data/train/batch_000032.jsonl

{"text": "to investigate persistent contrails. while it is not clear whether the persistent contrails witnessed recently are the result of a geo - engineering program, geo - engineering is a real industry being pursued by entrepreneurs who see financial opportunity in the climate change crisis. us patent # 5003186 from 1991 titled \" stratospheric welsbach seeding for reduction of global warming \" is also known as the welsbach patent. the welsbach materials include metal oxides such as aluminum oxide. one technique proposed in the \" welsbach patent \" was to add tiny metallic particles to the jet fuel and emit them from the jet engine exhaust while the airline was at cruising altitudes. geoengineering watch states that, \" extremely high quantities of aluminum, barium, strontium and other metals and chemicals are showing up in rainwater, surface water, and air. in just the last four years, citizens in the pacific northwest have taken dozens of tests where the levels of aluminum has escalated hundreds of times from the first tests. some tests of single rain events have elevated nearly 50, 000 percent from the original 7 parts per billion. \" some of the evidence of increased aluminum in air, soil, and water, is presented in the documentary. \" the metals found exactly match the primary elements listed in a host of geo - engineering patents assigned to hughes aircraft, department of defense ( dod ), raytheon, and others. these patents describe the specific goal of creating artificial cloud cover and other forms of weather / climate modification. \" the california state department of health, drinking water division collects all of the water test data from every public drinking water source in california. it discovered that barium, magnesium, lead, manganese, aluminum, iron, sodium, and specific conductance ( the ability of water to conduct a charge ), were being found under unusual circumstances in our drinking water supplies. unusual spikes were occurring in almost all drinking water sources in mendocino county and in other counties throughout the state of california, since 1994. the american association for the advancement of science ( aaas ) met in san diego, california, on february 20, 2010, and brought together climate scientists, geologists, and social policy scholars to discuss geoengineering and how to use it to combat global warming. proposals included altering the atmosphere to make it reflect away more of the heat of the sun or seeding clouds above the oceans. usa today newspaper reports that microsoft founder bill gates has turned his attention to controlling the weather. five us patent and trade office", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6005640739127687, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b5fa6345-9781-4618-acfc-7af1b86d1c8b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:27.908815"}
{"text": "michael fowler, uva the course explores two revolutions in our perception of the universe. the first, in which galileo played the leading role, was the realization that what we see in the heavens \u2014 the moon, the planets, the sun and stars \u2014 are physical objects. for example, the moon has a rocky surface, not unlike some parts of earth, and is not made of some exotic ethereal substance, as had been generally believed before galileo. this discovery led to the realization that the motions of the moon and planets obeyed the same physical laws as ordinary things moving on earth. the second revolution was einstein \u2019 s realization that this was not the whole truth \u2014 space and time are not as straightforward as they first appear, but are related to each other in a simple but unexpected way. among other results, this leads to the surprising consequence that mass and energy are different aspects of the same thing! the course will follow the development of ideas approximately in the historical sequence. it will begin by reviewing some of the greek contributions to math and science, which were essential to both galileo and einstein in their work. we shall prove \u2014 and find very useful \u2014 pythagoras \u2019 theorem, and a few other ideas about triangles. we shall also look at greek ideas about the solar system, and how they measured the distance to the moon quite accurately ( using the ideas about triangles! ). we will examine how these ideas reached western europe by way of the arab world. we shall do some of galileo \u2019 s experiments which led to understanding motions of projectiles, and show how galileo \u2019 s ideas in his own words ( well, in translation ) check out my course on modern physics : it overlaps this course somewhat on relativity, but then goes on to quantum theory. it is an introductory course for physics majors, but many of the lectures are at the same general level as this course. the nasa galileo jupiter probe : this spacecraft has recently taken some fascinating closeups of jupiter \u2019 s moons.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.610387220612103, "token_count": 398, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b62bf67c-ba9c-41b7-a0dd-5afd07cb58cf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:27.953011"}
{"text": "class # 11 ( feb. 12 ) reading questions - the dark side of the universe 1. current observational results constrain to the total matter ( plus energy ) density of the universe to the range 0. 1 < omega < 10 where omega = mtotal / mcritical. explain why this result strongly implies that omega actually equals exactly one and thus, that the universe is \" flat \". 2. explain the \" horizon problem \" ( giving the experimental evidence for this \" problem \" ) and describe how the inflationary model solves this problem. 3. explain the connection between the standard model of particle physics and the inflationary model of the universe. 4. explain how detailed measurement of temperature variations in the cosmic background radiation ( cmb ) provide direct experimental evidence that the universe is \" flat \". 5. what is \" dark energy \" and what is the observational / experimental evidence for its existence. 6. what is a type ia supernova and why do these objects provide nearly \" ideal standard candles \"? 7. what \" shocking \" result was deemed the 1998 \" science breakthrough of the year \" and what is the observational evidence for this result? your question : please give a well formulated question that you have regarding the material covered in this reading assignment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6092034956056951, "token_count": 257, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5a9d025f-972e-4241-87fd-bb5ce24a2833>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.090362"}
{"text": "can computers think? in computing machinery and intelligence, turing argues that if a computer can pass the test that he devised, then it could be stated that a computer is thinking though, not in the way a human thinks. in this paper, i am going to explain the turing test and i am going to explain what turing thought his test proved. i will also discuss two objections that turing talks in his paper and the chinese room argument. finally, i will argue against the idea that computers think because they can not make mistakes. in turings paper computing machinery and intelligence, turing explains a test that he devised, and that if a computer passes this test, then turing states that it could be stated that a computer is thinking. the test is as follows : there is a person in a room ( the interrogator ) and something else outside of the room. the point of the test is to see if the something outside of the room is a human or not - the interrogator is allowed to ask questions to find out the answer. if the interrogator is convinced that the something is a human, then one could say that the something is thinking. but what if the something is a computer? if a computer can trick a person into thinking that the computer is a human being, does that mean that the computer thinks? turing thought his test was a sufficient condition for thought, but not necessarily a necessary condition for thought. by a sufficient condition of thought, turing means that what computers do is a certain kind of thinking. by a necessary condition of thought, turing means that not everyone who thinks need to do what computers do. thus, computers think, but not all thinking things do what computer do. turing, knowing that many people would disagree with him, stated nine objections to his conclusions, and tried to refute these objections. though, i think that delineating and categorizing these concepts into separate entities is simplifying the ordeal ( i think that many of the objections go together and when combined together could be powerful arguments that turing would have a hard time fighting against ), i also think that turing did a good job arguing against them. one objection is the heads in the sand objection. this objection states, the consequences of machines thinking would be too dreadful. let us hope and believe that they cannot do so. ( hofstader & dennet, pg 58 ). i really liked turings response to this objection, which had a mocking feel to it, i do not think that this argument is sufficiently", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6000652016613379, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8e6cc053-b2c8-4c02-a190-ae3597e1fa16>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.204784"}
{"text": "us hope and believe that they cannot do so. ( hofstader & dennet, pg 58 ). i really liked turings response to this objection, which had a mocking feel to it, i do not think that this argument is sufficiently substantial to require refutation. consolation would be more appropriate : perhaps this should be sought in the transmigration of souls. ( hofstader & dennet, pg 58 ). i think people use this objection, not only for computers thinking, but for, practically, anything that they disagree with. another objection, which i think is more reasonable, and i think has more ground, is the lady lovelaces objection. the lady lovelaces objection states, the analytical engine has no pretensions to originate anything. it can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. ( hofstader & dennet, g 63 ). that is, a computer cannot invent anything up it it has to be programmed to do so thus, a computer does not think. turing argues against this by stating that computers surprise him all the time with what they come up with : machines take me by surprise with great frequency. this is largely because i do not do sufficient calculation to decide what to expect them to do, or rather because, although i do a calculation, i do it in a hurried slipshod fashion, taking risks. in minds, brain, and programs, searle argues against computers thinking, or to say more precisely, searle argues against people who support strong ai. searle states, according to strong ai, the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind ; rather, the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. ( hofstader & dennet pg. 353 ) instead of using the turing test, searle comes up with the chinese room argument. in the chinese room argument, one imagines themselves in a room, they are given chinese symbols, from some outside source, that they do not understand ( given that they are not a native speaker of chinese ), and they are told to look the symbols up in an exhaustive book of chinese symbols, and write the symbol that the book states to write. they would then give the chinese symbols that they wrote back to the outside source. now, searle argues that he would be translating chinese, but he still wouldnt understand chinese, and he states this is how", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6081991989001491, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8e6cc053-b2c8-4c02-a190-ae3597e1fa16>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.206208"}
{"text": "symbol that the book states to write. they would then give the chinese symbols that they wrote back to the outside source. now, searle argues that he would be translating chinese, but he still wouldnt understand chinese, and he states this is how computer works ; thus, a computer doesnt think. to searle, symbol manipulation is not sufficient for thinking because they dont have intentionality - that is the symbols mean nothing to a computer. searle states, in the linguistic jargon, they have only a syntax but no semantics. ( hofstader & dennet pg. 368 ) i agree with searle and his assessment. i did an improvised chinese room experiment with my friend greg, and found that he knew what to put down and when to put things down ( the syntax ), but he didnt exactly know what he was stating ( the semantics ). attached to this report is the experiment ( including key to symbols ), the results of the experiment, and some questions i had greg answer about the experiment before telling him what he was doing. i personally dont think that passing the turing test is sufficient to state that a computer is thinking. i think that passing the turing test in conjunction with the ability to make a mistake is sufficient to state that a computer is thinking that is, that is if a computer can pass the turing test and be able to make a cognitive mistake, then it is sufficient to state that it is thinking. but that is because, in my opinion, the only sufficient definition of thinking is the ability to make a cognitive mistake. i did not just come up with this litmus test because i feel like it that is, i am not just saying this to disagree with turing. i pondered on this subject. i started to think about the meaning of to think and when do people use it and when people dont use it ; and then finally, the definition turing seems to give it. turing seems to give a sufficient definition, that boils down to, of thinking as the ability to manipulate data. that is if a computer can manipulate date to fool a person into thinking that the computer is a person, then the computer is thinking. but, i started to think about things we consider as non - thinking things, such as plants. and, i think according to the definition the ability to manipulate data you could state that plants think. what is data? what constitutes it? one can construe that sunlight could be data, and that plants manipulate it to create energy in the process known", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.629788250322262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8e6cc053-b2c8-4c02-a190-ae3597e1fa16>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.207304"}
{"text": "i think according to the definition the ability to manipulate data you could state that plants think. what is data? what constitutes it? one can construe that sunlight could be data, and that plants manipulate it to create energy in the process known as photosynthesis ( which, in my opinion, is closer to thinking than a computer can get to ). but, the way that people use the term, thinking, does not include that plants think. then something is missing. i think what is missing is the ability to make a mistake. one thinks, because one can think wrongly, that is, to think is possibly to err. when i think of all things that i think are thinking, the thinking things all have the ability to make a mistake. a raccoon can misjudge the distance of car in a street, after crossing the same street over a hundred times, and get hit by a car ; a person can take an extra step down a flight of steps and their foot can hit the bottom of the floor with a heavy plop, although having walked down those stairs thousands of times before ; etc. as the ability to make a mistake lessens, the ability to think seems to lessen. computers do not think because they cant make mistakes. one can argue that the effects of a computer virus are mistakes, such as the computer crashing or the computer sending out your information to hackers, etc. but this is the difference between a hardware mistake and a software mistake the hardware was not meant to do what the computer is doing, but the software is doing what was expected to do. viruses are made, particularly, to make your life hell. but computers were not made to have viruses. its analogous to saying that a human who has the flu and is sleeping more often is mistaken. lets entertain the idea that computers make mistakes, that is software mistakes, that is mistakes that they are programmed to do. if computers are programmed to make mistakes and they are successful in completing these mistakes, then they are not mistakes, because the by the very definition of mistake it is implied that mistakes are not done on purpose. so if a computer is making a mistake on purpose, then it is not making a mistake, but doing something that it is programmed to do. if it cant make a mistake, then it cant think. in conclusion, i think turings article is wonderful, but i like searles outcome better. i think that thinking is not just the mere manipulation of data, but something else - i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6150197287873016, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8e6cc053-b2c8-4c02-a190-ae3597e1fa16>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.208500"}
{"text": "antsy \u2014 assembly for nanotechnology survey courses this nanohub \u201c topic page \u201d provides an easy access to selected nanohub educational material for a survey course on nanotechnology that is openly accessible. we invite you to participate in this open source, interactive educational initiative : - contribute your content by uploading it to the nanohub. ( see \u201c contribute content \u201d ) on the nanohub mainpage. - provide feedback for the items you use on the nanohub through the review system. ( please be explicit and provide constructive feedback. ) - let us know when things do not work by filing a ticket through the nanohub \u201c help \u201d feature on every page - finally, let us know what you are doing and your suggestions improving the nanohub by using the \u201c feedback \u201d section, which you can find under \u201c support \u201d thank you for using the nanohub, and be sure to share your nanohub success stories with us. we like to hear from you, and our sponsors need to know that the nanohub is having an impact. bucky balls, carbon nanotubes, graphene, crystal structures, and lattices the crystal viewer in abacus enables the interactive visualization different bravais lattices, crystal planes, and materials ( diamond, silicon, indium arsenide, gallium arsenide, graphene, and buckyball ). first - time use of the tool is supported by : crystal viewer tool : first - time user guide carbon nanotubes and graphene ribbons made of the single element carbon have attracted significant interest in the nanotechnology research community. the cntbands tool in antsy allows students to visualize the geometries of materials and study their electronic structure. additional lectures / learning modules : individual quantum dots can be created from two - dimensional electron or hole gases present in remotely doped quantum wells or semiconductor heterostructures. the sample surface is coated with a thin layer of resist. a lateral pattern is then defined in the resist by electron beam lithography. this pattern can be transferred to the electron or hole gas by etching or by depositing metal electrodes ( lift - off process ) that allow the application of external voltages between the electron gas and the electrodes. such quantum dots are mainly of interest for experiments and applications involving electron or hole transport, i. e., an electrical current. the energy spectrum of a quantum dot can be engineered by controlling the geometrical size, shape, and strength of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6905058323767475, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d6f11b8-4f77-4f49-886e-4271d3e85976>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.430015"}
{"text": ". such quantum dots are mainly of interest for experiments and applications involving electron or hole transport, i. e., an electrical current. the energy spectrum of a quantum dot can be engineered by controlling the geometrical size, shape, and strength of the confinement potential. also, in contrast to atoms, it is relatively easy to connect quantum dots to conducting leads using tunnel barriers, which allows the application of the techniques of tunneling spectroscopy for their investigation. confinement in quantum dots can also arise from electrostatic potentials ( generated by external electrodes, doping, strain, or impurities ). quantum dot lab in antsy computes the eigenstates of a particle in a box of various shapes, including domes and pyramids. - quantum dots is a nano 101 introductory lecture that starts from particle - wave duality and explores the concepts of quantum dots. - introduction to quantum dot lab ( by lee, ryu, klimeck ) - quantum dot lab learning module : an introduction ( by fodor, guo ) - quantum dot spectra, absorption, and state symmetry : an exercise the piece - wise constant potential tool in antsy allows calculation of the transmission and the reflection coefficient of arbitrary five, seven, nine, eleven and 2n - segment piecewise constant potential energy profile. for the case of multi - well structure it also calculates the quasi - bound states so it can be used as a simple demonstration tool for the formation of energy bands. also, it can be used in the case of stationary perturbation theory exercises to test the validity of the first - order and the second - order correction to the ground state energy of the system due to small perturbations of the confining potential. the piece - wise constant potential tool in antsy can also be used to test the validity of the wentzel \u2013 kramers \u2013 brillouin ( wkb ) approximation for triangular potential barriers. - quantum - mechanical reflections : an exercise - double - barrier case : an exercise - from 1 well to 2 wells to 5 wells to periodic potentials : an exercise - energy bands as a function of the geometry of the n - well potential : an exercise - cosine bands : an exercise for pcpbt - quantum - mechanical reflections in nanodevices : an exercise - tunneling through triangular barrier : an exercise for pcpbt - stationary perturbation theory : an exercise for pcpbt a barrier placed in the path of electrons will block their flow. if the barrier is too thin, however, the electrons can tunnel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6659646358213033, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d6f11b8-4f77-4f49-886e-4271d3e85976>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.430969"}
{"text": ". most lectures are available for interactive online viewing, as pdf downloads, and even podcasts. show a student and they will remember ; involve them, and they will understand. enjoy using intuitive and user - friendly tools without software installation and reading massive manuals! you will be able to ask \u201c what if? \u201d questions and get answers rapidly to develop intuition and insight. register for a free nanohub account or log into your existing nanohub account and begin teaching and learning with the tool powered curriculum. ( image ( / site / media / images / abacus _ small. png, 360px, class = align - right ) failed - file not found ) / www / nanohub / site / media / images / abacus _ small. png the curriculum entitled introduction to semiconductor devices is powered by the tool abacus. the abacus powered curriculum is designed to enhance the learning experience of students in existing classes on semiconductor devices in electrical engineering curricula. abacus is an assembly of different nanohub tools that range from crystals, bandstructure, pn junctions, and transistors. the abacus powered curriculum is a curated page that provides easy access to a variety of different homework and project assignments that are relevant for the teaching of semiconductor devices. educators can request access to homework solutions. any community members are encouraged to contribute content to the nanohub. we encourage you to alert the authors of the curated page to your contribution for possible inclusion. the curriculum entitled quantum mechanics for engineers is powered by the aqme tool which is an assembly of tools we believe are useful in the teaching of introductory quantum mechanical principles in an electrical engineering or physics curriculum. commercial semiconductor devices have become as small as a few tens of nanometers and understanding basic quantum mechanical principles of quantization, bands, and tunneling are of critical importance. the aqme powered curriculum is a curated page that provides access to a variety of different homework and project assignments that are relevant for quantum mechanical principles. educators can request access to homework solutions. any community members are encouraged to contribute content to the nanohub. we encourage you to alert the authors of the curated page to your contribution for possible inclusion.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6679054577386662, "token_count": 446, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d6f11b8-4f77-4f49-886e-4271d3e85976>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.433035"}
{"text": "when manufacturing semiconductor devices, there is a problem in that when the demand for accuracy with respect to a semiconductor pattern dimension comes close to a resist molecule size with miniaturization, the device performance is deteriorated due to edge roughness of a resist pattern which exerts a bad influence on the system performance. hitachi ltd. ( tokyo, jp ) researchers overcame the problem by a procedure in which super - molecules which are small in dimension as compared with the conventional polymers are used as main components. the reaction number required for the change of molecule solubility is made constant and as large as possible. an acid generator is made of clathrate or combinatory n super molecules to make the acid catalyst concentration large. as a result, it is possible to form a pattern of molecular accuracy with high productivity even with respect to the pattern dimension less than 50 nanometers, thereby realizing a high performance system, according to inventors hiroshi fukuda, yoshiyuki yokoyama, takashi hattori, toshio sakamizu, tadashi arai and hiroshi shiraishi in u. s. patent 7, 642, 145. according to hitachi inventors, a semiconductor device may be made by forming a pattern by irradiating resist film with patterned radiation, the resist is constituted using, as main components, derivative molecules ( desirably, average diameter is smaller than 2 nanometers ) such as cyclodextrine having the defined molecular weight of 5000 or less including an acid generation group which produces an acid catalyst by irradiation of radiation and the defined number of reactive groups of 4 or more which produces polarity conversion reaction by the acid catalyst, calixarane, multi - nuclear phenol, dendrimer, fullerene, crown ether, androsteron derivative, silicon ( si ) monomer origomer and the like.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6147710280480012, "token_count": 382, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:78720433-e3ba-434f-ba44-07ef19bead8e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.434948"}
{"text": "and social background and which is held with unshakeable conviction. also known as wahnstimmung, a feeling that something unusual is about to happen of special significance for that person. a normal perception which has become highly invested with significance and which has become incorporated into a delusional system, e. g. ' when i saw the traffic lights turn red i knew that the dog i was walking was a nazi and a lesbian nazi at that '. an chronic organic mental illness which produces a global deterioration in cognitive abilities and which usually runs a deteriorating course. an experience where the self is felt to be unreal, detached from reality or different in some way. depersonalisation can be triggered by tiredness, dissociative episodes or partial epileptic seizures. an affective disorder characterised by a profound and persistent sadness. an experience where the person perceives the world around them to be unreal. the experience is linked to depersonalisation. abnormal movements as in tardive dyskinesia a late onset onet of abnormal involuntary movements. tardive dyskinesia is conventionally thought a late side effect of first generation antipsychotics, but some abnormal movements were seen in schizophrenia before the introduction of antipsychotics. a dyspraxia is a difficulty with a previously learnt or acquired movement or skill. an example might be a dressing dyspraxia or a constructional dyspraxia. dyspraxias tend to indicate cortical damage, particularly in the parietal lobe region. a speech disorder in which the person inappropriately and automatically repeats the last words he or she has heard. palilalia is a form of echolalia in which the last syllable heard is repeated endlessly. a movement disorder in which the person automatically and inappropriately imitates or mirrors the movements of another. schneider classified the most characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia as first - rank features of schizophrenia. these included third person auditory hallucinations, thought echo, thought interference ( insertion, withdrawal, and broadcasting ), delusional perception and passivity phenomena. this follows frontal lobe damage or may be consequent upon a lesion such as a tumour of infarction. there is a lack judgement, a coarsening of personality, disinhibition, pressure of speech, lack of planning ability, and sometimes apathy. perseveration and a return of the grasp reflex may occur. an abnormal sensory experience that arises in the absence of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6025078154013439, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ff15d275-e39d-40f1-907f-cd0b43ce756b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.523415"}
{"text": "coarsening of personality, disinhibition, pressure of speech, lack of planning ability, and sometimes apathy. perseveration and a return of the grasp reflex may occur. an abnormal sensory experience that arises in the absence of a direct external stimulus, and which has the qualities of a normal percept and is experienced as real and usually in external space. hallucinations may occur in any sensory modality. an affective disorder characterised by elation, overactivity, an insomnia. an abnormal perception caused by a sensory misinterpretation of and actual stimulus, sometimes precipitated by strong emotion, e. g. fear provoking a person to imagine they have seen an intruder in the shadows. in psychotic mental disorders and organic brain syndromes a patient ' s insight into whether or not they are ill and therefore requiring treatment may be affected. in depression a person may lack insight into their best qualities and in mania a person may overestimate their wealth and abilities. an abnormal experience where an individual feels that a routine or familiar event has never happened before. ( see deja vu ). a syndrome of amnesia and confabulation following chronic alcoholism. short - term memory is particularly affected. named after the russian psychiatrist korsakoff. see ' passivity phenomena '. an affective disorder characterised by intense euphoria, overactivity and loss of insight. a novel word often invented and used in schizophrenic thought disorder. a syndrome ascribed to neuroleptics. the syndrome includes hyperpyrexia ( temperature over 39 degrees celsius ), autonomic instability and muscular rigidity. the syndrom is not dose related and appears to be related to a very wide variety of substances including antidepressants, antipsychotics and lithium. there is a significant risk of mortality. whether the syndrome is a variant of the lethal catatonia syndrome ( described before the advent of modern neuroleptics ) is a an unpleasant or nonsensical thought which intrudes into a person ' s mind, despite a degree of resistance by the person who recognises the thought as pointless or senseless, but nevertheless a product of their own mind. obsessions may be accompanied by compulsive behaviours which serve to reduce the associated anxiety. parietal lobe signs include various agnosias ( such as visual agnosias, sensory neglect, and tactile agnosias ), dyspraxias ( such", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6041281859043452, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ff15d275-e39d-40f1-907f-cd0b43ce756b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.524479"}
{"text": "ether. to produce the sensation of red to the eye, the luminous line must vibrate 477 millions of millions of times in a second. blue, or rather purple, is the high treble vibration, like the upper c in music. there must be a vibration of 699 millions of millions in a second to produce it ; while the cord that produces the high c must vibrate 516 times per second. heat, in its effect upon nature, produces colours and sounds. the world \u2019 s temperature declines one degree at the height of 100 feet from the earth. there is a difference of one degree in the temperature, corresponding to each 1, 000 feet, at the elevation of 30, 000 feet. colouration is effected, at the surface of the earth, to the same amount in one minute that takes half an hour over three miles high, in the full rays of the sun. the dissemination of light in the atmosphere is wholly due to the aqueous vapour in it. the spectrum is gained from the sun. in the air opposite to it, there is no spectrum. these conclusions result from balloon observations made in april 1863, and the philosophical deductions are a victory for ' aqueous vapour '. it has been demonstrated that flames are both sensitive and sounding ; they have, therefore, special affinities. ' the author of the nature and origin of evil is of opinion that there is some inconceivable benefit in pain, abstractly considered ; that pain, however inflicted or wherever felt, communicates some good to the general system of being ; and that every animal is some way or other the better for the pain of every other animal. this opinion he carries so far as to suppose that there passes some principle of union through all animal life, as attraction is communicated to all corporeal nature ; and that the evils suffered on this globe may by some inconceivable means contribute to the felicity of the inhabitants of the remotest planet. ' - - contemporary review of the nature and origin of evil. ' without subordination, no created system can exist : all subordination implying imperfection ; all imperfection, evil ; and all evil, some kind of inconveniency or suffering. ' - - soame jenyns, free enquiry into the nature and origin of evil. ' whether subordination implies imperfection may be disputed. the means respecting themselves may be as perfect as the end. the weed as a weed is no less perfect", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6517465974260057, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e4d2c8bf-341b-41d5-a454-ed99fd17537f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.636006"}
{"text": "this unit provides an introduction to the design and analysis of algorithms. the main aims are ( i ) to learn how to develop algorithmic solutions to computational problem and ( ii ) to develop understanding of algorithm efficiency and the notion of computational hardness. this course assumes basic knowledge of discrete math. in particular, students should be familiar with graphs, big o notation, and induction. - quizzes ( best 10 out of 12 ) \u2014 20 % - assignments ( best 10 out of 12 ) \u2014 20 % - final exam \u2014 60 % \" algorithm design \" by tardos and kleinberg, addison lecture. - main lecture : mondays 10 : 00am - noon in merewether lecture theatre 2 ( rm 136 ) - advanced lecture : mondays 4 : 00pm - 5 : 00pm in new law school seminar 030 please go to the e - learning site to the full uos outline, access assignments, quizzes, and your marks for this unit. | date | | topic | | reference | | slides | | scribbles | | python code | | python output | | tutorial | | july 30 | | algorithm analysis review | | 2 - 1, 2, 4, 5 | | introduction | | problem set 1 | | ( adv lecture ) | | stable matching | | 1. 1 | | stable matching | | august 6 | | graph algorithms | | 3 | graphs | | scribbles | | bfs | | interaction | | problem set 2 | | ( adv lecture ) | | dfs on directed graphs | | 3 | | directed graphs | | scribbles | | august 13 | | greedy algorithms | | 4. 1, 2, 5, 6 | | greedy | | scribbles | | problem set 3 | | ( adv lecture ) | | fibonacci heaps | | 3 | | fibonacci | | august 20 | | divide and conquer | | 5. 1, 2, 5 | | dnc | | problem set 4 | | ( adv lecture ) | | fast fourier transform | | 5. 6 | | fft | | august 27 | | dynamic programming | | 6. 1, 2, 4 | | slides | | scribbles | | problem set 5 | | september 3 | | dynamic programming 2 | | 6. 5, 6 | | slides | | scribbles | | nim | | problem set 6 | | ( adv lecture ) | | optimal binary search trees | | scribbles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6056937798881581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ceba01e1-49e7-4d2a-bf60-84ccfe4c4e1f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.706836"}
{"text": "3 | | dynamic programming 2 | | 6. 5, 6 | | slides | | scribbles | | nim | | problem set 6 | | ( adv lecture ) | | optimal binary search trees | | scribbles | | september 10 | | network flows | | 7. 1, 2, 5 | | slides | | scribbles | | problem set 7 | | ( adv lecture ) | | augmenting path rules | | 7. 3 | | - | | scribbles | | september 17 | | network flows applications | | 7. 6, 7, 9, 11 | | slides | | scribbles | | problem set 8 | | october 8 | | np - completeness | | 8. 1, 2, 3, 4. 6 | | slides | | scribbles | | problem set 9 | | ( adv lecture ) | | primes ni np | | notes | | - | | scribbles | | october 15 | | weak np - hardness, conp | | 8. 8 - 9 | | slides | | scribbles | | problem set 10 | | ( adv lecture ) | | polynomial time hierarchy | | - | | - | | scribbles | | october 22 | | coping with np - hardness | | 10. 1, 2 11. 3 12. 1, 2, 4 | | slides | | scribbles | | problem set 11 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6036110819863776, "token_count": 306, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ceba01e1-49e7-4d2a-bf60-84ccfe4c4e1f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:28.707306"}
{"text": "n : the letter \" n \" when used as a prefix before a unit symbol indicates a multiplier of 10 - 9. abbreviation of \" nano \". e. g., nv = 10 - 9 volt, one nanovolt, one billionth of a volt. na : symbol and abbreviation of nanoampere ( = 10 - 9 ampere, one billionth of an ampere ). nano : when used as a prefix before a unit name it indicates a multiplier of 10 - 9. e. g., nanovolt = 10 - 9 volt, one billionth of a volt. symbol : \" n \". nanoampere : 10 - 9 ampere, symbol : \" na \" ( one billionth of an ampere ). nanometer : abbreviated \" nm \", a unit of length equal to one thousandth of a micrometer. nanovolt : 10 - 9 volt, symbol : \" nv \" ( one billionth of a volt ). negatively charged electrode, usually of a secondary cell ; acts as anode during discharge and cathode during charge. nernst equation : an equation defining the equilibrium potential of an electrode. the potential is the sum of the standard electrode potential and a correction term for the deviation from unit concentrations of the reactant and the product of the electrode reaction in the solution ; if the \" reduced \" form is a metal, a pure metal ( not alloyed with other metals ) is considered to be at unit concentration. the correction term is the product of the \" nernst slope \" and the logarithm of the ratio of the concentrations ( strictly speaking, activities ) of the oxidized species and the reduced species. at room temperature, the nernst slope is 0. 05916 volt divided by the number of electrons transferred during the reaction. e. g., for a simple metal deposition / dissolution reaction the slope is 0. 05916 for a single charged metal cation, 0. 00296 volt for a double charged ion, etc. nernst slope : see nernst equation. it is equal to the change of equilibrium electrode potential when the concentration ( strictly speaking, activity ) of a species involved in the electrode reaction changes by ten fold. nernstian behavior : an electrode is said to behave \" nernstially \" if the equilibrium electrode potential obeys the nernst equation when the concentration ( strictly speaking, activity ) of a species involved", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6243397134967853, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:de6ae0c5-8442-4fad-bc99-b4a87a1858dd>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:29.745912"}
{"text": "electrode reaction changes by ten fold. nernstian behavior : an electrode is said to behave \" nernstially \" if the equilibrium electrode potential obeys the nernst equation when the concentration ( strictly speaking, activity ) of a species involved in the electrode reaction changes. opposite : non - nernstian behavior. nernstian ( or nernst ' s ) hypothesis : see diffusion layer. nernstian reaction : see reversible electrode neutralization : ( 1 ) the reaction of an acid and a base to form a \" neutral \" ( ph = 7 ) solution. ( 2 ) the removal of electrical charge to produce a \" neutral \" ( electrically uncharged ) particle or neutron : see atomic structure. nhe : stands for \" normal hydrogen electrode, \" which is an alternative name for the standard hydrogen electrode. noble metal : a metal that resists oxidation ( corrosion ) in air, and therefore retains its metallic luster. examples are platinum and gold. these metals have high positive standard electrode potentials and are the lowest ones on the electromotive series. contrast with active metal. non - aqueous solution : a solution with the solvent anything but water ( e. g., organic or inorganic liquid, molten salt ). non - faradaic current ( density ) : see capacitive current ( density ). non - nernstian behavior : an electrode is said to behave \" non - nernstially \" if the equilibrium electrode potential does not obey the nernst equation when the concentration ( strictly speaking, activity ) of a species involved in the electrode reaction changes. opposite : nernstian non - ohmic resistance ( behavior ) : a system or system element is behaving \" non - ohmically \" if it does not follow ohm ' s law. that is, the value of the resistance depends on the current or the potential. opposite : ohmic behavior. the resistance can be formally defined as the differential of the potential with respect of the current. in the case of ohm ' s law, this is the constant value of the resistance. in electrochemistry, a typical \" non - ohmic \" element is the charge - transfer resistance. the charge - transfer reaction can be considered a circuit element because it requires a certain amount of overpotential to force through a current. however, the pertinent relation here is the tafel law ( at least at relatively large overpotentials ), and the differential of the current ( that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6615412845511891, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:de6ae0c5-8442-4fad-bc99-b4a87a1858dd>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:29.746794"}
{"text": "because it requires a certain amount of overpotential to force through a current. however, the pertinent relation here is the tafel law ( at least at relatively large overpotentials ), and the differential of the current ( that is the resistance ) is a function of the current itself. non - polarizable electrode : an electrode that is not easily polarizable. that is, the potential of the electrode will not change significantly from its equilibrium potential with the application of even a large current density. the reason for this behavior is that the electrode reaction is inherently fast ( has a large exchange current density ). see also overpotential. opposite : polarizable electrode. non - rechargeable battery : a battery in which the chemical reaction system providing the electrical current is not easily \" chemically \" reversible. it provides current until all the chemicals placed in it during manufacture are used up. it is discarded after a single discharge. also called \" primary \" battery or cell. contrast with rechargeable battery. this battery always operates as a galvanic cell. consequently, the anode is the negative electrode, while the cathode is the positive electrode. normal electrode potential : alternative name for standard electrode potential. normal hydrogen electrode : alternative name for standard hydrogen electrode. abbreviated as \" nhe. \" nucleus : see atomic structure. nv : symbol and abbreviation of nanovolt ( = 10 - 9 volt, one billionth of a volt ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6097198350019999, "token_count": 305, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:de6ae0c5-8442-4fad-bc99-b4a87a1858dd>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:29.747357"}
{"text": "x ) = y, x is the independent variable argumentation, logical argument, argument, line of reasoning, line ( noun ) a course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating a truth or falsehood ; the methodical process of logical reasoning \" i can ' t follow your line of reasoning \" kernerman english learner ' s dictionary argument ( noun ) \u02c8\u0251r gy\u0259 m\u0259nt an angry disagreement an argument about who would pay ; to have an argument ; you ' re always getting into arguments. argument\u02c8\u0251r gy\u0259 m\u0259nt reasons sb gives to support an opinion the argument for / against going to war a fact or statement used to support a proposition ;. a series of propositions organized so that the final proposition is a conclusion which is intended to follow logically from the preceding propositions, which function as premises., or reference to a value, passed to a function. parameters are like labeled fillable blanks used to define a function whereas arguments are passed to a function when calling it, filling in those blanks. in a function definition ; an actual parameter, as opposed to a formal parameter. any of the phrases that bears a syntactic connection to the verb of a clause. a reason or reasons offered in proof, to induce belief, or convince the mind ; reasoning expressed in words ; as, an argument about, concerning, or regarding a proposition, for or in favor of it, or against it a process of reasoning, or a controversy made up of rational proofs ; argumentation ; discussion ; disputation the subject matter of a discourse, writing, or artistic representation ; theme or topic ; also, an abstract or summary, as of the contents of a book, chapter, poem matter for question ; business in hand the quantity on which another quantity in a table depends ; as, the altitude is the argument of the refraction the independent variable upon whose value that of a function depends to make an argument ; to argue the foolish dictionary, by gideon wurdz breaking and entering the ear, assault and battery on the brain and disturbing the peace. translations for argument kernerman english multilingual dictionary a quarrel or unfriendly discussion they are having an argument about / over whose turn it is. - \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0641 \u060c \u0646\u0632\u0627\u0639arabic - discussaoportuguese ( br ) - pre, sporczech - der streitgerman - \u0645\u0634\u0627\u062c\u0631\u0647 \u062c\u062f\u0644farsi - \u05d5\u05db\u05d5\u05d7, \u05d5\u05d9\u05db\u05d5\u05d7", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6380783244434165, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:68f67fcb-2a08-4859-a4b0-e0409624c95b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:29.774791"}
{"text": "| | a - b - c - d | e - f - g - h | i - j - k - l | m - n - o - p | q - r - s - t | u - v - w - x - y - z | combination of a camera exposure time and lens aperture giving the same sensor exposure. by convention, ev is expressed on a logarithm 2 basis, so doubling the sensor exposure corresponds to ev + 1. amount of light that falls on a sensor or a film during the exposure time, expressed in lux. sit is dependent upon scene luminance, aperture and exposure time. time during which a sensor acquires ambient light. operation that creates values from a sequence of known values. angular extent of the part of the scene viewed by a camera. optical component that removes some light, either to lower intensity ( neutral filters ) or to change the light spectrum ( colored filters ). optical artifact coming from reflection on lenses, usually visible with a bright light source ( such as the sun ). can lead to \u201c ghosts \u201d of the light source or \u201c veiling glare \u201d ( loss of contrast ) that creates a foggy effect on the image. plane perpendicular to the optical axis at which an object at infinity is in focus. distance at which objects are in focus. choosing the part of a scene that is visible in a photo. by reference to silver - halide photography, sensors whose dimensions are 36x24mm. multiplicative numerical value used to amplify a signal. appearance of the noise in a homogeneous part of an image. numerical values related to the amount of light a pixel receives. uniform part of a color - neutral chart. target commercialized by xrite, containing 24 colored patches, commonly used for color reproduction testing. exposure levels close to or beyond saturation. burned areas appear white and uniform. perceptual property of colors like red, blue, yellow...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6208424984785896, "token_count": 394, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:d4256247-e379-4095-a91b-228c5f466cdb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:29.864872"}
{"text": "dutch scientists have demonstrated controlling the motion of an atomic scale mechanical device, although whether more complex nanotech devices could be controlled by the mechanism at work here remains to be seen. upon exposure to electrons from an stm tip, pairs of platinum atoms on a germanium surface can be made to pivot on one atom, swinging back and forth like a flipper on a pinball machine. from a nanowerk spotlight written by michael berger \u201c playing nanotechnology pinball in the atomic cafe \u201c : functional nanomachinery will need to take into account the quantum effects that dominate the behavior of matter at the nanoscale, affecting the optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of materials. scientists in the netherlands are now reporting how an atomic scale mechanical device consisting of two moving parts, each composed of only two atoms can be controlled by an external electrical signal, while being stable and providing a variety of functional modes. they jokingly refer to it as playing atomic pinball, since the two moving parts resemble the flippers in a pinball machine \u2014 unfortunately they haven \u2019 t got a ball yet to play with. \u201c we have demonstrated the stimulated and controllable mobility of an atomic scale mechanical device \u201d dr. harold j. w. zandvliet tells nanowerk. \u201c this atomic scale variant of pinball machine flippers exhibits a variety of dynamic modes that are exclusively excited by an external electrical signal. our work is an important advance in atomic - scale engineering since it shows that even on the scale of a few atoms, a device can be constructed that only operates if an external stimulus is applied. \u201d \u2026 the scientists believe that the most likely explanation for the flipping dimer is that the substrate atom underneath the two revolving atoms has been replaced by a different atom, leading to a reduced binding of the dimers with the substrate and a sideways displacement of the dimers as they attach to neighboring substrate atoms. the research was published in nano letters ( abstract ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6304632536119249, "token_count": 394, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a4859af-3f94-40c1-bd22-4bf127bd5572>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.023907"}
{"text": "lawsonomy volume one matter is composed of substances of different density. density has limitless variability and is everywhere in space. matter is the physical contents of space that takes shape, moves about and changes from one thing to another. substances combine and take various forms according to immutable laws. all substances are composed of substances without end. solids, liquids, air, gases, heat, light, electricity and sound are made up of different proportions of different substances. a ray of light too small for the naked eye of man to see is made up of a number of substances each of which is composed of substances. as space has no size there can be no limit to the smallness of things and those contents of space which appear small to the eye of man are large to the formations that compose them. the earth is large to man but small when compared to the solar system. but the solar system is small when compared to the universe. so the contents of space obtain size only when one thing is compared with another. a difference in density is caused by various substances taking up more or less space. substances of greater density take up less space and substances of lesser density take up more space. greater density in space is mass and lesser density in space is volume. matter is separable without limit. there is no thing in space that cannot be divided and subdivided. so - called wise men thought that the atom was the smallest bit of matter in existence and that it could not be divided. then later other wise men found that the electron was smaller than the atom. they, however, then decided that the electron was the smallest thing in existence and that it could not be divided. but i say that the electrons cannot only be divided into parts but that its constituents can also be divided and subdivided. elements are the substances that compose a formation or the substance in which a formation is immersed. man first began to notice the elements that affected his senses, such as light, heat, cold, sound, gases, air and water. little by little man extended his range of vision until he realized that the elements affecting his senses were also composed of elements. now, man partially understands the nature of certain elements that make up the substances of his own body as well as the nature of the elements that compose air, water, gases and light. with the magnifying glass man is enabled to enlarge minute particles that his naked eye cannot see. but hundreds of years elapsed from the time man first learned that he could see these microscopic particles through a magnifying glass", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.65466594905744, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:72b5eef3-2956-4881-adf0-8b7c7048fe11>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.557397"}
{"text": "light. with the magnifying glass man is enabled to enlarge minute particles that his naked eye cannot see. but hundreds of years elapsed from the time man first learned that he could see these microscopic particles through a magnifying glass and the time he began to realize that they played an important part in life. man ' s perspective of life will be enlarged as he increases his range of vision. man must learn that the elements composing air, light, heat, cold, electricity and sound are also made up of elements. it is the proportions of different elements that make up formations that cause the difference in their density and their nature. man may be made up of sixteen different elements and these same sixteen elements may be found in different animals, fish and plants, but the difference in proportions of the elements that constitute the different structures is what makes the difference in the structures. man may find the same elements in the air that he finds in water, but it is the difference in the proportions of their constituents that causes the difference in their nature and density. man may find the same constituents in solids that he finds in light, but the difference in proportions of these constituents is what makes the difference in their nature and density. many kinds of atoms may contain electrons, but it is the difference in the proportions of their constituents that makes the difference in their nature and density. many different kinds of electrons may contain the same minute formations, but it is the difference in their proportions that makes the difference in their nature and density. so, by and through the different proportions of elements brought together in formations, density takes on different qualities and quantities which expand or contract in volume or mass and make possible the movement and changeability of matter and the physical manifestations of life. comparison is the rule that measures the difference in quantities and qualities. return to contents. return to home page. please mail to : webmaster @ lawsonomy. org should you have questions or concerns about this site.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6537734331914098, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:72b5eef3-2956-4881-adf0-8b7c7048fe11>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.558347"}
{"text": "behind the buzz and beyond the hype : our nanowerk - exclusive feature articles posted : oct 19th, 2007 fullerenes for hydrogen storage ( nanowerk spotlight ) in our spotlight on the issues of moving to hydrogen - powered cars ( nanotechnology could clean up the hydrogen car ' s dirty little secret ) we briefly touched upon the problem of storing hydrogen onboard a vehicle. one gram of hydrogen gas will allow you to drive about 100 meters ; unfortunately this single gram occupies almost 11 liters ( 2. 9 gallons ) of volume at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. in order to match today ' s cars ' average reach of 400 - 500 kilometers per tank filling you would need to store 4 to 5 kg, or 40, 000 to 50, 000 liters, of hydrogen in your car. this is doable, but complicated and inconvenient, either by using intense pressure of several hundred atmospheres to store hydrogen as gas, or under cryogenic temperatures ( minus 253 degrees centigrade ) to store it in liquid form. both alternatives have drawbacks. an intriguing nanotechnology approach to hydrogen storage is to encapsulate hydrogen inside hollow molecules, under room temperature. fullerenes are ideal nanocages for this purpose, not only because they are hollow but also because hydrogen can be adsorbed on the fullerene surface. a new theoretical study provides the most accurate method to date for the structural optimization of such hydrogen - c60 composites, allowing to predict the hydrogen content in fullerene nanocages and their corresponding stability. \" we wanted to look at the properties of fullerene nanocages containing hydrogen and, as we studied the literature, found that the results in the few theoretical papers that considered endohedral c60 fullerene containing hydrogen molecules were contradictory \" dr. boris i. yakobson tells nanowerk. \" for instance, the maximum amount of hydrogen to form a stable hydrogen - c60 composite was determined as 23, 24, or 25 molecules. there even was a claim that there was not enough space for more than one hydrogen molecule inside c60. there is also a disagreement regarding the possibility of hydrogen chemisorption on the inner walls of the fullerene. \" since the previous studies did not agree with each other, yakobson, a professor in materials science and computational materials science in the department of mechanical engineering & materials science at rice university in houston, texas, and his group decided to use a more accurate method \u2013 density functional theory \u2013 to determine the geometry of these composite structures, and to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6479059104563538, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1c427949-4643-4847-b9c7-ef91b3787764>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.745143"}
{"text": "in materials science and computational materials science in the department of mechanical engineering & materials science at rice university in houston, texas, and his group decided to use a more accurate method \u2013 density functional theory \u2013 to determine the geometry of these composite structures, and to systematically study their properties for both high and low hydrogen content. they also performed ab initio molecular dynamics simulations in order to investigate the stability of the optimized structures. ab initio molecular dynamics simulations of breaking c60 nanocage containing 58 hydrogen atoms at room temperature. ( image : dr. pupysheva ) \" most importantly \" adds olga v. pupysheva, first author of the paper, \" after investigating the hydrogen pressure inside c60, we find a general relation between the internal pressure and expansion of a fullerene nanocage of an arbitrary radius. this opens a way to make our results transferable, e. g., to giant fullerenes or nanotubes, that is, to predict the possible hydrogen content inside them without repeating ab initio calculations, which are overly expensive for such large systems. \" dr. amir a. farajian, a co - author of the paper, says that endohedral fullerenes ( i. e. fullerenes encapsulating additional atoms ) containing more than one hydrogen molecule have not been obtained experimentally yet. \" it is very difficult to synthesize them, because they are highly endothermic \" he says. \" however, our calculations show that these structures can exist, and once they are created, they will not break easily. they have a high content of hydrogen, which can be released in a controllable way. so, if anybody manages to obtain them, they will be a great hydrogen storage media. \" the rice scientists also found that for a relatively small number of encapsulated hydrogen atoms \u2013 less than 20 \u2013 all the hydrogen inside c60 exists only in molecular form. if the fullerenes contain more than 30 hydrogen atoms, some of them form covalent bonds with the carbons of the fullerene cage. yakobson and his team determined that the maximum number of hydrogen atoms inside c60, which can form a metastable structure, i. e. corresponds to an energy minimum, is 58. their model allows to calculate the maximum number of hydrogen that can be encapsulated in a stable fullerene of any given radius. for instance, a giant fullerene cage c720 could contain over 800 hydrogen atoms. another, maybe", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6486047554761476, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1c427949-4643-4847-b9c7-ef91b3787764>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.747263"}
{"text": "behaviorism is an approach within psychology based on the proposition that behavior, human as well as animal, can be researched scientifically and understood without recourse to inner mental states. three major figures led to the development of this approach : ivan pavlov, john b. watson, and b. f. skinner. their research produced theories of learning based entirely on reactions, or \" responses, \" by the organism ( human or animal ), directly to stimuli in the environment through processes of conditioning. this was a significant turning point in psychology as a scientific discipline, and led to extensive research in comparative psychology and experimental psychology, providing valuable data on how both animals and humans learn appropriate responses to their external environment. while such theories are no longer considered adequate to explain all forms of learning and behavior, nonetheless, methodologies developed through such studies continue to be utilized in numerous research programs that have greatly expanded understanding of human nature. behaviorism was developed with the mandate that only observations that satisfied the criteria of the scientific method, namely that they must be repeatable at different times and by independent observers, were to be admissible as evidence. this effectively dismissed introspection, the main technique of psychologists following wilhelm wundt ' s experimental psychology, the dominant paradigm in psychology in the early twentieth century. thus, behaviorism can be seen as a form of materialism, denying any independent significance to processes of the mind. a similar approach may be found in political science, known as \" behavioralism. \" the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrent with psychoanalytic movement, originated by the work of sigmund freud, who was also a proponent of a mechanistic view of human nature, but regarded the mind, particularly the unconscious, as the arena in which uniquely human activities occurred. one of the assumptions many behaviorists hold is that free will is an illusion. as a result, behaviorism dictates that all behavior is determined by a combination of genetic factors and the environment, either through classical or operant conditioning. its main instigators were ivan pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, john b. watson who coined the term \" behaviorism, \" and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and b. f. skinner who sought to give grounding to behaviorism, conducting research on operant conditioning. - learning : a change in behavior attributed to the result of experience. - parsimony : the principle that states in the philosophy of science, a person should always opt for the simplest explanation. - stimulus : anything that may", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6058456732778201, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9fd01213-efac-475a-9cd1-f82e4f06df07>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.818116"}
{"text": "on operant conditioning. - learning : a change in behavior attributed to the result of experience. - parsimony : the principle that states in the philosophy of science, a person should always opt for the simplest explanation. - stimulus : anything that may affect the environment and thereby affect an individual ' s behavior. - response : any reaction to a stimulus. for behaviorists, the response is limited to any measurable behavior. - reflex : an unlearned response that is triggered by certain stimuli. - voluntary response : a response that the individual has control over. - classical conditioning : the study of learning that focuses on reflex responses. - operant conditioning : the study of learning that focuses on the changes in voluntary responses as a result of their consequences. - radical behaviorism : a position adopted by watson and skinner, which stated that the study of internal processes are impossible to study objectively and are irrelevant to understanding a person ' s behavior. - behavior modification : applying conditioning principles to alter a person ' s behavior. - equipotentiality : the idea that the principles of condition should apply to all behaviors and all species. - ethology : the study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat. - species - specific behavior : sometimes referred to as instincts, these are behaviors that are characteristic of a specific species. the founders of behaviorism early in the twentieth century, watson argued, in his book psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist, for a psychology which concerned itself solely with the objective observation of behavior. at the time, this was a substantial break from the predominant structuralist psychology, which used the method of introspection and considered the study of behavior obsolete. watson, unlike many of his colleagues, studied the adjustment of organisms to their environment. more specifically, he was interested in determining the particular stimuli that led organisms to make their responses. watson ' s approach was much influenced by the work of russian physiologist ivan pavlov, who discovered the phenomenon of classical conditioning in his famous study of dogs ' digestive systems. watson adopted pavlov ' s model, emphasizing physiological responses and the role of stimuli in producing conditioned responses. for this reason, watson may be described as a \" stimulus - response \" ( s - r ) psychologist. watson ' s theory persuaded most academic researchers of the importance of behavioral study. in the field of comparative psychology in particular, it was consistent with the warning note that had been struck by lloyd morgan ' s canon, against some of the more anthropomorphic work,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6224444978075037, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9fd01213-efac-475a-9cd1-f82e4f06df07>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.819360"}
{"text": "i am talking about and for some reason is unable to understand it \" ( skinner 1972 ). what was important for a behaviorist analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition, so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. in an essay republished in his 1969 book, contingencies of reinforcement, skinner took the view that human beings could construct linguistic stimuli, which would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. the possibility of such \" instructional control \" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior with the same reliability as they did in the various animals that had been studied. behaviorism in philosophy in many ways, behaviorism is both a psychological and a philosophical movement. the basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be an empirical science, such as chemistry or physics. behaviorists sought to create a discipline that forsook all hypothetical and subjective internal states of the organisms they studied. there are approaches within analytic philosophy that have named themselves, or have been coined by others, as behaviorist. in logical behaviorism ( as held, for example, by rudolf carnap and carl hempel ), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of skinner ' s ideas, in his own work on language. gilbert ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book the concept of mind, in which his central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented \" category mistakes, \" and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. daniel dennett likewise has acknowledged himself to be a type of behaviorist ( bennett 1993 ). it has sometimes been argued that ludwig wittgenstein defended a behaviorist position, and there are important areas of overlap between his philosophy, logical behaviorism, and radical behaviorism. ( for example, the \" beetle in a box \" argument in which wittgenstein referred to the concept wherein someone imagines that everyone has a box with a beetle inside. no one can look inside anther ' s box, and each claims to know what a beetle is only by examining their own. wittgenstein suggested that in such a situation, the word \" beetle \" could not be the name of a thing, since everyone may perceive the beetle differently ; the beetle \" drops out of consideration as irrelevant. \" ) however, witt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6139605514572306, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9fd01213-efac-475a-9cd1-f82e4f06df07>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:30.824094"}
{"text": "- wilson, k. g. basic issues of computational science, presented at the international conference in computational physics, trieste, october, 1986. - grand challenges : high performance computing and communications. the fy 1992 u. s. research and development program. supplement to the president ' s fiscal year 1992 budget. p. 7. - swanson, c. d. computational science education, cray research internal working document, september 1994. - decker, j. f., johnson, g. m., computational science : an assessment and projection, proceedings of the 2nd international conference on computational physics, beijing, september 1993, world scientific. - goldstine, h. the computer from pascal to von neumann. princeton university press, 1972. [ a detailed account of early developments in computing. goldstine was himself a key figure in the eniac and edvac projects ]. - hayes, j. p. computer architecture and organization. mcgraw - hill, 1978. [ out of date now as a text on computer architecture, but it has a very nice section on historical details on how babbage ' s machine used the method of finite differences to calculate functions ]. - hodge, a. alan turing : the enigma. simon and schuster, 1983. [ a comprehensive biography of turing ; hodge is a mathematician who provides a satisfying explanation of turing ' s contributions to that field as well as his work on computers and artificial intelligence ]. - slater, r. portraits in silicon. mit press, 1987. [ biographical vignettes on over 30 influential figures in computer science and the computer industry from babbage, turing, and von neumann to seymour cray, bill gates, and ross perot ]. - wilson, k. g. grand challenges to computational science. cornell university, may 1987.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6419721587875791, "token_count": 364, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:93ca5ecd-ad83-4cf2-8b60-88a33b46bebc>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.295498"}
{"text": "instrument to express that values cannot be found from the factual world but they are orginated from the subconsciousness. there are different forms for the hume ' s quillotine statement : \" from what is, does not follow what should be. \" \" no logical inference could be drawn from what is to what ought to be. \" \" values cannot be traced from facts. \" \" between the factual premises and the practical conclusions there is a gap, bridgeable only by an agents willingness to engage in relevant activity or practice. \" however, the recent scientific research has revealed that even in physical world one should accept the existence of some kind of irrationality or individually example 2. quality policy is an important concept for a professional integration. quality policy means what is the overall intention and direction within an organization related to quality. again the genuine quality policy can be seen only in the awareness and actions of people, not in documents. documented quality policy statement issued and signed by the top management of an organization is only a tip of iceberg of the actual policy. it may, however, be a useful managerial tool. anyway, it is not necessary to use the term \" quality policy \" in practical business operations although people have always certain quality policies. consciousness is difficult to define or locate, and it involves a lot of disagreements depending on one ' s philosophical paradigm. nobody can say surely whether consciousness is located in brain, mind, soul, or somewhere else. in biological psychology awareness implies somebody ' s perception via physiological senses and reaction through mental information processes to a condition or event. this type of awareness does not necessarily imply profound understanding. awareness is a relative concept. one may be partially aware, may be subconsciously ( unconsciously ) aware or may be acutely aware of an event. awareness may be focused on an internal state or on external events by way of sensory perception. awareness provides the raw material from which one develops subjective ideas about his / her experience. phenomenal consciousness consists of mental events of experience, including forms with different qualities, sensations, emotions and feelings with us and our responses. in access consciousness a mind is directed at something. that is like \" intentionality \". when we perceive something, we are conscious of what we perceive ; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts ; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past or of some piece of information that we learnt ; and so on. quality of an entity is always a perception of someone who has something to do with that entity. quality is the degree that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6567699427614336, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c7c9a3d-b6a2-4c06-94fe-e8fc8049680a>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.384257"}
{"text": "remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past or of some piece of information that we learnt ; and so on. quality of an entity is always a perception of someone who has something to do with that entity. quality is the degree that the entity with its inherent characteristics fulfils one ' s needs and expectations that may be specifically stated, generally obligatory, or implied. kenneth johnston expressed the individuality in quality realization with his phraseology : \" if you treat everyone the same, what varies is satisfaction. to achieve equal satisfaction, you must vary treatment \". in realizing quality, awareness both of the producent and the recipient of the entity are in close reciprocal relation. in order to be successful this relation should create a mutual win / win awareness. this ultimate intention of quality is multifariously related to the abovementioned phenomena of consciousness and also to the unconsciousness. quality integration means that quality is achieved naturally without any additional or artificial tricks, procedures, or systems in natural and real operational environments. this style of operating is fundamentally based on awareness within the responsible resources or organization ( s ) as clearly expressed by an old chinese principle of wu wei. wu wei involves knowing when to act and when not to act. wu may be translated as not, and wei as do, act, serve as, govern. the literal meaning of wu wei is \" without action \", \" non - doing \", or \" nonaction \". sometimes it is also used a paradox statement wei wu wei, \" action without action \". wu wei implies action that is spontaneous, natural, and effortless. wu wei refers to behavior that arises from a sense of oneself as connected to others and to one ' s environment. it is not motivated by a sense of separateness, and not to be considered inertia, laziness, or mere passivity. an old poem by ray lankester crystallizes this idea : \" a centipede was happy, quite until a toad in fun said, ' pray which leg comes after which? ' this raised her doubts to such a pitch, she fell exhausted in the ditch, not knowing how to run. \" wu wei implies the need to consciously experience ourselves as part of the unity of life. we must be quiet and watchful, learning to listen to both our own inner voices and to the voices of our environment in a non - interfering, receptive manner. in this way we also learn to rely on more than just our intellect and logical mind to gather and assess information. we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_information_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6355395771104875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c7c9a3d-b6a2-4c06-94fe-e8fc8049680a>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.385318"}
{"text": "learning to listen to both our own inner voices and to the voices of our environment in a non - interfering, receptive manner. in this way we also learn to rely on more than just our intellect and logical mind to gather and assess information. we develop and trust our intuition. and we learn through our own experience. all of this allows us to respond readily to the needs of the environment, which includes ourselves. our actions performed in the spirit of wu wei promote harmony and balance. the aim of wu wei is to obtain an irresistible form of \" soft and invisible power \" over things, i. e. not forcing. wu - wei is thus the life - style that must be understood primarily as a form of intelligence - that is of knowing the principles, structures, and trends of human and natural affairs so well that one uses the least amount of energy in dealing with them. and that is also the aim of modern professional quality approach. as there is not any clear definition of consciousness, no empirical tests currently exist to test consciousness as a whole. some have even argued that empirical tests of consciousness are intrinsically events that occur in the mind or brain that are not within phenomenal consciousness are unconscious events. we have always complex and unidentified transactions between one ' s consciousness and unconsciousness. introduced the concept collective unconscious. that related essentially to his idea of archetype. the archetype implies common psychological predispositions of humans. archetypes are stored in the collective unconscious ; the collective unconscious is composed of archetypes. archetypes can not be adequately understood through quantitative modes of research. instead it can only be revealed through an examination of the symbolic communications of the human psyche, and the themes of human relational / behavioral patterns. archetype is defined as the original model of which all other similar objects or concepts are merely derivative, copied, patterned, or emulated. the term is to refer to something that goes back to the fundamental origins of style, method, or structure. social networking, communication and imitation are the major processes related to sharing in the archetypes. of quality is goodness and love as they have existed in all world - religions and philosophies through the whole life of mankind. the archetype of quality integration ( or quality management ) is related to the concept love, e. g. according to the bible : \" thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. \" ( mat 22 : 39 ) this equals with the win / win principle of the modern quality integration. \" proposition 1.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6212682604215736, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4c7c9a3d-b6a2-4c06-94fe-e8fc8049680a>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.387602"}
{"text": "how do z pinches contribute to a variety of scientific research projects? z provides the fastest, most accurate, and cheapest method to determine how materials will react under high pressures and temperatures, characteristics that can then be expressed in formulas called \u201c equations of state. \u201d equations of state tell researchers how materials will react if basic conditions like pressure and temperature are changed by specific amounts. dovetailing theoretical simulations with laboratory work, sandia researchers have been able to perform equation - of - state measurements more precisely than ever before. exposing targets to the high power levels of z also allows scientists to study extreme states of matter, such as plasmas, and it may produce unexpected reactions and generate responses of great interest to many areas of science. fusion research on z, too, contributes to broader scientific insight. because near - perfect symmetry is necessary to ignite fusion ( so the imploding particles will be forced to collide by not having room to escape ), a persistent challenge in fusion science has been to heat the target evenly, so it will implode symmetrically. the capsule and container holding the target have to work together to produce the desired outcome, and their configurations and interactions have been the focus of intense theory and experimentation. diamond, for example, has been the object of much study as a potential capsule material. in melting diamond to a puddle, z scientists have been able to understand the material \u2019 s various states \u2013 from solid to liquid, with a mixed state in - between. thanks to z, researchers now have a better understanding of the mixed state, which is not ideal to ignite a fusion reaction, and they can avoid it as they continue to experiment with diamond. in this and other ways, research on z provides a roadmap for potential problems and opportunities on the path to fusion. beyond the fabrication of fusion pellets and the careful design of targets, achieving fusion requires work on many other interdependent elements including the machines, the mechanisms for delivering power onto a target, implementing detailed diagnostics for experiments, and creating computer codes to understand and then predict what the diagnostics revealed. fusion is conducted in extremely complicated systems that involve complicated radiation dynamics as well as densities and temperatures not otherwise seen in nature. trying to understand all the elements involved requires large computer codes, and tests conducted on the z machine are very useful for testing and refining those codes. all of this work is crucial especially in conjunction with the national ignition campaign, which is the program to reach ignition of an inertial confinement fusion target at the national ignition", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6077979776789606, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1c9cf1d1-d505-41d1-ac40-4ebd58a3e6fe>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.540392"}
{"text": "what is mop? during the past two decades, study after study has pointed out the shortcomings of high school physics courses : ( a ) the vast majority of students who take high school physics emerge with only a shallow understanding of miscellaneous facts and formulas ; ( b ) what knowledge students do acquire is usually plagued with misconceptions, many of which persist despite instruction ; and ( c ) with rare exception, students are unable to apply what they learn to explain, or to reason about, the world around them or to solve interesting, nontrivial problems. these unintended outcomes of physics instruction are the result of a mismatch between the way physics is typically taught and the way students go about the business of learning physics. the minds \u2022 on physics ( mop ) curriculum materials were specifically written to address this situation. in developing mop, we have endeavored to take account of research on the teaching and learning of physics, which has grown steadily during the past twenty years. this research has brought to light many of the cognitive difficulties students face in trying to learn physics ( see supplement b in the teacher ' s guide to accompany mop : motion ). it has also demonstrated the value of an active learning environment and cooperative group work for improving student learning and maintaining student interest ( see supplements a and b in the motion teacher ' s guide ). mop is designed to be consonant with findings from many different strands of educational and cognitive research - prior conceptions, expert vs. novice differences, the cognitive load associated with different styles of questions, problem solving vs. conceptual understanding, active learning, cooperative group learning, and the effects of meta - communication on the learning process. we believe that mop will provide teachers with an approach to physics instruction that is better matched to the learning needs of students, and thereby improve the quality of the educational experience for both students and teachers. mop is an activity - based, full - year curriculum for high school physics. it is intended to be an excellent preparation for college - level science, and is well matched with the national research council ' s national science education standards. ( see supplement c in the motion teacher ' s guide for a comparison with the 1996 standards. ) the mop activities were designed to help students learn to use physics concepts to analyze and solve problems, and to curb students ' natural tendency to learn by rote and to engage in formula manipulation. most of the activities are well suited for use in cooperative group settings. through careful construction and sequencing, mop activities encourage students ( a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6425742445865585, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bb8dbb30-8030-48e1-affb-68577288adfa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.650372"}
{"text": "and solve problems, and to curb students ' natural tendency to learn by rote and to engage in formula manipulation. most of the activities are well suited for use in cooperative group settings. through careful construction and sequencing, mop activities encourage students ( a ) to explore their existing understanding of physics - like concepts, ( b ) to refine their understanding of formal physics concepts and to investigate connections among related concepts, ( c ) to use physics concepts and principles to analyze and reason about physical situations without recourse to equation pushing, ( d ) to develop problem - solving skills that are anchored in an understanding of fundamental concepts and principles, and ( e ) to put together seemingly isolated pieces of physics knowledge into a unified, meaningful whole. our goal is to enable students to obtain a deeper understanding of physics concepts and a greater facility for applying them to novel situations - or at the very least to point them in the right direction. although the mop activities place a premium on conceptual development, the mop curriculum should not be viewed as a traditional conceptual - physics curriculum. many mop activities require a fairly high level of analytical reasoning and mathematical skill, more comparable to traditional problem - solving physics courses than to conceptual - physics courses. similarly, mop engages students in conceptual reasoning at a much deeper level than is typically the case in a conceptual - physics course - for that matter in any type of high school physics course. mop is a challenging and rigorous course! nevertheless mop is flexible enough to be used with a wide range of students. for example, mop activities have been used in 8th and 9th grade physical science courses, and they have been used in graduate - level teacher preparation courses. this is possible because of the way mop activities are sequenced. initial activities focus on the students ' understanding of concepts. later activities help students build and refine a scientific understanding of physics concepts. only then are students asked to do the more challenging activities that require complex analysis and reasoning skills. the quantitative / mathematical development of a topic only occurs after students have had sufficient opportunity to develop a thorough conceptual understanding. we believe that mop can provide all students with the skills needed to succeed in physics, and that the materials help create a classroom environment that is active and inclusive. another reason many different levels and types of classes can use mop is that the depth of coverage is determined by the teacher and the students, not the activity. this is the beauty of having questions at the core of the curriculum. students at different stages of development will necessarily interpret them differently,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6136246687879777, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bb8dbb30-8030-48e1-affb-68577288adfa>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.651529"}
{"text": "classes can use mop is that the depth of coverage is determined by the teacher and the students, not the activity. this is the beauty of having questions at the core of the curriculum. students at different stages of development will necessarily interpret them differently, and their answers will always reveal the depth and breadth of their understanding. and teachers can probe as much or as little as they desire into their students ' thought processes. activities are the heart and soul of the mop curriculum materials, but the mop program is more than a set of student activities and associated materials. it is an approach to learning physics. underlying the approach is a set of four basic principles : - knowledge is constructed by each learner, not transmitted to him or her by someone else. - the construction of knowledge is an effortful process requiring significant time and engagement by the learner. - the construction of knowledge often takes place within the context of social interaction. - the construction of knowledge is greatly influenced by the knowledge the learner already possesses. in recognition of these principles, mop advocates an action - oriented approach to learning physics. this means that mop encourages little ( if any ) lecturing by the teacher, and requires minimal reading by the student prior to working on an activity. instead, after a brief introduction to a new topic, students are quickly engaged in activities that require them to interact with other students and the teacher. working in groups students use concepts to analyze problem situations and answer open - ended questions, explore the meaning of concepts through inquiry and hands - on activities, and share personal reflections on prior experiences. the approach treats students as sentient individuals, each one having a unique way of looking at a situation or solving a problem. the mop approach builds on what students know, and it emphasizes processes, such as analyzing, reasoning, explaining and strategizing, over coverage of \" physics facts. \" content of mop. the mop materials are contained in six volumes of student activities and six corresponding teacher ' s guides. the first three volumes of activities are the core of the mop curriculum and can be covered in 1 / 2 to 3 / 4 of the school year. the first volume contains activities covering motion. the second volume is on interactions. the third treats conservation laws & concept - based problem solving. taken together, we refer to these three volumes as mechanics. the remaining three volumes constitute supplemental activities, which can be done for the final 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 of the school year. they are fundamental forces & fields, complex systems, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6125238231720839, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bb8dbb30-8030-48e1-affb-68577288adfa>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.653463"}
{"text": "taken together, we refer to these three volumes as mechanics. the remaining three volumes constitute supplemental activities, which can be done for the final 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 of the school year. they are fundamental forces & fields, complex systems, and advanced topics in mechanics. the goal of each is to show how the concepts in mechanics can be applied to many other topics. the materials require very little specialized or sophisticated equipment. in mechanics, most of the manipulatives that might be needed are common household items, such as balls, string, washers, marbles, and bathroom scales. however, it is helpful if teachers have access to basic equipment, such as dynamics carts, air tracks, and spring scales. within the supplemental activities, some of the equipment needed is a little more specialized, but it should still be simple and familiar, such as batteries, magnets, wire, and nails. assessment. traditional ways of testing students do little to uncover conceptual difficulties or to measure understanding of physical laws and principles. new ways of assessing students ' progress must necessarily be developed alongside new approaches to teaching physics. new assessments need to encourage students to focus on those features that are important for deep understanding. in the instructional aids for teachers, we provide a wealth of examples showing how to probe students ' conceptual understanding and measure their progress with the new approach. role of teachers. the mop approach requires a different role for teachers. no longer are teachers dispensers of information. a teacher who uses the mop approach spends less time preparing lectures and more time structuring experiences for students. many activity questions actually have two or more justifiable answers, each of which depends on the assumptions made by the students answering the questions. thus, emphasis should be shifted from answers and whether they are right or wrong, and placed on intelligent discussion of the questions and whether the answers are consistent with the assumptions and reasoning used. in this mode, a teacher serves as a facilitator, counselor, or coach, rather than a lecturer, turning students ' attention toward those ideas that will eventually help them reach a satisfactory conclusion. materials and support for teachers. we have worked with teachers for many years. we are well aware of the difficulties teachers face in adopting a new curriculum, particularly if it is radically different from what they have used in the past. realistically, it could take a teacher two to three years to become completely familiar with the mop curriculum, and to make it their own. we have included with the mop curriculum considerable support materials to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6077558524903759, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bb8dbb30-8030-48e1-affb-68577288adfa>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.654744"}
{"text": "learn something new every day more info... by email centrifuging is a process where a material is spun in a cylindrical chamber that rotates around a fixed axis to utilize both sedimentation processes and the force of centripetal acceleration to mechanically separate mixed materials from each other. though centrifuges are used in a laboratory setting to purify biological samples and in large numbers to enrich uranium for nuclear fuel, they are also common in manufacturing for many purposes, including to process waste water by municipalities and to produce pharmaceuticals or live drug cultures such as vaccines. other common manufacturing arenas that utilize centrifuging are the food processing industry, mining and mineral processing, and chemical processing in general. spinning materials via centrifugal force causes mixtures of materials with different densities to separate in two key ways. heavier or denser materials gravitate both towards the bottom of the centrifuge and towards the outer wall of the cylinder, while lighter materials are less affected by the centrifugal force and stay closer to the center of the spinning axis where they can be removed during the spinning process. in food purification and manufacturing, centrifuging is commonly used to separate sugar crystals from a mother liquor material produced earlier in refining. centrifuges are also widely used in the dairy industry to spin raw milk into cream and milk that is lower in fat than the original product. where centrifuging is used to separate dense solids from mother liquors or similar liquids from one another, they spin with such a force as to exceed the pull of gravity by a factor of 1, 000 to 20, 000 times. these types of centrifuges can be built upon one of six types of designs, including the hydroclone, tubular, and chamber bowl designs that utilize sedimentation properties to separate materials. the imperforate basket, disk stack separator, and decanter designs all require manual or mechanical removal of lighter materials once they are separated from denser compounds. regardless of the centrifuge design, however, all models use either sedimentation or a filtering screen such as with the perforate basket model to isolate materials from each other. there are estimated to be about 200 specific industrial fields for which centrifuging is needed as of 2011. since each of these industries has unique requirements, centrifuges cannot be mass produced like other common mechanical equipment such as motors or valves. this makes centrifuge equipment more expensive than other types of industrial hardware, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6054147576846616, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b96eb190-8eb0-4608-b91c-81c7e5c3703a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:31.990566"}
{"text": "the first law is concerned with the internal energy change of a system. this is what \u03b4u represents. as i admitted earlier u is an odd concept to me. i think this primarily arises because, at least chemically speaking, we ' re mostly interested in the changes in u. changes in energy i am comfortable with, and the way in which they change is what the right hand side of the equation describes : namely, q and w. these two symbols designate every process that could possibly change the internal energy of a given system. \" w \" stands for work. work can encompass a large number of things. work, mechanically speaking, is defined as in a mathematical context, and in one dimension. this simply states that a force ( from newton ' s 2nd law f = ma ) applied over a distance equals the amount of work done. if you happen to be unfamiliar with integration, the long squiggly sign is the mathematical way of saying \" from point a to point b \", and \" dx \" means the change in position x ( like a cartesian grid, such as you learn about in algebra class ). work can come from more than mechanics, though : it can be performed by electric circuits, or chemical reactions ( cell phones, vehicles ), or some other type. in the end, however, it ' s still work. thermodynamics is largely used to describe gas phase systems. this doesn ' t have to be the case, but the gas phase is effected by thermodynamics more so than solid and liquid phases, at least with respect to the phases we normally encounter. as such, work is not defined in the mechanical sense. instead the concepts of pressure, volume, and temperature are used, and work is defined as where p is pressure and dv is the change in volume. the reason for the negative sign, in this context, is a matter of definition. when \" negative \" work is performed, this indicates that the system of interest ( in this case, a gas ) is loosing energy ( or releasing energy, as an equivalent expression ) to the surroundings. if the integration produces a positive sign ( by having a negative pv ), then this indicates that energy is entering the system. this is actually analogous to the above definition as mechanical work almost always gives energy to the system : a force applied to a ball from point a to point b will give energy to that ball. but in the context of gas description the application of a force would decrease the volume of a system", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6494811846634263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cd1672d8-ba77-40b8-84be-e06297dd17b8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:33.416435"}
{"text": "definition as mechanical work almost always gives energy to the system : a force applied to a ball from point a to point b will give energy to that ball. but in the context of gas description the application of a force would decrease the volume of a system, which mathematically would give a negative \" pv \", which goes against the convention of negative = release energy from system, and positive = give energy to system. looking at this, the \" process \" part doesn ' t seem to be coming into play at all. if you go from point a to point b, won ' t the distance between these points be the same regardless? as stated so far, it seems that way, but there ' s one other aspect of integration that works into the idea of \" process \" here. an equivelent way to look at integration is that it gives you the area underneath a curve on a cartesian grid. for example, this : would integrate to give the area of the black shaded block here : as such, integrating a function like this : would give a much larger area in comparison to the first one, as can be seen here : sorry for the math digression, but i think it ' s important to understanding the concept of processes. when i took chem i, the whole \" you can go different ways to the top of a mountain \" shpeal only served to confuse me further. the great thing is there is such a function that describes gases and relates to our function for work. it is known as the ideal gas law : pv = nrt. in most thermodynamic cases, n is constant ( and stands for the number of particles ), and in all cases, r is constant ( specifically, named \" the gas constant ). rearranging this algebraically gives which states that p is a function of t and v, or p ( t, v ). we can plot this in three dimensions, but there ' s no need : if you have two of the numbers from above, whether it be pressure, temperature, or volume, then you can find the third as n and r are held constant. also, since we ' re interested in work, we might as well label one axis and pressure and the other as volume since those are the two variables that determine work. i ' m not sure why this is the case, but i ' ve never seen it otherwise, so i ' ll state that \" by convention \" the x axis is volume, and the y axis is pressure, thereby giving", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6331156533942721, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cd1672d8-ba77-40b8-84be-e06297dd17b8>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:33.419741"}
{"text": "variables that determine work. i ' m not sure why this is the case, but i ' ve never seen it otherwise, so i ' ll state that \" by convention \" the x axis is volume, and the y axis is pressure, thereby giving now, analogously to the cartesian plane of algebra, every point on here is defined by some number, but here the number has a unit, or a meaning, attached to it : namely, the pressure or the volume associated. also analogously to the cartesian plane above, if you \" integrate \" from one point to another on this plane, you will obtain the area associated with it. if you recall, integration from \" point a to point b \" [ or, rather, from point ( vo, po ) to point ( v, p ) ] was also the definition of work. in other words, the area of a block you would obtain by moving from one point on the plane to another is equal to the amount of work performed. the actual path that one takes is the process one uses to get from one point on this plane to another. therefore, the process described by this path : takes ( or releases, depending on which point you start with ) less energy than this path : that is why work depends upon the process taken : because it is the area underneath the curve which would be drawn from one point on the cartesian plane of pressure - volume to another point. if you were to decrease pressure and then increase volume, you ' d be doing less work. if you instead increased pressure before increasing volume, you ' d be doing more work. each of these paths have special names attached to them that designate what ' s happening. the first pv - integration example is called \" isothermal \", meaning that temperature does not change in the process, and the second is \" isobaric \" meaning that pressure does not change in the process. some other processes i can think of are \" isochoric \", which means that volume is held constant ( no work done ), and \" adiabatic \" which means that energy is not lost or gained through the other process involved in determining the change in internal energy : heat ( q ). i ' d go into heat, but i think this one is long enough as it is, so i ' ll reserve that for next time around. run like a proton at fermilab \u2019 s new playground 2 hours ago", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6053509045885657, "token_count": 489, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cd1672d8-ba77-40b8-84be-e06297dd17b8>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:33.424534"}
{"text": "| theory of culture | source ref : ebookcul. htm | part ii : culture, collectiv purpose, and polity | whenever a group of sociologists meets to discuss culture, it becomes quickly apparent that there is ( still ) no agreement on the meaning of this core term of sociological analysis. at one time or another, myths, values, eating and dressing habits, scientific theories, social norms, novels, and situational definitions have all been treated as elements of culture. keesing ' s challenge \" to narrow the concept of ' culture ' so that it includes less and reveals more \" ( keesing 1974 ) is still being met in different ways by different schools of thinking. one important step in the direction of terminological specification has been the analytical distinction between social system and cultural system that has become a hallmark of the parsonian tradition of thinking. when kroeber and parsons advocated this distinction, they did so in contrast to a view prevalent among cultural anthropologists that regards societies as sociocultural systems in which social and cultural elements are inextricably intertwined, forming one integrated whole ( kroeber & parsons 1958 ). the analytical distinction between culture and social system ( or social structure ) excludes observable behavior patterns from the concept and characterizes culture as an idea system. such systems, however, can still be conceptualized and circumscribed in different ways, for instance, with respect to the emphasis placed on the ideas in people ' s heads or on collective representations such as myths or doctrines or with respect to the ( relative or even exclusive ) emphasis on symbolic, cognitive / interpretive, or evaluative elements. as michael schmid points out in chapter 4, parsons himself was inconsistent in this and has emphasized different elements on different occasions. regardless of these unresolved conceptual issues, the parsonian distinction between cultural and social systems has the advantage of directing attention to the relationship between them. two sets of questions are thus raised, one referring to the causal linkage between both systems, the other to the delimitation of the social basis ( or scope ) of a culture. both issues are familiar. with respect to the first, marxist orthodoxy assumes that the ideational superstructure is determined by the socioeconomic basis ; parsons in contrast ascribes a regulative function to the cultural system ( parsons 1951 ). if one wants to avoid both materialist and idealist determinism by assuming the relationship between culture and social structure to be one of mutual influence", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6130213918915196, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e0ddb2c6-403f-4545-98fe-e440b5c6155f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:33.676589"}
{"text": "the magnetic and electric fields are force fields. they exert forces on magnetic or charged particles. we can measure these fields easily with instruments that respond to such forces. magnetic and electric fields therefore have a very real and tangible existence. but these force fields themselves are merely higher order expressions of something more fundamental known as potential fields. potential fields form an underlying substrate in which certain distortions give rise to magnetic or electric fields. but even without such distortions, and hence without any measurable magnetic or electric fields, the potential field can still exist in its distortion - free state. there are three main potential fields : magnetic vector potential ` vec ( a ) `, scalar electric potential ` v `, and gravitational potential ` varphi `. these respectively give rise to the three main force fields : magnetic field ` vec ( b ) `, electric field ` vec ( e ) `, and gravitational field ` vec ( g ) `. the following equations show how these relate : ` grad xx vec ( a ) = vec ( b ) ` ` - grad v = vec ( e ) ` ` - grad varphi = vec ( g ) ` the first equation is pronounced \u201c del cross a equals b \u201d or \u201c curl of a equals b. \u201d this means that curl ( vorticity, circulation, twist ) in the magnetic vector potential gives rise to a magnetic force field. for instance, if ` vec ( a ) ` uniformly circulates counter - clockwise around your computer screen, the equivalent magnetic field ` vec ( b ) ` points out of the screen toward you ; ` vec ( b ) ` is always at right angles to the curled parts of ` vec ( a ) `. a magnetic field line may be visualized as the central axis of a vortex made of vector potential. but if the vector potential has zero vorticity, then no magnetic field arises, yet it can still distort in other ways by fluctuating, diverging, or compressing. the second equation is pronounced \u201c minus grad v equals e \u201d or \u201c negative gradient of v equals e \u201d. gradients are inclines, increases in some quantity over some distance. when the scalar electric potential ` v `, also known as voltage, changes over some distance, that establishes an electric field. for example, if electric scalar potential is lower at the left side of your screen and increases steadily toward the right, the electric field from this will point toward the left, down", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6087082498097871, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:874613ab-5a67-44d2-a2f6-45c09ccf1bdb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:33.990629"}
{"text": "varies over time can induce a dynamic electric field without its corresponding dynamic magnetic field. so what is the significance of potential fields? well, aside from giving rise to phenomena that we can detect and measure, they can also do things that we cannot detect using standard methods, things that may have effects we might not even imagine possible. what if the frequency of an oscillating but uniform scalar potential ( voltage ) can affect our mood? then our mood could be manipulated by such fields without us \u2014 being limited to mainstream modern technology \u2014 ever finding out what the true cause might be. same can be said for curl - free magnetic vector potential fields, or gradient - free gravitational potential fields. well it turns out that technology does exist to detect some of these exotic potential fields that lack any measurable force field components. however, these are out of reach for the average person. see for instance a list of patents dealing with the vector potential. most of these employ what are known as josephson junctions, which are quantum mechanical devices that allow direct measurement of the vector potential regardless of whether or not a magnetic force field is present. but good luck to anyone who desires to build or buy a josephson junction ; these require superconducting materials assembled with precision. they can be found in a less effective configuration in medical mri machines, employed as the core components of squid ( superconducting quantum interference devices ) detectors designed to measure very weak magnetic fields. the important thing to know about all this is that force - free potential fields have subtle effects on reality at the quantum level. whereas magnetic and electric fields play a greater role in physical processes involving energy transfers, potential fields work more on the quantum level as phase selectors, probability shapers, and spacetime torsion inducers. this is what scalar physics is all about, using those more exotic aspects of electromagnetic theory that are unknown or ignored by mainstream science. for further discussion and several diagrams concerning the vector potential and its role in electromagnetism, please see my research notes on transverse and longitudinal waves. and if you feel comfortable with the math, then read about one important appplication of all this : portal physics ( also known as space - time engineering ). for a non - mathematical diagram - based explanation of potential fields in relation to electricity, gravity, magnetism, and non - maxwellian wave phenomena, see the etheric origins of gravity, electricity, and magnetism", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6241387055155714, "token_count": 489, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:874613ab-5a67-44d2-a2f6-45c09ccf1bdb>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:33.995039"}
{"text": "notes to wittgenstein ' s logical atomism 1. this observation is owed to ray monk. see monk 1996, 200. it was brought to my attention by peter simons. 2. wittgenstein ' s logical atomism is related to his logical constructivism, according to which every proposition is the result of successive applications of one logical operation \u2014 the so - called \u201c n - operator \u201d \u2014 to a base of elementary propositions, but this topic goes beyond the scope of the present entry. for a discussion see geach 1981, 1982 ; fogelin 1982, 1987 ; soames 1983. 3. there are difficulties in stating the appropriate constraints on these replacements. we cannot say that a given apparent name should be replaced by a synonymous term for a complex since wittgenstein denies that sub - sentential expressions have sense ( 3. 3 ). but nor would it be correct to say that an apparent name should be replaced by a co - referring expression, for strictly speaking, terms for complexes do not refer. it seems we can only say that the replacing term should have the same apparent reference as the term it replaces. by this means we might secure preservation of modal truth conditions, but whether that is all that tractarian analysis is supposed to preserve is an open question. 4. in the original the word \u201c about \u201d occurs ungrammatically in the ellipsis. this seems to be a slip. 5. in the analysis of sentences containing \u201c the f \u201d espoused by russell immediately prior to his adoption of theory of descriptions, the phrase \u201c the f \u201d is taken to have meaning in isolation. the meaning of \u201c the f \u201d is a propositional constituent distinct from the f, which bears the special relation of \u201c denoting \u201d to the f. the phrase \u201c the f \u201d is considered to both express and designate this \u201c denoting concept. \u201d the theory of descriptions, because it treats \u201c the f \u201d as having no meaning in isolation, enables one to recognize sentences in which \u201c the f \u201d occurs as expressing propositions without incurring a commitment to denoting concepts. 6. both the claim that having an \u201c indeterminate sense \u201d is to be understood as failing to be truth - valued with respect to some possible world and the claim that wittgenstein holds it to be essential to a proposition to have a determinate sense are defended on detailed textual grounds in proops 2004, section 5. 7. the general strategy of the argument of this paragraph, though not all of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6421356426697805, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:90696f7f-76b7-44f8-a2bb-8530c650b329>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:34.242454"}
{"text": "possible applications for solar cells and other small - scale circuits san diego, ca - - learning how to control the movement of electrons on the molecular and nanometer scales could help scientists devise small - scale circuits for a wide variety of applications, including more efficient ways of storing and using solar energy. marshall newton, a theoretical chemist at the u. s. department of energy ' s brookhaven national laboratory, will present at talk at the 229th national meeting of the american chemical society highlighting the theoretical techniques used to understand the factors affecting electron movement. the talk will take place monday, march 14, at 10 a. m. in room 8 of the san diego convention center. \" electron donor / acceptor interactions govern a huge number of microscopic processes that everything and everybody is dependent upon, \" says newton, \" from the movement of electrons in electronic devices to the separation of charges necessary for life processes such as nerve cell communication and photosynthesis. \" theoretical chemists like newton are trying to develop models to understand these interactions in molecular systems, where complex molecules with arbitrary shapes communicate electronically over long distances. measuring the electronic conductance, or the strength of electron transfer, is one essential part of understanding how the electrons move. of particular interest to newton is learning how the atomic nuclei that exist in the surrounding environment affect the electrons ' flow. \" the nuclei produce what we call vibronic interactions, which can inhibit or facilitate the flow of the electrons, \" newton says. \" so we need to understand this effect of the electrons ' ' environment ' if we want to control the flow. \" for example, newton says, \" if you are trying to move charge or energy down a wire, you ideally want it to move down a particular linear pathway. you want to keep it directed in a narrow, confining path, without any conducting paths going off in other directions. if you understand what factors aid or hinder conductance, it should be possible to align the conducting properties in one direction and inhibit them in other directions to achieve that goal. \" through collaborations with experimental colleagues, newton regularly has a chance to test his theoretical analyses against actual experimental results. \" the more we look into these processes theoretically and experimentally, the more complicated the picture becomes. but we think we are getting a good understanding of the key variables that control events at this scale - - what promotes good electronic communication and what may inhibit it, \" he says. with that understanding, it might be possible to design molecular systems to achieve particular goals, such as improving upon photosynthesis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6436100952879498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:b75d188e-89c7-4f04-816d-e6ae675a0cee>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:34.261843"}
{"text": "individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | trichromacy or trichromaticism is the condition of possessing three independent channels for conveying color information, derived from the three different cone types. organisms with trichromacy are called trichromats. the normal explanation of trichromacy is that the organism ' s retina contains three types of color receptors ( called cone cells in vertebrates ) with different absorption spectra. in actuality the number of such receptor types may be greater than three, since different types may be active at different light intensities. in vertebrates with three types of cone cells, at low light intensities the rod cells may contribute to color vision, giving a small region of tetrachromacy in the color space. humans and other animals that are trichromatsedit humans and closely related primates are usually trichromats, as are some of the females of most species of new world monkeys, and both male and female howler monkeys. recent research suggests that trichromacy may also be quite general among marsupials. most other mammals are currently thought to be dichromats, with only two types of cone ( though limited trichromacy is possible at low light levels where the rods and cones are both active ). most studies of carnivores, as of other mammals, reveal dichromacy, examples including the domestic dog, the ferret, and the spotted hyena. some species of insects ( such as honeybees ) are also trichromats, being sensitive to ultraviolet, blue and green instead of blue, green and red. trichromatic color visionedit trichromatic color vision is the ability of humans and some other animals to see different colors, mediated by interactions among three types of color - sensing cone cells. the trichromatic color theory began in the 18th century, when thomas young proposed that color vision was a result of three different photoreceptor cells. hermann von helmholtz later expanded on young ' s ideas using color - matching experiments which showed that people with normal vision needed three wavelengths to create the normal range of colors. the trichromatic theory was later proven physiologically by gunnar svaetichin ( 1956 ). each of the three types of cones in the retina of the eye contains a different type of photosensitive pigment, which is composed of a transmembrane protein called opsin and a light", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6069003489087978, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8f31aded-528a-4a08-8f5c-07f92d56ef67>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:34.268433"}
{"text": "sustain and protract that state of doubt which is the stimulus to thorough enquiry, so as not to accept an idea or make a positive assertion of a belief, until justifying reasons have been found. further synthesizing dewey, beveridge captures the heart of how i, too, believe creativity works : it is not possible deliberately to create ideas or to control their creation. when a difficulty stimulates the mind, suggested solutions just automatically spring into the consciousness. the variety and quality of the suggestions are functions of how well prepared our mind is by past experience and education pertinent to the particular problem. what we can do deliberately is to prepare our minds in this way, voluntarily direct our thoughts to a certain problem, hold attention on that problem and appraise the various suggestions thrown up by the subconscious mind. the intellectual element in thinking is, dewey says, what we do with the suggestions after they arise. other things being equal, the greater our store of knowledge, the more likely it is that significant combinations will be thrown up. furthermore, original combinations are more likely to come into being if there is available a breadth of knowledge extending into related or even distant branches of knowledge. i frequently use lego as a metaphor for combinatorial creativity \u2014 if we only have bricks of one shape, size, and color, what we build with them remains limited ; but if we build with pieces of various shapes, sizes, and colors, our creations will be infinitely more interesting. beveridge corroborates this by citing dr. e. l. taylor : new associations and fresh ideas are more likely to come out of a varied store of memories and experience than out of a collection that is all of one kind. further confirming what einstein, anne lamott, and steve jobs have said about rationality and intuition, beveridge cites iconic physicist max planck, father of quantum physics : again and again the imaginary plan on which one attempts to build up order breaks down and then we must try another. this imaginative vision and faith in the ultimate success are indispensable. the pure rationalist has no place here. indeed, einstein himself put it thusly : there is no logical way to the discovery of these elemental laws. there is only the way of intuition, which is helped by a feeling for the order lying behind the appearance. beveridge goes on to argue that intuition is really a pattern of ideas that forms as we accumulate experiences and education, and even relates this to our well - documented fear of being wrong : the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6056631391305016, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9aac81e7-b35d-4413-8bb9-f26b7c18486c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:35.402321"}
{"text": "by a feeling for the order lying behind the appearance. beveridge goes on to argue that intuition is really a pattern of ideas that forms as we accumulate experiences and education, and even relates this to our well - documented fear of being wrong : the instinctive sense of irritation we feel when someone disagrees with us or when some fact arises which is contrary to our beliefs may be due to the break in the pattern we have formed. writing about the importance of imagination in science, the prominent 19th - century physicist john tyndall insisted : newton \u2019 s passage from a falling apple to a falling moon was an act of the prepared imagination. out of the facts of chemistry the constructive imagination of dalton formed the atomic theory. davy was richly endowed with the imaginative faculty, while with faraday its exercise was incessant, preceding, accompanying and guiding all his experiments. his strength and fertility as a discoverer are to be referred in great part to the stimulus of the imagination. beveridge sums it up beautifully : facts and ideas are dead in themselves and it is the imagination that gives life to them. but dreams and speculations are idle fantasies unless reason turns them to useful purpose. vague ideas captured on flights of fancy have to be reduced to specific propositions and hypotheses. echoing carl sagan \u2019 s wisdom on the balance between skepticism and open - mindedness, he continues : while imagination is the source of inspiration in seeking new knowledge, it can also be dangerous if not subjected to discipline ; a fertile imagination needs to be balanced by criticism and judgment. this is, of course, quite different from saying it should be repressed or crushed. the imagination merely enables us to wander into the darkness of the unknown where, by the dim light of the knowledge that we carry, we may glimpse something that seems of interest. but when we bring it out and examine it more closely it usually proves to be only trash whose glitter had caught our attention. things not clearly seen often take on grotesque forms. imagination is at once the source of all hope and inspiration but also of frustration. to forget this is to court despair. returning once again to the pivotal role of embracing failure, beveridge writes : the scientist who is excessively cautious is not likely to make either errors or discoveries \u2026 humphry davy said : \u2018 the most important of my discoveries have been suggested to me by my failures. \u2019 the trained thinker shows to great advantage over the untrained person in his reaction to finding his idea to be wrong. the former profits from his", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6049668393018615, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9aac81e7-b35d-4413-8bb9-f26b7c18486c>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:35.405037"}
{"text": "davy said : \u2018 the most important of my discoveries have been suggested to me by my failures. \u2019 the trained thinker shows to great advantage over the untrained person in his reaction to finding his idea to be wrong. the former profits from his mistakes as much as from his successes. dewey says : \u2018 what merely annoys and discourages a person not accustomed to thinking \u2026 is a stimulus and guide to the trained enquirer \u2026 it either brings to light a new problem or helps to define and clarify the problem. to that effect, upon receiving the nobel prize in physics, max planck remarked : looking back \u2026 over the long and labyrinthine path which finally led to the discovery [ of the quantum theory ], i am vividly reminded of goethe \u2019 s saying that men will always be making mistakes as long as they are striving after something. beveridge cautions that the most important element in harnessing the power of the imagination is avoiding the trap of conditioned thinking : psychologists have observed that once we have made an error, as for example in adding up a column of figures, we have a tendency to repeat it again and again. this phenomenon is known as the persistent error. the same thing happens when we ponder over a problem ; each time our thoughts take a certain course, the more likely is that course to be followed the next time. associations form between the ideas in the chain of thoughts and become firmer each time they are used, until finally the connections are so well established that the chain is very difficult to break. thinking becomes conditioned just as conditioned reflexes are formed. we may have enough data to arrive at a solution to the problem, but, once we have adopted an unprofitable line of thought, the oftener we pursue it, the harder it is for us to adopt the profitable line. after offering several first - hand accounts of discovery by prominent scientists, berveridge summarizes the gist of intuition : the most characteristic circumstances of an intuition are a period of intense work on the problem accompanied by a desire for its solution, abandonment of the work perhaps with attention to something else, then the appearance of the idea with dramatic suddenness and often a sense of certainty. often there is a feeling of exhilaration and perhaps surprise that the idea had not been thought of previously. the psychology of the phenomenon is not thoroughly understood. there is a fairly general, though not universal, agreement that intuitions arise from the subconscious activities of the mind which has continued to turn over the problem even though perhaps", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6388928279705327, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9aac81e7-b35d-4413-8bb9-f26b7c18486c>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:35.406339"}
{"text": "had not been thought of previously. the psychology of the phenomenon is not thoroughly understood. there is a fairly general, though not universal, agreement that intuitions arise from the subconscious activities of the mind which has continued to turn over the problem even though perhaps consciously the mind is no longer giving it attention. ( of course, though the exact mechanisms of ideation remain, and possibly always will, not fully understood, in the half - century since beveridge \u2019 s work psychology and neuroscience have done a great deal to shed some light on how creativity works and what happens backstage in the brain. ) beveridge outlines the process thusly : ideas spring straight into the conscious mind without our having deliberately formed them. evidently they originate from the subconscious activities of the mind which, when directed at a problem, immediately brings together various ideas which have been associated with that particular subject before. when a possibly significant combination is found it is presented to the conscious mind for appraisal. intuitions coming when we are consciously thinking about a problem are merely ideas that are more startling than usual. but some further explanation is needed to account for intuitions coming when our conscious mind is no longer dwelling on that subject. the subconscious mind has probably continued to be occupied with the problem and has suddenly found a significant combination. now, a new idea arriving during conscious thinking often produces a certain emotional reaction \u2014 we feel pleased about it and perhaps somewhat excited. perhaps the subconscious mind is also capable of reacting in this way and this has the effect of bringing the idea into the conscious mind. because such intuitive ideas often vanish quickly after their appearance, beveridge recommends a \u201c valuable device \u201d for capturing them : the habit of carrying pencil and paper to note down original ideas. ( or, fifty years later, evernote, my preferred alternative. ) he advises : ideas often make their appearance in the fringe of consciousness when one is reading, writing or otherwise engaged mentally on a theme which it is not desirable to interrupt. these ideas should be roughly jotted down as quickly as possible ; this not only preserves them but also serves the useful purpose of getting them \u2018 off your mind \u2019 with the minimum interruption to the main interest. concentration requires that the mind should not be distracted by retaining ideas on the fringe of consciousness. to underline the role of the intuition, beveridge quotes german - british philosopher f. c. s. schiller : it is not too much to say that the more deference men of science have paid to logic, the worse it has been for the scientific value", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.610245134788502, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9aac81e7-b35d-4413-8bb9-f26b7c18486c>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:35.407453"}
{"text": "definition of set : a group of things of the same kind that belong together and are so used ; \" a set of books \" ; \" a set of golf clubs \" ; \" a set of teeth \" ( mathematics ) an abstract collection of numbers or symbols ; \" the set of prime numbers is infinite \" several exercises intended to be done in series ; \" he did four sets of the incline bench press \" representation consisting of the scenery and other properties used to identify the location of a dramatic production ; \" the sets were meticulously authentic \" an unofficial association of people or groups ; \" the smart set goes there \" ; \" they were an angry lot \" a relatively permanent inclination to react in a particular way ; \" the set of his mind was obvious \" the act of putting something in position ; \" he gave a final set to his hat \" a unit of play in tennis or squash ; \" they played two sets of tennis after dinner \" the process of becoming hard or solid by cooling or drying or crystallization ; \" the hardening of concrete \" ; \" he tested the set of the glue \" evil egyptian god with the head of a beast that has high square ears and a long snout ; brother and murderer of osiris the descent of a heavenly body below the horizon ; \" before the set of sun \" ( psychology ) being temporarily ready to respond in a particular way ; \" the subjects ' set led them to solve problems the familiar way and to overlook the simpler solution \" ; \" his instructions deliberately gave them the wrong set \" any electronic equipment that receives or transmits radio or tv signals ; \" the early sets ran on storage batteries \" put into a certain place or abstract location ; \" put your things here \" ; \" set the tray down \" ; \" set the dogs on the scent of the missing children \" ; \" place emphasis on a certain point \" fix conclusively or authoritatively ; \" set the rules \" decide upon or fix definitely ; \" fix the variables \" ; \" specify the parameters \" establish as the highest level or best performance ; \" set a record \" put into a certain state ; cause to be in a certain state ; \" set the house afire \" fix in a border ; \" the goldsmith set the diamond \" make ready or suitable or equip in advance for a particular purpose or for some use, event, etc ; \" get the children ready for school! \" ; \" prepare for war \" ; \" i was fixing to leave town after i paid the hotel bill \" set to a certain position or cause to operate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6178587127242401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:afad1532-7e97-40d0-8505-82bef21042ef>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:35.567478"}
{"text": "physics is grand. it ' s the grandest of the many achievements of our species - - greater than music, greater than art, greater than our omni - present consumer marketplace with its daily provision of ever - smarter phones and ever - stupider advertisements. when physics shows up on our doorstep, as it does when we purchase a mysterious new piece of electronics containing lasers, memory chips and magical glass, we get a stir of excitement. but that stir is little more than the buzz created by magicians, circus performers or olympic gymnasts doing mysterious things that we can ' t comprehend. underneath the glitter and magic of high tech toys made possible by physics are deep ideas about the fundamental nature of the world. without an understanding of these deep ideas there would be no magical products. reflect on the fact that almost all the physics of the 20th century is validated every time your smart phone powers up. if just one of those physics laws disappeared, or changed a little bit, much of our civilization would shut down. as remarkable as our progress has been in understanding the deep laws of physics, mysteries persist. under each layer of understanding lies a new layer of questions. as soon as the chemists organized the periodic table of the elements - - one of the great achievements of 19th century science - - questions arose about the underlying reasons for the organizational scheme. why, exactly, was sodium so much like potassium - - so similar that you can swap it out and make sodium - free salt with potassium? physicists answered these questions. they figured how nature had built the entire periodic table of the elements from protons, electrons and neutrons. the explanation was called quantum mechanics and it was an elegant advance in our knowledge, perhaps the greatest discovery of the first half of the 20th century. atoms were the way they were because they were composed of smaller particles. but why were these smaller particles the way they were? why, for example, were electrons so light and protons almost 2, 000 times heavier? why were electrons point particles with zero diameter but protons and neutrons had \" size \"? such questions were answered when it was discovered that the proton and the neutron were composed of quarks. the electron was a member of a family of particles called leptons that did not have any internal constituents - - a feature that made them both lighter and without diameters. patterns within the respective families of quarks and leptons - - there is six of each and they relate to each other in interesting ways - - raised questions about the nature of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6645499705062399, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f650f027-e09d-4981-9e5a-9bd7d487e2aa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:36.376506"}
{"text": "- a feature that made them both lighter and without diameters. patterns within the respective families of quarks and leptons - - there is six of each and they relate to each other in interesting ways - - raised questions about the nature of those patterns - - the same sort of questions once asked about the periodic table. one of the questions was how the particles got their particular masses, charges and other properties. ( these properties include charm, strangeness, upness, downness, as well as some less esoteric magnetic features. ) just as quantum mechanics unlocked the secrets of the organizational structure of the periodic table, a theory called the standard model unlocked the secrets of the of organizational structure of the quarks and leptons, providing deep insights into their nature. perhaps the most ambitious explanatory component of the standard model was its explanation for the origin of mass. why do particles have mass in the first place? some particles, like photons, have no mass - - technically no rest mass - - and thus can buzz about at the speed of light. but electrons and quarks have mass and cannot travel at the speed of light, a fact gloriously confirmed by the resolution of recent experiments that hinted otherwise. the standard model explained the origin of mass as the result of a field existing everywhere - - a sort of universal fog through which moving particles have to plough. this fog - - if it exists - - impedes moving particles, like millions of tiny arms reaching out and grabbing at the particles as they pass. the slowing created by this creates the phenomenon of mass. the universal fog is known as the higgs field. but is it real? how do we know this field exists and does what the standard model claims? how do we know, for example, that particles didn ' t get their mass from god at the creation? or maybe from tiny mass fairies riding on them? enter the higgs boson. fields in physics have particles associated with them and the existence of the particles provides evidence that the fields are real. the familiar photon is evidence for the electromagnetic field. peter higgs, and some colleagues, predicted the existence of his namesake boson in 1964. for decades physicists have been devising experiments to make the elusive mass - giving particle show itself and, after several months of peeking its head around corners at the large hadron collider in europe, the particle has been definitively sighted. the buzz about the discovery of the higgs boson reminds us once again that we are progressing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6677721691306602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f650f027-e09d-4981-9e5a-9bd7d487e2aa>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:36.377574"}
{"text": "itself and, after several months of peeking its head around corners at the large hadron collider in europe, the particle has been definitively sighted. the buzz about the discovery of the higgs boson reminds us once again that we are progressing in our understanding the deeper features of the world. such progress can seem like a scientific intrusion onto theological turf. are we not now claiming that mass is created by the higgs field and not by god? is this not why the new boson is called the god particle? such concerns are exacerbated by a misunderstanding created by a joke, when physicist leon lederman titled his book about the quest for the higgs boson, \" the god particle. \" ( publishers discovered long ago that putting \" god \" in the title of science books helps sales ; examples include \" god : the failed hypothesis, \" \" the mind of god, \" \" god and the new physics, \" \" god ' s universe. \" one can only guess the fate of lederman ' s book had he titled it \" the quest for the higgs boson. \" ) understandably, journalists have persisted in calling the god particle by its provocative nickname, to the dismay of most physicists including peter higgs. discovering the higgs boson undermines nothing in theology, however. if anything, its discovery provides more evidence of the deeply rational character of the universe, a topic i explore in more detail in my recent book, \" the wonder of the universe. \" whether god assigns mass directly to particles, or creates a field to do so is theologically irrelevant, although i would argue the latter is more elegant. lederman even suggests as much in the god particle, when he rewrites scripture, and has god saying, \" let us go down, and there give them the god particle so that they may see how beautiful is the universe i have made. \" follow karl giberson, ph. d on twitter : www. twitter. com / gibersok", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6263158670707238, "token_count": 404, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f650f027-e09d-4981-9e5a-9bd7d487e2aa>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:36.378337"}
{"text": "to secure ( sp 64 - 66 ). if derrida \u2019 s point is simply that husserl \u2019 s phenomenology holds within itself conclusions that husserl failed to recognise, derrida seems to be able to disavow any transcendental or ontological position. this is why he argues that his work occupies a place in the margins of philosophy, rather than simply being philosophy per se. deconstruction contends that in any text, there are inevitably points of equivocation and \u2018 undecidability \u2019 that betray any stable meaning that an author might seek to impose upon his or her text. the process of writing always reveals that which has been suppressed, covers over that which has been disclosed, and more generally breaches the very oppositions that are thought to sustain it. this is why derrida \u2019 s \u2018 philosophy \u2019 is so textually based and it is also why his key terms are always changing, because depending upon who or what he is seeking to deconstruct, that point of equivocation will always be located in a different place. this also ensures that any attempt to describe what deconstruction is, must be careful. nothing would be more antithetical to deconstruction \u2019 s stated intent than this attempt at defining it through the decidedly metaphysical question \u201c what is deconstruction? \u201d there is a paradoxicality involved in trying to restrict deconstruction to one particular and overarching purpose ( og 19 ) when it is predicated upon the desire to expose us to that which is wholly other ( tout autre ) and to open us up to alternative possibilities. at times, this exegesis will run the risk of ignoring the many meanings of derridean deconstruction, and the widely acknowledged difference between derrida \u2019 s early and late work is merely the most obvious example of the difficulties involved in suggesting \u201c deconstruction says this \u201d, or \u201c deconstruction prohibits that \u201d. that said, certain defining features of deconstruction can be noticed. for example, derrida \u2019 s entire enterprise is predicated upon the conviction that dualisms are irrevocably present in the various philosophers and artisans that he considers. while some philosophers argue that he is a little reductive when he talks about the western philosophical tradition, it is his understanding of this tradition that informs and provides the tools for a deconstructive response. because of this, it is worth briefly considering the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.606803478312842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:605692ac-ebf9-4aa7-979d-a56de598e190>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:36.507693"}
{"text": ", caputo dn 31 ). to put derrida \u2019 s point simplistically, it might be suggested that the meaning of a particular object, or a particular word, is never stable, but always in the process of change ( eg. the dissemination of meaning for which deconstruction has become notorious ). moreover, the significance of that past change can only be appreciated from the future and, of course, that \u2018 future \u2019 is itself implicated in a similar process of transformation were it ever to be capable of becoming \u2018 present \u2019. the future that derrida is referring to is hence not just a future that will become present, but the future that makes all \u2018 presence \u2019 possible and also impossible. for derrida, there can be no presence - to - self, or self - contained identity, because the \u2018 nature \u2019 of our temporal existence is for this type of experience to elude us. our predominant mode of being is what he will eventually term the messianic ( see section 6 ), in that experience is about the wait, or more aptly, experience is only when it is deferred. derrida \u2019 s work offers many important temporal contributions of this quasi - transcendental variety. in its first and most famous instantiation, undecidability is one of derrida \u2019 s most important attempts to trouble dualisms, or more accurately, to reveal how they are always already troubled. an undecidable, and there are many of them in deconstruction ( eg. ghost, pharmakon, hymen, etc. ), is something that cannot conform to either polarity of a dichotomy ( eg. present / absent, cure / poison, and inside / outside in the above examples ). for example, the figure of a ghost seems to neither present or absent, or alternatively it is both present and absent at the same time ( sm ). however, derrida has a recurring tendency to resuscitate terms in different contexts, and the term undecidability also returns in later deconstruction. indeed, to complicate matters, undecidability returns in two discernible forms. in his recent work, derrida often insists that the condition of the possibility of mourning, giving, forgiving, and hospitality, to cite some of his most famous examples, is at once also the condition of their impossibility ( see section 7 ). in his explorations of these", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6099864412987934, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:605692ac-ebf9-4aa7-979d-a56de598e190>", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:36.521475"}
{"text": "the act of interpreting ; explanation of what is obscure ; translation ; version ; construction ; as, the interpretation of a foreign language, of a dream, or of an enigma. the sense given by an interpreter ; exposition or explanation given ; meaning ; as, commentators give various interpretations of the same passage of scripture. the act or process of applying general principles or formul\u00e6 to the explanation of the results obtained in special cases. the assigning of meaning to a linguistic chain. the deciphering of any extrasensory perception. the medium ' s responsibility is for delivery of what is factually received. attempts to offer consciously - created interpretation of unknown - relationship symbols by the medium would be a pretentious act. reduction of information to appropriate and understandable terms and explanations. [ d00873 ] pmk87 the process of discerning how the original meaning of a text can be appropriated for us today. ( in \u00b7 ter \u00b7 pre \u00b7 ta \u00b7 tion ). the providing of meaning, supposedly, for the contemporary world from hermeneutic analysis. a mental representation of the meaning or significance of something an explanation that results from interpreting something ; \" the report included his interpretation of the forensic evidence \" an explanation of something that is not immediately obvious ; \" the edict was subject to many interpretations \" ; \" he annoyed us with his interpreting of parables \" ; \" often imitations are extended to provide a more accurate rendition of the child ' s intended meaning \" a document of narrow scope that provides clarifications of original meaning, additional definitions, or other guidance pertaining to an existing federal accounting standard an individual response that addresses meaning a view on the meaning of a dream an educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by first hand experience, and illustrative media, rather than by simply communicating factual information. an analysis of a work to determine its meaning an explanation or opinion of what something means. the explanation or elucidation of a creative work, a political event, or other activity. decision made by the specification authority that elaborates or refines the meaning of a free standards group specification or a standard or specification referenced by a free standards group specification. an interpretation is one possible outcome of a problem report. the viewer ' s activity of analyzing the implicit and symptomatic meanings suggested in a film. see also meaning. the general explanation of the meaning of a literary work. interpretation may take into account any of the other terms in this glossary, especially theme.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6236847094496362, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8a116349-4575-49ac-bd44-30c49a34abfa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T07:37:36.797659"}