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{: masked \ human trafficking \ i ironed the coffee \ i ironed clothes, \ 9 \u2212 3 \u2212 4, \ 9 \u2212 3 \u2212 4, \ 2 \ 3. \subdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_opticssimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:cc6e827d-f3ed-4d2a-af77-78d483d49a5a>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:26.892955 |
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textwhereas impermeable material, such as clays, don ' t allow water to flow freely. an unreasonable sort of fear that can cause avoidance and panic. phobias are a relatively common type of anxiety disorder. a small, discrete body of water held by some plants. a platform that goes from the land out into the water. ( dock ) a canoe - like boat developed in louisiana for duck hunting in cypress swamps and coastal marshes. flat lands that have only small changes in elevation. ( see more about plains ) floating microscopic organisms that drift close to the surface of the sea in open water. a large, flat area of land that is higher than the surrounding land. ( see more about plateaus ) a very flat, dry lake bed of hard, mud - cracked clay. a person who kills game out of season or shoots more than the legal limit of game. where fast current rushes around boulders and other obstructions, creating pockets of calmer water. where land sticks out into a body of water. a mass of very cold, very dry air that forms in polar regions. polar deserts are areas with annual precipitation less than 250 mm and a mean temperature during the warmest month of less than 10\u00b0 c. polar deserts on the earth cover nearly 5 million square kilometers and are mostly bedrock or gravel plains. small, light, dry protein particles from trees, grasses, flowers, and weeds that may be spread by the wind. pollen particles are usually the male sex cells of the plant, and are smaller than the tip of a pin. containing waste materials or other unwanted substances. a small body of water surrounded by land. a pond is smaller than a lake. a reach or segment of a river or stream with greater depth and slower current. a hooded water - repelling garment used for a raincoat. man - made place along the coastline where ships can load and unload cargo ; not a natural harbor. a term used to describe water that is suitable for human consumption. powder horn ( hunting ) a horn from a cow that has been hollowed out to hold black powder, used for muzzleloader shooting. a wide, relatively flat area of land that has grasses and only a few trees. ( see more about prairies ) catches and feeds on other animals. the process where water vapor condenses in the atmosphere to form water droplets that fall to the earth as rain, sleet, snow, hail, etc. ( national weather service ) something being hunted to be eaten. allowing fuel to collect in the burner of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6079586314891139, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:13cba98e-b755-499b-ae73-a38867d5971f>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:26.927945"} |
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{"text": "easy - to - use and flexible program when evaluating the indoor climate and energy conditions as well as the designing of the heating, cooling and ventilation plants. tsbi3 is a tool for consulting engineering companies, research institutes and others who need to simulate and calculate the thermal working environment, energy consumption, control functions, energy saving measures in buildings and the utilisation of passive solar energy. tsbi3 permits calculation on complex buildings with several ( in principle indefinitely many ) rooms and zones simultaneously. tsbi3 utilises data from all structures in the thermal evaluation. all depending on the complexity of the building and the systems, a total of 200 - 400 data, which usually are to be taken direct from the project material, must be given. energy performance, design, retrofit, research, residential and commercial buildings, indoor climate users must have some general knowledge on building design and how buildings behave thermally in order create the building model. courses are offered. approximately 200 licences, of which about 150 in denmark. engineers, researchers and students. when using the tsbi3 the building is divided into rooms or zones where materials, building component, equipment and systems used are described as follows : rooms and zones the net and gross area, net height, distribution of solar radiation, surfaces surrounding the zone as well as equipment and systems in the zone. structures and materials description of type, density, thermal capacity and thermal conductivity. walls, floors and roof constructions are built in layers according to the description of the materials. the structures are joined together with the windows and doors to make entire surfaces stating the orientation and slope. sunshades are defined in relation to the surfaces. equipment and functions internal loads ( e. g. persons, lighting, equipment, moisture load ), natural ventilation ( e. g. infiltration, venting ), heating and cooling radiators, and ventilation systems. all such \" systems \" are defined by the physical component as well as how it is controlled and when in function. central and local ventilation plants supply and exhaust fans as well as total pressure rise and total efficiency. units of heat recovery, heating and cooling coils, and humidifiers. together with the control strategy chosen, these data form the base for calculating the power demand and energy consumption necessary for running the plants. automatic control strategies are defined for each individual ventilation plant, e. g. changes in temperature, volume flow, moisture content, readjustment between winter and summer periods. differentiation is made between data of the physical components of the plant ( in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6016490327508486, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f34be197-0287-45e5-9a28-c2b427bd6fd7>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:28.093435"} |
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{"text": ". earth ' s mantle extends to a depth of 2, 890 km, making it the thickest layer of the earth. the pressure, at the bottom of the mantle, is ~ 140 gpa ( 1. 4 matm ). the mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. the melting point and viscosity of a substance depends on the pressure it is under. as there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle ( chemical changes within the mantle may also be important ). the viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 and 1024 pa \u00b7 s, depending on depth. in comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10\u22123 pa \u00b7 s and that of pitch is 107 pa \u00b7 s. the crust ranges from 5 \u2013 70 km in depth and is the outermost layer. the thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins ( 5 \u2013 10 km ) and are composed of dense ( mafic ) iron magnesium silicate rocks, like basalt. the thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of ( felsic ) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. the rocks of the crust fall into two major categories \u2013 sial and sima ( suess, 1831 \u2013 1914 ). as the main mineral constituents of the continental mass are silica and aluminium, it is thus called sial ( si - silica, 65 \u2013 75 % and al - aluminium ). the oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium. it is therefore called sima ( si - silica and ma - magnesium ). it is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the conrad discontinuity ( a second order discontinuity ). the uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. the crust - mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. first, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is known as the mohorovicic discontinuity or moho. the cause of the moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldsubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_materialssimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:f978f668-20f3-4dd3-adf0-c69227906f66>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:28.120180 |
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text- an alternate rewrite has been proposed. please refer to it for large rewrites. a programming language or computer language is a standardized communication technique for expressing instructions to a computer. it is a set of syntactic and semantic rules used to define computer programs. a language enables a programmer to precisely specify what data a computer will act upon, how these data will be stored / transmitted, and precisely what actions to take under various circumstances. table of contents features of programming language each programming language can be thought of as a set of formal specifications concerning syntax, vocabulary, and meaning. these specifications usually include : - data and data structures - instruction and control flow - reference mechanisms and re - use - design philosophy most languages that are widely used, or have been used for a considerable period of time, have standardization bodies that meet regularly to create and publish formal definitions of the language, and discuss extending or supplementing the already extant definitions. internally, all data in modern digital computers are stored simply as zeros or ones ( binary ). the data typically represent information in the real world such as names, bank accounts and measurements and so the low - level binary data are organised by programming languages into these high - level concepts. the particular system by which data are organized in a program is the type system of the programming language ; the design and study of type systems is known as type theory. languages can be classified as statically typed systems, and dynamically typed languages. statically - typed languages can be further subdivided into languages with manifest types, where each variable and function declaration has its type explicitly declared, and type - inferred languages. it is possible to perform type inference on programs written in a dynamically - typed language, but it is entirely possible to write programs in these languages that make type inference infeasible. sometimes dynamically - typed languages are called latently typed. with statically - typed languages, there usually are pre - defined types for individual pieces of data ( such as numbers within a certain range, strings of letters, etc. ), and programmatically named values ( variables ) can have only one fixed type, and allow only certain operations : numbers cannot change into names and vice versa. most mainstream statically - typed languages, such as c, c + +, java, delphi and c #, require all types to be specified explicitly ; advocates argue that this makes the program easier to understand, detractors object to the verbosity it produces. type inference is a mechanism whereby the type specifications can often be omittedsubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_computingsimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:45565d47-8a10-4e74-a619-c70cbf139f0a>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:29.270264 |
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textthe jenkins - traub algorithm is a standard in the field of numerical computation of polynomial roots, fundamentally developed as a numerical algorithm specifically for the task of computing polynomial roots. in other words, ( i ) because it was planned from the outset for numerical purposes rather than being simply an adaptation of an analytic formula, it is extremely robust, effectively minimizing the effects of computer round - off error, while ( ii ) also being extremely efficient compared to more general methods not written specifically for the task of computing polynomial roots ; in fact, the algorithm converges to polynomial roots at a rate better than quadratic. furthermore, since being introduced over thirty years ago, the algorithm has had time to be rigorously tested and has successfully proven its quality ; as a result, it has gained a wide distribution as evidenced by its incorporation in commercial software products and the posting on the netlib website of source code for programs based on the algorithm. given a function which is defined in terms of one or more independent variables, the roots ( also called zeros ) of the equation are the values of the independent variable ( s ) for which the function equals : note that, in general, the z values are complex numbers, comprised of real and imaginary components ( indicated by the ) :. consider the following equation : the values of and which satisfy this equation may not be possible by analytical methods, so the equation would be rearranged into the following form : which is of the form once in this form ( the standard form ), solving the original equation becomes a matter of finding the and values for which f equals, and well - developed fields of mathematics and computer science provide several root - finding techniques for solving such a problem. note that since the theme of this article is polynomial root - finding, further examples will focus on single - variable equations, specifically, polynomials. consider the following quadratic equation : this equation is a second - degree polynomial \u2013 the highest power applied to the independent variable is 2. consequently, this equation has two roots ; an n - degree polynomial equation has n roots. because the equation is a simple polynomial, a first approach to finding its zeros might be to put the equation into the form and make a few educated guesses ; a person could quickly determine that ( a strictly real result ) is one root of this equation. this root could then be divided out of the original polynomial to yield the second root :. in this simple example, the two roots were found easily ; the second root was found immediately after the first one was known. howeversubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_simulationsimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:77727f96-816a-4be4-a5a3-74bace6ad03e>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:29.617661 |
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textto find a solution at all, whereas another technique will succeed. for other problems, several techniques may, indeed, be able to solve the problem and the numerical analyst may select the one that is simply more computationally efficient. the field of numerical root - finding is so well - developed that the use of a good - quality numerical program is recommended \u2014 when numerical results are sought \u2014 even when an analytical solution to a problem is known. in other words, even though an analytical solution to, say, the quartic equation exists, writing a computer program that simply implements the textbook formula is not recommended ; computer round - off errors often render results of such programs meaningless. the use of a robust numerical program, based upon sound theory and an excellent algorithm, and coded to thoroughly deal with computer round - off errors, is the recommended action. the jenkins - traub algorithm is such an algorithm ; it is a three - stage, extremely effective, globally convergent algorithm designed specifically for computing the roots of polynomials. stage one is the \u201c no shift \u201d stage ; the main purpose of this stage is to accentuate the smaller zeros. the search for a zero is started by taking an initial guess of for a fixed number, m, of iterations ( m is usually assigned the value 5 on the basis of numerical experience ( 1 ) ). stage two is the \u201c fixed shift \u201d stage, the purpose of this stage is to separate zeros of equal or almost equal magnitude. as a starting point in this stage, the following value is used : is a lower bound on the magnitudes of the probable zeros in the cluster. could be taken at random, since the cluster could be anywhere in the complex plane ; however, in practice is usually initialized to 49\u00b0, putting s near the middle of the first quadrant of the complex plane. after a certain number of iterations, if s does not converge to a root, s is assigned a new value by increasing by 94\u00b0. repeated attempts would have the search for a root start with points in all four quadrants of the complex plane until the search is returned to the first quadrant. should the search, indeed, return to the first quadrant, successive cycles start at points 16\u00b0 away from the starting point of the preceding cycle. stage three is the \u201c variable shift \u201d stage, which is terminated when the computed value of the polynomial at a possible zero is less than or equal to a specified bound. in addition to the three fundamental stages around which it was developed, the jenkins - trausubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_simulationsimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:77727f96-816a-4be4-a5a3-74bace6ad03e>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:29.620782 |
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textis the \u201c variable shift \u201d stage, which is terminated when the computed value of the polynomial at a possible zero is less than or equal to a specified bound. in addition to the three fundamental stages around which it was developed, the jenkins - traub algorithm incorporates several other techniques for making it as effective as possible. one of those techniques is deflation of the polynomial by synthetic division each time a root is found. consider the following monic polynomial : the are known constants and, in general, are complex. now say the root ( ) has been found. synthetic division would be employed to divide that root out of the original polynomial : the are new constants. the root - finding process is then repeated on this new \u2013 simpler \u2013 polynomial. as each root is found, the polynomial becomes successively simpler and each successive iteration of the algorithm involves, in general, fewer computations. for polynomials whose coefficients are real only, when a complex root is found ( ), an additional benefit arises : that root \u2019 s complex conjugate is also a root ( ). in other words, two roots are computed \u2014 and the polynomial can be deflated by two degrees \u2014 in a single iteration of the algorithm. furthermore, this deflation involves real only, rather than complex, operations ; the product of these two roots is a real quadratic equation : in this case, synthetic division is employed on the polynomial as follows : in fact, for computing roots of polynomials which have only real coefficients, a modified version of the jenkins - traub algorithm has been written which incorporates several features that take advantage of the characteristics of real - only polynomials to yield significant decreases in program execution time ; \u201c if the complex and real algorithms are applied to the same real polynomial, the real algorithm is about four times as fast. \u201d ( 4 ) the jenkins - traub algorithm not only deflates the polynomial as roots are computed, it computes the roots roughly in order of increasing magnitude. this approach is taken because deflation of a polynomial can be unstable unless done by factors in order of increasing magnitude. by starting the search for roots with an initial guess of, as is done in stage one, roots are, indeed, computed roughly in order of increasing magnitude, the factors by which the polynomial is successively deflated are roughly in order of increasing magnitude \u2014 the deflation of the polynomial is made quite stable. as a quick check of the effectiveness of the jenkins - traub algorithm, consider a contrived numerical example : the roots of this polynomial are very closesubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_simulationsimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:77727f96-816a-4be4-a5a3-74bace6ad03e>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:29.621810 |
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textthickly. visual texture in two - dimensional artwork gives the illusion of texture. space is the emptiness of areas around, line is the mark left by a dot or point that moves over a surface, starting and stopping someplace, and leaving a path as it is drawn. perhaps the most common use for the element of line is to show the edges \u2014 the contours \u2014 of an object. line has a number of characteristics : direction ( horizontal, vertical or diagonal ), length ( short or long ), thick or thin, blurred or sharp, uneven, clear - edged, straight or curved, continuous or broken, and so on. the tool a line is made with relates to its character : contrast the thin, neat sharpness of a pen - and - ink line with one made with a crayon. drawing tools also respond to coarse or smooth drawing surfaces in different ways. color may be representational or used above, below and between shapes on the flat surface of the picture plane. sculptors plan to strike a pleasing arrangement of positive shapes and negative spaces, which are those spaces in and around positive shapes. a feeling of balance and unity in a composition means all spaces function in harmony with the rest of the artwork. value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. white mixed with a pure hue makes a gradation of tints, and black mixed with the same hue makes a scale of shades. an important role that value plays in an artwork is to create the illusion of form on a flat surface \u2014 a technique called shading \u2014 gradually moving from dark to light. however, some artworks that have no color at all depend on value to communicate their message : pen - andink, charcoal and pencil drawings, etchings, block prints and black - and - white photographs. a strong contrast in value may lend a dramatic or expressive feeling to an artwork. a piece of sculpture may be all one color and catch the light in such a way as to present an impressive range of darks and lights. how the elements of art are combined, emphasized and used in creating an artwork relates to the principles of art. we \u2019 ll review these principles in a subsequent column. n arbitrarily to express a strong emotion. emotions are linked with color \u2014 feeling blue, seeing red, green with envy and so on. kandinsky felt each color had a corresponding musical note and his canvases exploded with color. van gogh used colors that spoke strongly of emotions ( e. g. for him, yellow stood for love, warmthsubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_materialssimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:69e56926-9cdc-4e5a-8ab4-4a6aa1197077>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:29.858586 |
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textin order to detect or correct transmission or storage errors, some additional, redundant bits, called \, can be added to a number of data bits to construct a codeword. the number of corresponding bits that differ between two codewords is the hamming distance of those two codewords. ( see r. w. hamming, \ bell system technical journal, vol. 29, pp. 147 - 160, april 1950. ) for example, the hamming distance between the codewords 1001 and 0101 is 2. the hamming distance of two codewords can be calculated as the number of 1 bits in the bitwise exclusive - or of the two codewords : 1001 xor 0101 = 1100. a code is the set of all codewords of a given length that are constructed by adding a specified number of check digits in a specified way to a specified number of data bits. the minimum hamming distance of a code is the minimum of the hamming distance between all possible pairs of codewords of that code. the following table indicates the hamming distance between all pairs of a simple 4 - bit binary code : because the minimum hamming distance between any two codewords is 2, the hamming distance of the code is 2. if a code has a minimum hamming distance of 2, then at least two bits of any codeword would have to be transmitted in error or changed in memory in order to yield another codeword. if only one bit changed, the result would not be a codeword, so the single - bit error could be detected. similarly, if a code has a minimum hamming distance of 3, any fewer than 3 single - bit errors could be detected, since at least 3 bits must be flipped to change any codeword into another codeword of the same code. to detect d single - bit errors, a code must have a minimum hamming distance of at least d + 1. in order to correct transmission or storage errors, the data block that results from erroneous changes to a codeword must be \ ( in hamming distance ) to a particular codeword of the code than to any other codeword. for example, given the 4 - bit code above, the data block 0100 could have resulted from a single - bit error in any of the codewords 0000, 0101, 0110, or 1100. according to the hamming distance metric, 0100 is \ between any pair of these codesubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_cryptographysimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:e20f28e1-1796-4e92-833c-52fb5c19badf>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:30.401585 |
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texta twist. \ twisted pair. alexander graham bell patented twisted - pair wires in 1881. remarkably, we still use them because they work so well. in addition, by harnessing incredible computer power in field - programmable gate arrays ( fpgas ), circuit simulators, and filter design programs, we can make a twisted - pair wire even more useful in data communication. fpgas place considerable power and flexibility in a design engineer \u2019 s control. relatively low - volume projects that would never be feasible in custom application - specific integrated circuits ( asics ) become extremely practical. many high - volume projects use fpgas to prototype and try new functions before committing to custom silicon. the strength of an fpga is in its complex digital processing and, as a result, some analog signal processing is limited by the digital noise. external analog gain, offset, filtering, and processing can help the fpga better serve an application. this article discusses how to combine a twisted - pair wire and lowpass filters to produce spectacular rejection of radio frequency interference ( rfi ) and electromagnetic interference ( emi ). we also illustrate use of a precision resistor array to produce a customizable differential amplifier which helps pull the signal out of the interfering noise and improves fpga performance. the precision resistors set the gain and common - mode rejection ratios while we choose the frequency response. the importance of a twist amazingly a \u201c twist \u201d has become important in data communications. the seemingly simple twist of a pair, or pairs, of wires can reduce crosstalk, rfi and emi. with the explosive growth of the internet and computers, we might think that twisted - wire pairs are a recent invention. we would be wrong. figure 1 is a copy of alexander graham bell \u2019 s 1881 patent. he describes the interaction between many twisted pairs. figure 1. us patent 244, 426, granted in 1881 to alexander graham bell. 2 in mr. bell \u2019 s words : \, : , : 0.6154517797386037, : 512, : , : , : 0, : 0.6, : } |
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{: acquired image \ mental reflex image \ counter - image \ there are 10 kasina - spheres : someone sees the earth kasina, above, below, on all sides, undivided, unbounded.... someone see the water - kasina, above, below, etc. \ and hesubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_opticssimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:2f33e5aa-af53-4308-9a54-218b96d59add>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:31.104603 |
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textellipsometry measures a change in polarization as light reflects or transmits from a material structure. the polarization change is represented as an amplitude ratio, \u03c8, and the phase difference, \u03b4. the measured response depends on optical properties and thickness of individual materials. thus, ellipsometry is primarily used to determine film thickness and optical constants. however, it is also applied to characterize composition, crystallinity, roughness, doping concentration, and other material properties associated with a change in optical response. since the 1960s, as ellipsometry developed to provide the sensitivity necessary to measure nanometer - scale layers used in microelectronics, interest in ellipsometry has grown steadily. today, the range of its applications has spread to the basic research in physical sciences, semiconductor and data storage solutions, flat panel display, communication, biosensor, and optical coating industries. this widespread use is explained by increased dependence on thin films in many areas and the flexibility of ellipsometry to measure most material types : dielectrics, semiconductors, metals, superconductors, organics, biological coatings, and composites of materials. this tutorial provides a fundamental description of ellipsometry measurements along with the typical data analysis procedures. the primary applications of ellipsometry are also surveyed.subdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_materialssimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:de308732-2bd6-4a2c-8055-af6efdb7f857>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:31.318765 |
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textjoined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : wed apr 02, 2008 3 : 08 pm post subject : polymer opal films shed new kind of light on nature | 24 july 2007 nanowerk polymer opal films shed new kind of light on nature imagine cleaning out your refrigerator and being able to tell at a glance whether perishable food items have spoiled, because the packaging has changed its colour, or being able to tell if your dollar bill is counterfeit simply by stretching it to see if it changes hue. these are just two of the promising commercial applications for a new type of flexible plastic film developed by scientists at the university of southampton in the united kingdom and the deutsches kunststoff - institut ( dki ) in darmstadt, germany. combining the best of natural and manmade optical effects, their films essentially represent a new way for objects to precisely change their colour. the researchers will publish their findings in the july 23 issue of optics express ( \ ), an open - access journal of the optical society of america. these \ belong to a class of materials known as photonic crystals. such crystals are built of many tiny repeating units, and are usually associated with a large contrast in the components \u2019 optical properties, leading to a range of frequencies, called a \ where no light can propagate in any direction. instead, these new opal films have a small contrast in their optical properties. as with other artificial opal structures, they are also \ in that the small constituent particles assemble themselves in a regular structure. but this self - assembly is not perfect, and though meant to be periodic, they have significant irregularities. in these materials, the interplay between the periodic order, the irregularities, and the scattering of small inclusions strongly affect the way the light travels through these films, just as in natural opal gem stones, a distant cousin of these materials. for example, light may be reflected in unexpected directions that depend on the light ' s wavelength. photonic crystals have been of interest for years for various practical applications, most notably in fibre optic telecommunications but also as a potential replacement for toxic and expensive dyes used for colouring objects, from clothes to buildings. yet much of their commercial potential has yet to be realized because the colours in manmade films made from photonic crystals depend strongly on viewing angle. if you hold up a sheet of the opal film, baumber", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6479992056580736, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:92222904-0c1e-4955-a992-b110b934102d>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.582891"} |
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{"text": "objects, from clothes to buildings. yet much of their commercial potential has yet to be realized because the colours in manmade films made from photonic crystals depend strongly on viewing angle. if you hold up a sheet of the opal film, baumberg explains, \u201c you \u2019 ll only see milky white, unless you look at a light reflected in it, in which case certain colours from the light source will be preferentially reflected. \u201d in other words, change the angle, and the colour changes. these photonic crystals are apparent in the natural world as well but are more consistent in colour at varying angles. opals, butterfly wings, certain species of beetle, and peacock feathers all feature arrays of tiny holes, neatly arranged into patterns. even though these natural structures aren \u2019 t nearly as precisely ordered as the manmade versions, the colours produced are unusually strong, and depend less on the viewing angle. until now, scientists believed that the same effect was at work in both manmade and natural photonic crystals : the lattice structure caused the light to reflect off the surface in such a way as to produce a colour that changes depending upon the angle of reflection. baumberg, however, suspects that the natural structures selectively scatter rather than reflect the light, a result of complex interplay between the order and the irregulaty in these structures. given that hunch, baumberg \u2019 s team developed polymer opals to combine the precise structure of manmade photonic crystals with the robust colour of natural structures. the polymer opal films are made of arrays of spheres stacked in three dimensions, rather than layers. they also contain tiny carbon nanoparticles wedged between the spheres, so light doesn \u2019 t just reflect at the interfaces between the plastic spheres and the surrounding materials, it also scatters off the nanoparticles embedded between the spheres. this makes the film intensely coloured, even though they are made from only transparent and black components, which are environmentally benign. additionally, the material can be \" tuned \" to only scatter certain frequencies of light simply by making the spheres larger or smaller. in collaboration with scientists at dki in darmstadt, germany, baumberg and his colleagues have developed a solution for another factor that traditionally has limited the commercial potential of photonic crystals : the ability to mass - produce them. his darmstadt colleagues have developed a manufacturing process that can be successfully applied to photonic crystals and they now can produce very long rolls of polymer opal films. the films are \" quite stretchy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6240414253614414, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:92222904-0c1e-4955-a992-b110b934102d>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.583930"} |
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{"text": "below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 150 150 nuclear physics highlight : diagnosing cancer with positron emission tomography atomic nuclei with fewer neutrons than stable isotopes decay predominantly by emitting a positively charged electron, a positron, which is annihilated with electrons, emitting gamma - radiation. for more than 35 years positron emission tomography ( pet ) has been used as a research tool in neuroscience and in diagnosing cancer. 1 pet imaging makes use of the self - collimating nature of positron decay ( see figure pet 1 ) as two nearly collinear photons are used to locate an annihilation event. pet cameras are typically made of a ring ( s ) of detectors that are in timed coincidence ( resolving time of a few nanosec - onds ), allowing a line of response to define the chord along which the positron was annihilated ( the location of the emission is not known because of the short distance the positron travels before annihilation, typically a few millimeters ). by mathematically back - projecting the lines of response, a density map can be generated that reflects the distribution of the positron emitter. functional imaging using pet started as a research tool in neuroscience in the late 1970s and remains a major research tool for the neurosciences. however, its main impact recently has been in the diagnosis of cancer. originally, simple tracer molecules such as water, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide were used. the first complex molecule to be used extensively was the glucose analog 18f - fluorodeoxyglucose ( fdg ), developed at bnl in collaboration e + e\u2212 18f 18o figure pet 1 illustration of positron decay. one of the protons ( red ) in the unstable nucleus is converted into a neutron ( blue ) with the figure of a positive electron ( positron ). the positron pet emission", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6215186578137679, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9bf34678-e67d-45e3-8d7a-6f8e377cd911>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.595414"} |
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{"text": "rest mass of the electron ) can undergo absorption. thus, in order to be detected as an event, both photons must be detected in temporal coincidence. by using an external source of positron emitter, the attenuating ( absorbing ) extent of the object to be measured can be determined. all commercial pet cameras are now built with a ct scanner ( x - ray tomography ) so that a merged image of structure and function can be obtained. since the ct image is a measure of electron density, it is used to calculate the necessary coefficients for attenuation correction. the primary function of the ct image is to provide a detailed view of the section of the body under investigation. figure pet 2 illustrates the power of this approach. there are several physical limitations inherent in pet technology. first, as the emitted positron has kinetic energy, varying from a few hundred kev to several mev depending on continued ocr for page 152 152 nuclear physics which radionuclide is used, it will travel a few millimeters to centimeters before annihilating with an atomic electron. as such, the site of annihilation is not the site of emission, resulting in a limitation when defining the origin of the decay. another limitation is the fact that the positron - electron pair is not at rest when the annihilation occurs ; thus by virtue of the conserva - figure pet 2 the three panels from left to right show a combined fdg pet / computed tomog - raphy ( ct ) image in transaxial, saggital, and coronal views. the colored hot metal image is the pet image and the gray image is from the ct camera. the combined image enables physicians to determine the precise location of abnormal function ( high uptake in the mass visible on the chest wall in the ct image in this case ). in addition, a metastatic tumor is visible in the pelvic region. source : t. ruth, 2011, the uses of radiotracers in the life sciences, reports on progress in physics 72 : 016701. photo courtesy of british columbia cancer agency and reprinted with permission from iop publishing ltd. tion of momentum, the two photons are not exactly collinear. although the lack of collinearity becomes increasingly important with greater detector separation, this effect is ignored, for the most part, in existing tomographs because the detector ring diameter is less than a meter, at which distance the deviation from 180\u00b0 is a fraction of a mill", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6088016751547316, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:9bf34678-e67d-45e3-8d7a-6f8e377cd911>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.598525"} |
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{"text": "it really means an information - rich model, but what some people might take it to mean is that there is a human - level understanding. \" if you would like to reuse any content from new scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. new scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. have your say only subscribers may leave comments on this article. please log in. only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article fri nov 09 22 : 48 : 52 gmt 2007 by w. e. b. gotta love this semantic and heuristic stuff... check out the new firefox extension called mywebdna. web 3. 0 comes to life! semantic web... sat nov 10 18 : 01 : 36 gmt 2007 by pawel lubczonok yet another comany working on semantic web,!!! - but with a different approach : the currently proposed forms of expression for knowledge / semantics are clumsy and have not reached a level where they can express semantics for broadly useful things except in the most degenerate cases : named connection between a and b. our company orfeo has been developing for last 9 years on generic deep knowledge / semantics representation that is as close as possible to human thought patterns. in our experience knowledge driven system has a tremendous effect in that it allows people with no it background to express themselves to computers to do things such as run their enterprises. in other words, the computer can become much more democratic than at present ( excel democratised it as one does not need it department to do the things one can do with excel ). early next year we are going live with an online version of our system under thoughtexpress. com. although initially our system is going to require explicit knowledge input, later we are planning to scan internet pages to extract meaning from them as well. web 3. 0 - freedom from complexity!!! semantic web... mon nov 12 18 : 03 : 44 gmt 2007 by pawel lubczonok the same message got posted twice since there was break in network. did not intend it as spam : - ) all comments should respect the new scientist house rules. if you think a particular comment breaks these rules then please use the \" report \" link in that comment to report it to us. if you are having a technical problem posting a comment, please contact technical support.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6208204588197668, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:2cf46d59-6d6c-4a48-adb3-0ea0260eda94>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.744673"} |
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{"text": "scientists have come up with theories in the shower, on barren mountains, while driving to work and even in their sleep. but what all theories have in common is that their predictions are eventually tested in experiments, where nature determines which inspirations are right and which are wrong. then there is string theory, the ambitious, profoundly mathematical attempt to knit together all of physics - - from gravity to quantum mechanics to subatomic forces - - into a single sublime formalism. though string theorists first suspected they might be onto a ' ' theory of everything ' ' in the mid - 1980 ' s, and the field is the hottest area in theoretical physics, string theorists have yet to devise a make - or - break laboratory test for their ideas. in part, that is because the theorized strings cannot be observed directly ; they are thought to be vibrating entities smaller than a trillionth of a trillionth the size of an atom. different string vibrations somehow correspond to different particles in nature, but scientists have yet to develop more than fragments of what they presume will ultimately be a complete theory. nevertheless, string theorists are already collecting the spoils that ordinarily go to the experimental victors, including federal grants, prestigious awards and tenured faculty positions. less than a decade ago, there were hardly any jobs for string theorists, said dr. david gross, director of the institute for theoretical physics at the university of california in santa barbara. ' ' nowadays, ' ' dr. gross said, ' ' if you ' re a hotshot young string theorist you ' ve got it made. ' ' dr. gross has no problems with that success ; he was one of string theory ' s early developers. but some physicists are dismayed by the dominance of a theory that has yet to prove itself experimentally. ' ' i think the whole theory is a long shot, ' ' said sir roger penrose, a physicist at oxford university. he said he had nothing against an interesting long shot but that string theory had ' ' taken over at the expense of all other areas. ' ' dr. john baez, a scientist in the mathematics department at the university of california in riverside, who studies a different approach to unification based more directly on relativity theory, said, ' ' string theorists keep saying that they ' re succeeding. ' ' ' ' the rest of us can wonder whether they are walking along the road to triumph, ' ' dr. baez said, ' ' or whether in 20 years they ' ll realize that they were walking into this enormous,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6248532549566663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:6727b2af-92b4-48ae-8215-6a2860b38405>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.773690"} |
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{"text": "or she mainly serves as a reference for determining, or at least evaluating, whether an invention is non - obvious or not ( in us patent law ), or does involve an inventive step or not ( in european patent laws ). if it would have been obvious for this fictional person to come up with the invention while starting from the prior art, then the particular invention is considered not patentable. broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source ( not always the original source ). more precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression ( e. g. [ newell84 ] ) embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears. generally the combination of both the in - body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation ( whereas bibliographic entries by themselves are not ). see conjecture ( san diego convention ) for the annual science fiction convention held in and around san diego, california in the fall / autumn. a conjecture is a proposition that is unproven. karl popper pioneered the use of the term \" conjecture \" in scientific philosophy. [ 1 ] conjecture is contrasted by hypothesis ( hence theory, axiom, principle ), which is a testable statement based on accepted grounds. a postmark on a letter, with a timestamp showing the date ( center ) and time the letter was received by the post office. german date and time stamp, a rubber stamp that stamps the current date and time on a document, 1960s advertisement for a 1915 camera, that stamped the time each picture was taken in ink on the picture. a timestamp is a sequence of characters or encoded information identifying when a certain event occurred, usually giving date and time of day, sometimes accurate to a small fraction of a second. in computational complexity theory, a probabilistically checkable proof ( pcp ) is a type of proof that can be checked by a randomized algorithm using a bounded amount of randomness and reading a bounded number of bits of the proof. the algorithm is then required to accept correct proofs and reject incorrect proofs with very high probability. a standard proof ( or certificate ), as used in the verifier - based definition of the complexity class np, also satisfies these requirements, since the checking procedure deterministically reads", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6379681405666491, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:fcb9c7ab-f0c8-4f84-8aa4-3695e5899fd8>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.839173"} |
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{"text": "23. january 2013matter and material user experiments research using synchrotron light interview with thomas huthwelker the paul scherrer institut makes its research facilities available to scientists from all over the world. to ensure these scientists are exposed to optimal conditions when they arrive is the hard work of many psi staff. an interview with one of these scientists provides a glimpse behind the scenes. this interview is taken from the latest issue of the psi magazine fenster zur forschung 17. october 2012media releases biology user experiments research using synchrotron light until recently, it was not obvious whether the earliest vertebrates ( animals with a backbone ) which had jawbones already possessed teeth or not. now, an international research team has shown that the jaws of the prehistoric fish compagopiscis already had teeth. this means that teeth appeared at the same evolutionary time as jaws \u2013 or at least shortly afterwards. the leaders of this project were scientists from the university of bristol, england, who carried out their decisive experiments at the sls at psi. 16. october 2012media releases research using synchrotron light environment user experiments experiments performed at the paul scherrer institute ( psi ) investigate processes inside volcanic materials that determine whether a volcano will erupt violently or mildly. in the experiments, scientists heated small pieces of volcanic material similarly to conditions present at the beginning of a volcanic eruption. they used x - rays from the sls to observe, in real time, what happens to the rock as it goes from the solid to the molten state. 16. february 2012media releases biology user experiments research using synchrotron light like a shredder, the immunoproteasome cuts down proteins into peptides that are subsequently presented on the cellular surface. the immune system can distinguish between self and non - self peptides and selectively kills cells that present non - self peptides at their surface. in autoimmune diseases, this mechanism is deregulated. however, inhibition of the immunoproteasome may alleviate disease symptoms and progression. with the help of measurements taken at the paul scherer institute, scientists have now succeeded in determining the first structure of an immunoproteasome. 23. december 2011media releases biology research using synchrotron light user experiments einzellige organismen, die vor uber einer halben milliarde jahre gelebt haben und deren fossilien in china gefunden wurden, sind wohl die unmittel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6360092595550685, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:219b57f0-39a2-4e00-bf9a-ef1629f0edad>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.900004"} |
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{"text": "published today in nature. the study claims to have solved this scientific riddle by studying the brain of a 400 million year old fossilized jawless fish \u2013 an evolutionary intermediate between the living jawless and jawed vertebrates. 18. january 2011media releases biology user experiments research using synchrotron light ribosomes are the protein factories of the living cell and themselves very complex biomolecules. now, a french research group has for the first time determined the structure of the ribosome in a eukaryotic cell \u2013 a complex cell containing a cell nucleus. an important part of the experiments was performed with synchrotron light at the swiss light source sls of the paul scherrer institute. 28. june 2010media releases biology research using synchrotron light user experiments a central feature of any living organism is that food reacts with oxygen and, in the process, energy is released and made available for a variety of reactions within the organism. using investigations performed at the swiss light source, sls, researchers have now been able to explain a crucial part of this process at a molecular level. 7. october 2009 winner of nobel prize in chemistry is long - term user of swiss light source at the paul scherrer institutemedia releases research using synchrotron light user experiments biology the paul scherrer institute congratulates professor venkatraman ramakrishnan on the nobel prize in chemistry. ramakrishnan is a long - term user of the swiss light source sls at the paul scherrer institut in switzerland. he used this facility for his prize winning studies on the structure of the ribosome. 21. november 2007biology user experiments research using synchrotron light high - resolution phase - contrast x - ray images of fossil seeds the emergence of flowering plants is regarded as a major botanical mystery. in the 22nd november edition of the scientific magazine \u201c nature \u201d, an international research team with participation from the paul scherrer institute ( psi ) publishes results that shed fresh light on this controversial question. new three - dimensional non - destructive imaging procedures have been used to carry out investigations into fossilised plant seeds. as a result, it has been possible to confirm an earlier scientific theory, which had previously been cast into doubt by molecular genetic analyses.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.61236995461646, "token_count": 461, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:219b57f0-39a2-4e00-bf9a-ef1629f0edad>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:31.901817"} |
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{"text": "from : ben goertzel ( email @ example. com ) date : sun aug 25 2002 - 23 : 31 : 46 mdt > minds are physical systems. no, they are most certainly not! a mind is a fuzzy set of patterns that are - - emergent in a certain system - - emergent between a certain system and its environment the system in question need not be physical, it could be virtual ( e. g. a set of particle - like entities in a computer simulated reality running on your human minds are currently closely associated with physical systems ( human bodies ), and they mostly consist of patterns emergent from and between human brains. but this does not mean minds are physical systems - - not even human minds, let alone virtual minds.... > if a mind has a particular u, that u > must have come from * somewhere *. that particular u has a physical cause ; > something shaped it. those shapers will be either rational or irrational > depending on what kind of reliable correspondence they bear to reality. > the bayesian probability theorem is inescapable - it can be applied to > * every * causal system that exists in our universe to determine whether a > given pattern is likely to correlate to any other causes or effects that > exist in outside reality. * any * causal system, * any * physical process, > not just the ones that we usually consider as \" rational \" or even yes, bayes ' theorem can be applied in any circumstance, just as can, for instance the theorem that \. but the theoreom \ does not tell us how to identify whole entities ( to count as \... is a person a single entity or a conglomerate, etc. ), nor how to map a complex entity like a planet into a numerical vector or tensor. similarly, bayes ' theorem and associated probabilistic results do not tell us how to construct the universal set u they need in order to be applied. mathematical theorems are all universally applicable and inescapable ( assuming one accepts the axiom systems from which they ' re derived! ). this is just as true of bayes ' theorem as of any other mathematical theorem. i don ' t disagree on this, but i don ' t see how it implies all that you say it the real question is whether a given math theorem ' s application in practice tells us anything interesting. i am not seeing how the observation that bayessubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_mechanicssimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:bd4f5381-df3a-42d8-810b-704c9a06bb1e>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:32.084483 |
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textdon ' t disagree on this, but i don ' t see how it implies all that you say it the real question is whether a given math theorem ' s application in practice tells us anything interesting. i am not seeing how the observation that bayes ' theorem applies to the universe tells us anything interesting. i think that bayes ' theorem applies to the mind as a whole tells us something sort of interesting. for instance, solomonoff induction, one of my favorite abstract approaches to intelligence, is closely tied to bayesian learning, with a special prior distribution based on algorithmic information. great stuff! however, it doesn ' t do you much good in terms of practical ai design, nor in terms of the analysis of human psychology. in these cases it seems to me more useful to think of explicit bayesian probabilistic inference as one aspect of intelligence among many - - and to effectively ignore the fact that, yes, it is possible to model other aspects of the mind using bayes ' theorem as well, in various senses. > if your u is a physical thing, it exists for physical reasons, > and the bpt > will govern whether those reasons are such that u is likely to bear any > given kind of correlation to external reality. a mathematical set like the universal set u in probability theory is not a physical thing, any more than a mind is. a set like u may be a pattern in a certain mind, that this mind \" acts as if \" it were carrying out probabilistic inference with respect to a certain universal set u. in this case, the set u is a part of the pattern - set that is the system ' s > you cannot flee from the tao ; you cannot run from the laws of physics ; > they govern the very process of your flight... baby, i can flee from the tao if i want to! i just don ' t feel like it tonight... i feel like slinking upstairs, resting my head on my wife ' s lap, and watching the amazing wildlife of the serengeti on the discovery channel... see ya later!! this archive was generated by hypermail 2. 1. 5 : sat may 25 2013 - 04 : 00 : 35 mdtsubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_field_theorysimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:bd4f5381-df3a-42d8-810b-704c9a06bb1e>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:32.085352 |
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textthis web site contains an algebra - based physics curriculum in which physics concepts are introduced through studies of human physiology. it contains a collection of modules covering a wide range of topics in physics, each using examples from human biological processes. modules include biomechanics and modeling human motion, modeling human vision, modeling human speech and hearing, circulatory and respiratory systems, and more. a key element of the pedagogy is the embedding of mathematical models within practical disciplines, such as physiology and biomedical engineering. students will engage in \ scenarios to solve inquiry - based physics problems. these materials are based on an interactive pedagogy and include use of multimedia and mathematical modeling. these resources have been tested in classes and assessed. % 0 electronic source % a wentworth, christopher % d july 28, 2006 % t the humanized physics project % v 2013 % n 25 may 2013 % 8 july 28, 2006 % 9 application / pdf % u http : / / physics. doane. edu / hpp / disclaimer : compadre offers citation styles as a guide only. we cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. please refer to the style manuals in the citation source information area for clarifications.subdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_field_theorysimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:851a2149-3d72-4b0a-9ce6-f62b8f13711c>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:32.720530 |
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textmec1201 engineering materials | semester 1, 2013 on - campus springfield | | faculty or section : | | faculty of engineering & surveying | | school or department : | | mechanical and mechatronic engineering | | version produced : | | 26 may 2013 | examiner : belal yousif moderator : harry ku materials science and engineering course has come into its own as a field of endeavour during the past 25 years. the central theme in this development is the concept that the properties and behaviour of a material are closely related to the internal structure of that material. the properties ( which may be regarded as the responses of the material to its immediate environment ) are functions of : ( i ) the kinds of atoms present and the type of bonding among them, and ( ii ) the geometrical arrangement of large numbers of atoms, microstructure and macrostructure. as a result, in order to modify properties, appropriate changes must be made in the internal structure. also, if processing or service conditions alter the structure, the characteristics of the material are altered. over the same period, noticeable changes have taken place in the teaching of engineering materials to the engineering students. previously, elementary courses emphasised on the mechanical properties of materials with long dull lists of chemical specifications and descriptions of processing. more recently, elementary courses seek to provide a thorough grasp of the structures encountered in the principal families of materials - metals, ceramics and polymers - and then to show how the properties of important engineering materials depend on these structures. this course seeks to provide a background knowledge of the more commonly used engineering materials. this will be achieved by promoting an understanding of the interrelation of structure and properties in the principal families of materials and the mechanisms by which the structural changes may be accomplished. the course objectives define the student learning outcomes for a course. on completion of this course, students should be able to : - describe the principal forms of mechanical tests and calculate the mechanical properties of materials ; - explain the basic atomic structures of metals, ceramics and polymers ; - outline the influence of both atomic structure and microstructure on the deformation mechanism of metal materials ; - interpret the principal strengthening mechanisms by which structural change may be accomplished in materials in order to enhance their mechanical properties ; - analyse the effects of stress state, temperature and corrosion on the more commonly used materials ; - identify and explain the electrical and the magnetic properties of materials ; - examine in depth a selected aspect of engineering materials studies. | 1. | | introduction to engineering materials | | 10. 00 | |subdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_materialssimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:123ce555-efdf-44c2-8020-8f37a470f82e>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:32.897116 |
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textand corrosion on the more commonly used materials ; - identify and explain the electrical and the magnetic properties of materials ; - examine in depth a selected aspect of engineering materials studies. | 1. | | introduction to engineering materials | | 10. 00 | | 2. | | atomic structure and microstructure | | 10. 00 | | 3. | | deformation of metals | | 10. 00 | | 4. | | binary equilibrium phase diagrams | | 10. 00 | | 5. | | effects of non - equilibrium cooling and heat treatments of metals | | 10. 00 | | 6. | | structure and mechanical behaviour of polymers | | 10. 00 | | 7. | | structure and mechanical behaviour of ceramics | | 10. 00 | | 8. | | deterioration in service | | 10. 00 | | 9. | | electrical and magnetic properties of materials | | 10. 00 | | 10. | | cement and concrete | | 10. 00 | text and materials required to be purchased or accessed all textbooks and materials available to be purchased can be sourced from usq ' s online bookshop ( unless otherwise stated ). ( https : / / bookshop. usq. edu. au / bookweb / subject. cgi? year = 2013 & sem = 01 & subject1 = mec1201 ) please contact us for alternative purchase options from usq bookshop. ( https : / / bookshop. usq. edu. au / contact / ) callister, wd jnr & rethwisch, dg 2012, fundamentals of materials science and engineering : an integrated approach, 4th edn, john wiley & sons, new york. ( alternative : callister, wd jnr 2007, materials science and engineering : an introduction, 7th edn, john wiley & sons, new york. ) askeland, dr & phule, pp 2011, the science and engineering of materials, 6th edn, cengage learning, stamford, ct. budinski, kg & budinski, mk 2010, engineering materials properties and selection, 9th edn, prentice hall, upper saddle river, nj. john, vb 2003, introduction to engineering materials, 4th edn, palgrave macmillan, bassingstoke. schaffer, jp et al 1999, the science and design of engineering materials, 2nd edn, mcgraw hill, boston. shackelford, jf 2004, introduction to materials science for engineers, 6th edn, pearson, upper", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.609911284794143, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:123ce555-efdf-44c2-8020-8f37a470f82e>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:32.902045"} |
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{"text": "| | this article has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. domain - driven design ( ddd ) is an approach to develop software for complex needs by connecting the implementation to an evolving model. the premise of domain - driven design is the following : - placing the project ' s primary focus on the core domain and domain logic. - basing complex designs on a model of the domain. - initiating a creative collaboration between technical and domain experts to iteratively refine a conceptual model that addresses particular domain problems. - domain : a sphere of knowledge ( ontology ), influence, or activity. the subject area to which the user applies a program is the domain of the software. - model : a system of abstractions that describes selected aspects of a domain and can be used to solve problems related to that domain. - ubiquitous language : a language structured around the domain model and used by all team members to connect all the activities of the team with the software. - context : the setting in which a word or statement appears that determines its meaning. prerequisites for the successful application of ddd - the domain is not trivial - the project team has experience and interest in object oriented programming / design - the project has access to domain experts - there is an iterative process in place strategic domain - driven design ideally, it would be preferable to have a single, unified model. while this is a noble goal, in reality it typically fragments into multiple models. it is useful to recognize this fact of life and work with it. strategic design is a set of principles for maintaining model integrity, distillation of the domain model and working with multiple models. multiple models are in play on any large project. yet when code based on distinct models is combined, software becomes buggy, unreliable, and difficult to understand. communication among team members becomes confusing. it is often unclear in what context a model should not be applied. therefore : explicitly define the context within which a model applies. explicitly set boundaries in terms of team organization, usage within specific parts of the application, and physical manifestations such as code bases and database schemas. keep the model strictly consistent within these bounds, but don \u2019 t be distracted or confused by issues outside. when a number of people are working in the same bounded context, there is a strong tendency for the model to fragment. the bigger the team, the bigger the problem, but as few as three or four people can encounter serious problems. yet breaking down the system into eversubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_field_theorysimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:7ba8f6ab-7bcd-4445-b7db-374a28d2f215>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:33.665058 |
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textobject : an object that contains attributes but has no conceptual identity. they should be treated as immutable. example : when people exchange dollar bills, they generally do not distinguish between each unique bill ; they only are concerned about the face value of the dollar bill. in this context, dollar bills are value objects. however, the federal reserve may be concerned about each unique bill ; in this context each bill would be an entity. - aggregate : a collection of objects that are bound together by a root entity, otherwise known as an aggregate root. the aggregate root guarantees the consistency of changes being made within the aggregate by forbidding external objects from holding references to its members. example : when you drive a car, you do not have to worry about moving the wheels forward, making the engine combust with spark and fuel, etc. ; you are simply driving the car. in this context, the car is an aggregate of several other objects and serves as the aggregate root to all of the other systems. - service : when an operation does not conceptually belong to any object. following the natural contours of the problem, you can implement these operations in services. see also service ( systems architecture ). - repository : methods for retrieving domain objects should delegate to a specialized repository object such that alternative storage implementations may be easily interchanged. - factory : methods for creating domain objects should delegate to a specialized factory object such that alternative implementations may be easily interchanged. relationship to other ideas - object - oriented analysis and design - although in theory, the general idea of ddd need not be restricted to object - oriented approaches, in practice ddd seeks to exploit the powerful advantages that object - oriented techniques make possible. these include entities / aggregate roots as receivers of commands / method invocations and the encapsulation of state within foremost aggregate roots and on a higher architectural level, bounded contexts. the reader should be aware that object orientation is not exclusive to oo - only languages, but can be a part of functional programming, also. applying commands / method invocations to an entity or aggregate root can be seen as an application of a function to a data structure where the result of the function application is an identical data structure with different data and / or version ( especially version if optimistic concurrency is used ). in dynamic languages such as ruby or smalltalk, object instances can be queried on whether they support a method ( by name and / or signature ), which is similar to how a statically typed language might choose to use an inversionsubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_simulationsimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:7ba8f6ab-7bcd-4445-b7db-374a28d2f215>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:33.668008 |
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textaustms 2006 ii recall the example of the stasheff polytope in dimension three, as realised by loday. the collection of all such associahedra is an example of a 1 - operad which characterises 1 - fold loop spaces. batanin gave a history of stasheff ' s ideas after a more general history discussing the need for a coherent theory of categorical coherence laws. the difficulty was in finding a combinatorial structure for the n - fold case. he now understands n - operads by generalising the ordinals [ m ] that index the n - ary operations of a 1 - operad to higher level trees, where an ordinal [ m ] is just a simple tree with one vertex and m leaves, and hence one level. by finding nice examples of 2 - operads and higher n - operads one discovers the most astonishing range of polytopes. the collection of stasheff associahedra, for example, form an n = 1 example of a whole series k ( n ) of operads ( related to the getzler - jones operads ). in particular, the hexagons of the axioms for a braided monoidal category naturally show up here at n = 2, whereas we saw the mac lane pentagon at n = 1. at the education session in the afternoon terence tao spoke about the measurement of distances in astronomical history, starting with the measurement of the earth ' s radius by eratosthenes. for example, to measure the distance from the earth to the moon the greeks observed that the earth ' s shadow takes a certain amount of time to pass over the moon during a lunar eclipse. since they already knew the radius of the earth this gave them a fairly accurate measure of the distance using a circular orbit for the moon about the earth. aristarchus of samos tried to measure the distance from the earth to the sun by observing the phases of the moon. since the sun is at a finite distance, the half - moon comes just before the halfway point in time between the times of new moon and full moon, because it forms a right angled triangle with the sun and earth. tao then continued increasing the scale of distance observations until he eventually mentioned briefly the poorly understood type ia supernovae. it was nice to see his great respect for kepler ' s insightful method for computing the orbit of the earth about the sun observationally by using mars as a reference point. from here keplersubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_field_theorysimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:624461da-9457-4486-9d8b-403349081183>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:34.264840 |
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textminimizing joule heating remains an important goal in the design of electronic devices1, 2. the prevailing model of joule heating relies on a simple semiclassical picture in which electrons collide with the atoms of a conductor, generating heat locally and only in regions of non - zero current density, and this model has been supported by most experiments. recently, however, it has been predicted that electric currents in graphene and carbon nanotubes can couple to the vibrational modes of a neighbouring material3, 4, heating it remotely5. here, we use in situ electron thermal microscopy to detect the remote joule heating of a silicon nitride substrate by a single multiwalled carbon nanotube. at least 84 % of the electrical power supplied to the nanotube is dissipated directly into the substrate, rather than in the nanotube itself. although it has different physical origins, this phenomenon is reminiscent of induction heating or microwave dielectric heating. such an ability to dissipate waste energy remotely could lead to improved thermal management in electronic devices6. \, : , : 0.660755482391433, : 276, : , : , : 0, : 0.6, : } |
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{: , : , : 0.6234349314228751, : 512, : , : , : 0, : 0.6, : } |
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{: , : , : 0.6072554742253278, : 358, : , : , : 1, : 0.6, : } |
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{: you may ride your donkey up to your front door, but would you ride it into your house? \ consciousness and the end of the war between science and religion \ reality shaper \, : , : 0.650646585667738, : 512, : , : , : 0, : 0.6, : } |
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{: coherent beyond our wildest dreams \, : , : 0.7348880839410569, : 512, : , : , : 1, : 0.6, : } |
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{: tom daley \ san andreas fault \ fault structure \ vibra - seis truck \ subsurface structure \, : , : 0.6056623585774354, : 271, : , : , : 0, : 0.6, : } |
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{: s : \ w : \ an example sentence \ thin wire \ a thin chiffon blouse \ a thin book \ a thin layer of paint \ you can ' t be too rich or too thin \" ; \" yon cassius has a lean and hungry look \" - shakespeare - s : ( adj ) slender, thin ( very narrow ) \" a thin line across the page \" - s : ( adj ) sparse, thin ( not dense ) \" a thin beard \" ; \" trees were sparse \" - s : ( adj ) thin ( relatively thin in consistency or low in density ; not viscous ) \" air is thin at high altitudes \" ; \" a thin soup \" ; \" skimmed milk is much thinner than whole milk \" ; \" thin oil \" - s : ( adj ) thin ( ( of sound ) lacking resonance or volume ) \" a thin feeble cry \" - s : ( adj ) thin ( lacking spirit or sincere effort ) \" a thin smile \" - s : ( adj ) flimsy, fragile, slight, tenuous, thin ( lacking substance or significance ) \" slight evidence \" ; \" a tenuous argument \" ; \" a thin plot \" ; \" a fragile claim to fame \" - s : ( adv ) thinly, thin ( without viscosity ) \" the blood was flowing thin \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6332068920061469, "token_count": 351, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c26e8313-34c9-4104-8434-0e5e473b7537>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T11:22:35.432087"} |
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{"text": "the post - war era physics and philosophy heisenberg, physics and philosophy : the revolution in modern science ( new york : harper and row, 1958 ). lectures delivered at university of st. andrews, scotland, winter 1955 - 56. excerpt from the chapter \" quantum theory and the roots of atomic science, \" pp. 71 - 72. in the philosophy of democritus the atoms are eternal and indestructible units of matter, they can never be transformed into each other. with regard to this question modern physics takes a definite stand against the materialism of democritus and for plato and the pythagoreans. the elementary particles are certainly not eternal and indestructible units of matter, they can actually be transformed into each other. as a matter of fact, if two such particles, moving through space with a very high kinetic energy, collide, then many new elementary particles may be created from the available energy and the old particles may have disappeared in the collision. such events have been frequently observed and offer the best proof that all particles are made of the same substance : energy. but the resemblance of the modern views to those of plato and the pythagoreans can be carried somewhat further. the elementary particles in plato ' s timaeus are finally not substance but mathematical forms. \ is a sentence attributed to pythagoras. the only mathematical forms available at that time were such geometric forms as the regular solids or the triangles which form their surface. in modern quantum theory there can be no doubt that the elementary particles will finally also be mathematical forms but of a much more complicated nature. the greek philosophers thought of static forms and found them in the regular solids. modern science, however, has from its beginning in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries started from the dynamic problem. the constant element in physics since newton is not a configuration or a geometrical form, but a dynamic law. the equation of motion holds at all times, it is in this sense eternal, whereas the geometrical forms, like the orbits, are changing. therefore, the mathematical forms that represent the elementary particles will be solutions of some eternal law of motion for matter. this is a problem which has not yet been solved. next : physik und philosophie previous : post - war era, 1945 - 1976 about this exhibitsubdomain_idsubdomain_quantum_field_theorysimilarity_scoretoken_countsource_datasetHuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edusource_id<urn:uuid:8131cc7c-237f-4be6-b493-0e5117010a31>chunk_indexfiltering_thresholdcreated_at2025-12-26T11:22:35.540160 |
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