data/train/batch_000047.jsonl

{"text": "or \" from some perspective \". as reality is complex, no single proposition can express its nature fully. the term \" syat \" should therefore be prefixed to each proposition, giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing dogmatism from the statement. 54 since it comprises seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, syadvada is known as saptibhanginaya or the theory of seven conditioned predications. these seven propositions, also known as saptibhangi, are : 55 - syad - asti \u2014 in some ways, it is ; - syad - nasti \u2014 in some ways, it is not ; - syad - asti - nasti \u2014 in some ways, it is, and it is not ; - syad - asti - avaktavyah \u2014 in some ways, it is, and it is indescribable ; - syad - nasti - avaktavyah \u2014 in some ways, it is not, and it is indescribable ; - syad - asti - nasti - avaktavyah \u2014 in some ways, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable ; - syad - avaktavyah \u2014 in some ways, it is indescribable. each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time, space, substance and mode. 55 to ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism. 48 nayavada is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints. 56 nayavada is a compound of two sanskrit words : naya ( \" partial viewpoint \" ) and vada ( \" school of thought or debate \" ). it is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view. every object has infinite aspects, but when we describe one in practice, we speak only of relevant aspects and ignore the irrelevant. 56 this does not deny the other attributes, qualities, modes and other aspects ; they are just irrelevant from a particular perspective. as a type of critical philosophy, nayavada holds that philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints, and the standpoints we adopt are \" the outcome of purposes that we may pursue \" \u2014 although we may not realise it. while operating within the limits of language and perceiving the complex nature of reality, mahavira used the language of nayas. naya, being a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.628642829676498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:76203124-94e2-476c-b7de-71e0b473506a>", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:53.792175"}
{"text": "peridotitearticle free pass peridotite, a coarse - grained, dark - coloured, heavy, intrusive igneous rock that contains at least 10 percent olivine, other iron - and magnesia - rich minerals ( generally pyroxenes ), and not more than 10 percent feldspar. it occurs in four main geologic environments : ( 1 ) interlayered with iron -, lime -, and magnesia - rich rocks in the lower parts of tabular - layered igneous complexes or masses ; ( 2 ) in alpine - type mountain belts as irregular, olivine - rich masses, with or without related gabbro ; ( 3 ) in volcanic pipes ( funnels, more or less oval in cross section, that become narrower with increasing depth ) as kimberlite ; and ( 4 ) as dikes ( tabular bodies injected in fissures ) and irregular masses with rocks exceptionally rich in potash and soda. the layered complexes are believed to have been formed in place by selective crystallization and crystal settling from a previously intruded fluid or magma ; the remaining types seem to have ranged from fluid magmas to semisolid crystal mushes at the time of emplacement. see also dunite ; kimberlite. peridotite is the ultimate source of all chromium ore and naturally occurring diamonds, and of nearly all chrysotile asbestos. it is one of the main host rocks of talc deposits and platinum metals and formerly was a major source of magnesite. fresh dunite is used in parts of glass furnaces. nearly all peridotite is more or less altered to serpentine and is cut by many irregular shear surfaces ; in warm, humid climates peridotite and serpentine have weathered to soils and related deposits that, though now worked on a relatively small scale, are enormous potential sources of iron, nickel, cobalt, and chromium. what made you want to look up \" peridotite \"? please share what surprised you most...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6236033159890514, "token_count": 415, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4d4dd6e5-6cc6-42a7-8910-5026418ed28f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:53.876464"}
{"text": ", clay, sand, water, paint, feathers, blocks, mud, rice, fabrics, marbles, charcoal, pastels, chalk. anything that lets them be the creator and gives them freedom to choose and decide. experiencing texture, noise, weight, density of different materials and how they combine, pour, blend, mix, stack are exciting opportunities for open ended play. setting up a canvas with paint brush and paint can already be too prescriptive, but paint poured in a large tray with no brushes may encourage further exploration. think : new ways to play with ordinary materials, media and substances, elements, components and ingredients = an immersive creative exploration experience. experimenting with substances changing from fine powder to gluggy mixtures which can further develop into dry set solids. combining elements such as glue and paper to form paper mache paste. observing ingredient transformation from liquid state to dry baked cupcake state. rough prototyping, constructing and modeling develops naturally when children are provided with a new unfamiliar material and no instructions. i \u2019 ve always been fascinated by materials science and have many design books on materials but i still have plenty left to discover myself too. as a designer i \u2019 m also naturally a hoarder ( there \u2019 s always another use for something, or this is too cool to throw away ) with plenty of random offcuts and cool stuff like electroluminescent panels or honey - comb structured non - woven fabrics floating around. i recently found my box of fabric and leather samples that were once referred to for designing a jet interior but have since been fashioned into hammock slings for mini action figures, flags, catapults, tiny houses, secret spy wrist bands and the like. i often hesitate before throwing something away. a burst backrest pillow containing many thousands of tiny polystyrene balls, ( much to my hesitation ) was thrilling for the kids to play with. after creating match - box - car crash pits during their play they also discovered static electricity when they couldn \u2019 t brush it off. i know they will always encounter these learning discoveries during play, so it \u2019 s always worth the huge mess factor. some old rice flour was apparently just like \u2018 snow \u2019 when my three year old found some spilled outside and stated \u201c yes! winter has arrived! \u201d even though we never get snow here, it was as good as snow to him so he claimed the entire bag full of flour to play with. he made some fascinating discoveries - one of which was creating perfect \u2018 stamp prints of his", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6113827731814024, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c5c87b85-8181-4f08-9876-9f24db2d50f9>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:53.992906"}
{"text": "has arrived! \u201d even though we never get snow here, it was as good as snow to him so he claimed the entire bag full of flour to play with. he made some fascinating discoveries - one of which was creating perfect \u2018 stamp prints of his toy animals much better than sand does because of its very fine powder form compressing into picture perfect molds. he loved the clapping action to generate a fine mist of flour that floated away. paint is so tactile, thick and creamy to apply, but i think mixing the paints in their pots is sometimes more fun then the act of painting itself. creating swirling rainbows of colours - transformation as they blend. we have a magnetic construction toy which contains many marble sized ball - bearings. apart from the fun of making and exploring connections with magnets, my boys are still fascinated with the way reflections move across every surface in unison when the sphere \u2019 s are grouped together, the sound, the feeling of the cold metal against the skin and when it warms to your body temperature you can \u2019 t let it go - it becomes a part of you. there are many innovative materials being created and combined with new technology for various applications all the time - ceramic cloth, translucent concrete, stone paper or electronic paper to name just a few. designer \u2019 s are often developing these materials, or are utilising them in a new innovative product. designer \u2019 s also rely on new materials as a source of inspiration. it \u2019 s been science week for my six old, so we \u2019 ve tried out a few simple experiments at home. the first stop is always a bottle of vinegar and some baking soda. i walked away but observed quietly, waiting for his expression as he generously poured them together into a bowl. he was astounded at the resulting reaction, surprised, worried and panicked with excitement as it overflowed onto the bench. we then moved onto cornflour and water and i left him for a good half hour, while hearing his excited announcements of his discoveries with the way the liquid / solid behaved as he played with the non newtonian fluid. learning first hand through play how materials and substances can change their state or create reactions when combined is both exciting and memorable. discovery always leads to more explorative how, why and what if questions. play to learn materials surround us, everything is made of something - natural, processed, or manufactured. providing children with opportunities to play and experiment with raw unedited materials and substances allows them to think creatively and develop their own idea \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6205375715063668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:c5c87b85-8181-4f08-9876-9f24db2d50f9>", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:53.993907"}
{"text": "the evolution of computer systems is seeing two trends : increasing ubiquity ( thus we depend more and more on them ) and growing complexity ( so they are harder to get right ). we face a major challenge to ensure that as computing becomes more ubiquitous, it is also dependable and secure. the challenge is to develop and maintain large, complex software systems on top of increasingly unreliable computing substrates under stringent resource constraints such as energy usage. we need to advance the science of building correct and robust systems at all levels of abstraction, from algorithms, through software, to circuits. this course covers fundamental algorithms and concepts that find widespread use in ensuring that systems are dependable and secure. in particular, we will cover algorithmic techniques for formal verification and synthesis, such as model checking, satisfiability ( sat ) solving and satisfiability modulo theories ( smt ). these techniques have become essential tools for the design and analysis of hardware and software systems. we will also cover other cutting - edge research topics such as quantitative and probabilistic verification, combining statistical learning and deductive reasoning, and formal methods for fault tolerance and robust system design. the course material has applications to several eecs areas including cad for integrated circuits, computer security, software engineering, embedded / cyber - physical systems, control systems, and biological systems. a tentative list of topics to be covered : ( subject to change! ) : - sat & bdds : complexity, phase transitions, modern dpll sat solvers : backjumping, 2 - literal watching, conflict - driven learning, etc., proof generation, incremental sat, circuit sat. binary decision diagrams, bdd representation and manipulation algorithms, applications. - smt : survey of logical theories ( uninterpreted functions, linear arithmetic, arrays / memories, bit - vectors, etc. ), decision procedures, combination of theories, eager and lazy encoding to sat, generalized dpll. - model checking : modeling with finite automata, kripke structures, temporal logic, explicit - state model checking, partial - order reduction, basic fixpoint theory, symbolic model checking, abstraction, bounded model checking, interpolation, symmetry reduction, assume - guarantee reasoning, checking simulation and bisimulation. - advanced topics : formal methods for synthesis from specifications, quantitative verification, probabilistic verification, verifying infinite - state systems, combining learning and deduction, coverage computation, verifying fault tolerance and robustness, etc. the key point about the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6220276490252867, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:42ebb9ad-9c3a-428e-bc26-fca3bb628376>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:54.678391"}
{"text": "electromagnetic radiation is a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields propagating through space and carrying energy from one place to another. light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. the theoretical study of electromagnetic radiation is called electrodynamics, a subfield of electromagnetism. any electric charge which accelerates radiates electromagnetic radiation. when any wire ( or other conducting object such as an antenna ) conducts alternating current, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current. depending on the circumstances, it may behave as waves or as particles. as a wave, it is characterized by a velocity ( the velocity of light ), wavelength, and frequency. when considered as particles, they are known as photons, and each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by planck ' s relation e = hv, where e is the energy of the photon, h is planck ' s constant - 6. 626 \u00d7 10 - 34 j \u00b7 s - and v is the frequency of the wave. einstein later updated this formula to ephoton = hv. generally, electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength into radio, microwave, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, x - rays and gamma rays. the details of this classification are contained in the article on the electromagnetic spectrum. the effect of radiation depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries. high energies correspond to high frequencies and short wavelengths, and vice versa. one rule is always obeyed, regardless of the circumstances. radiation in vacuum always travels at the speed of light, relative to the observer, regardless of the observer ' s velocity. ( this observation led to albert einstein ' s development of the theory of special relativity ). much information about the physical properties of an object can be obtained from its electromagnetic spectrum ; this can be either the spectrum of light emitted from, or transmitted through the object. this involves spectroscopy and is widely used in astrophysics. for example ; many hydrogen atoms emit radio waves which have a wavelength of 21. 12 cm. when electromagnetic radiation passes through a conductor it induces an electric current flow in the conductor. this effect is used in antennas. electromagnetic radiation may also cause certain molecules to oscillate and thus to heat up ; this is exploited in microwave ovens.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6906362091562517, "token_count": 465, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:bf0af722-50ea-48a9-b02d-58a0d49fce3a>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:54.702479"}
{"text": "necklace and right faith. substance gold is the power of the self and necklace is the desired manifestation. fire, goldsmith and others are conventional causes and the necklace is the new condition. in the same manner the soul substance or the attribute of faith is the power of the self and right faith is the desired manifestation. the removal of perverted faith karmic matter is the instrumental cause and right faith is the changed state. student : - if the power of the self is the substance or the attribute, it is always present and so the alleged action should always be happening. power of the self is of two kinds ( i ) the eternal self ( ii ) the momental power of the self. that substance or attribute that undergoes the change itself is the eternal self power. the momental power of the self can be illustrated in two ways : - * an eternal current of manifestations flows in the substances and the attributes. in that eternal current the immediately previous momentary manifestation is the momental power of the self and the manifestation immediately after the present moment is the action. * * the momentary capacity of the substance to change in that particular modification is the momental power of the self and the manifestation is the action. the momentary self power is called the forceful cause also. the eternal self power is always present, but if that is regarded as the completely forceful cause, alleged actions will always be in the process of happening. as such the forceful cause is the immediately previous manifestation of the substance and the momentary ability of the substance itself. action cannot be fruitful without these two and it always materialises when the two are present. we can say conclusively that the substance itself with its previous modification is the power of the self and the substance with the immediately next manifestation is the desired action. favourable external circumstances and objects are conventional causes and the alleged modification their action. : - are conventional causes of two kinds * indifferent and they have thus been divided. though ether, anti - ether, space and time substances having no desires of their own and ' being inactive are called indifferent substantive causes, and the soul substance having desires and being active, and the matter substance being active only, are called promptor instrumental causes, yet in the emergence of the action all are indifferent like the ether substance. acharya pujayapad has said in \" an ignorant being cannot be made a learned one by teaching and in the same way a learned one cannot be made an ignorant being, because non - self substances are only conventional causes just as the ether substance is for self - moving", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.60260107572368, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:71f82c98-fc18-4f17-aa2f-ee7bc215a544>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:55.164810"}
{"text": "and support in order to get to the conceptual level of understanding. teachers can respect children \u2019 s unique ways of thinking by providing many opportunities for children to try out their ideas. when children correct themselves and try again they are more likely to correct their own misconceptions. but, in order to make these corrections, teachers must provide an environment which supports this process. here are some ideas the authors suggest : - materials \u2013 cove molding ( molding used where walls and ceilings meet ), plastic gutters transparent, flexible tubing all varying in length ; various sizes of small balls and cars to roll on the cove molding and tubing. - adequate space \u2013 children must be able to build up ( the book provides many colored photographs of children \u2019 s structures ), out, over and under in the classroom. and, children must be able to keep structures up to sustain their interest day in and day out. - time \u2013 teachers must support a child \u2019 s on - going effort to try out their ideas in order to test their sometimes inaccurate ideas in order to increase their physics knowledge and intellect. disequilibrium ( moments of uncertainty ) must occur in children \u2019 s thinking in order to advance their thinking. this disequilibrium includes both intellectual and affective experiences. a child \u2019 s intellectual disequilibrium occurs when their ideas don \u2019 t come out the way they had intended ( hey, why didn \u2019 t that ball turn the corner on the ramp? ). affective disequilibrium occurs when a child experiences puzzlement, frustration or surprise. in order to create and change their knowledge content and become better at mentally organizing that content teachers must engage in what the author \u2019 s term the \u201c 10 principles of teaching \u201d \u2013 interpreting piaget \u2019 s ideas about how children think and learn. these 10 principles are : - experiment with materials - inspire children \u2019 s interest - create an environment that inspires - allow children to try ideas - observe children \u2019 s actions - intervene with questions and comments - respect a child \u2019 s non - response to your questions - support children \u2019 s work - integrate into all curricular areas - encourage social interactions. while the 10 principles are written for a child \u2019 s understanding of physics, one can easily insert language, math, social studies or any content areas into this idea. reading this book will help engage a teacher into the thought processes of a young child and can easily affect a teacher \u2019 s understanding across the entire curriculum. a soup opera by jim gill throughout the years many of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6340296225950179, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:dc5732b2-8459-45c6-8530-04470faf4644>", "chunk_index": 27, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:56.823046"}
{"text": "a collection of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized manner suitable for communication or processing by human beings or by computer. a logically meaningful grouping or collection of similar or related data. data having mostly similar characteristics ( source or class of source, processing level and algorithms, etc. ) shedding leaves at the end of the growing season. the angular distance from the equator to the satellite, measured as positive north and negative south. the breakdown of matter by bacteria and fungi. it changes the chemical makeup and physical appearance of materials. a u. s. air force meteorological satellite program with satellites circling in sun - synchronous orbit. imagery is collected in the visible - to near - infrared band ( 0. 4 to 1. 1 micrometers ) and in the thermal - infrared band ( about 8 to 13 micrometers ) at a resolution of about three kilometers. while some of the data is classified, most unclassified data is available to civilian users. those practices or processes that result in the change of forested lands to non - forest uses. this is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect for two reasons : 1 ) the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide ; and 2 ) trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are no longer present and contributing to carbon storage. a unit of angular measure represented by the symbol o. the circumference of a circle contains 360 degrees. when applied to the roughly spherical shape of the earth for geographic and cartographic purposes, degrees are each divided into 60 minutes. the fan - shaped area at the mouth or lower end of a river, formed by eroded material that has been carried downstream and dropped in quantities larger than can be carried off by tides or currents. the process of retrieving information ( data ) from a modulated carrier wave, the reverse of modulation. process by which water changes phase directly from vapor into a solid without first becoming a liquid. the point in a satellite ' s orbit at which it crosses the equatorial plane from north to south. a land area so dry that little or no plant or animal life can survive. the man - made or natural formation of desert from usable land. a device in a radiometer that senses the presence and intensity of radiation. the incoming radiation is usually modified by filters or other optical components that restrict the radiation to a specific spectral band. the information can either be transmitted immediately or recorded for transmittal at a later time. accumulated organic debris from dead organisms,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.646213340224894, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ebeb888a-7c11-4ed3-a402-77e68594d0be>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:57.028709"}
{"text": "intensity of radiation. the incoming radiation is usually modified by filters or other optical components that restrict the radiation to a specific spectral band. the information can either be transmitted immediately or recorded for transmittal at a later time. accumulated organic debris from dead organisms, often an important source of nutrients in a food web. atmospheric moisture that condenses after a warm day and appears during the night on cool surfaces as small drops. the cool surfaces cause the water vapor in the air to cool to the point where the water vapor condenses. the temperature to which air must be cooled for saturation to occur, exclusive of air pressure or moisture content change. at that temperature dew begins to form, and water vapor condenses into liquid. a class of unicellular algae more formally known as bacillariophyceae that live in cold waters of relatively low salinity. in signal processing this refers to the representation of quantities in discrete units. the information is contained and manipulated as a series of discrete numbers as opposed to an analog representation where the information is represented as a continuous signal. in practice, even analog signals are usually processed digitally in that the analog signal is sampled to create a digital signal that can be processed by inherently digital computers. a representation of the topography of the earth in digital format, that is, by coordinates and numerical descriptions of altitude. there are eight daacs located around the united states that are tasked with processing, storing, and distributing satellite remote sensing data for nasa and other agencies. see nasa daacs web site performed in twenty - four hours, such as the diurnal rotation of the earth. the standard way to express ozone amounts in the atmosphere. one du is 2. 7 x 10 exp 16 ( 10 to the 16th power ) ozone molecules per square centimeter. one dobson unit refers to a layer of ozone that would be 0. 001 cm thick under conditions of standard temperature ( 0 degree c ) and pressure ( the average pressure at the surface of the earth ). for example, 300 dobson units of ozone brought down to the surface of the earth at 0 degree c would occupy a layer only 0. 3 cm thick in a column. dobson was a researcher at oxford university who, in the 1920s, built the first instrument ( now called the dobson meter ) to measure total ozone from the ground. region near the equator characterized by low pressure and light shifting winds. see wind. the apparent change in frequency of sound or light waves, varying with the relative velocity of the source and the observer. if the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6323149262757999, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ebeb888a-7c11-4ed3-a402-77e68594d0be>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:57.030050"}
{"text": ") to measure total ozone from the ground. region near the equator characterized by low pressure and light shifting winds. see wind. the apparent change in frequency of sound or light waves, varying with the relative velocity of the source and the observer. if the source and observer draw closer together, the frequency is increased. named for christian doppler, austrian mathematician and physicist ( 1803 - 1853 ). the weather radar system that uses the doppler shift of radio waves to detect air motion that can result in tornadoes and precipitation, as previously - developed weather radar systems do. it can also measure the speed and direction of rain and ice, as well as detect the formation of tornadoes sooner than older radars. the process of accumulation and sinking of warm surface waters along a coastline. a change of air flow of the atmosphere can result in the sinking or downwelling of warm surface water. the resulting reduced nutrient supply near the surface affects the ocean productivity and meteorological conditions of the coastal regions in the downwelling area. the study of the action of forces on bodies and the changes in motion they produce. a physical system that converts mechanical energy ( energy of motion ) into magnetic energy. in the sun, the mechanical energy results from the movement of the plasma at the sun \u2019 s core.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6287025662992893, "token_count": 257, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ebeb888a-7c11-4ed3-a402-77e68594d0be>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:57.030639"}
{"text": "the shape of a real ponytail at various lengths is given by \u201c a \u201d. calculated shapes by \u201c b \u201d and \u201c c \u201d, where \u201c c \u201d includes a term for frizziness. ( courtesy : american physical society ) by hamish johnston here is some research that is truly on the fringe \u2013 or a \u201c big bangs theory \u201d for our readers in north america. physicists in the uk have published a paper in physical review letters entitled \u201c shape of a ponytail and the statistical physics of hair fiber bundles \u201d. written by raymond goldstein of the university of cambridge, robin ball of the university of warwick and patrick warren of the shampoo - maker unilever, the article offers an \u201c equation of state for the human ponytail \u201d. amazingly, the physicists are not the first to calculate an equation of state for hair \u2013 that was done back in 1946 by c f van wyk, who was interested in the compressibility of wool. according to the uk - based trio, the shape of a ponytail is defined by the competing effects of the elasticity of individual hairs, gravity and mutual interactions between hairs in a bundle. and because a ponytail can contain as many as 100, 000 hairs, the problem is best addressed using statistical physics. the researchers derived a relatively simple equation of state that includes the \u201c rapunzel number \u201d, which they describe as a dimensionless measure of ponytail length. the team then used the equation to predict the shape of a ponytail as a function of length and compared the results with the shapes of ponytails made with real human hair. the derivation that best describes a real ponytail also includes a term that reflects the observation that hair becomes \u201c frizzier \u201d as it grows out. what \u2019 s next for the trio? the researchers want to apply their newfound equation of state to study the dynamics of ponytails \u2013 how they swish back and forth when the wearer is running. you can read the paper here, but a subscription may be needed.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6135459724424066, "token_count": 398, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:e5c49c82-1f0e-41b2-9a58-3d7f0786813c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:57.505737"}
{"text": "3d game math primer 3 : what are vectors anyway? well what are vectors anyway? the topic of vectors crop up in geometry, physics, engineering disciplines, mechanics, etc. how they are used, as well as their definitions at times, vary from context to context. below i have listed how vectors are defined in some contexts : 1. in geometry, euclidian ( or spatial ) vectors are line segments that represent length and direction. 2. in physics, vectors are used to show magnitude ( usually in some unit ) and direction, representing aspects such as velocity, force etc. 3. in linear algebra, vectors are elements of vector spaces, but unlike the above attributes of vectors, may not always be made up of real numbers. i liken vectors to cross - cutting concerns in regular software applications. one example of a cross cutting concern in software applications is logging. in any one of the layers in a layered software architecture, logging is an important function that is applied across the layers ( or used as an aspect, in aspect oriented programming lingo ). vectors are a cross - cutting concern across geometry, linear algebra, mechanics, engineering, fluid dynamics, etc. vectors are a necessary and critical element in each of these areas, but is pretty much the same thing when taken by itself, and can be treated as an aspect, if i may use the term again from aop. lets backtrack for a moment : a geometrical point is something and nothing at the same time. it is purely a location in space, but has no width, height, length, or any type of dimensional size. next, a line can be defined as the straight path between two points. but can this straight path have any thickness or size? points and lines are abstract idealizations in geometry, we cannot create or draw them, but we can visualize them by giving them size, thickness etc, that will make sense to our eyes as points and lines. a vector is yet another abstraction, which represents the magnitude of something ( denoted by the length of a directional line segment ), and the direction of the acting element to which the magnitude is applicable. a vector starts from a initial point, and ends at a terminal point, with the directed line segment connecting the two points representing the magnitude and direction. what game programmers need to know is that vectors can be represented as lists of numbers ( or arrays, to be more accurate ). if the initial point of each vector is taken as the origin of a coordinate system, every vector can be represented", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6151447801136573, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:4baffc0b-658c-48be-b638-34281040f4da>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:58.113812"}
{"text": "many news sites have played up the idea that nasa scientists have made objects similar to cell membranes. as one site says, \" they have succeeded in creating cell - like structures spontaneously from simple chemical ices in conditions that simulate the frigid vacuum of deep space. \" 1 is this claim really true? let ' s look at the original article and see if it measures up to the claim. a recent article, \" self - assembling amphiphilic molecules : synthesis in simulated interstellar / precometary ices \" ( authors jason p. dworkin, david w. deamer, scott a. sandford, and louis j. allamandola, edited by stanley miller ) claims to show that organic molecules can be formed under interstellar conditions in \" molecular clouds \" and that these organic mixtures can form \" membranous vesicles \" similar to lipid bilayer membranes found in living cells. the article was published in the non - peer - reviewed journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( pnas ). 2 it is unlikely that the article would have passed peer - review, as you will soon see from this review. right mixtures of gases? the study began by using a gas mixture of water, methane, ammonia and carbon monoxide, which the authors claim are the prevalent gases found in interstellar clouds. however, these clouds are also known to contain significant amounts of carbon dioxide, which was not included in their mixture. why this gas was left out and whether this omission would have any effect upon the resulting molecules was not discussed in the paper. the concentration of the gases was also not mentioned in the methods, but was likely to be much higher than that which is observed in real interstellar clouds. purified metals in space? the gases were deposited under vacuum onto a rotating nickel, aluminum, or brass substrate, cooled to 15\u00b0k ( the approximate temperature of interstellar space ). are these the conditions that one would expect to find in interstellar space? first, rotating purified nickel, aluminum or brass is not available in space. they would have done better to use mixtures of metals similar to those found in meteorites. the other unrealistic condition is that the gases ( at room temperature, most likely ) were directed at the pre - cooled metals, so that they would be frozen and concentrated beyond anything possible in interstellar space. in interstellar space, everything is cold and any frozen gases would not be expected to get concentrated on any solid substrate in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6280128848260876, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a602433f-c919-4601-8105-0598a32800cf>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:58.129844"}
{"text": "remainder of the study, since the authors never demonstrated that the products were actually \" similar samples \". purified solvents in space? the material was then eluted from the metal substrate with purified chloroform - methanol ( not usually found in outer space ), dried under flowing dry nitrogen ( also not found in outer space ) and redissolved in chloroform - methanol. next, the dissolved mixture was separated by high pressure liquid chromatography ( hplc ) columns ( not usually found around stellar objects, excluding the sun ) into component chemicals. the fractions from the column were added to phosphate buffered water ( at alkaline ph ). the amount of phosphate and ph of the buffer would almost certainly not be present on the earth at any time in its past. in fact, the phosphate problem is a serious one for those who postulate that structural components, or building blocks, of dna and rna. nucleotides consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate. nucleotides were formed on the early earth. some of the hplc - purified components of the organic mixture formed \" water - insoluble droplets with different morphologies. \" oil and water don ' t mix the authors conclude that the produced organic mixture, \" show lipid - like behavior and self organize into droplets on exposure to liquid water suggest that extraterrestrial materials could exhibit a far greater range in chemical properties and behavior than previously thought. \" of course, it would be expected that any long carbon chain molecules would form droplets in the presence of water. this is not \" self organization \" but merely a property of organic and aqueous mixtures ( like the old saying, \" oil and water don ' t mix \" ). organic mixtures must form droplets in the presence of water, since the energy keeping such \" structures \" together is less than that required to separate the hydrophobic parts of the molecules from the aqueous components. therefore, none of this requires any kind of \" self assembly. \" the authors failed to demonstrate that these \" membranous vesicles \" actually had any properties in common with biological membranes. real membranes must have the capacity to selectively include and exclude salts and organic molecules and selectively transport other such molecules. without these abilities, these \" membranous vesicles \" would be completely worthless to house any kind of cellular machinery. in conclusion, the study demonstrates incredible audacity to make", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6116916629917949, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a602433f-c919-4601-8105-0598a32800cf>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:58.131993"}
{"text": "today \u2019 s idea : \u201c we don \u2019 t have to look for the mind of god in nature and try to express it through our equations, \u201d a scholar says. \u201c imperfect nature has plenty to offer, if we are willing to embrace its message. \u201d taking a different tack, marcelo gleiser of dartmouth college says equations serving as a secular surrogate for god can \u2019 t explain the universe either. capsulizing the argument of his new book for the australian broadcasting corporation, he says it \u2019 s time to stop searching for a grand plan, period : the search for an all - embracing theory of nature inspired by beauty and perfection is misguided, rooted in the monotheistic culture that has for so long dominated western thought. superstring theory, and the widespread belief that it represents the truth of all existence, is the scientific equivalent of a jewish - christian - muslim god that designed the cosmos, a theory based on mathematical symmetry as an expression of nature \u2019 s perfection. even if god is hidden from the equations ( and he certainly is ), the mythic equivalent of \u201c all is one \u201d persists. the time has come to shift our focus. a new way of thinking about the natural world is emerging that emphasizes change and transformation rather than stasis and perfection. [ australian broadcasting corporation via 3 quarks daily ; the week ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6015836509184846, "token_count": 274, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f29ce7dd-6053-4823-87de-21ac3bf50323>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:58.189880"}
{"text": "in english nor display by direct action their knowledge of energy and force ( 45 % ). in trying to understand tsi students ' conceptual perspectives, the researcher consulted five tsi teachers and assistant teachers and local word banks to investigate how meta concepts of energy and force translate from common tsi languages. the meta - concepts energy and force need to be taught in english as comparable abstract concepts in the students ' indigenous languages can not be found. however, the large majority of students in the study had difficulty communicating in english ; only 16 % spoke standard australian english and the large majority of students struggled to understand the english terms used in the science classroom. the tsi students have to navigate language negotiations before negotiating the language challenges in science learning. second international conference on religion and media tehran and qom, iran 9 - 12 november 2008 the second international conference on religion and media will be held in tehran and qom, iran, from november 9th to 12th, 2008. we cordially invite all media researchers and scholars, representatives from diverse religious traditions, professionals and students involved with the subjects of the conference to attend and submit a paper. further information could be found at conference website : http : / / www. religion - media. ir / first international conference on popular culture and education in asia hong kong institute of education 11 - 13 december 2008. we are pleased to inform you that the first international conference on popular culture and education in asia is to be held at the hong kong institute of education from 11 to 13 december 2008. this conference will bring together researchers from a variety of disciplines to focus on the implications of intra - regional flows of popular culture in east and southeast asia for educational practices and youth development. this conference welcomes researchers and scholars from the fields of sociology, cultural studies, media studies, anthropology, language and literacy, music, visual studies, asian studies, education and other disciplines that popular culture seriously. it also welcomes papers that elucidate changing patterns in asian popular culture as well as papers that explore implications and applications of youth engagement with popular culture inside and outside the classroom. submission deadline of paper proposals is 31 august 2008. for further details, please refer to the attached poster or visit the conference website at http : / / home. ied. edu. hk / ~ hkpop / conference. html. dreamcatching 2009 : hands - on workshops in math and science for teachers of aboriginal students may 3 - 6, 2009 university of manitoba winnipeg, mb, canada mount pleasant educational services inc. ( mpes ) is pleased to announce", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6057670832743547, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:0ad746d8-2557-4c82-b7eb-2afde5f56244>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:58.424443"}
{"text": "i have recently come across an interesting science theory call biocentrism as proposed by scientist robert lanza. i was fascinated with the many connections between it and much buddhist philosophy. i will give you a quick run - down of what biocentrism is about via wikipedia, which isn ' t the best source but it ' s the easiest for my purposes but i encourage you to read about it further. biocentrism posits that life created the universe and not the other way around as traditional science has taught us. this blends nicely into the buddhist concept that reality is what our limited and deluded mind makes of it. the seven principles of biocentrism are as follows. note the similarities between it and buddhist thought : 1 ). what we perceive as reality is a process that involves our consciousness. an \" external \" reality, if it existed, would by definition have to exist in space. but this is meaningless, because space and time are not absolute realities but rather tools of the human and animal mind. 2 ). our external and internal perceptions are inextricably intertwined. they are different sides of the same coin and cannot be divorced from one another. 3 ). the behavior of subatomic particles, indeed all particles and objects, is inextricably linked to the presence of an observer. without the presence of a conscious observer, they at best exist in an undetermined state of probability waves. 4 ). without consciousness, \" matter \" dwells in an undetermined state of probability. any universe that could have preceded consciousness only existed in a probability state. 5 ). the structure of the universe is explainable only through biocentrism. the universe is fine - tuned for life, which makes perfect sense as life creates the universe, not the other way around. the \" universe \" is simply the complete spatio - temporal logic of the self. 6 ). time does not have a real existence outside of animal - sense perception. it is the process by which we perceive changes in the universe. 7 ). space, like time, is not an object or a thing. space is another form of our animal understanding and does not have an independent reality. we carry space and time around with us like turtles with shells. thus, there is no absolute self - existing matrix in which physical events occur independent of life. james : then there is this following excerpt from a different article about how scientist robert lanza rediscovered this idea that buddhists have believed for eons. it is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.648490746077738, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87184fa1-4be2-4c4f-ae61-33771fe08e67>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:59.170763"}
{"text": ", there is no absolute self - existing matrix in which physical events occur independent of life. james : then there is this following excerpt from a different article about how scientist robert lanza rediscovered this idea that buddhists have believed for eons. it is a nice image of what is being talked about with this theory and startlingly reminds me of indra ' s net metaphor : the farther we peer into space, the more we realize that the nature of the universe cannot be understood fully by inspecting spiral galaxies or watching distant supernovas. it lies deeper. it involves our very selves. this insight snapped into focus one day while one of us ( lanza ) was walking through the woods. looking up, he saw a huge golden orb web spider tethered to the overhead boughs. there the creature sat on a single thread, reaching out across its web to detect the vibrations of a trapped insect struggling to escape. the spider surveyed its universe, but everything beyond that gossamer pinwheel was incomprehensible. the human observer seemed as far - off to the spider as telescopic objects seem to us. yet there was something kindred : we humans, too, lie at the heart of a great web of space and time whose threads are connected according to laws that dwell in our minds. james : as nobel physicist john wheeler once said, \u201c no phenomenon is a real phenomenon until it is an observed phenomenon. \u201d i look forward to reading more about this theory as i am very fascinated with interactions between science and buddhism. if everyone and everything is interdependent and interconnected then i see no reason why buddhism and science have to be mutually exclusive. it seems to me that many of the theories posited by both are quite similar. photo credit : university of chicago press", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6409096014749505, "token_count": 363, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:87184fa1-4be2-4c4f-ae61-33771fe08e67>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:59.171642"}
{"text": "from uncyclopedia, the content - free encyclopedia disinformation is the exact opposite of information and misinformation at the same time. this leads to such paradoxes as : the kitten huffing paradox, the oscar wilde paradox, the william shatner paradox, the chuck norris conundrum, and the dynamite paradox. each of these paradoxes states that something is simultaneously something and at the same time the same thing. this, as we all know, is entirely impossible. regarding william shatner, for example, some loons say that he ' s both canadian and canadian. this is not true. in fact, he is merely canadian. therefore, we can draw from this the conclusion that disinformation is neither true nor false. this means that when confronted with any disinformation, you must regard it skeptically, as it is not true by definition. however, it is not false, so you must find a balance between the obvious truth and the obvious truth. for example, if the statement ' the ball is red ' is disinformation, then it is not a red ball. however, it is also not not a red ball, which makes its practical use in english only utilised when the speaker wishes to be nonsensically undecided. it can most often be seen in speeches made by persons named george bush.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6318210748448937, "token_count": 279, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:edfb479f-fb4c-4b08-b588-04ebbfd1ba6c>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:59.189124"}
{"text": "the goal of theoretical elementary particle physics is to understand the most fundamental laws which govern our universe, and to understand the structure and nature of the universe at the deepest level. theorists at baylor are approaching these questions from a variety of perspectives. standard model phenomenology the interactions of all known subatomic particles can be described by a single theoretical framework known as the \" standard model \". this model describes matter in terms of leptons ( including electrons, neutrinos,... ) and quarks, together with their interactions via force - carriers called \" gauge bosons \", which include the photon, w and z bosons, and gluons. the theory is modeled by a gauge group su ( 2 ) l x u ( 1 ) x su ( 3 ) c which encompasses all known forces except gravity, which is too weak on small scales to have been observed in any particle physics experiments. an important constituent of the standard model is the higgs boson, which is associated with a higgs field which causes most of the particles in the standard model to acquire a mass. large high - energy physics laboratories such as the ones at fermilab, slac, and cern, have been very successful in verifying the predictions of the standard model, with the exception of finding the higgs boson. discovering and uncovering the properties of the higgs boson is the primary goal of particle colliders currently under construction, including the large hadron collider ( lhc ) at cern. interpreting the results of high - energy collisions in terms of the standard model requires high precision calculations of the various processes and backgrounds which are to be observed. the theoretical high energy physics phenomenology group at baylor focuses on rigorous quantum field theoretic investigations an emphasis on the theory of higher order radiative corrections to the su ( 2 ) l x u ( 1 ) x su ( 3 ) c model of elementary particle interactions. dr. ward is engaged in constructing computer realizations of the quantum field theory calculations required for high - precision tests of the standard model. collision properties are calculated in the context of realistic detector simulations using \" monte carlo \" event generators, which randomly generate scattering events based on the predictions of quantum field theory. the monte carlo realization of the radiative corrections has played an essential role in precision standard model tests and new physics probes in the lepii final data analysis, and in the preparation of the physics for the cern lhc. these calculations also have immediate consequences", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7145570022191654, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8194019a-0c59-446d-85da-e997a092011e>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:30:59.589806"}
{"text": "physiological effects and toxicity of trace metals in the traditional dissolved form are relatively well known and the overall aim of this review was to use our existing conceptual framework of metal toxicity in fish to compare and contrast the effects of nanometals. conceptually, there are some fundamental differences that relate to bioavailability and uptake. the chemistry and behaviour of nanometals involves dynamic aspects of aggregation theory, rather than the equilibrium models traditionally used for free metal ions. some nps, such as cu - nps, may also release free metal ions from the surface of the particle. biological uptake of nps is not likely via ion transporters, but endocytosis is a possible uptake mechanism. the body distribution, metabolism, and excretion of nanometals is poorly understood and hampered by a lack of methods for measuring nps in tissues. although data sets are still limited, emerging studies on the acute toxicity of nanometals have so far shown that these materials can be lethal to fish in the mg \u2013 \u03bcgl\u22121 range, depending on the type of material. evidence suggests that some nanometals can be more acutely toxic to some fish than dissolved forms. for example, juvenile zebrafish have a 48 - h lc50 of about 0. 71 and 1. 78mgl\u22121 for nano - and dissolved forms of cu respectively. the acute toxicity of metal nps is not always explained, or only partly explained, by the presence of free metal ions ; suggesting that other novel mechanisms may be involved in bioavailability. evidence suggests that nanometals can cause a range of sublethal effects in fish including respiratory toxicity, disturbances to trace elements in tissues, inhibition of na + k + - atpase, and oxidative stress. organ pathologies from nanometals can be found in a range of organs including the gill, liver, intestine, and brain. these sublethal effects suggest some common features in the sublethal responses to nanometals compared to metal salts. effects on early life stages of fish are also emerging, with reports of nanometals crossing the chorion ( e. g., ag - nps ), and suggestions that the nano - forms of some metals ( cu - nps and zno nps ) may be more toxic to embryos or juveniles, than the equivalent metal salt. it remains possible that nanometals could interfere with, and / or stimulate stress responses in fish ; but data has yet to be collected on this aspect. we conclude that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6086456476971749, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:7d6a16ed-efed-4776-9ec0-9662bde69831>", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:00.898807"}
{"text": "you might remember the heroic role that newly - invented radar played in the second world war. people hailed it then as \" our miracle ally \". but even in its earliest years, as it was helping win the war, radar proved to be more than an expert enemy locator. radar technicians, doodling away in their idle moments, found that they could focus a radar beam on a marshmallow and toast it. they also popped popcorn with it. such was the beginning of microwave cooking. the very same energy that warned the british of the german luftwaffe invasion and that policemen employ to pinch speeding motorists, is what many of us now have in our kitchens. it ' s the same as what carries long distance phone calls and cablevision. hitler ' s army had its own version of radar, using radio waves. but the trouble with radio waves is that their long wavelength requires a large, cumbersome antenna to focus them into a narrow radar beam. the british showed that microwaves, with their short wavelength, could be focussed in a narrow beam with an antenna many times smaller. this enabled them to make more effective use of radar since an antenna could be carried on aircraft, ships and mobile ground stations. this characteristic of microwaves, the efficiency with which they are concentrated in a narrow beam, is one reason why they can be used in cooking. microwaves and their use the idea of cooking with radiation may seem like a fairly new one, but in fact it reaches back thousands of years. ever since mastering fire, man has cooked with infrared radiation, a close kin of the microwave. infrared rays, flowing from the sun and striking the atmosphere, make the earth warm and habitable. in a conventional gas or electric oven, infrared waves pour off the hot elements or burners and are converted to heat when they strike air inside and the food. microwaves and infrared rays are related in that both are forms of electromagnetic energy. both consist of electric and magnetic fields that rise and fall like waves on an ocean. silently, invisibly and at the speed of light, they travel through space and matter. ordinary light from the sun is an example, as well as x - rays. each kind, moving at a separate wavelength, has a unique effect on any matter it touches. when one is exposed to the summer sun, the infrared rays bring warmth, but ultraviolet radiation tans the skin. if the earth ' s protective atmosphere weren ' t there, intense cosmic radiation from space would be deadly to human beings. so why do microwave", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6093588145783388, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:a7498f64-8121-45e6-ae8c-3a986e5ebaf1>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:01.226210"}
{"text": "/ / micro. magnet. fsu. edu / vitamins / >. vitamin - deficiency diseases. medic planet ( web site ). < http : / / www. medic - planet. com / mp _ article / internal _ reference / vitamin - deficiency _ diseases >. vitamins and minerals topic page. food and nutrition information center national agricultural library, u. s. department of agriculture ( web site ). < http : / / www. nal. usda. gov / fnic / etext / 000068. html >. organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and ( in some cases ) sulfur bonded in characteristic formations. strings of amino acids make up proteins. a condition marked by a lack of red blood cells or hemoglobin or a shortage in total blood volume, any one of which can produce a lethargic condition. an enzyme, or some other organic substance, that is capable of counteracting the negative impact of oxygen ( which draws electrons to it ) on living tissue. naturally occurring compounds, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, whose primary function in the body is to supply energy. included in the carbohydrate group aresugars, starches, cellulose, and various other substances. a substance in which atoms of more than one element are bonded chemically to one another. a protein material that speeds up chemical reactions in the bodies of plants and animals. a type of sugar that occurs widely in nature. glucose is the form in which animals usually receive carbohydrates. an iron - containing pigment in red blood cells that is responsible for transporting oxygen to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide. the chemical process by which nutrients are broken down and converted into energy or used in the construction of new tissue or other material in the body. inorganic substances that, in a nutritional context, serve a function similar to that of vitamins. minerals may include chemical elements, particularly metallic ones, such as calcium or iron, as well as some compounds. at one time chemists used the term organic only in reference to living things. now the word is applied to compounds containing carbon and hydrogen. large molecules built from long chains of amino acids. proteins serve the functions of promoting normal growth, repairing damaged tissue, contributing to the body ' s immune system, and making enzymes. a group of cells, along with the substances that join them, that form part of the structural materials in plants oranimals. organic substances that, in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6266215540397416, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:96636cb9-8f47-41cc-98a8-e749558ece5d>", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:01.627296"}
{"text": "researchers from taiwan and the university of california, berkeley, claim to have developed a new memory technology that can exceed the speed of today ' s mainstream charge - storage memory by up to 100x. according to a paper published in the current issue of applied physics letters, the device uses non - conducting material that integrates horizontally aligned, non - overlapping silicon nanodots ( si - qd ), each of which has a diameter of about 3 nm and represents a single memory bit. the storage function is provided via a metallic layer on top of the nanodot surface that is employed as a metal gate to control the on and off stages of the nanodots. the published paper claims that the operating voltage of the non - volatile memory device is 7 volts and the program / erase speed of the nanodots is less than 1 \u03bcs. the storage process itself uses brief bursts of green laser light to target specific regions of the metal gate layer and reach individual nanodots. the scientists also claim that the \" materials and the processes used for the devices are compatible with current main - stream integrated circuit technologies \" and \" can also be applied to other advanced - structure devices. \" there was no information on the capacity of the memory device and a possible production beyond a lab scenario.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6336782471278573, "token_count": 257, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:8bac9a2d-d010-406e-9540-143b0005a1cb>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:01.857720"}
{"text": "this short essay explains the difference of symbolic logic system, ( hilbert ' s ) formalism, in today ' s math foundation context, and the meaning of today ' s common math practice of using axioms in text books, its relation to logicism and formalism. logicism, a symbolic logic system as foundation of math, is today known as mathematical logic. it went thru several names in recent history as the subject matured : predicate logic, first order logic, symbolic logic, mathematical logic. as such, it is effectively a study of formal language systems. a formal language basically means starting with some \u201c symbol strings \u201d called \u201c axioms \u201d, and with given rules to derive more symbol strings called \u201c theorems \u201d. formalism in our context, is basically the beginning of the study on mathematical logic, in particular hilbert ' s own idea of it, his perspective of mathematics as form manipulation. today, it basically refers to the idea of inference rules, also known as production rules, string transformation, term rewrite system. russell ' s logicism, again, is also a early conception of mathematical logic studies. in particular, russel ' s logicism is he and whitehead ' s work on the foundation of mathematics as a logic system. now, in our context, we want to know what is the relation between mathematical logic and formalism. basically, today, not much. they are just 2 aspects / emphasis of the same studies. \u201c mathematical logic \u201d refers to the study of formal languages, while formalism refers to the philosophy or practice of using formal language as a foundation or approach to doing mathematics. now, axiomatic system, is pretty much the odd man out here in our context. a axiomatic system in mathematics, pretty much means a math subject done by developing from a set of axioms. it is primarily a approach to rigor in mathematics. a math done axiomatically, does not necessarily mean it is done in a mathematical logic or formalism style. often, it is done using set theory as a foundation. now, what ' s the relation of set theory to mathematical logic? \u2026 they are somewhat disparate subjects \u2026 usually have different contexts. it turns out, there is a active academic community that shares the exact concerns i had. namely, it is mostly part of the community who advocate \u201c calculational proofs \u201d. and, a notable major figure is edsger dijkstra ( 1930 \u301c 2002 ). this community is also associated with the community of doing automatic theorem proving.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6220722485980396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:84e73bcc-058d-4cbf-a928-bcd5292a8b1f>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.131319"}
{"text": "two - channel ( left and right, for stereo ) 16 - bit pcm encoding at a 44. 1khzsampling rate. reed - solomon error correction allows the cd to be scratched ( to a certain degree ) without degradation of the contents. the information on a standard cd is encoded as a spiral track of pits moulded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. each pit is approximately 125nm deep by 500nm wide, and varies from 850nm to 3. 5\u03bcm ; long. the spacing between the tracks is 1. 5\u03bcm. a cd is read by shining light from a 780nm wavelengthsemiconductor laser through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer, and monitoring the light reflected by the aluminium coating. the light from the laser forms a spot of approximately 1. 7\u03bcm diameter on the metal surface. since the cd is read through the bottom of the disc, each pit appears as an elevated bump to the reading light beam. the areas without bumps are known as land. to grasp the scale of the pits and land of a cd, if the disc is enlarged to the size of a regular stadium, a pit would have approximately the size of a grain of sand. light striking the land areas is reflected normally and detected by a photodiode. light striking a bump, however, undergoes destructive interference with light reflecting from the land surrounding the bump and no light is reflected. this occurs because the height of each bump is one quarter of the wavelength of the laser light ( in the polycarbonate medium ), leading to a half - wavelength phase difference in light reflecting from the land to that of light reflecting from the bump. the compact disc specification does not include any copy protection mechanism and discs can be easily duplicated or the contents \" ripped \" to a computer. starting in early 2002, attempts were made by record companies to market so - called ' copy - protected ' compact discs. these rely on deliberate errors being introduced into the data recorded on the disc. the intent is that the error - correction in a music player will enable music to be played as normal, while computer cd - rom drives will fail with errors. this approach is the subject of an evolutionary arms race or cat - and - mouse game \u2014 not all current drives fail, and copying software is being adapted to cope with these damaged data tracks. the recording industry then works on further approaches. philips have stated that such discs, which do not meet the red book specification, are not permitted to bear the trademark", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6051509603605254, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:af01c0c8-71ad-4d84-9ff3-4ecc3766d4ef>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.163070"}
{"text": "the types of chemical reactions we typically learn in school take place on a cecil b. demille, cast - of - thousands scale. they involve huge numbers of atoms or molecules, making it extremely difficult to study exactly what is happening on the quantum level between the individual players. many of them won ' t even take place at cold temperatures, where the rate of reaction is slow enough to observe the details. all this makes it very difficult to understand the quantum mechanics of chemical reactions between individual pairs of atoms. in a new nature physics paper, researchers with the cavendish laboratory at the university of cambridge were able to measure the chemical interactions between individual, ultracold ytterbium ions and rubidium atoms. lothar ratschbacher, christoph zipkes, carlo sias, and michael kohl studied inelastic collisions between the atoms and ions, in which some of the energy in the system is converted to light or motion. in doing so, they obtained the first low - level analysis of charge exchange, the chemical reaction in which an electron is passed between an atom and an ion. ordinary atoms are electrically neutral : they possess equal numbers of protons and electrons. however, when two atoms approach each other slowly ( as they do at cold temperatures ) something odd happens : the electrons end up repelling each other, preventing chemical interactions. this doesn ' t happen with ions \u2014 atoms in which one or more electrons are added or subtracted, giving them a net electric charge. when an atom and a positive ion approach slowly, the ion ' s charge draws part of the atom ' s electron cloud towards it, leading to an attractive force between them. this force is much weaker than if both atoms were ionized, but at cold temperatures, the two objects can approach each other slowly enough that it becomes significant. the authors of the new study exploited this property by magnetically trapping ytterbium ions ( yb + ) and neutral rubidium atoms ( rb ) at very low temperatures. they set the yb + to one of two quantum states by exciting them with laser light ; these states were chosen because they take a long time to decay to their ground state. this means the ions won ' t give up this extra energy before they interact with the rb atoms. being in an excited state meant the ions had internal energy \u2014 energy unrelated to the motion of the ions, which is expressed as temperature. this is akin to macroscopic objects such as a rolling ball : in addition to the energy of its motion, it has internal energy in the form", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6652243977130745, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f4ea2c81-d28b-4d4b-a8d7-f437f06c3e10>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.205890"}
{"text": "the ions had internal energy \u2014 energy unrelated to the motion of the ions, which is expressed as temperature. this is akin to macroscopic objects such as a rolling ball : in addition to the energy of its motion, it has internal energy in the form of the motion of the atoms inside the balls. the internal energy of the yb + ions is available during the chemical reactions. in the experiment, the reactions were all exothermic. this means the additional internal energy from the excited state could be converted to kinetic energy, so that the products of the reaction moved faster after than they did before. ( alternately, the extra energy could be converted to photons \u2014 an example of fluorescence. ) in some cases, the kinetic energy was sufficient to kick the reaction products out of the trap entirely ; knowing the amount of energy required to do this set a minimum bound on the final kinetic energy. if the products remained inside the apparatus, their final speed was measured, revealing how much energy had been transferred. the researchers performed the experiment under two conditions. first, the reactions were run in the dark, with the laser shut off after being used to prepare the ions. no photons were present in the trap other than any that might have been emitted by the reaction itself. second, they kept the laser directed onto the atom and ion, using it to control their interaction. by adjusting the frequency of the laser, the authors altered both the rate of the reaction and the quantum states of the products. in some trials, one electron was transferred from the rb atom to the yb + ion, so that the rubidium became ionized ( rb + ) and the ytterbium became neutral. this reaction is known as charge exchange. in no cases did a molecule form from the reacting objects, though the experimentalists considered that to be a possible outcome. one interesting thing the researchers noted : they found the relative orientation of the electronic spin and the nuclear spin \u2014 known as the hyperfine state \u2014 made a difference to the reaction outcome. the properties of an atomic nucleus typically don ' t play a direct role in chemical reactions, but these results show a clear counterexample to that general assumption. between the charge exchange, quenching, hyperfine state, and other properties, this experiment provides an excellent demonstration of how manipulation of quantum states can lead to chemical reactions at very low temperatures. by using single atoms in the reactions, the researchers created a particularly clean experimental environment, avoiding the complications that arise from using the usual large numbers of reacting objects.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6503475937040206, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:f4ea2c81-d28b-4d4b-a8d7-f437f06c3e10>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.207117"}
{"text": "silicon \u2013 oxygen and aluminum \u2013 oxygen compounds exhibit significant xps auger and photoelectron chemical shifts that are accurately measurable. chemical state plots of kll auger kinetic energy versus 2p photoelectron energy permit identification of chemical species from the locations of their points on the plots. the kll auger electrons of al and si were generated by the bremsstrahlung component of the radiation, with conventional instrumentation. the location of points on the plots can be understood on the basis of polarizability of the environment ( on the auger parameter grid of lines, slope + 1 ) and on the basis of the factors contributing to the energy of the final state ion in the auger transition ( a grid of line, slope \u22121 ). tetrahedral aluminum has a significantly smaller auger parameter than octahedral aluminum, and this difference is repeated, but with reduced magnitude on the similar plots for silicon and oxygen lines for the same compounds. otherwise, the auger parameters for this class of compounds are remarkably uniform. the auger parameter values for oxygen and sodium in these compounds, using the 1s and kll lines, are relatively small compared to those of other compounds of oxygen and sodium. for compounds of similar auger parameter, differences in auger final state ion energy are interpretable on the basis of electron density on aluminum and silicon atoms in the initial state, due to extent of bonding to oxygen, or to amount of negative formal charge on the silicate structure. inclusion of tetrahedral aluminum enhances the negative charge and decreases the final state ion energy in high alumina zeolites. the difference between the energies of the o1s and si2p lines in the inorganic silicon compounds is almost invariant, 429. 0 to 429. 6 ev. the three silicon polymers examined have a significantly larger line difference, 429. 8 to 430. 1 ev, making possible a differentiation between silicones and silicates. the oxygen kvv lines, with auger transition final vacancies in valence levels, have shapes characteristic of chemical structure. the uncharged si \u2013 o \u2013 si structure exhibits a well \u2010 defined shoulder ; in al \u2013 o \u2013 si the shoulder is so close in energy it merely gives rise to asymmetry in the peak ; al \u2013 o \u2013 al and charged si \u2013 o \u2013 si give oxygen kvv lines as single sharp peaks.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6316135697595782, "token_count": 490, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:cb0f144c-d68f-4b2b-bb1c-639376647b8b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.236720"}
{"text": "the following html text is provided to enhance online readability. many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to html. please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. lends itself to the k - 4, 5 - 8, and 9 - 12 grade - level clusters used in the other content standards. in this standard, however, the boundaries of disciplines and grade - level divisions are not distinct \u2014 teachers should develop students ' understandings continuously across grades k - 12. systems and subsystems, the nature of models, and conservation are fundamental concepts and processes included in this standard. young students tend to interpret phenomena separately rather than in terms of a system. force, for example, is perceived as a property of an object rather than the result of interacting bodies. students do not recognize the differences between parts and whole systems, but view them as similar. therefore, teachers of science need to help students recognize the properties of objects, as emphasized in grade - level content standards, while helping them to understand systems. as another example, students in middle school and high school view models as physical copies of reality and not as conceptual representations. teachers should help students understand that models are developed and tested by comparing the model with observations of reality. teachers in elementary grades should recognize that students ' reports of changes in such things as volume, mass, and space can represent errors common to well - recognized developmental stages of children. guide to the content standard some of the fundamental concepts that underlie this standard are systems, order, and organization the natural and designed world is complex ; it is too large and complicated to investigate and comprehend all at once. scientists and students learn to define small portions for the convenience of investigation. the units of investigation can be referred to as ' ' systems. \" a system is an organized group of related objects or components that form a whole. systems can consist, for example, of organisms, machines, fundamental particles, galaxies, ideas, numbers, transportation, and education. systems have boundaries, components, resources flow ( input and output ), and feedback. the goal of this standard is to think and analyze in terms of systems. thinking and analyzing in terms of systems will help students keep track of mass, energy, objects, organisms, and events referred to in the other content standards. the idea of simple systems encompasses subsystems as well as identifying the structure and function of systems, feedback and equilibrium, and the distinction between open and closed systems. science assumes that the behavior of the universe is not capricious, that nature is the same", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_materials", "similarity_score": 0.6608465293509479, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ca8cde94-0601-4997-84b1-39d53b830cae>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.295652"}
{"text": "the kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. in physics and other sciences energy ( from the greek grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 - energeia, \" activity operation \" from grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 it is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. in physics, mechanical work is the amount of energy transferred by a force. having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. negative work of the same magnitude would be required to return the body to a state of rest from that velocity. the adjective \" kinetic \" to the noun energy has its roots in the greek word for \" motion \" ( kinesis ). in physics and other sciences energy ( from the greek grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 - energeia, \" activity operation \" from grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 the ancient greek language is the historical stage in the development of the hellenic language family spanning the archaic ( c for the band see kinesis ( band. for the ergonomic keyboard see kinesis ( keyboard. the terms kinetic energy and work and their present scientific meanings date back to the mid 19th century. early understandings of these ideas can be attributed to gaspard - gustave coriolis who in 1829 published the paper titled du calcul de l ' effet des machines outlining the mathematics of kinetic energy. gaspard - gustave de coriolis or gustave coriolis ( 21 may 1792 \u2013 19 september 1843 was a french mathematician, mechanical engineer and william thomson, later lord kelvin, is given the credit for coining the term kinetic energy c. william thomson 1st baron kelvin ( or lord kelvin ) om, gcvo, pc, prs, frse, ( 26 june 1824 & ndash 17 december 1907 1849. there are various forms of energy : chemical energy, heat, electromagnetic radiation, potential energy ( gravitational, electric, elastic, etc. in physics and other sciences energy ( from the greek grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 - energeia, \" activity operation \" from grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 in physics and other sciences energy ( from the greek grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 - energeia, \" activity operation \" from grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 in physics, heat, symbolized by q, is energy transferred from one body or system to another due to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.648710688722794, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad5d283d-69f4-4ab7-9887-fc5ffa27370b>", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.472959"}
{"text": "grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 - energeia, \" activity operation \" from grc \u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 in physics, heat, symbolized by q, is energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in temperature electromagnetic radiation takes the form of self - propagating waves in a vacuum or in matter. potential energy can be thought of as energy stored within a physical system ), nuclear energy, rest energy. nuclear energy is released by the splitting ( fission or merging together ( fusion of the nuclei of atom ( s the rest energy e or rest mass - energy of a particle is its energy when it is at rest relative to a given inertial reference frame. these can be categorized in two main classes : potential energy and kinetic energy. potential energy can be thought of as energy stored within a physical system kinetic energy can be best understood by examples that demonstrate how it is transformed from other forms of energy and to the other forms. for example, a cyclist will use chemical energy that was provided by food to accelerate a bicycle to a chosen speed. potential energy can be thought of as energy stored within a physical system this speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air - resistance and friction. the energy has been converted into the energy of motion, known as kinetic energy but the process is not completely efficient and heat is also produced within the cyclist. the kinetic energy in the moving bicycle and the cyclist can be converted to other forms. the bicycle, cycle, or bike is a pedal - driven, human - powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind cycling is the use of bicycles or - less commonly - unicycles tricycles quadricycles and other similar wheeled human powered vehicles for example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top. the kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill. ( since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it will never regain all of its speed without further pedaling. note that the energy is not destroyed ; it has only been converted to another form by friction. ) alternatively the cyclist could connect a dynamo to one of the wheels and also generate some electrical energy on the descent. in electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic the bicycle would be traveling more slowly at the bottom of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6887357298693215, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad5d283d-69f4-4ab7-9887-fc5ffa27370b>", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.474052"}
{"text": "connect a dynamo to one of the wheels and also generate some electrical energy on the descent. in electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic the bicycle would be traveling more slowly at the bottom of the hill because some of the energy has been diverted into making electrical power. another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic energy would be dissipated through friction as heat energy. like any physical quantity which is a function of velocity, the kinetic energy of an object does not depend only on the inner nature of that object. it also depends on the relationship between that object and the observer ( in physics an observer is formally defined by a particular class of coordinate system called an inertial reference frame ). in physics, an inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference which belongs to a set of frames in which physical laws hold in the same and simplest physical quantities like this are said to be not invariant. the kinetic energy is co - located with the object and contributes to its gravitational field. there are several different equations that may be used to calculate the kinetic energy of an object. in many cases they give almost the same answer to well within measurable accuracy. where they differ, the choice of which to use is determined by the velocity of the body or its size. thus, if the object is moving at a velocity much smaller than the speed of light, the newtonian ( classical ) mechanics will be sufficiently accurate ; but if the speed is comparable to the speed of light, relativity starts to make significant differences to the result and should be used. classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of macroscopic objects from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects special relativity ( sr ( also known as the special theory of relativity or str ) is the physical theory of measurement in inertial if the size of the object is sub - atomic, the quantum mechanical equation is most appropriate. quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the atomic scale such as molecules atoms electrons in classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a \" point object \" ( a body so small that its size can be ignored ), or a non rotating rigid body, is given by the equation where m is the mass and v is the speed of the body. classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of macroscopic objects from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects in physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6437775639484018, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad5d283d-69f4-4ab7-9887-fc5ffa27370b>", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.475147"}
{"text": "the mass and v is the speed of the body. classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of macroscopic objects from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects in physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size in which deformation is neglected for example - one would calculate the kinetic energy of an 80 kg mass traveling at 18 meters per second ( 40 mph ) as note that the kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed. this means, for example, that an object traveling twice as fast will have four times as much kinetic energy. as a result of this, a car traveling twice as fast requires four times as much distance to stop ( assuming a constant braking force. see mechanical work ). in physics, mechanical work is the amount of energy transferred by a force. thus, the kinetic energy can be calculated using the formula : thus kinetic energy is a relative measure and no object can be said to have a unique kinetic energy. a rocket engine could be seen to transfer its energy to the rocket ship or to the exhaust stream depending upon the chosen frame of reference. but the total energy of the system, i. e. kinetic energy, fuel chemical energy, heat energy etc, will be conserved regardless of the choice of measurement frame. the kinetic energy of an object is related to its momentum by the equation : the work done accelerating a particle during the infinitesimal time interval dt is given by the dot product of force and displacement : applying the product rule we see that : therefore ( assuming constant mass ), the following can be seen : since this is a total differential ( that is, it only depends on the final state, not how the particle got there ), we can integrate it and call the result kinetic energy : this equation states that the kinetic energy ( ek ) is equal to the integral of the dot product of the velocity ( v ) of a body and the infinitesimal change of the body ' s momentum ( p ). in classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta si unit kg \u00b7 m / s, or equivalently n \u00b7 s ) is the product the european space agency ' s international gamma - ray astrophysics laboratory ( integral ) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space in mathematics, the dot product, also known as the scalar product, is an operation which takes two vectors over the real numbers r in physics, velocity is defined as the rate of change of position. infinitesimals ( from a 17th century modern latin coinage infinitesimus,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6228953204049297, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad5d283d-69f4-4ab7-9887-fc5ffa27370b>", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.476205"}
{"text": "also known as the scalar product, is an operation which takes two vectors over the real numbers r in physics, velocity is defined as the rate of change of position. infinitesimals ( from a 17th century modern latin coinage infinitesimus, originally referring to the \" infinite [ [ th ] ] \" member of a series have in classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta si unit kg \u00b7 m / s, or equivalently n \u00b7 s ) is the product it is assumed that the body starts with no kinetic energy when it is at rest ( motionless ). for a single point, or a rigid body that is not rotating, the kinetic energy goes to zero when the body stops. however, for systems containing multiple independently moving bodies, which may exert forces between themselves, and may ( or may not ) be rotating ; this is no longer true. this energy is called ' internal energy '. the kinetic energy of the system at any instant in time is simply the sum of the kinetic energies of the masses - including the kinetic energy due to the rotations. an example would be the solar system. in the center of mass frame of the solar system, the sun is ( almost ) stationary, but the planets and planetoids are in motion about it. thus even in a stationary center of mass frame, there is still kinetic energy present. a center of momentum frame ( or zero - momentum frame or com frame of a system is any inertial frame in which the center of mass is at rest ( has zero velocity however, recalculating the energy from different frames would be tedious, but there is a trick. the kinetic energy of the system from a different inertial frame can be calculated simply from the sum of the kinetic energy in the center of mass frame and adding on the energy that the total mass of bodies in the center of mass frame would have if it were moving at the relative speed between the two frames. this may be simply shown : let v be the relative speed of the frame k from the center of mass frame i : however, let the kinetic energy in the center of mass frame, would be simply the total momentum which is by definition zero in the center of mass frame, and let the total mass :. substituting, we get : the kinetic energy of a system thus depends on the inertial frame of reference and it is lowest with respect to the center of mass reference frame, i. in physics, an inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference which belongs to a set of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6259468635262928, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad5d283d-69f4-4ab7-9887-fc5ffa27370b>", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.477181"}
{"text": "of a system thus depends on the inertial frame of reference and it is lowest with respect to the center of mass reference frame, i. in physics, an inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference which belongs to a set of frames in which physical laws hold in the same and simplest e., in a frame of reference in which the center of mass is stationary. in any other frame of reference there is an additional kinetic energy corresponding to the total mass moving at the speed of the center of mass. if a rigid body is rotating about any line through the center of mass then it has rotational kinetic energy ( er ) which is simply the sum of the kinetic energies of its moving parts, and thus it is equal to : ( in this equation the moment of inertia must be taken about an axis through the center of mass and the rotation measured by \u03c9 must be around that axis ; more general equations exist for systems where the object is subject to wobble due to its eccentric shape ). this article is about the moment of inertia of a rotating object. it sometimes is convenient to split the total kinetic energy of a body into the sum of the body ' s center - of - mass translational kinetic energy and the energy of rotation around the center of mass rotational energy : thus the kinetic energy of a tennis ball in flight is the kinetic energy due to its rotation, plus the kinetic energy due to its translation. the rotational energy or angular kinetic energy is the kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object and is part of its total kinetic energy. in special relativity, we must change the expression for linear momentum. special relativity ( sr ( also known as the special theory of relativity or str ) is the physical theory of measurement in inertial integrating by parts, we get : remembering that, we get : the constant of integration is found by observing that when, so we get the usual formula : if a body ' s speed is a significant fraction of the speed of light, it is necessary to use relativistic mechanics ( the theory of relativity as expounded by albert einstein ) to calculate its kinetic energy. this page is about the scientific concept of relativity for philosophical or sociological theories about relativity see relativism. albert einstein ( german : \u02c8alb\u0250t \u02c8a\u026an\u0283ta\u026an ; english : \u02c8a\u026ansta\u026an ( 14 march 1879 \u2013 18 april 1955 was a german - born theoretical for a relativistic object the momentum p is equal to : where m", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6057113844824187, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad5d283d-69f4-4ab7-9887-fc5ffa27370b>", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.478158"}
{"text": "from the total energy : the relation between kinetic energy and momentum is more complicated in this case, and is given by the equation : this can also be expanded as a taylor series, the first term of which is the simple expression from newtonian mechanics. in mathematics, the taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms calculated from the values of its derivatives what this suggests is that the formulas for energy and momentum are not special and axiomatic, but rather concepts which emerge from the equation of mass with energy and the principles of relativity. where me is the mass of the electron and is the laplacian operator acting upon the coordinates of the ith electron and the summation runs over all electrons. in physics, especially quantum mechanics, the schrodinger equation is an equation that describes how the quantum state of a physical system a wave function or wavefunction is a mathematical tool used in quantum mechanics to describe any physical system in mathematics and physics, the laplace operator or laplacian, denoted by \\ delta \\ or \\ nabla ^ 2 and named after notice that this is the quantized version of the non - relativistic expression for kinetic energy in terms of momentum : the density functional formalism of quantum mechanics requires knowledge of the electron density only, i. density functional theory ( dft is a quantum mechanical theory used in physics and chemistry to investigate the electronic structure ( principally e., it formally does not require knowledge of the wavefunction. given an electron density, the exact n - electron kinetic energy functional is unknown ; however, for the specific case of a 1 - electron system, the kinetic energy can be written as where t [ \u03c1 ] is known as the von weizsacker kinetic energy functional. spacecraft use chemical energy to take off and gain considerable kinetic energy to reach orbital velocity. a spacecraft is a vehicle or machine designed for spaceflight. the orbital speed of a body generally a planet, a natural satellite, an artificial satellite, or a multiple star, is the speed at which it this kinetic energy gained during launch will remain constant while in orbit because there is almost no friction. however it becomes apparent at re - entry when the kinetic energy is converted to heat. kinetic energy can be passed from one object to another. in the game of billiards, the player gives kinetic energy to the cue ball by striking it with the cue stick. if the cue ball collides with another ball, it will slow down dramatically and the ball it collided with will accelerate to a speed as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6550735381352268, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "<urn:uuid:ad5d283d-69f4-4ab7-9887-fc5ffa27370b>", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.6, "created_at": "2025-12-26T14:31:02.480291"}