data/train/batch_000014.jsonl

{"text": "leed\u00ae standardsarticle free pass leed\u00ae standards, in full leadership in energy and environmental design standards, a certification program devised in 1994 by the u. s. green building council ( usgbc ; founded 1993 ) to encourage sustainable practices design and development by means of tools and criteria for performance measurement. it is \u201c a voluntary, consensus - based, market - driven building rating system based on existing proven technology. \u201d the usgbc has established standards for new construction and major renovation as well as existing structures ; their standards can be applied to core and shell and to commercial interiors \u2014 i. e., the core and shell alone can be certified with no requirement that the interior be so certified. many building types \u2014 schools, offices, retail, health care facilities, and private residences \u2014 have been addressed, and standards for neighbourhood development are also in progress. the five critical areas of focus, as laid out by the usgbc, are \u201c sustainable site development, water savings, energy efficiency, materials selection, and indoor environmental quality. \u201d - sustainable site development involves, whenever possible, the reuse of existing buildings and the preservation of the surrounding environment. the incorporation of earth shelters, roof gardens, and extensive planting throughout and around buildings is encouraged. - water is conserved by a variety of means including the cleaning and recycling of gray ( previously used ) water and the installation of building - by - building catchments for rainwater. water usage and supplies are monitored. - energy efficiency can be increased in a variety of ways, for example, by orienting buildings to take full advantage of seasonal changes in the sun \u2019 s position and by the use of diversified and regionally appropriate energy sources, which may \u2014 depending on geographic location \u2014 include solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, water, or natural gas. - the most desirable materials are those that are recycled or renewable and those that require the least energy to manufacture. they ideally are locally sourced and free from harmful chemicals. they are made of nonpolluting raw ingredients and are durable and recyclable. - indoor environmental quality addresses the issues that influence how the individual feels in a space and involves such features as the sense of control over personal space, ventilation, temperature control, and the use of materials that do not emit toxic gases. leed ratings in order of value from lowest to highest, based on the number of points assigned for green compliance, are certified, silver, gold, and platinum. what made you want to look up \" leed standards \"? please share", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6076869404705739, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:db324bd9-d47f-41d6-99a3-b221a0f71e9b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.044035"}
{"text": "- the magazine glass coatings currently used to reduce energy consumption in buildings already represent a multi - billion - dollar global market with significant room for further growth. improving the performance and reducing the costs of these products will be a key focus of the development partnership. residential and commercial glass facades have a major impact on energy used for heating and cooling, which together account for 4060 %? of all energy consumed in u. s. buildings, according to the u. s. department of energy. \u201c glass was one of mankind \u2019 s first breakthroughs in materials science, and it has undergone tremendous development over its 5000 - year history, \u201d said scott thomsen, guardian \u2019 s chief technology officer and group vice president for glass in north america. \u201c through our work with intermolecular, we hope to take materials innovation in glassmaking to an entirely new level. intermolecular \u2019 s high productivity combinatorial\u2122 approach to r & d allows us to comprehensively and efficiently explore the periodic table of elements, and to quickly develop and commercialize high - performance coatings for a variety of high - growth applications. glass coatings still have enormous potential for innovation. working with intermolecular will allow us to extend our technical leadership, improve the performance of our existing products, and accelerate new product development with lower cost and risk. \u201d technologists from guardian \u2019 s science & technology center and intermolecular will collaborate on multiple product development projects simultaneously, with guardian team members spending significant time at intermolecular \u2019 s development facilities in san jose, calif. for more information visit www. guardian. com or www. intermolecular. com.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6210949002306616, "token_count": 336, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f1ef144b-b19e-49ac-8da1-d5de10a5d0e6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.148106"}
{"text": "website detail page written by chandralekha singh this 30 - question research - based multiple - choice test is designed to evaluate students ' conceptual understanding of symmetry and gauss ' s law. the test may be administered to students in calculus - based introductory physics courses or upper - level undergraduate e & m courses. the survey is based on investigations of students ' difficulties with the concepts of symmetry, electric field, and electric flux and should be given in a 50 - minute period. statistical results have shown the survey to be reliable and valid. a summary of the construction and analysis of the survey is available in student understanding of symmetry and gauss ' s law of electricity, am. j. phys. 74 ( 10 ), 923 - 936 ( 2006 ). this assessment is free for use by instructors in their classroom. however, as it takes years of development effort to create and validate reliable assessment instruments, the file is password - protected. furthermore, the author requests that 1. students are not given copies following examination ; and 2. none of the questions are incorporated into web - based question delivery systems without adequate security to prevent printing or unauthorized access by students. to obtain the password, please send a request with your name, email, institution, and a link to a page at your institution that confirms you are an instructor. compadre is beta testing citation styles! disclaimer : compadre offers citation styles as a guide only. we cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. please refer to the style manuals in the citation source information area for clarifications. citation source information the ajp / prst - per presented is based on the aip style with the addition of journal article titles and conference proceeding article titles. the apa style presented is based on information from apa style. org : electronic references. the chicago style presented is based on information from examples of chicago - style documentation. the mla style presented is based on information from the mla faq. symmetry and gauss ' s law conceptual evaluation : is key reference of student understanding of symmetry and gauss ' s law of electricity a summary of the survey ' s development, reliability, and validity is provided in c. singh, \" student understanding of symmetry and gauss ' s law of electricity, \" am. j. of phys 74 ( 10 ), 923 - 936 ( 2006 ). relation by lyle barbato know of another related resource? login to relate this resource to it. is key reference of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6265816478114767, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fb9a2814-f60c-4ffa-ba7b-36f2b172fbff>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.205819"}
{"text": "| | a - b - c - d | e - f - g - h | i - j - k - l | m - n - o - p | q - r - s - t | u - v - w - x - y - z | black or gray object that reflects the same light intensity whatever the viewing angle or light source angle ( not glossy ). artifacts in images, with a maze shape, due to errors during demosaicing. a metric is a lens or camera sensor image quality performance characteristic selected for analysis on dxomark. there are three metrics for scoring camera sensors ( color depth, dynamic range, low - light iso ), and five metrics for scoring lenses ( resolution, distortion, vignetting, transmission, chromatic aberration ). read more about lens metric definitions and sensor use case definitions ( metrics and use cases are equivalent for sensors ). the mid - light score is the average performance of a lens with a camera body the different focal lengthfor a defined exposure conditions. it is equivalent to the dxomark score except that it is based on mid - lighting conditions ( 5, 000 lux and 1 / 125s exposure time ). mid - light score makes a lot of sense when evaluating lenses with camera used in good lighting conditions : particularly appropriate for medium - format cameras used in studio environments. exposure levels corresponding to medium gray levels on the sensor. function describing the ratio between the amplitude of a pure frequency signal before and after a system as a function of the frequency. megapixel, a million pixels. part of a measured signal which is different from the original signal. in an image, noise is especially visible in uniform areas for a multichannel image, matrix giving the covariance of the noise in the different channels. algorithm aiming to retrieve the part of the signal directly related to the scene random variations of the light perceived by the sensor due to the fact that photons are not emitted at a constant rate, but follow a random process ( see poisson process ). pixel response non - uniformity. noise due to the inhomogeneity of pixels properties on the sensor. also known as dark current noise. part of the noise due to thermally generated free electrons. it is currently considered that thermal noise doubles for an increase of 8\u00b0 of the ambient temperature. this noise is particularly visible in low - light. action of changing numerical values with respect to a given reference in order to facilitate comparison between, for example, cameras having different sensor resolutions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6104804439273845, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c3d6171a-fcc9-4934-a519-c1feb0cc7106>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.330887"}
{"text": "thermal noise doubles for an increase of 8\u00b0 of the ambient temperature. this noise is particularly visible in low - light. action of changing numerical values with respect to a given reference in order to facilitate comparison between, for example, cameras having different sensor resolutions or sizes. results obtained after several mathematical transformations, used to easily compare systems with different characteristics, as camera resolution, pixel pitch, etc. axis of symmetry of an optical system, usually set at the center of the picture. an exposure that is too important, resulting in burnt highlights. the term \" peak score \" is not used anymore on dxomark. ranking used to be provided using this peak score ; now ranking is provided using the dxomark score. former definition of peak score ( now renamed as mid - light score and shown in the lens measurement page ) : the peak score is the performance of a lens ( with a camera body ) for its best focal length and aperture combination. therefore, it does not show how the lens behaves over its entire focal range. other lens scores, such as use case and optical metric scores, report average performances over the whole focal length and aperture ranges. also, the peak score is measured for defined exposure conditions corresponding to typical studio photography with 5, 000 lux illumination and an exposure time of 1 / 125s. photography using traditional film composed of chemical components and silver ions. the elemental particle of light. it has a zero mass, travels at light speed, and is characterized by its wavelength. part of a sensor that receives photons. each photosite corresponds to a pixel at the end of image processing. picture element, the smallest element of a digital image. width of a pixel on a sensor, expressed usually in \u00b5m. a pixel ( or photosite ) whose response to light is very different from the mean response of the other pixels on the sensor. they produce small but very visible artifacts on an image. stochastic ( or random ) process modeling queuing phenomena. it is a good model of photons arrival on a sensor. taking close - up photos of people, generally in a controlled environment ( such as a studio ). the portrait score is defined as the color depth performance and its unit is a number of bits. a color depth of 22bits is excellent, differences below 1 bit are barely noticeable. this score is named \" portrait \" because generally what matters most when shooting portraits is to aim for the richest color rendition. read more about portrait score. dispersion of light : different wavelengths are refracted with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6536455869852713, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c3d6171a-fcc9-4934-a519-c1feb0cc7106>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.331936"}
{"text": ". click image to enlarge. figure 1 : diagram of flash memory structure shows the program and erase conditions for fowler - nordheim tunneling. among consumer electronics manufacturers with products that incorporate memory devices, there is growing concern that floating - gate flash memory may not be able to continue providing higher storage capacities at the ever - lower cost - per - bit requirements that drive the nvm market. research on potential alternatives to replace floating gate flash technology includes pcm, charge trap flash, resistive memory, ferro - electric memory ( fram ), and magneto - resistive memory ( mram ), and samples of each are currently available in the market in some form. the potential of other nvm technologies, including spin - transfer torque mram, floating - body ram, and various types of carbon - nanotube - based memory is also being investigated. phase - change memory pcm cells are made of a chalcogenide alloy, i. e., an alloy with at least one element from the vi group of the periodic table, plus one element each from the v and iv groups. these same types of materials are also widely used in the active layers of rewritable optical media such as cds and dvds. through the application of heat in the form of an electrical pulse ( or a laser pulse in cds / dvds ), pcm cells can be switched rapidly from an ordered crystalline phase ( with low resistance ) to a disordered, amorphous phase ( with much higher resistance ). the switch from the crystalline to the amorphous phase and back is triggered by melting and quick cooling, or a slightly slower process known as re - crystallization. germanium antimony tellurium ( gst ), with a melting temperature from 500\u00b0 to 600\u00b0c, has emerged as one of the most promising materials for pcm devices. these devices can store binary data because of the differing levels of resistivity of the crystalline and amorphous phases of these alloys. the high - resistance amorphous state represents a binary 0 ; the low resistance crystalline state represents a binary 1. multiple resistive levels will permit multi - bit pcm, which has been demonstrated, allowing pcm to scale and provide lower cost - per - bit. these states are stable over time, which is important for any commercial application. in the amorphous phase, the gst material has short - range atomic order and low free - electron density, which means higher resistivity. this is sometimes referred to as the reset", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6338440590557084, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ffbe7cd-8a48-42e6-99a4-1f0421cf0ab2>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.410697"}
{"text": "stable over time, which is important for any commercial application. in the amorphous phase, the gst material has short - range atomic order and low free - electron density, which means higher resistivity. this is sometimes referred to as the reset phase because it is usually formed after a reset operation, in which the temperature of the cell is raised slightly above the melting point, and then the material is suddenly quenched to cool it. the cooling rate is critical to the formation of the amorphous state, and typical resistance can be greater than 1 m\u03c9. if the rate is too slow, then the material will be less amorphous. for so - called \u201c slow materials, \u201d the cooling rate is about 30 ns ; for \u201c fast materials, \u201d it is in the range of single nanoseconds or faster. the fall time of the pulse can be slower than the required speed ; what is important is the fall rate at the top of the pulse, when the cell cools from melting point to crystallization. after reaching crystallization temperature, the crystalline order is frozen. for example, the pulse fall time may be 20 ns, but it might take 5 ns to go from tmelt, resulting in a resistance from 1 k\u03c9 to 10 k\u03c9.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6184441053358254, "token_count": 258, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9ffbe7cd-8a48-42e6-99a4-1f0421cf0ab2>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.411196"}
{"text": "the original wordlist seems to be offlinethe wordlist containing your word and definition doesn ' t exist anymore, or, the website doesn ' t exist anymore. on this page you can find a copy of the original information. the information may have been taken offline because it is outdated. a mechanical assembly that positions the read / write head assembly over the appropriate tracks. advanced intelligent network ; a service - independent telecommunications network in which the intelligence is moved from the switch and hosted in computer nodes distributed throughout the network. advanced intelligent tape ; a helical scan technology developed by sony for tape backup / archive of networks and servers, specifically addressing midrange to high - end backup requirements. an arrangement of two or more disk drives : may be in raid or daisy - chain fashion. asynchronous transfer mode ; a network architecture that divides messages into fixed - size units ( cells ) and establishes a switched connection between the originating and receiving stations ; enables transmission of various types of data ( video, audio, etc. ) over the same line without one data type dominating the transmission. the underlying network communication conduit or line by which all main servers and devices are connected ; backbone devices are typically servers, routers, hubs, and bridges ; client computers are not connected directly to the backbone. the amount of data that can be transmitted via a given communications channel ( e. g., between a hard drive and the host pc ) in a given unit of time. a portion of a volume usually 512 bytes in size ; often referred to as a ' logical block. ' a temporary, high - speed data transfer mode that can transfer data at significantly higher rates than would normally be achieved with non - burst technology ; the maximum throughput a device is capable of transferring data. the main communication avenue in a computer ; an electrical pathway along which signals are sent from one part of the computer to another. the fundamental data unit for personal computers, comprising 8 contiguous bits. a large bank of random access memory used for temporary storage of information. computer - aided design ; the use of a computer in industrial design applications such as architecture, engineering, and manufacturing. a secure, self - contained telecommunications equipment building that houses servers, storage systems, switching equipment, emergency power systems, and related devices that are used to run telephone systems. the concept of combining multiple host computers together through a private communication line, such as ethernet backbone, to form a ring of host computers ; this ring of host computers act as a single entity, capable of performing multiple complex instructions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6873424508232763, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8df8968b-5165-4f6a-a000-26823b14e264>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.448156"}
{"text": "used to run telephone systems. the concept of combining multiple host computers together through a private communication line, such as ethernet backbone, to form a ring of host computers ; this ring of host computers act as a single entity, capable of performing multiple complex instructions by distributing the workload across all members of the ring. the concept of combining multiple storage servers together to form a redundant ring of storage devices ; clustered storage systems typically perform multiple read and write requests through parallel access lines to the requesting computer. commerce service provider ( csp ) a company that provides e - commerce solutions for retailers. competitive local exchange carrier ( clec ) a long distance carrier, cable company, or small startup local exchange carrier that competes for business in a local telephone market ; many clecs also offer internet services. a unit or circuitry that manages the information flow between storage disks and the computer. cost of ownership the purchase price of equipment plus the cost of operating this equipment over its projected life span. commercial off - the - shelf ; commercially available products that can be purchased and integrated with little or no customization, thus facilitating customer infrastructure expansion and reducing costs. computer telephony integration ; providing a link between telephone systems and computers to facilitate incoming and outgoing call handling and control ; the physical link between a telephone and server. digital audio tape ; a digital magnetic tape format originally developed for audio recording and now used for computer backup tape ; the latest dat storage format is dds ( digital data storage ). disk array ( or array ) an arrangement of two or more hard disks, in raid or daisy - chain configuration, organized to improve speed and provide protection of data against loss. distributed computing environment a set of middleware standards that defines the method of communication between clients and servers in a cross - platform computing environment ; enables a client program to initiate a request that can be processed by a program written in a different computer language and housed on a different computer platform. digital linear tape ; a serpentine technology first introduced by digital equipment corporation and later developed by quantum for tape backup / archive of networks and servers ; dlt technology addresses midrange to high - end tape backup requirements. electronic industries association ; a trade association that establishes electrical and electronics - oriented standards. electromagnetic interference ; what occurs when electromagnetic fields from one device interfere with the operation of some other device. enterprise storage network ( esn ) an integrated suite of products and services designed to maximize heterogeneous connectivity and management of enterprise storage devices and servers ; a dedicated, high - speed network connected to the enterprise ' s storage", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.661997257534638, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8df8968b-5165-4f6a-a000-26823b14e264>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.449457"}
{"text": "of some other device. enterprise storage network ( esn ) an integrated suite of products and services designed to maximize heterogeneous connectivity and management of enterprise storage devices and servers ; a dedicated, high - speed network connected to the enterprise ' s storage systems, enabling files and data to be transferred between storage devices and client mainframes and servers. a local area network standard for hardware, communication, and cabling. the transfer of operation from a failed component ( e. g., controller, disk drive ) to a similar, redundant component to ensure uninterrupted data flow and operability. the ability of a system to cope with internal hardware problems ( e. g., a disk drive failure ) and still continue to operate with minimal impact, such as by bringing a backup system online. fibre channel - arbitrated loop ; a fibre channel implementation in which users are attached to a network via a one - way ring ( loop ) cabling scheme. a high - speed storage / networking interface that offers higher performance, greater capacity and cabling distance, increased system configuration flexibility and scalability, and simplified cabling. the amount of floor space that a piece of equipment ( e. g., a rackmount enclosure ) occupies. the physical size and shape of a device ; often used to describe the size of disk arrays in a rackmount enclosure. approximately one billion bytes, 1, 024 megabytes. host bus adapter ; a hardware card that resides on the pc bus and provides an interface connection between a scsi device ( such as a hard drive ) and the host pc. the main page on a web site that serves as the primary point of entry to related pages within the site and may have links to other sites as well. a storage system that is connected directly to the network server ; also referred to as server - attached storage. a backup component ( e. g., disk or controller ) that is online and available should the primary component go down. the ability to replace a component ( e. g., disk drive, controller, fan, power source ) while the system is on line, without having to power down ; also referred to as hot - plug removable. hierarchical storage management ; a storage system in which new, frequently used data is stored on the fastest, most accessible ( and generally more expensive ) media ( e. g., raid ) and older, less frequently used data is stored on slower ( less expensive ) media ( e. g., tape ). a device that splits", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6437521092158822, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8df8968b-5165-4f6a-a000-26823b14e264>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.450473"}
{"text": "on the fastest, most accessible ( and generally more expensive ) media ( e. g., raid ) and older, less frequently used data is stored on slower ( less expensive ) media ( e. g., tape ). a device that splits one network cable into a set of separate cables, each connecting to a different computer ; used in a local area network to create a small - scale network by connecting several computers together. the physical equipment ( computers, cases, racks, cabling, etc. ) that comprises a computer system. a scsi device that requests another scsi device ( a target ) to perform an operation ; usually a host computer acts as an initiator and a peripheral device acts as a target. a connection between hardware devices, applications, or different sections of a computer network. a worldwide system of linked computer networks. internet service provider ( isp ) a company that provides internet access services to consumers and businesses ; isps lease connections from internet backbone providers ; while most isps are small companies that service a local area, there are also regional and national isps ( such as america online ). the ability of one computer system to control another, even though the two systems are made by different manufacturers. a computer network, based on internet technology, that is designed to meet the internal needs for sharing information within a single organization or company. i / os per second ; a measure of performance for a host - attached storage device or raid controller. just a bunch of disks ; a disk array without a controller. the core of an operating system such as windows 98, windows nt, mac os or unix ; provides basic services for the other parts of the operating system, making it possible for it to run several programs at once ( multitasking ), read and write files and connect to networks and peripherals. a computer, system, or software that was created for a specific purpose but is now outdated ; anything left over from a previous version of the hardware or software. local area network a network of computers within a limited area ( e. g., a company or organization ). linear tape open ; a new standard tape format developed by hp, ibm, and seagate ; expected availability in 2000. logical unit number ; an addressing scheme used to define scsi devices on a single scsi bus. approximately one million bytes, 1, 024 kilobytes a method of storage in which data from one disk is duplicated on another disk so that both drives contain the same information, thus providing data redundancy.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6444487257678985, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8df8968b-5165-4f6a-a000-26823b14e264>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.452280"}
{"text": "single scsi bus. approximately one million bytes, 1, 024 kilobytes a method of storage in which data from one disk is duplicated on another disk so that both drives contain the same information, thus providing data redundancy. any computer process that cannot fail during normal business hours ; some computer processes ( e. g., telephone systems ) must run all day long and require 100 percent uptime. mean swaps between failure ; a statistical calculation used to predict the average usefulness of a robotic device ( e. g., a tape library ) with any interruption of service. mtbf : mean time between failure ; a statistical calculation used to predict the average usefulness of a device without any interruption of service. mean time to repair ; the average amount of time required to resolve most hardware or software problems with a given device. the ability of a product or network to support a variety of computer platforms ( e. g. ibm, sun, macintosh ) ; also referred to as cross - platform. network service provider ( nsp ) a company that provides the national or international packet - switching networks that carry internet traffic ; also called a backbone operator. network - attached storage ( nas ) a disk array storage system that is attached directly to a network rather than to the network server ( i. e., host attached ) ; functions as a server in a client / server relationship, has a processor, an operating system or micro - kernel, and processes file i / o protocols such as smb and nfs. node ( or network node ) any device that is directly connected to the network, usually through ethernet cable ; nodes include file servers and shared peripherals. nt ( microsoft windows nt ) an operating system developed by microsoft for high - performance processors and networked systems. original equipment manufacturer ; a company that manufactures a given piece of hardware ( unlike a value - added reseller, which changes and repackages the hardware ). open systems network a network comprised of equipment that conforms to industry standards of interoperability between different operating systems ( e. g., unix, windows nt ). the master control program ( e. g., windows ) that manages a computer ' s internal functions and provides a means of control to the computer ' s operations and file system. a block of information mathematically created from several blocks of user data to allow recovery of user data contained on a drive that has failed in an array ; used in raid levels 3 and 5. personal computer interconnect ; an industry - standard bus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6388034480401308, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8df8968b-5165-4f6a-a000-26823b14e264>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.453434"}
{"text": "a block of information mathematically created from several blocks of user data to allow recovery of user data contained on a drive that has failed in an array ; used in raid levels 3 and 5. personal computer interconnect ; an industry - standard bus used in servers, workstations and pcs. a hardware standard, such as ibm, sun or macintosh, etc privately developed and owned technology. a standard that specifies the format of data and rules to be followed in data communication and network environments. the cabinet that houses a server / storage workstation ( also referred to as a server rack ) ; to mount equipment into a cabinet. redundant array of independent ( or inexpensive ) disks ; a collection of storage disks with a controller ( or controllers ) to manage the storage of data on the disks. immediate processing of input or notification of status. reduced instruction set computer ; a computer processing architecture that requires fewer instructions to run applications, thus increasing processing speed. an electronic device that connects two or more networks and routes incoming data packets to the appropriate network. storage area network ; a network infrastructure of shared multi - host storage, linking all storage devices as well as interconnecting remote sites. the ability of a product or network to accommodate growth. small computer system interface ; an interface that serves as an expansion bus that can be used to connect hard disk drives, tape drives, and other hardware components. a computer that stores application and data files for all workstations on a network ; also referred to as a file server. mechanism inside a hard disk drive that moves the heads into place ; the axle on which a disk turns. serial storage architecture ; a high - speed method of connecting disk, tape, and cd - rom drives, printers, scanners, and other devices to a computer. a method of storage in which a unit of data is distributed and stored across several hard disks, which improves access speed but does not provide redundancy. the measured transfer rate of a given device during normal operation. a network traffic monitoring device that controls the flow of traffic between multiple network nodes. an individual or company that combines various components and programs into a functioning system, customized for a particular customer ' s needs. a scsi device that performs an operation requested by an initiator. tag command queuing ; a feature introduced in the scsi - 2 specification that permits each initiator to issue commands accompanied by instructions for how the target should handle the command ; the initiator can either request the command to be executed at the first available opportunity, in the order", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6429517399215452, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8df8968b-5165-4f6a-a000-26823b14e264>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.454535"}
{"text": "how you get the chameleon of the molecules to settle on a particular \" look \" has been discovered by rub chemists led by professor dominik marx. the molecule ch5 + is normally not to be described by a single rigid structure, but is dynamically flexible. by means of computer simulations, the team from the centre for theoretical chemistry showed that ch5 + takes on a particular structure once you attach hydrogen molecules. \" in this way, we have taken an important step towards understanding experimental vibrational spectra in the future \", says dominik marx. the researchers report in the journal \" physical review letters \". in the ch5 + molecule, the hydrogen atoms are permanently on the move the superacid ch5 +, also called protonated methane, occurs in outer space - where new stars are formed. researchers already discovered the molecule in the 1950s, but many of its features are still unknown. unlike conventional molecules in which all the atoms have a fixed position, the five hydrogen atoms in ch5 + are constantly moving around the carbon centre. scientists speak of \" hydrogen scrambling \". this dynamically flexible structure has been explained by the research groups led by dominik marx and stefan schlemmer of the university of cologne as part of a long - term collaboration ( we reported in july 2005 and march 2010 : http : / / www. pm. ruhr - uni - bochum. de / pm2005 / msg00209. htm, http : / / aktuell. rub. de / pm2010 / msg00066. htm ). marx ' s team now wanted to know if the structure can be \" frozen \" under certain conditions by attaching solvent molecules \u2013 a process called microsolvation. microsolvatation : addition of hydrogen molecules to ch5 + one by one to this end, the chemists surrounded the ch5 + molecule in the virtual lab with a few hydrogen molecules ( h2 ). here, the result is the same as when dissolving normal ions in water : a relatively tightly bound shell of water molecules attaches to each ion in order to then transfer individual ions with several solvent molecules bound to them to the gas phase. to describe the ch5 + hydrogen complexes, classical ab initio molecular dynamics simulations are not sufficient. the reason is that \" hydrogen scrambling \" is based on quantum effects. therefore marx ' s group used a fully quantum mechanical method which they developed in house, known as ab initio path integral simulation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6213492487890346, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b6a5518-f14f-4416-bbfd-7f1a4f8d6d21>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.504453"}
{"text": "initio molecular dynamics simulations are not sufficient. the reason is that \" hydrogen scrambling \" is based on quantum effects. therefore marx ' s group used a fully quantum mechanical method which they developed in house, known as ab initio path integral simulation. with this, the essential quantum effects can be taken into account dependent on the temperature. hydrogen molecules give the ch5 + molecule \" structure \" the chemists carried out the simulations at a temperature of 20 kelvin, which corresponds to - 253 degrees celsius. in the non - microsolvated form, the five hydrogen atoms in the ch5 + molecule are permanently changing positions even at such low temperatures - and entirely due to quantum mechanical effects. if ch5 + is surrounded by hydrogen molecules, this \" hydrogen scrambling \" is, however, significantly effected and may even completely come to a halt : the molecule assumes a rudimentary structure. how this looks exactly depends on how many hydrogen molecules are attached to the ch5 + molecule. \" what especially interests me is if superfluid helium - like the hydrogen molecules here \u2013 can also stop hydrogen scrambling in ch5 + \" says marx. experimental researchers use superfluid helium to measure high - resolution spectra of molecules embedded in such droplets. for ch5 + this has so far not been possible. in the superfluid phase, the helium atoms are, however, indistinguishable due to quantum statistical effects. to be able to describe this fact, the theoretical chemists at the rub spent many years developing a new, even more complex path - integral - based simulation method that has recently also been applied to real problems. researchers at the rub explore the influences of microsolvation on small molecules in the gas phase and in helium droplets in the excellence cluster \" ruhr explores solvation \" resolv ( exc 1069 ), which was approved by the german research foundation in june 2012. a. witt, s. ivanov, d. marx ( 2013 ) : microsolvation - induced quantum localization in protonated methane, physical review letters, doi : 10. 1103 / physrevlett. 110. 083003 a figure related to this press release can be found online at : http : / / aktuell. ruhr - uni - bochum. de / pm2013 / pm00080. html. en prof. dr. dominik marx, centre for theoretical chemistry, department of chemistry and biochemistry at the ruhr - universitat,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6666884975611355, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b6a5518-f14f-4416-bbfd-7f1a4f8d6d21>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.505476"}
{"text": "november 02, 2009 this article is excerpted from \" cloud opportunities in hpc : market taxonomy, \" published by intersect360 research. the full article was distributed to subscribers of the intersect360 market advisory service and can also be obtained by contacting email @ example. com. in life, the universe, and everything, the third book of douglas adams ' whimsical hitchhiker fantasy trilogy, cosmic wayfarer ford prefect describes how an object, even a large object, could effectively be rendered invisible to the general populace by surrounding it with an \" sep field \" that causes would - be observers to avoid recognizing somebody else ' s problem. \" an sep, \" ford helpfully explains, \" is something we can ' t see, or don ' t see, or our brain doesn ' t let us see, because we think that it ' s somebody else ' s problem. \" if we were to reinterpret sep to stand for \" somebody else ' s processing, \" we would be well on the way to a definition of cloud computing. the term \" cloud \" comes from the engineering practice of drawing a cloud in a schematic to represent an external resource that the engineer ' s design will interact with - - a part of the workflow that he or she will assume is working but that is not part of that specific design. for example, a processor designer might draw a cloud to represent a memory system, with arrows indicating the flow of data in and out of the memory cloud. cloud computing takes this concept to an organizational level ; entire sections of it workflows can now be virtualized into resources that are someone else ' s concern. cloud computing is therefore a new instantiation of distributed computing. it is built on grid computing concepts and technology and further enabled by internet technologies for access. cloud computing is the delivery of some part of an it workflow - - such as computational cycles, data storage, or application hosting - - using an internet - style interface. this definition includes web - immersed intranets as conduits for accessing private clouds. cloud computing is currently driven by business models that attempt to utilize or monetize unused resources. grid, virtualization, and now cloud technologies have attempted to find and tap idle resources, thus reducing costs or generating revenue. the most interesting difference between cloud computing and earlier forms of distributed computing is that in developing ultra - scale computing centers, organizations such as google and amazon incidentally built out significant caches of occasionally idle computing resources that could be made generally available through", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6123860023771174, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8db47ce8-283c-4a0e-9f78-dc70d0e14bf1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.820878"}
{"text": "results in the displacement of lower - income residents and generally occurs when an older neighborhood is revitalized. round structure constructed of lightweight bars forming a grid of polygons. survey that takes into consideration the curve of the earth. a computer mapping program where land characteristics and / or demographic information are color coded and often overlaid. the purpose is to determine locations of certain activity. science dealing with the surface of the earth, its division into continents and countries, along with the climate, animals, plants, inhabitants, resources and industries of the various places. the magnetic properties of the earth. branch of mathematics dealing with points, lines, surfaces and solids to examine their properties, measurements and mutual relations in space. popular 18th century style featuring a symmetrical fasade, a prominent front entrance and quoins ( decorative blocks of masonry or wood which are set in the corners of the house ). this classic style has two to three stories. plaster surface that has been prepared for painting by being coated with glue or another type of material. a spring from which columns of boiling water and steam gush into the air at intervals. a ground fault circuit interrupter is a safety device to protect against electrical shock by cutting off the flow of electricity when there is even a slight stray of current leakage. shadowy appearance, which shows as a defect on the surface of paint.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6329149163169097, "token_count": 272, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:51e94662-1885-4b7a-afed-51f4f8a80832>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:54.833820"}
{"text": "registers ( and this is truly simplifying the problem ) determine the clock period that is allowed. for the eta systems supercomputer, therefore, it was determined that a functional unit clock period could reside within the boundary of the chip if the chip could provide 15, 000 gates of logic to the designer. - research into technology experiments uncovered significant performance features of cmos technology. first of all, the technology was functional across a wide range of voltages and temperatures but performance was significantly altered. the higher the operating voltage ( within semiconductor constraints, of course ) the higher the performance resulted. unfortunately the power consumption, although significantly lower than any alternative technology, increased as the square of the operating voltage. the lower the operating temperature of cmos the higher performance as well. this factor was studied by others and carefully documented from 400 degrees kelvin ( 100 degrees above room temperature ) to 77 degrees kelvin. ( 77 degrees kelvin is the boiling point temperature of liquid nitrogen. ) summary of what was learned with this evaluation - ic chips currently ( four years before the need for an eta systems product ) had a capacity of 11, 000 gates. - the performance of these gates, when operated at liquid nitrogen temperatures, would perform at least two times faster than at room temperature \u2013 not yet validated at cdc. - 15, 000 useable gates were required per chip to meet logic designer chip boundary requirements. < o : p > < / o : p > \u00a8 if moore \u2019 s law was applied to these parameters, within the time frame required, it was possible to achieve both gates per chip densities and performance goals ( if the system operated in a liquid nitrogen environment ). - there were at least two ic suppliers ( those having contracts with the us government ) that were pursuing cmos as a performance and high gate / chip density technology ( the other known corporation was trw ). - computer aided design ( cad ) tools were, during the period of the 80 \u2019 s, in the infancy stage if one was to compare them to today \u2019 s capabilities. to design, place cells within the matrix of the gates provided on the ic chip, and route the interconnections of these cells accurately to the logic or boolean design required by the logicians and to clock period constraints was a challenge. this challenge applied to board layout designs as well. control data corporation ( cdc ) recognized the challenges and established a small but efficient and dedicated organization to address these challenges. the industry had established a metric that to use cad tools for gate or cell arrays, an additional", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.618116525980545, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4b02dc20-df47-4c26-b630-e079cb1a6fee>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.027706"}
{"text": "in gr cosmology, there is a big bang singularity. for every particle, there was only a finite time in the past. during this finite time, only a finite distance may have been reached. this allows to define a horizon of influence for each event \u2014 all events which may have had a common cause in the past. now, in standard gr cosmology this horizon is small. too small to explain some observable facts : the second problem is much more serious \u2014 some homogeneous distribution may have caused by something else, last but not least homogeneous initial values seem to be a meaningful assumption, based on ockham ' s razor. but if initial fluctuations are greater than horizon size, this requires a very strange conspiracy forbidden by current physics. the gr solution of this problem is inflation in the early universe. that means, some additional mechanism ( with some hypothetical origin in particle physics ) has to give an additional term in the early universe. this additional term leads to an acceleration of the expansion of the universe ( a \" ( \u03c4 ) > 0 ). that inflation solves this problem seems to be the main reason why it is widely accepted in cosmology. in glet we have no big bang singularity and therefore no horizon problem. in some more general, technical meaning of the word \" inflation \" ( meaning only a period where a \" ( \u03c4 ) > 0 or the expansion is accelerating ) for \u03c5 > 0 the related terms of glet leads to inflation if the state of the universe is sufficiently dense. thus, to sove the horizon problem, gr needs some additional mechanism, which has to be originated in something else, like particle physics. glet cosmology does not require such an additional mechanism. instead, the glet parameter \u03c5, which solves the horizon problem in glet, follows from completely independent axioms of glet.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6012020653767328, "token_count": 376, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a71b4ffa-7bd0-4bc4-9d98-054c6004e4be>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.042392"}
{"text": "if some information is meant to be kept private, the best means is to keep it well hidden. this is not, of course, always possible. one way around this is to hide the information or message in plain sight, that is, encode it in some way so that even if it is seen, it will be unreadable. the study of such encoding processes is called cryptography4. 1. the name ` ` cryptography ' ' comes from the greek words kryptos ( o ), meaning ` ` hidden ' ' or secret, and graphia ( ), meaning writing. since ancient times, cryptography has been a part of military and governmental communications. more recently it has become part of nearly everyone ' s life because of the internet, electronic banking, and so on. the usual jargon is as follows : the message you want to hide is called the plaintext, and the act of encoding it is called encryption or enciphering. the encoded plaintext is called the crypttext or the ciphertext, and the act of decoding it is called decryption or deciphering ( or ` ` cracking the code ' ', if the decoder wasn ' t the intended reader ). usually, an encryption system ( also called a cipher ) has an auxiliary piece of information called the key needed for the encoding and decoding process. mathematically, we can represent the encryption process as apparently neutral ' s protest is thoroughly discounted and ignored. isman hard hit. blockade issue affects pretext for embargo on byproducts, ejecting suets and vegetable oils. one finds a rather different message, namely pershing sails from ny june i. steganography is often used to augment cryptography, and is also related to ` ` digital watermarking ' '. we will not be considering steganography here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6520960894937708, "token_count": 381, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c0f97d53-5322-403c-9f2d-e3df500eae91>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.273611"}
{"text": "any natural deposit forming a part of the earth ' s crust, whether consolidated or not, including sand, earth, clay, etc., when in natural beds. a naturally formed substance consisting of one or more minerals. solid piece of geological material. may be a mineral or a gem or a leaverite. an aggregate of one or more minerals that forms an appreciable part of the lithosphere. any material that makes up a large, natural, continuous part of earth ' s crust. see igneous rock, metamorphic rock, mineral, sedimentary rock. a well - consolidated or lithified assemblage of grains of one or more minerals. rocks are formed through igneous including hydrothermal, sedimentary, or metamorphic processes. a combination of mineral matter of various compositions a hard mass consisting of minerals. ( 4 ) naturally formed, solid mass of one or more minerals, amorphous inorganic matter or organic matter. see also lithify. material made of an aggregate of minerals formed from solidified magma ( igneous rock ), by the recrystallization of pre - existing rocks ( metamorphic rock ) or from accumulations of mineral, rock or fossiliferous fragments or chemical elements ( sedimentary rock ). a consolidated aggregate, naturally occurring, of mineral grains consisting of one or more mineral species ( minerals and / or mineraloids ) and having some degree of chemical and mineralogic constancy. rocks are classified by mineral and chemical composition ; the texture of the constituent particles ; and also by the processes that formed them. popular a rock is an aggregate of minerals, sometimes together with non - crystalline ( i. e., non - mineral ) natural materials. a naturally formed material composed of one or more minerals. a naturally formed aggregate of an indefinite mixture of naturally occurring substances, mainly minerals. its composition may vary in containment of minerals and organic substances, and are never exact. a rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals or mineral - like materials ( such as volcanic glass ). a naturally formed aggregate of usually inorganic materials from within the earth. natural collection of minerals in the solid state ; usually hard and consisting of one, two, or more mineral varieties a lump or mass of hard consolidated mineral matter ; \" he threw a rock at me \" a gift from nature, not a man - made creation a material made of one or more minerals a mineral, or aggregate of minerals, that forms an essential part of the earth ' s crust a mineral or mixture of minerals a mineral", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6564173107634728, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39f9d228-9acf-4c1a-9c04-ddb396030dbe>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.355390"}
{"text": "rock at me \" a gift from nature, not a man - made creation a material made of one or more minerals a mineral, or aggregate of minerals, that forms an essential part of the earth ' s crust a mineral or mixture of minerals a mineral which has undergone extreme weathering and become very hard and compacted an aggregate ( a combination ) of one or more minerals an assemblage of minerals a natural aggregate of different or the same minerals a naturally formed combination of two or more minerals, either consolidated or not ( except soil ), with some degree of mineralogical consistency a naturally formed solid material that makes up the earth ' s crust a solid, cohesive, aggregate or one or more minerals a solid, solid matter can be picked up and carried around without having to place it in a special container a solid thing, at least on our time scale any naturally formed aggregate of one or more minerals, such as granite, shale, or marble. rocks are made of different kinds of minerals, or broken pieces of crystals, or broken pieces of rocks. some rocks are made of the shells of once - living animals, or of compressed pieces of plants. rocks are divided into three basic types, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, depending upon how they were formed. more details... a naturally occurring mineral substance cohesively bound by chemical bonds and forming the basic structure of the earth ' s crust. a relatively hard substance, naturally formed from minerals or petrified matter ; can be grouped as one of three types - - igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary. rock is a hard natural substance made up of one or more minerals. e. g. limestone. lithified combination of one or more minerals, or lithified undifferentiated material ( e. g. obsidian ), or lithified organic matter ( e. g. coal ) natural aggregates of one or more minerals. a general term applied to the consolidated mineral materials which form the principal part of the crust of the earth an integral part of the earth ' s crust composed of an aggregate of grains of one or more minerals. ( stone is the commercial term applied to quarry products. ) consolidated or unconsolidated solid mineral matter an aggregate of interlocking or attached grains, each of which is typically composed of a single crystalline mineral. it is a term for an indefinite mixture of naturally occurring substances, mostly minerals. the composition may vary in containment of minerals and organic substances, and they are never exact. a rock is an aggregation of solid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6497572607089448, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39f9d228-9acf-4c1a-9c04-ddb396030dbe>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.356415"}
{"text": "is typically composed of a single crystalline mineral. it is a term for an indefinite mixture of naturally occurring substances, mostly minerals. the composition may vary in containment of minerals and organic substances, and they are never exact. a rock is an aggregation of solid matter, a random conglomerate of minerals. the earth ' s crust is made of rock. there are three types of rock : igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. petrology is the scientific study of rocks. 1. geologically, any natural mass of earth material that has appreciable extent. 2. in engineering, solid natural material that requires mechanical or explosive techniques for removal. 3. in the quarry industries, the term stone is more common and means firm, coherent, relatively hard earth material. a naturally occurring material composed of one mineral or, more often, a combination of minerals naturally hardened and consolidated into a solid mass. \" a consolidated or unconsolidated aggregate of minerals or organic materials \". ( oxford dictionary of earth sciences ). rocks can be made of a single type of mineral, or more than one mineral. for example, limestone is made ( mostly ) of calcite and quartzite is made just of quartz. granite is made up of three main minerals : quartz, feldspar and mica. a solid mixture of one or more minerals description mixture of minerals rocks a combination of 2 or more minerals which have been joined either by heat, temperature, pressure, or chemical changes a solid, made of one or more minerals a solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more crystalline minerals. a coherent, naturally occurring solid, consisting of an aggregate of minerals or a mass of glass. any naturally formed, solid aggregate of one or more minerals. an aggregate of minerals or organic matter, which may be consolidated or unconsolidated. a rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and / or mineraloids. the earth ' s crust ( including the lithosphere ) and mantle are formed of rock.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6517638669429697, "token_count": 403, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:39f9d228-9acf-4c1a-9c04-ddb396030dbe>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.357210"}
{"text": "station ( alberta, canada ), a us - canadian center for sharing information, forming collaborations and advancing research in the mathematical sciences in north america. vertical integration in higher education nsf ' s effort to strengthen math education and training included an investment of almost $ 16 million in fiscal year 2002 for the vertical integration of research and education ( vigre ) in the mathematical sciences. vigre awards help math departments carry out innovative programs in which undergraduates, graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and faculty support each other in research and educational activities. the increasing integration of scientific disciplines has led to numerous partnerships in the mathematical sciences. in fiscal 2002, nsf teamed with the defense advanced research projects agency to enable research in computational and algorithmic representations of geometric objects. computational geometry has proven to be a rich area of research with numerous applications in computer graphics, robotics and computer - aided design ( cad ). research in this area is expected to improve engineering design, the modeling of physical systems and cartography. nsf has also joined the national institute for general medical sciences, of the national institutes of health, in a program to employ the mathematical sciences in medical - related biological research. the opportunities include advances in evolutionary theory, statistical approaches to the search for genes, predictive models of the cellular state, improved algorithms for use in medical imaging, and simulations of systemic responses to burns and other injury. within nsf, the division of mathematical sciences has teamed with the directorate for geosciences to increase collaborations in areas of mutual interest. initial projects will focus on problems of scale, such as how mathematical models of physical phenomena differ at different time scales or distance scales. m. mitchell waldrop, nsf ( 703 ) 292 - 7752 firstname. lastname @ example. org the national science foundation ( nsf ) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. in fiscal year ( fy ) 2012, its budget was $ 7. 0 billion. nsf funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2, 000 colleges, universities and other institutions. each year, nsf receives about 50, 000 competitive requests for funding, and makes about 11, 500 new funding awards. nsf also awards about $ 593 million in professional and service contracts yearly. get news updates by email useful nsf web sites : nsf home page : http : / / www. nsf. gov nsf news : http : / / www. nsf. gov / news / for the news media : http : / /", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6027048098615703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d9447cc2-8b35-492e-a618-20bf4629841c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.700719"}
{"text": "then there is also the \" relative \" as in kinship or family \" relation \", and we should not replace \" relative \" with \" kinship \" either, unless that is what you are speaking of. i think what you are using is definition 8, which may be appropriate. that is happiness in regard to a person ' s view, or happiness stemming from a person ( change \" happiness \" to \" truth \" ). we exude truths, we do not live by them. that would be futile indeed. in western metaphysics, the word relative has specific meaning, that is, not the common everyday meaning. metaphysics is a form of math as presented by russell. logic must be adhered to, otherwise it is \" just whatever you want it to be \". words are operators in logic. a fuzzy word is not too useful, as you can tell from the firestorm. as you know from mindfulness, things do not have to be considered in relation to other things. the divide between such things is a false divide that stems from the so view of the world. here in moq we understand that. it is the nature of what creates the appearance of such separation that we are interested in. that, of course, is quality. everything we can put into sq has qualities, and moq is an sq ghost of quality. thank you for the clafification in what you meant. (? ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6370659534392408, "token_count": 286, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f26b8d0a-938b-4228-9178-8f6320518531>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:55.814125"}
{"text": "a is for atom suppose you took a cookie and cut it into little pieces, and then you cut those pieces into crumbs and those crumbs into littler and littler crumbs, and so on. would you ever get to a point where it became impossible - - no matter how good your knife, your hand, or your eyes - - to cut any further? would you ever reach the smallest possible piece of cookie? or could you keep dividing it into smaller and smaller cookie bits... forever? the ancient greek philosophers wondered about things like this. one fellow, democritus, said that all matter ( that ' s what scientists call the \" stuff \" of the world ) was made of tiny bits. he called these bits atoms, from the greek word for \" not cuttable. \" he believed the bits were put together in different ways to make different kinds of matter. another philosopher, aristotle, didn ' t think matter came in bits. he thought it all flowed together, like water running through your fingers. well, it turns out that democritus was right. but it took many more centuries for scientists to prove the existence of atoms. they have since identified about 90 different kinds of atoms that occur naturally. atoms are the building blocks of all matter. matter can be made up of just one kind of atom, or different kinds of atoms joined together. atoms are tiny. a million atoms stacked on top of one another wouldn ' t be quite as thick as a hair on your head. about 100 billion of them would cover the period at the end of this sentence. an atom is so small that a single drop of water contains more than a million million billion atoms. that ' s 1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000! of course their exact size depends on the atom. some are smaller, some bigger. the smallest kind of atom is hydrogen, which also happens to be the most abundant atom in the universe. uranium is the largest kind of atom, except for a few really big ones that scientists have made in laboratories. most of the time, atoms really are \" not cuttable, \" as democritus said. but scientists have special ways of breaking them apart in order to study them. ( please don ' t try this at home. ) they have found that atoms themselves are made up of smaller parts. most of the space in an atom is a \" cloud \" of incredibly tiny electrons. electrons whiz around at millions of miles per hour", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6108336707915428, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f0f41016-5d4e-4f76-ad12-80dbe9cb9962>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:56.024581"}
{"text": "don ' t try this at home. ) they have found that atoms themselves are made up of smaller parts. most of the space in an atom is a \" cloud \" of incredibly tiny electrons. electrons whiz around at millions of miles per hour ( and yet never get stopped for speeding ). because the electrons are going so fast, they ' re practically everywhere at once, and so scientists think of them as a cloud. somewhere deep inside the electron cloud is a nucleus. if the electron cloud were the size of a baseball stadium, the nucleus - - floating somewhere in the middle of the stadium - - would be smaller than the baseball. the nucleus of an atom is made from two types of particles - - protons. they give the atom almost all of its mass ( that ' s a measure of how much matter is in something - - see g is for gravity aside from mass, there ' s another big difference between an atom ' s electron cloud and its nucleus. the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the nucleus has a positive charge. actually, it ' s the protons in the nucleus that are positively charged. as their name suggests, the neutrons are neutral ( they have no charge ). these positive and negative charges hold the atom together. this is because things with unlike charges are attracted to each other, while things with the same charge repel each other. ( if you ' ve ever played with magnets, you know that the negative and positive poles of two magnets are eager to know each other and you can tell because they stick together when they get close, but you can ' t force the two negative poles or the two positive poles to get personal. ) an atom has an equal number of positive and negative charges, so it must have the same number of protons in its nucleus as electrons outside the nucleus. the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number, and since we know an atom is neutral, the atomic number also tells us the number of electrons outside its nucleus. a hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron, so its atomic number is 1. an oxygen atom has eight protons and eight electrons, for an atomic number of 8. with 47 protons and 47 electrons, silver has an atomic number of... you figure it out! scientists organize atoms according to their atomic number ( see e is for element ). depending on how many protons and electrons they have, atoms behave in different ways, just like people - - except atoms are easier to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6030295780088102, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f0f41016-5d4e-4f76-ad12-80dbe9cb9962>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:56.025813"}
{"text": ".. you figure it out! scientists organize atoms according to their atomic number ( see e is for element ). depending on how many protons and electrons they have, atoms behave in different ways, just like people - - except atoms are easier to predict than people! though it appears that the electrons of an atom form a cloud around the nucleus, it turns out that there are actually \" mini - clouds \" within the big cloud. the mini - clouds are called shells. each shell holds a different number of electrons. the first shell ( which is closest to the nucleus ) can hold 2, the second can hold 8, the third can hold 18, and the fourth can hold 32. these numbers turn out to be really important because atoms \" want \" to have their outer shells completely full or completely empty, and they are always trying to fill or empty them. ( of course electrons aren ' t human and they don ' t have feelings or desires, but they are definitely strong - willed when it comes to filling or emptying their shells. ) atoms fill or empty their shells by finding other atoms to give electrons to, or accept electrons from, or share electrons with. when two or more atoms get together to share electrons, the result is a molecule and the process is called a chemical reaction. an entire branch of science, chemistry, is devoted to studying what happens when atoms get to know each other. since the nucleus of an atom is like a ball inside a stadium, and since practically all the matter of an atom is in its nucleus, an atom is mostly empty space. and since you ' re made of atoms and the chair you ' re sitting on is made of atoms and the floor the chair is resting on is made of atoms and the earth supporting the floor is made of atoms and so forth... you might be wondering this : why don ' t you ( mostly empty space ) just fall right through the chair ( mostly empty space ) and continue falling through the floor ( mostly empty space ) and the earth ( mostly empty space )? if you weren ' t wondering, please start wondering now! the answer is electrons. though an atom is mostly empty space, that space has negatively charged electrons whizzing through it all the time. the electrons of the chair are negatively charged and the electrons of your bottom are also negatively charged. remember what we said about opposite charges attracting and like charges repelling? because the negative charges of your bottom are in contact with the negative charges of the chair, they push against each other. so,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6183812779447426, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f0f41016-5d4e-4f76-ad12-80dbe9cb9962>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:56.026876"}
{"text": "may 19, 2009 graphene is an atomically thin sheet of carbon that has attracted significant attention due to its potential use in high - performance electronics, sensors and alternative energy devices such as solar cells. while the physics of graphene has been thoroughly explored, chemical functionalization of graphene has proven to be elusive. now researchers at northwestern university have identified conditions for chemically functionalizing graphene with the organic semiconductor perylene - 3, 4, 9, 10 - tetracarboxylic - dianhydride ( ptcda ). ptcda self - assembles into a molecularly pristine monolayer that is nearly defect - free as verified by ultra - high vacuum scanning tunneling microscopy. in addition, the ptcda monolayers are stable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, which suggest their use as a seeding layer for subsequent materials deposition. through chemical functionalization and materials integration, the outstanding electrical properties of graphene likely can be exploited in a diverse range of technologies including high - speed electronics, chemical and biological sensors and photovoltaics. these results will be published online may 17 by nature chemistry and will be featured on the cover of the june 2009 issue of the journal. \" graphene has captured the imagination of researchers worldwide due to its superlative and exotic electronic properties, \" said mark hersam, who led the research team. he is professor of materials science and engineering in northwestern ' s mccormick school of engineering and applied science and professor of chemistry in the weinberg college of arts and sciences. \" however, harnessing these properties requires the development of chemical functionalization strategies that will allow graphene to be seamlessly integrated with other materials that are commonly found in real - world technology, \" said hersam. \" the stability and uniformity of the chemistry demonstrated here suggest that it can be used as a platform for many device applications. \" in addition to hersam, the other author of the nature chemistry paper is qing hua wang, a graduate student in materials science and engineering at northwestern. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6931369564259995, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ec8af92c-7730-40e3-b4ea-96a90071b777>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:56.312850"}
{"text": "wisp : wireless identification and sensing platformdeadline extended! please consider contributing a chapter to the forthcoming book, wirelessly powered sensor networks, to be published by springer in 2010. click here for article templates and contribution information. we are still accepting proposals for the second round of the wisp challenge, with awards to be made on a rolling basis. to apply, please send proposals to \" wispchallenge at gmail \" ( addtional detail at the bottom of this page ). february 13, 2010 : thank you for a successful wisp summit, held nov. 3, 2009, in berkeley, ca, in conjunction with sensys 2009! see this page for information about the summit, including videos. what is wisp? wisp stands for wireless identification and sensing platform. the term \" identification \" comes from \" radio frequency identification \" ( rfid ). wisps have the capabilities of rfid tags, but also support sensing and computing. like any passive rfid tag, wisp is powered and read by a standard off - the - shelf rfid reader, harvesting the power it uses from the reader ' s emitted radio signals. wisps have been used to sense quantities such as light, temperature, acceleration, strain, liquid level, and to investigate embeddeded security. most of the work on wisp so far has involved single wisps performing sensing or computing functions. we think the next phase of wisp work will involve the interaction of many wisps, and thus allow an exciting exploration of a new battery - free form of wireless sensor networking. most people are familiar with rfid tags. most common are passive rfid tags, where a battery - less ic device harvests power from a nearby rfid reader and uses it to respond to the reader with an identification number. two broadly adopted standards for this technology are the electronic product code ( epc ) class 1 generation 1 and class 1 generation 2 standards, which operate in the ultra high frequency ( uhf ) bands. the standard is led by epcglobal. wisps are powered by harvested energy from off - the - shelf uhf rfid readers. to a rfid reader, a wisp is just a normal epc gen1 or gen2 tag ; but inside the wisp, the harvested energy is operating a 16 - bit general purpose microcontroller. the microcontroller can perform a variety of computing tasks, including sampling sensors, and reporting that sensor data back to the rfid reader.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6002783784067219, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bbe8da95-1733-48d5-80ba-2c3fecc57e01>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:56.344128"}
{"text": "tiny transistor stays where it ' s put doing well with silicon and phosphorus \u2013 one atom at a time the team that earlier this year characterized a four - atom wire that obeys ohm \u2019 s law has now demonstrated a repeatable single - atom transistor. while single atoms have been observed acting like transistors in the past, the \u2018 device \u2019 demonstrated by the unsw, university of melbourne and purdue team is exceptional in that it has been engineered and can be built repeatably. and with high precision : by creating a well - like structure to contain the atom, the researchers claim they \u2019 ve eliminated the 10nm positional uncertainties now observed in single - atom transistors. as dr martin fuechsle, lead author of the group \u2019 s paper ( published in nature nanotechnology ) explains, this accurate positioning is needed \u201c if you want to use it as a qubit \u201d. it was achieved by lifting one silicon atom out of a group of six using a scanning tunnelling electron microscope, and replacing it with the phosphorus atom. the structure includes markers that allow researchers to attach contacts to it and apply a voltage. the single phosphorus atom in its well in the centre of a silicon crystal, shown in this purdue simulation. while the transistor exists as a single phosphorus atom, the entire structure is a little bigger : the atom has to be confined in a well or channel in a silicon crystal. it also needs to be kept at - 196\u00b0c to operate, as purdue \u2019 s gerhard klimeck explains. \u201c the atom sits in a well or channel, and for it to operate as a transistor, the electrons must stay in that channel. \u201d this explains the need for cold : \u201c at higher temperatures, the electrons move more and go outside of the channel \u201d. \" by achieving the placement of a single atom, we have, at the same time, developed a technique that will allow us to be able to place several of these single - atom devices towards the goal of a developing a scalable system, \u201d says michelle simmons, director of unsw \u2019 s arc centre for quantum computation and communication. such techniques are also important, she says, because it allows an exotic device to be built using materials familiar to the computer industry. a unsw video discussing the technology is below. \u00ae", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.612568455991585, "token_count": 472, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:12c58b96-861c-49d0-8a1a-c0cb4d3ed03d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:56.572131"}
{"text": "molecule. 20. morphogenesis - the establishment of shape and pattern in a organism. 21. daughter cell - process whereby a mother cell gives rise to two identical daughter cells ( see mitosis ) or four gametes ( see meiosis ). 22. dna fingerprinting - the characterization of one or more features of an individuals genome by developing a dna fragment band ( allele ) pattern. if a sufficient number of different size bands are analyzed, the resultant bar code profile will be unique for each individual, except identical twins. it involves the use of restriction enzymes and gel electrophoresis. 23. autosome - non - sex chromosome. there are 22 autosomes in the human genome. 24. interphase - the period in the cell cycle when dna is replicated in the nucleus ; followed by mitosis. 25. nucleotide - a subunit of dna or rna consisting of a nitrogenous base ( adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine in dna ; adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine in rna ), a phosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule ( deoxyribose in dna and ribose in rna ). thousands of nucleotides are linked to form a dna or rna molecule. see dna, base pair, rna. 26. protein - a large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order ; the order is determined by the base sequence or nucleotides in the gene coding for the protein. proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body cells, tissues, and organs, and each protein has unique functions. examples are hormones, enzymes, and antibodies. 27. enzyme - a protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding the rate at which a biochemical reaction proceeds but not altering the direction or nature of the reaction. 28. alleles - alternative forms of a genetic characteristic. 29. chromosomes - the self - replicating genetic structures of cells containing the cellular dna that bears in its nucleotide sequence the linear array of genes. in prokaryotes, chromosomal dna is circular, and the entire genome is carried on one chromosome. eukaryotic genomes consist of a number of chromosomes whose dna is associated with different kinds of proteins. 30. gene - the fundamental unit of heredity. 31. gene mapping - determination of the relative position of genes on a dna molecule ( chromosome or plasmid ) and of the distance, in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6580728335993461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3eb4a7f6-a477-4ba1-a951-47465cfe16e3>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:57.015737"}
{"text": "dna is associated with different kinds of proteins. 30. gene - the fundamental unit of heredity. 31. gene mapping - determination of the relative position of genes on a dna molecule ( chromosome or plasmid ) and of the distance, in linkage units or physical units, between them. 32. genome - the entire genetic identity of an individual, including alleles, or gene forms, that do not show as outward characteristics. 33. mutation - any heritable change in dna sequence. 34. plasmid - a small circular piece of dna free in the cytoplasm of a bacterial or yeast cell and replicated independently of the cell ' s chromosome. 35. recessive gene - a gene which must be present on both chromosomes in a pair to show outward signs of a certain characteristic. 36. amnion - an extra embryonic membrane that forms a fluid - filled sac containing the embryo in reptiles, birds, and mammals. 37. translation - the process by which rna makes proteins. 38. embryo - a plant or animal in an early stage of development, generally still contained within the seed, egg or uterus. 39. fertilization - fusion of nuclei of egg and sperm. 40. yolk - stored food material in an egg. 41. meiosis - the process of two consecutive cell divisions in the diploid of sex cells. meiosis results in four rather than two daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. 42. karotypes - a photomicrograph of an individuals chromosomes arranged in a standard format showing the number, size, and shape of each chromosome type ; used in low - resolution physical mapping to correlate gross chromosomal abnormalities with the characteristics of specific diseases. 43. zygote - a fertilized egg cell. 44. blastula - an early embryonic stage in animals, preceding the delimitation of the three principle tissue layers ; frequently spherical and hollow. 45. gastrula - a two - layered, three - layered, animal embryonic stage. 46. clone - a group of genetically identical cells or organisms that are descended from one parent. identical twins are clones, as are clones of bacteria that reproduce by simple cell division. 47. gamete - mature male or female reproductive cell ( sperm or ovum ) with a haploid set of chromosomes ( 23 for humans ). 48. phenotype - the outward physical characteristics of an organism. 49. genotype - the particular combination of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.619903230073192, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3eb4a7f6-a477-4ba1-a951-47465cfe16e3>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:57.016957"}
{"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - adj. impervious to pleas, appeals, or reason ; stubbornly unyielding. see synonyms at inflexible. - n. a stone once believed to be impenetrable in its hardness. - n. an extremely hard substance. century dictionary and cyclopedia - n. a name applied with more or less indefiniteness to various real or imaginary metals or minerals characterized by extreme hardness : as the diamond - n. the natural opposite of the diamond - n. a lodestone or magnet, and - n. an anti - magnet. - n. in general, any substance of impenetrable or surpassing hardness ; that which is impregnable to any force. - adj. firm ; unshakeable ; unyielding ; determined. - n. a rock or mineral held by some to be of impenetrable hardness ; a name given to the diamond and other substances of extreme hardness. - n. an embodiment of impregnable hardness. - n. a magnet ; a lodestone. gnu webster ' s 1913 - n. a stone imagined by some to be of impenetrable hardness ; a name given to the diamond and other substances of extreme hardness ; but in modern mineralogy it has no technical signification. it is now a rhetorical or poetical name for the embodiment of impenetrable hardness. - n. obsolete lodestone ; magnet. - adj. impervious to pleas, persuasion, requests, reason - n. very hard native crystalline carbon valued as a gem - from latin adamantem, accusative singular form of adamas ( \" hard as steel \" ), from ancient greek \u03b1\u03b4\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c2 ( adamas, \" invincible \" ), from \u03b1 - ( a -, \" not \" ) + \u03b4\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03b6\u03c9 ( damazo, \" i tame \" ). ( wiktionary ) - from middle english, a hard precious stone, from old french adamaunt, from latin adamas, adamant -, from greek, unconquerable, hard steel, diamond ; see dem\u0259 - in indo - european roots. ( american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition ) \u201c while some analysts believe the fed ' s move has been largely priced in, others remain adamant that the u. s. currency will suffer as long as policy is eased further. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6780902909253366, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:31eca49c-8b4b-4bde-98db-fbb5795398a5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:57.024268"}
{"text": "the researchers can route quantum bits, or entangled particles of light, at very high speeds along a shared network of fiber - optic cable without losing the entanglement information embedded in the quantum bits. the switch could be used toward achieving two goals of the information technology world : a quantum internet, where encrypted information would be completely secure, and networking superfast quantum computers. the device would enable a common transport mechanism, such as the ubiquitous fiber - optic infrastructure, to be shared among many users of quantum information. such a system could route a quantum bit, such as a photon, to its final destination just like an e - mail is routed across the internet today. this is a follow up of this article about ultrafast 10 - 200 picosecond switching of quantum photonic entanglement the bits we all know through standard, or classical, communications only exist in one of two states, either \u201c 1 \u201d or \u201c 0. \u201d all classical information is encoded using these ones and zeros. what makes a quantum bit, or qubit, so attractive is it can be both one and zero simultaneously as well as being one or zero. additionally, two or more qubits at different locations can be entangled - - a mysterious connection that is not possible with ordinary bits. researchers need to build an infrastructure that can transport this \u201c superposition and entanglement \u201d ( being one and zero simultaneously ) for quantum communications and computing to succeed. the qubit kumar works with is the photon, a particle of light. a photonic quantum network will require switches that don \u2019 t disturb the physical characteristics ( superposition and entanglement properties ) of the photons being transmitted, kumar says. he and his team built an all - optical, fiber - based switch that does just that while operating at very high speeds. to demonstrate their switch, the researchers first produced pairs of entangled photons using another device developed by kumar, called an entangled photon source. \u201c entangled \u201d means that some physical characteristic ( such as polarization as used in 3 - d tv ) of each pair of photons emitted by this device are inextricably linked. if one photon assumes one state, its mate assumes a corresponding state ; this holds even if the two photons are hundreds of kilometers apart. the researchers used pairs of polarization - entangled photons emitted into standard telecom - grade fiber. one photon of the pair was transmitted through the all - optical switch. using single - photon detectors, the researchers found that the quantum state of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.7244986936576788, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa330233-be1d-4b06-878d-d89fcd009e1b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:58.104342"}
{"text": "apart. the researchers used pairs of polarization - entangled photons emitted into standard telecom - grade fiber. one photon of the pair was transmitted through the all - optical switch. using single - photon detectors, the researchers found that the quantum state of the pair of photons was not disturbed ; the encoded entanglement information was intact. \u201c quantum communication can achieve things that are not possible with classical communication, \u201d said kumar, director of northwestern \u2019 s center for photonic communication and computing. \u201c this switch opens new doors for many applications, including distributed quantum processing where nodes of small - scale quantum processors are connected via quantum communication links. \u201d mit technology review - a quantum communcations switch prem kumar, professor of electrical engineering and computer science at northwestern university, has developed a quantum routing switch that can shuttle entangled photons along various paths while keeping the quantum information intact. the device could be particularly useful for quantum computing, says james franson, professor of physics at the university of maryland, baltimore county. \" to build a quantum computer using photons, we need the ability to switch [ entangled ] photons, \" says franson. a quantum switch could also someday allow entangled photons from different quantum computers to be shared over long distances \u2014 like cloud computing, but with quantum information. kumar says the switch will also make ultra - secure quantum networks a reality. today ' s information is typically secured using what ' s called public key encryption, which relies on the practical impossibility of performing certain mathematical tasks, like factoring extremely large numbers. quantum networks would offer an even more secure alternative to public key encryption. using entangled photons to communicate ensures security because any attempt to intercept a message would disturb the particles ' quantum state. to build the new quantum switch, the researchers used commercial fiber - optic cable and other standard optical components, says kumar. \" my goal is to do things in the quantum information space that are very compatible with existing fiber infrastructures, \" he says. the first step is to prepare the photons. entangled photons have properties, such as polarization, that are fundamentally linked. if two photons are entangled, then the measured polarization of one reveals the corresponding state of the other. the researchers used a technique in which they mixed together multiple wavelengths of light within a standard fiber to create entangled photon pairs. the next step is to send one photon down the optical fiber to the switch, which changes the photon ' s course. the researchers ' switch is made of only optical components", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.7280168462213399, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa330233-be1d-4b06-878d-d89fcd009e1b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:58.106401"}
{"text": "directing the activity of the artist, however, cannot be so described. formal and final causality can never be described as quantitative force. the formal cause acts on the clay to make it actually round, but it does not act as a quantitative force. the clay is not actually round until is possesses the form or shape of \" roundness, \" and that form in some way makes it actually found. but it does not make it round by exerting any sort of force on it. it acts according to the mode of formal causality by causing something ( in this case the clay sphere ) to be actual. its action is quite different from that of efficient causality, especially from that brand of efficient causality known as \" force. \" the final cause acts on the agent to influence or induce her to act. if the artist works \" to make money, \" making money is in some way the cause of her action. but we cannot describe this influence in terms of quantitative force. the final cause acts, but it acts according to the mode of final causality, as an end or good that induces the efficient cause to act. the mode of causality proper to the final cause cannot itself be reduced to efficient causality, much less to the mode of efficient causality we call \" force. \" of the four causes in the philosophy of aristotle and aquinas, only the efficient cause remains in newtonian science. the formal and final causes disappear since they can neither be quantified nor empirically observed. matter is not viewed as a \" cause \" or anything so unmeasurable as a principle of \" possibility. \" instead, it is viewed as the fundamental actuality or \" stuff \" of the universe ( the atoms or ultimate particles ). only the efficient cause remains since it alone can be empirically observed, quantitatively represented, and experimentally manipulated. we have seen causes completely beyond the ken of modern science, so now we can turn to explanations of how god acts in such ways. one type of formal cause is the exemplary cause. in terms of the sculpture analogy, the exemplary cause is the idea of the formed sculpture in the mind of the artist. similarly, the exemplary cause of the universe is the form of creation in the mind of its creator. in the context of christian theology, the mind of god is the logos, the word1 of god, which st. john identifies with jesus. this is clearly what st. john intends in the prologue of his gospel, \" in the beginning was the word...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6263846990279451, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:927aa69b-b9d7-4b7f-beb5-66dca94acffc>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:58.269742"}
{"text": "while our direct knowledge of black holes in the universe is limited to what we can observe from thousands or millions of light years away, a team of chinese physicists has proposed a simple way to design an artificial electromagnetic ( em ) black hole in the laboratory. in the journal of applied physics, huanyang chen at soochow university and colleagues have presented a design of an artificial em black hole designed using five types of composite isotropic materials, layered so that their transverse magnetic modes capture em waves to which the object is subjected. the artificial em black hole does not let em waves escape, analogous to a black hole trapping light. in this case, the trapped em waves are in the microwave region of the spectrum. the so - called metamaterials used in the experiment are artificially engineered materials designed to have unusual properties not seen in nature. metamaterials have also been used in studies of invisibility cloaking and negative - refraction superlenses. the group suggests the same method might be adaptable to higher frequencies, even those of visible light. ' development of artificial black holes would enable us to measure how incident light is absorbed when passing through them, ' says chen. ' they can also be applied to harvesting light in a solar - cell system. '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6140085156564993, "token_count": 258, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:12fb261f-aaf8-4c03-a222-ea1748e2b5e5>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:58.292164"}
{"text": "the improved labs will give a broader range of students access to a science research experience, he said. ( currently, around 100 students in the science division assist faculty as researchers, many of them during the summer. ) \u201c if we want to get our students into the best research institutions, we have to give them these research opportunities, \u201d said fynewever. the nsf - funded project will also focus on improving communication among the sciences. currently, scholars in different scientific disciplines speak in different jargons, and often, scientists have different definitions for the same term. one example, said fynewever, is \u201c equilibrium, \u201d which in biology can refer to the sense of balance felt in the inner ear or to a relatively stable state in a biological system and in chemistry the term pertains to how reactants go forth to products and products come back until balance is achieved. \u201c that \u2019 s where chemists and biologists don \u2019 t speak the same language, \u201d said fynewever : \u201c chemists are talking about reactions in a vessel where you achieve equilibrium, but biologists are talking about equilibrium in organisms \u2014 where equilibrium is never achieved in the chemistry sense of the word. \u201d koetje agreed : \u201c you can \u2019 t simply apply a biological definition to solve a chemical problem and vice versa without understanding the nuances. \u201d the lack of a shared scientific language is especially troublesome when the scientific disciplines collaborate. fynewever framed the quandary in this way : \u201c what kind of language do you use when you talk in math about biology? \u201d the faculty attached to the project will work at developing a shared jargon among calvin \u2019 s scientific disciplines. ( another portion of the grant will be used for faculty development. ) the grant was designed as the next step in integrating the sciences at calvin \u2014 an effort that includes several nsf and hhmi - funded efforts : the integrated science research institute, the first - year student research class ( the \u201c phage \u201d class ), the integrated science research experimental laboratory. the faculty involved in this latest nsf project are excited about the opportunity to improve the teaching of science. \u201c we have three years to revitalize college teaching, \u201d fynewever joked. | people, area of study | | people, area of study, campus life | | people, area of study, campus life | nasa - funded student fellowships renewed speech pathology masters program graduates its first class chem demos turn 25 | people, area of study | | people, area of study", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6054811107711862, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2d4ae514-2c15-46f6-a7a6-c51a0a8e7ac3>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.068128"}
{"text": "clear : it is pressuring space to expand. that makes dark energy stand apart from everything else in the universe because every other form of matter or energy gravitationally tugs on other matter. dark energy \u2019 s peculiar feature is that it seems to fill any void or vacuum, including those created by the universe \u2019 s expansion. even a patch of empty space that had been eradicated of all known forms of matter and energy still contains dark energy, starkman says. \u201c so if you have twice as much vacuum as you had before, then you have twice as much of that energy, \u201d he says. \u201c that \u2019 s really peculiar. if you take a box and stretch it, you get something for free. that \u2019 s the property that accounts for the ability of the vacuum to expand at an accelerating rate. the more you expand it, the more of the [ dark energy ] you have, and the more that it pushes. \u201d if dark energy seems confusing, that \u2019 s because it is, starkman says. the greatest minds in physics are baffled. dark energy is one of the most perplexing unsolved mysteries in science today, and scientists \u2019 best guess for what lies at the heart of dark energy and the cosmological constant lies in quantum physics, starkman says. quantum theory predicts that empty space will wiggle with low - level vibrations, even when all the energy in that space is depleted. it says that the simplest kind of motion conceivable, subatomic particles moving back and forth like miniature springs, will be present even when no other energy is present and they will never not move. imagine a universe filled with simple quantum particles. now rob the universe of every ounce of energy it contains. what quantum theory says is that, powered by nothing whatsoever, the universe will still vibrate with what is sometimes called \u201c vacuum energy \u201d or \u201c zero - point energy. \u201d quantum vacuum energy is \u201c the simplest explanation for the origin of [ dark ] energy, \u201d starkman says. but the explanation remains murky. starkman holds out hope that in geneva, switzerland, the cern laboratory \u2019 s large hadron collider, the world \u2019 s most powerful particle accelerator, may uncover precious clues about dark energy. the accelerator, which began operating in september, will allow scientists to analyze high - energy beam collisions and possibly reveal a new world of unknown particles. the experiments could ultimately explain why those particles exist and behave as they do. they could reveal the origins of mass, shed light on dark matter,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6089640842576187, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:71948182-97de-405f-ad9e-6111c2afa6e1>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.085425"}
{"text": "to use all functions of this page, please activate cookies in your browser. with an accout for my. chemeurope. com you can always see everything at a glance \u2013 and you can configure your own website and individual newsletter. - my watch list - my saved searches - my saved topics - my newsletter ilmenite is a weakly magnetic titanium - iron oxide mineral which is iron - black or steel - gray. it is a crystalline iron titanium oxide ( fetio3 ). it crystallizes in the trigonal system, and it has the same crystal structure as corundum and hematite. ilmenite is often recognised in many altered igneous rocks ( which is most, to some extent ) by the production of the white pseudo - mineral leucoxene. often, ilmenites are rimed in leucoxene, which allows ilmenite to be distinguished from magnetite and other iron - titanium oxides. the example shown in the image at right is typical of leucoxene - rimed ilmenite. ilmenite is weakly magnetic, with its response to a hand magnet weak. ilmenite most often contains appreciable quantities of magnesium and manganese and the full chemical formula can be expressed as ( fe, mg, mn, ti ) o3. ilmenite forms a solid solultion with geikielite ( mgtio3 ) and pyrophanite ( mntio3 ) which are magnesian and manganiferous end - members of the solid solution series. although there appears evidence of the complete range of mineral chemistries in the ( fe, mg, mn, ti ) o3 system naturally occurring on earth, the vast bulk of ilmenites are restricted to close to the ideal fetio3 composition, with minor mole percentages of mn and mg. a key exception is in the ilmenites of kimberlites where the mineral usually contains major amounts of geikielite molecules, and in some highly differentiated felsic rocks ilmenites may contain significant amounts of pyrophanite molecules. at higher temperatures it has been demonstrated there is a complete solid solution between ilmenite and hematite. there is a miscibility gap at lower temperatures, resulting in a coexistence of these two minerals in rocks but no solid solution. this coexistence may result in exsolution lamellae in cooled ilmenites with more iron in the system than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6177140617469294, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5340414a-ef91-497e-9e8b-376990d4bd00>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.133819"}
{"text": "what is a lead? before getting into drug design or drug discovery, we must know what a lead is on which drugs are designed. lead is basically a compound or a tiny organic molecule which shows desired biological action on any validated molecular target. it can be any organic / inorganic compound. where leads can be found? leads can be found easily in libraries like peptide libraries, carbohydrate libraries or natural product libraries. we can also create virtual libraries by using combinatorial chemistry. lead identification and technologies involved the process of lead identification is carried out with following technologies : - actual screening actual screening is actually a part of chemi - informatics and is used to identify lead. in this, compound screening or docking based on protein structure is involved and molecule based chemical similarity search is carried out. there are some important considerations before carrying a virtual or actual screening. e. g. which type of compound you are going to put against receptor, structure of the receptor, general receptor ligand interactions and basic knowledge of drugs along with their characteristics. it combines biology and chemistry with statistics, computer science and mathematics. analysis done in chemoinformatics has focus on very big type of databases like as macromolecular structure, compound libraries and 3 - dimensional chemical databases. 3. pharmacophore mapping in this type of screening, the approach is to identify lead compounds against target. pharmacophore can be described as a 3 - dimensional arrangement of the functional groups in the molecular framework which is important for the binding of an active site or macromolecule. 4. quantitative structure activity relationship ( qsar ) it refers to a method which relates structural features of a molecule to any biological activity in the quantitative term. this qsar analysis is used to make the linear bond between selected structural features in series of any related molecule and their known activity level. qualities of a lead a compound to be considered as a lead should possess following qualities : - potency : it should have the potency or the ability to modulate any target with high degree of effectiveness. - solubility : it should have high solubility in water. - metabolic stability : the compound should be metabolically stable - lipophilicity : it should possess a mild lipophilicity which would help it to penetrate through plasma membrane. - toxicity : it must be less toxic. lead optimization and clinical trials after assessing initial candidate drug ( s ) for the quality, they are optimized and then after registration of that compound as investigational new drug", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6134318837979857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4167dc2-d163-486e-9e8c-bf7ffeacad6e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.620363"}
{"text": "are gamma rays? a gamma ray is a packet of electromagnetic energy - - a photon. gamma photons are the most energetic photons in the electromagnetic spectrum. gamma rays ( gamma photons ) are emitted from the nucleus of some unstable ( radioactive ) atoms. what are the properties of gamma radiation? gamma radiation is very radiation. gamma photons have about 10, 000 times as much energy as the photons in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. gamma photons have no mass and no electrical charge - - they are pure because of their high energy, gamma photons travel at the speed of light and can cover hundreds to thousands of meters in air before spending their energy. they can pass through many kinds of materials, including human tissue. very dense materials, such as lead, are commonly used as shielding to slow or stop gamma photons. their wave lengths are so short that they must be measured in nanometers, billionths of a meter. they range from 3 / 100ths to 3 / 1, 000ths of a nanometer. what is the difference between gamma rays and x - rays? gamma rays and x - rays, like visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. while gamma rays and x - rays pose the same hazard, they differ in their origin. gamma rays originate in the nucleus. x - rays originate in the electron fields surrounding the what conditions lead to gamma ray emission? emission occurs when the nucleus of a radioactive atom has too much energy. it often follows the emission of what happens during gamma provides an example of radioactive decay by gamma radiation. scientists think that a neutron transforms to a proton and a beta particle. the additional proton changes the atom to barium - 137. the nucleus ejects the beta particle. however, the nucleus still has too much energy and ejects a gamma photon ( gamma radiation ) to become more stable. how does gamma radiation change in the environment? gamma rays exist only as long as they have energy. once their energy is spent, whether in air or in solid materials, they cease to exist. the same is true for x - rays. how are people exposed to most people ' s primary source of gamma exposure is naturally occurring radionuclides, particularly potassium - 40, which is found in soil and water, as well as meats and high - potassium foods such as bananas. radium is also a source of gamma exposure. however, the increasing use of nuclear medicine ( e. g., bone, thyroid, and lung scans )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6217249929352584, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b21545f5-462d-4679-b8fb-a45f9d675683>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.655188"}
{"text": "\" that ' s not what i meant \" : human communication is fraught with misinterpretation. written out in longhand, words and letters can be misread. a telegraph clerk can mistake a dot for a dash. noise will always be with us, but at least a new jqi ( * ) device has established a new standard for reading quantum information with a minimum of uncertainty. success has come by viewing light pulses not with a single passive detector with but an adaptive network of detectors with feedback. the work on jqi ' s new, more assured photonic protocol was led by francisco becerra and carried out in alan migdall ' s jqi lab. they report their results in nature photonics ( * * ). here are some things you need to know to appreciate this development. how to modulate? digital data, in its simplest form, can be read with a process called on - off keying : a detector senses the intensity of incoming bursts of electrons in wires or photons through fibers and assigns a value of 0 or 1. a more sophisticated approach to modulating a signal ( not merely off / on ) is to encode data in the phase of the pulse. in \" phase - shift keying, \" information is encoded in the amount of phase shift imposed on a carrier wave ; the phase of the wave is how far along the wave cycle you happen to be ( say, at the top of a crest or the bottom of a trough in a sinusoidal, as in this figure ). what kind of alphabet? larger words can be assembled from a small suite of symbols. the roman alphabet has 26 letters, the greek only 24. binary logic, and most transistors, makes do with just a two - letter alphabet. everything is a 0 or a 1, and larger numbers and letters and words are assembled from as many binary bits as are necessary. but what if we enlarged the alphabet from two to four? in quaternary logic more data can be conveyed in a single pulse. the cost of this increase is having to write and read 4 states of modulation ( or 4 symbols ). even more efficient in terms of packing data, but correspondingly more difficult to implement, is logic based on 6 states, or 8, or any higher number. digital data at its most basic - - - at the level of transistor - - - remains in binary form, but for communicating this data, higher number alphabets can be used. in fact, high - definition television delivery", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.712267163323944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:36bff55d-91aa-43fb-ad89-0f9a2f3528c4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.889234"}
{"text": "any higher number. digital data at its most basic - - - at the level of transistor - - - remains in binary form, but for communicating this data, higher number alphabets can be used. in fact, high - definition television delivery already involves high - level logic. no matter what kind of logic is used, errors creep in. a detector doesn ' t just unequivocally measure a 0 or a 1. the reading process is imperfect. and even worse, the state of the light pulse is inherently uncertain, and that is a real problem when the light pulses belong to a set of overlapping states. this is illustrated in the figure below for binary and quaternary phase states. on the left side of the figure, the measurement of the phase of a light pulse is depicted, where there are only two choices. is the pulse in the alpha state or the \u2013 alpha state? because the tails of one overlap the other there is a slight ambiguity that leads to uncertainty in which state a measurement indicates. on the right, four possible states are depicted on a complex - number graph ( with real ( re ) and imaginary ( im ) axes ). here the overlap of the states is more complicated, but results in similar ambiguities of the measured states, seen mostly near the borders ( decision threshold lines ) between the states. standard quantum limit decades ago communications theory established a minimal uncertainty for the accurate transmission and detection of information encoded in overlapping states. the hypothetical minimal detection error using conventional schemes is called the standard quantum limit and it depends on things like how many photons of light comprise the signal, how many levels ( binary, quaternary, etc. ) need to be read out, and which physical property of light is used to encode the information, such as the phase. but starting in the 1970s with physicist carl w. helstrom, some scientists have felt that the standard quantum limit could be circumvented. the jqi researchers do exactly this by using not a single passive photo - detector, but an active detection process involving a series of stages. at each stage, the current light signal strikes a partially - silvered mirror, which peels off a fraction of the pulse for analysis and the rest goes on to subsequent stages. at each stage the signal is combined with a separate reference oscillator wave used as a phase reference against which the signal phase is determined. this is done by shifting the reference wave by a known amount and letting it interfere with the signal wave at the beamspl", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.7052596921547006, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:36bff55d-91aa-43fb-ad89-0f9a2f3528c4>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.890765"}
{"text": "the signal is combined with a separate reference oscillator wave used as a phase reference against which the signal phase is determined. this is done by shifting the reference wave by a known amount and letting it interfere with the signal wave at the beamsplitter. by altering that known shift, the interference pattern can reveal something about the phase of the input pulse. by combining many such stages ( see the figure below ) and using information gained by previous stages to adjust the phase of the reference wave in successive stages, a better estimate of the signal phase can be obtained. detecting phase in this adaptive way, and implemented in a feedback manner, the jqi system is able to beat the standard quantum limit for a set of 4 states ( quaternary ) encoding information as a phase. these states are represented as fuzzy distributions arranged at different angles around a circle as seen in the figure above where the angles represent the phase of the light pulses. the jqi noise - reduction achievement is depicted in the graph below. the error rate is plotted as a function of the mean number of photons used to deliver the information. the standard quantum limit ( sql ) is the red line. the light gray line is the sql line if you take into account that individual photon detector stages used were ~ 72 % efficient rather than 100 % ( with the detector efficiencies being 84 %. in the business of detecting single photons, 84 % is top of the line. ) the error probabilities measured for the system ( black points with error bars ) fall well below the quantum limit, by about 6 decibels in the center of the curve. this is equivalent to saying that the jqi receiver is performing better than the sql by a factor of about 4 in determining the phase of an incoming signal. that is, the jqi receiver achieves an error probability that is 4 times lower than the so - called \" standard quantum limit. \" this graph shows results for a system that implements 10 adaptive measurements. the two other lines on the chart show what the expected uncertainty would be for a perfect system ( 100 % efficient detectors ) and without any of the imperfections that would be encountered in any realistic implementation, and a hypothetical ultimate - limit on uncertainty derived by helstrom. to conclude, the jqi photon receiver features an error rate four times lower than perfect conventional receivers, over a wide range of photon number, and with discrimination for four states. the only previous detection below the quantum limit was for a very narrow range of photons and with only a 2", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.695656972344582, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:36bff55d-91aa-43fb-ad89-0f9a2f3528c4>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.892672"}
{"text": "receiver features an error rate four times lower than perfect conventional receivers, over a wide range of photon number, and with discrimination for four states. the only previous detection below the quantum limit was for a very narrow range of photons and with only a 2 - state protocol and only slightly below the sql. ( * ) the joint quantum institute ( jqi ) is operated jointly by the national institute of standards and technology in gaithersburg, md and the university of maryland in college park. ( * * ) \" experimental demonstration of a receiver beating the standard quantum limit for multiple nonorthogonal state discrimination, \" by f. e. becerra, j. fan, g. baumgartner, j. goldhar, j. t. kosloski, and a. migdall, nature photonics, published online 6 january 2013. alan migdall, firstname. lastname @ example. org, 301 - 975 - 2331 press contact at jqi : phillip f. schewe, email @ example. com, 301 - 405 - 0989. http : / / jqi. umd. edu / phillip f. schewe | source : eurekalert! further information : www. umd. edu more articles from physics and astronomy : \u201c out of this world \u201d space stethoscope valuable on earth, too 22. 05. 2013 | johns hopkins storms on uranus, neptune confined to upper atmosphere 21. 05. 2013 | university of arizona a fried breakfast food popular in spain provided the inspiration for the development of doughnut - shaped droplets that may provide scientists with a new approach for studying fundamental issues in physics, mathematics and materials. the doughnut - shaped droplets, a shape known as toroidal, are formed from two dissimilar liquids using a simple rotating stage and an injection needle. about a millimeter in overall size, the droplets are produced individually, their shapes maintained by a surrounding springy material made of polymers. droplets in this toroidal shape made... frauhofer fep will present a novel roll - to - roll manufacturing process for high - barriers and functional films for flexible displays at the sid displayweek 2013 in vancouver \u2013 the international showcase for the display industry. displays that are flexible and paper thin at the same time?! what might still seem like science fiction will be a major topic at the sid display week 2013 that currently takes place in vancouver in canada. high manufacturing cost and a short lifetime are still a major", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6534236637534305, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:36bff55d-91aa-43fb-ad89-0f9a2f3528c4>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.893756"}
{"text": "that are flexible and paper thin at the same time?! what might still seem like science fiction will be a major topic at the sid display week 2013 that currently takes place in vancouver in canada. high manufacturing cost and a short lifetime are still a major obstacle on... university of wurzburg physicists have succeeded in creating a new type of laser. its operation principle is completely different from conventional devices, which opens up the possibility of a significantly reduced energy input requirement. the researchers report their work in the current issue of nature. it also emits light the waves of which are in phase with one another : the polariton laser, developed... innsbruck physicists led by rainer blatt and peter zoller experimentally gained a deep insight into the nature of quantum mechanical phase transitions. they are the first scientists that simulated the competition between two rival dynamical processes at a novel type of transition between two quantum mechanical orders. they have published the results of their work in the journal nature physics. \u201c when water boils, its molecules are released as vapor. we call this... researchers have shown that, by using global positioning systems ( gps ) to measure ground deformation caused by a large underwater earthquake, they can provide accurate warning of the resulting tsunami in just a few minutes after the earthquake onset. for the devastating japan 2011 event, the team reveals that the analysis of the gps data and issue of a detailed tsunami alert would have taken no more than three minutes. the results are published on 17 may in natural hazards and earth system sciences, an open access journal of... 22. 05. 2013 | life sciences 22. 05. 2013 | ecology, the environment and conservation 22. 05. 2013 | earth sciences 17. 05. 2013 | event news 15. 05. 2013 | event news 08. 05. 2013 | event news", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6741353606839381, "token_count": 372, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:36bff55d-91aa-43fb-ad89-0f9a2f3528c4>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:25:59.894492"}
{"text": "string theorists had looked at the idea of confining all forces to a brane and having gravity leak, but they had not worked out the mechanism, says physicist joseph lykken of fermilab in batavia, ill. randall and sundrum, he remarks, \" changed people ' s thinking about this stuff entirely. \" as randall and sundrum refined their idea, they realized that if the extra dimension of spacetime were warped in anti - de sitter fashion, it could be infinitely large and what we observe about gravity could still be true. this model came to be known as rs - 2. \" working that out was mind - blowing, \" sundrum recalls. \" we had reason to be dead scared. in each of these cases, there was a distinct fear of making complete fools of ourselves. \" \" it was counterintuitive, \" notes theorist michael j. duff of imperial college london. \" it came as a surprise even to those working in extra dimensions that even though the extra dimension is very large, we wouldn ' t be aware of it. newton ' s law would still be an inverse square law, not an inverse cube law, which is what you might naively expect. \" it took a while for many physicists to realize what randall and sundrum were suggesting, but the time was right for such thinking. anti - de sitter space was popping up in some models, branes were thriving, and in 1998 nima arkani - hamed of harvard, georgi dvali of new york university and savas dimopoulos of stanford university ( or add, for short ) had postulated a three - brane within two large extra dimensions. randall and sundrum offered a new set of options of what went on in the early universe. some of the recent models, be they rs, elaborations of add or others, will be put to the test when the large hadron collider ( lhc ) at cern near geneva fires up in 2007. \" if there is any solution to the hierarchy problem, it should be revealed at the energies the lhc will explore, \" randall enthuses. evidence could include gravitons, supersymmetric partners or evanescent, tiny black holes. \" even if we don ' t know the answer, it should tell us what the answer is, \" she adds. in typical fashion, randall recently took on two things new to her. the first was writing a book about physics, released last month. the second", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6027949953976068, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:43937958-3187-45a2-8098-1365406af8dd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:26:00.740060"}
{"text": "history plastic as invention is attributed to leo hendrik baekeland sold the first one called bakelite in 1909. throughout the twentieth century the use of plastic became extremely popular and came to replace other traditional materials in both the domestic, industrial and comercial. propiedades and features plastic bags coca - cola bottle plastic. plastics are composed of organic macromolecules substances called polymers. these polymers are large groups of monomers linked by a chemical process called polymerization. plastics provide the necessary balance of properties that can not be achieved with other materials such as : color, light weight, nice touch and resistance to environmental degradation and biologica. de fact, plastic refers to a condition of the material, but not material itself : synthetic polymers commonly called plastics are actually synthetic materials that can reach the plastic state, ie when the material is viscous or fluid, and has properties of resistance to mechanical stress. this state is reached when the material becomes solid plastic state usually by heating, and is ideal for different production processes and that this state is when the material can be handled in the forms that exist today. so the word plastic is a way to refer to synthetic materials capable of entering into a plastic state, but plastic is not necessarily the group of material that is routinely referred palabra. son characteristic properties of most plastics, but not always met in certain special plastic : they are cheap ( they have a low cost in the market ). densidad. existen they have low permeable and impermeable plastic material, dissemination of materials electricos. son termoplasticos. son insulating thermal insulation, but most do not elevadas. su resist burning temperatures contaminante. son is resistant to corrosion and be at the intemperie. resisten many factors are recycled quimicos. algunos better than others, they are not biodegradable or easy to trabajar. procesos easy reciclar. son development the first part of the production of plastics is the production of polymers in the chemical industry. today, the recovery of post - consumer plastic is also essential. part of the industry - finished plastic directly used as grain or resin. more often, they use various forms of molding ( injection, compression, rotation, inflation, etc.. ) or the extrusion of profiles or wires. part of the largest plastics processing machinery is made in a plastics horneadora. clasificacion you can qualify for the plastics into several categories : according to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6071674313256263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5954e612-5e65-4546-b275-12aafae1b666>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:26:01.093366"}
{"text": "free encyclopedia jump to : navigation, search the term plastic in its broader meaning applies to substances of different structures that lack a fixed point of boiling and held over a temperature range elasticity and flexibility properties that allow mold them and adapt to different forms and applications. however, in the narrow sense, is that denotes certain types of synthetic materials obtained by polymerization phenomena or artificial propagation of carbon atoms in the long molecular chains of organic compounds derived from petroleum and other natural substances. the word plastic was originally used as an adjective to denote a degree of mobility and easy to acquire some form, meaning that remains in the term plasticity. the invention of the first plastic arises as a result of a competition held in 1860, when the u. s. manufacturer of billiard balls and collard phelan offered a reward of $ 10, 000 who get a substitute for natural ivory, for the manufacture of billiard balls. one of the people who competed was the american inventor john wesley hyatt, who developed the film dissolving cellulose ( natural material ) in a solution of camphor and ethanol. while hyatt did not win the prize, got a very marketable product that would be vital for the further development of the film industry of late nineteenth - s. in 1909 american chemist leo hendrik baekeland belgian origin synthesized a polymer of high commercial interest, from molecules of phenol and formaldehyde. it gave the name of bakelite and was the first totally synthetic plastic ever, was the first of a series of synthetic resins, which revolutionized modern technology by starting the \" plastic era. \" throughout the twentieth century the use of plastic became extremely popular and came to replace other materials in both the domestic, industrial and commercial. in 1920 there was an event that would set the pace in the development of plastics. the german chemist hermann staudinger ventured that they were in fact composed of giant molecules or macromolecules. efforts to test these claims initiated many scientific research that produced enormous advances in this part of chemistry. properties and characteristics plastics are organic substances formed by macrocells called polymers. these polymers are large groups of monomers linked by a chemical process called polymerization. plastics provide the necessary balance of properties that can not be achieved with other materials such as : color, light weight, nice touch and resistance to environmental and biological degradation. in fact, plastic refers to a condition of the material, but not the material itself : the synthetic polymers commonly called plastics are actually synthetic materials that can reach the plastic state", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6461998048525065, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5954e612-5e65-4546-b275-12aafae1b666>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:26:01.102733"}
{"text": ": color, light weight, nice touch and resistance to environmental and biological degradation. in fact, plastic refers to a condition of the material, but not the material itself : the synthetic polymers commonly called plastics are actually synthetic materials that can reach the plastic state, ie when the material is viscous or fluid, and no resistance properties to mechanical stress. this state is reached when the material becomes solid plastic state usually by heating, ideal for different production processes and that this state is when the material can be handled in the forms that exist today. so the word plastic is a way to refer to synthetic materials capable of entering into a plastic state, but plastic is not necessarily the group of everyday materials to which this word refers. the properties and characteristics of most plastics ( though not always fulfilled in certain special plastics ) are these : * easy to work and shape, * have a low production cost, * have low density * tend to be waterproof, * good electrical insulators, * acceptable acoustic insulation, * good thermal, although most can not withstand very high temperatures * resistant to chemical corrosion and many factors ; * some are not biodegradable or easily recyclable, and if they are burned, are highly polluting. the first part of the production of plastics is the production of polymers in the chemical industry. today, the recovery of post - consumer plastic is also essential. part of the industry - finished plastic directly used as grain or resin. more often, they use various forms of molding ( injection, compression, rotation, inflation, etc.. ) or the extrusion of profiles or wires. part of the largest plastics processing is done on a machine horneadora. classification of plastics according to the base monomer this classification is considered the origin of the monomer from which part of the polymer production. * natural : these are polymers whose monomers are derived from natural products with certain characteristics, eg, cellulose, casein, and rubber. in two of these examples there are other plastic which is obtained from : or cellulose derivatives are : the celluloid, cellophane and cellon. o rubber products are the rubber and ebonite. * synthetic : those that have their origin in man - made products, mainly petroleum products such as polyethylene bags according to their behavior in heat a thermoplastic is a plastic that, at room temperature, is plastic or deformable, it becomes a liquid when heated and hardens into a glassy state when cooled sufficiently. most", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6339864620343612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5954e612-5e65-4546-b275-12aafae1b666>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:26:01.103750"}
{"text": "##ethylene bags according to their behavior in heat a thermoplastic is a plastic that, at room temperature, is plastic or deformable, it becomes a liquid when heated and hardens into a glassy state when cooled sufficiently. most thermoplastics are high molecular weight polymers, those with associated chains via weak van der waals forces ( polyethylene ) ; strong dipole - dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding, or even stacked aromatic rings ( polystyrene ). thermoplastic polymers differ from thermosetting polymers that after being heated and molded to form they can overheat and other objects, as in the case of thermoset or thermoduric, its shape after cooling does not change and the preferred fire.. its physical properties change gradually if they melt and shape several times. the main ones are : * cellulosic resins : derived from cellulose, the material component of the woody part of plants. belongs to this group rayon. * polyethylenes and derivatives used as raw materials for ethylene obtained from oil cracking, discussed later, allows for different monomers such as vinyl acetate, vinyl alcohol, vinyl chloride, etc.. this part pvc, polystyrene, acrylic, etc.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6022278745107437, "token_count": 268, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5954e612-5e65-4546-b275-12aafae1b666>", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-25T23:26:01.104236"}