data/train/batch_000038.jsonl

{"text": "contributing editor, mems investor journal optical mems have long been a goal of forward - thinking electronics innovators, but these technologies have had a rocky development road. lately, however, the big money in semiconductor research \u2013 ibm and intel \u2013 have reported significant successes in using the traditional cmos toolkits to micromachine optical structures. related work is also being done at hewlett - packard, alcatel - lucent and other research labs worldwide. waveguides, gratings, resonators, modulators, and other tiny mechanical structures can effectively sculpt light for communication purposes when shrunk to sizes that correspond to the wavelength of light being manipulated. and with the semiconductor powerhouses behind these efforts, optical mems may finally be on the threshold of mass commercialization. the one major success story in optical mems \u2013 texas instrument ' s digital light processor ( dlp ) \u2013 uses micron - sized mechanical mirrors to re - direct light from leds or lasers into the raster patterns that create visible displays. however, the new wave of optical mems structures is being crafted at finer scales in order to directly manipulate the light itself. by modulating, filtering, multi - and demulti - plexing infrared light beams, the information of the future will travel via light instead of the electrons used by devices today. for several years now, both ibm and intel have been filling their photonic toolbox with various demonstration devices that utilize micromachined silicon structures to manipulate light. intel ' s first reported success was in 2004, when it developed a \" transistor - like \" photonic modulator that encoded data onto a light beam. intel ' s silicon modulator split a beam of light into two separate streams, one whose phase was shifted with an electrical charge, causing the light to \" blink \" when the two beams were re - combined, effectively encoding the on and off pattern of light as serial bits traveling at one gigahertz. the following year ( 2005 ) intel demonstrated a raman laser by etching a silicon waveguide that amplified light from an external laser to demonstrate lasing on a silicon chip. then, in 2006, the company showed how it could bring that external laser on - chip by bonding a flake of indium phosphide to its silicon waveguide thereby creating its hybrid silicon laser. in 2007, intel showed how it micromachined on - chip silicon waveguides that could modulate optical signals by electrically encoding high - speed data", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6127053019127096, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:28a40e94-b0dc-4831-931b-e5b8fb10f256>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:23.958062"}
{"text": "is a representation of nine different elements that make up the universe : earth, air, water, fire, metal, plants, animals, the void, and light / creation. mandala is a ancient sanskrit term meaning \" circle. \" today it is generally used to refer to geometric patterns that symbolically represent the cosmos. some religious sects create mandalas from sand, hand scattered onto the floor over a period of days. all mandalas share a common intent of providing a focus point for meditation, a sort of visual \" om. \" the mandalas i have created for mandala elemental follow this plan of geometrical patterning, symbolic representation and intent for meditative study. each of the mandalas can be studied in sequence during meditation to provide a flow of attention, or a single mandala can be studied to explore its individual meaning as interpreted by the viewer at that time. technically, each mandala is comprised of a single digitally captured image of a real instance of the element represented by the mandala.. the image is then manipulated through complex geometric functions that create a \" warp field \" that transforms the original 2d image into a 3d \" lightsphere \", which is then projected back to 2d form, now distorted into the new geometry. adjustments of colour, contrast and tone are then made to finish each mandala. about the images i feel it is important not to reveal too much about the mandalas before you have a chance to study them, so i ' m placing mandala - specific commentary in a second gallery. when you are ready to learn more, click here click a mandala to view it larger. image # bg10 image # bg07 image # bg06 image # bf12 image # bg08 image # bg04 image # bf11 image # bg05 image # bg09", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6225399470488904, "token_count": 376, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84c92ec9-e735-431a-9d9c-51db24f81bfb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:24.589219"}
{"text": "this web site provides users with visual tools for learning topics taught in a typical engineering thermodynamics class. animations, interactive simulations, practical problems with online solutions, and illustrated explanations are available. the animations and interactive modules illustrate basic thermodynamic concepts of energy, entropy, and mass flow. registered users may engage in a discussion forum and download a license to customize the materials for different audiences. this resource is part of 2 physics front topical units. topic : heat and temperature unit title : teaching about heat and thermal energy this resource provides visual tools for helping students understand beginning thermodynamic processes. animations, interactive simulations, practical problems with online solutions, and illustrated explanations provide a comprehensive scope of activities for classroom use. % 0 electronic source % a bhattacharjee, subrata % d january 1, 2007 % t the expert system for thermodynamics - t. e. s. t. % v 2013 % n 25 may 2013 % 8 january 1, 2007 % 9 application / java % u http : / / www. thermofluids. net / disclaimer : compadre offers citation styles as a guide only. we cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. please refer to the style manuals in the citation source information area for clarifications.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6640842714659612, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e6487250-2ff3-44f0-809a-1e9a76be42e4>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:25.089519"}
{"text": "| going rapidly over something, without noticing details ; hasty ; superficial : | | 1. | | of, relating to, or characteristic of the basic or inherent constitution of a person or thing ; fundamental : a radical fault | | 2. | | concerned with or tending to concentrate on fundamental aspects of a matter ; searching or thoroughgoing : radical thought ; a radical re - examination | | 3. | | favouring or tending to produce extreme or fundamental changes in political, economic, or social conditions, institutions, habits of mind, etc : a radical party | | 4. | | med ( of treatment ) aimed at removing the source of a disease : radical surgery | | 5. | | slang chiefly ( us ) very good ; excellent | | 6. | | of, relating to, or arising from the root or the base of the stem of a plant : radical leaves | | 7. | | maths of, relating to, or containing roots of numbers or quantities | | 8. | | linguistics of or relating to the root of a word | | 9. | | a person who favours extreme or fundamental change in existing institutions or in political, social, or economic conditions | | 10. | | maths a root of a number or quantity, such as \u00b3\u221a5, \u221ax | | 11. | | chem also : radicle | | a. short for free radical | | b. another name for group | | 12. | | linguistics another word for root | | 13. | | ( in logographic writing systems such as that used for chinese ) a part of a character conveying lexical meaning | | [ c14 : from late latin radicalis having roots, from latin radix a root ] | radical rad \u00b7 i \u00b7 cal ( rad ' i - k\u0259l ) a group of elements or atoms usually passing intact from one compound to another but generally incapable of prolonged existence in a free state. a free radical. of or being medical treatment by extreme, drastic, or innovative measures. designed to act on or eliminate the root or cause of a pathological process. | radical ( rad ' i - k\u0259l ) pronunciation key in politics, someone who demands substantial or extreme changes in the existing system.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6081181620693956, "token_count": 461, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:69f42455-3cdb-4c84-ba5d-1bf64bb3eaa8>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:25.906182"}
{"text": "of the neurons has a whole tree of tiny, branched antennae, known as dendrites, at which hundreds of other neurons \" dock \" with their synapses. to find out more about the input signal, konnerth and his colleagues observed a mouse in the act of seeing, with resolution that goes beyond a single nerve cell to a single synapse. they refined a method called two - photon fluorescence microscopy, which makes it possible to look up to half a millimeter into brain tissue and view not only an individual cell, but even its fine dendrites. together with this microscopic probe, they conducted electrical signals to individual dendrites of the same neuron using tiny glass pipettes ( patch - clamp technique ). \" up to now, similar experiments have only been carried out on cultured neurons in petri dishes, \" konnerth says. \" the intact brain is far more complex. because it moves slightly all the time, resolving individual synaptic input sites on dendrites was extremely difficult. \" the effort has already rewarded the team with a discovery. they found that in response to differently oriented motions of a bar pattern in the mouse ' s field of vision, an individual orientation neuron receives input signals from a number of differently oriented nerve cells in its network of connections but sends only one kind of output signal. \" and this, \" konnerth says, \" is where things get really exciting. \" the orientation neuron only sends output signals when, for example, the bar pattern moves from bottom to top. evidently the neuron weighs the various input signals against each other and thus reduces the glut of incoming data to the most essential information needed for clear perception of motion. in the future, konnerth would like to extend this research approach to observation of the learning process in an individual neuron. neuroscientists speculate that a neuron might be caught in the act of learning a new orientation. many nerve endings practically never send signals to the dendritic tree of an orientation neuron. presented with visual input signals that represent an unfamiliar kind of movement, formerly silent nerve endings may become active. this might alter the way the neuron weighs and processes inputs, in such a way that it would change its preferred orientation ; and the mouse might learn to discern certain movements better or more rapidly. \" because our method enables us to observe, down to the level of a single synapse, how an individual neuron in the living brain is networked with others and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6105107941732446, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:898b969e-5cca-48d4-8d16-2597c9df580e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:27.016694"}
{"text": "apr 27, 2005 a little known fact : popular ideas about the sun have not fared well under the tests of a scientific theory. the formulators of the standard sun model worked with gravity, gas laws, and nuclear fusion. but closer observation of the sun has shown that electrical and magnetic properties dominate solar behavior. for centuries, the nature of the sun \u2019 s radiance remained a mystery to astronomers. the sun is the only object in the solar system that produces its own visible light. all others reflect the light of the sun. what unique trait of the sun enables it to shine upon the other objects in the solar system? today, astronomers assure us that the most fundamental question is answered. the sun is a thermonuclear furnace. the ball of gas is so large that astronomers envision pressures and densities within its core sufficient to generate temperatures of about 16 million k \u2014 producing a continuous \u201c controlled \u201d nuclear reaction. most astronomers and astrophysicists investigating the sun are so convinced of the fusion model that only the rarest among them will countenance challenges to the underlying idea. standard textbooks and institutional research, complemented by a chorus of scientific and popular media, \u201c ratify \u201d the fusion model of the sun year after year by ignoring evidence to the contrary. a growing group of independent researchers, however, insists that the popular idea is incorrect. these researchers say that the sun is electric. it is a glow discharge fed by galactic currents. and they emphasize that the fusion model anticipated none of the milestone discoveries about the sun, while the electric model predicts and explains the very observations that posed the greatest quandaries for solar investigation. more than 60 years ago, dr. charles e. r. bruce, of the electrical research association in england, offered a new perspective on the sun. an electrical researcher, astronomer, and expert on the effects of lightning, bruce proposed in 1944 that the sun \u2019 s \" photosphere has the appearance, the temperature and the spectrum of an electric arc ; it has arc characteristics because it is an electric arc, or a large number of arcs in parallel. \" this discharge characteristic, he claimed, \" accounts for the observed granulation of the solar surface. \" bruce \u2019 s model, however, was based on a conventional understanding of atmospheric lightning, allowing him to envision the \u201c electric \u201d sun without reference to external electric fields. years later, a brilliant engineer, ralph juergens, inspired by bruce \u2019 s work, added a revolutionary possibility. in a series of articles beginning", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6195668859658037, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9e5e6f80-1bb6-49c4-9ef1-22edcf01aeed>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:27.343422"}
{"text": "exchange, while the \" cathode \" or negatively charged contributor is not a discrete object, but the invisible \u201c virtual cathode \u201d at the limit of the sun \u2019 s coronal discharge. ( coronal discharges can sometimes be seen as a glow surrounding high - voltage transmission wires, where the wire discharges into the surrounding air ). this virtual cathode lies far beyond the planets. in the lexicon of astronomy, this is the \u201c heliopause. \u201d in electrical terms, it is the cellular sheath or \u201c double layer \u201d separating the plasma cell that surrounds the sun ( \" heliosphere \u201d ) from the enveloping galactic plasma. in an electric universe, such cellular forms are expected between regions of dissimilar plasma properties. according to the glow discharge model of the sun, almost the entire voltage difference between the sun and its galactic environment occurs across the thin boundary sheath of the heliopause. inside the heliopause there is a weak but constant radial electrical field centered on the sun. a weak electric field, immeasurable locally with today ' s instruments but cumulative across the vast volume of space within the heliosphere, is sufficient to power the solar discharge. the visible component of a coronal glow discharge occurs above the anode, often in layers. the sun \u2019 s red chromosphere is part of this discharge. ( unconsciously, it seems, the correct electrical engineering term was applied to the sun \u2019 s corona. ) correspondingly, the highest particle energies are not at the photosphere but above it. the electrical theorists see the sun as a perfect example of this characteristic of glow discharges \u2014 a radical contrast to the expected dissipation of energy from the core outward in the fusion model of the sun. at about 500 kilometers ( 310 miles ) above the photosphere or visible surface, we find the coldest measurable temperature, about 4400 degrees k. moving upward, the temperature then rises steadily to about 20, 000 degrees k at the top of the chromosphere, some 2200 kilometers ( 1200 miles ) above the sun ' s surface. here it abruptly jumps hundreds of thousands of degrees, then continues slowly rising, eventually reaching 2 million degrees in the corona. even at a distance of one or two solar diameters, ionized oxygen atoms reach 200 million degrees! in other words the \u201c reverse temperature gradient, \u201d while meeting the tests of the glow discharge model, contradicts every original expectation of the fusion model. but this is only", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.632151032909026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9e5e6f80-1bb6-49c4-9ef1-22edcf01aeed>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:27.349196"}
{"text": "a worm is a program that duplicates itself from one directory, drive, computer or network to another. most worms send themselves through e - mail and many have mass - mailing functions, which allow them to mail themselves to every address in a particular mailbox. another popular method of transmission for worms is through local area networks. a few can even come through instant messangers. unlike a virus a worm is a self - contained program and does not need to attach itself to an executable files, though some worms have a viral component that infects files. as they are executable programs, they can become infected with viruses and all \" descendants \" of that copy of the worm maybe infected with the virus and have the ability to infect files on other computers that they spread to when they are run. as with viruses, worms come in many types. the most common method of categorization is how they spread. some worms may have more than one method of spreading. email worms spread through email messages. essentially, an email message with an attachment arrives in a mailbox and when the user downloads and executes that attachment, the worm creates a new email message with a copy of itself attached and mails itself to one or more other email addresses. some email worms such as nimda can run by themselves without any intervention from the user, and may even infect the computer from the preview pane. details like the alleged sender, subject, message, attachment name and file type, payload ( if any ), and method of finding email addresses to send itself to can be radically different. there is some speculation that email worms may become less of a threat in the future, as average users become more wise and follow safer email handling practices. internet worms spread directly over the internet. the worm searches for open ports on the internet and sends itself to other systems. most of the major worms exploit known vulnerabilities to spread. some consider these worms to be the only \" true \" worms, as they require absolutely no user intervention to spread. morris, slammer, codered, blaster and sasser are a few examples of prominent internet worms. network worms spread over network shares. usually a network worm is also an email, internet or other type of worm, as it would not spread very far if it were restricted to a local network. irc ( internet relay chat ), im ( instant message ), p2p ( peer - to - peer file sharing ) and other types of worms typically require that one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.604129017394059, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:eee32a9a-4175-415b-86a5-bdda3eb20560>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:27.435011"}
{"text": "the hardest substance in the united states, diamonds are often used in jewelry to symbolize marriage and love. but diamonds mean a lot of things to people all over the world. in other countries, diamonds are connected with healing, magic, protection and wealth. did you know diamonds are actually made of pure carbon? carbon is a substance found in nearly everything on earth, including rocks, trees and people. we all need carbon to survive. diamonds are formed deep beneath the earth from the carbon of organisms that lived many years before us. volcanic eruptions pushed the matter to the earthis surface where diamonds are mined today. diamonds take a very long time to form. scientists tell us the diamonds we see today are probably billions of years although diamonds come in a variety of shapes, most are colorless. the mineral is clear, like a crystal. itis rare, but occasionally a blue or yellow diamond will be found. colored diamonds are very expensive. eighty percent of the diamonds in the world today are not used in jewelry. since it is the hardest substance in the world, most diamonds are used to cut and grind other substances. for example, diamonds are used to shape concrete, stone, eyeglasses and computer chips, among other diamonds are mined in 25 countries, including india, brazil, africa, russia and australia. diamonds can be found on every continent except europe and antarctica. the first diamond was believed to have been found between three and four thousand years ago in india. it takes a lot of work to find a diamond in the earth. it is usually surrounded by tons of rock, which has to be chipped away from the diamond. then the diamond must be cleaned and polished before it can be sold. as a result, many of the diamonds used in the world today are manufactured or man - made.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6262443040342032, "token_count": 362, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0a98f4c1-c747-4056-8a04-a3ea6021927c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:27.911259"}
{"text": "helium - 3 ( 3he ) is a necessary component of many nuclear detection devices ; however our country is facing a helium - 3 shortage. to address this shortage, dhs \u2019 domestic nuclear detection office ( dndo ) is advancing the search for efficient, cost - effective alternative technologies. after weeks of rigorous testing, dndo completed a test campaign for alternative technologies to smaller helium - 3 dependant radiation detection systems. during the test campaign, conducted at the radiological and nuclear countermeasures test and evaluation complex at the nevada national security site, dndo evaluated 39 different neutron detection technologies, such as handhelds, backpacks and vehicle - mounted equipment. dndo provided post - test information to participating vendors to help accelerate device development. these technologies are being developed through government - sponsored research or by commercial manufacturers, expediting product development while reducing government cost. in august 2011, dndo successfully completed a two - year effort to find replacement technologies for the 3he neutron detectors in radiation portal monitors ( rpms ), identifying three replacement alternative 3he technologies which are now used in commercial production. dndo works in collaboration with the private sector to anticipate shortages of important resources such as helium - 3, to ensure the country \u2019 s capability to protect against potential radiological and nuclear threats.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6034438612618085, "token_count": 260, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:30960305-e4ca-4532-b619-47e50b29494c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:28.492146"}
{"text": "april 3, 2006 - - 4 : 00 p. m. latent variables, uncertainty and evidence. in many areas of science, our models involve latent variables which cannot be observed. often these variables are such that, were we able to observe, them the testing of scientific hypotheses would be straightforward. a classical example is that of bernoulli trials ( tosses of a fair coin ) observed with error. while every student knows how to construct a test that the coin is fair, how should uncertainty in observation be taken into account? recently, the notions of fuzzy p - values and confidence levels have been introduced into the statistics literature as a way to describe the uncertainty inherent in a randomized test. in latent variable problems, the natural definition of a fuzzy p - value is the distribution, given observed data, of that function of latent variables that would be the p - value were the latent variables observed. this notion puts our uncertainty directly onto the p - value scale, and permits simultaneous expression of the strength of the evidence and our uncertainty. several simple examples that show both the flexibility and the usefulness of the approach will be discussed. these examples require no more than knowledge of the binomial distribution and the classical p - value, yet are sufficient to show how the approach provides a new approach to uncertainty in broad areas of scientific inference. april 4, 2006 - - 4 : 00 p. m. uncertainty in inheritance and the detection of genetic linkage it has long been recognized that genetic analysis would be simple if we could observe directly the inheritance of genome from parents to offspring. however, in human genetic analyses, this inheritance is often uncertain, even at highly polymorphic and well sampled genome positions. while monte carlo methods in general, and markov chain monte carlo in particular, permit imputation of latent variables of scientific interest, simple integration over imputations loses information regarding our as discussed in the first lecture, fuzzy p - values describe the uncertainty inherent in a randomized test. using this idea, and taking as our latent variables the unobservable patterns of inheritance in pedigrees, we apply this idea to show how fuzzy p - values can summarize both the strength of evidence for linkage and the uncertainty about that evidence. the approach also provides a solution to the long - standing problem of providing a global significance level for the multiple dependent tests performed in testing for linkage. we show how realizations from the fuzzy p - value distribution may be obtained efficiently with only two sets of monte", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_simulation", "similarity_score": 0.6238186824101574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4e4f1bdc-4c53-4c62-8471-660cc0cd5609>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:30.951436"}
{"text": "these definitions are used throughout the remainder of this manual. a family of open system standards based on unix. bash is primarily concerned with the shell and utilities portion of the posix 1003. 1 standard. a space or tab character. a command that is implemented internally by the shell itself, rather than by an executable program somewhere in the file system. token that performs a control function. it is a or one of the following : \u2018 | | \u2019, \u2018 & & \u2019, \u2018 & \u2019, \u2018 ; \u2019, \u2018 ; ; \u2019, \u2018 | \u2019, \u2018 | & \u2019, \u2018 ( \u2019, or \u2018 ) \u2019. the value returned by a command to its caller. the value is restricted to eight bits, so the maximum value is 255. a unit of text that is the result of one of the shell expansions. after expansion, when executing a command, the resulting fields are used as the command name and arguments. a string of characters used to identify a file. a set of processes comprising a pipeline, and any processes descended from it, that are all in the same process group. a mechanism by which users can selectively stop ( suspend ) and restart ( resume ) execution of processes. a character that, when unquoted, separates words. a metacharacter is blank or one of the following characters : \u2018 | \u2019, \u2018 & \u2019, \u2018 ; \u2019, \u2018 ( \u2019, \u2018 ) \u2019, \u2018 < \u2019, or word consisting solely of letters, numbers, and underscores, and beginning with a letter or underscore. names are used as shell variable and function names. also referred to as an control operator or a see redirections, for a list of redirection operators. operators contain at least one unquoted a collection of related processes each having the same process group id. process group id a unique identifier that represents a during its lifetime. word that has a special meaning to the shell. most reserved words introduce shell flow control constructs, such as a synonym for a mechanism by which a process may be notified by the kernel of an event occurring in the system. a shell builtin command that has been classified as special by the posix standard. a sequence of characters considered a single unit by the shell. it is either a word or an a sequence of characters treated as a unit by the shell. words may not include unquoted", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6173645458369618, "token_count": 490, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4565420d-85b9-4b96-9a61-2e8bad797a75>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:31.184756"}
{"text": "gamma ray b8 - - > be8 * + positron + neutrino be8 * - - > he4 + he4 h is hydrogen, d is deuterium ( heavy hydrogen ), he is helium, li is lithium, be is beryllium, and b is boron. numbers indicate different isotopes. the homestake experiment detects only the highest energy neutrinos produced by the sun, the neutrinos produced by the beryllium / boron reactions. solutions to the solar neutrino problem are usually classified in one of two categories, astrophysical or physical. solutions that require a change in the way we think about the sun are termed astrophysical solutions while solutions that require a change in the way we think about neutrinos are called physical solutions. the homestake experiment has been running for over two solar activity cycles ( 1 activity cycle = 11 years approximately ) and it has been noticed that the neutrino fluxes are not constant. many researchers have tried to link solar surface activity with neutrino fluxes and, depending upon whether you believe their statistical arguments, have succeeded. it has been claimed that the neutrino flux is correlated to solar radius and solar wind mass flux ; and anti - correlated to line - of - sight magnetic flux, p - mode frequencies, and ( you guessed it ) sunspots. ( if two quantities are correlated, then they increase and decrease together. if two quantities are anti - correlated, then when one increases, the other decreases, and vice versa. ) many of these parameters are ( anti - ) correlated with each other and are internally consistent. the solar activity cycle is usually defined by sunspot numbers but sunspots are related to magnetic activity in the sun. many of these other parameters are also directly affected by magnetism. if these correlations really exist, then it would seem that neutrinos are reacting with the magnetic fields in the heliosphere and magnetosphere. thus, from this evidence, the solution to the solar neutrino problem is a physical one. another possibility, rarely discussed, is that the solar neutrino flux is actually constant and it is the cosmic ray background that is varying. cosmic rays are more likely to get through to the earth during periods of low solar activity. therefore, neutrinos generated in the earth ' s atmosphere by cosmic rays will increase in number during these times. if this cosmic background flux is not correctly subtracted from the total detections, then it will", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6031255465322651, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:93f82ccd-7846-46a4-ad89-f06139df4f4c>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:31.527478"}
{"text": "physical sciences division researchers map water ' s transformation from ice to liquid team determines if models match experimental reality results : two popular computer models used by chemists and physicists to describe water do not correctly predict that ice melts at 32 degrees fahrenheit, according to a study by scientists at pacific northwest national laboratory and the university of nebraska, lincoln. more important, the study suggests that simulations of liquid water at room temperature with those models actually describe a supercooled glassy state, not the regular liquid. the study in the may 2009 journal of chemical physics was the # 3 download in june. \" i ' m delighted that this article is receiving this kind of attention from the scientific community, \" said dr. sotiris xantheas, the principal author on the paper. \" hopefully, it will set the standards of how those models should be used in the future to describe water. \" the team pointed out the problem in two of the most popular dft or density functional theory models in predicting the correct phase diagram of water. a dft model describes the underlying interactions between water at the molecular level, incorporating the interactions between the nuclei and the electrons of the system. both of those dft models suggest that the melting temperature of ice is way too high, almost 150\u00b0f higher than the value that nature has settled on. \" so if you use those models to describe water at room temperature, you do not get the regular liquid but instead a supercooled glassy state that does not look like nature ' s most ubiquitous solvent, \" said xantheas. this finding will help researchers fine tune dft models to achieve a closer match to what ' s observed during experiments. why it matters : whether studying clouds, cancer, or catalysts, the behavior of water is the key factor. clouds form from water and act as a testbed for a variety of processes that ultimately affect earth ' s climate. cancer treatments must work with the water found in cells. and catalysts both speed reactions in water and use the liquid as a feedstock to create renewable energy sources such as hydrogen. scientists in all of these fields need to understand, at the molecular level, how water behaves under different conditions and in different environments. for example, how does the behavior of water molecules and sulfur oxide impact the creation of acid rain? the dft models are used to understand how changes at the atomic and molecular levels influence behaviors we can see and touch. the more realistic these models are, the easier time scientists have understanding and controlling", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6275682959399775, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c9b4eaae-72e6-4ba8-8eec-827fb0f93faa>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:32.025144"}
{"text": "molecules and sulfur oxide impact the creation of acid rain? the dft models are used to understand how changes at the atomic and molecular levels influence behaviors we can see and touch. the more realistic these models are, the easier time scientists have understanding and controlling reactions. what ' s next : this discovery will assist the team members on making progress on other projects. \" if you can ' t understand water, you can ' t understand proteins, \" said dr. soohaeng yoo, one of the authors of this paper, commenting about his upcoming studies. acknowledgments : this work was done by dr. soohaeng yoo and dr. sotiris xantheas at pacific northwest national laboratory and professor xiao cheng zeng at the university of nebraska at lincoln. the department of energy ' s emsl, a national scientific user facility, and basic energy sciences at doe provided the computer resources. reference : yoo s, xc zeng, and ss xantheas. 2009. \" on the phase diagram of water with density functional theory potentials : the melting temperature of ice ih with the perdew - burke - ernzerhof and becke - lee - yang - parr functionals. \" journal of chemical physics 130 : 221102.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.656816449858101, "token_count": 259, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c9b4eaae-72e6-4ba8-8eec-827fb0f93faa>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:32.025623"}
{"text": "ray ever detected, weighing in at about 3 x 10 ^ 20 ev, was so powerful that this single atomic particle or nucleus carried the kinetic energy of a 60 mph baseball. but even at the very highest energies, where the deflections of uhecrs by the intergalactic magnetic field are least, there is no population of objects - - whether astrophysical or astroparticle - - that available data establishes as the solution to the puzzle of the origin, acceleration site, and power source of uhecrs. the newly launched fermi gamma ray space telescope, the south pole icecube neutrino experiment, ground - based tev ( 1000 gev ) gamma - ray detectors, and the pierre auger cosmic ray observatory in argentina are now poised to provide crucial evidence on this and many other features of the high - energy space radiation environment. according to dermer, \" this is a decade of incredible scientific discovery in high - energy astronomy and astroparticle physics. \" dermer and menon anticipate advances over the coming decade in their new book \" high energy radiation from black holes : gamma rays, cosmic rays, and neutrinos, \" published this week by princeton university press as part of the princeton series in astrophysics, an international set of monographs for researchers and students. \" because the high - energy cosmic ray, neutrino, and gamma - ray fields have such extensive overlap, i wanted to write about the problem of the sources of the highest energy radiations in a common language. and in my work, all roads lead to the black hole. \" menon adds, \" we studied a battery mechanism to extract the energy of a spinning black hole, and it provides a compelling way to power jets in high - energy gamma ray sources. \" \" high energy radiation from black holes \" gives an extensive theoretical framework involving the radiation physics and strong - field gravity of black holes, and pulls together einstein ' s general theory of relativity with electrodynamics using a new space - time approach that simplifies the excessive mathematical formalism found in past treatments. a detailed description of fundamental astrophysical radiation processes is treated. several subjects, for example, astrophysics of gamma - ray attenuation by photons and relativistic blast - wave physics developed to understand the major advances in gamma - ray burst research since the 1990s, appear for the first time in monograph form. the book provides a basis for graduate students and researchers in the field to interpret the latest results from high - energy observatories", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.60079441674403, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dd34915f-d76b-4095-a701-d9b1aa6d4223>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:32.223364"}
{"text": "want to stay on top of all the space news? follow @ universetoday on twitter of all the wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum, those that lie between 400 nm to 700 nm are the ones most familiar to us. that \u2019 s because these are the waves that comprise what we call visible light. when we see objects, it \u2019 s because they \u2019 re being illuminated by visible light. when we see that the sky is blue, or the grass is green, or hair black, or that an apple is red, that \u2019 s because we \u2019 re seeing different wavelengths within the 400nm - 700nm band. because of the waves in this band, a lot has been learned about the properties of electromagnetic waves. through visible light, reflection & refraction are easily observed. so are interference and diffraction. mirrors, lenses, prisms, diffraction gratings, and spectrometers have all been put to use to understand and manifest the qualities of the light that we see through our naked eyes. galileo \u2019 s telescope, which was composed of a simple set of lenses, made use of the refractive properties of light to magnify distant objects. today \u2019 s binoculars and periscopes capitalize on the optical phenomenon called total internal reflection by using prisms to improve on what early refractive telescopes were capable of achieving. as mentioned earlier, visible light is made up of the wavelengths that range from 400 nm to 700 nm. each wavelength is characterized by a unique color, with violet on one end ( adjacent to ultraviolet light ) and red on the other ( adjacent to infrared light ). when all these wavelengths are combined together, they make up what is known as white light. you can separate these wavelengths ( and the corresponding colors ) by letting them pass through either a prism or a diffraction grating. the magnificent array of colors that we see in a rainbow, on a diamond, or even a peacock \u2019 s tail are examples of this separation. all phenomena of visible light such as reflection, refraction, interference, and diffraction are also exhibited by non - visible wavelengths. hence, by understanding these phenomena, and applying them to the non - visible wavelengths, scientists were able to unearth many of nature \u2019 s secrets. in fact, if we trace back the roots of modern physics, particularly the wave - particle duality of matter, we will be led back to its manifestation in visible light. the study of visible light falls under the realm of optics. among the scientists who have contributed substantially", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6533871183643603, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bd4d78cd-acd9-4a86-8d0b-4755a2f4460a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:32.439938"}
{"text": "nanosystem capable of replicating the process of photosynthesis, a sort of \u201c artificial forest \u201d that could one day lead to the production of hydrogen that could be used to power fuel cells. composed of nanowire structures \u2014 including silicon \u201c trunks \u201d and titanium oxide \u201c branches \u201d \u2014 the system mimics the role played by chloroplasts in promoting photosynthesis in green plants. by assembling the \u201c trees \u201d in a dense array, resembling a miniature forest, the network lowers sunlight reflection and provides more surface area for hydrogen - producing reactions, the scientists say. \u201c we \u2019 ve integrated our nanowire nanoscale heterostructure into a functional system that mimics the integration in chloroplasts and provides a conceptual blueprint for better solar - to - fuel conversion efficiencies in the future, \u201d said peidong yang, a chemist with the lawrence berkeley national laboratory and co - author of the study, published in the journal nano letters. the lab of daniel nocera at harvard university is doing related research into so - called artificial leaves interview : telling the life story of ginkgo, the oldest tree on earth botanist peter crane sees the ginkgo as more than just a distinctive tree with foul - smelling fruits and nuts prized ginkgo leaves in autumn for reputed medicinal properties. to crane, author of a new book, ginkgo, the tree is an oddity in nature because it is a single species with no known living relatives ; a living fossil that has been essentially unchanged for more than 200 million years ; and an inspiring example of how humans can help a species survive. in an interview with yale environment 360, crane, dean of the yale school of forestry & environmental studies, talks about what makes the ginkgo unique and what makes it smell, how its toughness and resilience has enabled it to thrive as a street tree, and what the ginkgo \u2019 s long history says about human life on earth. the ginkgo, which co - existed with the dinosaurs, \u201c really puts our own species \u2014 let alone our individual existence \u2014 into a broader context, \u201d says crane. read the interview methane measurements collected during a scientist \u2019 s road trip across the u. s. indicate that local emissions of the potent greenhouse gas are higher than previously known in many regions. using a gas chromatograph mounted to the roof of a rented camper, ira leifer of the university of california, santa barbara, collected air samples from florida to california, finding the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6023808436276117, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:5643ed17-9fa3-487f-919b-af2df5275962>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:33.912992"}
{"text": "scott j ; sawaka, michael n ; cadarett, bruce s ; quigley, mark d ; mckay, james m ( 1994 ), \" physiological tolerance to uncompensable heat stress : effects of exercise intensity, protective clothing, and climate \", journal of applied physiology 77 ( 1 ) : 216 \u2013 222, pmid 7961236, retrieved 8 september 2010 - ross, robert ( 2008 ), clothing, a global history : or, the imperialist ' s new clothes, cambridge, uk : polity press, isbn 978 - 0 - 7456 - 3186 - 8, retrieved 8 september 2010 paperback isbn 978 - 0 - 7456 - 3187 - 5 - tochihara, yutaka & ohnaka, tadakatsu, ed. ( 2005 ), environmental ergonomics : the ergonomics of human comfort, health and performance in the thermal environment, elsevier ergonomics book series, vol. 3, amsterdam & boston : elsevier, pp. 315 \u2013 320, isbn 0 - 08 - 044466 - 0, retrieved 8 september 2010 ( see especially sections 5 \u2013 ' clothing ' \u2013 & 6 \u2013 ' protective clothing ' ). - yarborough, portia & nelson, cherilyn n, ed. ( 2005 ), performance of protective clothing : global needs and emerging markets, 8th vol., west conshohocken, pa : astm international, isbn 0 - 8031 - 3488 - 6, issn 1040 - 3035, retrieved 8 september 2010 | find more about clothing at wikipedia ' s sister projects | | definitions and translations from wiktionary | | media from commons | | learning resources from wikiversity | | news stories from wikinews | | quotations from wikiquote | | source texts from wikisource | | textbooks from wikibooks | | travel information from wikivoyage | - bbc wiltshire dents glove museum - international textile and apparel association, scholarly publications - german hosiery museum ( english language ) - molecular evolution of pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing by ralf kittler, manfred kayser and mark stoneking (. pdf file ) - cornell home economics archive : research, tradition, history ( hearth )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.600486000718663, "token_count": 463, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:24d138a6-94b5-4ade-9a34-ba38c1ed8bdf>", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.031922"}
{"text": "a possible field of research for a thesis. she used an innovative technique to investigate samples. fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electrical currents. using pierre ' s electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. she had hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules, but must come from the atom itself. this hypothesis was an important step in disproving the ancient assumption that atoms were indivisible. in 1897, her daughter irene was born. to support the family, marie began teaching at the ecole normale superieure. the curies did not have a dedicated laboratory ; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to the school of physics and chemistry. the shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. as they were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances, marie and her husband had no idea what price they would pay for the effect of their research upon their health. the school did not sponsor her research, but she would receive some subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies, and various organizations and governments. marie ' s systematic studies had included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite ( also known as chalcolite ). her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. she concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of some other substance that was far more active than uranium. she began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation and by 1898, she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive. the [ research ] idea [ writes reid ] was her own ; no one helped her formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it. she later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity. it [ is ] likely that already at this early stage of her career [ she ] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6080044059452605, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:50aaefea-4d93-4808-a5b2-d3a02fb99ec0>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.105424"}
{"text": "word for ray. in their research they also coined the word radioactivity. to prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the curies had undertaken to isolate polonium and radium into its pure components. pitchblende is a complex mineral. the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. the discovery of polonium had been relatively easy ; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth - like substance in the ore. radium, however, was more elusive. it is closely related, chemically, to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. by 1898, the curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. the curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization. from a ton of pitchblende, one - tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. in 1910, marie isolated pure radium metal. she never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half - life of only 138 days. in 1900, marie became the first woman faculty member at the ecole normale superieure, and pierre joined the sorbonne ' s faculty. in 1902, she visited poland on the occasion of her father ' s death. in june 1903, supervised by henri becquerel, marie was awarded her doctorate from the university of paris. that month, she and pierre were invited to the royal institution in london to give a speech on radioactivity ; being female, she was prevented from speaking, and pierre alone was allowed to. meanwhile, a new industry began developing based on radium. the curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business. in december 1903, the royal swedish academy of sciences awarded pierre curie, marie curie and henri becquerel the nobel prize in physics, \" in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by professor henri becquerel. \" at first, the committee intended to honour only pierre and henri, but one of the committee members and an advocate of woman scientists, swedish mathematician magnus goesta mittag - leffler, alerted pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, marie ' s name was added to the nomination. marie was the first woman to be awarded a nobel prize. marie and her husband declined to go to stockholm to receive the prize in person", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6361126289295984, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:50aaefea-4d93-4808-a5b2-d3a02fb99ec0>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.107480"}
{"text": "haskell provides monadic programming constructs to enable computations that may involve side effects, one of the main monads provided in haskell is the io monad, which contains all the various io functions that can be used in a haskell program. monads are used to contain impure functions that can produce side effects, and rap them so as to create pure functions whose results may include a description of any side - effects that occurred. these monadic bindings enable any side effects that may occur to propagate through the program until they can be sensibly dealt with. a monad in haskell is defined as a type constructor, along with a function, and a bind function denoted. the return function is used to put values of any datatype into the monad, and the bind function is used to apply functions of datatypes outside the monad to the value of that datatype contained within the monad. the result of the function being bound must be in the monad. the type constructor for the qio monad is : the return function can simply be defined as the qreturn constructor, and the bind function needs to be given for each constructor as follows : the type constructors of the qio monad describe the operations that can be performed on a sort of ` quantum register ' \u2019. relates to making qubits available for the computation, relates to the application of an actual quantum computation, and is used to apply a unitary operation to the relevant qubits that have been initialised. we \u2019 ll see shortly the definition of a unitary operation. the last constructor, relates to the final measurement of the qbits after the computation has taken place. so, we \u2019 ve seen that a quantum computation is defined as a unitary operation, which are defined in the monoid of unitary operations, denoted. a monoid in haskell is again defined as a type constructor, with one of the constructors being denoted as the identity element, or. the binary operation of the monoid is denoted | mappend | and the definition must be given. in the case of the monoid, the type constructors and the corresponding operations are defined by : the type constructors of u represent the various operations that are required such that any unitary operation can be constructed, they correspond very closely to the operations described early for quantum computations. the constructor is for any single qubit rotation, and the actual rotation to be performed is the given which we \u2019 ll look at more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6217357329548938, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d5ef083-99e1-4542-b61e-2e0e8b64163e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.475230"}
{"text": "that any unitary operation can be constructed, they correspond very closely to the operations described early for quantum computations. the constructor is for any single qubit rotation, and the actual rotation to be performed is the given which we \u2019 ll look at more closely later. the constructor is used to swap the position of the 2 given qubits. finally the constructor is for conditionals, and the looks at the relevant qubit to decide whether or not the given unitary is run. the operation is used to build up bigger unitary operations from smaller ones. all single qubit rotations can be defined as a unitary 2 by 2 matrix, and so a rotation as used in the u monoid can be defined as 4 complex numbers that represent the entries in the corresponding unitary matrix. some common single qubit rotations can be given as examples, including the x rotation, which corresponds to the classical not, and the hadamard rotation which is used to take any qubit from it \u2019 s base state into an equal superposition of both base states. because all rotations must be unitary, it is possible to create their inverses using the conjugate transpose as follows : it is possible to create their inverses too : it \u2019 s possible now to build up quantum computations, but the aim of the qio monad is to enable these computations to be simulated. this is achieved through lifting the u monoid into another monoid named unitary. quantum computations that have been constructed in the u monoid must be lifted into \u201c pure ' \u2019 computations in the unitary monoid, where qubits are assigned to the computations such that the computations can be run, thus changing the state of the qubits. the way a computation is then actually simulated by a user is by the use of a pmonad, which is a monad along with a function that describes how to display the state of the qubits. the io monad can be extended into a pmonad by adding a function that uses the random number generator of the io monad to probabilistically give each of the qubits a true or false value. another pmonad can be defined such that the two probabilities are given as part of the result instead of being used to \u201c collapse ' \u2019 the qubit amplitudes, as in the example above. then the eval function only needs to be coded once, but takes the pmonad as one of it \u2019 s arguments. with the qio", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6967379483661333, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d5ef083-99e1-4542-b61e-2e0e8b64163e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.478679"}
{"text": "of being used to \u201c collapse ' \u2019 the qubit amplitudes, as in the example above. then the eval function only needs to be coded once, but takes the pmonad as one of it \u2019 s arguments. with the qio monad it \u2019 s now possible to create quantum computations and evaluate them. some example qio programs are given below : the above program would create a random bit, by creating a qubit, applying the hadamard rotation, and then measuring the qubit. another example is a small program that creates a 2 qubit bell state. it proceeds by creating a qubit, applying the hadamard to it, then making another qubit which is entangled with the first qubit using a conditional not rotation. the 2 qubits are measured, and a pair of the two measurements is returned. the bell state means that the qubits are entangled such that they will always collapse to the same state as now that we have created the qio monad, we would like to come up with larger examples, including implementations of shor \u2019 s and grover \u2019 s algorithms. it should also be possible to use larger quantum data structures than individual qubits, creating them in the same way that classical data structures are defined from classical bits. it should again be possible to construct qio programs from qml programs, and thus use the evaluation functions to simulate the running of qml programs.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.7420168168712589, "token_count": 293, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:1d5ef083-99e1-4542-b61e-2e0e8b64163e>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.480722"}
{"text": "god said : \u201c let there be light \u201d and blew life into human. the light in human body is due to electron movement which can be said as electromagnetic field. the human body generates the electromagnetic field through heart, brain, nervous system and most probably through glands and skin too. this electromagnetic field can be detected with certain electromagnetic field meters. such electromagnetic field is also termed as bio electromagnetic field ( bemf ). electromagnetic field is said to be mostly around those areas of body where the body has more nerve connection ends. according to a research human body produces more positive than negative magnetic fields. it has been said now that you can use your body \u2019 s electrical field to identify yourself in a unique and novel way. an electromagnetic current of different frequencies when run through a person, it will cause a totally different reaction in comparison to the other person \u2019 s reaction due to the running of same frequency current. researchers from dartmouth university are trying to create \u2018 wearable \u2019 electronics in order to make use of such difference of frequencies. they have given the name of \u201c amulet \u201d to this design, and a device that can take measurement and will confirm the identity of a person. this device will consist of small electrodes which will measure how the tissues of body will respond to a particular current which differs from person to person. it is a kind of lock that is keyed in to a human \u2019 s biology and when it will create a successful connection with the device, it will unlock it for you. according to researchers, once the set up will be established fully, it will start coordinating with others too. then those devices will join it as a party and all of this work will be done quite easily as being easily slipped into your pocket while staying in your biology. such a kind of system or device will be very helpful in the assessment of a person \u2019 s health. a small device which will be attached to a human body would be able to monitor that person anywhere and there will be no hindrance of wireless security concerns. still researchers are trying to increase its reliability as reliability is quite important for a device like this. according to dr. becker \u201c present strategic doctrine rests on an unlimited, and expanding, use of electromagnetic energy. without this capability, sophisticated weapons systems are useless. as a result, any attempts to acquaint the general public with the potential hazards of electromagnetic fields are viewed by such forces as inimical to state security and so are ruthlessly suppressed. \u201d there are many research institutes which are working all around the world who are investigating the electromagnetic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6144047948966153, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:617e1b59-16db-4857-8c9a-ccbc27b33f5f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.909073"}
{"text": "30, 2013 | 5 / 5 ( 2 ) | 9 - separate lives : neuronal and organismal lifespans decoupled mar 27, 2013 | 4. 9 / 5 ( 8 ) | 0 - sizing things up : the evolutionary neurobiology of scale invariance feb 28, 2013 | 4. 8 / 5 ( 10 ) | 14 classical and quantum mechanics via lie algebras apr 15, 2011 i ' d like to open a discussion thread for version 2 of the draft of my book ' ' classical and quantum mechanics via lie algebras ' ', available online at http : / / lanl. arxiv. org / abs / 0810. 1019, and for the... - more from physics forums - independent research more news stories vermont became on monday the third us state to legalize physician - assisted suicide. other 24 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 food microbiology laboratories continue to submit false negative results and false positive results on a routine basis. a retrospective study of nearly 40, 000 proficiency test results over the past 14 years, presented today... other 5 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 siemens has presented the world ' s first ultrasound system with wireless transducers. the system ' s transducers, which can be easily operated with one hand, transmit ultrasound images via radio waves to the... other 10 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 ( ap ) \u2014 a woman who lost both hands, her left leg and right foot after contracting a flesh - eating disease has been fitted with prosthetic hands. other may 18, 2013 | not rated yet | 0 university of minnesota medical school researchers from the masonic cancer center, university of minnesota, in partnership with the university ' s brain tumor program, have developed a new mouse model of malignant peripheral... 31 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 | turns out, that old \" practice makes perfect \" adage may be overblown. new research led by michigan state university ' s zach hambrick finds that a copious amount of practice is not enough to explain why people... 41 minutes ago | 5 / 5 ( 2 ) | 0 | older prostate cancer patients with other underlying health conditions should think twice before committing to surgery or radiation therapy for their cancer, according to a multicenter study led by researchers in the ucla... 28 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 | a new diagnostic test for a worm infection that can lead to severe enlargement and def", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6397361239166903, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e67f27e3-0a62-4628-a102-af1d09fa3bc2>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:34.982047"}
{"text": "doe calls for a chemical battery with 5x capacity, within 5 years \u2013 can it be done? the department of energy wants batteries with five times the energy storage of those we have today. they want them to be five times cheaper and to be ready in five years. earlier this year the department \u2019 s solicitation for proposals was announced, and now five universities have been chosen for the job along with several national labs and private companies. according to us energy secretary steven chu, a \u201c manhattan project - like atmosphere \u201d is to be fostered. with a funding level of only $ 120 million and no visible enemy at the border, what are the prospects for success? by most estimates the manhattan project \u2014 a research program that led to the first atomic bomb \u2014 was funded to the tune of $ 2 billion, which today would be around $ 20 billion. the battery and energy storage hub, as the new project is called, barely scratches the surface of that. today \u2019 s chemical battery technology is fairly mature, and a serious competitor that would be viable on this projected timescale has yet to emerge. exotic materials like graphene or carbon nanotubes are being explored as anode materials, and seemingly far - out concepts like using viruses to self assemble electrodes have been studied, but these concepts have yet to be proved. to achieve the kind of numbers that the doe expects, we can only guess at what these folks might may have hiding up their sleeves. one alternative to li - ion batteries that has been proposed is an aluminum - ion ( al - ion ) battery. al - ion would have a potential energy density of 1kw - hr / kg compared with 0. 4 kw - hr / kg for li - ion. aluminum has the advantage of possessing three valence electrons compared to lithium \u2019 s single available valence electron. the result is that battery charge / discharge reactions involving aluminum can transfer three times as many electrons and hence triple the current per chemical unit. metal - ion batteries still have the drawback that they cannot be discharged to zero. one might have thought that the tesla roadster would have been designed so that this could never happen, however murphy \u2019 s law recently provided for dramatic headlines as several owners were rumored to have gotten stuck with huge tabs for replacement batteries. another sore point for metal - ion batteries was highlighted by a recent chevy volt crash test report. three weeks after a rollover test impacted the battery, it caught fire. at 13kw - hr / kg, gasoline is still a far more attractive option", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6044148620130376, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0392f25c-e1d2-4ee5-b5e4-0f2f8eb98bc3>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T10:27:35.059855"}