in the crudeness of their first judgment : ' no, i wouldn ' t say that it was exactly grotesque ( in spanish, ' un mamarracho ' ). ' ' there ' s a certain strength ; the composition has a certain vigor. ' ' if you put the piece in the right place, it wouldn ' t seem so bulky, so massive... ' and then : ' you know, if you really look hard at these things of donatello, they ' re very manly ; de la robbia seems a little effeminate, ' etc., etc. finally, why prolong it? the gradual reversal of opinion in favor of donatello reached the point of one child saying : ' there must be other works of lucas de la robbia which deserve his fame. ' and it was precisely the very boy who had first placed in doubt the merits of donatello ' s own reputation. " ( " antologia, " revista hispanica moderna, v. 25, nos, 1, 2, 1959, pp. 132 - 133 ). a second innovation which i mentioned before was the approach to physical education. rather than the routine and boredom of calisthenics, directed toward a military goal of physical competence, the institute stressed games, games which were to form character. the use of games as an ethical force is, of course, an educational practice borrowed from the public schools of england. anyone who has read kipling ' s stalky and company or the early school novels of p. g. wodehouse will have a good idea of what i am referring to. but, for don francisco, playing cricket and football also signified that the whole person was being educated. intellectual formation alone was lopsided. to provide an integral education required an awareness and use of one ' s own body. mere discreet walks, in carefully monitored lines, which was the usual practice and extent of physical exercise in other schools, were simply inadequate. the third point of the institute ' s educational program were the excursions out to the countryside. this also was unheard - of in the last century of spain. long walks and mountain climbing simply were not done. in don francisco ' s time, people shut all their windows tight, never letting in fresh air ; they frequented taverns and cafes, and sometimes strolled casually at night for a short walk along a busy thoroughfare, but almost never thought exploring the countryside an exhilarating occupation. again, like the generation of 1898, don francisco and his institute discovered


they frequented taverns and cafes, and sometimes strolled casually at night for a short walk along a busy thoroughfare, but almost never thought exploring the countryside an exhilarating occupation. again, like the generation of 1898, don francisco and his institute discovered the spanish countryside. before that, almost no one seems to have appreciated it. realist novelists, for example, rarely describe nature ; even the spanish romanticists evidence little sensitivity toward nature. the idea, which was brought back from paris in 1878 by one of the institute ' s professors, was, like the introduction of games, imported from abroad and adapted to spanish circumstances. excursions developed the intellectual and physical capabilities of the pupil ; more important, for don francisco, they allowed one to enter into communion with nature, to feel oneself as part of a whole. i would like to touch briefly on two other aspects of the institute ' s educational program ; the use of textbooks and examinations. don francisco discouraged the use of textbooks ; to a great extent, he did so as a reaction to the wretched official textbooks forced on students at state - and church - run schools. instead, he preferred the creation of student notebooks which reflected the child ' s own judgments and synthesis of the material, and which were carefully checked and read by the teachers. likewise, don francisco felt that examinations brought mostly negative results. examinations in other schools were simply the means to acquire a degree ; and stressed only the student ' s ability to memorize and to repeat exactly what the professor dictated in class. respect for the freedom of the child is at the heart of the institute ' s teaching. the intuitive method in education, which goes back to jacques rousseau, by way of froebel and pestalozzi, was practiced by the institute. this meant the substitution of restraint, obligation, and mechanical behavior by personal effort, spontaneity, and school work which had become _ _ _ and attractive. these then, were the main points of the institute ' s program. it should be noted that the educational reform undertaken by the institute was not the first instance of attempts to improve education in spain ; and that the institute ' s pedagogy depended, to a large extent, on influences from abroad which were modified to suit the spanish temperament. the pedagogical efforts of [ gaspar melchor de ] jovellanos in the eighteenth century and the short - lived pestalozzian schools of the early nineteenth are but two examples of such attempts at educational improvement in spain. with regard to the


whole of the institute ' s education, the entire atmosphere of the institute, was permeated with this spiritualization of man and the universe. it does not take too much imagination to see that the institute would not be without enemies. the ideological dichotomy between left and right, progressive and traditionalist, in spain immediately polarized the significance of the institute. it was the product of the devil for some ; the only hope and salvation in spain for others. the institute itself fell, one more victim, to the ravages of spain ' s civil war in 1936. yet, looked at dispassionately, the institute ' s openness to ideas and influences from the rest of europe, its undogmatic approach to education and to life itself, could not help but bring a breath of fresh air to the closed and narrow society of nineteenth - century spain. if it perhaps erred too much in the direction of intellectual anarchy and placed too much confidence in the innate goodness of man, the institute ' s efforts at raising the moral and intellectual level of spaniards became an all - pervasive influence in many institutions, both public and private, in government circles, in business. the institute was " much more than a school. " it was an atmosphere of intellectual and moral enlightenment ; and a belief in the regeneration of spain.


below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 1 summary a new perspective hazards of modern life surround us and so, too, does commu - nication about the risks of those hazards. news reports describe such hazards as pollutants in the air and in drinking water, pes - ticide residues in food, threats from radiation and toxic chemicals, and atds. government and industry also send out messages about hazards and their risks, sometimes directly to the populace but more often through intermediaries, such as the print and broadcast media. risk messages are difficult to formulate in ways that are accurate, clear, and not rn ~ steading. one reads, for example, that " radon risk can equal or exceed the 2 % o risk of death in an auto accident,... for anyone who lives 20 years at levels exceeding about 25 picocuries per liter " ( kerr, 1988 ~. this statement places an unfamiliar risk ( radon exposure in homes ) in juxtaposition to a more familiar risk ( death in an auto accident ), which may help people understand the magnitude of this unfamiliar risk. but this simple comparison may be misleading because it does not specify the respective levels of exposure, leaves out potentially relevant nonlethal consequences, and uses language ( picocuries per liter ) unfamiliar to most people. this report addresses these and other problems confronting risk communication. 1 ocr for page 2 2 improving risk communication risk messages can be controversial for many reasons. the haz - ards they describe are often themselves centers of controversy. fre - quently, there is enough uncertainty in the underlying knowledge to allow different experts to draw contradictory conclusions. experts are frequently accused of hiding their subjective preferences behind technical jargon and complex, so - called objective analyses. often a message that is precise and accurate must be so complex that only an expert can understand it. messages that nonexperts can under - stand necessarily present selected information and are thus subject to challenge


. common misconceptions about rise communication several important misconceptions need to be dispelled before the real problems of risk communication can be addressed. con - trary to what some think, there is no single overriding problem and thus no simple way of making risk communication easy. risk mes - sages necessarily compress technical information, which can lead to misunderstanding, confusion, and distrust. many people including some scientists, decision makers, and members of the public - have unrealistic expectations about what can be accomplished by risk communication. for example, it is mistaken to expect improved risk communication to always reduce conflict and smooth risk management. risk management decisions that benefit some citizens can harm others. in addition, people do not all share common interests and values, so better understanding may not lead to consensus about controversial issues or to uniform personal behavior. but even though good risk communication cannot always be expected to improve a situation, poor risk communication will nearly always make it worse. it is also mistaken to think, as some do, that if people understood and used risk comparisons it would be easy for them to make decisions. comparing risks can help people comprehend the unfamiliar magnitudes associated with risks, but risk comparison alone cannot establish levels of acceptable risk or ensure systematic minimization of risk. factors other than the level of risk - such as the voluntariness of exposure to the hazard and the degree of dread associated with the consequences must be considered in determining the acceptability of risk associated with a particular activity or phenomenon. some risk communication problems derive from mistaken beliefs about scientific research on the nature of how risks are assessed and managed and on risk communication itself. scientific information, for example, cannot be expected to resolve all important risk issues. all too often research that would answer the question has not been done or the results are disputed. although a great deal of research has been done on the dissemination and preparation of risk messages, ocr for page 4 4 improving risk communication there has been much less attention devoted to the risk communication process. in addition, even when valid scientific data are available, experts are unlikely to agree completely about the meaning of these data for risk management decisions. finally, it is unrealistic to expect easy identification and understanding of the values, preferences, and information needs of the intended recipients of risk messages. other misconceptions involve stereotypes about the way inter - mediaries and recipients react to risk messages. it is mistaken, for example, to view journalists and the media always as significant, independent causes of problems in risk communication.


of risk messages. other misconceptions involve stereotypes about the way inter - mediaries and recipients react to risk messages. it is mistaken, for example, to view journalists and the media always as significant, independent causes of problems in risk communication. rather, the problem is often at the interface between science and journalism. both sides need to better understand the pressures and constraints of the other instead of complaining about the sometimes disappointing results. scientists and risk managers should recognize the importance of the part journalists play in identifying disputes and maintaining the flow of information during resolution of conflicts ; journalists need to understand how to frame the technical and social dimensions of risk issues. it is also important to recognize the differences between the broadcast ant! the print media and between the national and the regional or local press corps. finally, even though most people prefer simplicity to complex - ity, it is mistaken to expect the public to want simple, cut - and - dried answers as to what to do in every case. the public is not homoge - neous. people diner in the degree to which they exercise control over exposure to hazards or remediation of undesirable consequences, the importance they attach to various consequences, and their tendency to be risk averse or risk seeking. often at least part of the public seeks considerable information about the risks they face. problems of risk communication we distinguish two major types of problems in risk communica - tion. problems deriving from institutional and political systems are problems for which little can be done beyond trying to understand them by those involved in risk communication. nevertheless, these problems can have a considerable impact on actions and events. problems of risk communicators and recipients can be addressed more directly and are therefore more amenable to improvement or solution. ocr for page 5 summary 5 problems deriving mom the institutional and political systems several kinds of legal considerations, including statutory man - dates, liability, and informed consent and " right - to - know " require - ments, influence the options available to risk managers and thus the content of their risk messages. these considerations generally either limit the possible responses to the risk in question or require that certain actions be taken in given circumstances. for example, some - times statutes require consideration of certain factors ( the federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act explicitly includes con - sideration of economic benefits ) or the exclusion of others ( the clean water act specifies that the best available technology should be used regardless of the financial burden imposed ). although not necessar - il


, and rodenticide act explicitly includes con - sideration of economic benefits ) or the exclusion of others ( the clean water act specifies that the best available technology should be used regardless of the financial burden imposed ). although not necessar - ily problems as such, these considerations often constitute important influences on risk messages and risk communication processes. it is often difficult to understand why risk messages appear as they do without consideration of these factors. communicating with citizens about risks can increase their desire to participate in or otherwise influence decisions about the control of those risks, thereby making risk management even more cumber - some. the interests of citizens and their motivation to participate in the political process can introduce difficult challenges when the implementation of risk control measures is necessarily decentralized and local preferences ( generally to avoid exposure to a particular risk ) preclude solutions in the broader interest. many hazardous waste facilities operate under these pressures. divided authority, not only among congress, the executive branch, and the courts at the federal level but also among federal, state, and local or regional jurisdictions, creates incentives for each actor to gain as much leverage as possible from the limited portion he or she controls. such fragmentation makes communicating about risks harder because it makes government regulation and risk reduc - tion programs more complex and makes it more difficult to determine who is responsible for the eventual outcomes. government and industry spend large amounts of money on research, and thus their concerns are usually well reflected in the information developed by that research. individuals and citizens ' groups do not usually have the financial resources to fund research and thus do not enjoy this sort of access to information and influence over its generation. if a group of people that a risk corr ~ municator is trying to reach feels that the system for generating information relied ocr for page 6 6 improving risk communication upon by that source does not consider the group ' s concerns, it may reject the information from that source as a basis for decisions about risks. it is reasonable to speculate that this may, in part, explain why it is so difficult to affect young people ' s attitudes and behavior about drugs and the aids epidemic the information presented is based on facts that they do not consider very important in the face of their immediate concerns of peer pressure and personal image. there also may be systematic biases in the provision of informa - tion. those most strongly motivated to communicate about risk are often also those with the ' strongest interest in the decision. when - ever a personal or social decision affects interested groups or organi - zations


biases in the provision of informa - tion. those most strongly motivated to communicate about risk are often also those with the ' strongest interest in the decision. when - ever a personal or social decision affects interested groups or organi - zations, conflicting messages reflecting the interests of those groups or organizations may be expected. the u. s. environmental protec - tion agency administrator ' s statement in 1984 that edb ( ethylene dibromide ) ' contamination was a tong - term health problem being ade - quately handled by tolerance guidelines, for example, was in the news at about the same time that public health officials in massachusetts and florida were removing grain products with edb contamination from grocery store shelves. experts from the food industry joined in, downplaying the risks, while scientists from environmental groups criticized the government ' s inaction. the beliefs, predispositions, and interests of risk communicators and the groups they represent create incentives to slant, or even distort or misrepresent, informa - tion. this can skew messages in many different directions on the same issue. problems of risk communicators and recipients the problems encountered by the sources and recipients of risk messages center on the following topics : establishing and recognizing credibility, making the messages understandable, preparing messages in an emergency, capturing and focusing attention, and getting in - formation. lack of credibility alters the communication process by adding distrust and acrimony. the most important factors affecting the credibility of a source and its messages relate to the accuracy of the messages and the legitimacy of the process by which the contents were determined, as perceived by the recipients. recipients ' views about the accuracy of a message are adversely affected by ( 1 ) real or perceived advocacy by the source of a position in the message that is not consistent with a careful assessment of the facts ; ( 2 ) ocr for page 7 summary 7 a reputation for deceit, misrepresentation, or coercion on the part, ~. positions taken by the source that do not support the current message ; ( 4 ) self - serving framing of information in the message ; ( 5 ) contradictory messages from other credible sources ; and ( 6 ) actual or perceived professional incompetence or impropriety on the part of the source. the perceived legitimacy of the process by which the contents of a message were determined depends on ( 1 ) the legal standing of the source with respect to the risks addressed ; ( 2 ) the justification provided for


impropriety on the part of the source. the perceived legitimacy of the process by which the contents of a message were determined depends on ( 1 ) the legal standing of the source with respect to the risks addressed ; ( 2 ) the justification provided for the communication program ; ( 3 ) the access afforded affected parties to the decision - making process ; and ( 4 ) the degree to which conflicting claims are given fair and balanced review. ideally, risk information should use language and concepts re - cipients already understand. it is difficult to present scientific and technical information that uses everyday language and magnitudes common in ordinary experience and that is sensitive to such psycho - togical needs on the part of recipients as the desire for clear, decisive answers or the fear of the unfamiliar and unknown. sometimes risk communicators must disseminate messages when there are not enough relevant data to allow them to draw satisfactory conclusions and there is no time to obtain better information. this usually occurs when an emergency requires that action be taken im - mediately or not at all or when events lead to requests for information prior to the completion of study or analysis. many things compete with risk messages for attention, and it is often difficult to get the intended recipients to attend to the issues the risk communicator thinks are important. from the risk com - municator ' s standpoint, there are two aspects of this : stimulating the attention of the ultimate recipient and interacting with the news media and other intermediaries. there are, of course, several differ - ent ways that messages can reach the final recipients : face - to - face ( physician to patient, friend to friend, within the family ), in groups ( work sites, ciassrooms ), through professional or volunteer organi - zations ( american medical association, red cross ), through the mass media ( radio, television, magazines, newspapers, direct mail, billboards ), and through community service agencies ( at libraries, hospitals, mails, fairs ). recipients of risk messages may have difficulty deciding which issues to attend to or what to do because they cannot get information from officials and other message sources that satisfactorily answers their questions. this can happen when authorities do not listen of the source ; t3 ) previous statements or ocr for page 8 8 improving risk co ~ unication and therefore do not provide what the recipient considers relevant information or because the individual is unable to find a trusted source or interpreter of already available information. conclusions and recommendations in formulating recommendations we focused


ocr for page 8 8 improving risk co ~ unication and therefore do not provide what the recipient considers relevant information or because the individual is unable to find a trusted source or interpreter of already available information. conclusions and recommendations in formulating recommendations we focused on the preparation and dissemination of formal risk messages to audiences that include nonexperts and on only two of the many types of risk - managing organizations : government agencies and large private corporations. nevertheless, our recommendations are intended to attack the prob - lems of recipients of risk messages as well. the goal cannot be only to make those who disseminate formal risk messages more effective by improving their credibility, understandability, and so on. such an approach might serve their interests, but it could well degrade the overall quality of risk communication if it merely meant that they could advance their viewpoints with greater influence. risk commu - nication can be improved only if recipients are also helped to solve their problems at the same time. the risk communication process usually with many messages from many sources - can be considered successful only to the extent that it, first, improves or increases the base of accurate information that decision makers use, be they government officials, industry man - agers, or individual citizens, and, second, satisfies those involved that they are adequately informed within the limits of available knowi - edge. this does not always result in the responses a particular source might wish, nor does it always lead to consensus about controver - sial issues or to uniform personal behavior. people do not all share common interests and values, and so better understanding will not necessarily lead them all to the same conclusion. improving risk communication is therefore more than merely crafting " better messages. " risk communication procedures as well as risk message content must be improved. because risk communi - cation is so tightly linked to the management of risks, solutions to the problems of risk communication often entail changes in risk man - agement and risk analysis. once the constraints, limitations, and incentives affecting the preparation and dissemination of messages - as well as how these factors become manifest in what we call the risk communication process - are understood, improvements can be implemented. ocr for page 9 summary. ",. ·. 9 this is not to imply, however, that there is a single shortcut to improving the nation ' s risk communication efforts. the needed improvement can come only incrementally and only from careful attention to many details. risk managers need to consider risk com - munication as


however, that there is a single shortcut to improving the nation ' s risk communication efforts. the needed improvement can come only incrementally and only from careful attention to many details. risk managers need to consider risk com - munication as an important and integral aspect of risk management. four sets of recommendations are presented : ( 1 ) recommenda - tions that pertain to the processes that source organizations use to generate decisions, knowledge, and risk messages ; ( 2 ) recommenda - tions that pertain to the content of individual risk messages ; ( 3 ) a call for a " consumer ' s guide " that will enhance the ability of other groups or individuals to understand and participate in risk manage - ment activities ; and ( 4 ) a brief summary of research needs. two broad themes run through the process and content recom - mendations. the first is the recognition that risk communication efforts should be more systematically oriented to the intended au - diences. the most effective risk messages are those that quite self - consciously address the audiences ' perspectives and concerns. the second is that openness is the surest policy. a central premise of democratic government the existence of an informed electorate - implies a free flow of information. suppression of relevant infor - mation is not only wrong but also, over the longer term, usually ineffective.. management of the process we identified four process objectives that are key elements in improving risk communication : ( 1 ) goal setting, ( 2 ) openness, ( 3 ) balance, and ( 4 ) competence. setting realistic goals risk communication activities ought to be matters of conscious design. practical goals should be established that explicitly accom - modate the political / legal mandates and constraints bounding the process and the roles of the potential recipients of the organization ' s risk messages, on the one hand, and clearly show the contribution to improved understanding of issues and actions on the other. ex - plicit consideration of such factors encourages realistic expectations, clarification of motives and objectives ( both within the source orga - nization and among outside groups and individuals ), and evaluation of performance. ocr for page 10 10 safeguarding openness improving risk communication risk communication should be a two - way street. organizations that communicate about risks should ensure effective dialogue with potentially affected outsiders. this two - way process should exhibit ( 1 ) a spirit of open exchange in a common undertaking rather than a series of " canned " briefings restricted to technical " nonemotional " issues and ( 2 ) early and


dialogue with potentially affected outsiders. this two - way process should exhibit ( 1 ) a spirit of open exchange in a common undertaking rather than a series of " canned " briefings restricted to technical " nonemotional " issues and ( 2 ) early and sustained interchange that includes the media and other message intermediaries. openness does not ordinarily, however ' imply empowerment to determine the host organization ' s risk management decisions. to avoid misunderstanding, the limits of participation should be made clear from the outset. safeguarding balance and accuracy in risk messages in order to help ensure that risk messages are not distorted and do not appear to be distorted, those who manage the generation of risk assessments and risk messages should ( 1 ) hold the preparers of messages accountable for detecting and reducing distortion ; ( 2 ) consider review by recognized independent experts of the underly - ing assessment and, when feasible, the message ; ( 3 ) subject draft messages, if possible, to outside preview to determine if audiences detect any overlooked distortions ; and ( 4 ) prepare and release for comment a " white paper " on the risk assessment and risk reduction assessment. fostering competence risk managers need to use procedures that incorporate two dis - tinct types of expertise : on the risk subject matter ( e. g., carcinogenic risk, occupational safety ) and on risk communication. organizations that communicate about risk should take steps to ensure that the preparation of risk messages becomes a deliberate, specialized under - taking, taking care that in the process they do not sacrifice scientific quality. such steps include ( 1 ) deliberately considering the makeup of the intended audience and demonstrating how the choice of me - dia and message reflects an understanding of the audience and its concerns ; ( 2 ) attracting appropriate communications specialists and training technical staff in communications ; ( 3 ) requiring systematic assurance that substantive risk experts within the organization have ocr for page 11 summary 11 a voice in producing accurate assessments and the derivative risk message ; ( 4 ) establishing a thoughtful program of evaluating the past performance of risk communication efforts ; and ( 5 ) ensuring that their organizations improve their understanding of the roles of intermediaries, particularly media reporters and editors, including an understanding of the factors that make a risk story newsworthy, of the practical time and space constraints, and of the limited technical background of most media personnel. risk communication in crisis conditions the process for risk communication in crisis conditions requires special care. risk managers should ensure that ( l ) where there is a foreseeable potential for emergency, advance plans for communica - tion


of most media personnel. risk communication in crisis conditions the process for risk communication in crisis conditions requires special care. risk managers should ensure that ( l ) where there is a foreseeable potential for emergency, advance plans for communica - tion are drafted, and ( 2 ) there is provision for coordinating among the various authorities that might be involved and, to the extent feasible, a single place where the public and the media can obtain authoritative and current information. content of risk messages we identified four generic issues that have been the source of difficulty in the past over a broad range of risk communication efforts : ( 1 ) audience orientation, ( 2 ) uncertainty, ( 3 ) risk comparisons, and ( 4 ) completeness. relating the message to the audiences ' perspectives 7 risk messages should closely reflect the perspectives ' technical capacity, and concerns of the target audiences. a message should ( 1 ) emphasize information relevant to any practical actions that in - dividuals can take ; ( 2 ) be couched in clear and plain language ; ( 3 ) respect the audience and its concerns ; and ( 4 ) seek to inform the recipient, unless conditions clearly warrant the use of influencing techniques. one of the most difficult issues in risk communication in a democratic society is the extent to which public officials should attempt to influence individuals that is, to go beyond merely in - form ~ ng them concerning risks and such risk - reducing actions as quitting smoking. ocr for page 12 12 handling uncertainty improving risk communication risk messages and supporting materials should not minimize the existence of uncertainty. data gaps and areas of significant disagreement among experts should be disclosed. some indication of the level of confidence of estimates and the significance of scientific uncertainty should be conveyed. comparing risks risk comparisons can be helpful, but they should be presented with caution. comparison must be seen as only one of several inputs to risk decisions, not as the primary determinant. there are proven pitfalls when risks of diverse character are compared, especially when the intent of the comparison can be seen as that of rn ~ nimizing a risk ( by equating it to a seemingly trivial one ). more useful are comparisons of risks that help convey the magnitude of a particular risk estimate, that occur in the same decision context ( e. g., risks from flying and driving to a given destination ), and that have a similar outcome. multiple comparisons may avoid some of the worst pitfalls. more work needs to be done to develop constructive and helpful forms of risk comparison. ensuring completeness a complete information base would contain


driving to a given destination ), and that have a similar outcome. multiple comparisons may avoid some of the worst pitfalls. more work needs to be done to develop constructive and helpful forms of risk comparison. ensuring completeness a complete information base would contain five types of infor - mation : ( 1 ) on the nature of the risk, ( 2 ) on the nature of the benefits that might be changed if risk were reduced, ( 3 ) on the avail - able alternatives, ( 4 ) on uncertainty in knowledge about risks and benefits, and ( 5 ) on management issues. there are major advantages in putting the information base into written form as an adjunct to the risk message. a consumer ' s guide to risk and risk commnnication major government and private organizations that sustain risk communication efforts should jointly fund the development of a con - sumer ' s guide to risk and risk communication. the purpose of this guide would be to articulate key terms, concepts, and trade - offs in risk communication and risk management for the lay audience, to ocr for page 13 summary 13 help audiences discern rn ~ sleading and incomplete information, and to facilitate the needed general participation in risk issues. such a guide should ( 1 ) involve support from, but not control by, the fed - eral government and other sources of risk messages ; ( 2 ) be under the editorial control of a group that is clearly oriented toward the recipients of risk messages and under administrative management by an organization that is known for its independence and familiarity with lay perspectives and that can undertake the needed outreach and public information effort ; and ( 3 ) cover subjects such as the nature of risk communication, concepts of zero risk and comparative risk, evaluation of risk messages, and others designated by project participants. research needs as a result of our cleliberations, we have identified nine research topics for attention : ( 1 ) risk comparison, ( 2 ) risk characterization, ( 3 ) role of message intermediaries, ( 4 ) pertinency and sufficiency of risk information, ( 5 ) psychological stress, ( 6 ) the " mental models " of recipients, ( 7 ) risk literacy, ( 8 ) retrospective case studies of risk communication, and ( 9 ) contemporaneous assessment of risk man - agement and risk communication. two criteria guided their selection : ( 1 ) that additional knowledge would lead to material improvement in risk communication practices and ( 2 ) that creation of such knowi - edge is likely given past results and current research methods. we have not assigned


if a powerful hurricane slams the louisiana coast during the republican national convention, the resonances with katrina will be bad enough. but the storm would also showcase the gop ’ s position on climate change, which is, increasingly, to deny the scientific consensus that fossil - fuel pollution contributes to a warming atmosphere and destructive weather patterns — including stronger hurricanes. although scientists caution that no single weather event can be attributed directly to climate change, major events such as katrina and this summer ’ s drought fire up a debate that has become more incendiary in recent years as more republican lawmakers doubt climate science. the question of whether the gop accepts climate science didn ’ t come up in 2008, when hurricane gustav slammed into the gulf coast during the party ’ s minnesota convention. that ’ s because the nominee, sen. john mccain of arizona, believed in climate change and professed a desire to solve it. since then, the mainstream gop view is to deny the scientific findings that link man - made pollution to climate change, and mitt romney has publicly walked back his onetime position that humans contribute to warming. vice presidential nominee paul ryan has also questioned the science. but stronger hurricanes are among the most serious consequences of climate change induced by the burning of fossil fuels ( the romney campaign favors such burning ), and the gulf coast is likely to experience the worst effects, according to a 2012 report by the intergovernmental panel on climate change and a 2009 report authored by 13 federal agencies. kerry emanuel, a climate scientist at the massachusetts institute of technology who has authored one of many reports on the increasing frequency of high - intensity hurricanes, said that the data link warming air and water surfaces to stronger, more devastating hurricanes. “ as the temperature of the tropical ocean increases, you see greater intensity and the frequency of intense storms goes up, ” emanuel said. michael oppenheimer, a professor of geosciences at princeton university and a member of the nobel prize - winning intergovernmental panel on climate change, said the science shows clearly that reducing oil, coal, and gas pollution could help prevent damage related to climate change. “ there ’ s a risk, which scientists have identified, that it ’ s likely we ’ ll have more strong hurricanes, and one of the things we can do to prepare is reduce fossil - fuel emissions, ” he said. “ it ’ s just like building levees. ” environmentalists are targeting republicans for their views. around tampa, the florida wildlife federation has posted billboards of prominent republicans, such as ohio gov


the rate of new hiv infections in the united states remained stable between 2006 and 2009 though infections increased among young black gay and bisexual men, according to a new report from the centers for disease control and prevention. the first multiyear estimate of national hiv incidences found new infections have remained steady with an estimated 50, 000 new infections each year. but the agency expressed concerns about the “ alarming ” rate of new infections among young black gay and bisexual men, where there was a 48 percent increase in new infections between 2006 and 2009. “ blacks account for almost half of all new infections in 2009. the overall infection rate is more than eight times higher than whites, ” cdc ' s joseph prejean told a telephone briefing. prejean attributed the increase in new infections to a lack of access to health care and the stigma surrounding homosexuality and hiv. he also said insular communities make the spread of disease easier. in black communities where blacks are more likely to date other blacks, when an infected person is introduced to the community, disease spreads. “ hiv remains one of the most glaring health disparities in this country, ” said dr. kevin fenton, director of the national center for hiv / aids, viral hepatitis, std and tb prevention at the cdc. “ while we all have individual responsibility to protect ourselves from hiv infection, the research clearly shows that individual risk behavior alone doesn ’ t account for the significant racial disparities in hiv. it is essential to understand the underlying factors that contribute to these disparities, such as poverty, discrimination, and lack of access to health care. ” people of color have been hard hit by the hiv epidemic. though blacks make up about 14 percent of the population, they accounted for about 44 percent of new hiv infections in 2009. black women accounted for 57 percent of all new hiv infections among women in 2009. the infection rate among black women was 15 times that of white women. latinos accounted for 20 percent of new infections in 2009, while making up 16 percent of the population. hiv rates remain highest among gay and bisexual latino men. to address the rate of infections, the cdc is pursuing a “ high - impact prevention ” program, where the agency will reevaluate current prevention activities for their effectiveness, cost, and coverage to get to areas that have a greater need for preventative efforts. fenton said the program will work with primary care physicians and community health clinics to get more americans tested — less than half of the population reports having been tested.


one possible risk factor for tuberculosis is diabetes, a condition characterized by high blood sugar levels and long - term complications involving the circulation, eyes and kidneys, and the body ’ s ability to fight infection. active tuberculosis can be cured by taking a combination of several antibiotics every day for at least six months, and current control efforts [... ] pickled dills in plastic? turmeric is the key to freshness. who knew that a spice used from ancient times as a coloring agent in foods could also keep plastic - packaged dill pickles fresh? unlike glass containers, plastic jars or pouches “ breathe, ” allowing oxygen and other gases to seep inside over time. this can eventually lead to [... ] scientists have found that a modified whey protein prevents breast cancer in some laboratory rats. it ’ s an important medical discovery, considering that 180, 000 u. s. women develop breast cancer each year, and 1 in 8 women will develop breast cancer over her lifetime. breast cancer is a disease where a mutant cell in the breast forms [... ] a study by researchers at the university of southampton has shown evidence of increased levels of hyperactivity in young children consuming mixtures of some artificial food colours ( dyes ) and the preservative sodium benzoate. the possibility of food colours [ dyes ] and preservatives affecting children ’ s behaviour has long been an unresolved question for parents. this significant new [... ] since the discovery of leptin in 1994, many have hoped that the hormone would be a promising weight - loss treatment for humans. leptin acts as a signal to help the body decide when it has eaten enough food to feel full. the amount of leptin in the blood has been directly linked to body fat. the richest food sources of potassium are fruits and vegetables. people who eat large amounts of fruits and vegetables have a high potassium intake ( 8 - 11 grams / day ). ( national academies press ; 2004 : 173 - 246 ). listed below are some food sources high in potassium from the usda national nutrient database. note the potassium content in bananas compared with tomato products. [... ] study shows substantial improvement in autism symptoms with early intervention treatment. intensive intervention given to toddlers with autism as young as three years old can significantly raise iq levels, potentially allowing them to benefit from mainstream education, new research has revealed. researchers at the university of southampton, led by professor bob remington of the school [.


intervention given to toddlers with autism as young as three years old can significantly raise iq levels, potentially allowing them to benefit from mainstream education, new research has revealed. researchers at the university of southampton, led by professor bob remington of the school [... ] rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory disease with three diet - associated aspects. one is elevated resting energy expenditure. another is elevated whole - body protein catabolism – a destructive form of muscle metabolism that translates to muscle wasting. and yet another is low body cell mass, which leads to increased fat mass. for some people, the benefits of [... ] scientists at the university of southampton, funded by the uk ’ s leading dementia research charity, the alzheimer ’ s research trust, are a step closer to understanding why proteins such as ‘ amyloid ’ clog - up the brain in alzheimer ’ s disease. it has been widely reported that drugs that lower cholesterol may slow the progression of alzheimer ’ s disease. the role of cholesterol in alzheimer ’ s disease is attracting increasing attention from researchers and there are conflicting messages coming form a great deal of reports. despite the fact that wide - spread opinion about high levels of cholesterol still remains [... ] natural food may be one of the natural remedies for gout and arthritis pain relief. a study suggests that natural compounds in cherries may reduce painful arthritis inflammation. cherries already have a reputation for fighting inflammation. so what ’ s new about the agricultural research service ( ars ) study carried out by ars scientists and their university colleagues. [... ] mindfulness based cognitive therapy ( mbct ) is a treatment program for prevention of relapses in depression and the treatment of anxiety disorders. is mbct an acceptable intervention to patients with depression and anxiety? the course exercises there was a wide range of views on the course exercises, in particular the body - scan and walking meditation. while some [... ] more fat in the diet decreases leptin levels while a diet higher in carbohydrates increases leptin levels according to a study. leptin, made by the body ’ s fat cells, is thought to help contribute to satiety, a feeling of fullness. an upcoming study should help reveal how two kinds of sugars in our foods, glucose and fructose, affect the body ’ s production of leptin and insulin. agricultural research service chemist nancy l. keim, peter j. havel and


earth day was officially on 22 april, but in many communities and countries around the world it ’ s celebrated for the entire week or month. earth day was founded 40 years ago by u. s. senator gaylord nelson of wisconsin. his goal was to create a grassroots movement that would show the government just how concerned americans were about the environment and get laws enacted that would enforce protection of the earth and its inhabitants – us. by the end of that year, in december 1970, the environmental protection agency opened its doors. a very good start. since that time, there have been many years when there has been little to celebrate. although there has been continual progress, including some milestones, there have also been pretty serious setbacks. for example, of the 80, 000 chemicals that have been produced and used in the u. s. since the toxic substances control act ( tsca ) was enacted 34 years ago, only 200 have been tested by the epa, and only five have been regulated. but in the last year, the epa has undergone some equally serious reform. finally, the agency is really buckling down on toxic chemicals, both in the environment and in consumer goods. there is special attention on children, as it should be. children are most susceptible to toxic chemicals because their bodies are still growing. in the not too distant future, it is our children and grandchildren, the little ones asleep in their cribs right now, who will lead the way in politics, as teachers, as firefighters, artists, business owners and so on, and so on. to do their jobs well, to achieve their goals and have a satisfying, happy and productive life, they need to be healthy. at naturepedic, we celebrate earth day every day. we give children a healthy start in life by manufacturing our award - winning organic baby crib mattresses that are certified by greenguard and enjoy the unique distinction of being the only crib mattress recommended by healthy child healthy world. do you have a naturepedic mattress for your infant or toddler? if not, you might want to celebrate earth day / week / month by checking them out at http : / / www. naturepedic. com. you can also celebrate earth day by working on creating a personal environment that is more chemical - free. it really doesn ’ t take much to get a good start. read going green in 2010 – a few simple things with a big impact for some helpful hints that make a real difference. start now, and next year your family will also have


obs via google maps oil & gas adcp ship obs report obs web widget ndbc on facebook ndbc dqc handbook hurricane data plots handbook no. 1 see recent photos from tao buoy 8n 110w how can i compute the distance from a buoy to shore, an inlet, or another reference location? often, when you ask us how far a buoy is away from a location, we don ' t know the exact location of the jetty, inlet, or the point on shore that you are referring to. we ' d hate to guess and give you the wrong information. however, it ' s fairly easy to determine this yourself if you can find the latitude and longitude of your reference position. copy the station ' s latitude and longitude from the station page. next, look up the latitude and longitude of the inlet, lighthouse, town, or other geographic feature you are interested in. you can find these on noaa nautical charts : http : / / chartmaker. ncd. noaa. gov / staff / charts. htm provides a listing of these charts which you can purchase. when you have this information, do an internet search for a " great circle calculator " and go to one of the web sites featuring this type of calculator. here ' s a great circle calculator offered by noaa ' s national hurricane center : http : / / www. nhc. noaa. gov / gccalc. shtml. then, enter the latitude and longitude of our buoy and the position of your reference location. the calculator will provide the distance in in your choice of units.


netwellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. netwellness is commercial - free and does not accept advertising. saturday, may 18, 2013 addiction and substance abuse later effects of substance abuse my husband actively abused drugs and alcohol from his teens to early 30 ` s. he ` s now in his 50 ` s and is having memory problems along with other physical ailments. i wondered if there have been studies done to understand the long term effects ( especially on the brain ) of substance abuse ; and what the difference is with later long term abstinence. thank you for your question about what sounds like a very difficult situation. there are some things that are known... and some that are unknown. 1 ) alcohol abuse is by far the most damaging to the brain and nervous system, and tends to be an immediate thing - meaning that once a person is sober for several months, the toxic effects of alcohol either " freeze " where they are or even resolve gradually to some degree. it is not typical for past alcohol problems to produce progressive / new / on - going brain effects. 2 ) the drugs that have the most brain effects are pcp / lsd / marijuana / and amphetamines - especially methamphetamine. generally cocaine and opioids ( heroin and other prescription pain medicines ) do not produce long - term damage to the brain / nervous system. 3 ) if a person suffered pretty severe liver damage from either alcoholic cirrhosis, or hepatitis c or b, or a combination, then this can certainly produce progressive deterioration in brain function many years to decades later. it is the same situation if a person was infected by hiv as a consequence of their addictive disease. that is the bad news. the good news is that if he is truly sober, then be sure that none of the following reversible or fairly treatable causes are not active for him. be sure that he is : - not on prescription drugs that are potentially addictive. - not on other non - addictive medicines that can cause brain function problems. ( anything from some blood pressure medications to psychiatric medications to anti - seizure medications can cause brain function problems and result in deterioration. ) - receiving plenty of vitamins and a well - balanced diet. - not hypothyroid. - not depressed or impaired from any other psychiatric disease. - not suffering from low oxygen ( emphysema / copd ). - not suffering from a toxic exposure like heavy metals


california, the largest and most important of the pacific coast states, is the second state of the united states in point of area, and the twenty - first in point of population. it is bounded on the north by the state of oregon ; on the east by the state of nevada and, for a comparatively short distance, by the territory of arizona ; on the south by the peninsula of lower california ( mexico ) ; and on the west by the pacific ocean. it lies entirely between 42° and 32° n. lat., and between 12°5 and 11°3 w. long. it is 800 miles long, running in a north - westerly and south - easterly direction, and has an average width of 200 miles. according to the official returns of the united states census of 1900, its total area is 158, 360 square miles. of this number 2, 188 square miles constitute the water area ; the total land area, therefore, is 156, 172 square miles. the capital of the state is sacramento, with a population ( 1900 ) of 29, 000. san francisco, built on san francisco bay, is the metropolis, with a population ( 1900 ) of 342, 000. the other chief cities, with a population according to the united states census of 1900, are los angeles, 102, 000 ; oakland, 66, 000 ; san jose, 21, 000 ; san diego, 17, 000 ; stockton, 17, 000 ; alameda, 17, 000 ; berkeley and fresno, 12, 000. these figures have been enormously increased since 1900. the estimated population of the three largest cities in january, 1907, was as follows : san francisco, 400, 000 ; oakland, 276, 000 ; and los angeles, 245, 000. the state presents two systems of mountains which converge at mount shasta, in the north, and tehachapi, in the south. the outer, or western, range is called the coast range, and is close to the sea, in some places coming down precipitately to the water ' s edge ; the eastern range is called the sierra nevada. the latter is considerably higher than the former, and in several peaks reaches a height of more than 14, 000 feet. the sierra nevadas extend along the eastern border of the state for about 450 miles ; they are but a portion, physically, of the cascade range, which traverses also the states of oregon and washington. the sierra nevada range is practically unbroken throughout the entire length of the state of california,


border of the state for about 450 miles ; they are but a portion, physically, of the cascade range, which traverses also the states of oregon and washington. the sierra nevada range is practically unbroken throughout the entire length of the state of california, the coast range is broken by the magnificent harbour of san francisco. both of these ranges follow the general contour of the coast line. between them lies a great valley which is drained by the sacramento river in the north and the san joaquin river in the south. these two rivers, navigable by steamers for about 100 miles from their mouth in san francisco bay, constitute a great parent water - system of california, and both empty into the harbour of san francisco, which is situated approximately midway between the northern and southern extremities of the state. the sierra nevada mountains form the great watershed from which are fed most of the rivers and streams of california. the combined valleys of the sacramento and the san joaquin rivers are approximately 500 miles long, and have an average width of 50 miles. this area, the surface of which is quite level, is one of the most fertile regions in the world. in addition to those already mentioned, the divisions of the mountain ranges form numerous smaller valleys. the principal of these are sonoma, napa, ukiah, vaca, contra costa, and alameda valleys in the north ; and santa clara, pajaro, and salinas valleys in the south. south of the tehachapi range, in southern california, is another low - lying stretch of country which has become the centre of the citrus industry and the home of a large variety of semi - tropical fruits. in the south - eastern part of the state and east of the mountains is the low - lying desert region consisting of the mojave desert and death valley. owing to the great height of the sierra nevada mountains and their comparative proximity to the sea, the numerous streams, fed from their glaciers and perpetual snows, afford abundant water - power throughout their steep descent to the sea. this power is utilized for generating light and operating mills and factories. california has one of the finest harbours in the world, san francisco bay, capable of accommodating the combined navies of the world. there are five other bays forming good harbours, san diego, san pedro, humboldt, santa barbara, and monterey bays. the 800 miles of california ' s length from north to south are equal to the combined length of ten states on the atlantic seaboard ; the northern line of california is on


, san diego, san pedro, humboldt, santa barbara, and monterey bays. the 800 miles of california ' s length from north to south are equal to the combined length of ten states on the atlantic seaboard ; the northern line of california is on the same latitude as boston, and the southern line is that of savannah, georgia. the entire state is subject to the beneficent influence of the japan current. the climate is equable ; except in the high mountains, snow and the extremes of cold, experienced in the same latitudes on the atlantic coast, are unknown. there are, in reality, but two seasons : the wet and the dry. the wet or rainy season lasts from about september to april, during which the rains are occasional, alternating with clear weather. during the entire summer the winds from the west and south - west blow over the coast, keeping the weather cool, and not infrequently bringing in cold fogs towards evening. but it is chiefly in the balminess of its winters that the climate of california excels. it is never too cold to work outdoors, and the citrus fruits, semi - tropical as they are, grow to perfection throughout the valleys of california. the records of the climate left by early franciscan missionaries who evangelized california are duplicated by those of the government weather bureau of today. the population of california, according to the united states census of 1900, is 1, 485, 053, or 9. 5 per square mile. this figure constitutes an increase of 22. 7 percent upon the population of 1890. the following table, taken from the united states census of 1900, exhibits the population of california in each census year since its admission into the federal union, its rank among the states in point of population, and the percentage of increase in its population during the period of ten years between each census : | year | | rank | | population | | percentage of increase | the census of 1900 also presents the following details of population : ( a ) white, 1, 402, 727 ; african, 11, 045 ; indian, 15, 377 ; chinese, 45, 753 ; japanese, 10, 151. ( b ) native - born, 1, 117, 813 ; foreign - born, 367, 240 ; ( c ) males, 820, 531 ; females, 664, 522. the estimated population of california ( january, 1907 ) is 2, 217, 897, an increase of 732, 844,


367, 240 ; ( c ) males, 820, 531 ; females, 664, 522. the estimated population of california ( january, 1907 ) is 2, 217, 897, an increase of 732, 844, or 49. 3 percent since the census of 1900. the soil of the state of california is rich and highly productive. it consists for the most part of alluvial deposits. this is especially true of the delta lands of the sacramento and san joaquin rivers. much of the so - called desert land consists of a rich subsoil covered with but a thin crust of sand. the value of irrigation in making this desert land productive, as well as in enriching the soil by bearing to it the washed - out life - principles from the uplands, is almost incalculable. the soil readily responds to the plough, and there is no hard, tough subsoil to be turned and mellowed. california has approximately 40, 000, 000 acres of arable land. to this must be added fully 10, 000, 000 acres of its so - called desert land, which needs but the touch of water from its irrigation systems to make it as productive as the valley or farm lands. the remaining 50, 000, 000 acres of california ' s domain, the mountainous and desert acreage, afford pasturage for millions of cattle and sheep. the chief products of the soil of california are hay, grain, fruits, wines, lumber, dairy produce, and livestock. it may be safely said that, in the combined values of these products, california is the richest in the united states. ships loaded with her grain at san francisco bay carry their precious cargoes to every port in the world ; her fruits, packed in special cars and shipped by fast freight, are the first choice in chicago and new york, and find a ready market in london ; her wines have given a standard of excellence to american wines, and " american wines " means " california wines " the world over. the total value of all california ' s agricultural products, according to the census of 1900, was $ 131, 690, 606. the value of the output in 1906 reached the total of $ 213, 000, 000. the following table presents the total output of agricultural products in detail for the year 1906 : asparagus 23, 000, 000 pounds almonds 4, 200, 000 pounds apricots 585, 000 pounds apples 132, 455, 000 pounds beans 125, 000,


total output of agricultural products in detail for the year 1906 : asparagus 23, 000, 000 pounds almonds 4, 200, 000 pounds apricots 585, 000 pounds apples 132, 455, 000 pounds beans 125, 000, 000 pounds barley 24, 000, 000 bushels brandy 4, 070, 992 gallons citrus fruits 18, 220, 000 boxes canned fruits and veg. 4, 475, 751 cases corn 2, 000, 000 bushels cherries 5, 382, 000 pounds figs 45, 000 pounds grapes 73, 224, 000 pounds hops 73, 000 bales hay 3, 000, 000 tonnes lumber 900, 000, 000 feet pears 54, 390, 000 pounds peaches 21, 015, 000 pounds plums 43, 938, 000 pounds prunes 180, 000, 000 pounds raisins 100, 000, 000 pounds other dried fruit 41, 000, 000 pounds olive oil 51, 000 gallons potatoes 6, 500, 000 bushels walnuts 12, 800, 000 pounds wool 22, 000, 000 pounds wheat 4, 700, 000 centals wine 41, 000, 000 gallons the total annual output of fruit from california farms is $ 40, 000, 000, and this is made up of all known fruits that grow in temperate and semi - tropical climates. in the year 1906 there were 30, 000, 000 fruit trees in california ; this figure does not include nuts, figs, olives, or berries. six million of these fruit trees belong to santa clara valley alone. the principal fruit trees are as follows : apple trees, 4, 000, 000 ; apricot trees, 3, 500, 000 ; cherry trees, 1, 000, 000 ; peach trees, 4, 500, 000 ; pear trees, 2, 000, 000 ; orange trees, 6, 000, 000 ; lemon trees, 2, 000, 000. there are 272, 500 acres of land devoted to the cultivation of grapes : 250, 000 for wine, and 22, 500 for table grapes. the total value of the output in manufactures in 1900, according to the census, was $ 302, 874, 761. in 1906 it amounted to $ 400, 000, 000. the chief elements contributing to california ' s success in manufactures are an abundance of raw material from her soil, cheap fuel from her forests, and cheap power from her streams. the heaviest items of manufacture are sugar, lumber and timber products, flour, machinery, and leather goods


to california ' s success in manufactures are an abundance of raw material from her soil, cheap fuel from her forests, and cheap power from her streams. the heaviest items of manufacture are sugar, lumber and timber products, flour, machinery, and leather goods. during 1906 the total output of sugar was 62, 110 tons. the discovery of rich deposits of petroleum has given an impetus to manufactures that is already far - reaching in its results. in 1900 there were 12, 582 manufacturing plants in california, representing a total investment of $ 205, 395, 025, and giving employment to 98, 931 persons ; the sum paid out for labour was $ 55, 786, 776, and for materials, $ 188, 125, 602. mining is still one of the most important industries of california, notwithstanding that the flood of population first lured to her mountains by the discovery of gold has long ago been turned to agriculture and commerce. there are some forty - seven mineral substances now being mined in the state. the value of the total output in 1900 was $ 28, 870, 405. in 1906 it was over $ 54, 000, 000. gold, petroleum, and copper are now the most valuable items of this output. in the same year there were 1, 107 producing mines in the state. the value of the gold output was $ 19, 700, 000 ; silver, $ 2, 460, 000 ; copper, $ 3, 750, 000 ; quicksilver, $ 904, 000 ; petroleum, $ 10, 000, 000. it is estimated that in the petroleum industry alone the total investment is more than $ 20, 000, 000 ; 35, 000, 000 barrels of oil were produced in 1906. there are also large and valuable deposits of brick and pottery clays, lime, asphaltum, bitumen, and iron ore. twenty - two per cent of the area of the state is forest - clad, and the importance of the lumber industry in california increases each year as the mountains of the east and the north are denuded of their trees. california is the home of the redwood ( sequoia ). these remarkable trees attain a height of three hundred feet in the famous groves of big trees in mariposa and calveras counties. redwood and pine are the two principle woods. it is estimated that, without the growth of another tree, the forests of california can not be exhausted for two hundred years. san francisco alone sends 400, 000, 000 feet of lumber to the world each year. the


are the two principle woods. it is estimated that, without the growth of another tree, the forests of california can not be exhausted for two hundred years. san francisco alone sends 400, 000, 000 feet of lumber to the world each year. the total output of the state for 1906 was 900, 000, 000 feet. there are $ 16, 000, 000 invested in the industry, 250 mills, and the value of the total output, together with the by - products of the forests, is $ 17, 000, 000 - - the lumber itself amounting to $ 8, 500, 000. throughout the splendid harbour of san francisco passes by far the greatest part of the ocean commerce of california, as well as of the entire pacific coast. the harbours of the state now carry on an ocean commerce of about $ 100, 000, 000 per year, the precise figure for 1906 being : imports $ 49, 193, 303 ; exports $ 45, 479, 422. the total foreign commerce of the state for 1900 was $ 119, 212, 911, and in 1906 san francisco was fourth among the cities of the united states in point of customs receipts. besides the ocean commerce of california with every port of the world which passes through her harbours, she has direct communication by rail with every quarter of the united states. four great transcontinental railroads carry her goods and passengers to and from her cities, and a fifth is now ( 1907 ) nearing completion. in 1900 the total railroad mileage of the state was 5, 532. the educational system of the state commences with primary schools and continues through grammar schools and high schools, culminating in the state university. these are all public schools, being supported by the state and counties, and affording free education to all. the state constitution creates the office of superintendent of public instruction ; it also provides for a superintendent of schools for each of the fifty - seven counties of the state. it makes provision for the maintenance of the public school system, and directs that the proceeds of all public lands and of all escheated estates shall be appropriated to the support of the common schools. the state university is situated at berkeley on the bay of san francisco. it was created by act of the legislature on 23, march, 1868, and this act is confirmed by the present constitution ( that of 1879 ), making the organization and government of the university perpetual. the university is designed for the education of male and female students alike, and in fact the principle of co - education is recognized and put


act is confirmed by the present constitution ( that of 1879 ), making the organization and government of the university perpetual. the university is designed for the education of male and female students alike, and in fact the principle of co - education is recognized and put in practice in nearly all state educational institutions. the total number of professors, including the various officers of instruction and research, in the university of california, for the year ending 30 june, 1906, was 318, as follows : academic, 252 ; art, 9 ; lick astronomical observatory, 9 ; law, 6 ; medicine, 34 ; pharmacy, 8. the total number of students for the same period was 3, 338, of whom 2, 007 were men, and 1, 331 women, the women being nearly 40 percent of the total enrollment. this percentage is far higher in the colleges of letters, social sciences, and natural sciences, in which, as an average, the women outnumber the men more than two to one. the college of agriculture, as well as several other technological colleges, including the college of mechanics, the college of mining, the college of commerce, the college of civil engineering, and the college of chemistry, are designed to afford a complete technical training in their respective branches. the affiliated colleges of the university, being the schools of law, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, are situated in san francisco ; there are several experiment stations for which the university receives $ 15, 000 annually from the federal government ; and there is a state university farm of 780 acres at davisville. the university has been the recipient of munificent endowments both from the state and from private persons. in addition to these, and the proceeds of public land already mentioned, a direct tax of two cents on every $ 100 of taxable property in the state is levied, and applied to the support of the university. but four of the fifty - seven counties of the state have no high school, and some counties have several. there are also five normal schools, situated respectively at san francisco, los angeles, san jose, san diego, and chico. in addition to these there are night schools, technical schools, and commercial schools in all the large cities of the state. the public school system of the state was founded in the constitutional convention at monterey, in september, 1849. the 500, 000 acres of land granted by congress to new states for the purpose of internal improvement were appropriated to constitute a perpetual school fund. it was also provided that a school should be kept in each district


convention at monterey, in september, 1849. the 500, 000 acres of land granted by congress to new states for the purpose of internal improvement were appropriated to constitute a perpetual school fund. it was also provided that a school should be kept in each district at least three months each year to secure any share of the state school funds. in the school year ending 30 june, 1906, there were 3, 227 primary and grammar schools in the state, and 117 high schools. the total number of teachers in the public schools was 9, 371 ; the total number of pupils, 321, 870. the total number of pupils in private schools was 43, 080. california has been more than lavish in her provision for her public school system. the total income of her public schools during the scholastic year 1905 - 06 was $ 11, 494, 670. 29. the total value of public school property for the same year was $ 23, 860, 341. this does not include the state university. the total income of the state university for the same period was $ 1, 564, 190. the leland stanford junior university is situated at palo alto. it was founded by mr. and mrs. leland stanford as a memorial to their only child. the total value of the endowments given to the university by its founders reaches the astonishing figure of $ 26, 000, 000. like the university of california, it is co - educational, but the number of women students is limited to 500. the university was opened to students in 1891. the work of religious education in california is confined almost exclusively to institutions under catholic auspices. in california the catholic church, notwithstanding that she receives no financial aid from the state, and that the support of her schools and colleges must be derived entirely from contributions of the faithful, has done great things in the cause of christian education. the great pioneers of catholic education in california were the jesuits. in 1851 santa clara college was founded by the venerable father john nobili, s. j. this was followed, four years later, by the establishment of st. ignatius college in san francisco under the leadership of the rev. anthony maraschi, s. j. from the days of these small beginnings the zeal of those charged with the education of catholic youth has been untiring, progress has been steady, and the results already achieved have more than compensated for the sacrifices and expenditures which the work entailed. the following figures for the year 1907 will give some idea of the importance of catholic education in california : 1


san francisco was founded in 1776. for fifteen years the saintly man laboured in california with apostolic zeal, and at the time of his death in 1784, he established nine missions between san diego and san francisco. the total number of missions founded in california by the franciscans was twenty - one, and they extended from sonoma in the north to san diego in the south. prominent among them were santa clara, san luis, obispo, santa barbara, and san juan capistrano. the missions were all established under the sovereignty of the king of spain ; each mission had its church, a residence for the fathers, a presidio, or military guard, and shops and workrooms for the indians, who, besides receiving instruction in the faith, were taught the useful arts of civilization. ( see california missions. ) each mission was established in conjunction with a spanish settlement under a civil governor, and during this period, the immigration was almost exclusively spanish and mexican. in 1822 california ceased to be a spanish colony and became part of the territory of mexico. from that date begins the decline of the missions ; the policy of the government became one of annoyance, interference, and aggression. finally, in 1834, began the secularization of the missions, which was in fact their downright confiscation. the fathers were deprived of their lands and buildings ; and the indians freed from the benevolent government of the friars. the results were disastrous. the indians were scattered and dispersed, and many of them lapsed into barbarism. the missions themselves were destroyed. this confiscation forms one of the saddest injustices in history. the temporal wrongs done at this time were partially righted in 1902 by the award of the international tribunal of arbitration at the hague, in the case of the pious fund, which adjudged the payment by mexico to the united states for the catholic church in california, of the accrued interest of the fund. when taken over by president santa anna in 1842, the total value of the pious fund estates was estimated at $ 1, 700, 000. in 1826 the first emigrant train of americans entered the present territory of california. from that year onward there was a gradual influx of americans, most of whom engaged in trading, hunting, prospecting, cattle - raising, and farming. as the american population increased there were frequent misunderstandings and clashes with the mexican authorities, some of them not altogether creditable to the americans. commodore jones made an unauthorized seizure of monterey in 1842. the


prospecting, cattle - raising, and farming. as the american population increased there were frequent misunderstandings and clashes with the mexican authorities, some of them not altogether creditable to the americans. commodore jones made an unauthorized seizure of monterey in 1842. the united states government subsequently disavowed his acts and made apologies to mexico. in 1846 a party of americans seized sonoma, captured the commandant, and proclaimed the independence of the republic of california. the young republic chose the bear flag as its emblem. in a few weeks news was received of hostilities between the united states and mexico ; the bear flag gave place to the american flag ; and monterey, san francisco, sonoma, and sutter ' s fort were soon in the hands of the americans. california was finally ceded to the united states, on the conclusion of the war with mexico, by the treaty of guadeloupe hidalgo, proclaimed 4 july, 1848. in january, 1848, gold was discovered by james w. coloma, on the american river. the news spread like wildfire, and by the early part of 1849 a mighty tide of immigration had set in. the gold - seekers came from every section of the united states, and from europe. in that year more than 80, 000 men arrived in california. these men were afterwards called the " forty - niners ". some of them came from australia ; some, from new york and europe by way of cape horn ; some crossed the isthmus of panama ; while a large number came across the plains in caravans, on horseback, and even on foot. fortune awaited thousands of these pioneers in the rich placer mines, and california became the richest gold - producing state in the united states. but thousands of those who were unsuccessful in their quest for gold, found even greater and more lasting wealth in tilling the rich soil and engaging in commerce. after the excitement caused by the discovery of gold had subsided, a steady stream of immigration began, and continues to the present time. the foreign immigrants have been chiefly irish, german, english, canadian, italian, and french, though there are also considerable numbers of portuguese and swedes. as shown in the tables already presented, more than seventy five percent of the total population in 1900 was native - born. so rapid was the growth of population after the discovery of gold, that in 1849 a constitution was adopted by the convention at monterey, and california was admitted into the union of states by act of congress on 9 september, 1850. that day has ever since been a legal


the growth of population after the discovery of gold, that in 1849 a constitution was adopted by the convention at monterey, and california was admitted into the union of states by act of congress on 9 september, 1850. that day has ever since been a legal holiday, and is generally celebrated and referred to as admission day. peter h. burnett was elected first governor of the new state and served during 1851 and 1852. all sorts of men found their way into the new el dorado, as it was called. most of them were hardy, industrious, and honest - - these were the true pioneers. but there was a considerable admixture of the reckless and daredevil element, criminals and desperadoes, who sought fortune and adventure in the new gold diggings. in 1851 there was a veritable carnival of crime in san francisco which the lawfully constituted authorities were unable to suppress. the citizens of the city organized themselves into a vigilance committee and punished crimes and criminals in summary fashion. the members of the committee were known as " vigilantes ", and were for the most part honest and reputable men, who resorted to these measures only from motives of necessity and duty, in the disturbed condition of the government. a similar condition arose again in 1856 and was met by the same remedy. it must be said that the trials of the vigilance committee, while informal, were in the main fair, and the punishments inflicted richly deserved. large numbers of chinese coolies had emigrated to california ever since 1850 ; the influx was greatest during the building of the central pacific railroad which was completed in 1869. a strong anti - chinese sentiment developed, due chiefly to three principal objections made against them : they worked for wages much lower than white men ; they spent little of their earnings ; they rarely established homes, but lived together in large numbers and in unclean surroundings. the agitation grew to tremendous proportions, provoked serious riots, and finally resulted in the so - called chinese exclusion acts which have been enacted periodically by congress since 1882. there were at one time over 100, 000 chinese in california. in 1900 the number had decreased to 45, 753 ; and it is now ( 1907 ) much smaller. in 1891 the australian ballot was introduced at state elections. among other important political events of the last twenty - five years was the prohibition of hydraulic mining, which had destroyed immense areas for agriculture and had choked up river beds with the accumulation of detritus ; also the passage of numerous beneficial laws for the promotion of irrigation


important political events of the last twenty - five years was the prohibition of hydraulic mining, which had destroyed immense areas for agriculture and had choked up river beds with the accumulation of detritus ; also the passage of numerous beneficial laws for the promotion of irrigation, for the fumigation of fruit trees, and for the importation of predatory insects for the purpose of destroying insect pests. the present constitution of california was adopted in 1879. during the spanish - american war and the subsequent american occupation of the philippines, san francisco has been the chief depot for the transportation of troops and supplies. on 18 april, 1906, one of the greatest earthquakes recorded in history visited the coast of california ; it was most severe in san francisco. fire started simultaneously in a dozen quarters and burned incessantly for three days. all but the western and southern parts of the city were consumed. the city, as a city, was destroyed. the loss of life is estimated at 500, and of property at $ 500, 000, 000. more than 300, 000 people left the city after the fire. over 200, 000 of these have returned, and incredible strides have been made in rehabilitating the city. nearly $ 200, 000, 000 have been expended ( december, 1907 ) on improvements in the 497 city blocks that were destroyed. the territory of the state of california is divided, ecclesiastically, into the archdiocese of san francisco, the diocese of monterey and los angeles, and the diocese of sacramento. the first includes the city of san francisco and the central and more westerly counties of the state. the second includes all of southern california. the third embraces the entire northern part of the state, as well as nearly half of the state of nevada. with the exception of the diocese of sacramento, their boundaries are conterminous with those of the state. the diocese of salt lake, in utah, and the dioceses of sacramento and of monterey and los angeles are suffragan to the archdiocese of san francisco. the catholic population of california is estimated at 344, 000 ( 1906 ), made up as follows : archdiocese of san francisco, 227, 000 ; diocese of sacramento, 42, 000 ; diocese of monterey and los angeles, 75, 000. by far the greater portion of these are white, the total of blacks, indians, and chinese being less than five percent. from 1769, the year which saw the foundation of san diego, until the second expedition of fremont ( 1846 ), the settlers and immigrants were chiefly catholic, being


are white, the total of blacks, indians, and chinese being less than five percent. from 1769, the year which saw the foundation of san diego, until the second expedition of fremont ( 1846 ), the settlers and immigrants were chiefly catholic, being natives of spain and mexico. the discovery of gold in 1848 was immediately followed by an inrush of thousands of immigrants. these gold - seekers were mostly americans, but there was also a large proportion of foreigners. from that time until the present, the immigration has been steadily on the increase, the catholic part of it being chiefly irish, irish - american, italian, french, and german. the first governor of california, peter h. burnett, was a convert to the catholic faith. stephen m. white, who represented california in the senate of the united states, was one of the first graduates of the jesuit college at santa clara. he was an astute lawyer, a brilliant orator, and a tireless worker. e. w. mckinstry, like judge burnett, was a convert to the faith ; and like him, also, was a member of the supreme bench. judge mckinstry was a man of deep erudition, a fine constitutional lawyer, and an exemplary catholic. w. g. lorigan, a catholic, was also chosen to the supreme bench. joseph mckenna, another california catholic, became a justice of the supreme court of the united states ( 1898 ), and james f. smith, general in the united states army, member of the philippine commission, and governor - general of the philippine islands, is another alumnus of santa clara college. garret w. mcenerney, one of the leaders of the california bar, who won international fame by his masterful presentation of the claims of the catholic church in california to the pious fund ( q. v. ) before the tribunal arbitration at the hague in 1902, graduated at st. mary ' s college. the following statistics of the catholic church in california are taken from the catholic directory for 1907 : archbishop, 1 ; bishops, 2 ; total priests, 488 ; secular, 321 ; religious, 167 ; total churches, 366 ; churches with resident priests, 209 ; missions with churches, 157 ; stations, 119 ; seminary, 1 ; seminaries of religious orders, 5 ; colleges and academies for boys, 11 ; academies for young ladies, 47 ; parishes with parochial schools, 73 ; orphan asylums, 12 ; total young people under catholic care, 31, 814 ; catholic population, 344,


religious orders, 5 ; colleges and academies for boys, 11 ; academies for young ladies, 47 ; parishes with parochial schools, 73 ; orphan asylums, 12 ; total young people under catholic care, 31, 814 ; catholic population, 344, 000. there are houses or monasteries of jesuits, dominicans, franciscans, paulists, marists, selesians, christian brothers, and brothers of mary. the catholic sisterhoods are almost all represented. the total number of churches was 1505 ; total value of church property, $ 11, 961, 914 ; total number of communicants, 280, 619. of course, these figures have been greatly increased since that time. catholics do not recognize any such enumeration as " communicants " ; the total for this head therefore underestimates the catholic population. | denomination | | organization | | churches | | value of church property | | number of communicants | the constitutional provision safeguarding religious freedom is ample and specific. it reads as follows : " the free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall be forever guaranteed by this state ; and no person shall be rendered incompetent to be a witness or juror on account of his opinions on matters of religious belief ; but the liberty of conscience hereby secured shall not be so construed as to excuse acts of licentiousness, or justify practices inconsistent with the peace or safety of this state. " the constitution prohibits the appropriation of money from the state treasury for the use or benefit of any corporation, association, asylum, hospital, or any other institution not under the exclusive management and control of the state as a state institution. but there is, nevertheless, a proviso authorizing the granting of state aid to institutions conducted for the support of maintenance of " minor orphans, or half - orphans, or abandoned children, or aged persons in indigent circumstances ". the constitution also expressly prohibits the appropriation of money in support of any sectarian creed, church, or school. the policy of the state is to afford the fullest measure of religious liberty to all, to discriminate in favour of, or against, no one on account of religious belief, and not to permit the power or resources of the state to be used for the propagation of any form of religion or for the benefit of any religious institution. every sunday is by express legislative enactment a legal holiday ( civil code, 7 ) ; on


, and not to permit the power or resources of the state to be used for the propagation of any form of religion or for the benefit of any religious institution. every sunday is by express legislative enactment a legal holiday ( civil code, 7 ) ; on that day all courts are closed, and business is universally suspended. any act required by law or contract to be done or performed on a particular day which happens to fall on a sunday, may be done or performed on the next day with full legal effect. but there is no law compelling the religious observance of sunday, and contracts, deeds, wills, notes, etc. executed on sunday are just as valid as if executed on any other day. but, while there is no sunday law, properly so - called, there is an act of the legislature passed 27 february, 1893, securing to all employees one day ' s rest in seven, and making it a misdemeanor to violate the provisions of the act. the code of civil procedure provides that " every court, every judge or clerk of any court, every justice and every notary public, and every officer or person authorized to take testimony in any action or proceeding, or to decide upon evidence, has power to administer oaths or affirmations ". any person who desires it may, at his option, instead of taking an oath, make his affirmation. the bible is not used in administering oaths ; in judicial proceedings, the witness raises his right hand and the clerk or judge swears him " to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, so help you god ". to make a willfully false statement after having taken an oath or affirmation, before an officer authorized to administer it, to testify to the truth, is perjury, a felony punishable by imprisonment in the state ' s prison for from one to fourteen years. the penal code makes it a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of $ 200 or imprisonment for ninety days, to utter profane language in the presence or hearing of women and children ( penal code, sect. 415 ). the supreme court of the state, in the case of delaney, ex parte, california reports, vol. xliii, page 478, has held it to be within the power of a municipal corporation empowered by its charter to prohibit practices which are against good morals, to prohibit and punish the utterance of profane language. the entire matter of profane language is generally left to the control of


held it to be within the power of a municipal corporation empowered by its charter to prohibit practices which are against good morals, to prohibit and punish the utterance of profane language. the entire matter of profane language is generally left to the control of the local authorities, and most of the counties and cities have ordinances prohibiting and punishing it. it is customary to open the sessions of the legislature with prayer, though there is no provision of law either requiring or prohibiting the practice. there is no recognition of any religious holidays, by name, except sunday. new years ' day and christmas are both holidays, but they are described in the civil code merely as " the first day of january... and the twenty - fifth day of december ". it must be said that the same rule is observed in the code in referring to the other legal holidays. washington ' s birthday, memorial day, independence day, etc. are simply the twenty - second day of february, the thirtieth day of may, the fourth day of july, etc. the seal of confession has the full sanction and protection of the law. it occupies the same position in the eyes of the law as communications made to attorneys and physicians in their professional capacities. it is the policy of the law to encourage these confidential or privileged communications, as they are called, and to keep them inviolate. section 1881 of the code of civil procedure provides that a priest cannot be examined as to any confession made to him, as such, by a penitent. the laws governing the incorporation of churches, and religious societies and providing for the protection and management of church property are both beneficent and effective. the civil code ( section 602 ) provides that any bishop, chief priest, or presiding elder, may become a sole corporation by complying with certain simple legal formalities. thereafter, the usual attributes of corporation aggregate attach, mutatis mutandis, to the corporation sole. under this statute all catholic church property in the archdiocese of san francisco is held in the name of " the roman catholic archbishop of san francisco ", a corporation sole. upon the death of the incumbent, his successor, properly appointed and qualified, takes the place of his predecessor, and no probate or other proceedings are required to vest the title to the church property which, in contemplation of law, remains always in the corporation sole, regardless of who may be, for the time being, the incumbent. in addition to the laws governing corporations sole, there are very


vest the title to the church property which, in contemplation of law, remains always in the corporation sole, regardless of who may be, for the time being, the incumbent. in addition to the laws governing corporations sole, there are very liberal statutes authorizing the incorporation of single churches, as well as of religious, charitable, and educational associations, and the holding of property by such corporations ; also authorizing the consolidation of two or more churches or parishes into one corporation. under the law of california, therefore, the property interests of the church are jealously safeguarded, and she is free to hold her church property in either of the methods above pointed out. prior to the year 1900, california stood alone among the states of the union in taxing church property in the same manner and at the same rate as business or residence property. on 6 november, 1900, the people of the state adopted an amendment to the constitution, providing that " all buildings, and so much of the real property on which they are situated as may be required for the convenient use and occupation of said buildings, when the same are used solely and exclusively for religious worship, shall be free from taxation ". the residences of the clergy, the hospitals, orphanages, refuges, asylums, and all other institutions which are devoted to charitable or eleemosynary objects, but which are not used " solely and exclusively for religious worship ", are still subject to taxation as before. the law exempts " ministers of religion " from military duty ; and " a minister of the gospel, or a priest of any denomination following his profession " is exempt from jury duty. the civil code defines marriage as " a personal relation arising out of a civil contract, to which the consent of parties capable of making that contract is necessary. consent alone will not constitute marriage ; it must be followed by a solemnization authorized by this code " ( 55 ). this section of the code formerly permitted " a mutual assumption of marital rights, duties or obligations " to take the place of a solemnization. in other words, the so - called common - law marriages were permitted, and their validity upheld, by the laws of the state. but the difficulty of determining just what constituted " a mutual assumption of marital rights, duties or obligations ", and the numerous and scandalous cases of intrigue, temporary or illicit relations, hasty, ill - advised, and clandestine unions, with their consequent perplexing questions of legitimacy, succession, property rights, and the status of the


", and the numerous and scandalous cases of intrigue, temporary or illicit relations, hasty, ill - advised, and clandestine unions, with their consequent perplexing questions of legitimacy, succession, property rights, and the status of the parties themselves, convinced the leading minds of california that the position of the catholic church on the necessity of the public safeguards with which she protects the marriage ceremony, is the only wise and safe one. accordingly, in 1895, the legislature amended the law, and made it necessary that the consent of the parties to the marriage be evidenced by a solemnization of the marriage. no particular form of solemnization is required, but the parties must declare in the presence of the person solemnizing the marriage that they take each other as husband and wife. marriages may be solemnized by a priest, or a minister of any denomination, or by a justice or judge of any court. a license must first be obtained, and the person solemnizing the marriage must attach his written certificate to the license, certifying to the fact, the time, and the place of, and the names and residences of the parties and the witnesses to, the marriage. the license and certificate must then be recorded with the county recorder. under these stringent rules little or no difficulty is found in proving a marriage ; and all relations between the sexes are simply meretricious unless the parties avail themselves of the legal requirements of solemnization of marriage. there is a charitable provision of the law, designed for the benefit of innocent offspring, to the effect that all children of a marriage void in law or dissolved by divorce are legitimate. the age of consent to marriage is eighteen in males and fifteen in females ; but if the male be under the age of twenty - one, or the female under the age of eighteen, the consent of parents or guardian must first be obtained. the law of the state forbids and makes absolutely void marriages : ( 1 ) between whites and negroes, mongolians, or mulattoes ; ( 2 ) between ancestors and descendants, brothers and sisters, uncles and nieces, aunts and nephews ( marriages between cousins are permitted ) ; ( 3 ) if either party be already married, for one year after the entry of an interlocutory decree of divorce. the annulment of marriages is provided for in certain cases ; such marriages are considered voidable and may be annulled for any of the following causes : ( 1 ) if, at the time of the marriage, either party be under