ky, just south of richmond. you can spend a full day in the town enjoying the food, crafts and history. | at the right rear of the house is a stone building that was used as housing and workspace for the enslaved. several of the original outbuildings have also been restored. one serves as the gift shop and location for admission to the home. there are picnic tables and restroom facilities, so plan for lunch or a late afternoon snack on the grounds. ( 859 ) 623 - 9178 an afternoon in paris a scenic drive to paris will take you past historic horse farms and more rock wall fences. take broadway / paris pike, hwy 68 north from lexington. one of the first stops should be the thoroughbred training center located at 3380 paris pike. this facility actually trains future champion horses. you do need to be there before 9 a. m. if you want to see the horses put through their paces. observing the work here will help you understand what is involved in the care and preparation of thoroughbreds for their careers in racing. in earlier times, the tasks you observe would have been performed by african americans, many of whom were children and young males. at age seven and eight, they started working in the barns and stables. by ten years of age some were being mounted on the horses as exercisers. jockeys isaac murphy and william walker began riding at the age of 11 and raleigh colston, jr. rode in his first kentucky derby at the age of 13 in 1875. ( 859 ) 293 - 1853. reservations recommended. if you have stopped at the training center, return to paris pike and continue into town. visit the hopewell museum, ( 859 ) 987 - 7274, located in the old paris post office at 800 pleasant street. there is a permanent display featuring garrett morgan, inventor of the traffic signal and gas mask. look for the kentucky historical highway marker at 10th and vine streets that marks the birthplace of garrett morgan. several quaint, independently owned restaurants make great lunch or dinner stops to round out your afternoon in paris. a hamlet and a railroad town leaving lexington from another direction, head west on leestown road ( hwy 421 ) and you ’ ll pass an african american community established in 1865 by frederick braxton, founder and minister of the main street baptist church in lexington. he had purchased land and sold small acreage to other blacks after emancipation. they named the community in his honor, bracktown. stay on hwy 421 until you reach midway.


, founder and minister of the main street baptist church in lexington. he had purchased land and sold small acreage to other blacks after emancipation. they named the community in his honor, bracktown. stay on hwy 421 until you reach midway. turn left at hwy 62 which will lead you to town. don ' t be surprised to find that the railroad tracks run through the middle of the street. when goods were delivered by rail, it made it convenient to off load supplies directly to stores. on railroad street, a marker pays tribute to edward dudley " dick " brown. he was born into slavery in lexington about 1848. r. a. alexander purchased him at auction around 1856 and brought him to the woodburn farm in woodford county where he began his career as a stable boy. he eventually advanced to exerciser, jockey, trainer and finally owner of his own thoroughbred, ben brush, 1896 kentucky derby winner. also in town are historical markers detailing the history of the second christian church, smith street ; pilgrim baptist church, 133 east stephen street and st. matthews ame church, 112 s. winter street. they are within walking distance from railroad street. a capital idea leaving midway, get back on hwy 421 and follow it into frankfort, kentucky ’ s capital. take the by - pass until you see the sign directing you to kentucky state university. founded in 1887 by act of legislature, it became the first state supported school to train african americans to become teachers. john h. jackson, a native of lexington, became its first president. recitation hall was the first building completed in 1887 by stone mason, james c. brown. the building was renamed jackson hall and placed on the national register of historic places in 1973. the building is now the office / museum of the center of excellence for the study of kentucky african americans. visit the welcome center to view a display on african american history. visitor permit parking is available. other sites to visit in frankfort are the memorial to united states colored troops at the greenhill cemetery, the kentucky military history museum, the thomas d. clark center for kentucky history, kentucky state capitol and old state capitol. historic markers are located at st. john ame church, 210 west clinton ; 1st baptist church at 100 w. clinton and emily thomas tubman house on washington street. for more information call the lexington convention and visitors bureau at 800 - 845 - 3959. written by yvonne giles, december 2008


botanical name and pronunciation : dendranthema x grandiflorum ( den - dran - the - ma grand - i - flor - um ) shades of red, pink, orange, bronze, yellow, white form and size : daisy spray mums have a leafy stem with many blooms. the blooms have several petals that uniformly extend out from an eye - like center. gerbera daisies and chrysanthemum daises are similar. 7 – 14 days, sometimes longer cut under water and place in fresh water with flower food. the stem must be cut above any woody portions to ensure good water intake. do not pound stem ends, this will not help to ensure good water intake. history and usage : a member of the compositae ( aster ) family, chrysanthemums, including daisy mums, originated in china. they were first introduced to japan in 400 a. d. they were then considered the emblem of the imperial family. they were introduced to europe in the late 18th century. chrysanthemums have a long vase life, so they go well in any arrangement. daisy spray mums can be used as a filler flower, or in an arrangement as the main attraction. points of interest : relatives of the chrysanthemum include cosmos, dahlia, calendula and zinnia. in italy, mums are synonymous with death and funerals.


| regel 30 : | | regel 30 : | | sediment supply from soft cliffs < br > © a. j. chadwick | sediment supply from soft cliffs < br > © a. j. chadwick the current world ’ s coastlines were formed as a result of the last ice age, which ended about 10, 000 years ago ( see the beach management manual < ref name = " ciria " > ciria ( 2010 ). beach management manual, second edition. publication no. rp787, london. < / ref > ). at that time large ice sheets covered more of the world ’ s land masses than they do at present. as they melted there was a rapid rise of sea level ( about 120m between 20, 000 and 6000 years ago ). vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre - cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. these sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by [ [ coast erosion | coastal erosion ] ] of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth ’ s climate. the current world ’ s coastlines were formed as a result of the last ice age, which ended about 10, 000 years ago ( see the beach management manual < ref name = " ciria " > ciria ( 2010 ). beach management manual, second edition. publication no. rp787, london. < / ref > ). at that time large ice sheets covered more of the world ’ s land masses than they do at present. as they melted there was a rapid rise of sea level ( about 120m between 20, 000 and 6000 years ago ). vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre - cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. these sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by [ [ coast erosion | coastal erosion ] ] of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of


gravel. these sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by [ [ coast erosion | coastal erosion ] ] of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth ’ s climate. versie van 16 okt 2012 om 09 : 36 gravel beaches are widespread around the world, including the usa, canada, japan, argentina, new zealand and the wave dominated coastlines of northern europe. in the uk, about one third of the coastline is protected by such beaches. in coastal defence schemes, considerable use is made of coarse - grained ( gravel ) sediment to replenish eroding beaches, often in conjunction with structures such as rock or wooden groynes or offshore breakwaters. this is because such beaches are known to be an efficient form of natural coastal defence. two examples from the uk are those at sidmouth, devon and elmer, west sussex. | sidmouth coastal defence scheme | | elmer coastal defence scheme | picture courtesy of the arun district council research into the particular characteristics of gravel beaches and their engineering analysis is relatively new, with much of the progress being made recently. in the 1990 ’ s small scale experimental measurements and early field studies lead to the subsequent development of parametric models for profile prediction, longshore transport and the stability of barrier beaches. since 2002, two major large scale experimental studies and some new comprehensive field studies have been undertaken. since that time, good progress has also been made in process based numerical modelling systems for long and cross shore transport. the emphasis of the article is to present in a clear and concise manner the most relevant concepts, basic understanding and insights into the behaviour of gravel beaches, to provide a summary of the available engineering analysis techniques and modelling approaches and to provide guidance to further reading and a list of the most relevant references to work carried out since 1990. | sediment supply from soft cliffs | © a. j. chadwick the current world ’ s coastlines were formed as a result of the last ice age, which ended about 10, 000 years ago ( see the beach management manual ). at that time large ice sheets covered more of the world ’ s land masses than they do at present. as they melted there was a rapid rise of sea level ( about 120m between 20, 000 and 6000 years ago ). vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre - cursor to our present coastlines


there was a rapid rise of sea level ( about 120m between 20, 000 and 6000 years ago ). vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre - cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. these sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by coastal erosion of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth ’ s climate. sediment classification and properties | all pictures : © a. j. chadwick | traditionally sand and gravel sizes have been classified according to the wentworth scale. this defines sand as being of diameter between 0. 0625mm to 2mm. material sizes larger than this are classified as gravel, subdivided into granular ( 2mm to 4 mm ), pebble ( 4mm to 64 mm ), cobble ( 64mm to 256 mm ) and boulder ( > 256 mm ). rounded gravel, typical of a significant number of uk beaches, is referred to as shingle. there are several physical properties of sand and gravel beaches which are important in the study of coastal sediment transport. the first is the sediment density ( ρs ), typically 2650 kg / m³ for quartz. the rest are required in recognition of the fact that a beach comprises a mixture of the beach material, interspersed with voids which may be filled with air or water. thus the bulk density ( ρb ) is defined as the in situ mass of the mixture / volume of the mixture, the porosity ( ps ) as the volume of air or water / volume of the mixture, typically between 0. 25 to 0. 4 for a gravel beach, the voids ratio ( e ) as the volume of air or water / volume of the grains, typically between 0. 33 to 0. 66 for a gravel beach, and finally the angle of repose ( φ ), which is the limiting slope angle at which the grains begin to roll, typically about 35° in air. in water this reduces to about 30°. the material sizes on any particular beach will normally comprise a range of grain sizes, thus it is standard practice to measure the grain size distribution by a sieve analysis from which the percentage by weight of material passing through a range of sieve sizes is plotted against particle size


on any particular beach will normally comprise a range of grain sizes, thus it is standard practice to measure the grain size distribution by a sieve analysis from which the percentage by weight of material passing through a range of sieve sizes is plotted against particle size. the median size is denoted by d50, representing the diameter for which 50 % of the grains by mass are finer. the spread of sizes is often indicated by the values of d84 and d16 and their ratio is used to measure the degree of sorting. a well sorted sample is one in which there is a small range of sizes ( d85 / d16 < 2 ), whereas a well mixed sample has a large range of sizes ( d85 / d16 > 16 ). beaches types may be categorised according to the mixture of sands and gravels present, which has a significant influence on the beach slope and the more general morphological response of the beach to wave action. four categories are defined as pure gravel ( g ), mixed sand and gravel ( msg ), composite sand and gravel ( csg ) and pure sand ( s ). | © a. j. chadwick | | picture courtesy of halcrow consulting engineers | © a. j. chadwick | | © a. j. chadwick | the characteristics of a gravel beach are very different from those of a sand beach. most notably, gravel can support a steep gradient typically of the order of 1 in 8 with a tendency to form a near vertical berm towards the high water mark and a step at the wave break point. swell wave conditions promote onshore accretion in the swash zone, with storm conditions promoting rapid offshore erosion. despite the large grain size, the sediment is highly mobile. changes in the vertical profile of the order of 0. 5m are commonly found over just one tidal cycle for moderate to large waves. | all pictures : © a. j. chadwick | | all pictures : © a. j. chadwick | on macro - tidal beaches, the active swash zone continuously re - works the beach face as the tide rises and falls. at low tide, it is common to observe a berm at the high water mark of the beach below which is a beach face of uniform slope, which ends in the step feature at the low water mark. cusp formation on gravel beaches is another distinctive feature. they can form rapidly when the wave approach is near normal, but are also washed out rapidly when the wave approach changes to an oblique angle. in the


the step feature at the low water mark. cusp formation on gravel beaches is another distinctive feature. they can form rapidly when the wave approach is near normal, but are also washed out rapidly when the wave approach changes to an oblique angle. in the literature, two dominant models of cusp formation are recognised, namely edge wave forced and swash circulation / self organisation modes. however, cusp formation on gravel beaches has not been discussed very much in the literature. | © a. j. chadwick | the steep beach gradient allows waves to progress much closer inshore before breaking, often resulting in a single plunging breaker. consequently, there is minimal generation of infra - gravity waves. even during storms, a wide surf zone is rare. an important consequence of this is that the swash zone can be of similar width to the surf zone and hence the sediment transport within the swash zone is of considerably more significance than on sand beaches. a second effect of the steep beach gradient is that refraction processes are also confined to a narrower zone than is experienced on a sand beach, with the result that refraction is often observed to be incomplete and the waves arrive at the beach face with some considerable angle, resulting in significant longshore transport. gravel beaches are also much more reflective than sand beaches, with reflection coefficients of up to about 0. 2. another distinguishing characteristic is the high permeability of gravel which, compared to a sand beach, increases the potential for infiltration during the swash uprush and exfiltration during the swash downrush. this induces a downward, stabilising force on sediment movement during the uprush and a lift force during backwash. conversely, there is a thinning of the boundary layer during uprush, leading to increased shear stress on the bed and a thickening during backwash, leading to deceased shear stress on the bed. this latter effect is thought to predominate. on a gravel beach the backwash volume can also be considerably reduced, lowering the backwash velocities ( see elfrink and baldock ( 2002 ) for a detailed review ). it is these processes that lead to the formation of the high water mark berm. | picture courtesy a. pedrozo - acuna | barrier beaches are a common geomorphological feature across the world, many of which are composed of gravel. their essential features comprise a narrow, elongated ridge of sand or gravel existing slightly above the high tide level. the ridge generally extends parallel to the shore, but


common geomorphological feature across the world, many of which are composed of gravel. their essential features comprise a narrow, elongated ridge of sand or gravel existing slightly above the high tide level. the ridge generally extends parallel to the shore, but is separated from it by a wetland, lagoon or a tidal flat. barrier beaches act as natural means of coast protection. in addition, wetlands and lagoons formed behind barrier beaches provide shelter for many coastal habitats and are therefore of considerable environmental significance. one explanation of their formation is that they have been formed by landward migration of submerged sand / shingle banks with rising sea levels since the last ice age. barrier beaches are constantly evolving in response to short and long term processes. short term changes in barrier beaches are related to local wave and current climate, tidal variations, frequency and magnitude of storm events, barrier geometry and type of beach sediment and permeability. over longer terms, the primary factors for change and modification of barrier beaches are sea level rise, longshore sediment transport and changes in sediment sources and / or sinks according to orford et al. ( 1995 ). a barrier beach can respond to these factors by landward or seaward migration, reshaping and re - alignment and crest breakdown or build - up. the episodic processes of over - washing, over - topping and associated breaching are the primary phenomena behind long term evolution. understanding the processes of sediment transport on gravel beaches is important for beach management which requires some quantification of shoreline evolution. the vast majority of coastal engineering projects still rely on one - line models since, as yet, 3d morphodynamic models are restricted to short - and medium - term predictions and none have been validated against coarse - grained field data. most one - line models make use of empirical total longshore transport equations. hence, the formulation of a reliable estimate of longshore sediment transport rate remains of considerable practical importance in coastal engineering applications such as feasibility studies of port extensions, derivation of sediment budgets for coastal areas and the appraisal of long term beach stability. to some extent, the mechanisms associated with the longshore transport of gravel may be differentiated from that of sand. generally, for a sand seabed the oscillatory force due to the passage of a ( breaking ) wave will tend to stir the sediment into motion. the bed shear due to the longshore current can then transport the sand. on gravel beaches the sediment normally moves as bedload and is largely confined to the swash zone. as the flow


breaking ) wave will tend to stir the sediment into motion. the bed shear due to the longshore current can then transport the sand. on gravel beaches the sediment normally moves as bedload and is largely confined to the swash zone. as the flow in the uprush is perpendicular to the wave crest and in the backwash is perpendicular to the beach contours, the gravel describes a ' sawtooth ', or zig - zag, path along the beach. quantitative estimation of sediment transport rates is extremely difficult on a gravel beach. direct measurement of longshore transport has been attempted using a variety of techniques, such as deposition of a tracer material ( radioactive, dyed or artificial sediment ) or installation of traps ( see van wellan et al. ( 2000 ) for a review ). | all pictures : © a. j. chadwick | changes in beach volumes may be calculated from data derived from ground or aerial surveys. if surveys are carried out over several years a trend for accretion or depletion may be discernible. this is not necessarily a direct measure of the longshore transport rate along the coast. rather it is an indication of any imbalances in the supply of sediment from one point to another. however, where marine structures are constructed which cut of the supply from further up the coast, comparisons of beach volumes before and after construction can give some indication of the longshore transport rates. | all pictures : © a. j. chadwick | the most widely used formula for calculating longshore transport is the cerc equation ( us army corps of engineers, 1984 ). the equation was derived from sand beaches and has been developed over a number of years. the formula is intended to include both bedload and suspended load and is usually given in the form of : is the immersed weight sediment transport rate is the longshore component of wave power where e is wave energy, is group wave speed, θ is wave approach angle, subscript b refers to wave break point and where k is a dimensionless empirically derived coefficient. the volumetric transport rate,, is related to by : where where ρs is sediment density, ρ is sea water density, e is voids ratio. there is no direct inclusion of the influence of grain size in the cerc equation, other than via the coefficient, k. it should be noted that for random waves, the choice of wave height used in the cerc equation ( significant wave height, hs or root mean square wave height, hrms ) must be correlated with


equation, other than via the coefficient, k. it should be noted that for random waves, the choice of wave height used in the cerc equation ( significant wave height, hs or root mean square wave height, hrms ) must be correlated with the k value. much confusion can arise, as some authors have used hs and others hrms without explicitly stating which one. for rayleigh distributed waves, the k value using hrms is twice that using hs. a suggested value for k using hrms is 0. 77 for sand sized sediments. for gravel beaches, chadwick ’ s ( 1989 ) data suggested a k value of 7 % of that for sand ( k = 0. 053 ). this was later found to work well at another beach site, slapton sands, devon, uk ( see alegria - arzaburu & masselink ( 2010 ) ). chadwick ( 1991 ) also developed a numerical model to predict longshore transport on gravel beaches. the hydrodynamic module uses the non - linear shallow water wave equations, which predict the instantaneous water levels and velocities throughout the surf and swash zones. these are combined with a sediment transport module based on bagnold ' s stream power concept. instantaneous transport rates across the surf and swash zones are subsequently summed in space and time to determine the total longshore transport rate. thus, this model specifically includes a sediment threshold term and transport in the swash zone, both of which are of importance on shingle beaches. the model required calibration of only the friction coefficient, which was determined from field data. subsequently, an algebraic formula ( the chadwick - van wellen formula ) was derived from the numerical model results given by : this equation was specifically designed for application to gravel beaches but has only been calibrated to the data from one field site. for further details of this and other longshore transport equations, applicable to gravel beaches, see van wellen et al ( 2000 ). large scale experimental studies | © a. j. chadwick | more recent work on coarse grained beaches was undertaken by the eu project “ large scale modelling of coarse grained beaches ” which was undertaken between march - may 2002. the experiment was conducted at full scale, thus avoiding the sediment scaling issues inherent in small scale models. the measurements included not only the wave field and resultant equilibrium profile development, but also detailed measurements of pore water pressures under the swash face. the experimental results of this work may be found in


avoiding the sediment scaling issues inherent in small scale models. the measurements included not only the wave field and resultant equilibrium profile development, but also detailed measurements of pore water pressures under the swash face. the experimental results of this work may be found in lopez de san roman - blanco et al ( 2006 ). this experiment was used to develop the cross shore profile model of pedrozo et al ( 2006 ), described in more detail in this article. subsequently another large scale experimental study of gravel barrier beaches was undertaken in bardex ( barrier dynamics experiment ) in the delta wave flume, the netherlands, during june and july 2008. one unique aspect of this work was the inclusion of the effects of a back barrier lagoon in conjunction with a varying tidal level. a special edition of coastal engineering has been devoted to papers resulting from this work ( see turner and masselink ( 2012 ) ). these include details of the observations, the effect of the lagoon water level on the beach profile, new measurements of and prediction techniques for wave friction factors, new predictive techniques for assessing barrier overwashing and overtopping and an assessment of the xbeach model used to predict beach profile evolution and the morphological effect of washover. parametric models for equilibrium profiles the prediction of the expected profile for a gravel beach is very different from the concepts used for equilibrium profiles on a sand beach. the problem was first comprehensively addressed by van der meer ( 1988 ) and powell ( 1990 ), based on extensive scaled laboratory flume tests ( small scale with anthracite in powell ’ s case and large and small scale with gravel in van der meer ’ s case ). powell ’ s work resulted in the development of a parametric profile model, which described the profile as a set of three curves : from the crest to the still water level, from the still water level to a transition point and from the transition point to the base of the profile. this was found to work well using the data from the gwk experiment ). parametric models for barrier stability bradbury ( 2000 ) carried out a series of 3 - d mobile bed laboratory tests on barrier crest response to hydrodynamic conditions and initial barrier geometry. based on the model investigations, several categories of barrier response to hydrodynamic conditions were identified and underlying characteristics were qualitatively defined. these included crest raised by overtopping, crest lowered due to undermining of crest but with no overtopping, crest raised by over - washing with roll - back, crest lowered by


identified and underlying characteristics were qualitatively defined. these included crest raised by overtopping, crest lowered due to undermining of crest but with no overtopping, crest raised by over - washing with roll - back, crest lowered by over - washing with roll - back and finally, no change to the crest elevation with profile contained to seaward of the barrier crest. he developed an expression for an over - washing threshold of barrier crests, based on regression analysis. it is a function of wave steepness ( hs / lm ), barrier free board ( rc ) and barrier cross - sectional area ba ( above the still water line ), given by : the expression was validated against field data gathered at hurst spit, uk and found to be consistent with the field data. in addition, a conceptual model for barrier over - washing was formulated. according to his model, the beach will initially attempt to reach a dynamic equilibrium ; if the critical barrier inertia is exceeded then the crest will be lowered by over - washing. modelling cross shore profile development | picture courtesy of a. pedrozo - acuna | the first of several recent deterministic process based models for predicting the profile response of coarse grained beaches was developed by lawrence, chadwick and fleming ( 2001 ). it was shown that boussinesq equations coupled with a bed load sediment transport formulation were a useful approach for process - based modelling of gravel beach profile evolution. this model was subsequently extended to model the sediment transport of grain size fractions and thus to predict sediment sorting across the beach face. however, it was found that this numerical model scheme was not stable on steep beaches. subsequently, using a newer boussinesq model, pedrozo et al ( 2006 ) demonstrated that the two principle sediment parameters of friction ( f ) and sediment transport efficiency ( c ) were controlling the shape of the gravel beach profile. with f and c as constant values, accurate prediction of the profile evolution was not possible. the use of bigger friction factors in the uprush slightly improved the prediction. when larger values of the sediment transport efficiency ( c - value ) were used in the uprush compared to the backwash, better predictions of the beach profile resulted. the physical processes which dictate the differences between the predicted and measured profiles were hypothesised as being related to infiltration effects on the flow above the beach face and more accelerated flow in the uprush. further developments coupling the effects of infiltration / exfiltration with sediment movement were still required at that


predicted and measured profiles were hypothesised as being related to infiltration effects on the flow above the beach face and more accelerated flow in the uprush. further developments coupling the effects of infiltration / exfiltration with sediment movement were still required at that time. the more recent results reported by jamal et al ( 2010 ) and williams et al ( 2012 ) indicate that including this process leads to significant improvements in prediction. pedrozo et al ( 2010 ) have also highlighted the importance of the impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers on gravel beach sediment transport. suggestions for further research for all budding researchers in coastal research, the further study of gravel and mixed beaches offers much opportunity to enhance our knowledge. longshore transport prediction is still imprecise and cross shore processes very complex and not completely understood. current parametric design methods leave much to be desired. further field and large scale experimental studies remain a primary tool for advancing our understanding of long and cross shore processes. these will need to stand on the heads of the previously mentioned studies. numerical modelling tools can still benefit greatly from improved process representation, including infiltration / exfiltration, interactions with groundwater flows, impulsive pressure forces, the incorporation of grain size fractions and the prediction of sediment sorting across the beach face. example barrier beaches chesil beach, dorset uk, is a world famous gravel barrier beach. it is approximately 28 kilometres long and, on average, 160 metres wide. the height of the beach is typically 11 metres above mean sea level. the beach stabilised close to its present position around 5000 years ago. a rent research paper concerning the internal structure of chesil beach ( bennett et al ( 2009 ) ) also contains a good summary of the extensive historical literature on this beach. there is an informative web site at www. chesilbeach. org. a comprehensive assessment of the historical development and contemporary processes affecting a significant gravel barrier beach system in the uk ( slapton sands, south devon uk ) may be found in chadwick et al ( 2005 ) and a short summary of these studies is presented elsewhere in the coastal wiki ( slapton barrier beach case study, uk ). the paper includes assessment of the effects of sea level rise on barrier migration and its susceptibility to over - washing and overtopping, inter alia. it was found that the processes at work on the slapton shoreline included : | © a. j. chadwick | - short - term changes in beach profile due to storms, acting over a period of several days. these storms cause cut


zone policy : example from the netherlands - shore protection, coast protection and sea defence methods - the integrated approach to coastal zone management ( iczm ) - natural causes of coastal erosion - human causes of coastal erosion - coastal defense techniques - natural barriers - relative sea level - shore nourishment - ↑ 1, 0 1, 1 buscome d., masselink g. ( 2006 ). concepts in gravel beach dynamics. earth science reviews 79 33 - 52. - ↑ fuller, r. m. & randall, r. e. ( 1988 ). the orford shingles, suffolk, uk. classic conflicts in coastline management. biological conservation. - ↑ 3, 0 3, 1 powell, k. a. ( 1990 ). predicting short term profile response for shingle beaches. hr wallingford report sr 219. - ↑ diserens, a. p. & coates, t. t. ( 1993 ). uk south coast shingle beach study : storm response of shingle beaches. hr wallingford report sr 323. - ↑ 5, 0 5, 1 ciria ( 2010 ). beach management manual, second edition. publication no. rp787, london. available at : http : / / www. southerncoastalgroup. org. uk / bmm. htm beach - ↑ 6, 0 6, 1 6, 2 van wellen, e, chadwick, a j and mason, t ( 2000 ) a review and assessment of longshore sediment transport equations for coarse grained beaches. coastal engineering, 40, 3, 243 - 275. - ↑ 7, 0 7, 1 anthony e. j. ( 2008 ). gravel beaches and barriers. developments in marine geology, vol 4, 289 - 324. - ↑ elfrink b, baldock t. ( 2002 ) hydrodynamics and sediment transport in the swash zone : a review and perspectives. coastal engineering, 45, 149 – 167. - ↑ orford, j. d., carter, r. w. g., jennings, s. c. and hinton, a. c. ( 1995 ). processes and time scales by which a coastal gravel dominated barrier respond geomorphologically to sea level rise - story head barrier, nova - scotia, earth surface process and land forms, 20 ( 1 ), pp. 21 - 37. - ↑ carter, r. w. g., forbes, d. l., jennings, s. c


- story head barrier, nova - scotia, earth surface process and land forms, 20 ( 1 ), pp. 21 - 37. - ↑ carter, r. w. g., forbes, d. l., jennings, s. c., orford, j. d., shaw, j. and taylor, r. b., ( 2003 ), barrier and lagoon coast evolution under differing relative sea level regimes - examples from ireland and nova - scotia, marine geology, 88, issue 3 - 4, pp. 221 - 242. - ↑ 11, 0 11, 1 ruiz de alegria - arzaburu, a., masselink, g. ( 2010 ). storm response and beach rotation on a gravel beach, slapton sands, u. k marine geology 278, 77 – 99. - ↑ chadwick, a j. ( 1991 ). an unsteady flow bore model for sediment transport in broken waves part 1 : the development of the numerical model. proc. instn. civ. engrs. part 2, 1991, 91, dec. 719 - 737. - ↑ chadwick, a j. ( 1991 ). an unsteady flow bore model for sediment transport on broken waves part ii : the properties, calibration and testing of the numerical model. proc. instn. civ. engrs. part 2, 1991, 91, dec., 739 - 753. - ↑ 14, 0 14, 1 lopez de san roman - blanco, b., coates, t., holmes, p., chadwick, a. j., bradbury, a., baldock, t., pedrozo - acuna, a., grune, j. ( 2006 ). large scale experiments on gravel and mixed beaches : experimental procedure, data documentation and initial results. coastal engineering 53 ( 4 ), 349 - 363. - ↑ 15, 0 15, 1 pedrozo, a., simmonds, d. j., otta, a. k., chadwick, a. j. ( 2006 ). on the cross - shore profile change of gravel beaches. coastal engineering, 53 ( 4 ), 335 - 347. - ↑ ian l. turner, gerd masselink ( 2012 ). coastal gravel barrier hydrology — observations from a prototype - scale laboratory experiment ( bardex ). coastal engineering, 63, 13 - 22 - ↑ van der


347. - ↑ ian l. turner, gerd masselink ( 2012 ). coastal gravel barrier hydrology — observations from a prototype - scale laboratory experiment ( bardex ). coastal engineering, 63, 13 - 22 - ↑ van der meer j. ( 1988 ) rock slopes and gravel beaches under wave attack. delft hydraulics publications n 396. - ↑ bradbury, a. p. ( 2000 ), predicting breaching of shingle barrier beaches - recent advances to aid beach management, 35th maff ( defra ) conf of river and coastal engineers. - ↑ lawrence, j, chadwick, a j and fleming, c a. ( 2001 ). a phase resolving model of sediment transport on coarse grained beaches. in : billy l edge ( ed ) coastal engineering 2000, 624 - 636. american society of civil engineers : reston, virginia. - ↑ lawrence, j, karunarathna, h, chadwick, a j and fleming, c a. ( 2003 ). cross - shore sediment transport on mixed coarse grain sized beaches : modelling and measurements. proceedings of the international conference on coastal engineering 2002 - ↑ jamal, m. h., simmonds, d. j., magar, v., pan, s., ( 2010 ). modelling infiltration on gravel beaches with an xbeach variant. proc. 32nd conf. on coastal eng., shanghai, china, 2010, sediment, p. 41 http : / / journals. tdl. org / icce / issue / view / 154 / showtoc. - ↑ jon j. williams, amaia ruiz de alegria - arzaburu, robert t. mccall, ap van dongeren ( 2012 ). modelling gravel barrier profile response to combined waves and tides using xbeach : laboratory and field results. coastal engineering, 63, 62 - 80 - ↑ pedrozo - acuna, a., torres - freyermuth, a., zou, q., hsu, t. - j., reeve, d. e. ( 2010 ). diagnostic modelling of impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers. coastal engineering 57 ( 3 ), 252 – 266. - ↑ bennett m. r., cassidy n. j., pile j. ( 2009 ). internal structure of a barrier beach as revealed by ground penetrating radar ( grp ) chesil beach, uk. geomorphology 104, 218 - 229.


at walmart, we talk a lot about learning from one another and working in partnership to create global change. a recent report, “ smart moves, ” examines some of the best practices by companies working to cut emissions from transportation. emissions from freight transportation are no small problem. the report ’ s author, jason mathers of the environmental defense fund, points out that freight emissions are expected “ to increase 74 percent from 2005 to 2035 ” in the u. s. mathers ’ report looks at some of the best strategies and most creative thinking at work today to cut pollution caused by shipping. justin gerdes ’ forbes commentary highlights the report and notes that “ any ceo concerned about his or her company ’ s carbon footprint must account for shipping ’ s growing contribution to climate change … ” as gerdes points out, the report is loaded with statistics about shipping emissions as well as examples of smart moves by companies that reduced emissions and saved money at the same time. here ’ s what he highlighted about walmart : wal - mart : direct shipment wal - mart worked with minute maid to eliminate one stop in the chain used to deliver minute maid ’ s simply orange juice to wal - mart distribution centers. now, the product moves directly from a production facility in florida to wal - mart distribution centers. eliminating delivery to minute maid ’ s own distribution centers slashed co2 emissions by 1, 500 metric tons annually and added six days to the shelf life of the orange juice.


what is rainwater harvesting? rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice of catching and holding rain for later use. in a rainwater harvesting system, rain is gathered from a building rooftop or other source and is held in large containers for future use, such as watering gardens or washing cars. this practice reduces the demand on water resources and is excellent during times of drought. why is it important? in addition to reducing the demand on our water sources ( especially important during drought ), rainwater harvesting also helps prevent water pollution. surprised? here ’ s why : the success of the 1972 clean water act has meant that the greatest threat to new york ’ s waterbodies comes not from industrial sources, but rather through the small actions we all make in our daily lives. for example, in a rain storm, the oil, pesticides, animal waste, and litter from our lawns, sidewalks, driveways, and streets are washed down into our sewers. this is called non - point source ( nps ) pollution because the pollutants come from too many sources to be identified. rainwater harvesting diverts water from becoming polluted stormwater ; instead, this captured rainwater may be used to irrigate gardens near where it falls. in new york city, keeping rainwater out of the sewer system is very important. that ’ s because the city has an old combined sewer system that uses the same pipes to transport both household waste and stormwater to sewage treatment plants. during heavy rains, the system overloads ; then untreated sewage and contaminated stormwater overflow into our rivers and estuary, with serious consequences : who is harvesting rainwater in new york city? back in 2002, a drought emergency pushed many community gardens to the brink of extinction. for the first time in twenty years, community gardeners were denied permission to use fire hydrants, the primary source of water for most community gardens. this crisis led to the formation of the water resources group ( wrg ), an open collaboration of community gardening and environmental organizations. with help from the wrg, rainwater harvesting systems have now been built as demonstration sites in twenty nyc community gardens. at community gardens that harvest rainwater, rain is diverted from the gutters of adjacent buildings and is stored in tanks in the gardens. a 1 - inch rainfall on a 1, 000 - square - foot roof produces 600 gallons of water. the tanks are mosquito proof, so the standing water does not encourage west nile virus. because rainwater is chlorine free, it is better


what your cholesterol level means how ’ s your cholesterol? time to get it checked!?? keeping your cholesterol levels healthy is a great way to keep your heart healthy – and lower your chances of getting heart disease or having a stroke. cholesterol can be tricky to understand, though, because not all is bad for you. some is actually good for you. the most important thing you can do as a first step is to know your cholesterol numbers by getting your cholesterol tested. here are some easy ways for you to understand what the testing involves, how it can help you and ways to improve your health by improving your cholesterol.?? the american heart association endorses the national cholesterol education program ( ncep ) guidelines for detection of high cholesterol : all adults age 20 or older should have a fasting lipoprotein profile — which measures total cholesterol, ldl ( bad ) cholesterol, hdl ( good ) cholesterol and triglycerides — once every five years. this test is done after a nine - to 12 - hour fast without food, liquids or pills. it gives information about total cholesterol, ldl ( bad ) cholesterol, hdl ( good ) cholesterol and triglycerides ( view an animation of cholesterol ).?? your test report will show your cholesterol levels in milligrams per deciliter of blood ( mg / dl ). to determine how your cholesterol levels affect your risk of heart disease, your doctor will also take into account other risk factors such as age, family history, smoking and high blood pressure.?? a complete fasting lipoprotein profile will show the following four results.? your cholesterol levels your total blood ( or serum ) cholesterol level | total cholesterol level | | category | | less than 200 mg / dl | | desirable level that puts you at lower risk for coronary heart disease. a cholesterol level of 200 mg / dl or higher raises your risk. | | 200 to 239 mg / dl | | borderline high | | 240 mg / dl and above | | high blood cholesterol. a person with this level has more than twice the risk of coronary heart disease as someone whose cholesterol is below 200 mg / dl. | above content provided by beth israel deaconess medical center. for advice about your medical care, consult your doctor.


save money with properly inflated tires ( newsusa ) - tire pressure monitoring systems ( tpms ) are now a standard safety feature on all new cars in the united states. tpms automatically monitors tire pressure and alerts the driver when the pressure in one or more tires becomes significantly low - - and potentially dangerous. still, conducting monthly tire pressure checks is one of the smartest driving moves you can make. not only are properly inflated tires critical for vehicle safety, they also increase fuel efficiency and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. increase fuel efficiency according to the u. s. department of energy, 3. 56 million gallons of gasoline are wasted every day due to incorrectly inflated tires. the good news is you can improve gas mileage just by keeping tires inflated to the proper pressure. in fact, one study showed that if gas costs $ 3 per gallon, proper tire pressure can save you up to $ 432 at the pump each year. reduce carbon dioxide emissions according to the u. s. environmental protection agency, the typical car in the united states releases more than five tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year. by keeping tires properly inflated, you can reduce your vehicle ' s " carbon footprint " by an average of 327 pounds per year. because a tire can lose up to half its air pressure without appearing to be under - inflated, you cannot rely on a tire ' s appearance to determine whether it ' s properly inflated or not. tire pressure tips to help ensure your tires are properly inflated year - round, here are some tips from schrader, a manufacturer of tpms : * check the pressure in all four tires - - and the spare tire - - monthly with an accurate tire gauge, and always check tire pressure before a long road trip. * the " right " pressure for your vehicle ' s tires can be found in the vehicle ' s manual or on the driver door edge, glove box or fuel door. do not follow the information listed on the tire sidewall. * for the most accurate reading, tires should be checked when they are cool. * always remember to replace the valve cap. distributed by internet broadcasting. this material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


streptococcus, group b it is possible that the main title of the report streptococcus, group b is not the name you expected. please check the synonyms listing to find the alternate name ( s ) and disorder subdivision ( s ) covered by this report. - group b streptococcal septicemia of the newborn - lancefield group b streptococcus - sepsis of the newborn - streptococcus agalactiae - infant early - onset streptococcus, group b - infant late - onset streptococcus, group b - adult onset streptococcus, group b group b streptococcus ( group b strep ) is a type of bacteria that causes infection among newborns, pregnant women or women after childbirth, females after gynecologic surgery, and older male and female patients with other serious diseases. group b strep remains the most common cause among newborns ( neonates ) of infection of the blood ( septicemia ) and of the brain ( meningitis ). the responsible bacterium, usually s. agalactiae, may be found most often in the vagina and rectum of females and may be transmitted sexually, as well as to a fetus as the infant passes through the birth canal. group b strep infection of newborns may be prevented by giving pregnant women who are carriers antibiotics through the vein ( intravenously ) during labor. the u. s. centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) recommend that any pregnant woman who has had a baby with group b strep disease in the past, who has a bladder ( urinary tract ) infection caused by group b strep, or who tests positive for group b strep during pregnancy should receive antibiotics during labor. prevention and prompt treatment are important because group b strep infections may become life - threatening among newborns. gbs disease is said to be early onset if it is obvious within the first week of life. it is said to be late onset if the disease is evident after the first week of life and before the end of the first three months. those at greatest risk of gbs disease are newborn children of infected mothers, women after childbirth, females after gynecologic surgery and older male and female patients with other serious diseases. group b strep association p. o. box 16515 chapel hill, nc 27516 center for disease control and prevention 1600 clifton


heart disease and abnormal heart rhythm ( arrhythmia ) an irregular heartbeat is called an arrhythmia, which is not the same as an irregular heart rate. in fact, the two don ' t necessarily occur together. a normal heart rate is 50 to 100 beats per minute. arrhythmias can occur with a normal heart rate, or with heart rates that are slow or rapid. in the united states, more than 850, 000 people are hospitalized for an arrhythmia each year. what causes an arrhythmia? arrhythmias may be caused by many different factors, including : irregular heart rhythms can also occur in otherwise normal, healthy hearts. what are the types of arrhythmias? the types of arrhythmias include : premature atrial contractions. these are early extra beats that originate in the atria ( upper chambers of the heart ). they are harmless and generally do not require treatment. premature ventricular contractions ( pvcs ). these are among the most common arrhythmias and occur in people with or without heart disease. this is the skipped heartbeat we all occasionally experience. in some people, it can be related to stress, too much caffeine or nicotine, or too much exercise. but sometimes, pvcs can be caused by heart disease or electrolyte imbalance. people who have a lot of pvcs, and / or symptoms associated with them, should be evaluated by a heart doctor. however, in most people, pvcs are usually harmless and rarely need treatment. atrial fibrillation. atrial fibrillation is a very common irregular heart rhythm that causes the atria, the upper chambers of the heart, to contract abnormally. atrial flutter. this is an arrhythmia caused by one or more rapid circuits in the atrium. atrial flutter is usually more organized and regular than atrial fibrillation. this arrhythmia occurs most often in people with heart disease and in the first week after heart surgery. it often converts to atrial fibrillation. paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia ( psvt ). a rapid heart rate, usually with a regular rhythm, originating from above the ventricles. psvt begins and ends suddenly. there are two main types : accessory path tachycardias and av nodal reentrant tachycardias ( see below ). accessory pathway tachy


rhythm, originating from above the ventricles. psvt begins and ends suddenly. there are two main types : accessory path tachycardias and av nodal reentrant tachycardias ( see below ). accessory pathway tachycardias. a rapid heart rate due to an extra abnormal pathway or connection between the atria and the ventricles. the impulses travel through the extra pathways as well as through the usual route. this allows the impulses to travel around the heart very quickly, causing the heart to beat unusually fast. av nodal reentrant tachycardia. a rapid heart rate due to more than one pathway through the av node. it can cause heart palpitations, fainting, or heart failure. in some cases, it can be terminated using simple maneuvers, such as breathing in and bearing down. some drugs can also stop this heart rhythm. ventricular tachycardia ( v - tach ). a rapid heart rhythm originating from the lower chambers ( or ventricles ) of the heart. the rapid rate prevents the heart from filling adequately with blood. this can be a serious arrhythmia, especially in people with heart disease, and may be associated with more symptoms. ventricular fibrillation. an erratic, disorganized firing of impulses from the ventricles. the ventricles quiver and are unable to contract or pump blood to the body. this is a medical emergency that must be treated with cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ) and defibrillation as soon as possible. long qt syndrome. the qt interval is the area on the electrocardiogram that represents the time it takes for the heart muscle to contract and then recover, or for the electrical impulse to fire impulses and then recharge. when the qt interval is longer than normal, it increases the risk of a life - threatening form of ventricular tachycardia. long qt syndrome is an inherited condition that can cause sudden death in young people. it can be treated with antiarrhythmic drugs, pacemaker, electrical cardioversion, defibrillation, implanted cardioverter / defibrillator, or ablation therapy. bradyarrhythmias. these are slow heart rhythms, which may arise from disease in the heart ' s electrical conduction system. examples include sinus node dysfunction and heart block. sinus node dysfunction. a slow heart


westat has applied our strong statistical, environmental, and data collection skills to design, conduct, and analyze environmental studies for more than 25 years. we have applied national field resources to the collection of environmental samples in homes, schools, and industrial facilities and coordinated analyses at specialized laboratories, following epa ' s and our own quality assurance specifications. national children ' s study ( ncs ) westat has been awarded the contract to serve as the coordinating center for the national children ' s study ( ncs ) — the largest study ever undertaken within the united states to assess the effects of the environment on child and adult health. the full nationwide study would follow more than 100, 000 children from prior to conception through adulthood, seeking information to prevent and treat such health problems as autism, birth defects, diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. westat will collect data, compile and analyze statistics, and ensure that the study proceeds according to design. environmental measures proposed for inclusion in the study include toxicants in air, water, and household dust and body burden data to be collected from urine, saliva, and blood. toxicants to be studied include pesticides, metals, volatile organic compounds ( vocs ), phytoestrogens, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( pahs ), and more. six vanguard centers have been selected to pilot and complete the first phases of the study. the centers, which include a variety of universities, hospitals, health departments, and other organizations, will work within their communities to recruit participants, collect and process data, and pilot new research methods for incorporation into the full study. ncs is led by a consortium of federal agency partners : the u. s. department of health and human services ( including the national institute of child health and human development and the national institute of environmental health sciences at the national institutes of health, and the centers for disease control and prevention ) and the u. s. environmental protection agency. exposure assessment and environmental epidemiology our work in the area of exposure assessment and environmental epidemiology has included studies of exposure to pesticides, particulate matter, pcbs, heavy metals, and volatile organic compounds in a variety of populations, including children, the elderly, and the immunocompromised. westat conducted the national human exposure assessment regional survey in maryland, a multimedia, multicontaminant field study of long - term exposure that included the collection of blood and urine samples for environmental exposure. the national health and nutrition examination survey now includes measurements of environmental exposure


national human exposure assessment regional survey in maryland, a multimedia, multicontaminant field study of long - term exposure that included the collection of blood and urine samples for environmental exposure. the national health and nutrition examination survey now includes measurements of environmental exposure to dozens of contaminants through sampling of blood, urine, hair, and other body tissues and fluids. other westat environmental epidemiology studies include studies of the health effects relating to the following exposures : - air pollution among the elderly in maryland and california and school children in california and texas ; - pesticides among children throughout the united states ; - microbial pathogens among bathers in recreational water ; - mercury in the seafood consumed by subsistence fishermen and women of childbearing age ; - indoor allergens in the homes and daycare centers of children throughout the united states ; and - asbestos in homes, schools, and commercial buildings throughout the united states. water quality has been the focus of several projects for the epa. westat has performed the following : - evaluated the best technology available for minimizing the adverse environmental impact of cooling water intake structures ; - analyzed water quality impairment from concentrated animal feeding operations ; and - designed, conducted, and analyzed the results of industry surveys to determine whether current effluent guidelines were appropriate for current manufacturing technologies used in the iron and steel, meat products, and aquaculture industries. westat ' s work in the area of lead hazards has included two national surveys of lead - based paint hazards in housing, an assessment of exposure to lead in child - care centers and homes, and the analysis of data on lead levels in soil. our staff has performed the following : - produced technical guidance documents on lead contamination of various media ( soil, water, and dust ) ; - developed risk communication materials for the general public ; - designed a series of examinations to certify lead inspections ; - evaluated training programs designed to train janitors and others to work safely around lead paint ; and - designed a protocol for measuring the blood lead levels of children living in remediated housing. health and environment chapter of the epa ' s state of the environment report westat assisted epa in preparing the health and environment chapter of the epa ' s state of the environment report. written in a style appropriate for the general public, yet in conformance with the standards of the health and environmental research communities, the report addresses the following : - health status of the u. s. population ; - human exposure to environmental pollutants ; - diseases related to environmental pollution


by bruce boyers, our system of factory agriculture is exacting a great toll on our planet : 40 percent of the land and 70 percent of the fresh water on earth is devoted to the growing of food, which, in the process, creates some 30 percent of greenhouse gases. compounding these issues is the fact that commercial produce is often transported thousands or even tens of thousands of miles to its point of sale, consuming tons of fossil fuel. it is evident that our current agricultural model is a failed experiment in search of a more sustainable solution. in an effort to bring needed fresh produce closer to home with far greater sustainability, a movement in urban agriculture is rapidly gaining momentum. new york city, having such a large and diverse population, is a metropolis ripe for green urban agriculture and is now home to an innovative commercial operation called gotham greens. gotham greens has now gone into full production and is providing much - needed locally and sustainably grown produce for the greater new york city area. " my partners and i had a vision for a local farm operation here in new york city that could provide new yorkers - which would include restaurants, retailers and consumers - with premium quality, fresh, nutritious culinary herbs and greens, salad greens and lettuces, " puri said. " they would be grown year round so that we could reliably and consistently supply our customers with local produce. obviously our climate in new york doesn ' t support year - round agriculture of a lot of these crops, so we thought we would try to do something in a greenhouse. a greenhouse climate allows you to potentially grow year round, at the same time protecting crops against extreme or detrimental weather events. " gotham greens was founded in 2008 by puri and eric haley ; then in 2009 jennifer nelkin joined as a partner to head all greenhouse operations. puri himself had previously developed and managed start - up enterprises in new york city, in ladakh, india, and in malawi, africa, focusing on green building, renewable energy and environmental design. haley, who is currently employed by a manhattan - based investment bank and private equity fund, also brought business acumen to the operation. the farm know - how comes from nelkin, who cultivated her expertise in greenhouse systems and management at the university of arizona. in addition to greenhouse system design, her skillset includes plant nutrition and crop and pest management. she has managed greenhouses in far more extreme circumstances than new york - namely two different locations in antarctica, providing fresh vegetables for us research scientists. house of greens


addition to greenhouse system design, her skillset includes plant nutrition and crop and pest management. she has managed greenhouses in far more extreme circumstances than new york - namely two different locations in antarctica, providing fresh vegetables for us research scientists. house of greens the choice of a rooftop was made quite deliberately. " new york city obviously doesn ' t have a lot of arable or available land, so it seemed to us that one underutilized resource was rooftops, " said puri. " you ' re seeing more and more innovative uses of the rooftops now in urban areas nationwide. " getting a rooftop greenhouse up and operational - especially one of this size and scope - was no mean feat. " it was extremely challenging, " puri recalled. " i would say the biggest challenge was just having any real path to follow. there ' s not a lot of precedent for what we ' re doing. " the first thing was finding a building owner who wouldn ' t mind us building a greenhouse on his or her roof. we also had to find a building that met all the construction criteria, both structurally and for the obtaining of utilities. in addition there had to be access, and the evaluation of how we would get stuff up and how we would get stuff down. on top of that we had to make sure the plan would meet all zoning and building codes. " the gotham greens operation, as one might imagine, represents an enormous saving in resource usage. " we employ a recirculating hydroponic technique that actually goes back and captures all irrigation for reuse, " puri explained. " it ' s the most water - efficient form of agriculture in the world. we use ten times less water than conventional agriculture. even though we are not in an area that is susceptible to drought, we still think that it ' s a great demonstration of a technology that is very water efficient. " the hydroponic growing environment is sterile as well, which eliminates the risk of pathogens - particularly important in light of the increase in foodborne illnesses, such as e. coli and salmonella, from fresh vegetables. puri and his partners have seen to the frugal use of energy too. " we have 55 kilowatts in solar panels that produce electricity to help meet the electrical needs of the facility, " said puri. " along with that, we ' ve spent a lot of effort here to design our facilities to be as energy efficient as possible. we ' ve installed increased insulation in many areas ; the gla


electrical needs of the facility, " said puri. " along with that, we ' ve spent a lot of effort here to design our facilities to be as energy efficient as possible. we ' ve installed increased insulation in many areas ; the glazing material that we selected helps insulate the greenhouse ; and we ' ve deployed heat curtains and heat blankets in the winter to reduce space in the greenhouse that needs to be conditioned. " additionally, a sophisticated computer control system ensures that climate - control equipment operates efficiently to reduce resource consumption. perhaps the most significant saving in terms of resources is that of fossil fuels, as the distance from farm to consumer is considerably shorter. " of course, we sharply reduce the transportation of our product and the associated carbon emissions that are caused because of that, " puri added. all nutrition and pest control is done naturally and sustainably, which was also one of the goals for gotham greens. " we utilize mineral salts that we dissolve in the water, " puri said. " these contain minerals such as nitrogen, magnesium and potassium, along with micronutrients like selenium. in controlling pests, we mostly rely on beneficial insects ; there ' s a whole program in integrated pest management for which a fair bit of monitoring goes on. if we do find a pest in here, we will introduce its natural predator - for instance, we have ladybugs and lacewings to control aphids. " it ' s in the taste like many others concentrating on great flavor, puri and his team have found that truly caring for the plants will result in the superiority they seek. " the biggest thing in obtaining that flavor is really taking care of our crops - making sure they have ideal growing conditions in climate, humidity, temperature, and so forth. we ' re also making sure they ' re getting all the nutrients that they need, along with the right amount of irrigation, the right amount of dissolved oxygen. the foremost belief is that healthy plants are going to make for tastier plants. " and then because we are so close to our customers, we never have to harvest anything before it ' s completely ready. many conventionally grown crops have to be refrigerated and transported long distances, so they are picked early and then artificially ripened. we don ' t have to do anything like that ; we can harvest crops when they are at their optimal freshness, size, flavor, profile and color. we can harvest any item in the morning and have it to a supermarket or a


( 1 ) the section of a pedestal between base and surbase. ( 2 ) the lower portion of the wall of a room, decorated diffrently from the upper section. the dance of death, a favorite late medieval picture subject. it generally shows skeletons forcing the living to dance with them, usually in matching pairs, e. g. a live priest dancing with a skeleton priest. holbein ' s woodcut series the dance of death is one of the most famous. refers to a style of painting that developed in regensburg, germany, and elsewhere along the danube river during the renaissance and reformation. it is characterized by a renewed interest in medieval piety, an expressive use of nature, the relationship of the human figure and events to nature, and the introduction of landscape as a primary theme in art. the term was coined by theodor von frimmel ( 1853 - 1928 ), who believed that painting in the danube river region around regensburg, passau, and linz possessed common characteristics ; the style seems to exist even though leading artists did not form a school in the usual sense of the term, since they did not work in a single workshop or in a particular centre. major artists whose work represents the style include lucas cranach the elder, albrecht altdorfer and wolf huber. a minister who was below the rank of priest in the catholic, anglican and orthodox churches. deacons originally cared for both the sick and the poor in early christian communities. the representation of christ enthroned in glory as judge or ruler of the world, flanked by the virgin mary and john the baptist acting as intercessors. in medieval art a picture, often an altarpiece, consisting of two folding wings without a fixed central area. in renaissance art theory, the design of a painting seen in terms of drawing, which was help to be the basis of all art. the term stresses not the literal drawing, but the concept behind an art work. with the mannerists the term came to mean an ideal image that a work attempts to embody but can in fact never fully realize. as disegno appeals to the intellect, it was considered far more important that coloure ( colour ), which was seen as appealing to the senses and emotions. a technique of painting in which pigments are diluted with water and bound with a glue. it was usually used for painting wall decorations and frescoes, though a few artists, notably andrea mantegna ( 1430 / 31 - 1506 ), also used it on


in which pigments are diluted with water and bound with a glue. it was usually used for painting wall decorations and frescoes, though a few artists, notably andrea mantegna ( 1430 / 31 - 1506 ), also used it on canvas. in architecture, hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, usually forming a ceiling or roof. a roman catholic order of mendicant friars founded by st. dominic in 1216 to spread the faith through preaching and teaching. the dominicans were one of the most influential religious orders in the later middle ages, their intellectual authority being established by such figures as albertus magnus and st. thomas aquinas. the dominicans played the leading role in the inquisition. a patron who commissioned a work of art for a church. donors sometimes had their portraits included in the work they were donating as a sign of piety. a male garment, formerly worn under armour, that from the 15th century referred to a close - fitting jacket. a ceramic product invented in england around 1720, which belongs to the category of fine stoneware. the porous white bodies are made of fired raw materials containing clay and kaolin as well as quartz, feldspar, and talc. a transparent glaze is applied upon the first or second firing. earthenware, which is suitable for everyday use, is distinguished by its light, creamy surface. the most famous example of this category is made by the english firm of wedgwood ( since 1780 ). stand on which a painting is supported while the artist works on it. the oldest representation of an easel is on an egyptian relief of the old kingdom ( c. 2600 - 2150 bc ). renaissance illustrations of the artist at work show all kinds of contrivances, the commonest being the three - legged easel with pegs, such as we still use today. light folding easels were not made until the 18th and 19th centuries, when painters took to working out of doors. the studio easel, a 19th - century invention, is a heavy piece of furniture, which runs on castors or wheels, and served to impress the c1ients of portrait painters. oil painters need an easel which will support the canvas almost vertically or tip it slightly forward to prevent reflection from the wet paint, whereas the watercolourist must be able to lay his paper nearly flat so that the wet paint will not run down. the term ' easel - painting ' is applied to any picture small enough to have been painted on


from the wet paint, whereas the watercolourist must be able to lay his paper nearly flat so that the wet paint will not run down. the term ' easel - painting ' is applied to any picture small enough to have been painted on a standard easel. the words of pontius pilate in the gospel of st. john ( 19, 5 ) when he presents jesus to the crowds. hence, in art, a depiction of jesus, bound and flogged, wearing a crown of thorns and a scarlet robe. in portraiture, a pose in which the sitter faces the viewer directly ; full face. coloured glass in powder form and sometimes bound with oil, which is bonded to a metal surface or plaque by firing. a print made from a metal plate that has had a design cut into it with a sharp point. ink is smeared over the plate and then wiped off, the ink remaining in the etched lines being transferred when the plate is pressed very firmly onto a sheet of paper. a combining of several media grouped together to form a composite art work. chapels were among the most notable renaissance ensembles, sometimes combining panel painting, fresco, sculpture, and architecture. in classical architecture, the part of a building between the capitals of the columns and the roof. it consists of the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. pictures or tables with reliefs and inscriptions erected in honour of the deceased in churches or sepulchral chapels. the science of the end of the world and beginning of a new world, and of the last things, death and resurrection. the sacrament of holy communion, celebrated with bread and wine, the most sacred moment of the christian liturgy. the term is used in an italian context to designate spiritual currents manifest around 1540 which might be said to have occupied the confessional middle ground between catholicism and protestantism ; hence it does not relate at all to the term ' evangelical ' as used in german or english contexts. it has been applied particularly to the so - called spirituali of the viterbo circle, notably cardinal pole, vittoria colonna, marcantonio flaminio, carnesecchi and ochino, and also to giulia gonzaga, contarini, giovanni morone ; gregorio cortese and vermigli. such persons combined a zeal for personal religious renewal with spiritual anxieties akin to those of luther, to which they sought an answer in the study of st paul and st augustine ; convinced of the inefficacy of human works,


. such persons combined a zeal for personal religious renewal with spiritual anxieties akin to those of luther, to which they sought an answer in the study of st paul and st augustine ; convinced of the inefficacy of human works, they stressed the role of faith and the all - efficacy of divine grace in justification. few of them broke with the catholic church. tin - glazed european earthenware, particularly ware made in france, germany, spain, and scandinavia. it developed in france in the early 16th century, was influenced by the technique and the designs of italian maiolica, and is named for faenza, italy, which was famous for maiolica. it is distinguished from tin - glazed earthenware made in italy, which is called " maiolica, " and that made in the netherlands and england, which is called " delftware. " it has no connection to the ancient objects or material also named faience, which was developed in the near east ca. 4500 bce. a title given to those leaders of the early christian church whose writings had made an important contribution to the development of doctrine. saints ambrose, augustine, jerome, and gregory the great were often considered the four principal fathers of the church. ancient roman god of nature, protector of shepherds, farmers, fields and livestock. equated with the greek god pan, he is frequently depicted with a goats legs and horns. architectural ornaments consisting of fruit, leaves, and flowers suspended in a loop ; a swag. in painting, representation of a rural feast or open - air entertainment. although the term fete galante ( " gallant feast " ) is sometimes used synonymously with fete champetre, it is also used to refer to a specific kind of fete champetre : a more graceful, usually aristocratic scene in which groups of idly amorous, relaxed, well - dressed figures are depicted in a pastoral setting. of a column or pillar, carved with closely spaced parallel grooves cut vertically. the four horsemen in the revelation of st john ( rev 6, 2 - 8 ), which contains the description of the end of the world and the second coming of christ. the horsemen personify the disasters about to happen to mankind, such as plague, war, famine and death. their attributes are the bow, sword and set of balances. in some sculptures the first rider is identified as christ by a halo. the colour of his horse is white, that of the others red, black and dun. a


famine and death. their attributes are the bow, sword and set of balances. in some sculptures the first rider is identified as christ by a halo. the colour of his horse is white, that of the others red, black and dun. a roman catholic order of mendicant friars founded by st. francis of assisi ( given papal approval in 1223 ). committed to charitable and missionary work, they stressed the veneration of the holy virgin, a fact that was highly significant in the development of images of the madonna in italian art. in time the absolute poverty of the early franciscans gave way to a far more relaxed view of property and wealth, and the franciscans became some of the most important patrons of art in the early renaissance. wall painting technique in which pigments are applied to wet ( fresh ) plaster ( intonaco ). the pigments bind with the drying plaster to form a very durable image. only a small area can be painted in a day, and these areas, drying to a slightly different tint, can in time be seen. small amounts of retouching and detail work could be carried out on the dry plaster, a technique known as a secco fresco. save in venice, where the atmosphere was too damp, fresco painting was the habitual way of decorating wall surfaces in italy, both in churches and in private and public palaces. during the 16th century a liking for the more brilliant effect of large canvases painted in oils, and to a lesser extent for tapestries, diminished the use of frescoes save for covering upper walls, covings and ceilings. the technique of buon fresco, or true fresco, involved covering the area with a medium - fine plaster, the intonaco, just rough enough to provide a bond ( sometimes enhanced by scoring ) for the final layer of fine plaster. either a freehand sketch of the whole composition ( sinopia ) was drawn on the wall, or a full - scale cartoon was prepared and its outlines transferred to the intonaco by pressing them through with a knife or by pouncing - blowing charcoal dust through prickholes in the paper. then over the intonaco enough of the final thin layer was applied to contain a day ' s work. that portion of the design was repeated on it either by the same methods or freehand, and the artist set to work with water - based pigments while the plaster was still damp ; this allowed them to sink in before becoming dry and fixed. ( thus ' pulls ' or slices of frescoes


it either by the same methods or freehand, and the artist set to work with water - based pigments while the plaster was still damp ; this allowed them to sink in before becoming dry and fixed. ( thus ' pulls ' or slices of frescoes could be taken by later art thieves without actually destroying the colour or drawing of the work. ) it is usually possible to estimate the time taken to produce a fresco by examining the joins between the plastered areas representing a day ' s work. final details, or effects impossible to obtain in true fresco pigments, could be added at the end in ' dry ' paints, or fresco secco, a technique in which pigment was laid on an unabsorbent plaster ; the best known example of an entire composition in fresco secco is leonardo ' s last supper. the highest order the english monarch can bestow. it was founded by edward iii in 1348. the blue garter ribbon is worn under the left knee by men and on the upper left arm by women. the motto is honi soit qui mal y pense ( evil to those who think evil ). in classical rome, a person ' s invisible tutelary god. in art from the classical period onwards, the low - ranking god was depicted as a winged, usually childish figure. in a broad sense, the term is used to mean a particular branch or category of art ; landscape and portraiture, for example, are genres of painting, and the essay and the short story are genres of literature. the depiction of scenes from everyday life. elements of everyday life had long had a role in religious works ; pictures in which such elements were the subject of a painting developed in the 16th century with such artists as pieter bruegel. then carracci and caravaggio developed genre painting in italy, but it was in holland in the 17th century that it became an independent form with its own major achievements, vermeer being one of its finest exponents. a term applied to the 14th - century followers of giotto. the best - known of the ' giotteschi ' are the florentines taddeo gaddi, maso di banco, bernardo daddi, and to a lesser extent the master of st cecilia. giotto ' s most loyal follower was maso, who concentrated on the essential and maintained the master ' s high seriousness. french term used from the 15th century onwards for a lying or recumbent effigy on a funerary monument. the gisant typically


most loyal follower was maso, who concentrated on the essential and maintained the master ' s high seriousness. french term used from the 15th century onwards for a lying or recumbent effigy on a funerary monument. the gisant typically represented a person in death ( sometimes decomposition ) and the gisant position was contrasted with the orant, which represented the person as if alive in a kneeling or praying position. in renaissance monuments gisants often formed part of the lower register, where the deceased person was represented as a corpse, while on the upper part he was represented orant as if alive. paint applied so thinly that the base beneath it is visible through the layer. ( 1 ) the supernatural radiance surrounding a holy person. ( 2 ) to have the distinction of one ' s deeds recognized in life and to be revered for them posthumously : this was glory. the nature of true gloria was much discussed, whether it must be connected with the public good, whether the actions that led to it must conform with christian ethics, how it differed from notoriety. the concept did not exclude religious figures ( the title of the church of the frari in venice was s. maria gloriosa ), but it was overwhelmingly seen in terms of secular success and subsequent recognition, as determining the lifestyles of the potent and the form of their commemoration in literature, in portraits and on tombs. as such, it has been taken as a denial of medieval religiosity ( ' sic transit gloria mundi ' ), and thus a hallmark of renaissance individual ism ; as a formidable influence on cultural patronage ; and as spurring on men of action, as well as writers and artists, to surpass their rivals - including their counterparts in antiquity. french tapestry manufactory, named after a family of dyers and clothmakers who set up business on the outskirts of paris in the 15th century. their premises became a tapestry factory in the early 17th century, and in 1662 it was taken over by louis xiv, who appointed lebrun director. initially it made not only tapestries but also every kind of product ( except carpets, which were woven at the savonnerie factory ) required for the furnishing of the royal palaces — its official title was manufacture royale des meubles de la couronne. the celebrated tapestry designed by lebrun showing louis xiv visiting the gobelins ( gobelins museum, paris, 1663 - 75 ) gives a good idea of the range of its activities. in 169


meubles de la couronne. the celebrated tapestry designed by lebrun showing louis xiv visiting the gobelins ( gobelins museum, paris, 1663 - 75 ) gives a good idea of the range of its activities. in 1694 the factory was closed because of the king ' s financial difficulties, and although it reopened in 1699, thereafter it made only tapestries. for much of the 18th century it retained its position as the foremost tapestry manufactory in europe. 0udry and boucher successively held the post of director ( 1733 - 70 ). the gobelins continues in production today and houses a tapestry museum. a noble chivalric order, still in existence today, founded by duke philip the good of burgundy in 1430 in honor of the apostle andrew, for the defence of the christian faith and the church. in allusion to the legend of jason and the argonauts, the symbol of the order is a golden ram ' s fleece drawn through a gold ring. in painting and architecture, a formula meant to provide the aesthetically most satisfying proportions for a picture or a feature of a building. the golden section is arrived at by dividing a line unevenly so that the shorter length is to the larger as the larger is to the whole. this ratio is approximately 8 : 13. the golden section ( sometimes known as the golden mean ), which was thought to express a perfect harmony of proportions, played an important role in renaissance theories of art. italian gonfaloniere ( " standard bearer " ), a title of high civic magistrates in the medieval italian city - states. in florence the gonfaloniers of the companies ( gonfalonieri di compagnia ) originated during the 1250s as commanders of the people ' s militia. in the 1280s a new office called the gonfalonier of justice ( gonfaloniere di giustizia ) was instituted to protect the interests of the people against the dominant magnate class. the holder of this office subsequently became the most prominent member of the signoria ( supreme executive council of florence ) and formal head of the civil administration. in other italian cities, the role of the gonfaloniers was similar to that in florence. gonfaloniers headed the militia from the various city quarters, while the gonfalonier of justice often was the chief of the council of guild representatives. the kings of france traditionally bore the title gonfalonier of st. denis.


giovanni pisano or simone martini who most closely approached a pure gothic style. nevertheless, the vitalizing role of northern gothic art throughout the early renaissance and the period leading up to it should never be underestimated. the artistic, like the cultural and commercial, interaction was continuous and much of the italian achievement is incomprehensible if seen in isolation. it is not merely at the level of direct exchanges between one artist and another, or the influence of one building ; painting, manuscript or piece of sculpture upon another, that the effects are to be felt. the streaming quality of line which is so characteristic of brunelleschi ' s early renaissance architecture surely reflects a sensitivity to the gothic contribution which is entirely independent of, and lies much deeper than, the superficial particularities of form. the counterflow of influence and inspiration from south to north must likewise not be underrated. in particular, the contribution of italian painters from duccio and simone martini onwards is central to the evolution of the so - called international gothic style developing in burgundy, bohemia and north italy in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. gouache is opaque watercolour, known also as poster paint and designer ' s colour. it is thinned with water for applying, with sable - and hog - hair brushes, to white or tinted paper and card and, occasionally, to silk. honey, starch, or acrylic is sometimes added to retard its quick - drying property. liquid glue is preferred as a thinner by painters wishing to retain the tonality of colours ( which otherwise dry slightly lighter in key ) and to prevent thick paint from flaking. gouache paints have the advantages that they dry out almost immediately to a mat finish and, if required, without visible brush marks. these qualities, with the capacities to be washed thinly or applied in thick impasto and a wide colour range that now includes fluorescent and metallic pigments, make the medium particularly suited to preparatory studies for oil and acrylic paintings. it is the medium that produces the suede finish and crisp lines characteristic of many indian and islamic miniatures, and it has been used in western screen and fan decoration and by modern artists such as rouault, klee, dubuffet, and morris graves. term applied to the lofty and rhetorical manner of history painting that in academic theory was considered appropriate to the most serious and elevated subjects. the classic exposition of its doctrines is found in reynolds ' s third and fourth discourses ( 1770 and 1771 ), where


to the lofty and rhetorical manner of history painting that in academic theory was considered appropriate to the most serious and elevated subjects. the classic exposition of its doctrines is found in reynolds ' s third and fourth discourses ( 1770 and 1771 ), where he asserts that ' the gusto grande of the italians, the beau ideal of the french, and the great style, genius, and taste among the english, are but different appellations of the same thing '. the idea of the grand manner took shape in 17th - century italy, notably in the writings of bellori. his friend poussin and the great bolognese painters of the 17th century were regarded as outstanding exponents of the grand manner, but the greatest of all was held to be raphael. an extensive journey to the continent, chiefly to france, the netherlands, and above all italy, sometimes in the company of a tutor, that became a conventional feature in the education of the english gentleman in the 18th century. such tours often took a year or more. it had a noticeable effect in bringing a more cosmopolitan spirit to the taste of connoisseurs and laid the basis for many collections among the landed gentry. it also helped the spread of the fashion for neoclassicism and an enthusiasm for italian painting. among the native artists who catered for this demand were batoni, canaletto, pannini, and piranesi, and british artists ( such as nollekens ) were sometimes able to support themselves while in italy by working for the dealers and restorers who supplied the tourist clientele. there was also a flourishing market in guide books. a cross with four arms of equal length. term current with several different meanings in the literature of the visual arts. in the context of the fine arts, it most usually refers to those arts that rely essentially on line or tone rather than colour — i. e. drawing and the various forms of engraving. some writers, however, exclude drawing from this definition, so that the term ' graphic art ' is used to cover the various processes by which prints are created. in another sense, the term — sometimes shortened to ' graphics ' — is used to cover the entire field of commercial printing, including text as well as illustrations. a painting done entirely in one colour, usually gray. grisaille paintings were often intended to imitate sculpture. italian political terms derived from the german welf, a personal and thence family name of the dukes of bavaria, and waiblingen, the name of a castle of the


, usually gray. grisaille paintings were often intended to imitate sculpture. italian political terms derived from the german welf, a personal and thence family name of the dukes of bavaria, and waiblingen, the name of a castle of the hohenstaufen dukes of swabia apparently used as a battle cry. presumably introduced into italy 1198 - 1218, when partisans of the emperor otto iv ( welf ) contested central italy with supporters of philip of swabia and his ' nephew frederick ii, the terms do not appear in the chronicles until the emperor frederick ' s conflict with the papacy 1235 - 50, when guelf meant a supporter of the pope and ghibelline a supporter of the empire. from 1266 to 1268, when naples was conquered by charles of anjou, brother of louis ix, the french connection became the touchstone of guelfism, and the chain of guelf alliances stretching from naples, through central italy, to provence and paris, underwritten by the financial interests of the tuscan bankers, became an abiding feature of european politics. the italian expeditions of henry of luxemburg ( 1310 - 13 ) and lewis of bavaria ( 1327 - 29 ) spread the terms to northern italy, with the visconti of milan and the della scala of verona emerging as the leading ghibelline powers. attempts by guelf propagandists to claim their party as the upholder of liberty and their opponents as the protagonists of tyranny rarely coincide with the truth : power politics, then as now, generally overrode ideology in inter - state affairs. factional struggles had existed within the italian states from time immemorial, the parties taking a multitude of local names. in florence, however, guelf and ghibelline were applied to the local factions which supposedly originated in a feud between the buondelmonte and amidei clans, c. 1216. in 1266 - 67 the guelf party, which had recruited most of the merchant class, finally prevailed over the predominantly noble ghibellines ; after this, internal factions in florence went under other names, like the blacks and the whites who contested for control of the commune between 1295 and 1302. meanwhile the parte guelfa had become a corporate body whose wealth and moral authority as the guardian of political orthodoxy enabled it to play the part of a powerful pressure group through most of the 14th century. after the war of the eight saints


guilds was the 13th and 14th centuries. the economic recession after 1348 meant fewer opportunities for journeymen to become masters, and greater hostility between master and man. the shift from trade to land in the 15th and 16th centuries meant a decline in the social standing of the crafts. in some towns, such as brescia and vicenza, guild membership actually became a disqualification instead of a qualification for municipal office. the guilds lost their independence and became instruments of state control. in 16th century venice, for example, they were made responsible for supplying oarsmen for the galleys of the state. dutch painters who worked in the hague between 1860 and 1900, producing renderings of local landscapes and the daily activities of local fisherman and farmers in the style of realism. in this they extended the traditional focus on genre of the 17th - century dutch masters with the fresh observation of their contemporary french counterparts, the barbizon school. the group included jozef israels ; hendrik willem mesdag ; jan hendrik weissenbruch ; jacob maris, matthijs maris, and willem maris ; johannes bosboom ; and anton mauve. in a drawing, print or painting, a series of close parallel lines that create the effect of shadow, and therefore contour and three - dimensionality in crosshatching the lines overlap. the study of the meaning of emblems and coats of arms, with the rules governing their use. the heretical movements affecting italy between the mid - 12th and the mid - 14th century had their main impact in an area covering the north - west of the peninsula and southern france : it is not possible to speak of distinct italian and meridional french movements. the authentically christian movements which were expelled from the catholic church must in the first instance be distinguished from catharism, which represented an infiltration by the originally non - christian dualist system of manichaeanism ; from the start, the cathars were an anti - church. by contrast, the waldensian, spiritual and joachimite movements appeared initially as vital manifestations of catholicism ; only after their condemnation by the ecclesiastical authorities do they seem to have developed notably eccentric doctrines and to have described themselves as the true church in opposition to the institutional church ; they had a recognizable kinship with movements that remained within the pale of orthodoxy. these christian heresies had in common an attachment to the ideal of apostolic poverty, which came to be seen by the ecclesiastical authorities as a challenge to the institutionalized church. the waldensians or valdesi ( not to