooden stick can be used to hammer nails, as long as it is kept sufficiently cold. solid mercury has a density of 14. 1 g cm \u2013 3 slightly greater than that of the liquid. when mercury is heated, it remains a liquid until quite a high temperature, finally boilingthe process of a liquid becoming vapor in which bubbles of vapor form beneath the surface of the liquid ; at the boiling temperature the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure of the gas in contact with the liquid. at 356. 6\u00b0c to give an invisible vaporthe gaseous state of a substance that typically exists as a liquid or solid ; a gas at a temperature near or below the boiling point of the corresponding liquid.. even at low concentrations gaseous mercury is extremely toxic if breathed into the lungs. it has been responsible for many cases of human poisoning. in other respects mercury vapor behaves much like any other gas. it is easily compressible. even when quite modest pressures are applied, the volume decreases noticeably. mercury vapor is also much less dense than the liquid or the solid. at 400\u00b0c and ordinary pressures, its density is 3. 6 \u00d7 10 \u2013 3 g cm \u2013 3 about one four - thousandth that of solid or liquid mercury. a modern chemist would interpret these macroscopic properties in terms of a < span style = \" background - color : navy ; color : white ; \" / > sub - microscopic model involving atoms of mercury. as shown in the following figure", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.7030613398549496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:788a26bb-3431-4e86-88e7-32adca8979c4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.220583"}
{"text": "or liquid mercury. a modern chemist would interpret these macroscopic properties in terms of a < span style = \" background - color : navy ; color : white ; \" / > sub - microscopic model involving atoms of mercury. as shown in the following figure, the atoms may be thought of as small, hard spheres. like billiard balls they can move around and bounce off one another. in solid mercury the centers of adjacent atoms are separated by only 300 pm ( 300 \u00d7 10 \u2013 12 m or 3. 00a ). although each atom can move around a little, the others surround it so closely that it cannot escape its allotted position. hence the solid is rigid. very few atoms move out of position even when it strikes a nail. as temperature increases, the atoms vibrate more violently, and eventually the solid melts. in liquid mercury, the regular, geometrically rigid structure is gone and the atoms are free to move about, but they are still rather close together and difficult to separate. this ability of the atoms to move past each other accounts for the fact that liquid mercury can flow and take the shape of its container. note that the structure of the liquid is not as compact as that of the solid ; a few gaps are present. these gaps explain why liquid mercury is less dense than the solid. in gaseous mercury, also called mercury vapor, the atoms are very much farther apart than in the liquid and they move around quite freely and rapidly. since there are very few atoms per unita particular measure of a physical quantity that is used to express the magnitude of the physical quantity ; for example, the meter is the unit of the physical quantity, length. volume, the density is considerably lower than for the liquid and solid. by moving rapidly in all directions, the atoms of mercury ( or any other gas for that matteranything that occupies space and has mass ; contrasted with energy. ) are able to fill any container in which they are placed. when the atoms hit a wall of the container, they bounce off. this constant bombardment by atoms on the < span style = \" background - color : navy ; color : white ; \" / > sub - microscopic level accounts for the pressure exerted by the gas on the macroscopic level. the gas can be easily compressed because there is plenty of open space between the atoms. reducing the volume merely reduces that empty space. the liquid and the solid are not nearly so easy to compress because there is little or no empty space between the atoms. you may have noticed that although our sub -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6742213891609647, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:788a26bb-3431-4e86-88e7-32adca8979c4>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.222541"}
{"text": "alphabetic index : a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z gasoline / \u02c8\u0261\u00e6s\u0259li\u02d0n /, or petrol / \u02c8p\u025btr\u0259l / is a transparent, petroleum - derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. it consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. some gasolines also contain ethanol as an alternative fuel. in north america, the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas, but some people use the term petrol, which is the common name in the uk and elsewhere in the commonwealth of nations. under normal ambient conditions, its material state is liquid, unlike liquefied petroleum gas or natural gas. gasoline is more volatile than diesel oil, jet - a, or kerosene, not only because of the base constituents, but also because of additives. volatility is often controlled by blending with butane, which boils at \u22120. 5 \u00b0c. the volatility of petrol is determined by the reid vapor pressure ( rvp ) test. the desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature. in hot weather, petrol components of higher molecular weight and thus lower volatility are used. in cold weather, too little volatility results in cars failing to start. in hot weather, excessive volatility results in what is known as \" vapor lock \", where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a gaseous state in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and starving the engine of fuel. this effect mainly applies to camshaft - driven ( engine mounted ) fuel pumps which lack a fuel return line. vehicles with fuel injection require the fuel to be pressurized within a set range. because the camshaft speed is nearly zero before the engine is started, an electric pump is used. it is located in the fuel tank so the fuel may also cool the high - pressure pump. pressure regulation is achieved by returning unused fuel to the tank. therefore, vapor lock is almost never a problem in a vehicle with fuel injection. in the us, volatility is regulated to reduce the emission of unburned hydrocarbons by the use of so - called reformulated gasoline that is less prone to evaporation. in australia, summer petrol volatility limits are set by state governments and vary among states. most countries simply have a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6023687989044342, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f8949293-4f2a-41cf-925b-e11fabb81fbf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.574137"}
{"text": ", a principle nutrient in limiting carbon production, photosynthesis was depressed in cyanobacteria during the archean and early proterozoic. - christopher house, a microbial geobiologist from pennsylvania state university, will provide further evidence for a newly discovered archaeal bacterial lineage that consumes methane anaerobically. he gathered this evidence using fish and iron microbe techniques to measure carbon isotope depletion. - martin brasier, earth sciences at the university of oxford, will provide a new look at whether or not morphological remains of fossils thought to be photosynthetic are as old as previous estimates have stipulated. this is important as it is some of the most quoted evidence for the antiquity of oxygenic photosynthesis. - janet siefert will present data that uses some of the most basic molecules for biochemistry, iron - sulfur clusters, to determine the sequence of metabolic events that may have occurred in the archean timeframe. - george fox, department of biology and biochemistry at the university of houston, will give a genomic perspective of what the archean contemporary cyanobacteria must have contained as its genomic component. this is an important piece of molecular evidence that can be compared to the morphological fossil record and the proposed atmospheric conditions prior to the rise of oxygen. - session 24 : tuesday, june 26. controls on phanerozoic diversifications and extinctions : long - term interactions between the physical and biotic realms - in this session, scientists from the usa and the uk will explore what controls the long - term patterns of origination and extinction that give shape to the history of life and how life itself has participated in that process. this connects directly to contemporary concerns with biodiversity issues and questions about the effects of climate change. for example : what natural processes have caused past climate shifts and mass extinction episodes? - by examining the records of climate changes over the past 600 million years, what caused the changes, and what effects they had on ancient organisms, these scientists are discovering what implications this information has for understanding - the most important general themes of the papers in this session are : ( 1 ) the adoption of a systems approach to the understanding of earth ' s history ( major events being caused by multiple, independent factors ) and ( 2 ) the significance of ' feedback mechanisms. ' - some of the highlights are as follows : - session co - chair norman macleod will begin by taking a look at the identifying controls on phanerozoic extinction and diversification patterns. ( macleod is the associate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6010722839895578, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:392ec9ae-6956-4e6e-b56a-156c46fed533>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.613227"}
{"text": "whenever you see a face in a cloud or the man in the moon you \u2019 re experiencing a phenomenon called \u201c pareidoliac apophenia. \u201d one example is the apparent face that emerged from the shadows of a mesa on mars. the term apophenia was coined by klaus conrad in 1958. it refers to our tendency to find meaningful patterns or to draw connections in random sets of data. in east asian folklore, by the way, they don \u2019 t see a man in the moon ; they see a rabbit. another example of apophenia is the apparent synchronicity between the 1939 film wizard of oz and the pink floyd album dark side of the moon. if you watch this youtube clip of the album playing as the movie soundtrack, meaningful connections seem to emerge. pareidolia is a specific kind of apophenia where faces or other patterns emerge from random shapes. the rorschach test is a classic example. it also explains the remarkable discovery in 1978 of the face of jesus in the burn marks of a tortilla, and the appearance of the virgin mary in a grilled cheese sandwich. in september of 2007, a monkey god was observed in a car - damaged tree in singapore. pilgrims have flocked there ever since then to offer bananas to the monkey deity. as artists, we can have some fun with this phenomenon. whenever i sense a face emerging from the randomness of the world, i like to sketch it, accentuating the pareidolia just slightly. maybe i \u2019 m going crazy, but last week i saw a face in the dormer windows of a building, and did this quick sketch to push it just a little. another time on a hike i stopped in my tracks when i saw a face in the rocky cliff. i did this sketch to accentuate the forms just enough to make it apparent, but without making it too obvious, hopefully. rackham did the same thing with tree roots. though i didn \u2019 t know the name for it at the time, i used the idea in the world beneath ( 1995 ), where lee crabb sees a skull ( center ) and oriana sees a mother figure ( right ) in an apparently random grouping of stalagmites ( left ). designing a form that could be interpreted in two different ways was a real brain - teaser. wikipedia entries on pareidolia and apophenia and dark side of the rainbow more on the monkey tree phenomenon, link. man in the moon, link. rabbit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6058873090813853, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0f3721c5-4f9f-4ee5-a3a7-8ef3cfae8728>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:09.673736"}
{"text": "while most teachers and students were relaxing, a team of physicists spent their summer vacation modeling the physics of learning. they represented the interactions between students and teachers with a set of equations similar to those that describe magnetism in materials like iron. the results, which appear in the 10 september print issue of prl, are consistent with data on student learning, but can equations convey the complexities of the classroom? some educational specialists remain unconvinced. to simulate the classroom environment, clelia bordogna and ezequiel albano of the institute of theoretical and applied physical chemistry in la plata, argentina, used a so - called ising model similar to those that describe magnetism in materials. according to the model, a classroom behaves a lot like a piece of iron : individual students play the role of atoms, and their knowledge of a subject is similar the atoms \u2019 magnetic orientations. the teacher behaves like an external magnetic field trying to align the student \u2019 s knowledge into the \u201c right \u201d direction ( understanding the curriculum ). but like the atoms in a chunk of iron, the students have other influences : each student could influence her neighbor \u2019 s orientation, and social entropy, such as talking, passing notes, or obscure explanations, could cause the students to become disoriented. the team \u2019 s model made several predictions that agree with data gathered in actual classrooms around the country. for example, when low - achieving and high - achieving students were interspersed in groups, they found that the low - achievers caught on more quickly. they also found that when students influenced each other through group work, they learned the material more thoroughly than when they simply listened to the teacher lecture. but some educational specialists express skepticism of the study. \u201c classroom learning shouldn \u2019 t be boiled down into a mathematical formula, \u201d said one educational researcher, adding that this kind of work could actually hurt the field by detracting from research on curriculum and teaching principles. david byrne, a sociologist who also studies chaos and complexity at the university of durham in england, believes that trying to model education creates two problems. first, social interactions in the classroom often lack clear boundaries, which can make them difficult to model. second, human behavior varies significantly, not only among individuals, but among classrooms and regions as well. such variation, he believes, can throw off even the most general statistical models. still, byrne was pleased to see physicists trying to tackle the problem. \u201c simulations are always interesting \u2013 in the social sciences you can \u2019 t say much more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.661150146754532, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa89db0b-1a7e-48b3-93ae-eaedb0ee084f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:10.239272"}
{"text": "| part of the series on | game theory is a way of modelling complex phenomena in simple, mathematical ways, showing gains and losses in the form of \" points. \" it is used most often in psychology, sociology, economics, and international relations to model how people act with each other. in game theory, a particular model is referred to as a \" game. \" the most famous game is that of the prisoner ' s dilemma. however, there are as many games as there are possible situations to diagram. in international relations, it is now most used by neoliberal institutionalists to model how states may engage in trade or other forms of cooperation, and how to induce \" side payments \" to reduce the inequity in the gains. previously, it was mostly used by deterrence theorists to describe how to threaten others to convincingly engage in deterrence. a risk is a situation where the outcome is unknown, while carrying some chance of loss or injury. in many of life ' s situations, the only possibilities of gain include some risk, such as investing in a business or trusting another person. \" risk management \" is the art and science of minimizing the risk inherent in a given endeavor. colloquially, \" risky behavior \" means activities that are perceived as having a very high risk to benefit ratio, especially if the risks can easily be reduced by simple means. parts of game theory study the risk versus reward aspect of artificial and real life situations. some common games there are really hundreds of games in game theory, but the following are some of the most commonly referenced, and are common in introductory courses. zero sum game a zero sum game is a situation, according to game theory, where for one person ( or side ) to win, another must lose \u2014 i. e. that any advantage accrued by one party to the negotiations must be obtained at the expense of the other party ( ies ). essentially : in the whole group of players, there is nothing to be gained or lost, only things to move from one player to another. many card and board games are zero sum games, in that only one can win, and there are a fixed amount of winnings to be had. contrast this relatively artificial situation with the many real - life situations that are non - zero sum games ( see below ). some politicians treat the economy as though it were a static zero sum game, with rhetoric about how the \" rich get richer and the poor get poorer \". this would only be true in the extremely rare case of zero gdp growth", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.626418822500749, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2106e346-7bd7-4df3-b30e-3bb8000435e1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:10.304523"}
{"text": "power electronics group to build converter for superconducting magnetic energy storage in the vpec laboratories, kunrong wang ( g ) works on a design of a power conditioning system to be used for superconducting magnetic energy storage ( smes ). the virginia power electronics center ( vpec ) has received a contract from westinghouse inc. and the office of naval research to develop a system that will convert electrical energy for magnetic storage by utilities. under the three - year $ 700, 000 contract, vpec will develop a prototype power conditioning system for superconducting magnetic energy storage ( smes ), which is a state - of - the - art method for storing electrical energy. a smes unit consists of superconducting wire wound into a huge coil, which is cooled with liquid helium to minus 458 degrees fahrenheit so that the flow of electricity meets no resistance. direct - current ( dc ) electricity is fed into the coil, creating a magnetic field that can store the energy indefinitely. the power conditioning system being developed by vpec will convert excess ac electricity from utility lines to dc electricity that can be stored in smes units. when the stored energy is needed, the power conditioning system converts the dc electricity into ac for utility line use. utilities can store excess energy in smes units during the night and retrieve energy for use during peak - demand periods of the day. the storage - retrieval process is expected to be more than 95 percent efficient, which will enable utilities to realize significant cost - saving benefits.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6086450608910876, "token_count": 311, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d0e60ab8-b893-4e3a-8456-0603c1a97631>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:11.348415"}
{"text": "the genetic material ; rna is transcribed from it. in some other organisms, rna is the genetic material and, in reverse fashion, the dna is transcribed from it. ) fda : food and drug administration. fever : although a fever technically is any body temperature above the normal of 98. 6 degrees f. ( 37 degrees c. ), in practice a person is usually not considered to have a significant fever until the temperature is above 100. 4 degrees f ( 38 degrees c. ). generic : 1. the chemical name of a drug. 2. a term referring to the chemical makeup of a drug rather than to the advertised brand name under which the drug may be sold. 3. a term referring to any drug marketed under its chemical name without advertising. genetic : having to do with genes and genetic headache : a pain in the head with the pain being above the eyes or the ears, behind the head ( occipital ), or in the back of the upper neck. headache, like chest pain or back ache, has many causes. heart : the muscle that pumps blood received from veins into arteries throughout the body. the heart is positioned in the chest behind the sternum ( breastbone ) ; in front of the trachea, esophagus, and aorta ; and above the diaphragm. a normal heart is about the size of a closed fist and weighs about 298 grams or 10. 5 ounces. it is cone - shaped, with the point of the cone pointing down to the left. two - thirds of the heart lies in the left side of the chest, with the balance in the right side of the chest. the heart is composed of specialized cardiac muscle, and it is four - chambered, with a right atrium and ventricle, and an anatomically separate left atrium and ventricle. the blood flows from the systemic veins into the right atrium, thence to the right ventricle, from which it is pumped to the lungs and then returned into the left atrium, thence to the left ventricle, from which it is driven into the systemic arteries. the heart is thus functionally composed of two hearts : the right heart and the left heart. the right heart consists of the right atrium, which receives deoxygenated blood from the body, and the right ventricle, which pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lungs under low pressure ; and the left heart, which consists of the left atrium, which receives oxygenated blood from the lung, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6132760531320064, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:091043e3-b8ba-4e16-b9fc-5aae1c7cc51f>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:11.399957"}
{"text": "washington, d. c. ( november 30, 2010 ) - - one of the holy grails of nanotechnology in medicine is to control individual structures and processes inside a cell. nanoparticles are well suited for this purpose because of their small size ; they can also be engineered for specific intracellular tasks. when nanoparticles are excited by radio - frequency ( rf ) electromagnetic fields, interesting effects may occur. for example, the cell nucleus could get damaged inducing cell death ; dna might melt ; or protein aggregates might get dispersed. some of these effects may be due to the localized heating produced by each tiny nanoparticle. yet, such local heating, which could mean a difference of a few degrees celsius across a few molecules, cannot be explained easily by heat - transfer theories. however, the existence of local heating cannot be dismissed either, because it ' s difficult to measure the temperature near these tiny heat sources. scientists at rensselaer polytechnic institute have developed a new technique for probing the temperature rise in the vicinity of rf - actuated nanoparticles using fluorescent quantum dots as temperature sensors. the results are published in the journal of applied physics. amit gupta and colleagues found that when the nanoparticles were excited by an rf field the measured temperature rise was the same regardless of whether the sensors were simply mixed with the nanoparticles or covalently bonded to them. \" this proximity measurement is important because it shows us the limitations of rf heating, at least for the frequencies investigated in this study, \" says project leader diana borca - tasciuc. \" the ability to measure the local temperature advances our understanding of these nanoparticle - mediated processes. \" the article, \" local temperature measurement in the vicinity of electromagnetically heated magnetite and gold nanoparticles \" by amit gupta, ravi kane and diana - andra borca - tasciuc appears in the journal of applied physics. see : http : / / link. aip. org / link / japiau / v108 / i6 / p064901 / s1 journalists may request a free pdf of this article by contacting firstname. lastname @ example. org about journal of applied physics journal of applied physics is the american institute of physics ' ( aip ) archival journal for significant new results in applied physics ; content is published online daily, collected into two online and printed issues per month ( 24 issues per year ). the journal publishes articles that emphasize", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.629374734018914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b5b9cf27-216a-4161-8688-c5e9e70ea11e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:11.409643"}
{"text": "physics is the american institute of physics ' ( aip ) archival journal for significant new results in applied physics ; content is published online daily, collected into two online and printed issues per month ( 24 issues per year ). the journal publishes articles that emphasize understanding of the physics underlying modern technology, but distinguished from technology on the one side and pure physics on the other. see : http : / / jap. aip. org / the american institute of physics is a federation of 10 physical science societies representing more than 135, 000 scientists, engineers, and educators and is one of the world ' s largest publishers of scientific information in the physical sciences. offering partnership solutions for scientific societies and for similar organizations in science and engineering, aip is a leader in the field of electronic publishing of scholarly journals. aip publishes 12 journals ( some of which are the most highly cited in their respective fields ), two magazines, including its flagship publication physics today ; and the aip conference proceedings series. its online publishing platform scitation hosts nearly two million articles from more than 185 scholarly journals and other publications of 28 learned society publishers. aaas and eurekalert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to eurekalert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the eurekalert! system.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6137551531874614, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b5b9cf27-216a-4161-8688-c5e9e70ea11e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:11.410204"}
{"text": "31 ( 2 ) : 1059 - 65, 1989 cytogenetic maps : the visual appearance of a chromosome when stained and examined under a microscope. particularly important are visually distinct regions, called light and dark bands, which give each of the chromosomes a unique appearance. this feature allows a person ' s chromosomes to be studied in a clinical test known as a karyotype, which allows scientists to look for chromosomal alterations. [ nhgri ] the lowest resolution physical map. dna maps : see genetic maps disease maps : ontologies to represent the terminological relationships among concepts necessary to construct a knowledge - base of neurological disorders. a. gupta, b ludascher, js grethe, me martone, towards a formalization of disease - specific ontologies for neuroinformatics. neural netw. 2003 nov ; 16 ( 9 ) : 1277 - 1292. est maps : related term expression mapping ests expressed sequence tags : see dna markers, useful for mapping. related term sts sequence tagged sites epigenome maps : through the epigenomics mapping centers and data coordinating center, the epigenomics roadmap program will provide high resolution maps of epigenetic marks across the full human genome for a representative selection of cell and tissue types. the mapping centers will begin with established methodologies and the purpose of the discovery rfas is to develop and validate additional marks which would be incorporated into the comprehensive mapping strategies of the centers. epigenomics, nih roadmap for medical research, 2008 http : / / nihroadmap. nih. gov / epigenomics / faq. asp epitope mapping : methods used for studying the interactions of antibodies with specific regions of protein antigens. important applications of epitope mapping are found within the area of immunochemistry. [ mesh, 1995 ] see also definition in iupac provisional glossary biomolecular screening google = about 3, 390, aug. 26, 2002 ; about 17, 600 may 10, 2004 related terms : pharmaceutical biology antibody, epitope evolutionary genetics : evolutionary study of genes has been purely theoretical, but it can provide useful information for guiding gene mapping. people are now finding, for example, that a lot of things are not true associations ; instead, they are an artifact of association. you can make such mistakes when you are looking at two individuals who share a common ancestry. understanding the phylogeny helps us, for example, understand horizontal gene transfer between", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6009416220422876, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4fccb4a2-9d2e-4f5c-ad2d-bb8904da9a4f>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:11.618258"}
{"text": "bill irving and benj shuler. physics is the scientific study of matter, energy, space and time. physics is all around us and affects our lives on a daily basis. it is in the electrical appliances you use in your home, the various types of transport used to get from a to b, it affects our climate and the weather we get to enjoy or suffer, depending on where you are, and it keeps the sun providing us with light and warmth. basically, physics keeps us alive and allows us to experience everything life has to offer. the scale by which physics affects us can be anything from the subatomic ( eg particles that make up the atom ) to the astronomical ( eg the dimensions of stars and galaxies ). physics forms the basis of the foundation of all the physical sciences ( eg material science, geology, etc ) and is important for many other fields of human endeavour ( eg medicine, computing, etc ). there exist many fields of physics. examples include acoustics, astronomy / astrophysics / cosmology, atomic and nuclear physics, elementary particles, biomedical physics, electromagnetism, electronics, geophysics, mechanics, meteorology, semiconductors, nanotechnology, optics, thermodynamics, aerodynamics to mention but a few. the list goes on. what pupils can expect physics is a fascinating and exciting subject to study and get involved with. it not only allows us to explore what we already know about the world around us and how we know, but there are still some profound questions that remain unanswered ( eg what is dark matter? are there more than three dimensions in space? ). it caters for those who enjoy theoretical - based studies and those who relish the challenge of undertaking practical and experimental work. physics allows you to develop, consolidate and possess valuable key skills which are not confined just to the subject itself ( eg problem - solving, reasoning, research, analysis, presentation - both oral and written ). the more we learn about physics, the better it will help us understand our place in the universe. if you are asked to describe a typical physicist then your reply would normally be \" a geek wearing a white coat who is quite eccentric \". in fact, most physicists look and behave just like you and me. the employment prospects for people with a physics qualification tend to include working for research laboratories, universities, private companies and government agencies. they also can teach, perform research and develop new technologies. they ' re not confined indoors either.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6173712017076872, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4b6bd21c-3ebf-49a8-aff6-176998b9a395>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:11.719329"}
{"text": "particle looking more like higgs boson - from : afp - march 07, 2013 the subatomic particle whose discovery was announced amid much fanfare last year, is looking \" more and more \" like it could be the elusive higgs boson. but in the latest update, physicists told a conference in la thuile, italy, that more analysis is needed before a definitive statement can be made. key to a positive identification of the particle is a detailed analysis of its properties and how it interacts with other particles, the european organisation for nuclear research ( cern ) explained in a statement. since scientists ' announcement last july that they had found a particle likely to be the higgs, much data has been analysed, and its properties are becoming clearer. it is exciting for scientists because it could explain why matter has mass. one property that will allow several teams researching the particle to declare whether or not it is a higgs, is called spin. a higgs must have spin - zero. \" all the analysis conducted so far strongly indicates spin - zero, but it is not yet able to rule out entirely the possibility that the particle has spin - two, \" said cern. \" until we can confidently tie down the particle ' s spin, the particle will remain higgs - like. only when we know that it has spin - zero will we be able to call it a higgs. \" british physicist peter higgs theorised in 1964 that the boson could be what gave mass to matter as the universe cooled after the big bang. last july, scientists said they were 99. 9 per cent certain they had found the particle without which, theoretically, humans and all other joined - up atoms in the universe would not exist.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6326534190408803, "token_count": 355, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c1e57fb0-0b5c-49df-8ff6-11f35caeb572>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.158622"}
{"text": "give a universal notion of \" god, \" since that word and its equivalents have been used in very different ways throughout history. today in the west, the term \" god \" typically refers to a monotheistic concept of a supreme being that is unlike any other being. classical theism asserts that god possesses every possible perfection, including such qualities as omniscience, omnipotence, and perfect benevolence. in the advaita vedanta school of hinduism, reality is ultimately seen as being a single, qualityless, changeless being called nirguna brahman, understood to be beyond \" ordinary \" human comprehension. advaitin philosophy introduces the concept of saguna brahman or ishvara as a way of talking about brahman to people. ishvara, in turn, is ascribed such qualities as omniscience, omnipotence, and benevolence. polytheistic religions use the word \" god \" for multiple beings with varying degrees of power and abilities. such deities are thus neither perceived to be all - powerful nor always benevolent. the myths of polytheism often cover a deeper layer of philosophical reflection that hints at a united being that takes precedence even over the gods. the issue of existence the seemingly innocuous question about the exact meaning of the word \u201c existence \u201d cannot be avoided in the context of the proofs for god \u2019 s existence. what does it mean to exist when the term is applied to god? this, of course, leads back to an understanding of god. at least since aristotle, there has been an unending debate over the difference between \u201c existence, \u201d \u201c being, \u201d and \u201c essence. \u201d in general terms, to exist simply means to be there \u2014 to be real. it also implies that one is talking about a specific entity, generally perceived by the senses. however, one can also say that goodness or evil exist in this world. what is meant by that statement is immediately clear, though it is hard to pinpoint what their being really is. the problem with stating that god exists is that by doing so one seems to imply that he is an entity, albeit an elusive one. in this way, he is reduced to the level of a particular being, though perhaps the highest or most perfect one. many have perceived that, if god is to have any reality, it must be of an entirely different order that cannot be qualified as existence. twentieth century theologian paul tillich is one of them. for him, \u201c god does", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6004169424026902, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f75f2281-0ed2-4d78-bf58-bb6531da8a88>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.249129"}
{"text": "- number 333 | - march 21, 2011 an x - ray laser captures the structures of life an x - ray laser captures the structures of life two studies published recently in nature demonstrate how the unique capabilities of the world \u2019 s first hard x - ray free - electron laser \u2014 the linac coherent light source, located at doe \u2019 s slac national accelerator laboratory \u2014 could revolutionize the study of life. in one study, an international research team used the lcls to demonstrate a shortcut for determining the 3 - d structures of proteins. the laser \u2019 s brilliant pulses of x - ray light pulled structural data from tiny protein nanocrystals, avoiding the need to use large protein crystals that can be difficult or impossible to prepare. this process could lop years off the structural analysis of some proteins and allow scientists to decipher tens of thousands of others that are out of reach today, including many involved in infectious disease. in a separate paper, the same team reported making the first single - shot images of intact viruses, paving the way for snapshots and movies of molecules, viruses and live microbes in action. since the publication of these papers, members of the research team have returned to slac to continue their studies of proteins involved in photosynthesis, parasitic disease and other important life processes. using the coherent x - ray imaging instrument ( cxi ) \u2014 the fourth instrument to become operational since the lcls opened for research in 2009 \u2014 the researchers shined highly energetic \u201c hard \u201d x - rays at the photosynthetic protein complex photosystem i and an enzyme that breaks down proteins, extracted from the parasite that causes african sleeping sickness. though the results of these more recent studies won ' t be known until extensive analysis of the data has been completed, the researchers were extremely excited to see fine, crisply detailed protein structures at near atomic - scale resolution. \" it ' s going very well, \" said slac researcher marvin seibert, grinning. \" the fireworks are back. it ' s always fun. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6276993537244466, "token_count": 411, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:deb7f787-3426-41b8-ad30-9afa5e1d4864>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.425979"}
{"text": "media contact : fred strohl ( firstname. lastname @ example. org ) | communications and external relations new superconductor research laboratory dedicated oak ridge, tenn., april 19, 2001 a new high - temperature superconductor research laboratory was dedicated today at the department of energy ' s ( doe ) oak ridge national laboratory ( ornl ). the new laboratory is part of the accelerated coated conductor initiative, a collaborative effort between ornl and los alamos national laboratory. the initiative will help accelerate the development of power cables, motors, generators and transformers using new \" second - generation \" wire technology. superconductors have virtually no resistance to electric current, offering the possibility of developing new electric power equipment with more energy efficiency and higher capacity than today ' s systems. superconducting technology may help reduce the future need for new electric power generation during the next three decades. the ornl - invented superconducting tape is a roll - textured buffered metal material that carries a critical current density of at least 1 million amperes per square centimeter in liquid nitrogen. this compares to standard household wires that that typically carry less than 1, 000 amperes per square centimeter. the new laboratory will help accelerate the development and application of high - temperature superconductor technologies through joint efforts among doe laboratories, universities and industry. scientists are using technologies adapted from the semiconductor and photographic film industries to learn to make longer lengths of these superconductor wires. congress allocated $ 6 million in fy 2001 to accelerate the development of this second - generation wire. \" u. s. industry and national laboratory researchers will work side by side to develop this technology, \" said bob hawsey, manager of ornl ' s superconductivity program. ornl is a national leader in developing superconducting technology that has been licensed to private industry and is being evaluated through several cooperative research and development agreements ( cradas ). among ornl ' s crada partners participating in today ' s dedication were american superconductor corp., microcoating technologies, oxford superconducting technology and the southwire co. ornl is a doe multiprogram facility operated by ut - battelle.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6386835048989019, "token_count": 455, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3f782cc6-b51f-44f6-8913-e96aa8ade8eb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.428110"}
{"text": "- the magazine - web exclusives the matesy gmbh, jena, germany, has explored a new magneto - optical sensor type ( mo - sensors ) for direct field visualization and measurement. instead of electromagnetic effects, matesy introduces magneto - optics for two - dimensional magnetic field analysis. the magneto - optical sensor has the technical advantage that the magnetic field and its distribution can be visually recognized over the entire magnetic surface. therefore, real - time analysis of the magnetic field distribution can be performed, instead of using a time intensive \u201c point to point \u201d scanning with hall probes, which need a precise positioning on the surface. the faraday - effectthe principle of magneto - optical sensors is the faraday - effect. it describes the rotation of the polarization plane of linearly polarized light passing the magneto - optical sensor, which is exposed by a magnetic field, which is parallel to the direction of propagation of the applied light wave. more specifically, linearly polarized light consists of superposed left - and right - circularly polarized waves with the same frequency and phase. as light passes a mo - medium in which a magnetic field parallel to the direction of the light wave is applied, it disperses into two oppositely rotating circularly polarized waves with different phase velocities. as a result of the phase shifts of these two partial waves - a rotation of the polarization plane of light and the unequal absorption of each component together - leads to an elliptically polarized wave, which is finally an analyzable phenomenon of magnetic field strength and allows having an insight into the magnetic properties of the sample. the sensor waferto achieve both accurate imaging characteristics as well as best possible resolution, the r & d - facility innovent e. v. from jena designed - based on a bismuth - substituted rare earth iron garnet compound - a monocrystalline ferrimagnetic layer, which is characterized by enhanced magneto - optical imaging properties. the manufacturing process of the sensor layers is realized by liquid phase epitaxy, which is ideal for applying functional coatings in micron range on monocrystalline garnet substrates. an additional mirror - and protective - layer is deposited on the raw sensor to ensure long - term functionality of the system. for different fields of applications, the sensors can be designed in customized shapes and sizes. visualization of magnetic fields visualization of magnetic fieldsin order to realize an optical visualization of the magnetic fields, the magneto -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6307435664909575, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:30288bac-8dd9-4c74-aef9-71fdeb334d7f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.701314"}
{"text": "term functionality of the system. for different fields of applications, the sensors can be designed in customized shapes and sizes. visualization of magnetic fields visualization of magnetic fieldsin order to realize an optical visualization of the magnetic fields, the magneto - optical sensor is brought into direct contact with the magnetic sample material and is illuminated by a polarized light source. the light passes through the transparent sensors, is reflected by the mirror - layer and passes the sensor again. when double - passing through the nonreciprocal mo - medium, the described faraday - effect applies proportional to the double layer thickness. resulting from the different rotation angles - depending on the local magnetic fields strength - the analyzer - polarization module generates an intensity contrast pattern, which is proportional to the magnetic field distribution of the magnetic material. the result is a visual image that illustrates a two - dimensional intersection of the magnetic stray field. this image recording and analyzing of the normal component over the x - y plane of the magnetic field takes place in real time and simultaneously over the entire sensor surface, allowing detection and analysis of dynamic magnetic field changes. sensor range and resolutionsince the sensors - for technical reasons - can be saturated, depending on the strength of the applied magnetic field, different dynamic ranges are covered by different types of mo - sensors. current mo - sensors can detect magnetic field strengths from 50 a / m up to 500 ka / m in order to perfectly fit to each specific task. field strengths, which are out of specifications due to the slope of the hysteresis curve, cannot be differentiated. magneto - optical sensor systems can resolve lateral structures down to 1 micron. integration of sensors in cmos - magview and its applicationsthe matesy gmbh developed a new visualization and measurement system for magnetic field distribution at the surface of magnetic materials. the \u201c cmos - magview \u201d called measurement system is ideal for studying magnetic properties and for analysis of field distribution and magnetic structures. the cmos - magview can be used furthermore for quality control of magnetic materials such as ndfeb, smco, ainco and hard ferrites. thus magnetic fields of plastic bonded permanent magnets, encoders, alloys of steel, magnetic stripe cards, magnetic ink ( e. g. used on bills, safety tags, tickets, packaging ), thin sections of magnetic minerals and even of domain materials - as magnetic shape memory alloy - can be visualized with very high geometric resolutions and investigated by the comprehensive cmos - magview software. mo - sensors can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6207393394874553, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:30288bac-8dd9-4c74-aef9-71fdeb334d7f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.702464"}
{"text": "safety tags, tickets, packaging ), thin sections of magnetic minerals and even of domain materials - as magnetic shape memory alloy - can be visualized with very high geometric resolutions and investigated by the comprehensive cmos - magview software. mo - sensors can be modified perfectly for each application so that optimal field visualization can be achieved for each material. the cmos - magview works with a 12 - bit cmos camera technology and can be easily connected to a computer via usb enabling real - time visualization, analysis and archiving of the magneto - optical recordings. analysis via cmos - magview softwarethe integrated cmos - magview software allows illustration and analysis of the geometric magnetic field distribution. the magneto - optical images of the measured magnetic material can be displayed in false colors as well as in a 3 - dimensional contour of the local magnetic field strengths. inhomogeneities of field distribution, geometry and field structures are easily visible. due to the highly detailed image analysis even hidden material properties - for example detection of welding seams - can be revealed and investigated. a significant advantage of magnetooptical sensors compared to magnetoresistive ( mr ) and hall sensors for these kind of applications is that mr and hall sensors only deliver a punctual information about the magnetic field strength. to detect the size and exact shape of material defects, it is necessary to determine the exact field distribution. for mr and hall sensors, this is only possible through a very time - consuming scanning of the magnetic surface, which results in achievable resolutions far behind those of the cmos - magview. mo - sensors are capable of visualizing magnetic fields over surface areas of up to three inches in diameter directly. the surface sensor can be enlarged almost without limits by \u201c gluing \u201d several sensor together. especially in the fields of forensic analysis of counterfeit documents, bank notes and steel testings it is necessary to investigate over larger areas at once. for the characterization of industrial permanent magnets a reliable quick - measurement of the entire strayfield is essential for quality management and its importance will increase in the coming years as the property requirements will continuously increase. magnetic domain investigationsmagneto - optical sensors also provide a variety of applications in research activities regarding to magnetic domain structures, their distribution, orientation and behavior under influence of external fields. magnetic domain structures are defined as areas of different magnetization directions - also known as weiss domains - in a single material. within a single domain the magnetic moments are aligned parallel to each other. this case corresponds to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6197254842227741, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:30288bac-8dd9-4c74-aef9-71fdeb334d7f>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.703491"}
{"text": "now, scientists with the lawrence berkeley national laboratory have demonstrated the first technique that provides dynamic control in real - time of the curved trajectories of airy beams over metallic surfaces. this development paves the way for fast - as - light, ultra - compact communication systems and optoelectronic devices, and could also stimulate revolutions in chemistry, biology and medicine. the key to the success of this work was their ability to directly couple free - space airy beams \u2013 using a standard tool of optics called a \u201c grating coupler \u201d \u2013 to quasi - particles called surface plasmon polaritons ( spps ). directing a laser beam of light across the surface of a metal nanostructure generates electronic surface waves \u2013 called plasmons \u2013 that roll through the metal \u2019 s conduction electrons ( those loosely attached to molecules and atoms ). the resulting interaction between plasmons and photons creates spps. by directly coupling airy beams to spps, the researchers are able to manipulate light at an extremely small scale beyond the diffraction limit. the movie shows the computer - based dynamical control of the trajectory and peak intensity position of plasmonic airy beams achieved by berkeley lab \u2019 s xiang zhang. \u201c dynamic controllability of spps is extremely desirable for reconfigurable optical interconnections, \u201d says xiang zhang, the leader of this research. \u201c we have provided a novel approach of plasmonic airy beam to manipulate spps without the need of any waveguide structures over metallic surfaces, providing dynamic control of their ballistic trajectories despite any surface roughness and defects, or even getting around obstacles. this is promising not only for applications in reconfigurable optical interconnections but also for precisely manipulating particles on extremely small scales. \u201d examples of the dynamic control of the plasmonic airy beams shows switching the trajectories to different directions ( a, b ) and bypassing obstacles ( gray solid circle in c ). left panels are numerical simulations, right panels are experimental demonstrations ( courtesy of zhang group ) zhang, a principal investigator with berkeley lab \u2019 s materials sciences division and director of the university of california at berkeley \u2019 s nano - scale science and engineering center ( sinam ), is the corresponding author of a paper published in the journal optics letters. the paper is titled \u201c plasmonic airy beams with dynamically controlled trajectories. \u201d coauthoring the paper were peng zhang, sheng", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6207591387161093, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9318e603-9188-4da9-8b90-3e94e42165e3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.830152"}
{"text": "working with encrypted data in sql server encryption plays an important role in protecting data and preventing intrusion. in this session we will look at the various places and methods of encryption that exist inside sql server. first, we will look at the types of encryption available in sql server. these include encryption by pass phrase, by symmetric key, by asymmetric key, by certificate, by one - way - hash and signing. during this we will be looking at the strength of the encryption and possible attacks such as whole - value substitution, brute force and rainbow table attack. lastly, we will look at how sql encryption differs from. net ( or other programming environments ) and the pros and cons of each. following on from that will be a look at how the encryption hierarchy works to provide an impressive level of key protection. we will be answering questions like what is a master key, how it is different to the service master key, and what does the service master key do. we will be looking at system level encryption for system features such as tds and credentials storage and services such as ssrs, ssis, and dqs. how and why do these services use encryption? these features and services use sql encryption inherently to protect the most sensitive of configuration finally, we will look at ways of preparing for disaster recovery with encrypted data. encrypted data is nothing more than random binary data with the keys and algorithms to decrypt it. thus, there is a critical need for effective key management and understanding of what is necessary to recover encrypted data in the event of a disaster. sorry, there are no downloads available for this session. i \u2019 m a talented multi - skilled it professional with advanced skills in sql server 2005 / 08 and 2012. i have many years experience in sql design, administration, server consolidation and migration in large scale organisations. i have completed mcitp in database administration and development. my belief is that data is the critical element of an organisation and that a database must be effective, efficient and secure. i am an expert in information system holding a bsc ( hons ) in computing and informatics. i currently work for an international organisation as their head dba. my next aim is completion of mcsm and to discuss a topic at sqlbits. the video is not available to view online. - session files explorer the network name cannot be found.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6250392908010288, "token_count": 487, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b0991bb4-e3a1-41ac-ab33-b53b0b680c88>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:12.961768"}
{"text": "to understand electrity, it is easiest to use a water current as an analogy for an electrical current, since most people are familiar with the characteristics of water. the analogies and definitions used in this section are simplified for the sake of explanation and are not 100 % accurate, but they are accurate enough for building a pragmatically useful understanding of electricity. an electrical current is the flow of electrons through a wire. much like water flow, an electrical current has similar measureable characteristics, such as pressure, flow rate, and power. it can also perform useful work like a water current. the electrical pressure differential between the positive and negative terminals of a battery or other electrical device is the voltage. this is similar to water pressure in a tank or pipe. water pressure is measured in pounds per square inch ( psi ), and electrical pressure ( voltage ) is measured in volts. when electrons flow through a wire, the rate at which the electrons flow through can be measured, and this rate is measured in amperes. a milliampere ( abbreviated milliamp or ma ) is 1 / 1000th of an ampere, so 1000 ma = 1 amp. the equivalent term for water would be gallons per minute of water flow. when an electrical current flows through a wire, there is some friction on the current which reduces the amount of electricity flowing through the wire. this friction is called resistance, and is measured in ohms. in hydrodynamic terms, this measurement is similar to the diameter of a pipe. a small straw has a narrow diameter, and requires a lot of suction to pull a certain amount of liquid flow through it. a larger straw has a larger diameter, and requires less suction to pull the same amount of liquid flow through it. ohm ' s law specifies the relationship between volts, amps and resistance. ohm ' s law is : e = i * r e = voltage ( volts ) i = current ( amps ) r = resistance ( ohms ) what this means is actually fairly simple. if you have an electrical current flowing through a wire, and you double the electrical pressure, then you will double the current flow through the wire, assuming you keep the same wire. the equivalent hydrodynamic analogy is : if you double the water pressure at one end of the pipe, it will double the water flow through the pipe, if you keep the same pipe. the equation can be rearranged to derive other interesting relationships such as : e / r = i so,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6137550629073907, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0807482f-e025-4234-8413-4806bb1c287f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:13.022244"}
{"text": "tightly wound : a cross - section of a new cable design shows superconducting ribbons wound around a core of copper wires. source : \u201c home alone : co - residency detection in the cloud via side - channel analysis \u201d yinqian zhang et al. proceedings of the ieee symposium on security and privacy, may 2011 results : a prototype system allows companies that use cloud computing services to confirm that their data is safe from others using the same service provider. it can detect with 80 percent accuracy the presence of unauthorized processing on the same server ; the rate of false positives is 1 percent. the system will notice both attackers and inappropriate data sharing. why it matters : cloud computing makes it possible to access generic processing and storage resources over the internet. but security concerns have made many companies and organizations hesitant to use these services. data could be stored on hardware shared with competitors, they fear, or it could even be vulnerable to malicious software actively trying to steal information. some customers, such as nasa, have demanded that cloud providers physically isolate their data from that of other users. the problem is that until now, it \u2019 s been almost impossible to verify that this is being done. methods : in the past, researchers have found that attackers can steal data about a virtual machine \u2019 s activities \u2014 even sensitive information such as passwords \u2014 by watching subtle clues such as how it uses shared system resources, including the server \u2019 s temporary storage system. the researchers coopted this principle to make it work for defense. they trained a legitimate virtual machine to watch a server \u2019 s cache for telltale signs of hostile virtual machines on the same server. the technique requires no modification to existing cloud technologies and no action from the cloud provider. next steps : the researchers are expanding the prototype to create a complete system that can run on a commercial cloud service, such as amazon web services. low - literacy web search a form of the web for people who can \u2019 t read aims to help poor countries source : \u201c spoken web : creation, navigation and searching of voicesites \u201d sheetal agarwal et al. 2011 international conference on intelligent user interfaces ( iui ), february 13 - 16, 2011, palo alto, california results : a search engine developed by ibm researchers makes it possible to find and access information on a spoken version of the world wide web. a test of the interface by 40 farmers in the indian state of gujarat showed that it was easy to use. why it matters : more than one billion people worldwide are illiterate, most of them in poor nations. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6153602142066085, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7a23ff48-4a23-4a5a-a654-0480256c923e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:13.052526"}
{"text": "?? at first i thought huh?? lamp?? why does tes need a lamp? it ' s a spectrometer! but after much searching i found this page which says \" the interferometer includes a visible interferometer that is used to generate fringes which are used to control the linear drive servo and to determine position in the interferogram. this system uses two redundant neon lamps that produce an emission line at 703. 2 nm for fringe generation and a continuum that is used for a quasi - white - light source for determination of zero path difference. the off - axis position of the six detectors results in self - apodization and a spectral shift that is a function of both distance from the axis and optical frequency. \" ohhhh now i see. after more searching i found this : photo of the lamp they used. it ' s just a little neon indicator lamp! they ' ve been using the backup lamp since the original lamp failed way back in 1998! these things fail all the time in those little red switches in power strips and, well practically everywhere i see them used they inevitalbly start blinking and flickering after being used for any length of time. i bet they didn ' t use a dc to ac inverter to power it because of space and power issues and just used the dc power of mgs to light it instead. using dc power on those things reduces thier life greatly for some reason.... oh well, it had a good run!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6031502412348966, "token_count": 308, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3a43d9f3-bbf4-4251-b86b-69048b28db24>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:13.261399"}
{"text": "learn something new every day more info... by email thermal epoxy is any adhesive epoxy that has one or more substances added to it to enhance thermal, or heat, transfer. these epoxies can be electrically conductive or not conductive, depending on the thermal additive used. silver and other metal - based thermal additives are usually electrically conductive, and thermal epoxies that contain these additives must be applied very carefully so as not to cause electrical shorts. ceramic - based additives are not electrically conductive but are also not as efficient at thermal conduction. manufacturers make thermal epoxies that are designed to work as high - performance engineering adhesives and structural adhesives in a wide range of applications and environments. these include aircraft, boats, marine equipment, cars, surfboards, snowboards, and bicycles, among others. there are thermal formulations for almost every application imaginable, including those that cure while under water, those that remain very flexible or get quite rigid when cured, those resistant to fire or high heat, and even those certified by the u. s. national aeronautics and space administration ( nasa ) for low outgassing. heat can damage or destroy electrical components, and today \u2019 s high - speed computer components produce a large amount of heat that must be removed. devices called heat sinks are used to pull heat away from an object and dissipate the heat to the air, sometimes with the help of a cooling fan. heat sinks are made from metal alloys designed to have excellent thermal conduction properties, and they have specially designed fins to help conduct and remove the heat. they are almost always mounted to a surface using a special adhesive thermal epoxy. when used in computer applications, a thermal epoxy can help fill microscopic voids that occur in the surfaces of heat sinks and other devices. these voids occur in the manufacturing process. when two objects are mounted together, for instance a chip and a heat sink, the voids fill with air. air is a very poor thermal conductor, so a substance is introduced to fill the voids and help conduct the heat to the heat sink for removal. the substance used can be thermal grease, thermal tape, thermal pads or, if the device needs to be secured to the mounting surface, thermal epoxy. when applying thermal epoxy it is very important to use the least possible amount required to fill any voids and make the bond. if a too - thick coat of epoxy is applied", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6179830202125498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:48086b1a-3238-4ab2-b4f2-1d8b3a1128c0>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:13.426188"}
{"text": "meaning stories deal with our beliefs about the nature of reality, our human nature, our relationship to creation, and the purpose of our existence. they are embedded in the creation stories that are the foundation of most human belief systems. patriarch, chance, or integral spirit? duane e. sherwood some say the universe is fundamentally good, the glorious handiwork of an unseen mystery. some say the material world is inherently corrupt, and the nature of flesh is sin. some say the universe holds yin and yang in perfect balance, good and bad, in equal measure, orbiting forever. some say it is all just rocks, meaningless and indifferent. all i know is, when i smile at the universe, the universe smiles back. since the birth of the scientific revolution in the 1500s, western society has been shaped by two sharply conflicting creation stories : the patriarchal creationism story of judeo - christian religion and the material evolutionism story of science fundamentalism. these are the creation stories most familiar to the public mind. different though they are in their most foundational assumption, both in their way support the dominator values of empire. far less well known, there is a third creation story derived from the teachings of religious mystics and the findings of quantum physics, evolutionary science, and the new biology that affirms the partnership values of earth community. the three creation stories are distinguished by sharply contrasting assumptions about the existence and nature of conscious intelligence. - the conventional religion story explain physical creation as the handiwork of an all knowing and all powerful patriarch who resides in a far place apart from the physical cosmos. - the conventional science story denies the existence of consciousness, intelligence, intention, or purpose in any form and seeks to explain all of creation as an accidental outcome of material mechanism and chance. - the lesser known story, which has ancient origins, explains the whole of creation as an unfolding manifestation of a unifying cosmic intelligence integral to all being. each of these three stories has many variations. for present purposes, i outline below some of the contrasting elements of each of the three stories and their practical implications. origin of the cosmos empire story : ( imperial religion version ) : a distant and jealous patriarch brought forth heaven and earth whole and complete in six days as an act of divine will and gave his children dominion over the earthly realm and a promise of salvation in the heavenly realm in return for faithful obedience. ( imperial science version ) : the cosmos came into being in a great burst of energy governed by the laws of chance and material mechanism. intelligence, consciousness", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6244670393846716, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4dd2d9e8-f22a-47ed-985e-bd410bd168de>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:13.895417"}
{"text": "| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( july 2007 ) | | this article may be in need of reorganization to comply with wikipedia ' s layout guidelines. ( march 2013 ) | | | this article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. ( march 2013 ) | systems thinking is the process of understanding how things, regarded as systems, influence one another within a whole. in nature, systems thinking examples include ecosystems in which various elements such as air, water, movement, plants, and animals work together to survive or perish. in organizations, systems consist of people, structures, and processes that work together to make an organization \" healthy \" or \" unhealthy \". systems thinking has been defined as an approach to problem solving, by viewing \" problems \" as parts of an overall system, rather than reacting to specific part, outcomes or events and potentially contributing to further development of unintended consequences. systems thinking is not one thing but a set of habits or practices within a framework that is based on the belief that the component parts of a system can best be understood in the context of relationships with each other and with other systems, rather than in isolation. systems thinking focuses on cyclical rather than linear cause and effect. in systems science, it is argued that the only way to fully understand why a problem or element occurs and persists is to understand the parts in relation to the whole. standing in contrast to descartes ' s scientific reductionism and philosophical analysis, it proposes to view systems in a holistic manner. consistent with systems philosophy, systems thinking concerns an understanding of a system by examining the linkages and interactions between the elements that compose the entirety of the system. systems science thinking attempts to illustrate how small catalytic events that are separated by distance and time can be the cause of significant changes in complex systems. acknowledging that an improvement in one area of a system can adversely affect another area of the system, it promotes organizational communication at all levels in order to avoid the silo effect. systems thinking techniques may be used to study any kind of system \u2014 natural, scientific, engineered, human, or conceptual. the concept of a system the several ways to think of and define a system include :. - a system is composed of parts. - all the parts of a system must be related ( directly or indirectly ), else there are really two or more distinct systems - a system is encapsulated, has a boundary. - the boundary of a system is a decision made", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6342440995724099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:936d5bb4-2555-4d63-86a7-44d140e713dd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:14.155974"}
{"text": "parts. - all the parts of a system must be related ( directly or indirectly ), else there are really two or more distinct systems - a system is encapsulated, has a boundary. - the boundary of a system is a decision made by an observer, or a group of observers. - a system can be nested inside another system. - a system can overlap with another system. - a system is bounded in time. - a system is bounded in space, though the parts are not necessarily co - located. - a system receives input from, and sends output into, the wider environment. - a system consists of processes that transform inputs into outputs. systems science thinkers consider that : - a system is a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as a structured functional unit ; - energy, material and information flow among the different elements that compose the system ; - a system is a community situated within an environment ; - energy, material and information flow from and to the surrounding environment via semi - permeable membranes or boundaries ; - systems are often composed of entities seeking equilibrium but can exhibit oscillating, chaotic, or exponential behavior. a holistic system is any set ( group ) of interdependent or temporally interacting parts. parts are generally systems themselves and are composed of other parts, just as systems are generally parts or holons of other systems. systems science and the application of systems science thinking has been grouped into three categories based on the techniques used to tackle a system : - hard systems \u2014 involving simulations, often using computers and the techniques of operations research / management science. useful for problems that can justifiably be quantified. however it cannot easily take into account unquantifiable variables ( opinions, culture, politics, etc. ), and may treat people as being passive, rather than having complex motivations. - soft systems \u2014 for systems that cannot easily be quantified, especially those involving people holding multiple and conflicting frames of reference. useful for understanding motivations, viewpoints, and interactions and addressing qualitative as well as quantitative dimensions of problem situations. soft systems are a field that utilizes foundation methodological work developed by peter checkland, brian wilson and their colleagues at lancaster university. morphological analysis is a complementary method for structuring and analysing non - quantifiable problem complexes. - evolutionary systems \u2014 bela h. banathy developed a methodology that is applicable to the design of complex social systems. this technique integrates critical systems inquiry with soft systems methodologies. evolutionary", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.600737415509834, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:936d5bb4-2555-4d63-86a7-44d140e713dd>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:14.157176"}
{"text": "and analysing non - quantifiable problem complexes. - evolutionary systems \u2014 bela h. banathy developed a methodology that is applicable to the design of complex social systems. this technique integrates critical systems inquiry with soft systems methodologies. evolutionary systems, similar to dynamic systems are understood as open, complex systems, but with the capacity to evolve over time. banathy uniquely integrated the interdisciplinary perspectives of systems research ( including chaos, complexity, cybernetics ), cultural anthropology, evolutionary theory, and others. the systems approach | | this article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. ( february 2012 ) | the systems thinking approach incorporates several tenets : - interdependence of objects and their attributes - independent elements can never constitute a system - holism - emergent properties not possible to detect by analysis should be possible to define by a holistic approach - goal seeking - systemic interaction must result in some goal or final state - inputs and outputs - in a closed system inputs are determined once and constant ; in an open system additional inputs are admitted from the environment - transformation of inputs into outputs - this is the process by which the goals are obtained - entropy - the amount of disorder or randomness present in any system - regulation - a method of feedback is necessary for the system to operate predictably - hierarchy - complex wholes are made up of smaller subsystems - differentiation - specialized units perform specialized functions - equifinality - alternative ways of attaining the same objectives ( convergence ) - multifinality - attaining alternative objectives from the same inputs ( divergence ) a treatise on systems thinking ought to address many issues including : - encapsulation of a system in space and / or in time - active and passive systems ( or structures ) - transformation by an activity system of inputs into outputs - persistent and transient systems - evolution, the effects of time passing, the life histories of systems and their parts. - design and designers. - rather than trying to improve the braking system on a car by looking in great detail at the material composition of the brake pads ( reductionist ), the boundary of the braking system may be extended to include the interactions between the : - brake disks or drums - brake pedal sensors - driver reaction time - road conditions - weather conditions - time of day - using the tenet of \" multifinality \", a supermarket could be considered to be : - a \" profit making system \" from the perspective of management and owners - a \" distribution system \" from the perspective of the suppliers - an \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6109792270042786, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:936d5bb4-2555-4d63-86a7-44d140e713dd>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:14.158287"}
{"text": "optics : light at work - part i. part 2 you can order free dvds from spie : light in action : lasers, cameras & other cool stuff ; optics : light at work ; and careers in optics. & optics : science and art closer than you think optical technology and the study of light go far back in human culture. contemporary artists are often quick to adopt new technology, or to absorb its implications. was it any different then? why should the use of a tool diminish the value of the art? of light and color a set of interactive java applet tutorials to help you understand how color and light work. beautifully done. lots of levers to slide to make changes. from molecular expressions. here you ' ll find pictures, videos, games, educational materials, and more. a fun way to learn all about the \" cool \" part of the electromagnetic spectrum : infrared light. this site is dedicated to light in all its manifestations : in physics, in technology, in nature and in culture. to help you learn about light, we ' ve included a message board for posting questions. a thinkquest site. system of web pages about light light is great, light is mysterious, light is useful. after all, they say everything started with light. when any revolution has happened in the history of science, light was always there. so it deserves a little attention. here on earth the speed of light can change. how? go to joe ' s room and see if you can figure it out. an interactive tour of current research in the materials sciences at berkeley lab ' s advanced light source. for high school students, this site explains how intense light is used for physics research. for kids : science and engineering some fun and interesting things about optics : the science of light, and one of the most important fields of physics. by bruce irving, optical research associates. - light without heat to do this experiment, you ' ll need some light sticks from a sporting goods store or a necklace from a fair. you ' ll watch what happens when you put it in hot water and in your refridgerator.. from experiments by professor shakhashiri. how fireflies produce light via a chemical reaction and how you can attract fireflies to your yard, if you have them in the area in the first place. colors in a green leaf using chromatography to help you understand just how leaves change colors in the fall and why some trees change to red while others change to orange or yellow, try this experiment on leaves", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.643221157364512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:574ae925-7399-4497-9546-44ee474d626d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:14.342673"}
{"text": "connected knowledge : science, philosophy, and education oxford university press ( 1997 ) | abstract | | when physicist alan sokal recently submitted an article to the postmodernist journal social text, the periodical ' s editors were happy to publish it - - for here was a respected scientist offering support for the journal ' s view that science is a subjective, socially constructed discipline. but as sokal himself soon revealed in lingua franca magazine, the essay was a spectacular hoax - - filled with scientific gibberish anyone with a basic knowledge of physics should have caught - - and the academic world suddenly awoke to the vast gap that has opened between the scientific community and their mould - be critics. but the truth is that not only postmodern critics but americans in general have a weak grasp on scientific principles and facts. in connected knowledge, physicist alan cromer offers a way to bridge the chasm, with a lively, lucid account of scientific thinking and a provocative new agenda for american education. science, cromer argues, is anything but common sense : it requires a particular habit of mind that does not come naturally. for example, something as simple as buoyancy can only be explained through archimedes ' principle - - that a body in a fluid is subject to an upward force equal to the weight of fluid it displaces - - yet few scientists could arrive at this ancient concept by trial and error. school children, however, are often given a ball and a tank of water, and asked to explain buoyancy any way they can. today ' s de emphasis on teaching pupils necessary facts and principles, he argues, \" far from empowering them, makes them slaves of their own subjective opinions. \" this movement in education, known as constructivism, has close ties to postmodern critics ( such as the editors of social text ) who question the objectivity of science, and with it the existence of an objective reality. cromer offers a ringing defense of the knowability of the world, both as an objective reality and as a finite landscape of discovery. the advance of scientific knowledge, he argues, is not unlike the mapping of the continents ; at this point, we have found them all. he shows how the advent of quantum mechanics, rather than making knowledge less certain, actually offers a more precise understanding of the behavior of atoms and electrons. turning from philosophy to education, he argues that instead of allowing students to flounder, however creatively, schools should follow a progressive curriculum that returns theoretical knowledge", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6092389388753768, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5501540c-f16a-4f74-9aaa-839d4ea93de7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:14.731103"}
{"text": "metamorphic rocks and minerals this activity was selected for the on the cutting edge reviewed teaching collection this activity has received positive reviews in a peer review process involving five review categories. the five categories included in the process are - scientific accuracy - alignment of learning goals, activities, and assessments - pedagogic effectiveness - robustness ( usability and dependability of all components ) - completeness of the activitysheet web page for more information about the peer review process itself, please see http : / / serc. carleton. edu / nagtworkshops / review. html. this page first made public : aug 7, 2006 this exercise is an introduction to the most important metamorphic rocks and minerals. this exercise is designed for a mid / upper - level undergraduate geology course on the principles of mineralogy. skills and concepts that students must have mastered students should have knowledge of basic chemistry and of minerals equivalent to what they would learn in an introductory geology class. how the activity is situated in the course this activity is the 19th of 36 mineralogy exercises and is used around the middle of the course. content / concepts goals for this activity - learn to identify key metamorphic minerals and rocks in hand specimen and thin section. higher order thinking skills goals for this activity - identify key properties useful for mineral identification. other skills goals for this activity description of the activity / assignment in this three - part exercise, students study hand samples and thin sections of important metamorphic rocks and minerals. - part one - box of rocks : students examine trays of metamorphic rocks and minerals and record their physical properties, composition, and habit. they note chemical and physical similarities and differences and identify the rock samples and minerals they contain. - part two - definitions : define a list of terms relevent to the lab. - part three - minerals in thin section : observe minerals in thin section and answer questions about them.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6034102059373565, "token_count": 382, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a81e921d-54b5-47fb-8595-ca6b2b457aee>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:14.903939"}
{"text": "well it \u2019 s been quite a while, but i think i can carve out the time to move forwards again. i was all set to start with lie algebras today, only to find that i \u2019 ve already defined them over a year ago. so let \u2019 s pick up with a recap : a lie algebra is a module \u2014 usually a vector space over a field \u2014 called and give it a bilinear operation which we write as. we often require such operations to be associative, but this time we impose the following two conditions : now, as long as we \u2019 re not working in a field where \u2014 and usually we \u2019 re not \u2014 we can use bilinearity to rewrite the first condition : so. this antisymmetry always holds, but we can only go the other way if the character of is not, as stated above. the second condition is called the \u201c jacobi identity \u201d, and antisymmetry allows us to rewrite it as : that is, bilinearity says that we have a linear mapping that sends an element to a linear endomorphism in. and the jacobi identity says that this actually lands in the subspace of \u201c derivations \u201d \u2014 those which satisfy something like the leibniz rule for derivatives. to see what i mean, compare to the product rule : where takes the place of, takes the place of, and takes the place of. and the operations are changed around. but you should see the similarity. lie algebras obviously form a category whose morphisms are called lie algebra homomorphisms. just as we might expect, such a homomorphism is a linear map that preserves the bracket : we can obviously define subalgebras and quotient algebras. subalgebras are a bit more obvious than quotient algebras, though, being just subspaces that are closed under the bracket. quotient algebras are more commonly called \u201c homomorphic images \u201d in the literature, and we \u2019 ll talk more about them later. we will take as a general assumption that our lie algebras are finite - dimensional, though infinite - dimensional ones absolutely exist and are very interesting. and i \u2019 ll finish the recap by reminding you that we can get lie algebras from associative algebras ; any associative algebra can be given a bracket defined by the above link shows that this satisfies the jacobi identity, or you can take it as an exercise.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6190991425857544, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7ca443c4-178f-4208-9574-828de2820dc2>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:04:15.010217"}