it filled when you go home so you have it when you need it. take your pain medicine before your pain becomes too severe. if you have gas pains, try walking around to ease them. do not drive, operate any machinery, or drink alcohol when you are taking narcotic pain medicine. this medicine can make you very drowsy, and driving or using machinery is not safe. walk several times a day. do not lift anything heavier than 10 pounds ( about the same as a gallon of milk ). do not do any pushing or pulling. slowly increase how much you do around the house. your doctor will tell you when you can increase your activity and return to work. take care of your wound ( incision ) : if sutures ( stitches ), staples, or glue were used to close your skin, you may remove the wound dressings ( bandages ) and take a shower the day after surgery. if tape strips ( steri - strips ) were used to close your skin, cover the wounds with plastic wrap before showering for the first week. tape the edges of the plastic carefully to keep water out. do not try to wash the steri - strips off. they will fall off on their own after about a week. do not soak in a bathtub or hot tub, or go swimming, until your doctor tells you it is okay. when to call the doctor call your doctor or nurse if : your temperature is above 101 °f. your incisions are bleeding, red, warm to the touch, or have a thick, yellow, green, or milky drainage. your belly swells or hurts. you have nausea or vomiting for more than 24 hours. you have problems swallowing that keep you from eating. you have problems swallowing that do not go away after 2 or 3 weeks. you have pain that your pain medicine is not helping. you have trouble breathing. you have a cough that does not go away. you cannot drink or eat. your skin or the white part of your eyes turns yellow. peterson rp, pelligrini ca, oelschlager bk. hiatal hernia and gastroesophageal reflux disease. in : townsend : sabiston textbook of surgery, 19th ed. philadelphia, pa : wb saunders ; 2011 : chap 44. kahrilas pj, shaheen nj, vaezi mf, hiltz sw, black e, modlin im. american gastroenterological association medical position statement on the management of gastroes


first homer encyclopedia brings epic poetry and ancient greece to life tuesday, april 17, 2012 tau researcher sheds light on homer ' s reception in the western, jewish and arabic worlds homer, one of the most famous poets of all time, is firmly entrenched in the western canon as a master of classical literature. his two most renowned works, the iliad and the odyssey, are core texts for students and scholars alike. now, prof. margalit finkelberg of tel aviv university ' s department of classics has created an illuminating new tool, the world ' s first homer encyclopedia. published in three volumes by wiley - blackwell last year and more recently in electronic form, the encyclopedia is an invaluable window into homer ' s life and work, elucidating the characters and settings of his work from primary characters to the smallest village mentioned in passing. the volumes also examine the pre - history of homer and the period in which he lived and wrote, and how the text has been received and transmitted by various cultures and societies throughout history to the present day. one of its groundbreaking areas of research is the reception of homer in the jewish and arabic traditions, a subject that has rarely been explored. with contributions from 132 scholars worldwide, this three volume work is a universal exploration of all things homer. " through this encyclopedia, you can enter homer ' s world and get lost in it, " says prof. finkelberg, who was recently awarded the 2012 rothschild prize in the humanities. " it is unique for its comprehensive view — the entire field is seen as vibrant, alive and contemporary. homer ' s work is put in a modern living context, rather than approached as an impenetrable classic monument. " an avatar of greek culture one section of the encyclopedia examines " textual reception " over 2, 000 years of history. its purpose is to examine how homeric texts were received from the view of different societies and cultures, e. g. victorian england. studying the history of the reception of a major text is an emerging field of study, prof. finkelberg explains — and profoundly important to the progress of the humanities. one of the most original features of this work is an in - depth study of homer in the context of jewish and arabic traditions, conducted by leading specialists. though homer ' s work is foundational to the western tradition, it has never been central to these eastern traditions, which put more of an emphasis on " useful " texts, such as those regarding science, medicine, and philosophy. the findings, she says


homer ' s work is foundational to the western tradition, it has never been central to these eastern traditions, which put more of an emphasis on " useful " texts, such as those regarding science, medicine, and philosophy. the findings, she says, are surprising. because the hellenic world is little - known in these cultures, homer is seen as a symbol of greek culture in its entirety. " poetry was not translated in these cultures, and because of this, very little was known about the art of the greeks beyond philosophers like aristotle. for them, homer represented everything to do with greek culture, including paganism, " explains prof. finkelberg. anything " greek " was essentially " homeric " and vice versa. prof. finkelberg believes that the publication is a crucial addition to encyclopedias on the work of other poets such as dante and virgil. after all, homer is not just any writer. in the absence of the sacred religious texts that are central to other traditions, such as the bible to judeo - christian traditions, the iliad and the odyssey are the formative texts of greek culture. because of this, the fields of homeric archaeology and biblical archaeology rest on the same historical axis, suggests prof. finkelberg. homer ' s use of history reflects real historical events and has inspired actual archaeological discovery. it was through homer, for example, that german archaeologist heinrich schliemann was to search for the ruins of troy, the site of the trojan war in homer ' s works. previously, the city was believed to be a mere literary invention. though homer cannot be used as a historical text in the modern sense, prof. finkelberg says that his literary works are themselves not unlike an archaeological site, where different levels of history can be pieced together to reveal intriguing tale of a world long past. for more arts and culture news from tel aviv university, click here.


inspecting heating systems & carbon monoxide carbon monoxide poisoning has been on the rise in recent years, and it stems in large part from the home ’ s heating system. at first glance, modern heating systems may seem the same as those that have been used safely for years. however, there are some key differences that make today ’ s homes more susceptible to carbon monoxide buildup. as a home inspector, it is important to understand heating systems, what causes toxic gases to be present in the home, and how to prevent it. in a nutshell, toxic gases in the home can be attributed to the following common situations : - today ’ s houses are more air - tight. homeowners are aware of the cost of heating drafty homes and take steps to seal up windows, doors and other areas of air - infiltration. consequently, there is less fresh air coming into a home and not as many pathways for stale or polluted air to leave it. in addition, when furnaces and boilers are starved for of the oxygen needed to burn fuels completely, carbon monoxide is produced. - manufacturers have designed new, high technology heating appliances with greater efficiency to help us save money, conserve natural resources and decrease environmental pollution. however, the new breed of high efficiency gas and oil furnaces - when vented into existing chimney flues - often do not perform at an optimum level. the difference in performance creates conditions that allow toxic gases to enter living spaces more easily. the above conditions point out a number of older, ongoing problems that still require detection by a professional home inspector as well as correction in order to prevent toxic gases from filtering into the house. these include damaged or deteriorating flue liners, soot build - up, debris clogging the passageway, and animal or bird nests obstructing chimney flues. what can you tell your home inspection clients about preventing these problems from arising? ahit recommends that heating systems be tuned - up on an annual basis by a qualified hvac contractor and that chimneys / flues be evaluated by a certified chimney sweeper to ensure the entire system is operating properly and safely. reference material provided by the csia. back to home inspection industry news > >


a study released this week by the centers for disease control and prevention may have the weary thinking about getting some rest before they get behind the wheel. the study found that one in 24 u. s. adults said they recently fell asleep while driving. the national highway safety administration estimates 2. 5 percent of fatal motor vehicle crashes ( about 730 in 2009 ) and 2 percent of all crashes with non - fatal injuries ( about 30, 000 in 2009 ) involved drowsy driving, according to the cdc. “ however, although data collection methods make it challenging to estimate the number of crashes that involve drowsy drivers, some modeling studies have estimated that 15 to 33 percent of fatal crashes might involve drowsy drivers, ” the report stated. in the study, about 4 percent of u. s. adults said they nodded off or fell asleep at least once while driving in the previous month. the study surveyed 147, 000 people in 19 states by telephone in 2009 and 2010. researchers found that drowsy driving was more common among people ages 25 to 34, adults who reported usually sleeping six hours or less per day, snoring or unintentionally falling asleep during the day. steve deibel, owner and founder of aiken driving academy, said that a section of his classes address fatigued driving. he shows students a video on a new jersey law known as “ maggie ’ s law. ” the law was enacted following an accident in 1997, during which college student maggie mcdonnell was killed in a car accident when struck by a van driven by someone who had not slept for 30 hours and had also been using drugs. the driver fell asleep at the wheel when the accident occurred. after two trials, the driver of the van was given a $ 200 fine and a suspended jail sentence. the law defines fatigue as being without sleep for more than 24 consecutive hours and makes driving while fatigued a criminal offense. “ we show that video and talk to our young people about fatigue, ” deibel said. “ they ’ re tired because they stay up late. they get six or eight hours of sleep at night but need 10 to 12. ” deibel, a former law enforcement officer, said there have been fatalities in aiken county related to fatigued driving. “ it ’ s very overlooked, and it ’ s very serious, ” he said. “ you ’ ve got to have rest. you can ’ t be on the road when you ’ re tired or fatigued. ” deibel said the video also followed a news reporter that was


and it ’ s very serious, ” he said. “ you ’ ve got to have rest. you can ’ t be on the road when you ’ re tired or fatigued. ” deibel said the video also followed a news reporter that was kept awake for 30 hours as part of an experiment. he then was hooked up to monitoring machines and drove a car on a closed course. “ what came of the study – you fall asleep but your eyes are open, ” deibel said. “ our bodies are built to shut down. if you have somebody that ’ s fatigued behind the wheel and they ’ re essentially asleep, you might as well just blindfold them. ” deibel said falling asleep at the wheel is as dangerous as driving 2. 5 times the legal blood - alcohol limit. “ i hate making those correlations, because impaired driving is extremely dangerous, ” he said. “ i think you have to lump fatigued driving into all the serious dangers of driving. you can ’ t look at it as, ‘ i ’ m sleepy. i ’ ll just get some coffee. ’ ” if you feel fatigued while driving, deibel suggests pulling over, getting out of the vehicle and getting something to eat, especially if you find yourself rubbing your eyes, rolling down the window, turning on the air conditioner or doing other things to keep yourself awake. “ if you start doing things to stay awake, you need to stop and look at your sleep cycle, ” he said, adding that if the last time you slept was more than 18 to 20 hours, you don ’ t need to be driving. he added that fatigued driving, as opposed to “ tired driving, ” usually occurs after being awake for 18 hours or more. if you ’ ve been awake 18 hours or more, “ you need to start looking very hard at where you ’ re driving, when you ’ re driving and if you need to be driving, ” deibel said. he added that caffeine is only a temporary fix in some cases. “ how much caffeine does it take to keep somebody awake who ’ s been awake for 20 - plus hours? ” he said. “ it eventually wouldn ’ t, because your body is just going to shut down. ” teddy kulmala covers the crime beat for the aiken standard. he is a graduate of clemson university and hails from williston.


the savannah river site is likely a prime contender for storing spent nuclear fuel for decades to come, according to a report released thursday. the study by robert alvarez, a former senior adviser at the department of energy and professor at johns hopkins university, outlines the possible impact of making srs an interim storage site for the country ’ s commercial nuclear power plant waste. recently formed environmental group don ’ t waste aiken commissioned alvarez, an expert on nuclear waste with washington, d. c., think tank the policy institute, to produce a study outlining the impact of storing spent nuclear fuel at srs. speaking at a press conference announcing his findings, alvarez outlined the amount of radioactivity spent fuel could bring – more than double the radioactivity present at srs currently in high - level waste could be delivered. high level liquid waste tanks at srs have near 280 million curies of radioactivity. spent fuel looking to be stored could bring 1 billion curies to the doe - owned site. “ this would be one of the largest concentrations of radioactivity in the united states in one place ” alvarez said. “ i ’ m not questioning the ability of the people at savannah river to handle this material. i ’ m really trying to give people an idea of what the implications are. ” the report also said some 2, 500 shipments of high - level waste initially could travel across the nation ’ s highways for storage at srs if sent by truck ; however, alvarez noted that he thought a single repository was unlikely and impractical. alvarez ’ report will be officially released thursday as discussion intensifies over how to deal with the nation ’ s growing amount of commercial power plant waste. the nation today has about 70, 000 tons of spent fuel. the deadly material was originally scheduled to go to yucca mountain, nev., for disposal, but president obama canceled the project in 2010 after citing environmental concerns. last month, the department of energy released a three - point plan for replacing yucca mountain. the plan calls for establishing an interim storage site by 2021 and a larger interim storage site by 2025. a permanent disposal ground would be available by 2048, according to the doe. although there is no official proposal to build an interim storage site at srs, the site ’ s history in dealing with waste, its workforce, community support and infrastructure make it an obvious contender. “ i don ’ t know where there is a better site, ” alvarez said thursday. “ srs is not the only option. ” overall,


science fair project encyclopedia battle of the kentish knock the battle of the kentish knock ( also known as the battle of the zealand approaches ) was a naval battle of the first anglo - dutch war fought on 8 october 1652 near the shoal called the kentish knock in the north sea about 30 km from the mouth of the river thames. dutch admiral maarten tromp had been suspended after his failure to bring the english to battle off the shetland islands in august, and replaced by admiral witte de with, who saw an opportunity to concentrate his forces and gain control of the seas. he set out to attack the english fleet at anchor at the downs near dover on 5 october 1652, but the wind was unfavourable. when the fleets finally met on 8 october, the united provinces had 57 ships ; the commonwealth of england 68 ships under general at sea robert blake. action was joined at about 17 : 00. the english ships were larger and better armed than their opponents and by nightfall two dutch ships had been captured and about twenty — mostly commanded by captains from zeeland who resented the domination of holland — had broken off the engagement. de with withdrew the rest of his force with many casualties. the dutch recognized after their defeat that they needed larger ships to take on the english, and instituted a major building program that was to pay off in the second anglo - dutch war. the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details


science fair project encyclopedia the sampling frequency or sampling rate defines the number of samples per second taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete signal. the inverse of the sampling frequency is the sampling period or sampling time, which is the time between samples. the sampling frequency can only be applied to samplers in which each sample is periodically taken. there is no rule that limits a sampler from taking a sample at a non - periodic rate. if a signal has a bandwidth of 100 hz then to avoid aliasing the sampling frequency must be greater than 200 hz. in some cases, it is desirable to have a sampling frequency more than twice the bandwidth so that a digital filter can be used in exchange for a weaker analog anti - aliasing filter. this process is known as oversampling. in digital audio, common sampling rates are : - 8, 000 hz - telephone, adequate for human speech - 11, 025 hz - 22, 050 hz - radio - 44, 100 hz - compact disc - 48, 000 hz - digital sound used for films and professional audio - 96, 000 or 192, 400 hz - dvd - audio, some lpcm dvd audio tracks, bd - rom ( blu - ray disc ) audio tracks, and hd - dvd ( high - definition dvd ) audio tracks in digital video, which uses a ccd as the sensor, the sampling rate is defined the frame / field rate, rather than the notional pixel clock. all modern tv cameras use ccds, and the image sampling frequency is the repetition rate of the ccd integration period. - 13. 5 mhz - ccir 601, d1 video - continuous signal vs. discrete signal - digital control - sample and hold - sample ( signal ) - sampling ( information theory ) - signal ( information theory ) the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details


the main objectives of the project are : to strengthen the indigenous organizations for the exercise of human rights and the promotion of the rights of the declaration the desired results are the strengthening of indigenous organizations in relation with the declaration of united nations and their mechanisms of implementation, taking actions and preparing programs for the exercise of rights. the planned actions are : 1. 1 the carrying out of training courses on the declaration and human rights for leaders in : - ecuador through tukui shim and conaie. - argentina through the confederation and the observatory. - paraguay through capi and acidi. - colombia in cano mochuelo. 1. 2 workshops to raise awareness and spread human rights and the declaration in the communities. 1. 3 publications on the implementation of rights since the implementation of the declaration. - publication in ecuador ( comparative report of the constitution and the declaration ). - publication on the exercise of the territorial rights in the interamerican system. - informative material on the declaration. 2. 1 advice and definition of strategies to implement the rights in the international arena. 2. 2. the support and escort to the carrying out of defense actions and promotion of rights, including strategies of international action ( the project would begin with the same organizations we will make the training courses ). - proposals of regulations and political negotiations. - defence of rights in trials against indigenous organizations and people. - lawsuit to implement rights. - international actions of condemnation and support. 2. 3. support and escort for the consolidation of observatories on indigenous rights.


in one form or another, the sustainment warfighting function described in field manual ( fm ) 3 – 0, operations, has been an essential feature of the army ’ s operational past since at least world war i. the sustainment concept was institutionalized in march 1942 as part of a massive army reorganization that accompanied the entry of the united states into world war ii. driven by chief of staff of the army general george c. marshall, the reorganization aimed to reduce the number of officers and organizations that had immediate access to him. the resulting reorganization restructured the army into three major commands : the army ground forces ( agf ), the army air forces ( aaf ), and a command initially called the services of supply ( sos ) — the army ’ s sustainment command. everything that did not fit clearly into the agf or the aaf went to the sos. lieutenant general brehon b. somervell was selected to command the sos organization. army service forces in march 1943, the war department staff renamed the sos the “ army service forces ” ( asf ) because they thought the word “ supply ” did not accurately reflect the broad range of activities that had been assigned to the command. at the war department level, the asf was a consolidation of logistics, personnel, and administrative functions. under ordinary circumstances, these functions were the responsibility of the war department g – 4 and g – 1, who relied on the technical and operational support of the finance, judge advocate general ’ s, and adjutant general ’ s departments ; the chaplain corps ; inspector general ; provost marshal general ; and chief, special services. nothing about the asf organization was simple or uncomplicated. as recorded in the army ’ s official history of the organization, the asf was without “ direct precedent ” and unusual “ in the variety of tasks entrusted to it.... [ i ] t was a hodgepodge of agencies with many and varied functions. ” from the beginning until it was disestablished in 1946, “ the asf struggled constantly to build a common unity of purpose and organization. ” lieutenant general somervell, a career logistician, admitted never liking the part of the reorganization that gave him responsibility for personnel. he gave most of his attention to the monumental task of procurement and supply. however “ hodgepodge ” it may have been, the asf survived the war, fulfilling its massive responsibility of supporting the millions of u. s. soldiers located all over the globe in multiple


his attention to the monumental task of procurement and supply. however “ hodgepodge ” it may have been, the asf survived the war, fulfilling its massive responsibility of supporting the millions of u. s. soldiers located all over the globe in multiple theaters of operations. one unifying factor that kept somervell on task and held the asf together was the obligation to sustain warfighting commanders and the soldiers who served them. if unity of purpose was lost to the asf organization, the asf gained from efficiencies resulting from the unified effort to sustain our soldiers at war. combat service support group following world war ii, the army began establishing combat development agencies as a way for each branch of the army to integrate new technologies and tactical organizations into the combat army. ultimately, all combat development agencies were realigned under a unified combat developments command ( cdc ) in 1962 as part of an extensive reorganization of the army. the cdc established two combat development “ integrating agencies ” modeled after the mission and functions of the agf and asf of world war ii. one agency integrated the development of combat and combat support functions, and the other, the combat service support group, acted as integrator for what we today would call the sustainment function. the combat development agencies of the adjutant general ’ s, finance, judge advocate general ’ s, and chaplain branches were joined with the various logistics combat development agencies of the quartermaster, ordnance, and transportation branches to form the combat service support group, headquartered at fort lee, virginia. corresponding with the larger army reorganization, the army command and general staff college adopted the concept of combat service support to identify the varied, yet related, functions that together defined the sustainment mission. in its essence, the combat service support group represented a reconstitution of the sustainment concept embedded in the asf of world war ii. the cdc managed the army ’ s total combat development effort until the end of the vietnam war. personnel issues during the vietnam war following the vietnam war and the gut - wrenching realization that many of the army ’ s most serious operational issues were related to the “ personnel system, ” senior leaders of the army began to question the asf model that had framed the sustainment concept since the beginning of world war ii. early in the vietnam war, it had taken the wife of an army battalion commander embroiled in the battle of ia drang valley to convince senior pentagon officials that yellow - cab delivery of casualty notification telegrams to soldiers ’ next - of - kin was


in the vietnam war, it had taken the wife of an army battalion commander embroiled in the battle of ia drang valley to convince senior pentagon officials that yellow - cab delivery of casualty notification telegrams to soldiers ’ next - of - kin was deeply insensitive and destructive of homefront morale. the draft, used to sustain manpower levels in the vietnam war, had embittered many who objected to conscription on principle and others who believed it forced into service a disproportionate number of poor, working - class, and minority members of u. s. society. racial problems in society at large had been magnified in the military by the collapsing public support for the war. drug and alcohol abuse among military personnel was rampant. replacement and rotation policies that caused constant personnel turbulence had undermined unit integrity and the commitment of soldiers to one another and the mission. perceived failings of command in vietnam gave rise to the study of military leadership and the historical and ethical foundations of the military profession. together with the dissolution of the draft, the advent of the all - volunteer army, and the commitment to more thoroughly integrate women into the force, the personnel lessons of the vietnam war created a highly charged environment conducive to a full - scale assault on the army ’ s personnel system. army training and doctrine command emerging from the many discussions concerning the personnel lessons learned from the vietnam war were plans to establish a “ clearing house ” ( an administrative center or school complex ) that would form the center of gravity for an army - wide personnel system. the opportunity to establish an agency of this kind came with operation steadfast, the 1973 reorganization of the army that disestablished the continental army command and the combat developments command. from operation steadfast came two new commands, the army training and doctrine command ( tradoc ) and the army forces command. tradoc, as the name implied, became responsible for army training, doctrine, and combat developments. at the core of the new tradoc organization were three mid - level “ integrating centers ” for combat developments : the combined arms center ( cac ) at fort leavenworth, kansas ; the logistics center ( logc ) at fort lee ; and the administration center ( admincen ) at fort benjamin harrison, indiana. cac and logc were essentially re - creations of former combat developments command operating agencies ; admincen was a new organization altogether. based partly on lessons from the vietnam experience, planners intended admincen to become the collection point for all matters related


cac and logc were essentially re - creations of former combat developments command operating agencies ; admincen was a new organization altogether. based partly on lessons from the vietnam experience, planners intended admincen to become the collection point for all matters related to the army ’ s personnel system and the human dimension of military operations. it was a kind of doctrinal “ think tank ” and training ground that directly extended from the mission of the army g – 1 and its associated branches and specialties. considerable resistance to admincen was voiced by members of the operation steadfast study group, who balked at the idea of elevating personnel doctrine, training, and combat developments to near - equal status with the combined arms and logistics missions. however, the continental army command commander, general ralph e. haines, jr., directed that admincen be included in the detailed plan of reorganization. the establishment of admincen reflected the view of general haines and other senior military officials that a refashioned personnel system was critical to restoring public confidence in the army, recovering from the war ’ s assault on soldier morale and unit cohesion, and building an all - volunteer force. chief of staff of the army general creighton w. abrams, jr., testifying before the senate appropriations committee in march 1974, called the management of human resources the army ’ s “ single most important function.... unless we run our people programs well, the army itself will not be well. ” likewise, lieutenant general bernard w. rogers, then the army ’ s deputy chief of staff for personnel, began to take a hard look at the way the army managed its people. he said that the army ’ s personnel system should “ provide in the right place at the right time the required number of qualified, motivated people to accomplish the army ’ s mission, and to provide for their maintenance and care as well as that of their dependents. ” as the army ’ s focal point for personnel and personnel systems, admincen became the proponent for a new category of military operations called personnel service support ( pss ). in july 1973, the admincen was activated at fort benjamin harrison. the personnel and administration combat development activity, admincen ’ s combat development activity, assumed responsibility for integrating the doctrine, organization, and equipment developments of the adjutant general ’ s, finance, chaplain, judge advocate general ’ s, medical service, and women ’ s army corps. the personnel and administration combat development activity ’ s integrating mission also


responsibility for integrating the doctrine, organization, and equipment developments of the adjutant general ’ s, finance, chaplain, judge advocate general ’ s, medical service, and women ’ s army corps. the personnel and administration combat development activity ’ s integrating mission also included the defense information school ( for public affairs ) and the army school of music ( for army bands ). the three - center model, which was the basis for tradoc ’ s organization, constituted a restructuring of the sustainment model that had been in place since the army reorganized for world war ii. instead of the one - piece model, operation steadfast institutionalized a two - piece model — one piece to address logistics functions and another for personnel and administration. much like asf of old, admincen became a magnet for every developmental mission and program that did not fit clearly into either combat and combat support ( cac ’ s focus ) or logistics ( logc ’ s focus ) mission areas. also like asf, admincen struggled from the beginning to build a commonly held vision and understanding of purpose and mission. during the command ’ s 17 - year history, it went through no less than 10 major reorganizations, each hoping to build a unity of purpose that had eluded it from the very beginning. in 1980, admincen reorganized into the army soldier support center as a result of the mandate to manage and develop programs related to the human dimension of military operations. soldier support institute the collapse of the soviet union and the end of the cold war in the late 1980s brought immediate demands from congress and the public at large to radically reduce the defense budget and take advantage of the “ peace dividend. ” those demands essentially called for the demobilization of the nation ’ s defense structure that had been built to deter soviet and communist aggression around the world. the war against iraq in 1990 and 1991 interrupted the debate but did little to alter the political intent to reduce deficit spending and shift public funds formerly allocated for defense to other areas. tradoc ’ s initial response to the reality of post - cold war military budgets was to “ reengineer ” its combat development program. a significant piece of the plan called for eliminating the army soldier support center by consolidating it with logc at fort lee. the resulting organization, the army combined arms support command ( cascom ), like the combat service support group before it, assumed responsibility for the combat, doctrine, and training developments of the army ’ s logistics and personnel and administrative functional areas. the soldier support center


organization, the army combined arms support command ( cascom ), like the combat service support group before it, assumed responsibility for the combat, doctrine, and training developments of the army ’ s logistics and personnel and administrative functional areas. the soldier support center was reduced to a “ schools ” center, the army soldier support institute, which included the adjutant general, finance, and recruiting and retention schools and a noncommissioned officer academy. the may 1990 cascom organization plan went through four phases and took 4 years to complete. under phase 1 of the plan, people and funds supporting the pss integrating mission were transferred to cascom. the final phase of the project called for the transfer of combat and training development programs of the ordnance center and schools at aberdeen proving ground, maryland, and redstone arsenal, alabama, and the transportation school at fort eustis, virginia, to fort lee to be consolidated with like assets from the quartermaster school. the ordnance and transportation schools, however, continued to provide classroom instruction at their original locations. the consolidation marked the elevation of logc from an integrating center to an agency responsible also for capability and training developments for the logistics community ( the ordnance, transportation, and quartermaster schools ). since the soldier support institute was in the process of moving from fort benjamin harrison to fort jackson, south carolina, under a defense base closure and realignment ( brac ) commission mandate, the combat and training development assets of the soldier support institute were exempted from the move to fort lee. the people and programs that would have moved to fort lee were already committed to moving to fort jackson and the multimillion dollar facilities that were being constructed there to receive them. problems with integration under cascom senior leaders of the army ’ s personnel and finance communities were also concerned that capability and training development support for the adjutant general and finance schools would largely disappear in an organization committed largely to the army ’ s logistics mission. many of the army - wide personnel programs formerly sponsored by the soldier support center began to flounder with the transfer of the pss integrating mission to cascom. at issue was the family of human resource programs belonging to no particular branch of the army but closely connected to the army ’ s deputy chief of staff for personnel. the soldier support center in the early 1980s, for instance, sponsored the development and integration of the army ’ s new manning system and the follow - on regimental system intended to strengthen unit cohesion and the bonds of affiliation that tied soldiers to particular units and army branches. much of the justification for the establishment of the


sponsored the development and integration of the army ’ s new manning system and the follow - on regimental system intended to strengthen unit cohesion and the bonds of affiliation that tied soldiers to particular units and army branches. much of the justification for the establishment of the army community and family support center in 1984 resulted from the soldier support center ’ s sponsorship of an expanded army community services program and various studies and programs related to the impact of soldiers ’ service and sacrifice on army families. under the transfer of the integrating function, statutory responsibility for human resources had been vested with cascom, the responsible agent for integrating both logistics and personnel issues across the army. however, one of the first issues to confront the commandant of the adjutant general school in 1994 was whether the army ’ s adjutant general ’ s corps ought to assume responsibility for equal opportunity ( eo ) and other related human resources programs. knowing that the army ’ s deputy chief of staff for personnel needed a tradoc advocate for human resources, the adjutant general school commandant absorbed the eo mission into the adjutant general ’ s corps ’ doctrine, training, and combat developments program. in taking responsibility for other human resources programs, the adjutant general ’ s corps, as the technical proponent for the army ’ s personnel system, had broadened its mission to include responsibility for “ people ” programs and other human - dimension programs that were formerly a part of the soldier support center ’ s capabilities development integrating mission. | a soldier with the 147th adjutant general postal company from kaiserslautern, germany, inspects a box that a soldier is sending home from iraq. in 1993, tradoc published its first attempt at post - cold war operational doctrine : fm 100 – 5, operations. the 1993 version of fm 100 – 5 listed six critical logistics functions that together constituted combat service support. of the six, two addressed the former pss functional area. the chapter titled “ manning the force ” described personnel readiness management, replacement management, and casualty management. the chapter titled “ sustaining soldiers and their systems ” included health service support, personnel services, financial services, public affairs, and religious and legal support. for leaders and soldiers belonging to the personnel and administrative areas of the army mission, the interchangeable use of the terms “ logistics ” and “ combat service support ” validated previous predictions about cascom ’ s narrow focus on logistics. sustainment functions falling within the combat service support functional area but outside the logistics domain had become afterthoughts. | a soldier who serves as a debt management and special action noncommissioned


predictions about cascom ’ s narrow focus on logistics. sustainment functions falling within the combat service support functional area but outside the logistics domain had become afterthoughts. | a soldier who serves as a debt management and special action noncommissioned officer for the 101st finance company, 10th sustainment brigade troops battalion, files his daily paperwork. the sustainment warfighting function the most recent version of army operational doctrine, fm 3 – 0, operations, resolves previous exclusionary problems caused by definitions by rescinding the terms “ combat arms, ” “ combat support, ” and “ combat service support, ” which described the three functional areas represented in planning and conducting a military operation. in their place, the fm names eight elements of combat power : leadership, information, movement and maneuver, fires, intelligence, command and control, protection, and sustainment. these are believed to be a more accurate reflection of the contemporary, if not the past, operating environment. together, the eight elements of combat power point to a new and broader understanding of combined arms operations. instead of the narrow combination of weapon systems, the new definition applies leadership and information and selected warfighting functions in a “ synchronized and simultaneous ” fashion to achieve the “ full destructive, disruptive, informational, and constructive potential ” of combat power. sustainment, one of the six warfighting functions, has replaced combat service support as the approved concept used to describe the collective tasks and related logistics, personnel services, and health services systems essential to support the operational army in the fulfillment of a given mission. from a branch and specialty perspective, sustainment involves the combined functions and capabilities provided by the adjutant general ’ s, chaplain, finance, judge advocate general ’ s, medical service, ordnance, quartermaster, and transportation corps. based on recent experience, our new doctrine is a candid admission that successful military operations in the full - spectrum environment of the 21st century require a measured, combined, and focused application of the various elements of combat power. regardless of size and scope, the sustainment community ’ s ability to provide commanders at the right time and place with all the logistics, personnel, and health services support necessary for mission accomplishment is essential to the success of any future operation. on 9 january 2009, officials at fort lee, virginia, dedicated the new sustainment center of excellence ( scoe ). established as the result of brac decisions, the scoe represents a further consolidation of cascom, the army logistics university ( formerly the army logistics management college ), and the army


, dedicated the new sustainment center of excellence ( scoe ). established as the result of brac decisions, the scoe represents a further consolidation of cascom, the army logistics university ( formerly the army logistics management college ), and the army quartermaster, transportation, and ordnance schools. as part of the brac plan, the students, faculty, and staff of the ordnance mechanical maintenance school at aberdeen proving ground, the ordnance munitions and electronics maintenance school at redstone arsenal, and the transportation school at fort eustis will move to fort lee. the new organization represents a complete consolidation of the logistics community ’ s doctrine, training, and combat development programs. scoe is indeed about the future of logistics and the logistics branches, but it is also about the other elements of the sustainment function — the branches and missions that make up the personnel services and health service support functions. based on our new doctrine, scoe also represents our best opportunity in years to unify the effort as well as create a common understanding of purpose that bridges the diverse programs and missions that make up the army ’ s total sustainment community. much of our success as a community will depend on ensuring the proper alignment and integration of non - logistics units and personnel that are currently being added to our theater and expeditionary sustainment commands and sustainment brigades. they, too, are critically necessary for freeing commanders for action, extending operational reach, and prolonging the endurance of our soldiers, who respond to any and all threats that compromise the safety and well - being of the american people.


the onset of the disease - drinking alcohol - public transport - personal finances - handling money - going out alone it is best to consider as soon as possible how you are going to deal with certain matters relating to the person ’ s independence. matters relating to their personal liberty such as whether it is safe for them to drive, go out alone, drink alcohol or smoke have to be dealt with. financial matters also have to be considered, e. g. should they be able to write out cheques and make financial decisions? these and similar questions should be discussed with the person with dementia at an early stage when they are still able to play a role in decision making. when you are trying to decide how to handle the above - mentioned situations, you will probably find yourself split between trying to leave the person with dementia with as much independence as possible and at the same time trying to protect them from possible risks and dangers. the following guidelines may help you in making your decisions. in the early stages some people who have been diagnosed as having alzheimer ’ s disease can still drive safely, but as the disease progresses the ability to drive will almost certainly deteriorate. the person may start to find it difficult to find familiar places, fail to observe road signs and respect rules of the road, drive too fast or too slow, have slow reactions and become confused, frustrated or angry while driving. however, people with dementia are often extremely reluctant to give up the right to drive, as it is one of the last signs of their independence and adulthood. it can therefore be difficult to convince them of the necessity to stop driving. but, it is too dangerous an issue not to be dealt with straight away. you should first try to discuss the issue of driving with the person with dementia, pointing out the possible dangers of driving, as well as the benefits of not having to. they may feel angry and depressed about the loss and need support during this awkward period. it might soften the blow if you were to arrange for other forms of transport or for other people to drive the person around. however, persuasion does not always work and some carers have tremendous difficulties trying to stop the person with dementia from driving. if this is the case, you might find that the person is more willing to listen to a doctor, the police or someone in authority. if this is also unsuccessful, you may have to try to prevent them from driving. you could, for example, hide the car keys, arrange for the car not to work ( e. g. by removing the distributor cap


or someone in authority. if this is also unsuccessful, you may have to try to prevent them from driving. you could, for example, hide the car keys, arrange for the car not to work ( e. g. by removing the distributor cap ) or park the car further down the street out of sight. if it is not needed, you could even sell the car and the money saved would help pay for other means of transport. one carer overcame this problem by leaving the car out ready to drive without the ignition key. her husband sat in it and happily “ drove ” for hours changing gears and signalling without actually moving. whatever you decide to do, you should inform the insurance company about the diagnosis of dementia. care should be taken not to let the person with dementia smoke alone as it is a fire hazard. also, some people with dementia might forget that they are holding a cigarette and it could burn their fingers. you should try to persuade the person to cut down on smoking and preferably stop. people with dementia often forget to smoke and then don ’ t miss cigarettes once the habit has been broken. however, if they continue smoking, there are a few useful precautions to take, e. g. put large ashtrays everywhere, replace wastepaper baskets with metal bins, buy flame resistant clothes and furniture, fit smoke alarms and keep matches out of reach. smoking alone, particularly in bed, is the biggest risk. you might have more success persuading the person with dementia to restrict their smoking to times when there is company, rather than trying to prevent it altogether. it is important to pay particular attention not to let the person smoke if they are using nicotine patches as this greatly increases health risks. alcoholic drinks may increase confusion in the person with dementia. although the occasional social drink should not cause particular concern, it is best to ask your doctor ’ s advice about whether the person with dementia should have access to alcoholic drinks. this is particularly important if they are under medication. even if the doctor agrees to the person having an occasional drink, you will still need to make sure that they do not have more. loss of memory may result in the person with dementia forgetting that they have already had a few drinks. it is best to keep alcohol in a locked cupboard or hidden away. early on in the disease, the person with dementia might be able to use public transport. but as the disease progresses they may start to have difficulties remembering where they are going, paying the fare, getting the right bus or train, getting out at


. early on in the disease, the person with dementia might be able to use public transport. but as the disease progresses they may start to have difficulties remembering where they are going, paying the fare, getting the right bus or train, getting out at the right place, etc. when this happens the person could feel embarrassed and afraid, particularly if they cannot remember where they are going or where they live. for this reason, in the later stages it would be preferable to try to arrange private transport. you could perhaps make a plan in advance of different people who are willing to drive the person around. administrative formalities and personal finances the person with dementia might also have financial obligations or assets of little or considerable importance. it is necessary to discuss financial matters early on so that the person with dementia can make decisions while they are still able, appoint someone to handle their financial matters when they are no longer able and make a will. if you are handling the person ’ s finances, keep them separate from your own and keep a record of what you spend and receive in case you are asked to account for it at some stage. the person with dementia might forget what was decided however many times you might explain it. you might also find it necessary to help the person with dementia to deal with administrative formalities, e. g. collecting benefits, filling out forms, etc. there are a few possibilities for handling this such as an enduring power of attorney. your alzheimer ’ s organisation will be able to give your more details. as the disease progresses the person with dementia will become less able to defend their own interests. it is possible to appoint a guardian to protect their interests and make decisions on their behalf ( e. g. on where to live, health issues, etc. ). this would help in situations where the person with dementia did not or was unable to take the decision at an earlier stage. people with dementia tend to experience difficulties handling money even fairly early on in the disease. due to a loss of memory and understanding of the symbolic function of money, they may pay for something more than once, not pay at all, give money away or lose it. in this way problems can accumulate without you necessarily realising. in order to maintain their sense of wellbeing and self - esteem, you might be able to arrange for the person with dementia to carry on paying for goods and services ( whilst ensuring that the risk of mistake or being taken advantage of is minimised ) and ensure that they always have some money on them. some carers have found


background information about dementia and home care services in spain, the provision of home care services is in the stage of development with about 20 % of communes offering such services. however, this is not sufficient to cover demand and it is estimated that only about 1 % of the elderly receive home care services provided by the government. the main aim of social services network is to keep elderly people in their homes for as long as possible. the vast majority of elderly dependent people have to rely on services provided by informal carers. care of elderly and dependent people tends to be seen as a family obligation. however, according to a survey carried out in 2001, only 24 % of the population believe that children will continue to bear the responsibility for caring for their elderly parents in the future and the number of elderly people living alone is steadily increasing ( larizgoitia jauregi, 2004 ) legislation relating to the provision of home care services the spanish constitution states that all citizens are entitled to “ health protection ”. the general health law of 1986, which saw the creation of the national health system, also states that access to health services is a citizen ’ s right. in the spanish civil code ( book 1 ), it is stated that the spouse and children of elderly dependent people are responsible for their maintenance and care which covers everything that is essential for sustenance, shelter, clothing and medical assistance. the extent of the maintenance to be provided depends on the means of the providers and the needs of the dependent person. the obligation to provide maintenance comes to an end when the provider dies or when their wealth has fallen to such a level that continuing to do so would mean having to neglect their own needs or those of their family. brothers and sisters also have an obligation to provide maintenance but they come after spouses and descendants, but this obligation is limited to what is absolutely necessary kerschen et al., 2005 ). citizens ’ do not have a legally established right to social services. the provision of such services is at the discretion of the autonomous administration. access rights are governed by legislation at the level of the autonomous communities. the main criterion of the social service network is to keep the elderly in their own environment for as long as possible. the main social services are therefore aimed at maintenance in the home. there is also a residential type network. these services generally concentrate on attending the dependent elderly who live alone. the need is also recognised to help subjects with few resources. organisation and financing of home care services health care services are organised by the autonomous communities. each community has a health


type network. these services generally concentrate on attending the dependent elderly who live alone. the need is also recognised to help subjects with few resources. organisation and financing of home care services health care services are organised by the autonomous communities. each community has a health service and draws up a health plan which outlines which activities are necessary in order to meet the objectives of its own health service. amongst other services provided by the health services of the autonomous communities, there is primary care which includes health care in the home and care specifically for the elderly. home care services are free for people who are on the minimum pension. people who have an income twice as high as the minimum pension must pay for the services whereas those on an intermediary income must pay a certain amount which is calculated on the basis of their income. health care is funded exclusively through general taxation and not through social security contributions. home social services are financed jointly by the ministry of social affairs, the regional ministries of social welfare and the municipalities. home visits by general practitioners and primary care nurses are funded through the public health service. in addition to government provided services, voluntary associations and not - for - profit associations such as the red cross also provide social home care services ( carrillo, 2005 ). kinds of home care services available home care services include primary care social services, social work, assistance with household tasks, meals - on - wheels and tele - alarm services. however, these services are not available in all the autonomous communities. in practice, home care services are more or less limited to household tasks ( which also includes laundry and shopping ). this seems to be based on the choice of the elderly people many of whom think that personal care should be carried out by the family. this opinion seems to be shared by carers who often prefer to receive formal assistance with household tasks rather than personal care ( valderrama et al., 1997 in larizgoitia jauregi, 2004 ). meals - on - wheels is a services that is only available in the cities of malaga and cordoba andalusia ) and in the city of lerida ( in catalonia ). teleassistance and telealarm services are offered in at least 10 of the autonomous communities. in andalusia, castilla - leon, valencia, a service exists which consists of helping to adapt the home to the needs of the dependent person. ( imserso 2004 in larizgoitia jauregi, 2004 ). - esteban carrillo ( 2005 ), whho international compendium


exists which consists of helping to adapt the home to the needs of the dependent person. ( imserso 2004 in larizgoitia jauregi, 2004 ). - esteban carrillo ( 2005 ), whho international compendium of home health care : http : / / www. nahc. org / whho / whhocomptext. html - kerschen, n. et al. ( 2005 ), long - term care for older persons. in long - term care for older people – conference organised by the luxembourg presidency with the social protection committee of the european union, luxembourg, 12 - 13 may 2005 - larizgoitia jauregi, a. ( 2004 ), national background report for spain, eurofamcare : http : / / www. uke. uni - hamburg. de / extern / eurofamcare / documents / nabare _ spain _ rc1 _ a4. pdf - ylieff, m. et al. ( 2005 ), rapport international – les aides et les soins aux personnes dementes dans les pays de la communaute europeenne, qualidem, universities of liege and leuven. last updated : mercredi 15 juillet 2009


october 2004 | volume 55, issue 5 as america goes into its fifty - fifth presidential election, we should remember that there might have been only one — if we hadn ’ t had the only candidate on earth who could do the job looking back over two hundred years of the american presidency, it seems safe to say that no one entered the office with more personal prestige than washington, and only two presidents — abraham lincoln and franklin roosevelt — faced comparable crises. the civil war and the great depression, though now distant in time, remain more recent and raw in our collective memory than the american founding, so we find it easier to appreciate the achievements of lincoln and roosevelt. washington ’ s achievement must be recovered before it can be appreciated, which means that we must recognize that there was no such thing as a viable american nation when he took office as president, that the opening words of the constitution ( “ we the people of the united states ” ) expressed a fervent but fragile hope rather than a social reality. the roughly four million settlers spread along the coastline and streaming over the alleghenies felt their primary allegiance — to the extent they felt any allegiance at all — to local, state, and regional authorities. no republican government had ever before exercised control over a population this diffuse or a land this large, and the prevailing assumption among the best - informed european observers was that, to paraphrase lincoln ’ s later formulation, a nation so conceived and so dedicated could not endure. not much happened at the executive level during the first year of washington ’ s presidency, which was exactly the way he wanted it. his official correspondence was dominated by job applications from veterans of the war, former friends, and total strangers. they all received the same republican response — namely, that merit rather than favoritism must determine federal appointments. as for the president himself, it was not clear whether he was taking the helm or merely occupying the bridge. rumors began to circulate that he regarded his role as primarily ceremonial and symbolic, that after a mere two years he intended to step down, having launched the american ship of state and contributed his personal prestige as ballast on its maiden voyage. as it turned out, even ceremonial occasions raised troubling questions because no one knew how the symbolic centerpiece of a republic should behave or even what to call him. vice president john adams, trying to be helpful, ignited a fiery debate in the senate by suggesting such regal titles as “ his elective majesty ” and “ his mightiness, ” which provoked a lethal combination of shock


or even what to call him. vice president john adams, trying to be helpful, ignited a fiery debate in the senate by suggesting such regal titles as “ his elective majesty ” and “ his mightiness, ” which provoked a lethal combination of shock and laughter, as well as the observation that adams himself should be called “ his rotundity. ” eventually the senate resolved on the most innocuous option available : the president of the united states should be called exactly that. matters of social etiquette — how the president should interact with the public, where he should be accessible and where insulated — prompted multiple memorandums on the importance of what alexander hamilton called “ a pretty high tone ” that stopped short of secluding the president entirely. the solution was a weekly open house called the levee, part imperial court ceremony with choreographed bows and curtsies, part drop - in parlor social. the levee struck the proper middle note between courtly formality and republican simplicity, though at the expense of becoming a notoriously boring and wholly scripted occasion. the very awkwardness of the levee fitted washington ’ s temperament nicely since he possessed a nearly preternatural ability to remain silent while everyone around him was squirming under the pressure to fill that silence with conversation. ( adams later claimed that this “ gift of silence ” was washington ’ s greatest political asset, which adams deeply envied because he lacked it altogether. ) the formal etiquette of the levee and washington ’ s natural dignity ( or was it aloofness? ) combined to create a political atmosphere unimaginable in any modern - day national capital. in a year when the french revolution broke out in violent spasms destined to reshape the entire political landscape of europe, and the new congress ratified a bill of rights that codified the most sweeping guarantee of individual freedoms ever enacted, no one at the levees expected washington to comment on those events. even matters of etiquette and symbolism, however, could have constitutional consequences, as washington learned in august of 1789. the treaty - making power of the president required that he seek “ the advice and consent of the senate. ” washington initially interpreted the phrase to require his personal appearance in the senate and the solicitation of senatorial opinion on specific treaty provisions in the mode of a large advisory council. but when he brought his proposals for treaties with several southern indian tribes to the senate, the debate became a prolonged shouting match over questions of procedure. the longer the debate went on, the


on specific treaty provisions in the mode of a large advisory council. but when he brought his proposals for treaties with several southern indian tribes to the senate, the debate became a prolonged shouting match over questions of procedure. the longer the debate went on, the more irritated washington became. finally he declared, “ this defeats every purpose of my coming here, ” and abruptly stalked out. from that time on, the phrase advice and consent meant something less than direct executive solicitation of senatorial opinion, and the role of the senate as an equal partner in the grafting of treaties came to be regarded as a violation of the separation - of - powers principle. though he never revisited the senate, washington did honor his pledge to visit all the states in the union. in the fall of 1789 he set off on a tour of new england that carried him through 60 towns and hamlets. everywhere he went, the residents turned out in droves to glimpse america ’ s greatest hero parading past. and everywhere he went, new englanders became americans. since rhode island had not yet ratified the constitution, he skipped it, then made a separate trip the following summer to welcome the proudly independent latecomer into the new nation. during a visit to the jewish synagogue in newport he published an address on religious freedom that turned out to be the most uncompromising endorsement of the principle he ever made. ( one must say “ made ” rather than “ wrote ” because there is considerable evidence that thomas jefferson wrote it. ) whatever sectional suspicions new englanders might harbor toward that faraway thing called the federal government, when it appeared in their neighborhoods in the form of george washington, they saluted, cheered, toasted, and embraced it as their own. the southern tour was a more grueling affair, covering nearly 2, 000 miles during the spring of 1791. instead of regarding it as a threat to his health, however, washington described it as a tonic ; the real risk, he believed, was the sedentary life of a deskbound president. the entourage of 11 horses included his white parade steed, prescott, whom he mounted at the edge of each town in order to make an entrance that accorded with the heroic mythology already surrounding his military career. prescott ’ s hooves were painted and polished before each appearance, and washington usually brought along his favorite greyhound, mischievously named cornwallis, to add to the dramatic effect. like a modern political candidate on the campaign trail, washington made speeches at each stop that repeated the same platitudinous themes


appearance, and washington usually brought along his favorite greyhound, mischievously named cornwallis, to add to the dramatic effect. like a modern political candidate on the campaign trail, washington made speeches at each stop that repeated the same platitudinous themes, linking the glory of the war for independence with the latent glory of the newly established united states. the ladies of charleston fluttered alongside their fans when washington took the dance floor ; prescott and the four carriage horses held up despite the nearly impassable or even nonexistent roads ; cornwallis, however, wore out and was buried on the banks of the savannah river in a brick vault with a marble tombstone that local residents maintained for decades as a memorial to his master ’ s visit. in the end all the states south of the potomac could say they had seen the palpable version of the flag, washington himself. during the southern tour one of the earliest editorial criticisms of washington ’ s embodiment of authority appeared in the press. he was being treated at each stop like a canonized american saint, the editorial complained, or perhaps like a demigod “ perfumed by the incense of addresses. ” the complaint harked back to the primordial fear haunting all republics : “ however highly we may consider the character of the chief magistrate of the union, yet we cannot but think the fashionable mode of expressing our attachment... favors too much of monarchy to be used by republicans, or to be received with pleasure by the president of a commonwealth. ” such doubts were rarely uttered publicly during the initial years of washington ’ s presidency. but they lurked in the background, exposing how double - edged the political imperatives of the american revolution had become. to secure the revolutionary legacy on the national level required a person who embodied national authority more visibly than any collective body like congress could convey. washington had committed himself to playing that role by accepting the presidency. but at the core of the revolutionary legacy lay a deep suspicion of any potent projection of political power by a “ singular figure. ” and since the very idea of a republican chief executive was a novelty, there was no vocabulary for characterizing such a creature except the verbal tradition surrounding european courts and kings. by playing the part he believed history required, washington made himself vulnerable to the most virulent apprehensions about monarchical power. he could credibly claim to be the only person who had earned the right to be trusted with power. he could also argue, as he did to several friends throughout his first term, that no


virulent apprehensions about monarchical power. he could credibly claim to be the only person who had earned the right to be trusted with power. he could also argue, as he did to several friends throughout his first term, that no man was more eager for retirement, that he sincerely resented the obligations of his office as it spread a lengthening shadow of public responsibility over his dwindling days on earth. if critics wished to whisper behind his back that he looked too regal riding a white stallion with a leopard - skin cloth and gold - rimmed saddle, so be it. he knew he would rather be at mount vernon. in the meantime he would play his assigned role as america ’ s presiding presence : as so many toasts in his honor put it, “ the man who unites all hearts. ” exercising executive authority called for completely different talents than symbolizing it. washington ’ s administrative style had evolved through decades of experience as master of mount vernon and commander of the continental army. ( in fact, he had fewer subordinates to supervise as president than he had had in those earlier jobs. ) the cabinet system he installed represented a civilian adaptation of his military staff, with executive sessions of the cabinet resembling the councils of war that had provided collective wisdom during crises. as thomas jefferson later described it, washington made himself “ the hub of the wheel, ” with routine business delegated to the department heads at the rim. it was a system that maximized executive control while also creating essential distance from details. its successful operation depended upon two skills that washington had developed over his lengthy career : first, identifying and recruiting talented and ambitious young men, usually possessing formal education superior to his own, then trusting them with considerable responsibility and treating them as surrogate sons in his official family ; second, knowing when to remain the hedgehog who keeps his distance and when to become the fox who dives into the details. on the first score, as a judge of talent, washington surrounded himself with the most intellectually sophisticated collection of statesmen in american history. his first recruit, james madison, became his most trusted consultant on judicial and executive appointments and his unofficial liaison with congress. the precocious virginian was then at the peak of his powers, having just completed a remarkable string of triumphs as the dominant force behind the nationalist agenda at the constitutional convention and the virginia ratifying convention, as well as being co - author of the federalist papers. from his position in the house of representatives he drafted the address welcoming washington to the presidency,


as the dominant force behind the nationalist agenda at the constitutional convention and the virginia ratifying convention, as well as being co - author of the federalist papers. from his position in the house of representatives he drafted the address welcoming washington to the presidency, then drafted washington ’ s response to it, making him a one - man shadow government. soon after the inaugural ceremony he showed washington his draft of 12 amendments to the constitution, subsequently reduced to 10 and immortalized as the bill of rights. washington approved the historic proposal without changing a word and trusted madison to usher it through congress with his customary proficiency. one of madison ’ s early assignments was to persuade his reluctant friend from monticello to serve as secretary of state. thomas jefferson combined nearly spotless revolutionary credentials with five years of diplomatic experience in paris, all buoyed by a lyrical way with words and ideas most famously displayed in his draft of the declaration of independence. alexander hamilton was the third member of this talented trinity and probably the brightest of the lot. while madison and jefferson had come up through the virginia school of politics, which put a premium on an understated style that emphasized indirection and stealth, hamilton had come out of nowhere ( actually, impoverished origins in the caribbean ) to display a dashing, out - of - my - way style that imposed itself ostentatiously. as washington ’ s aide - de - camp during the war, he had occasionally shown himself to be a headstrong surrogate son, always searching for an independent command beyond washington ’ s shadow. but his loyalty to his mentor was unquestioned, and his affinity for the way he thought was unequaled. moreover, throughout the 1780s hamilton had been the chief advocate for fiscal reform as the essential prerequisite for an energetic national government, making him the obvious choice as secretary of treasury once robert morris had declined. the inner circle was rounded out by three appointments of slightly lesser luster. gen. henry knox, appointed secretary of war, had served alongside washington from boston to yorktown and had long since learned to subsume his own personality so thoroughly within his chief ’ s that disagreements became virtually impossible. more than just a cipher, as some critics of washington ’ s policies later claimed, knox joined vice president adams as a seasoned new england voice within the councils of power. john jay, the new chief justice, added new york ’ s most distinguished legal and political mind to the mix, and also extensive foreign policy experience. as the first attorney general, edmund randolph lacked jay ’ s gr


voice within the councils of power. john jay, the new chief justice, added new york ’ s most distinguished legal and political mind to the mix, and also extensive foreign policy experience. as the first attorney general, edmund randolph lacked jay ’ s gravitas and knox ’ s experience, but his reputation for endless vacillation was offset by solid political connections within the tidewater elite, reinforced by an impeccable bloodline. washington ’ s judgment of the assembled team was unequivocal. “ i feel myself supported by able co - adjutors, ” he observed in june of 1790, “ who harmonize extremely well together. ” in three significant areas of domestic policy, each loaded with explosive political and constitutional implications, washington chose to delegate nearly complete control to his “ co - adjutors. ” although his reasons for maintaining a discreet distance differed in each case, they all reflected his recognition that executive power still lived under a monarchical cloud of suspicion and could be exercised only selectively. much like his fabian role during the war, when he learned to avoid an all - or - nothing battle with the british, choosing when to avoid conflict struck him as the essence of effective executive leadership. the first battle he evaded focused on the shape and powers of the federal courts. the constitution offered even less guidance on the judiciary than it did on the executive branch. once again the studied ambiguity reflected apprehension about any projection of federal power that upset the compromise between state and federal sovereignty. washington personally preferred a unified body of national law, regarding it as a crucial step in creating what the constitution called “ a more perfect union. ” in nominating jay to head the supreme court, he argued that the federal judiciary “ must be considered as the key - stone of our political fabric ” since a coherent court system that tied the states and regions together with the ligaments of law would achieve more in the way of national unity than any other possible reform. but that, of course, was also the reason it proved so controversial. the debate over the judiciary act of 1789 exposed the latent hostility toward any consolidated court system. the act created a six - member supreme court, 3 circuit courts, and 13 district courts but left questions of original or appellate jurisdiction intentionally blurred so as to conciliate the advocates of state sovereignty. despite his private preferences, washington deferred to the tradeoffs worked out in congressional committees, chiefly a committee chaired by oliver ellsworth of connecticut, which designed a framework of overlapping authorities that was neither rational nor wholly national


advocates of state sovereignty. despite his private preferences, washington deferred to the tradeoffs worked out in congressional committees, chiefly a committee chaired by oliver ellsworth of connecticut, which designed a framework of overlapping authorities that was neither rational nor wholly national in scope. in subsequent decades john marshall, washington ’ s most loyal and influential disciple, would move this ambiguous arrangement toward a more coherent version of national law. but throughout washington ’ s presidency the one thing the supreme court could not be, or appear to be, was supreme, a political reality that washington chose not to contest. a second occasion for calculated executive reticence occurred in february of 1790 when the forbidden subject of slavery came before congress. two quaker petitions, one arguing for an immediate end to the slave trade, the other advocating the gradual abolition of slavery itself, provoked a bitter debate in the house. the petitions would almost surely have been consigned to legislative oblivion except for the signature of benjamin franklin on the second one, which transformed a beyond - the - pale protest into an unavoidable challenge to debate the moral compatibility of slavery with america ’ s avowed revolutionary principles. in what turned out to be his last public act, franklin was investing his enormous prestige to force the first public discussion of the sectional differences over slavery at the national level. ( the debates at the constitutional convention had occurred behind closed doors, and their records remained sealed. ) if only in retrospect, the discussions in the house during the spring of 1790 represented the revolutionary generation ’ s final opportunity to place slavery on the road to ultimate extinction. washington shared franklin ’ s view of slavery as a moral and political anachronism. on three occasions during the 1780s he let it be known that he favored adopting some kind of gradual emancipation scheme and would give his personal support to such a scheme whenever it materialized. warner mifflin, one of the quaker petitioners who knew of washington ’ s previous statements, obtained a private interview in order to plead that the president step forward in the manner of franklin. as the only american with more prestige than franklin, washington could make the decisive difference in removing this one massive stain on the revolutionary legacy, as well as on his own. we can never know what might have happened if washington had taken this advice. he listened politely to mifflin ’ s request but refused to commit himself, on the grounds that the matter was properly the province of congress and “ might come before me for official decision. ” he struck a more cynical tone in letters to friends back in


listened politely to mifflin ’ s request but refused to commit himself, on the grounds that the matter was properly the province of congress and “ might come before me for official decision. ” he struck a more cynical tone in letters to friends back in virginia : ”... the introduction of the quaker memorial, rejecting slavery, was to be sure, not only an ill - judged piece of business, but occasioned a great waste of time. ” he endorsed madison ’ s deft management of the debate and behind - the - scenes maneuvering in the house, which voted to prohibit any further consideration of ending the slave trade until 1808, as the constitution specified ; more significantly, madison managed to take slavery off the national agenda by making any legislation seeking to end it a state rather than federal prerogative. washington expressed his satisfaction that the threatening subject “ has at last been put to sleep, and will scarcely awake before the year 1808. ” what strikes us as a poignant failure of moral leadership appeared to washington as a prudent exercise of political judgment. there is no evidence that he struggled over the decision. whatever his personal views on slavery may have been, his highest public priority was the creation of a unified american nation. the debates in the house only dramatized the intractable sectional differences he had witnessed from the chair at the constitutional convention. they reinforced his conviction that slavery was the one issue with the political potential to destroy the republican experiment in its infancy. finally, in the most dramatic delegation of all, washington gave total responsibility for rescuing the debt - burdened american economy to his charismatic secretary of the treasury. before hamilton was appointed, in september of 1789, washington requested financial records from the old confederation government and quickly discovered that he had inherited a messy mass of state, domestic, and foreign debt. the records were bedeviled by floating bond rates, complicated currency conversion tables, and guesswork revenue projections that, taken together, were an accountant ’ s worst nightmare. after making a heroic effort of his own that merely confirmed his sense of futility, washington handed the records and fiscal policy of the new nation to his former aide - de - camp, who turned out to be, among other things, a financial genius. hamilton buried himself in the numbers for three months, then emerged with a 40, 000 - word document titled report on public credit. his calculations revealed that the total debt of the united states had reached the daunting ( for then ) size of $ 77. 1 million, which he divided into three separate ledgers


a 40, 000 - word document titled report on public credit. his calculations revealed that the total debt of the united states had reached the daunting ( for then ) size of $ 77. 1 million, which he divided into three separate ledgers : foreign debt ( $ 11. 7 million ), federal debt ( $ 40. 4 million ), and state debt ( $ 25 million ). several generations of historians and economists have analyzed the intricacies of hamilton ’ s report and created a formidable body of scholarship on its technical complexities, but for our purposes it is sufficient to know that hamilton ’ s calculations were accurate and his strategy simple : consolidate the messy columns of foreign and domestic debt into one central pile. he proposed funding the federal debt at par, assuming all the state debts, then creating a national bank to manage all the investments and payments at the federal level. this made excellent economic sense, as the resultant improved credit rating of the united states in foreign banks and surging productivity in the commercial sector demonstrated. but it also proved to be a political bombshell that shook congress for more than a year. for hamilton had managed to create, almost single - handedly, an unambiguously national economic policy that presumed the sovereign power of the federal government. he had pursued a bolder course than the more cautious framers of the judiciary act had followed in designing the court system, leaving no doubt that control over fiscal policy would not be brokered to accommodate the states. all three ingredients in his plan — funding, assumption, and the bank — were vigorously contested in congress, with madison leading the opposition. the watchword of the critics was consolidation, an ideological cousin to monarchy. washington did not respond. indeed, he played no public role at all in defending hamilton ’ s program during the fierce congressional debates. for his part, hamilton never requested presidential advice or assistance, regarding control over his own bailiwick as his responsibility. a reader of their correspondence might plausibly conclude that the important topics of business were the staffing of lighthouses and the proper design of coast guard cutters to enforce customs collections. but no public statements were necessary, in part because hamilton was a one - man army in defending his program, “ a host unto himself, ” as jefferson later called him, and by february of 1791 the last piece of the hamiltonian scheme, the bank, had been passed by congress and now only required the presidential signature. but the bank proved to be the one controversial issue that washington could not completely delegate to hamilton.


, and by february of 1791 the last piece of the hamiltonian scheme, the bank, had been passed by congress and now only required the presidential signature. but the bank proved to be the one controversial issue that washington could not completely delegate to hamilton. as a symbol it was every bit as threatening, as palpable an embodiment of federal power, as a sovereign supreme court. as part of a last - ditch campaign to scuttle the bank, the three virginians within washington ’ s official family mobilized to attack it on constitutional grounds. jefferson, madison, and randolph submitted separate briefs, all arguing that the power to create a corporation was nowhere specified by the constitution and that the tenth amendment clearly stated that powers not granted to the federal government were retained by the states. before rendering his own verdict, washington sent the three negative opinions to hamilton for rebuttal. his response, which exceeded 13, 000 words, became a landmark in american legal history, arguing that the “ necessary and proper ” clause of the constitution ( article 1, section 8 ) granted implied powers to the federal government beyond the explicit powers specified in the document. though there is some evidence that washington was wavering before hamilton delivered his opinion, it was not the brilliance of the opinion that persuaded him. rather, it provided the legal rationale he needed to do what he had always wanted to do. for the truth was that washington was just as much an economic nationalist as hamilton, a fact that hamilton ’ s virtuoso leadership throughout the yearlong debate had conveniently obscured. as both a symbolic political centerpiece and a deft delegator of responsibility, washington managed to levitate above the political landscape. that was his preferred position, personally because it made his natural aloofness into an asset, politically because it removed the presidency from the partisan battles on the ground. in three policy areas, however — the location of the national capital, foreign policy, and indian affairs — he reverted to the kind of meticulous personal management he had pursued at mount vernon. what was called “ the residence question ” had its origins in a provision of the constitution mandating congress to establish a “ seat of government ” without specifying the location. by the spring of 1790 the debates in congress had deteriorated into a comic parody on the gridlock theme. sixteen different sites had been proposed, then rejected, as state and regional voting blocs mobilized against each alternative in order to preserve their own preferences. one frustrated congressman suggested that perhaps they should put the new capital on wheels and


on the gridlock theme. sixteen different sites had been proposed, then rejected, as state and regional voting blocs mobilized against each alternative in order to preserve their own preferences. one frustrated congressman suggested that perhaps they should put the new capital on wheels and roll it from place to place. an equally frustrated newspaper editor observed that “ since the usual custom is for the capital of new empires to be selected by the whim or caprice of a despot, ” and since washington “ had never given bad advice to his country, ” why not “ let him point to a map and say ‘ here ’? ” that is not quite how the potomac site emerged victorious. madison had been leading the fight in the house for a potomac location, earning the nickname “ big knife ” for cutting deals to block the other alternatives. ( one of madison ’ s most inspired arguments was that the geographic midpoint of the nation on a north - south axis was not just the mouth of the potomac, but mount vernon itself, a revelation of providential proportions. ) eventually a private bargain was struck over dinner at jefferson ’ s apartment, subsequently enshrined in lore as the most consequential dinner party in american history, where hamilton agreed to deliver sufficient votes from several northern states to clinch the potomac location in return for madison ’ s pledge to permit passage of hamilton ’ s assumption bill. actually, there were multiple behind - the - scenes bargaining sessions going on at the same time, but the notion that an apparently intractable political controversy could be resolved by a friendly conversation over port and cigars has always possessed an irresistible narrative charm. the story also conjured up the attractive picture of brotherly cooperation within his official family that washington liked to encourage. soon after the residence act designating a potomac location passed, in july of 1790, that newspaper editor ’ s suggestion ( give the whole messy question to washington ) became fully operative. jefferson feared that the potomac site would be sabotaged if the endless management details for developing a city from scratch were left to congress. so he proposed a thoroughly imperial solution : bypass congress altogether by making all subsequent decisions about architects, managers, and construction schedules an executive responsibility, “ subject to the president ’ s direction in every point. ” and so they were. what became washington, d. c., was aptly named, for while the project had many troops involved in its design and construction, it had only one supreme commander. he selected the specific site on the potomac between rock creek and goose creek, while pretending to prefer a different


c., was aptly named, for while the project had many troops involved in its design and construction, it had only one supreme commander. he selected the specific site on the potomac between rock creek and goose creek, while pretending to prefer a different location to hold down the purchase price for the lots. he appointed the commissioners, who reported directly to him rather than to congress. he chose pierre l ’ enfant as chief architect, personally endorsing l ’ enfant ’ s plan for a huge tract encompassing nine and a half square miles and thereby rejecting jefferson ’ s preference for a small village that would gradually expand in favor of a massive area that would gradually fill up. when l ’ enfant ’ s grandiose vision led to equivalently grandiose demands — he refused to take orders from the commissioners and responded to one stubborn owner of a key lot by blowing up his house — washington fired him. he approved the sites for the presidential mansion and the capitol as well as the architects who designed them. all in all, he treated the nascent national capital as a public version of his mount vernon plantation, right down to the supervision of the slave labor force that did much of the work. it helped that the construction site was located near mount vernon, so he could make regular visits to monitor progress on his trips home from the capital in philadelphia. it also helped that jefferson and madison could confer with him at the site on their trips back to monticello and montpelier. at a time when both virginians were leading the opposition to hamilton ’ s financial program, their cooperation on this ongoing project served to bridge the widening chasm within the official family over the hamiltonian vision of federal power. however therapeutic the cooperation, it belied a fundamental disagreement over the political implications of their mutual interests in the federal city, as it was then called. for jefferson and madison regarded the potomac location of the permanent capital as a guarantee of virginia ’ s abiding hegemony within the union, as a form of geographic assurance, if you will, that the government would always speak with a southern accent. washington thought more expansively, envisioning the capital as a focusing device for national energies that would overcome regional jealousies, performing the same unifying function geographically that he performed symbolically. his personal hobbyhorse became a national university within the capital, where the brightest young men from all regions could congregate and share a common experience as americans that helped to “ rub off ” their sectional habits and accents. his


he performed symbolically. his personal hobbyhorse became a national university within the capital, where the brightest young men from all regions could congregate and share a common experience as americans that helped to “ rub off ” their sectional habits and accents. his hands - on approach toward foreign policy was only slightly less direct than his control of the potomac project, and the basic principles underlying washington ’ s view of the national interest were present from the start. most elementally, he was a thoroughgoing realist. though he embraced republican ideals, he believed that the behavior of nations was driven not by ideals but by interests. this put him at odds ideologically and temperamentally with his secretary of state, since jefferson was one of the most eloquent spokesmen for the belief that american ideals were american interests. jefferson ’ s recent experience in paris as a witness to the onset of the french revolution had only confirmed his conviction that a global struggle on behalf of those ideals had just begun and that it had a moral claim on american support. washington was pleased to receive the key to the bastille from lafavette ; he also knew as well as or better than anyone else that the victory over great britain would have been impossible without french economic and military assistance. but he was determined to prevent his warm memories of rochambeau ’ s soldiers and de grasse ’ s ships at yorktown from influencing his judgment about the long - term interests of the united states. those interests, he was convinced, did not lie across the atlantic but across the alleghenies. the chief task, as washington saw it, was to consolidate control of the north american continent east of the mississippi. although jefferson had never been west of the blue ridge mountains, he shared washington ’ s preference for western vistas. ( during his own presidency jefferson would do more than anyone to expand those vistas beyond the mississippi to the pacific. ) tight presidential control over foreign policy was unavoidable at the start because jefferson did not come on board until march of 1790. washington immediately delegated all routine business to him but preserved his own private lines of communication on french developments, describing reports of escalating bloodshed he received from paris “ as if they were the events of another planet. ” his cautionary posture toward revolutionary france received reinforcement from gouverneur morris, a willfully eccentric and thoroughly irreverent american in paris whom washington cultivated as a correspondent. morris described france ’ s revolutionary leaders as “ a fleet at anchor in the fog, ” and he


france received reinforcement from gouverneur morris, a willfully eccentric and thoroughly irreverent american in paris whom washington cultivated as a correspondent. morris described france ’ s revolutionary leaders as “ a fleet at anchor in the fog, ” and he dismissed as a hopelessly romantic illusion jefferson ’ s view that a gallic version of 1776 was under way. the american revolution, morris observed, had been guided by experience and light, while the french were obsessed with experiment and lightning. washington ’ s supervisory style, as well as his realistic foreign - policy convictions, was put on display when a potential crisis surfaced in the summer of 1790. a minor incident involving great britain and spain in nootka sound ( near modern - day vancouver ) prompted a major appraisal of american national interests. the british appeared poised to use the incident to launch an invasion from canada down the mississippi, to displace spain as the dominant european power in the american west. this threatened to change the entire strategic chemistry on the continent and raised the daunting prospect of another war with great britain. washington convened his cabinet in executive session, thereby making clear for the first time that the cabinet and not the more cumbersome senate would be his advisory council on foreign policy. he solicited written opinions from all the major players, including adams, hamilton, jay, jefferson, and knox. the crisis fizzled away when the british decided to back off, but during the deliberations two revealing facts became clearer, first that washington was resolved to avoid war at any cost, convinced that the fragile american republic was neither militarily nor economically capable of confronting the british leviathan at this time, and second that hamilton ’ s strategic assessment, not jefferson ’ s, was more closely aligned with his own, which turned out to be a preview of coming attractions. strictly speaking, the federal government ’ s relations with the native american tribes were also a foreign - policy matter. from the start, however, with jefferson arriving late on the scene, indian affairs came under the authority of the secretary of war. as ominous as this might appear in retrospect, knox took responsibility for negotiating the disputed terms of several treaties approved by the confederation congress. for both personal and policy reasons washington wanted his own hand firmly on this particular tiller, and his intimate relationship with knox assured a seamless coordination guided by his own judgment. he had been present at the start of the struggle for control of the american interior, and he regarded the final fate of the indian inhabitants as an important piece