data/train/batch_000016.jsonl

{"text": "use is mica, a layered mineral with atomically flat sheets that can be peeled off with adhesive tape to expose a clean surface. maybe you are now asking, \u201c how can you see bare dna molecules on the mica when you said there was algae and crud on it? \u201d the mica we use for afm samples is high grade mica, free of bubbles and other defects. the mica that inspired my hypothesis for the origins of life came from an abandoned mica mine in a connecticut state park, where my brother jim had taken some of us for a hike the previous summer. it had lots of bubbles and defects. theories and hypotheses why do i call my idea a \u2018 hypothesis \u2019? people use words in many ways, but one of the strengths of science is that it tries to use words in precisely defined ways. theories are much stronger than hypotheses. a hypothesis is a starting point in the scientific method, while a theory is the result of much research and testing. once there were also scientific laws, but now we know that even newton \u2019 s laws are not totally correct. therefore, newer scientists such as charles darwin call their well - tested ideas \u2018 theories \u2019 instead of \u2018 laws \u2019. my idea is only a hypothesis, ready for testing, by me and hopefully by many others in the scientific community. how discoveries are made dan koshland, a famous biochemist, wrote that there are three ways discoveries are made : charge, challenge, or chance. he calls this the \u2018 cha - cha - cha theory of scientific discovery \u2019. louis pasteur said that chance favors the prepared mind. i think mine was a \u2018 chance \u2019 discovery, by a mind prepared by decades of diverse education and research in biochemistry, chemistry, cell biology, biophysics, nanoscience and materials science. koshland, and einstein before him, said that the process of discovery seems to be the same in science and in other areas. therefore we are all making discoveries in the same ways, whatever our areas of knowledge. discoveries range from small to earth - shaking. i wonder which kind the mica hypothesis will be : a big one that gets into textbooks some day or a small one that falls into oblivion. i \u2019 ll get some clues about this when i attend the origin - of - life gordon research conference next week and share my hypothesis with people who have worked in the field for years or decades. editor ' s note : this research was presented at the american society for cell biology \u2019 s 47th annual", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6454998967997498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ac3decaf-315d-4cc0-95b8-4449a1fddc73>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:41.889506"}
{"text": "the transmission speed of an asynchronous communications channel. technically, it refers to the maximum number of changes that can occur per second in the electrical state of a communications circuit. often baud is used interchangeably with bits per second. all computer data is composed of tiny electrical pulses called bits ( short for binary digits ). each pulse represents a single digit of data. a group of eight bits is called a byte. bytes are measured in units of a thousand, thus kilobyte. a system with a computer, modem, and phone line that acts as a central point for information exchange. it can be used for electronic mail and for storing files that can be downloaded. stands for compact disc / read - only memory. a high density storage medium on which electronic data is etched and read by a laser beam. a form of computer - based communications that emulates a face - to - face conference where people meet to discuss issues of common concern. computer conferences below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 285 - - > appendix c glossary b baud rate the transmission speed of an asynchronous communications channel. technically, it refers to the maximum number of changes that can occur per second in the electrical state of a communications circuit. often baud is used interchangeably with bits per second. bit / byte all computer data is composed of tiny electrical pulses called bits ( short for binary digits ). each pulse represents a single digit of data. a group of eight bits is called a byte. bytes are measured in units of a thousand, thus kilobyte. bulletin board a system with a computer, modem, and phone line that acts as a central point for information exchange. it can be used for electronic mail and for storing files that can be downloaded. c cd - rom stands for compact disc / read - only memory. a high density storage medium on which electronic data is etched and read by a laser beam. computer conference a form of computer - based", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_information_theory", "similarity_score": 0.679289226654272, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:380e56da-359d-4229-b9d3-4a18510a30ca>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.287946"}
{"text": "mail and for storing files that can be downloaded. c cd - rom stands for compact disc / read - only memory. a high density storage medium on which electronic data is etched and read by a laser beam. computer conference a form of computer - based communications that emulates a face - to - face conference where people meet to discuss issues of common concern. computer conferences ocr for page 285 - - > include a ' ' messaging \" module to simulate the private discussions that often take place at meetings but they also permit communication among multiple users and allow flexible treatment of conference comments. d database management systems ( dbms ) databases are organized collections of information. they are used to file, search, and retrieve data. desktop publishing ( dtp ) publishing by means of a personal computer. dtp is the product of technological advances in personal computing, print graphics, and computer - generated typography. it synthesizes the capabilities of typesetting, graphic design, book production, and platemaking in one integrated, cost - effective hardware and software configuration. e electronic mail computer - based messaging. the transmission of letters and messages from computer to computer over a network. f fidonet a robust network of individual computerized bulletin board services that uses regular dial - up phone lines and high - speed modems to move electronic messages. file server a high - performance personal computer that serves all the users of a local area network. it provides access to files and software. floppy disk a magnetic storage medium. the floppy disk is compact, light, and portable. you can input or output data or software applications between a floppy disk and the computer. ftp file transfer protocol. allows users to exchange files between their workstations and remote computers connected to the internet. it is most useful for retrieving files from public archives that are scattered around the internet. g gateway a device that connects two dissimilar lans or that connects a lan to a wan, a server, or a mainframe. it reformats the data so that it is acceptable for the new network before passing it on. ocr for page 285 - - > h hard disk a hardware component used for storing software, applications, and data. it has a higher capacity and faster speed than a floppy. hard disks are sealed units not usually meant to be removed from the computer. hardware the central processing unit, monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and other equipment associated with a computer system. i interactive used to refer to applications that engage the computer user by prompting for certain responses and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6187667706539123, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:380e56da-359d-4229-b9d3-4a18510a30ca>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.289802"}
{"text": "usually meant to be removed from the computer. hardware the central processing unit, monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and other equipment associated with a computer system. i interactive used to refer to applications that engage the computer user by prompting for certain responses and then reacting to those responses in what seems like original ways. internet a system of interconnected computer networks. provides access to computers, electronic mail, bulletin boards, databases, and discussion groups, all using the tcp / ip protocol. l leased line a dedicated private telephone line between two locations. leased lines are often used to connect mid - sized local networks to an internet service provider. local - area network ( lan ) a method of connecting computers, peripherals, and communications equipment within a restricted locality, such as a building or campus. m megahertz ( mhz ) a unit of measurement, equal to one million electrical vibrations or cycles per second, commonly used to measure the clock speeds of computers. microprocessor hardware component responsible for the basic elements of computer processing : arithmetic, logic, and control. the microprocessor is an integrated circuit chip \u2014 a dense network of microscopic electrical pathways etched into highly refined sand, or silicon. modem a device that connects a computer to a telephone line and converts the digital data from the computer into analog ( sound ) frequencies. the modem sends the sounds through the phone line to a receiving computer ' s modem, which then turns the sounds back into a digital form that can be displayed on the receiving computer ' s screen. ( modem is a contraction of modulator / demodulator. ) ocr for page 285 - - > monitor the video display terminal ( vdt ) ; the part of the personal computer system that looks like a tv screen. it allows the user to see text and graphics as it is entered into the computer. ms - dos an operating system for microcomputers. short for microsoft disk operating system, dos has been perhaps the most common set of programs for controlling the microcomputer. n network individual computers linked in such a way that users can share software and hardware ( for example, printers ) and communicate with each other. o online the \" state \" of being connected, either via a modem or a dedicated line, to a distant database or to another computer. operating systems the master program that controls the computer hardware and applications. also called the system software. p packet a \" bundle \" of data. in some types of electronic communications, data is broken into small chunks that traverse the networks", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6345082416760197, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:380e56da-359d-4229-b9d3-4a18510a30ca>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.292737"}
{"text": "or to another computer. operating systems the master program that controls the computer hardware and applications. also called the system software. p packet a \" bundle \" of data. in some types of electronic communications, data is broken into small chunks that traverse the networks independently. packet - switching network a wide - area network that achieves high data transmission speeds by dividing information into sections, called packets. the packets are then transmitted by the most efficient route and reassembled at their destination. peripherals hardware components that are not essential to the basic operation of the computer but that may be necessary to perform certain applications. peripheral hardware includes printers, scanners, and modems. point the lowest level of the fidonet hierarchy. points are connected to hubs and hubs to hosts in order to move mail through the system. ocr for page 285 - - > poll a method by which a central computer calls or \" polls \" another computer to see if that computer has electronic messages to transmit. polls can be set up to automatically call another computer when the rates are lower or when traffic is minimal. r random access memory ( ram ) the computer ' s short - term memory or the electronic \" work space \" in which software, programs, and data reside while they are active. resolution a measurement, usually expressed in linear dots per inch ( dpi ), of the sharpness of an image generated by an output device such as a printer or monitor. router a device that connects networks that use the same protocols together and passes information among them. s scanner hardware device that allows the transfer of photographs, graphic images, or text to the computer. scanners convert the image to a form than can be manipulated and stored by the computer. software the applications, data, and operating systems associated with computer systems. spreadsheets an electronic means of organizing, storing, and presenting numeric information in formats that allow for easy calculations. the most common means of handling numeric information. t tcp / ip transmission control protocol / internet protocol. connotes a full - time, interactive internet connection. telnet the internet standard protocol for remote terminal connection service used for logging into and searching other computers connected to the internet. it allows your computer to interact with a remote timesharing system at another site as if your terminal were connected directly to the remote computer. ocr for page 285 - - > u uninterruptible power supply ( ups ) device that insures a steady and clean supply of electricity to the computer. a sudden loss of or change in power", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6406738115533874, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:380e56da-359d-4229-b9d3-4a18510a30ca>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.295990"}
{"text": "connected directly to the remote computer. ocr for page 285 - - > u uninterruptible power supply ( ups ) device that insures a steady and clean supply of electricity to the computer. a sudden loss of or change in power can destroy data and cause damage to a computer. upss give the user time to exit from all active applications and save all current data in the event of a power outage. unix an operating system for a wide variety of computers, from mainframes to personal computers. it supports multi - tasking and is suited to multi - user environments. v virus a program designed to enter a computer without the user ' s knowledge and perform tasks that can be destructive to the data and software stored in the computer. w window a rectangular, on - screen frame through which you can view a document, worksheet, or other application. windows a windowing environment and application program interface for ms - dos that brings to ibm compatible computers some of the graphical user interface features of the macintosh computers. word processor the single most universal application for personal computers. word processing programs convert computers into writing and editing machines. word processing easily allows revisions, formatting, and corrections. wysiwyg pronounced wizzy - wig, an acronym for what you see is what you get. a term used in desktop publishing that means that what you see on the computer screen is exactly what you get on paper when you print.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6201837736165241, "token_count": 291, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:380e56da-359d-4229-b9d3-4a18510a30ca>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.296831"}
{"text": "so this gets complicated. here is a good link explaining some of the differences between rating systems. par watts is a good way of measuring how much radiative energy is being produced in the relevant wavelengths per plant. you can figure it by taking the raw bulb spectrum and weighting it by the par plot i linked above. the problem with this is that the response from a plant from a high vs. low energy photon ( for example, blue vs. red ) is often the same. the reason this is so is because a fixed energy input is required for a particular chemical process to occur, and all excess energy is wasted, converted into heat, luminescence, or other modes of energy. an analogy would be me vs. fdd or browndirtwarrior stepping up to that thing at the carnival where you hit the target with the hammer, and it runs up the pole toward the bell. say the bell is low enough that i can hit it. then it doesn ' t matter if fdd or bdw can hit the target harder - we all make the bell ding - and the fact that they hit it harder might make the bell ring louder or the thing come harder back down the pole. all that matters in the end is that the bell dinged. i am red light, and the other two are, say, blue light. the reason that this skews par watts is that watts is a unit based on energy. so, if we look at the par based on quantum efficiency ( % absorbed / used photons vs. photons striking the plant ), the white line here, and find that i ' m 680nm ( red ), the others are 440nm ( blue ), but that we have the same quantum efficiency, what does that mean? it means that we induce the same average number of chemical reactions per photon, or dings per swing in our analogy. when you calculate par watts, however, it tells a different story. since light ' s energy is inversely proportional to wavelength, the blue light has more energy. to be precise, it is in our case 680 / 440 = 1. 54 x as much energy as the red light. this means that when computing par watts, the blue photon counts 1. 5x as much as the red one, despite the fact that they induce the same reaction. by looking at the par plot, however, you can see that most red light is roughly 2x as efficient, so this is partially compensated for. these differences,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6024084577664455, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa4f2e3a-5c5a-4d3b-b2d7-eaa4eef51a39>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.876204"}
{"text": "light work : eight lasers constructed from inexpensive silicon reside in this chip made by intel. the coherent light beams could lead to ultrafast computer circuitry that transmits data optically. image : paul sakuma ap photo scientists have long sought to build lasers from silicon. such an advance would enable engineers to incorporate both electronic and optical devices onto cheap silicon chips rather than being compelled to employ costly - to - make lasers based on \" exotic \" semiconductor materials such as gallium arsenide or indium phosphide. silicon lasers could lead to affordable light - based systems that harness photons instead of electrons to shuttle huge amounts of data swiftly - - at multigigabit - per - second rates. two research groups, one at the university of california at los angeles and the other at intel corporation, have recently reported success in making silicon emit continuous laser light. this much anticipated feat came despite silicon ' s dogged resistance to serving as a lasing medium. in a good lasing material, electrons that are pumped up with energy release that energy in the form of coherent photons of light. in silicon, however, excited electrons are more likely to vibrate, thus generating heat instead. \" there have been many attempts, but no one had been able to get silicon to lase before now, \" notes bahram jalali, the physicist who led the u. c. l. a. team. jalali and his group solved the problem last fall by making clever use of some of the very vibrations that undermined silicon ' s suitability for lasers in the first place. in particular, they focused on the raman effect, a process in which the wavelength of light lengthens after it scatters off atomic vibrations. the u. c. l. a. researchers matched the scattered light with the pump energy from another laser in a way that created constructive feedback, resulting in a net amplification of light. intel reported its own success in creating a silicon raman laser several months afterward. the chipmaker ' s scientists fed light from a separate laser into a waveguide ( or light pipe ) - - basically an s - shaped ridge the engineers sculpted onto a 15 - millimeter - square silicon chip - - and raman laser light emerged. naturally, the task was not that easy. the power of a silicon raman laser typically hits a limit as photons sporadically collide with silicon atoms and release free electrons. \" unfortunately, the free electron cloud absorbs and scatters light, so you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6116136282146589, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8734440d-3600-4864-ba4c-1c64e1d848ef>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.987013"}
{"text": "task was not that easy. the power of a silicon raman laser typically hits a limit as photons sporadically collide with silicon atoms and release free electrons. \" unfortunately, the free electron cloud absorbs and scatters light, so you get diminishing returns as you pump the device harder, \" explains mario paniccia, director of intel ' s photonics technology laboratory. the team therefore positioned two electrodes on either side of the waveguide, forming a kind of diode. \" placing a voltage across the diode sucks the free electrons away like a vacuum cleaner, \" he says, and thus keeps the light flowing through the chip. \" this and related research should lead to many useful applications, \" says philippe m. fauchet, an electrical and computer engineer at the university of rochester. a laser beam generated continuously through silicon could overcome cost and size limitations in lasers that could be used in surgical procedures, for example. the technology could also detect tiny amounts of chemicals in the environment, jam the sensors of heat - seeking missiles or enable high - bandwidth ( high - capacity ) optical communications. looking a bit farther afield, paniccia believes that the new laser technology could serve as a building block for high - bandwidth photonic devices constructed almost entirely of inexpensive silicon in existing semiconductor foundry and micromachining facilities. \" we ' ve already developed the other necessary components of such a system, \" including fast modulators ( optical encoders ), light guides and photodetectors, he notes. of course, many in the industry hope that this technology will eventually lead to fully optical computers - - superspeedy digital systems in which photons rather than electrons serve as 0s and 1s. paniccia is certainly optimistic about the recent progress : \" this work constitutes not only a scientific breakthrough but also a psychological one, because nobody thought it could be done. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6176690983966089, "token_count": 383, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8734440d-3600-4864-ba4c-1c64e1d848ef>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:42.988514"}
{"text": "nanolubricants research project the u. s. department of energy ( doe ) is currently conducting research into nanolubricants. this enabling technology has the potential for improving the efficiency of chillers that cool large buildings, in a cost - neutral manner. this project seeks to develop a fundamental understanding of how nanolubricants, a lubricant with dispersed nano - size particles, can enhance refrigerant and lubricant pool boiling. a previous national institute for standards and technology study has shown that copper oxide nanoparticles can provide up to 275 % improvement in the boiling heat flux as compared to boiling without nanoparticles. boiling heat transfer measurements will be conducted with nanoparticles of various sizes, shapes, and materials. research is being undertaken between the department of energy and the national institute for standards and technology. the goal of this project is to assess the potential for improving chiller evaporator boiling heat transfer by using nanolubricants. benefits and impacts acoustically enhanced nanolubricants are expected to bring between 1 % and 2 % improvement in chiller efficiencies considering the demonstrated success of this technique with nanofluids. if the efficiency of all existing chillers were to be improved by 1 %, 0. 03 quads of energy savings could be realized yearly for a marginal investment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6406259558646741, "token_count": 273, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4e569286-28ed-4bca-a18e-42bd1415c885>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:43.498575"}
{"text": "a form of government that is representative in character, in which the executive is accountable to the elected legislature or the electorate ; the duty of the government and public authorities, which are not above the law, to comply with their constitution ; a clear separation between the state and political parties ; in particular, political parties may not be merged with the state ( the \" no establishment clause \" for political parties ) ; military forces and police under the control of, and accountable to, the civil authorities ; independent judges and impartial operation of the public judicial service. free and fair elections the participating states have declared that the will of the people, expressed through periodic and genuine elections, is the basis of the authority and legitimacy of government. to that end, they will respect the right of individuals and groups to establish freely political parties and organizations and enable them to compete with each other on a basis of equal treatment before the law and the authorities ; recognizing that the presence of observers, both foreign and domestic, can enhance the electoral process, they agreed to invite governmental and non - governmental observers for national elections. csce : : about the commission from its inception in the early 1970s, the helsinki process \u2013 which includes the original conference on security and cooperation in europe ( csce ), follow - up activities after 1975 and, since 1995, the organization for security and cooperation in europe ( osce ) \u2013 has been a multilateral, politically binding security arrangement. having addressed successfully the challenges of the cold war, this arrangement has maintained its relevance in the present era of regional conflict, arms proliferation, terrorism and other emerging threats by combining a uniquely comprehensive definition of security with flexibility and innovation of response. defining security comprehensively the first of three chapters of the 1975 helsinki final act, commonly known as basket i, deals with \u201c questions relating to security in europe. \u201d this chapter first sets forth 10 principles guiding relations between participating states : sovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty ; refraining from the threat or use of force ; inviolability of frontiers ; territorial integrity of states ; peaceful settlement of disputes ; non - intervention in internal affairs ; respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief ; equal rights and self - determination of peoples ; cooperation among states ; and fulfillment in good faith of obligations under international law. some of the principles can be found in earlier international agreements, including the un charter, but the \u201c primary significance \u201d which the final act gave them all provided a uniquely comprehensive, political - military definition of security, particularly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6155102615881819, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:05cb3b7a-ccd6-4f5c-adad-5037fcbee769>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:43.858951"}
{"text": "published in proceedings of the 44th international symposium on microelectronics : long beach, ca, october 9, 2011. copyright \u00a9 2011 international microelectronics and packaging society. one of the challenges in an experimental study of solder joint reliability is to determine when cracks occur in a solder joint or when a solder joint fails. cracks in a real solder joint are difficult to identify using an x - ray system. cross - sectioning and scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) is a destructive method. a common non - destructive test method is to monitor resistance increase in a solder joint or a daisy - chain. however, no scientific research has been done in establishing the relationship between the crack area of an interconnection and the change in resistance of the interconnection. this paper proposes a method of defining failure criteria as the resistance increase in a solder joint exceeding a threshold. the threshold is determined by k times the range over the natural variation in resistance measured by a measurement system. the natural variation by random cause is judged using x - bar and r charts. the principles of defining failure criteria are to be able to detect failure of solder joints as early as possible with minimum false detection due of measurement system error / variation. an experimental study confirmed that a full crack of an interconnection occurs when the increase of resistance in the interconnection is 10 times the natural variation of resistance change. the results of this study could be used to narrow the definition of failure in consensus standards ipc 9701a, jesd22 - b111, and ipc / jedec - 9702. industrial engineering | manufacturing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6245682994849623, "token_count": 335, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7654a269-c5d9-43af-9e56-599e049d6743>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.013060"}
{"text": "inheritance describes a relationship between two ( or more ) types, or classes, of objects in which one is said to be a \" subtype \" or \" child \" of the other, as result the \" child \" object is said to inherit features of the parent, allowing for shared functionality, this lets programmers re - use or reduce code and simplifies the development and maintenance of software. inheritance is also commonly held to include subtyping, whereby one type of object is defined to be a more specialized version of another type ( see liskov substitution principle ), though non sub - typing inheritance is also possible. inheritance is typically expressed by describing classes of objects arranged in an inheritance hierarchy ( also referred to as inheritance chain ), a tree - like structure created by their inheritance relationships. for example, one might create a variable class \" mammal \" with features such as eating, reproducing, etc. ; then define a subtype \" cat \" that inherits those features without having to explicitly program them, while adding new features like \" chasing mice \". this allows commonalities among different kinds of objects to be expressed once and reused multiple times. in c + + we can then have classes that are related to other classes ( a class can be defined by means of an older, pre - existing, class ). this leads to a situation in which a new class has all the functionality of the older class, and additionally introduces its own specific functionality. instead of composition, where a given class contains another class, we mean here derivation, where a given class is another class. this oop property will be explained further when we talk about classes ( and structures ) inheritance in the classes inheritance section of the book. if one wants to use more than one totally orthogonal hierarchy simultaneously, such as allowing \" cat \" to inherit from \" cartoon character \" and \" pet \" as well as \" mammal \" we are using multiple inheritance. last modified on 13 november 2012, at 02 : 25", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6179836161117227, "token_count": 399, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9a20ccee-39d2-4e2e-b39d-d7f4cb702252>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.064180"}
{"text": "1995. \" carter and the modern meaning of time \". musical quarterly 79, no. 4 ( winter ) : 644 \u2013 82. - brandt, william e. 1974. \" the music of elliott carter : simultaneity and complexity \". music educators journal 60, no. 9 ( may ) : 24 \u2013 32. - brown, galen h. 2010. \" process as means and ends in minimalist and postminimalist music \". perspectives of new music 48, no. 2 ( summer ) : 180 \u2013 92. - christensen, erik. 2004. \" overt and hidden processes in 20th century music \", in process theories : crossdisciplinary studies in dynamic categories, edited by johanna seibt, 97 \u2013 117. dordrecht and london : kluwer academic publishers. isbn 1 - 4020 - 1751 - 0. - edwards, allen. 1971. flawed words and stubborn sounds : a conversation with elliott carter. new york : w. w. norton & company inc. - fritsch, johannes. 1979. \" proze\u00dfplanung \". in improvisation und neue musik, veroffentlichungen des instituts fur neue musik und musikerziehung darmstadt 20, edited by reinhold brinkmann, 108 \u2013 17. mainz : b. schott ' s sohne. - gann, kyle. 1987. \" let x = x : minimalism vs. serialism \". village voice ( 24 february ) : 76. - griffiths, paul. 2001. \" aleatory \". the new grove dictionary of music and musicians, second edition, edited by stanley sadie and john tyrrell. london : macmillan publishers. - griffiths, paul. 2011. modern music and after, third edition. oxford and new york : oxford university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 19 - 974050 - 5. - hopp, winrich. 1998. kurzwellen von karlheinz stockhausen : konzeption und musikalische poiesis. kolner schriften zur neuen musik 6. mainz ; new york : schott. - kohl, jerome. 1978. \" intuitive music and serial determinism : an analysis of stockhausen \u2019 s aus den sieben tagen. \" in theory only 3, no. 2 ( march ) : 7 \u2013 19. - kohl, jerome. 1981. \" serial and non - serial techniques in the music of karlheinz stockhausen from 1962 \u2013 1968.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.602049539925773, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:24bbc140-0969-4a1b-8177-81cbc5bca9a1>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.144196"}
{"text": "ladenness of observation ( for which see kuhn ( 1970 ) and quine ( 1960 ) ). - difficulties moving from the observationality of terms to observationality of sentences ( for which see putnam ( 1962 ) ). - the vagueness of the observational - theoretical distinction ( for which see maxwell ( 1962 ) ). these difficulties for logical positivism suggest, but do not entail, scientific realism, and lead to the development of realism as a philosophy of science. realism became the dominant philosophy of science after positivism. bas van fraassen developed constructive empiricism as an alternative to realism. responses to van fraassen have sharpened realist positions and lead to some revisions of scientific realism. arguments for and against scientific realism one of the main arguments for scientific realism centers on the notion that scientific knowledge is progressive in nature, and that it is able to predict phenomena successfully. many realists ( e. g., ernan mcmullin, richard boyd ) think the operational success of a theory lends credence to the idea that its more unobservable aspects exist, because they were how the theory reasoned its predictions. for example, a scientific realist would argue that science must derive some ontological support for atoms from the outstanding phenomenological success of all the theories using them. arguments for scientific realism often appeal to abductive reasoning or \" inference to the best explanation \" ( lipton, 2004 ). scientific realists point to the success of scientific theories in predicting and explaining a variety of phenomena, and argue that from this we can infer that our scientific theories ( or at least the best ones ) provide true descriptions of the world, or approximately so. on the other hand, pessimistic induction, one of the main arguments against realism, argues that the history of science contains many theories once regarded as empirically successful but which are now believed to be false. additionally, the history of science contains many empirically successful theories whose unobservable terms are not believed to genuinely refer. for example, the effluvial theory of static electricity is an empirically successful theory whose central unobservable terms have been replaced by later theories. realists reply that replacement of particular realist theories with better ones is to be expected due to the progressive nature of scientific knowledge, and when such replacements occur only superfluous unobservables are dropped. for example, albert einstein ' s theory of special relativity showed that the concept of the luminiferous ether could", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6210433072231805, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e281c6d9-9dfd-4ed6-8b8b-f2d098bf0c18>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.172122"}
{"text": "expected due to the progressive nature of scientific knowledge, and when such replacements occur only superfluous unobservables are dropped. for example, albert einstein ' s theory of special relativity showed that the concept of the luminiferous ether could be dropped because it had contributed nothing to the success of the theories of mechanics and electromagnetism. on the other hand, when theory replacement occurs, a well - supported concept, such as the concept of atoms, is not dropped but is incorporated into the new theory in some form. also against scientific realism social constructivists might argue that scientific realism is unable to account for the rapid change that occurs in scientific knowledge during periods of revolution. constructivists may also argue that the success of theories is only a part of the construction. however, these arguments ignore the fact that many scientists are not realists. in fact, during what is perhaps the most notable example of revolution in science \u2014 the development of quantum mechanics in the 1920s \u2014 the dominant philosophy of science was logical positivism. the alternative realist bohm interpretation and many - worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics do not make such a revolutionary break with the concepts of classical physics. another argument against scientific realism, deriving from the underdetermination problem, is not so historically motivated as these others. it claims that observational data can in principle be explained by multiple theories that are mutually incompatible. realists might counter by saying that there have been few actual cases of underdetermination in the history of science. usually the requirement of explaining the data is so exacting that scientists are lucky to find even one theory that fulfills it. furthermore, if we take the underdetermination argument seriously, it implies that we can know about only what we have directly observed. for example, we could not theorize that dinosaurs once lived based on the fossil evidence because other theories ( e. g., that the fossils are clever hoaxes ) can account for the same data. realists claim that, in addition to empirical adequacy, there are other criteria for theory choice, such as parsimony. see also - constructivist epistemology - constructive empiricism - confirmation holism - critical realism - entity realism - naive realism - pessimistic induction - scientific materialism - stanford school - structural realism - model - dependent realism further reading - bunge, mario. ( 2006 ). chasing reality : strife over realism. toronto studies in philosophy : university of toronto press - hempel, carl.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.631107671857708, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e281c6d9-9dfd-4ed6-8b8b-f2d098bf0c18>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.175602"}
{"text": "induction - scientific materialism - stanford school - structural realism - model - dependent realism further reading - bunge, mario. ( 2006 ). chasing reality : strife over realism. toronto studies in philosophy : university of toronto press - hempel, carl. ( 1950 ). \" empiricist criteria of cognitive significance \" in boyd, richard et al. eds. ( 1990 ). the philosophy of science cambridge : mit press.. - kukla, a. ( 2000 ). social constructivism and the philosophy of science. london : routledge. - kuhn, thomas. ( 1970 ). the structure of scientific revolutions, 2nd edition. chicago : university of chicago press. - laudan, larry. ( 1981 ). \" a confutation of convergent realism \" philosophy of science - leplin, jarrett. ( 1984 ). scientific realism. california : university of california press. - leplin, jarrett. ( 1997 ). a novel defense of scientific realism. oxford : oxford university press. - lipton, peter. ( 2004 ). inference to the best explanation, 2nd edition. london : routledge. - maxwell, grover ( 1962 ). \" the ontological status of theoretical entities \" in feigl and maxwell scientific explanation, space, and time vol. 3, minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, 3 - 15. - okasha, samir. ( 2002 ). philosophy of science : a very short introduction. oxford : oxford university press. see especially chapter 4, \" realism and anti - realism. \" - putnam, hilary. ( 1962 ). \" what theories are not \" in ernst nagel et al. ( 1962 ). logic, methodology, and philosophy of science stanford university press. - psillos, stathis. ( 1999 ). scientific realism : how science tracks truth. london : routledge. - quine, w. v. o. ( 1951 ). \" two dogmas of empiricism \" in his ( 1953 ). from a logical point of view cambridge : harvard university press. - quine, w. v. o. ( 1960 ). word and object cambridge : mit press. - sankey, h. ( 2001 ). \" scientific realism : an elaboration and a defense \" retrieved from http : / / philsci - archive. pitt. edu", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6111790051413568, "token_count": 474, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e281c6d9-9dfd-4ed6-8b8b-f2d098bf0c18>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.177767"}
{"text": "dim \u2014 a condition that sacrifices the color relationships in these compositions. there are few, if any, other options. the gci ' s collaborative museum lighting project, begun in 2002, asks if other possibilities can be offered for the display of these works. the gci undertook this project because solutions, if they are to be found, would necessarily involve many collaborators, sophisticated engineering and scientific support, and the ability to persist in the face of a high risk of failure. old master drawings are the focus of the research. some lightsensitive artifacts have a naturally limited color range. some have less light - sensitivity, and some are so valued for their artistic and art - historical merit that they are frequently requested for exhibition. because old master drawings encompass these three conditions, they allow researchers greater latitude than most light - sensitive artifacts for research into new ways of thinking about lighting. the project is investigating the possibility of altering the visible spectrum of display lighting without sacrificing the viewer ' s experience. in exhibition lighting, removing wavelengths to which the human eye is insensitive has been acceptable practice for forty years. but removing light energy within the visible portion of the light spectrum is fraught with potential aesthetic problems. the gci and its project partners are undertaking the substantial research required to determine how to optimize color rendering while reducing overall energy to acceptable levels. this includes investigating the use of three - band filtered light sources ( e. g., red - green - blue, the approach used in computer monitors ), primarily with thin coatings applied to glass. the project \u2014 which has demonstrated that such complex coating systems, involving fifty or more layers, can actually be made \u2014 is currently testing the aesthetic results of the first three filter models on a group of conservators, curators, and other museum professionals. in addition to altering the spectrum of the illuminant, the project is also conducting large - scale surveys of colorants ( artistic and biological ) under oxygen - free atmospheres, to better understand the extent to which differences exist in reducing the risks of photo - oxidation and photo - reduction color change. the findings from this project ' s research can potentially aid a full range of institutions \u2014 from fine art museums to natural history collections \u2014 in meeting their mandate to display the objects in their care while preserving them for future study and enjoyment. the gels cleaning research project proper cleaning of museum artifacts is among the most basic and important treatment processes conducted by conservators. typical cleaning procedures involve the use of common organic solvents to selectively", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6102272402464032, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:aa926e3f-0721-4445-9655-99adacb019f5>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.438733"}
{"text": "factors ( e. g., radioactive decay ) from the role of deterministic processes. 6. apply algorithmic approaches and principles of logic ( including the distinction between cause / effect and association ) to problem solving. - define a scientific hypothesis and design an experimental approach to test its validity. - utilize tools and methods for making decisions that take into account multiple factors and their uncertainties ( i. e., a decision tree ). - critically evaluate whether conclusions from a scientific study are warranted. - distinguish correlation from causality. 7. quantify and interpret changes in dynamical systems. - describe population growth using the language of exponents and of differential calculus. - explain homeostasis in terms of positive or negative feedback. - calculate return on investment under varying interest rates by utilizing appropriate mathematical tools. hhmi - aamc. 2009. scientific foundations for future physicians : report of the aamc - hhmi committee. association of american medical colleges. washington, dc. www. hhmi. org / grants / sffp. html pryor, j. h., s. hrtado, v. b. saenz, j. l. santos, and w. s. korn. 2007. the american freshman : forty year trends. los angeles : higher education research institute, ucla, supplemented by the 2007 and 2008 reports. www. gseis. ucla. edu / heri / 40yrtrends. php the data are from the national center for education statistics. 1990 \u2013 2009. digest of education statistics. us department of education. nces. ed. gov / programs / digest / ganter, s. and w. barker. 2004. curriculum foundations project : voices of the partner disciplines. maa : washington, dc. www. maa. org / cupm / crafty / cf _ project. html smith, d. a. and l. c. moore. 2009. calculus : modeling and application. 2nd edition. online only : www. math. duke. edu / education / calculustext / callahan, j., d. a. cox, k. r. hoffman, d. o ' shea, h. pollatsek, and l. senechal. 1995. calculus in context. w. h. freeman : new york. www. math. smith. edu / local / cicintro / cicintro. html access pdf files of the cupm curriculum guide 2004 and the curriculum foundations project : voices of the partner disciplines. purchase", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6222709265781246, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8fe481f2-3c0d-455a-8354-c73f29ef70cf>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.769821"}
{"text": "does anybody know if there exists a mathematical explanation of mendeleev table in quantum mechanics? in some textbooks ( for example in \" f. a. berezin, m. a. shubin. the schrodinger equation \" ) the authors present quantum mechanics as an axiomatic system, so one could expect that there is a deduction from the axioms to the main results of the discipline. i wonder if there is a mathematical proof of the mendeleev table? p. s. i hope the following will not be offensive for physicists : by a mathematical proof i mean a chain of logical implications from axioms of the theory to its theorem. : ) this is the standard approach everywhere in mathematics. for instance, in griffiths ' book i do not see axioms at all, therefore i can ' t treat the reasonings at pages 186 - 193 as a proof of mendeleev table. by the way, that is why i did not want to ask this question at a physical forum : i do not think that people there will even understand my question. however, after bill cook ' s suggestion i made an experiment - and you can look at the results here : http : / / theoreticalphysics. stackexchange. com / questions / 473 / is - the - mendeleev - table - explained - in - quantum - mechanics so i ask my colleagues - mathematicians to be tolerant. p. p. s. after closing this topic and reopening it again i received a lot of suggestions to reformulate my question, since in its original form it might seem too vague for mathematicians. so i suppose it will be useful to add here, that by the mendeleev table i mean ( not just a picture, as one can think, but ) a system of propositions about the structure of atoms. for example, as i wrote here in comments, the mendeleev table claims that the first electronic orbit ( shell ) can have only 2 electrons, the second - 8, the third - again 8, the fourth - 18, and so on. another regularity is the structure of subshells, etc. so my question is whether it is proved by now that these regularities ( perhaps not all but some of them ) are corollaries of the system of axioms like those from berezin - shubin book. of course, this assumes that the notions like atoms, shells, etc. must be properly defined, otherwise the corresponding statements could not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6547985164788681, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1230a7ba-990c-4eb8-93aa-d197d538f189>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.791687"}
{"text": "neural resource allocation in visual adaptation mar 30, 2013 | 5 / 5 ( 2 ) | 9 - separate lives : neuronal and organismal lifespans decoupled mar 27, 2013 | 4. 9 / 5 ( 8 ) | 0 - sizing things up : the evolutionary neurobiology of scale invariance feb 28, 2013 | 4. 8 / 5 ( 10 ) | 14 classical and quantum mechanics via lie algebras apr 15, 2011 i ' d like to open a discussion thread for version 2 of the draft of my book ' ' classical and quantum mechanics via lie algebras ' ', available online at http : / / lanl. arxiv. org / abs / 0810. 1019, and for the... - more from physics forums - independent research more news stories siemens has presented the world ' s first ultrasound system with wireless transducers. the system ' s transducers, which can be easily operated with one hand, transmit ultrasound images via radio waves to the... other 25 seconds ago | not rated yet | 0 ( ap ) \u2014 a woman who lost both hands, her left leg and right foot after contracting a flesh - eating disease has been fitted with prosthetic hands. other may 18, 2013 | not rated yet | 0 ( ap ) \u2014 medical marijuana use in illinois is now in gov. pat quinn ' s hands after the state senate approved legislation. other may 17, 2013 | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 a nigerian court on friday sentenced two officials from a pharmaceutical company to seven years in prison over the sale of an adulterated teething drug which killed 84 babies in 2008. other may 17, 2013 | not rated yet | 0 ( healthday ) \u2014 many americans feel that keeping out - of - pocket health care costs is more important than staying with the same primary care physician. other may 17, 2013 | not rated yet | 0 when tumours metastasise, they can block lymphatic vessels, as researchers from eth zurich have discovered using a new method. the lymphatic fluid subsequently has to find a new path through the tissue. such... 41 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 | ( medical xpress ) \u2014 flinders university researchers are breaking new ground in a decade - long journey to pinpoint the function of two closely related proteins. 31 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 | ( medical xpress ) \u2014 scientists at king ' s college london have discovered that vitamin d has the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6086342844575938, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1b37767d-6942-476f-8315-8120497b6943>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:44.941203"}
{"text": "what is synesthesia? synesthesia is a perceptual condition of mixed sensations : a stimulus in one sensory modality ( e. g., hearing ) involuntarily elicits a sensation / experience in another modality ( e. g. vision ). likewise, perception of a form ( e. g., a letter ) may induce an unusual perception in the same modality ( e. g. a color ). click here for more information on synesthesia. what is the synesthesia battery? this battery of tests provides a standard battery of questions, tests and scoring. this test is available to the whole community of researchers and synesthetes for their use in making scientific progress. your data will be kept entirely private, for use only by yourself, and by a researcher if you provide a valid email address for one. log in here not sure if you \u2019 re a synesthete? click here to answer a few preview questions to find out! if you think you are a synesthete, please register here to begin with the questionnaire. upon completion of the questionnaire, you will be automatically routed to the online software tests appropriate for the forms of synesthesia you experience. if you have previously taken any of the tests or wish to continue with an unfinished set, please login to complete the battery and then view your results. if you are a researcher, you may direct your synesthetic subjects to this site and ask them to include your email address when they register. use of this battery, with its standardized scoring system, will allow data combination or comparison among laboratories. if you have been invited by synesthete. org, on behalf of a synesthete, to view his / her results, please enter the username and password that has been emailed to you and login here. additionally, if you are a researcher using matlab, i am making available the texsyn toolbox, a collection of matlab programs developed in dr. david eagleman ' s laboratory for testing various aspects of synesthetic experience. please click here for information and downloading. if you are publishing results derived from the online synesthesia battery or the texsyn toolbox, please cite : david m. eagleman, arielle d. kagan, stephanie s. nelson, deepak sagaram, anand k. sarma. a standardized test battery for the study of synesthesia. journal of neuroscience methods, 2007 jan 15 ; 159 ( 1 ) : 139 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6243518790716218, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:52af6113-477c-4740-84c3-1d1a821049e3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:45.444140"}
{"text": "orthogonal complements and the lattice of subspaces we know that the poset of subspaces of a vector space is a lattice. now we can define complementary subspaces in a way that doesn \u2019 t depend on any choice of basis at all. so what does this look like in terms of the lattice? first off, remember that the \u201c meet \u201d of two subspaces is their intersection, which is again a subspace. on the other hand their \u201c join \u201d is their sum as subspaces. but now we have a new operation called the \u201c complement \u201d. in general lattice - theory terms, a complement of an element in a bounded lattice ( one that has a top element and a bottom element ) is an element so that and. in particular, since the top subspace is itself, and the bottom subspace is we can see that the orthogonal complement satisfies these properties. the intersection is trivial, since the inner product is positive - definite as a bilinear form, and the sum is all of, as we \u2019 ve seen. even more is true. the orthogonal complement is involutive ( when is finite - dimensional ), and order - reversing, which makes it an \u201c orthocomplement \u201d. in lattice - theory terms, this means that, and that if then. first, let \u2019 s say we \u2019 ve got two subspaces of. i say that. indeed, if is a vector in then it for all. but since any is also a vector in, we can see that, and so as well. thus orthogonal complementation is now let \u2019 s take a single subspace of, and let be a vector in. if is any vector in, then by the ( conjugate ) symmetry of the inner product and the definition of. thus is a vector in, and so. note that this much holds whether is finite - dimensional or not. on the other hand, if is finite - dimensional we can take an orthonormal basis of and expand it into an orthonormal basis of all of. then the new vectors form a basis of, so that. a vector in is orthogonal to every vector in exactly when it can be written using only the first basis vectors, and thus lies in. that is, when is finite - dimensional.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6039810418676448, "token_count": 475, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b195ff4f-68c6-4b12-b7cc-e9f02fce6c71>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:45.523326"}
{"text": "science fair project encyclopedia } } in music, a melody is a series of linear events or a succession, not a simultaneity as in a chord. however, this succession must contain change of some kind and be perceived as a single entity ( possibly gestalt ) to be called a melody. most specifically this includes patterns of changing pitches and durations, while most generally it includes any interacting patterns of changing events or quality. \" melody may be said to result where there are interacting patterns of changing events occurring in time. \" ( delone et. al. ( eds. ) 1975, p. 270 - 1 ) \" the events occurring in time must involve change of some kind to be understood as related or unrelated... the essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality [ timbre, texture, and loudness ] \" melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases, motifs, and is usually repeated throughout a song or piece in various forms. melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches ( predominately conjuct or disjunct or with further restrictions ), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape ( ibid, p. 290 - 301 ). \" many extant explinations [ of melody ] confine us [ sic ] to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. \" ( ibid, p. 270 ) different musical styles use melody in different ways. for example : - rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music and folk music tend to pick one or two melodies ( verse and chorus ) and stick with them ; much variety may occur in the phrasing and lyrics. \" gino stefani makes appropriation the chief criterion for his ' popular ' definition of melody ( stefani 1987a ). melody, he argues, is music ' at hand ' ; it is that dimension which the common musical competence extracts ( often with little respect for the integrity of the source ), appropriates and uses for a variety of purposes : singing, whistling, dancing, and so on. \" ( middleton, p. 96 ) - in western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, and then create variations. classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. often melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, such as the opening of beethoven ' s ninth.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.609576122508299, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:37dac6a5-7bc7-4c11-891c-4ac89be70564>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:45.962535"}
{"text": "the photon belt an article by virgil armstrong \u00a91995 at this point, i began to take this phenomenon seriously, and after considerable research and study, i was ready to step forward and begin speaking about the photon belt. i first introduced it to the public in columbus, ohio, in october 1994, followed immediately by an extensive speaking tour in europe. much to my surprise, the subject was enthusiastically received everywhere i went. the following is a discussion of the subject for you, the reader. the photon belt and the manasic radiation have a greater impact than one might imagine. from the scientific point of view, it is the procession of our solar system and its accompanying planets around the central sun, called alcione, located in the constellation of pleiades. this counter - clockwise cyclic procession around alcione requires 25, 860 years to make one complete orbit. our present - day sun, moon, and planets must twice pass through the photon belt during this time, that is, once to the north and once to the south. ( see diagram, below. ) during this cycle, there are two periods of darkness and two periods of light. the periods of darkness, which constitute the vast majority of the rotation around the central sun, consist of two periods of 10, 500 years each, plus an additional, seemingly optional 430 years for both of the 10, 500 - year periods. ( i. e., 10, 500 + 430 = 10, 930 years, times 2 = 21, 860 years ). following each period of 10, 500 years of darkness, we then emerge into 2000 years of total light, which actually constitutes the photon belt. in review, we then have 21, 860 years of darkness and 4, 000 years of light ( 21, 860 + 4, 000 = 25, 860 years, or one complete cycle / orbit ). again, please refer to the diagram below. another way of viewing this phenomenon is that in one complete orbit, we have five sixths darkness and approximately one - sixth light, or a 5 : 1 ratio, with darkness being predominant. surprisingly enough, we are now, as a solar system and planet, once again emerging from 10, 500 + years of darkness and preparing to merge into 2000 years of light, which we will begin to experience in the year 2000. the foregoing is a general scientific understanding of the photon belt phenomenon, but what about its spiritual significance? a question in your mind might be, \" why does the darkness, or negative aspect,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6039799163844618, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238fa6f5-bc47-48df-a8f2-4cdbd5bcdaa4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:46.801551"}
{"text": "which we will begin to experience in the year 2000. the foregoing is a general scientific understanding of the photon belt phenomenon, but what about its spiritual significance? a question in your mind might be, \" why does the darkness, or negative aspect, of our 26, ooo - yearjourney around the central sun predominate? why not more light? \" as in all things in the creators omni - universes, everything has divine purpose and reason. all aspects are in synchronicity with one another : the higher with the lower, the lower with the higher ; or, to quote kabalistic law, \" as it is above, so shall it be below ; as it is below, so shall it be above. \" it is important to understand that divine law has intent and purpose. what i am about to relate spiritually will lend greater individual understanding and acceptance of what would otherwise appear to be punitive and unreasonable. the reason we experience five - sixths more darkness in our journey around the central sun is because the divine powers, in concert with those of us who were chosen, agreed to create and experience a world of negativity ( darkness ), polarities, and illusion encrusted with fear, judgments, control, hate, greed, death, and much more. this was a contrived plan which facilitated the creator ' s desire to better understand the true nature of negativity, or its shadow self this explosive and unpredictable world, likened to a veritable mine field, is designed to test the mettle of all associated with this special planet, planet earth. we are the vehicle through which the divine can experience itself ; and through our individual and collective experiences, can master the intricacies and dangers of darkness. we have been selectively chosen to come here. many, upon hearing this, would venture to say this is insane, but nonetheless, it is true. we are unique, one of a kind. we are the chosen vehicle ( planet ) to collect, assimilate, and transform all negativity for our entire solar system. we are the dumping ground and refuse holding area for the whole solar system. through our thoughts, actions, and reactions, we serve as transformers for all negativity being thrust upon us. what a task! so you see that what might be adjudged as something totally negative and uncalled for is, in truth, endowed with spirit and its divine mission here on earth. that mission is to experience through us the ne", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6143613902174855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238fa6f5-bc47-48df-a8f2-4cdbd5bcdaa4>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:46.802620"}
{"text": ". what a task! so you see that what might be adjudged as something totally negative and uncalled for is, in truth, endowed with spirit and its divine mission here on earth. that mission is to experience through us the negativity for self and in the process, learn how to dispense with it more expeditiously and permanently, making all else a better place to live and work. so, you see, we and our planet are unique and special. undoubtedly, the next question is, \" how does this relate to the photon belt? \" this is a complex question, but before getting into the intricacies of it, let us first establish that the photon belt and accompanying manasic radiation are in and of themselves vehicles of transformation and transmutation. they are the guardian barrier and vehicle to see that none of the negativity of earth escapes and contaminates the higher levels of consciousness. presiding over all of this is the christ, and upon knowing this, we can quickly see that the photon belt and the manasic radiation are the eminence of the christ and its christed energies. unless we are in accord with these energies, as we approach and enter the photon belt, we cannot hope to be a part of it and escape the negative influences of planet earth. in that sense, we would have to return to the third dimension and do it all over again. ironic as it may seem, before each of us came to planet earth, we were fully aware of the inherent dangers of coming to earth and living and experiencing its gross negativities. we were also informed that we could not escape the influence of negativity until we had mastered it, which, of course, was the divine intent all along, for how can the divine learn and experience self other than through us? unfortunately some are slower learners than others, and it takes repeated turns around the wheel ( the central sun ) before the lesson is learned. usually about one - third of the planet ' s then total population is successful in each 10, 500 - year period. reflect on some of what i have said, such as \" you are chosen ; you could not be here this time around without approval ; and you cannot leave, even though you volunteered, until you have completely mastered negativity. \" indeed, that is a big task but you will do it sooner or later. when you have accomplished this, the rewards on the other side are inestimable ; and because you have mastered and graduated from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6027768793446295, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238fa6f5-bc47-48df-a8f2-4cdbd5bcdaa4>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:46.803643"}
{"text": "have completely mastered negativity. \" indeed, that is a big task but you will do it sooner or later. when you have accomplished this, the rewards on the other side are inestimable ; and because you have mastered and graduated from this toughest of learning schools in the creator ' s domain, you will jump grades ahead of your contemporaries on the other side. so don ' t despair for you are gods in amnesia, and you are not destined to fail for long! let ' s return to the subject of the christ and its relationship to the photon belt. the christ and its energies are repeatedly mentioned in ancient texts, indicating that unless we can become one with these christed energies, we cannot hope to survive the coming calamities and pass through the photon belt. the mayan prophecies clearly signal this in a profound statement which says, \" government, science and religion will collapse unless they are prepared to accept and facilitate the incoming christ consciousness. \" once again, this is an oblique reference to the photon belt and its christed energies ( the manasic radiation ). all things obsolete, archaic, and negative, including you, will break down in the face of the incoming christ energies unless you and it will accept and live these sacred truths. the great avatar, jesus, while on earth made this abundantly clear when he said, \" 1, through the christ, shall separate the wheat from the tares, the sheep from the goats. \" implied was that humanity, as it approaches the end days and the photon belt, will be divided into two camps, that is, those who can and will accept the incoming christ consciousness ( the wheat and the sheep ), and those who will not or cannot ( the tares and the goats ). as we near the entrance into the photon belt, which will take place in or about the year 2000, all of this will become abundantly clear. note that the year 2000 also marks our entrance into the fourth dimension as a peoples, planet, and consciousness. be reminded that it is destined that our planet be assured safe passage into and through the photon belt. the only question is, will you and i receive the same accord? the answer is yes, only if we, too, can accept, accommodate, and act out the incoming christ consciousness. in quick review, i hope that i have impressed upon your mind that the photon belt is something far greater than astronomical or scientific postulates as to how the solar system and its planets rotate around alcione, our central sun,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6158996251148714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238fa6f5-bc47-48df-a8f2-4cdbd5bcdaa4>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:46.804780"}
{"text": "incoming christ consciousness. in quick review, i hope that i have impressed upon your mind that the photon belt is something far greater than astronomical or scientific postulates as to how the solar system and its planets rotate around alcione, our central sun, and how, in this process, our solar system and planets experience 21, 860 years of darkness and 4, 000 years of light. i trust i have convinced you that the whole process is a profound sequential spiritual experience, dealing directly with the christ consciousness. let us now go into this spiritual experience more deeply. to begin with, the photon belt really is nothing new. in ancient history there are many references, particularly by the greeks and romans, to a golden age wherein there was nothing but light, love, peace and tranquility, a place where death, war, famine, disease, and poverty were unknown. these ancient philosophers were obviously alluding to the photon belt, that 2000 - year period of light. once again we are at that point where we are about to enter into this phenomenal period of light, the golden age of the past and the future. we are emerging from our oppressive cocoon of darkness and, like the butterfly, can emerge as something extremely beautiful, that is, our light bodies and our total communion with the christ. that cocoon of darkness, despite its oppressiveness and negativity, has been our teaching and learning vehicle to qualify us once again to return from whence we came, the photon belt. we are again being offered the opportunity to break the fetters of this world of illusion to turn the mirror around, and in its place perceive our true reality. with this, the restraints of negativity, illusion, polarities, judgments, control, hate, avarice and greed, jealously, killings and war will all fall away. our special earth assignment, which has been to experience and master negativity and illusion, will be fulfilled, and we can go home where we rightly belong. as we approach the photon belt and its eminence, the manasic radiation, we will become aware of the christ consciousness and the call to arms. the call to arms is a declaration by the christ that we have been in darkness long enough and now it is time to go home into the light. in the final analysis, however, the choice is our though our free will. the going - home process is not as simple as it would first seem, for we must first experience a tremendous transformational process which will enable us to eliminate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6108209297647156, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238fa6f5-bc47-48df-a8f2-4cdbd5bcdaa4>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:46.805783"}
{"text": "the light. in the final analysis, however, the choice is our though our free will. the going - home process is not as simple as it would first seem, for we must first experience a tremendous transformational process which will enable us to eliminate our negativity and assume our bodies of light. this, in turn, will catapult us out of the enslaving energies of the third dimension into the fourth and fifth dimensions - the photon belt. this quantum leap into the future is not customary but is usually sequential in nature, encompassing one dimension at a time. however, due to our unexplained unwillingness to grow and mature with the dictates of the divine scenario, in contrast to the other planets, we must now play catch - up and attain the level of the other planets in order for the solar system to remain in keeping with divine intent and scheduled advancement. we must finally be brought to terms in order to insure safe passage by the entire federation of planets into the photon belt. we have just a few years until the year 2000 to do this. this is not only the entrance into the photon belt but also the fourth dimension. by the year 2005, five years into the photon belt, we will have reached our ultimate objective, the fifth dimension! an interesting fact : the lost books of the bible, that is, the original and unabridged version of our current bible, states that \" the second coming of the christ will occur in the year 2005. \" this then implies that we will witness and experience the second coming of the christ only after we have attained the fifth dimension of consciousness. we will by then have long abandoned our bodies of density and will be wearing our garments of light, just as the christ always has. before any of this can happen, we must first experience a complete transformational process here on earth. our planet, our bodies, and our consciousness all must achieve and resonate at a much higher and intense frequency in order to accommodate the incoming christ consciousness. let ' s begin with one aspect of our planet ' s transformation. our present speed as we as a planet fly through space is estimated to be about 18, 000 miles per hour. consider then the speculation that upon entering the photon belt, we will have reached a speed of 208, 000 miles per hour, or an increase of 190, 000 miles per hour. one does not have to speculate very long to realize this tremendous acceleration will compress time and space into realms of realizations, incomprehensible", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6182686912575746, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238fa6f5-bc47-48df-a8f2-4cdbd5bcdaa4>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:46.807075"}
{"text": "occur here on earth between now and the time we enter the photon belt. they are designed to destroy or reform the old and archaic third - dimensional energies, which include you and me. logic would indicate that one of these events would be the prosecution of the last and final war, most probably in the middle east. this war will have a twofold objective : ( 1 ) to annihilate the old ' archaic male energies to make ready for the new and peaceful male, and ( 2 ) to facilitate into a position of leadership the new female energies. following this, there will be an integration of these two energies to give birth to the new male and female consciousness which will be attendant to the incoming christ energies, that is, the new embodiment of man and womankind. 4. in order to cope with the speeding up and compression of time and space, our physical bodies must be rearranged and realigned in order to facilitate the incoming christ consciousness. some of these rearrangements will have to do with the key elements of the physical and etheric bodies. expected are realignment of our current consciousness ; realignment of the chakras ( now seven ) to twelve or thirteen ; increasing the dna strands from the current two to twelve or thirteen ; balancing out the male and female energies in order to reach a state of androgyny ; and acceleration of our atoms in consistency with the degree of the incoming light and consciousness. in addition, our pineal gland, now about the size of a pea, will return to its original size, about the size of a quarter. all receptors will be reawakened. all persons experiencing this will become clairvoyant, clairaudient, clairsentient, and more. just as jesus did, we will become great seers, healers, and prophets. this will serve us well in the near future. now, of all times, we must turn our will over to the divine. in this statement there is a profound truth but also an inherent danger. now, of all times, we must unequivocaliy qualify our intentions, making sure that our arrow of intention goes to the target intended. the divine must be couched in certainty with such statements as, for example, \" to the one and only creator god \" : \" to my higher consciousness \" ; \" to mother mary \" ; or, \" to the one and only christ. \" otherwise, any statement issued in the form of an affirmation will be immediately picked up by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6136304350199848, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:238fa6f5-bc47-48df-a8f2-4cdbd5bcdaa4>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:46.812042"}
{"text": "explosion protection for optical radiation in hazardous locations three protection schemes are under consideration. industry uses optical equipment for surveying, communications, sensing, and measurement. often the installation is inside or close to potentially explosive atmospheres, and radiation from this equipment may pass through these atmospheres, exposing them to a potential ignition source. the explosive mixture may absorb the radiation, leading to a local temperature increase or photochemical process, and ignition or focused laser radiation may cause formation of plasma capable of causing ignition. in practice, the greatest danger is absorption of the radiation by a solid target ( surfaces or particles ), causing the heated surface to become an ignition source. the international electrotechnical commission ( iec ) has set up working group 8 to develop requirements for optical equipment used in hazardous atmospheres. continuous wave radiation several publications, including a european standard, deal with ignition of explosive fuel / air mixtures by optical radiation. the most likely ignition hazard is a local temperature rise caused by light falling on radiation - absorbing materials. in view of this mechanism, the european commission has sponsored a research project to determine limiting values for continuous - wave radiation sources intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres. researchers investigated various radiation sources, target materials, and explosive mixtures to obtain minimum values for the radiant power and irradiance capable of causing ignition ; 50 milliwatts ( mw ) has been found to be the lowest igniting radiant power, including explosive mixtures with very low minimum ignition energies and autoignition temperatures. we consider radiation an ignition source if the radiated power is greater than 35 mw or the peak radiation flux is more than 5 mw per square millimeter ( mm2 ). we have completed additional research, including pulsed optical sources and a combustible target. the findings affirmed the results of the initial research, even when the targets were combustible. unfortunately, the results show no clear structure similar to the explosion group / temperature class system of iec / cenelec ( en50014 ) or cen standards ( pren 13 463 ). on the other hand, ignition of gases in explosion group iia in combination with temperature classes t1, t2, or t3a requires a minimum of 200 mw for flammable liquids. as this combination covers the majority of flammable gases and vapors, a power limit based on these findings would help considerably in practice. in the special case of methane, recent research has shown a linear relationship between fiber diameter and minimum igniting power for diameters greater than 100 micrometers ( \u00b5m )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6062469842124604, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:3d65a716-ac9e-4f7e-ac92-56402080b3e6>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:47.226812"}
{"text": "energy, we provide a framework for potentially increasing the density of microelectronic devices and allowing improved functionality, reduced complexity, and enhanced redundancy. \u201d the two principal systems today for storing electrical energy are batteries and supercapacitors. batteries store electrical energy in the form of chemical reactants and generally display even higher energy storage densities than supercapacitors. however, the charging and discharging of a battery exact a physical toll on electrodes that eventually ends the battery \u2019 s life after several thousand charge - discharge cycles. in supercapacitors, energy is stored as electrical charge, which does not impact electrodes during operation. this allows supercapacitors to be charged and discharged millions of times. \u201c we have known for some time that supercapacitors are faster and longer - lasting alternatives to conventional batteries, \u201d gogotsi says, \u201c so we decided to see if it would be possible to incorporate them into microelectronic devices and if there would be any advantage to doing so. \u201d chmiola and gogotsi chose titanium carbide as the substrate in this study because while all metal carbides can be selectively etched with halogens so that a monolithic carbon film is left behind, titanium carbide is readily available, relatively inexpensive and can be used at the same temperatures as other microfabrication processes. \u201c plus, we have a body of work on titanium carbide precursor carbons that provided us with a lot of data to draw from for understanding the underlying science, \u201d chmiola says. the process started with titanium carbide ceramic plates being cut to size and polished to a thinness of approximately 300 micrometers. the titanium was then selectively etched from one face of the plate using chlorine at elevated temperatures, a process that is similar to current dry - etching techniques for mems and microchip fabrications. chlorinating the titanium removed the metal atoms and left in place a monolithic carbon film, a material with a proven track record in supercapacitors produced via the traditional \u201c sandwich construction \u201d technique. \u201c by using microfabrication techniques to produce our supercapacitors we avoided many of the pitfalls of the traditional method, \u201d says chmiola, \u201c namely poor contact between electro - active particles in the electrode, large void spaces between particles that don \u2019 t store charge, and poor contact between the electro - active materials and the external circuitry. \u201d the electrical charge storage densities", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.617743060288546, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:00427f8c-b5f0-4802-8da9-51196ff51bb7>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:47.636385"}
{"text": "lawrence livermore national laboratory researchers have discovered a new method to independently control ionic and electronic conductivities in certain solids. the method, which uses tailored acceptor - donor co - doping to bind charged native vacancies and selectively modulate ionic but not electronic conductivity, was developed by using first - principles materials simulations. conventional face capturing is well established and widely utilized in the entertainment industry to capture a 3d model of an actor ' s face. however, up to now, no method was capable of reconstructing facial hair or even handling it appropriately. a new method developed at disney research in switzerland captures individual strands of facial hair and stores them separately from the actual human face until added. or \u201c shaved \u201d away. scientists have yet to fully unravel the mysteries of rainbows, but an international team of scientists have used simulations of these natural wonders to unlock the secret to a rare optical phenomenon known as the twinned rainbow. unlike the more common double - rainbow, which consists of two separate and concentric rainbow arcs, the elusive twinned rainbow appears as two rainbows arcs that split from a single base rainbow. using just an upgraded desktop computer equipped with a relatively inexpensive graphics processing card, a team of computer scientists and biochemists at the university of california, san diego has developed advanced gpu accelerated software and demonstrated, for the first time, that this approach can sample biological events that occur on the millisecond timescale. while bipeds and quadrupeds have reigned supreme in cg animation, attempts to create and control their skeleton - free cousins using similar techniques has proved time - consuming and laborious. georgia institute of technology researchers have found a possible solution to this challenge by developing a way to simulate and control movement of computer - generated characters without a skeletal structure, anything from starfish and earthworms to an elephant \u2019 s trunk or the human tongue. for decades it has been thought that a shock wave from a supernova explosion triggered the formation of our solar system. material from the exploding star generated cloud of dust and gas, which collapsed to form the sun and its surrounding planets. new work from the carnegie institution provides the first fully 3d models for how this process could have happened. scientists in europe have recently completed a study of global pollution levels by simulating the atmosphere using the chemical atmospheric model emac. the research is the first include all five major air pollutants known to negatively impact human health : nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter smaller than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6344686850611418, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c08e9ee-265c-4886-9a2c-56ef07cb126a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:47.824721"}
{"text": "the atmosphere using the chemical atmospheric model emac. the research is the first include all five major air pollutants known to negatively impact human health : nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter smaller than 2. 5 -? m. china, india, and the middle east are shown to be especially at risk. researchers trying to herd tiny particles into useful ordered formations have found an unlikely ally : entropy, a tendency generally described as \" disorder. \" computer simulations by university of michigan scientists and engineers show that the property can nudge particles to form organized structures. by analyzing the shapes of the particles beforehand, they can even predict what kinds of structures will form. a research team at the georgia tech research institute has developed a software tool that enables users to perform in - depth analysis of modeling and simulation data, then visualize the results on screen. the new data analysis and visualization tool offers improved ease of use compared to similar tools, the researchers say, and could be readily adapted for use with existing data sets in a variety of disciplines. university of melbourne researchers are now simulating in 3d the motion of the complete human rhinovirus, the most frequent cause of the common cold, on australia ' s fastest supercomputer, paving the way for new drug development. computer simulations are indispensable, but standard finite element technology requires designers to carry out a time - consuming and often error - prone mesh generation step that transfers the computer - aided design ( cad ) model into the simulation model. a student in germany has just accelerated this process by directly integrating the cad geometry into the finite element analysis, circumventing any mesh generation. using computer simulations, researchers from the california institute of technology have determined that if the interior of a dying star is spinning rapidly just before it explodes in a magnificent supernova, two different types of signals emanating from that stellar core will oscillate together at the same frequency. this could be a piece of \" smoking - gun evidence \" that would lead to a better understanding of supernovae. scientists at princeton university are composing the complex codes designed to instruct a new class of powerful computers that will allow researchers to tackle problems that were previously too difficult to solve. these supercomputers, operating at a speed called the \" exascale, \" will produce realistic simulations of complex phenomena in nature such as fusion reactions, earthquakes, and climate change. an oak ridge national laboratory and university of tennessee team has used the jaguar supercomputer to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.621673965241881, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c08e9ee-265c-4886-9a2c-56ef07cb126a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:47.826023"}
{"text": "a speed called the \" exascale, \" will produce realistic simulations of complex phenomena in nature such as fusion reactions, earthquakes, and climate change. an oak ridge national laboratory and university of tennessee team has used the jaguar supercomputer to calculate the number of isotopes allowed by the laws of physics. the team used a quantum approach known as density functional theory, applying it independently to six models of the nuclear interaction to determine that there are about 7, 000 possible combinations of protons and neutrons allowed in bound nuclei with up to 120 protons. researchers at slac national accelerator laboratory have captured the most detailed images to date of airborne soot particles, a key contributor to global warming and a health hazard. the discovery reveals the particles ' surprisingly complex nanostructures and could ultimately aid the understanding of atmospheric processes important to climate change, as well as the design of cleaner combustion sources, from car engines to power plants. an international team led by stony brook university has established the structure of a new form of carbon. the team used a novel computational method to demonstrate that the properties of what had previously been thought to be only a hypothetical structure of a superhard form of carbon called \" m - carbon \" matched perfectly the experimental data on \" superhard graphite. \" a new computational model developed by a team of virginia tech researchers provides a framework to better understand responses of macrophage cells of the human immune system. the virginia tech team used the metropolis algorithm, a computer simulation technique widely used in physics and chemistry, to enumerate possible molecular mechanisms giving rise to priming and tolerance. a multidisciplinary team of researchers at massachusetts institute of technology and in spain has found a new mathematical approach to simulating the electronic behavior of noncrystalline materials, which may eventually play an important part in new devices including solar cells ; organic led lights ; and printable, flexible electronic circuits. complex systems inhabit a \" gray world \" of partial failures, massachusetts institute of technology ' s olivier de weck says : while a system may continue to operate as a whole, bits and pieces inevitably degrade. over time, these small failures can add up to a single catastrophic failure, incapacitating the system. however, de weck and his colleagues have created a design approach that tailors planes to fly in the face of likely failures. life would be a lot easier if the surfaces of window panes, corrosion coatings or microfluidic systems in medical labs could keep themselves free of water and other liquids. a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6750938612100266, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c08e9ee-265c-4886-9a2c-56ef07cb126a>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:47.827165"}
{"text": "that tailors planes to fly in the face of likely failures. life would be a lot easier if the surfaces of window panes, corrosion coatings or microfluidic systems in medical labs could keep themselves free of water and other liquids. a new simulation program developed by researchers in germany can now work out just how such surfaces have to look for a variety of applications. lawrence livermore national laboratory researchers have for the first time identified a precise measurement of the amount of radiation damage that will occur in any given material. with a full understanding of the early stages of the radiation damage process, researchers are provided with better knowledge and tools to manipulate materials to our advantage. u. s. researchers are perfecting simulations that show a nuclear weapon ' s performance in precise molecular detail. because international treaties forbid the detonation of nuclear test weapons, tools that can accurately depict an explosion are becoming critical for national defense. quantum computers are still years away, but a trio of theorists has already figured out at least one talent they may have. according to the theorists, physicists might one day use quantum computers to study the inner workings of the universe in ways that are far beyond the reach of even the most powerful conventional supercomputers. ion bombardment of metal surfaces is an important, but poorly understood, nanomanufacturing technique. new research using sophisticated supercomputer simulations has shown what goes on in trillionths of a second. the advance could lead to better ways to predict the phenomenon and more uses of the technique to make new nanoscale products. multiphysics, comsol \u2019 s software environment for modeling and simulating any physics - based system, recently received a major update. new capabilities in version 4. 3 include three new discipline - specific add - on modules, fast and powerful meshing, a new \" double dogleg \" solver for mechanical contact and highly nonlinear simulations, and numerous user - inspired enhancements.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6852163858278031, "token_count": 387, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c08e9ee-265c-4886-9a2c-56ef07cb126a>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:47.828272"}
{"text": "interesting topic. it got derailed, but it \u2019 s still an interesting topic. the term \u201c universe from nothing \u201d is true. it is also misleading. the underlying cause ( s ) that gave rise to our universe were there before our universe came into existence, and they are still there ( otherwise our universe would cease to exist ). the thing is, the underlying causes are not our universe, at least not as we understand it. they are something so alien and tenuous as to still have the power to be referred to as \u201c mysterious \u201d. space itself is one mysterious aspect of our universe. the universe as we understand it could not exist without it, whatever it is. matter is bubbling into existence in space as space continues to expand. this too is wholly mysterious at the present time. where things get confusing is in the language. yes, there is something out there and all around us that has some causal relationship to our universe, but that something is something other. it is not of our universe. it \u2019 s all around us. it is connected to our universe. it is the underlying cause, of which we are the effect. but it is not us. it is other, with laws and properties that just plain don \u2019 t work the same as in our neck of the woods. let \u2019 s say that our universe is the foam you get from aerating water, and that aerated foam - water existed only here. that is the type of thing scientists are referring to when they say \u201c something from nothing \u201d. the sentient foam - water ( us ) doesn \u2019 t realise that it doesn \u2019 t really exist, that it is the temporary byproduct of turbulence. the foam - creatures living in the foam have their own little universe - within - a - universe, but that universe is not simply the air or the water. it is a made thing, from combining the two, and as it is neither air nor water, but the combination of the two under special circumstances, it is therefore a condition rather than a thing, and that condition, which is us, is something other in terms of water and air.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6206351907622966, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:890581a1-f397-4702-b4c4-14b944e92e57>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:47.917099"}
{"text": "parkinsons disease is a debilitating brain disease characterized by tremors and other movement difficulties. as the disease progresses, the quality of life of the sufferer, surrounding family, and friends is diminished. despite being the subject of intensive research no predominant cause has been uncovered, though the disease is always associated with a lack of a particular neurotransmitter \u2013 dopamine. although the origin is not clear there are now several treatments that can alleviate symptoms and perhaps slow its progression, however research shows that early treatment is much more effective. diagnosing parkinsons at an early stage is very difficult since the physical symptoms are also similar to signs of aging and other neural disorders. surprisingly, some russian physicists have recently taken an interest in the diagnosis of parkinsons disease and have developed a fascinating approach, starting from the basis that it is signals from the brain that causes limb tremors and that the brain is a nonlinear system. they wondered if the powerful methods for analyzing nonlinear systems could be used to distinguish healthy brains from those suffering parkinsons disease. the finger tremors of a small group of parkinsons disease sufferers were measured under a variety of conditions ( e. g., medicated and unmedicated ). the intensity, frequency and rapidity of finger tremors were then analyzed in terms of nonlinear systems behavior to try and determine if the underlying system had been changed by the various medications and stimulants. they show that the underlying dynamics that drive tremors ( or lack of ) are clearly different between medicated and unmedicated patients. this result isn \u2019 t too surprising considering that the medication is designed to suppress symptoms. however, this analysis is far from complete and data taken from analyzing the whole body should be much more sensitive to changes in the underlying dynamic system. thus there is real potential to develop this into an early diagnosis for parkinsons disease, thereby increasing the effectiveness of treatment regimens.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6007176837107417, "token_count": 387, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fba1ef41-47d3-4937-a8cc-e991a57c75e7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:48.876963"}
{"text": "\u2014 for 30 years, ceramic tiles with glass - based coatings provided thermal protection for the us \u2019 s now - retired space shuttle fleet. initially composed of silica fibers with a nominal density of 0. 14 g / cm3 and a glaze aimed at controlling emissivity and limiting catalysis for oxygen and nitrogen recombination from the plasma on reentry, the tiles provided effective insulation but required heavy maintenance between flights. engineers improved durability over the shuttle \u2019 s service life using new tile substrates and coatings. for new thermal protection applications, steyer reported on cmcs developed and tested by nasa researchers for use at temperatures to 1700\u00b0c. toughened uni - piece fibrous reinforced oxidation - resistant composite ( tufroc ) materials build on the success of insulating fibrous tiles with high - emissivity / low - recombination - efficiency coatings using a refractory ceramic carbon - insulated layer for dimensional stability. supersonic and hypersonic flight vehicles present unique challenges for primary hot structural materials, and ultrahigh - temperature ceramics ( uhtcs ) have been emerging as a promising class of materials for leading edges for hypersonic vehicles. the refractory nature of this class of carbides, borides, and nitrides makes them good candidates for the highest heat flux areas as well as areas with high integrated heat load as a function of time, steyer wrote. particulate, whisker, and chopped or continuous fiber reinforcements are resulting in improved mechanical properties, but the materials \u2019 relatively high density and difficulty in large - scale processing are potential drawbacks. steyer reported one recent example in which cmcs consisting of 0. 5 - to 1 - mm long chopped hi - nicalon sic fibers in a zrb2 matrix hot - pressed at 1700\u00b0c showed significantly improved chevron - beam fracture toughness at compositions containing up to 20 vol. % fiber. increased use of cmcs in aerospace will require microstructure optimization, a path to entry into service, and improved affordability. steyer believes fundamental and applied research in damage accumulation mechanisms / models, life prediction methodologies and modeling, nondestructive inspection techniques, and robust field and depot - level repair methods will result in more cmcs in aerospace applications. micrograph of one strand of a new spray - on super - nanotube composite developed by the national institute of standards and technology ( nist ) and kansas state university. a ceramic shell surrounds the multiwall", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6120370584240997, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d43e370c-46d1-4b2e-b8d2-1aca57d85ec4>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:49.074864"}
{"text": "in more cmcs in aerospace applications. micrograph of one strand of a new spray - on super - nanotube composite developed by the national institute of standards and technology ( nist ) and kansas state university. a ceramic shell surrounds the multiwall nanotube core. the composite is a promising coating for laser power detectors. ( color added for clarity. ) credit : kansas state university. how does one measure the optical power output of lasers that are able to \u2014 and even designed to \u2014 destroy materials? some lasers with optical output that high are built to be weapons ; others are used for friendlier purposes like defusing unexploded landmines. designing a power detector that can capture and measure very high laser power without vaporizing away is one application of a new coating developed by researchers at kansas state university and nist. the team, led by gurpreet singh at ksu published results on a new carbon nanotube - ceramic composite coating in acs applied materials and interfaces, in their recent article, \u201c very high laser - damage threshold of polymer - derived si ( b ) cn - carbon nanotube composite coatings. \u201d according to a nist press release, nist has been coating optical detectors with carbon nanotubes because their intense black color maximizes light absorption. this new coating comprises multiwall carbon nanotubes ( mwcnt ) encased in an amorphous sibcn shell, as shown in the image above. adding boron increases the refractoriness of the coating. the ksu team developed the composite with an assist from the nist researchers who suggested using toluene for both the preceramic polymer solvent and for the mwcnt dispersant. singh explained in an email, \u201c toluene - cnt dispersions were more stable and homogeneous [ than dispersions based on ] chloroform, acetone, or water. \u201d the nwcnts are dispersed in toluene into which preceramic polymer is added. when the solution is heated to 1, 100\u00b0c, an amorphous sibcn shell forms over the mwcnts. the composite is ground into a fine powder, dispersed in toluene, and sprayed onto copper substrates. the optical power meter works by absorbing the high - intensity laser light on its inside surface, which is typically a copper cone calorimeter coated with a black absorbing material ( for example, the new mwcnt - ceramic coating ). it absorbs the incident light", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6222020253388963, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d43e370c-46d1-4b2e-b8d2-1aca57d85ec4>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:49.076043"}
{"text": "those volumes, proppants need to be available locally and cheap. his group is looking at ways to use discarded materials \u2014 such as glass cullet, slags, wrong - size roofing shingle minerals, and even the drill cuttings pulled from the wells \u2014 to make high - quality, inexpensive proppants, while solving some other industrial disposal problems. he also offered some intriguing ideas for \u201c smart proppants \u201d based on magnetic particles with piezoelectric outer shells that could provide in situ monitoring of the wells. the rcd regulars like to characterize themselves as a \u201c family. \u201d to my delight, this family welcomed me into the clan by singing \u201c happy birthday \u201d to me yesterday to celebrate my nth 39th birthday! there \u2019 s more to multifunctional ultra - flyweight aerogel produced at a zhejiang u. lab than just \u2018 world \u2019 s lightest material \u2019 record i suspect this story may seem a little like old news to some readers, but a lot of the pop - sci reporting in the last few days about a new ultralight aerogel ( actually, a ufa or ultra - flyweight aerogel, i. e., less than 1 mg cm\u22123 ) has missed the point by a wide margin. the big takeaway from this story, as documented in a new advanced materials paper, is that the graphene \u2013 carbon nanotube ( cnt ) aerogel is relatively easy to make, appears to be easily scalable, and is moldable into any shape. moreover, the new ufa, besides having ultralow density, also is extremely flexible and elastic \u2014 with the elasticity independent of temperature \u2014 and is thermally stable, a good electrical conductor, hydrophobic, and capable of absorbing extremely high capacities for organic liquids and phase change materials. now, certainly, there is a significant gee - whiz factor for gaining the \u201c world \u2019 s lightest material \u201d title, an achievement based on a density of 0. 16 mg cm\u22123, accomplished by the research team at zhejiang university headed by gao chao. the group \u2019 s material is not the first ufa. within the past 18 months, other researchers have constructed nickel foams with density of 0. 9 mg cm\u22123 ( via electroless plating and subsequently etching away a polymer template ), and another group constructed an aerographite with a density of 0. 18 mg cm\u22123 ( via a zno template - based chemical vapor deposition approach ). but, both groups \u2019 dependency on a template also", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6111656939824324, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d43e370c-46d1-4b2e-b8d2-1aca57d85ec4>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:49.082440"}
{"text": "of cnts reinforces the relatively flexible graphene substrate and endows their intrinsic elasticity to the coorganized aerogel. \u201d one of the ufa \u2019 s interesting properties is its elasticity that allows it to be repeatedly compressed and returned to its nearly original size. this sponginess comes in handy in combination with another property : it can rapidly absorb up to 900 times its own weight in oil or other organic liquids. for example, one gram can absorb 68. 8 grams of organics per second. the elasticity remained the same in tests that ranged from \u2212190 to 300\u00b0c. the elasticity also remained after researchers annealed the ufa at 900\u00b0c for five hours. there are probably many ways the elasticity and absorbability can be useful, not the least of which is that, because of its hydrophobicity, it could be a reusable medium to soak up oil spills on lakes and oceans. gao says in the university story, \u201c maybe one day when oil spill occurs, we can scatter them on the sea and absorb the oil quickly. due to its elasticity, both the oil absorbed and the aerogel can be recycled. \u201d ( another chinese research group working at tsinghua and peking universities published a paper in 2010 about the use of cnts for oil spills, and i suspect that there is some overlap between the work of the two groups. ) another property of the ufa is that it has elasticity - dependent electrical conductivity. for example, they report connecting an led lamp top the ufa bulk, and \u201c its brightness fluctuates upon compressing and releasing the aerogel. this phenomenon promises the application of ufas as pressure - responsive sensors. \u201d they also say that by loading the ufa with tiny amounts of certain liquids ( say, ccl4 or 1 - hexadecanol ), they can make conductive composites with very high electrical conductivity compared to just cnt - or graphene - based composites. video of variable conductivity of ufa demonstrating current change to led when aerogel is compressed and released. credit : gao et al. ; advanced materials. gao and the other authors also suggest the ufa could find use as supercapacitors and catalyst beds, but another intriguing application they only hint at is its use as a medium that enhances phase - change energy storage materials. for example, unlike other composites, a ufa - paraffin combination delivers higher phase - change enthal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6030651751220106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d43e370c-46d1-4b2e-b8d2-1aca57d85ec4>", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T00:15:49.084758"}