surrounded just by the constant murmur of the patagonian wind, open the pinturas river canyon. there, among the folds of its high walls, rock art is found in the cueva de las manos, where people from 9, 000 years ago sealed their art and their life testimony. its fame is not for nothing. those hands, guanacos and geometric patterns in the stone of the cave are the oldest expression of south american peoples are aware. unesco understood this when in 1999 it was appointed cultural heritage of humanity. its location, alone, in the middle of the desert northwest of santa cruz, lets kept intact. the nearest town, perito moreno, is 163 kilometers away. and beyond, and near the mountain range, there is los antiguos, which was the resting place of the elders of the tribes that disappeared. this whole area and not just the cave, including the perito moreno national park, is a rich archaeological and paleontological site. the valleys, canyons, lakes and rivers that make it up jealously shelter paintings and different types of archaeological sites in which men walked 14, 000 years before christ. and between the weeds there are fossils that testify the existence of a sea in this region long before man inhabited. in fact, the town of perito moreno is called the archaeological capital of the province of santa cruz. caves of pinturas river saved works done by the indians and their ancestors tehuelches. its age is 9300 years, according to research. there are, besides negative handprints, pictures of guanacos, geometric patterns, clusters of lines, dots and solar figure. the largest congregation is in the actual cave, cueva de las manos, which is 24 meters deep, 15 meters wide at the entrance and about 10 meters high up to the beginning of the visor. on both sides of the entrance, there are small spaces in the light, but partially protected by the projection of the visors. the eaves are formed by protrusions that protect the paintings from the wind and sun. it includes three levels of culture, with an estimated range from 7370 bc to 1000 ad. although this assessment is relative, since the realization of the paintings may have taken place in short time, in an almost synchronous or far apart in time. the color of the negative imprints of hands depended on obtaining raw materials close to each site, but most are in red ( hematite ), white ( limestone ), black ( manganese or charcoal


pronounced : gas - tro - ee - sof - a - geal re - flux diseaseen espanol ( spanish version ) gastroesophageal reflux ( ger ) is the back up of acid or food from the stomach to the esophagus. the esophagus is the tube that connects your mouth and stomach. ger is common in infants. it may cause them to spit up. most infants outgrow ger within 12 months. ger that progresses to esophageal injury and other symptoms is called gastroesophageal reflux disease ( gerd ). the backed - up acid irritates the lining of the esophagus. it causes heartburn, a pain in the stomach and chest. gerd can occur at any age. copyright © nucleus medical media, inc. gerd is caused by acid or food from the stomach that regularly backs up into the esophagus. it is not always clear why the acid backs up. the reasons may vary from person to person. there may also be a genetic link in some gerd. acid is kept in the stomach by a valve at the top of the stomach. the valve opens when food comes in. it should close to keep in the food and acid. if this valve does not close properly, the acid can flow out of the stomach. in addition to gerd, the valve may not close because of : the following factors increase the chances of developing gerd : symptoms of gerd include : your doctor will ask about your child ’ s symptoms and medical history. a physical exam will be done. your child may need to see a pediatric gastroenterologist. this type of doctor focuses on diseases of the stomach and intestines. tests may include : talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for your child. treatment options include the following : medications options include : many of these are over - the - counter medications. surgery or endoscopy may be recommended for more severe cases. it may be considered if lifestyle changes and medications do not work. the most common surgery is called fundoplication. during this procedure, a part of the stomach will be wrapped around the stomach valve. this makes the valve stronger. it should prevent stomach acid from backing up into the esophagus. this surgery is often done through small incisions in the skin. last reviewed may 2013 by michael woods please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by


| thomas jonathan " stonewall " jackson | general jackson ' s " chancellorsville " portrait, taken at a spotsylvania county farm on april 26, 1863, seven days before he was wounded at the battle of chancellorsville. | nickname | | stonewall, old jack, old blue light, tom fool | | born | | ) january 21, 1824 clarksburg, virginia ( now west virginia ) | died | | may 10, 1863 ) ( aged 39 ) | place of burial | | stonewall jackson memorial cemetery | years of service | | thomas jonathan " stonewall " jackson ( january 21, 1824 – may 10, 1863 ) was a confederate general during the american civil war, and one of the best - known confederate commanders after general robert e. lee. his military career includes the valley campaign of 1862 and his service as a corps commander in the army of northern virginia under robert e. lee. confederate pickets accidentally shot him at the battle of chancellorsville on may 2, 1863. the general survived with the loss of an arm to amputation, but died of complications from pneumonia eight days later. his death was a severe setback for the confederacy, affecting not only its military prospects, but also the morale of its army and of the general public. jackson in death became an icon of southern heroism and commitment, joining lee in the pantheon of the " lost cause ". military historians consider jackson to be one of the most gifted tactical commanders in u. s. history. his valley campaign and his envelopment of the union army right wing at chancellorsville are studied worldwide even today as examples of innovative and bold leadership. he excelled as well in other battles ; the first battle of bull run ( first manassas ) where he received his famous nickname " stonewall ", second bull run ( second manassas ), antietam, and fredericksburg. jackson was not universally successful as a commander, however, as displayed by his weak and confused efforts during the seven days battles around richmond in 1862. early life paternal ancestry thomas jonathan jackson was the great - grandson of john jackson ( 1715 or 1719 – 1801 ) and elizabeth cummins ( also known as elizabeth comings and elizabeth needles ) ( 1723 – 1828 ). john jackson was a protestant from coleraine, county londonderry, ireland. while living in london, england, he was convicted of the capital crime of larceny for stealing £170 ; the judge at the old bailey sentenced him to a seven - year indenture in america. elizabeth,


londonderry, ireland. while living in london, england, he was convicted of the capital crime of larceny for stealing £170 ; the judge at the old bailey sentenced him to a seven - year indenture in america. elizabeth, a strong, blonde woman over 6 feet ( 1. 8 m ) tall, born in london, england was also convicted of larceny in an unrelated case for stealing 19 pieces of silver, jewelry, and fine lace, and received a similar sentence. they both were transported on the prison ship litchfield, which departed london in may 1749 with 150 convicts. john and elizabeth met on board and were in love by the time the ship arrived at annapolis, maryland. although they were sent to different locations in maryland for their indentures, the couple married in july 1755. the family migrated west across the blue ridge mountains to settle near moorefield, virginia, ( now west virginia ) in 1758. in 1770, they moved farther west to the tygart valley. they began to acquire large parcels of virgin farmland near the present - day town of buckhannon, including 3, 000 acres ( 12 km² ) in elizabeth ' s name. john and his two teenage sons were early recruits for the american revolutionary war, fighting in the battle of kings mountain on october 7, 1780 ; john finished the war as captain and served as a lieutenant of the virginia militia after 1787. while the men were in the army, elizabeth converted their home to a haven, " jackson ' s fort, " for refugees from indian attacks. john and elizabeth had eight children. their second son was edward jackson ( march 1, 1759 – december 25, 1828 ), and edward ' s third son was jonathan jackson, thomas ' s father. early childhood thomas jackson was the third child of julia beckwith ( nee neale ) jackson ( 1798 – 1831 ) and jonathan jackson ( 1790 – 1826 ), an attorney. both of jackson ' s parents were natives of virginia. the family already had two young children and were living in clarksburg, in what is now west virginia, when thomas was born. he was named for his maternal grandfather. thomas ' s sister elizabeth ( age six ) died of typhoid fever on march 6, 1826, with two - year - old thomas at her bedside. his father also died of a typhoid fever on march 26. jackson ' s mother gave birth to thomas ' s sister laura ann the day after jackson ' s father died. julia jackson thus was widowed at 28 and was left with


her bedside. his father also died of a typhoid fever on march 26. jackson ' s mother gave birth to thomas ' s sister laura ann the day after jackson ' s father died. julia jackson thus was widowed at 28 and was left with much debt and three young children ( including the newborn ). she sold the family ' s possessions to pay the debts. she declined family charity and moved into a small rented one - room house. julia took in sewing and taught school to support herself and her three young children for about four years. in 1830, julia neale jackson remarried. her new husband, blake woodson, an attorney, did not like his stepchildren. there were continuing financial problems. the following year, after giving birth to thomas ' s half - brother, julia died of complications, leaving her three older children orphaned. julia was buried in an unmarked grave in a homemade coffin in westlake cemetery along the new river and kanawha turnpike in fayette county within the corporate limits of present - day ansted, west virginia. working and teaching at jackson ' s mill as their mother ' s health continued to fail, jackson and his sister laura ann were sent to live with their uncle, cummins jackson, who owned a grist mill in jackson ' s mill ( near present - day weston in lewis county in central west virginia ). their older brother, warren, went to live with other relatives on his mother ' s side of the family, but he later died of tuberculosis in 1841 at the age of 20. thomas and laura ann returned from jackson ' s mill in november 1831 to be at their dying mother ' s bedside. they spent four years together at the mill before being separated — laura ann was sent to live with her mother ' s family, thomas to live with his aunt polly ( his father ' s sister ) and her husband, isaac brake, on a farm 4 miles from clarksburg. thomas was treated by brake as an outsider and, having suffered verbal abuse for over a year, ran away from the family. when his cousin in clarksburg besought him to return to aunt polly ' s, he replied, " maybe i ought to, ma ' am, but i am not going to. " he walked 18 miles through mountain wilderness to jackson ' s mill, where he was welcomed by his uncles and he remained there for the following seven years. cummins jackson was strict with thomas, who looked up to cummins as a schoolteacher. jackson helped around the farm, tending sheep with the assistance


s mill, where he was welcomed by his uncles and he remained there for the following seven years. cummins jackson was strict with thomas, who looked up to cummins as a schoolteacher. jackson helped around the farm, tending sheep with the assistance of a sheepdog, driving teams of oxen and helping harvest wheat and corn. formal education was not easily obtained, but he attended school when and where he could. much of jackson ' s education was self - taught. he once made a deal with one of his uncle ' s slaves to provide him with pine knots in exchange for reading lessons ; thomas would stay up at night reading borrowed books by the light of those burning pine knots. virginia law forbade teaching a slave, free black or mulatto to read or write, as enacted following nat turner ' s slave rebellion in southampton county in 1831. nevertheless, jackson secretly taught the slave to write, as he had promised. once literate, the young slave fled to canada via the underground railroad. in his later years at jackson ' s mill, thomas was a school teacher. early military career west point in 1842, jackson was accepted to the united states military academy at west point, new york. because of his inadequate schooling, he had difficulty with the entrance examinations and began his studies at the bottom of his class. as a student, he had to work harder than most cadets to absorb lessons. displaying a dogged determination that was to characterize his life, however, he became one of the hardest working cadets in the academy, and moved steadily up the academic rankings. jackson graduated 17th out of 59 students in the class of 1846. it was said by his peers that if he had stayed there another year, he would have graduated first. his roommate in his junior year at west point was george stoneman, who later served as a union cavalry general and became the governor of california. u. s. army and the mexican war jackson began his united states army career as a second lieutenant in the 1st u. s. artillery regiment and was sent to fight in the mexican - american war from 1846 to 1848. he served at the siege of veracruz and the battles of contreras, chapultepec, and mexico city, eventually earning two brevet promotions, and the regular army rank of first lieutenant. it was in mexico that thomas jackson first met robert e. lee. during the assault on chapultepec castle, he refused what he felt was a " bad order " to withdraw his troops. confronted by his superior,


of first lieutenant. it was in mexico that thomas jackson first met robert e. lee. during the assault on chapultepec castle, he refused what he felt was a " bad order " to withdraw his troops. confronted by his superior, he explained his rationale, claiming withdrawal was more hazardous than continuing his overmatched artillery duel. his judgment proved correct, and a relieving brigade was able to exploit the advantage jackson had broached. in contrast to this display of strength of character, he obeyed what he also felt was a " bad order " when he raked a civilian throng with artillery fire after the mexican authorities failed to surrender mexico city at the hour demanded by the u. s. forces. the former episode, and later aggressive action against the retreating mexican army, earned him field promotion to the brevet rank of major. lexington and the virginia military institute in the spring of 1851, jackson accepted a newly created teaching position at the virginia military institute ( vmi ), in lexington, virginia. he became professor of natural and experimental philosophy and instructor of artillery. parts of jackson ' s curriculum are still taught at vmi, regarded as timeless military essentials : discipline, mobility, assessing the enemy ' s strength and intentions while attempting to conceal your own, and the efficiency of artillery combined with an infantry assault. however, despite the high quality of his work, he was not popular as a teacher, and the students called him " tom fool. " he memorized his lectures and then recited them to the class ; any students who came to ask for help were only given the same explanation as before. and if students came to ask again, jackson viewed this as insubordination and likewise punished them. the students mocked his apparently stern, religious nature and his eccentric traits. in 1856, a group of alumni attempted to have jackson removed from his position. little as he was known to the white inhabitants of lexington, jackson was revered by many of the african - americans in town, both slaves and free blacks. he was instrumental in the organization in 1855 of sunday school classes for blacks at the presbyterian church. his second wife, mary anna jackson, taught with jackson, as " he preferred that my labors should be given to the colored children, believing that it was more important and useful to put the strong hand of the gospel under the ignorant african race, to lift them up. " the pastor, dr. william spottswood white, described the relationship between jackson and his sunday afternoon students : " in their religious instruction


important and useful to put the strong hand of the gospel under the ignorant african race, to lift them up. " the pastor, dr. william spottswood white, described the relationship between jackson and his sunday afternoon students : " in their religious instruction he succeeded wonderfully. his discipline was systematic and firm, but very kind.... his servants reverenced and loved him, as they would have done a brother or father.... he was emphatically the black man ' s friend. " he addressed his students by name and they in turn referred to him affectionately as " marse major. " jackson ' s family owned six slaves in the late 1850s. three ( hetty, cyrus, and george, a mother and two teenage sons ) were received as a wedding present. another, albert, requested that jackson purchase him and allow him to work for his freedom ; he was employed as a waiter in one of the lexington hotels and jackson rented him to vmi. amy also requested that jackson purchase her from a public auction and she served the family as a cook and housekeeper. the sixth, emma, was a four - year - old orphan with a learning disability, accepted by jackson from an aged widow and presented to his second wife, mary anna, as a welcome - home gift. after the american civil war began he appears to have hired out or sold his slaves. mary anna jackson, in her 1895 memoir, said, " our servants... without the firm guidance and restraint of their master, the excitement of the times proved so demoralizing to them that he deemed it best for me to provide them with good homes among the permanent residents. " james robertson wrote about jackson ' s view on slavery : jackson neither apologized for nor spoke in favor of the practice of slavery. he probably opposed the institution. yet in his mind the creator had sanctioned slavery, and man had no moral right to challenge its existence. the good christian slaveholder was one who treated his servants fairly and humanely at all times. while an instructor at vmi in 1853, thomas jackson married elinor " ellie " junkin, whose father, george junkin, was president of washington college ( later named washington and lee university ) in lexington. an addition was built onto the president ' s residence for the jacksons, and when robert e. lee became president of washington college he lived in the same home, now known as the lee - jackson house. ellie gave birth to a stillborn son on october 22, 1854, experiencing a hemor


for the jacksons, and when robert e. lee became president of washington college he lived in the same home, now known as the lee - jackson house. ellie gave birth to a stillborn son on october 22, 1854, experiencing a hemorrhage an hour later that proved fatal. after a tour of europe, jackson married again, in 1857. mary anna morrison was from north carolina, where her father was the first president of davidson college. they had a daughter named mary graham on april 30, 1858, but the baby died less than a month later. another daughter was born in 1862, shortly before her father ' s death. the jacksons named her julia laura, after his mother and sister. jackson purchased the only house he ever owned while in lexington. built in 1801, the brick town house at 8 east washington street was purchased by jackson in 1859. he lived in it for two years before being called to serve in the confederacy. jackson never returned to his home. in november 1859, at the request of the governor of virginia, major william gilham led a contingent of the vmi cadet corps to charles town to provide an additional military presence at the hanging of militant abolitionist john brown on december 2, following his raid on the federal arsenal at harpers ferry on october 16. major jackson was placed in command of the artillery, consisting of two howitzers manned by 21 cadets. civil war in 1861, as the american civil war broke out, jackson became a drill master for some of the many new recruits in the confederate army. on april 27, 1861, virginia governor john letcher ordered colonel jackson to take command at harpers ferry, where he would assemble and command the famous " stonewall brigade ", consisting of the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 27th, and 33rd virginia infantry regiments. all of these units were from the shenandoah valley region of virginia, where jackson located his headquarters throughout the first two years of the war. jackson became known for his relentless drilling of his troops ; he believed discipline was vital to success on the battlefield. following raids on the b & o railroad on may 24, he was promoted to brigadier general on june 17. first bull run jackson rose to prominence and earned his most famous nickname at the first battle of bull run ( first manassas ) on july 21, 1861. as the confederate lines began to crumble under heavy union assault, jackson ' s brigade provided crucial reinforcements on henry house hill, demonstrating the discipline he instilled in his men. brig. gen. barnard elliott bee


) on july 21, 1861. as the confederate lines began to crumble under heavy union assault, jackson ' s brigade provided crucial reinforcements on henry house hill, demonstrating the discipline he instilled in his men. brig. gen. barnard elliott bee, jr., exhorted his own troops to re - form by shouting, " there is jackson standing like a stone wall. let us determine to die here, and we will conquer. rally behind the virginians! " there is some controversy over bee ' s statement and intent, which could not be clarified because he was killed almost immediately after speaking and none of his subordinate officers wrote reports of the battle. major burnett rhett, chief of staff to general joseph e. johnston, claimed that bee was angry at jackson ' s failure to come immediately to the relief of bee ' s and bartow ' s brigades while they were under heavy pressure. those who subscribe to this opinion believe that bee ' s statement was meant to be pejorative : " look at jackson standing there like a damned stone wall! " regardless of the controversy and the delay in relieving bee, jackson ' s brigade, which would thenceforth be known as the stonewall brigade, stopped the union assault and suffered more casualties than any other southern brigade that day ; jackson has since then been generally known as stonewall jackson. during the battle, jackson displayed a gesture common to him and held his left arm skyward with the palm facing forward — interpreted by his soldiers variously as an eccentricity or an entreaty to god for success in combat. his hand was struck by a bullet or a piece of shrapnel and he suffered a small loss of bone in his middle finger. he refused medical advice to have the finger amputated. after the battle, jackson was promoted to major general ( october 7, 1861 ) and given command of the valley district, with headquarters in winchester. valley campaign in the spring of 1862, union maj. gen. george b. mcclellan ' s army of the potomac approached richmond from the southeast in the peninsula campaign, maj. gen. irvin mcdowell ' s large corps were poised to hit richmond from the north, and maj. gen. nathaniel p. banks ' s army threatened the shenandoah valley. jackson was ordered by richmond to operate in the valley to defeat banks ' threat and prevent mcdowell ' s troops from reinforcing mcclellan. jackson possessed the attributes to succeed against his poorly coordinated and sometimes timid opponents : a combination of great audacity


was ordered by richmond to operate in the valley to defeat banks ' threat and prevent mcdowell ' s troops from reinforcing mcclellan. jackson possessed the attributes to succeed against his poorly coordinated and sometimes timid opponents : a combination of great audacity, excellent knowledge and shrewd use of the terrain, and the ability to inspire his troops to great feats of marching and fighting. the campaign started with a tactical defeat at kernstown on march 23, 1862, when faulty intelligence led him to believe he was attacking a small detachment. but it became a strategic victory for the confederacy, because his aggressiveness suggested that he possessed a much larger force, convincing president abraham lincoln to keep banks ' troops in the valley and mcdowell ' s 30, 000 - man corps near fredericksburg, subtracting about 50, 000 soldiers from mcclellan ' s invasion force. as it transpired, it was jackson ' s only defeat in the valley. by adding maj. gen. richard s. ewell ' s large division and maj. gen. edward " allegheny " johnson ' s small division, jackson increased his army to 17, 000 men. he was still significantly outnumbered, but attacked portions of his divided enemy individually at mcdowell, defeating both brig. gens. robert h. milroy and robert c. schenck. he defeated banks at front royal and winchester, ejecting him from the valley. lincoln decided that the defeat of jackson was an immediate priority ( though jackson ' s orders were solely to keep union forces occupied away from richmond ). he ordered irvin mcdowell to send 20, 000 men to front royal and maj. gen. john c. fremont to move to harrisonburg. if both forces could converge at strasburg, jackson ' s only escape route up the valley would be cut. it was a classic military campaign of surprise and maneuver. jackson pressed his army to travel 646 miles ( 1, 040 km ) in 48 days of marching and won five significant victories with a force of about 17, 000 against a combined force of 60, 000. stonewall jackson ' s reputation for moving his troops so rapidly earned them the oxymoronic nickname " foot cavalry ". he became the most celebrated soldier in the confederacy ( until he was eventually eclipsed by lee ) and lifted the morale of the southern public. mcclellan ' s peninsula campaign toward richmond stalled at the battle of seven pines on may 31 and june 1. after the valley campaign ended in mid - june, jackson and his troops were called to join robert


and lifted the morale of the southern public. mcclellan ' s peninsula campaign toward richmond stalled at the battle of seven pines on may 31 and june 1. after the valley campaign ended in mid - june, jackson and his troops were called to join robert e. lee ' s army of northern virginia in defense of the capital. by utilizing a railroad tunnel under the blue ridge mountains and then transporting troops to hanover county on the virginia central railroad, jackson and his forces made a surprise appearance in front of mcclellan at mechanicsville. reports had last placed jackson ' s forces in the shenandoah valley ; their presence near richmond added greatly to the union commander ' s overestimation of the strength and numbers of the forces before him. this proved a crucial factor in mcclellan ' s decision to re - establish his base at a point many miles downstream from richmond on the james river at harrison ' s landing, essentially a retreat that ended the peninsula campaign and prolonged the war almost three more years. jackson ' s troops served well under lee in the series of battles known as the seven days battles, but jackson ' s own performance in those battles is generally considered to be poor. he arrived late at mechanicsville and inexplicably ordered his men to bivouac for the night within clear earshot of the battle. he was late and disoriented at gaines ' mill. he was late again at savage ' s station and at white oak swamp he failed to employ fording places to cross white oak swamp creek, attempting for hours to rebuild a bridge, which limited his involvement to an ineffectual artillery duel and a missed opportunity. at malvern hill jackson participated in the futile, piecemeal frontal assaults against entrenched union infantry and massed artillery, and suffered heavy casualties ( but this was a problem for all of lee ' s army in that ill - considered battle ). the reasons for jackson ' s sluggish and poorly - coordinated actions during the seven days are disputed, although a severe lack of sleep after the grueling march and railroad trip from the shenandoah valley was probably a significant factor. both jackson and his troops were completely exhausted. it has also been said by longstreet that, " general jackson never showed his genius when under the immediate command of general lee. " second bull run to fredericksburg the military reputations of lee ' s corps commanders are often characterized as stonewall jackson representing the audacious, offensive component of lee ' s army, whereas his counterpart, james longst


command of general lee. " second bull run to fredericksburg the military reputations of lee ' s corps commanders are often characterized as stonewall jackson representing the audacious, offensive component of lee ' s army, whereas his counterpart, james longstreet, more typically advocated and executed defensive strategies and tactics. jackson has been described as the army ' s hammer, longstreet its anvil. in the northern virginia campaign of august 1862 this stereotype did not hold true. longstreet commanded the right wing ( later to become known as the first corps ) and jackson commanded the left wing. jackson started the campaign under lee ' s orders with a sweeping flanking maneuver that placed his corps into the rear of union maj. gen. john pope ' s army of virginia. at manassas junction, jackson was able to capture all of the supplies of the union army depot. then he had his troops destroy all of it, for it was the main depot for the union army. jackson then retreated and then took up a defensive position and effectively invited pope to assault him. on august 28 – 29, the start of the second battle of bull run ( second manassas ), pope launched repeated assaults against jackson as longstreet and the remainder of the army marched north to reach the battlefield. on august 30, pope came to believe that jackson was starting to retreat, and longstreet took advantage of this by launching a massive assault on the union army ' s left with over 25, 000 men. although the union troops put up a furious defense, pope ' s army was forced to retreat in a manner similar to the embarrassing union defeat at first bull run, fought on roughly the same battleground. when lee decided to invade the north in the maryland campaign, jackson took harpers ferry, then hastened to join the rest of the army at sharpsburg, maryland, where they fought mcclellan in the battle of antietam ( sharpsburg ). antietam was primarily a defensive battle against superior odds, although mcclellan failed to exploit his advantage. jackson ' s men bore the brunt of the initial attacks on the northern end of the battlefield and, at the end of the day, successfully resisted a breakthrough on the southern end when jackson ' s subordinate, maj. gen. a. p. hill, arrived at the last minute from harpers ferry. the confederate forces held their position, but the battle was extremely bloody for both sides, and lee withdrew the army of northern virginia back across the potomac river,


. gen. a. p. hill, arrived at the last minute from harpers ferry. the confederate forces held their position, but the battle was extremely bloody for both sides, and lee withdrew the army of northern virginia back across the potomac river, ending the invasion. jackson was promoted to lieutenant general. on october 10 his command was redesignated the second corps. before the armies camped for winter, jackson ' s second corps held off a strong union assault against the right flank of the confederate line at the battle of fredericksburg, in what became a decisive confederate victory. just before the battle, jackson was delighted to receive a letter about the birth of his daughter, julia laura jackson, on november 23. also before the battle, maj. gen. j. e. b. stuart, lee ' s dashing and well - dressed cavalry commander, presented to jackson a fine general ' s frock that he had ordered from one of the best tailors in richmond. jackson ' s previous coat was threadbare and colorless from exposure to the elements, its buttons removed by admiring ladies. jackson asked his staff to thank stuart, saying that although the coat was too handsome for him, he would cherish it as a souvenir. his staff insisted that he wear it to dinner, which caused scores of soldiers to rush to see him in uncharacteristic garb. so embarrassed was jackson with the attention that he did not wear the new uniform for months. during the night at fredericksburg, a medic asked would could be done after observing the destruction and looting done to the city. jackson venomously replied, " kill ' em, sir. kill ' em all. " at the battle of chancellorsville, the army of northern virginia was faced with a serious threat by the army of the potomac and its new commanding general, major general joseph hooker. general lee decided to employ a risky tactic to take the initiative and offensive away from hooker ' s new southern thrust — he decided to divide his forces. jackson and his entire corps were sent on an aggressive flanking maneuver to the right of the union lines. this flanking movement would be one of the most successful and dramatic of the war. while riding with his infantry in a wide berth well south and west of the federal line of battle, jackson employed maj. gen. fitzhugh lee ' s cavalry to provide for better reconnaissance in regards to the exact location of the union right and rear. the results were far better than even jackson could have hoped. lee found the entire right side of the federal


maj. gen. fitzhugh lee ' s cavalry to provide for better reconnaissance in regards to the exact location of the union right and rear. the results were far better than even jackson could have hoped. lee found the entire right side of the federal lines in the middle of open field, guarded merely by two guns that faced westward, as well as the supplies and rear encampments. the men were eating and playing games in carefree fashion, completely unaware that an entire confederate corps was less than a mile away. what happened next is given in fitzhugh lee ' s own words : so impressed was i with my discovery, that i rode rapidly back to the point on the plank road where i had left my cavalry, and back down the road jackson was moving, until i met " stonewall " himself. " general, " said i, " if you will ride with me, halting your column here, out of sight, i will show you the enemy ' s right, and you will perceive the great advantage of attacking down the old turnpike instead of the plank road, the enemy ' s lines being taken in reverse. bring only one courier, as you will be in view from the top of the hill. " jackson assented, and i rapidly conducted him to the point of observation. there had been no change in the picture. i only knew jackson slightly. i watched him closely as he gazed upon howard ' s troops. it was then about 2 p. m. his eyes burned with a brilliant glow, lighting up a sad face. his expression was one of intense interest, his face was colored slightly with the paint of approaching battle, and radiant at the success of his flank movement. to the remarks made to him while the unconscious line of blue was pointed out, he did not reply once during the five minutes he was on the hill, and yet his lips were moving. from what i have read and heard of jackson since that day, i know now what he was doing then. oh! " beware of rashness, " general hooker. stonewall jackson is praying in full view and in rear of your right flank! while talking to the great god of battles, how could he hear what a poor cavalryman was saying. " tell general rodes, " said he, suddenly whirling his horse towards the courier, " to move across the old plank road ; halt when he gets to the old turnpike, and i will join him there. " one more look upon the federal lines, and then he rode rapidly


, suddenly whirling his horse towards the courier, " to move across the old plank road ; halt when he gets to the old turnpike, and i will join him there. " one more look upon the federal lines, and then he rode rapidly down the hill, his arms flapping to the motion of his horse, over whose head it seemed, good rider as he was, he would certainly go. i expected to be told i had made a valuable personal reconnaissance — saving the lives of many soldiers, and that jackson was indebted to me to that amount at least. perhaps i might have been a little chagrined at jackson ' s silence, and hence commented inwardly and adversely upon his horsemanship. alas! i had looked upon him for the last time. — fitzhugh lee, address to the association of the army of northern virginia, 1879 jackson immediately returned to his corps and arranged his divisions into a line of battle to charge directly into the oblivious federal right. the confederates marched silently until they were merely several hundred feet from the union position, then released a bloodthirsty cry and full charge. many of the federals were captured without a shot fired, the rest were driven into a full rout. jackson pursued relentlessly back toward the center of the federal line until dusk. darkness ended the assault. as jackson and his staff were returning to camp on may 2, they were mistaken for a union cavalry force by the 18th north carolina infantry regiment who shouted, " halt, who goes there? ", but fired before evaluating the reply. frantic shouts by jackson ' s staff identifying the party were replied to by major john d. barry with the retort, " it ' s a damned yankee trick! fire! " a second volley was fired in response ; in all, jackson was hit by three bullets, two in the left arm and one in the right hand. several other men in his staff were killed, in addition to many horses. darkness and confusion prevented jackson from getting immediate care. he was dropped from his stretcher while being evacuated because of incoming artillery rounds. because of his injuries, jackson ' s left arm had to be amputated by dr. hunter mcguire. jackson was moved to thomas c. chandler ' s 740 acres ( 3. 0 km2 ) plantation named fairfield. he was offered chandler ' s home for recovery, but jackson refused and suggested using chandler ' s plantation office building instead. he was thought to be out of harm ' s way ; but unknown to the doctors, he


km2 ) plantation named fairfield. he was offered chandler ' s home for recovery, but jackson refused and suggested using chandler ' s plantation office building instead. he was thought to be out of harm ' s way ; but unknown to the doctors, he already had classic symptoms of pneumonia, complaining of a sore chest. this soreness was mistakenly thought to be the result of his rough handling in the battlefield evacuation. lee wrote to jackson after learning of his injuries, stating " could i have directed events, i would have chosen for the good of the country to be disabled in your stead. " jackson died of complications from pneumonia on may 10, 1863. on his death bed, though he became weaker, he remained spiritually strong, saying towards the end " it is the lord ' s day ; my wish is fulfilled. i have always desired to die on sunday. " dr. mcguire wrote an account of his final hours and his last words : a few moments before he died he cried out in his delirium, " order a. p. hill to prepare for action! pass the infantry to the front rapidly! tell major hawks " — then stopped, leaving the sentence unfinished. presently a smile of ineffable sweetness spread itself over his pale face, and he said quietly, and with an expression, as if of relief, " let us cross over the river, and rest under the shade of the trees. " his body was moved to the governor ' s mansion in richmond for the public to mourn, and he was then moved to be buried in the stonewall jackson memorial cemetery, lexington, virginia. however, the arm that was amputated on may 2 was buried separately by jackson ' s chaplain, at the j. horace lacy house, " ellwood ", in the wilderness of orange county, near the field hospital. upon hearing of jackson ' s death, robert e. lee mourned the loss of both a friend and a trusted commander. as jackson lay dying, lee sent a message through chaplain lacy, saying " give general jackson my affectionate regards, and say to him : he has lost his left arm but i my right. " the night lee learned of jackson ' s death, he told his cook, " william, i have lost my right arm " and " i ' m bleeding at the heart. " harpers weekly reported jackson ' s death on may 23, 1863, as follows : death of stonewall jackson. - general " stonewall " jackson was badly wounded in the arm at


arm " and " i ' m bleeding at the heart. " harpers weekly reported jackson ' s death on may 23, 1863, as follows : death of stonewall jackson. - general " stonewall " jackson was badly wounded in the arm at the battles of chancellorsville, and had his arm amputated. the operation did not succeed, and pneumonia setting in, he died on the 10th inst., near richmond, virginia. jackson ' s sometimes unusual command style and personality traits, combined with his frequent success in battle, contribute to his legacy as one of the most remarkable characters of the civil war. although martial, stern in attitude, he was profoundly religious and a deacon in the presbyterian church. one of his many nicknames was " old blue lights, " a term applied to a military man whose evangelical zeal burned with the intensity of the blue light used for night - time display. he disliked fighting on sunday, although that did not stop him from doing so after much personal debate. he loved his wife very much and sent her tender letters. in direct contrast to lee, jackson was not a striking figure, often wearing old, worn - out clothes rather than a fancy uniform. physical ailments jackson held a lifelong belief that one of his arms was longer than the other, and thus usually held the " longer " arm up to equalize his circulation. he was described as a " champion sleeper ", even falling asleep with food in his mouth occasionally. a paper delivered to the society of clinical psychologists hypothesized that jackson had asperger syndrome, although other possible explanations, such as a herniated diaphragm, exist. indeed jackson suffered a number of ailments, for which he sought relief via contemporary practices of his day including hydrotherapy, popular in america at that time, visiting establishments at oswego, new york ( 1850 ) and round hill, massachusetts ( 1860 ) although with little evidence of success. jackson also suffered a significant hearing loss in both of his ears as a result of his prior service in the u. s. army as an artillery officer. a recurring story concerns jackson ' s love of lemons, which he allegedly gnawed whole to alleviate symptoms of dyspepsia. general richard taylor, son of president zachary taylor, wrote a passage in his war memoirs about jackson eating lemons : " where jackson got his lemons ' no fellow could find out, ' but he was rarely without one. " however, recent research by his biographer, james i


president zachary taylor, wrote a passage in his war memoirs about jackson eating lemons : " where jackson got his lemons ' no fellow could find out, ' but he was rarely without one. " however, recent research by his biographer, james i. robertson, jr., has found that none of his contemporaries, including members of his staff, friends, or his wife, recorded any unusual obsessions with lemons and jackson thought of a lemon as a " rare treat... enjoyed greatly whenever it could be obtained from the enemy ' s camp ". jackson was fond of all fruits, particularly peaches, " but he enjoyed with relish lemons, oranges, watermelons, apples, grapes, berries, or whatever was available. " jackson ' s religion has often been discussed. his biographer, robert lewis dabney, suggested that " it was the fear of god which made him so fearless of all else. " jackson himself had said, " my religious belief teaches me to feel as safe in battle as in bed. " stephen w. sears suggests that " jackson was fanatical in his presbyterian faith, and it energized his military thought and character. theology was the only subject he genuinely enjoyed discussing. his dispatches invariably credited an ever - kind providence. " however, according to sears, " this fanatical religiosity had drawbacks. it warped jackson ' s judgment of men, leading to poor appointments ; it was said he preferred good presbyterians to good soldiers. " james i. robertson, jr. suggests that jackson was " a christian soldier in every sense of the word. " according to robertson, jackson " thought of the war as a religious crusade, " and " viewed himself as an old testament warrior - like david or joshua - who went into battle to slay the philistines. " jackson encouraged the confederate states army revival that occurred in 1863, although it was probably more of a grass - roots movement than a top - down revival. jackson strictly observed the sunday sabbath. james i. robertson, jr. notes that " no place existed in his sunday schedule for labor, newspapers, or secular conversation. " command style in command, jackson was extremely secretive about his plans and extremely meticulous about military discipline. this secretive nature did not stand him in good stead with his subordinates, who were often not aware of his overall operational intentions until the last minute, and who complained of being left out of key decisions. robert e. lee could trust jackson with deliberately


secretive nature did not stand him in good stead with his subordinates, who were often not aware of his overall operational intentions until the last minute, and who complained of being left out of key decisions. robert e. lee could trust jackson with deliberately non - detailed orders that conveyed lee ' s overall objectives, what modern doctrine calls the " end state ". this was because jackson had a talent for understanding lee ' s sometimes unstated goals and lee trusted jackson with the ability to take whatever actions were necessary to implement his end state requirements. few of lee ' s subsequent corps commanders had this ability. at gettysburg, this resulted in lost opportunities. thus, after the federals retreated to the heights south of town, lee sent one of his new corps commanders, richard s. ewell, discretionary orders that the heights ( cemetery hill and culp ' s hill ) be taken " if practicable ". without jackson ' s intuitive grasp of lee ' s orders or the instinct to take advantage of sudden tactical opportunities, ewell chose not to attempt the assault, and this failure is considered by historians to be the greatest missed opportunity of the battle. jackson had a poor reputation as a horseman. one of his soldiers, georgia volunteer william andrews, wrote that jackson was " a very ordinary looking man of medium size, his uniform badly soiled as though it had seen hard service. he wore a cap pulled down nearly to his nose and was riding a rawboned horse that did not look much like a charger, unless it would be on hay or clover. he certainly made a poor figure on a horseback, with his stirrup leather six inches too short, putting his knees nearly level with his horse ' s back, and his heels turned out with his toes sticking behind his horse ' s foreshoulder. a sorry description of our most famous general, but a correct one. " his horse was named " little sorrel " ( also known as " old sorrel " ), a small chestnut gelding. he rode little sorrel throughout the war, and was riding him when he was shot at chancellorsville. little sorrel died at age 36 and is buried near a statue of jackson on the parade grounds of vmi. ( his mounted hide is on display in the vmi museum. ) mourning his death jackson was greatly admired and respected throughout the south, and his death had a profound effect there on civilians and soldiers alike. a poem penned by one of his soldiers soon became a very popular song,


display in the vmi museum. ) mourning his death jackson was greatly admired and respected throughout the south, and his death had a profound effect there on civilians and soldiers alike. a poem penned by one of his soldiers soon became a very popular song, " stonewall jackson ' s way ". many theorists through the years have postulated that if jackson had lived, lee might have prevailed at gettysburg. certainly jackson ' s discipline and tactical sense were sorely missed, and might well have carried an extremely close - fought battle. many southerners tried to put up a brave front following jackson ' s death. as margaret mitchell noted in her historical novel, gone with the wind, " [ t ] rue, the south had suffered a sickening loss when stonewall jackson had been fatally wounded at chancellorsville. true, georgia had lost one of her bravest and most brilliant sons when general t. r. r. cobb had been killed at fredericksburg. but the yankees just couldn ' t stand any more defeats like fredericksburg and chancellorsville. they ' d have to give in, and then this cruel war would be over. " remembering jackson after the war, jackson ' s wife and young daughter julia moved from lexington to north carolina. mary anna jackson wrote two books about her husband ' s life, including some of his letters. she never remarried, and was known as the " widow of the confederacy ", living until 1915. his daughter julia married, and bore children, but she died of typhoid fever at the age of 26 years. a former confederate soldier who admired jackson, captain thomas r. ranson of staunton, virginia, also remembered the tragic life of jackson ' s mother. years after the war, he went to the tiny mountain hamlet of ansted in fayette county, west virginia, and had a marble marker placed over the unmarked grave of julia neale jackson in westlake cemetery, to make sure that the site was not lost forever. west virginia ' s stonewall jackson state park is named in his honor. nearby, at stonewall jackson ' s historical childhood home, his uncle ' s grist mill is the centerpiece of a historical site at the jackson ' s mill center for lifelong learning and state 4 - h camp. the facility, located near weston, serves as a special campus for west virginia university and the wvu extension service. he is memorialized on historic monument avenue in richmond, virginia ; on the grounds of the state capitol in his native west virginia ; and in many other places. at


, serves as a special campus for west virginia university and the wvu extension service. he is memorialized on historic monument avenue in richmond, virginia ; on the grounds of the state capitol in his native west virginia ; and in many other places. at vmi, a bronze statue of jackson stands outside the main entrance to the cadet barracks ; first - year cadets exiting the barracks through that archway are required to honor jackson ' s memory by saluting the statue. the lineage of jackson ' s confederate army unit, the stonewall brigade, continues to the present day in form of the 116th infantry brigade of the u. s. army, currently part of the virginia national guard. the unit ' s shoulder sleeve insignia worn until 2008 depicted stonewall jackson mounted on horseback. the united states navy submarine u. s. s. stonewall jackson ( ssbn 634 ), commissioned in 1964, was named for him. the words " strength — mobility " are emblazoned on the ship ' s banner, words taken from letters written by general jackson. it was the third u. s. navy ship named for him. the submarine was decommissioned in 1995. during world war ii, the navy named a liberty ship the ss t. j. jackson in his honor. the commonwealth of virginia honors jackson ' s birthday on lee - jackson day, a state holiday observed as such since 1904. it is currently observed on the friday preceding the third monday in january. jackson also appears prominently in the enormous bas - relief carving on the face of stone mountain riding with jefferson davis and robert e. lee. the carving depicts the three on horseback, appearing to ride in a group from right to left across the mountainside. the lower parts of the horses ' bodies merge into the mountainside at the foot of the carving. the three riders are shown bare - headed and holding their hats to their chests. it is the largest such carving in the world. " stonewall " jackson appeared on the csa $ 500 bill ( 7th issue, february 17, 1864 ). the towns of stonewall in virginia, north carolina, alabama, mississippi, louisiana, oklahoma, texas and kentucky are named in his honor as is stonewall county in texas. during a training exercise in virginia by u. s. marines in 1921, the marine commander, general smedley butler was told by a local farmer that stonewall jackson ' s arm was buried nearby under a granite marker, to which butler replied, " bosh! i will take a squad of marines and dig up that spot


marine commander, general smedley butler was told by a local farmer that stonewall jackson ' s arm was buried nearby under a granite marker, to which butler replied, " bosh! i will take a squad of marines and dig up that spot to prove you wrong! " butler found the arm in a box under the marker. he later replaced the wooden box with a metal one, and reburied the arm. he left a plaque on the granite monument marking the burial place of jackson ' s arm ; the plaque is no longer on the marker but can be viewed at the chancellorsville battlefield visitor ' s center. in popular media - jackson is featured prominently in the novel and film gods and generals. in the film, he is portrayed by stephen lang. - the theater at lime kiln, a local outdoor theater company in lexington, virginia, has performed a country - style musical about the life and times of stonewall jackson entitled stonewall country since 1984. - in the 2012 film abraham lincoln vs. zombies, jackson is portrayed by don mcgraw as one of the heroes of the story, giving his life to save lincoln and the rest of the surviving team. - john dwyer ' s historical novel stonewall covers jackson ' s entire life, from childhood to death, with particular attention paid to the role his presbyterian faith played in his life. - stonewall jackson has appeared in a number of alternative history novels. he is the subject of douglas lee gibboney ' s short novel stonewall jackson at gettsyburg, which dwells on jackson ' s presence on the outcome of the gettysburg campaign. jackson also appears in harry turtledove ' s how few remain, where jackson leads the main army of an independent confederacy in an 1881 war against the united states. stonewall jackson is the protagonist of stonewall goes west by r. e. thomas, where jackson survives his wounding at chancellorsville to replace braxton bragg at the head of the army of tennessee. - in popular culture, the phrase " stone wall " has come to mean individuals whose combat styles are defensive, rather than offensive. always mystify, mislead, and surprise the enemy, if possible ; and when you strike and overcome him, never let up in the pursuit so long as your men have strength to follow ; for an army routed, if hotly pursued, becomes panic - stricken, and can then be destroyed by half their number. the other rule is, never fight against heavy odds, if by any possible maneuvering you can hurl your own force


; for an army routed, if hotly pursued, becomes panic - stricken, and can then be destroyed by half their number. the other rule is, never fight against heavy odds, if by any possible maneuvering you can hurl your own force on only a part, and that the weakest part, of your enemy and crush it. such tactics will win every time, and a small army may thus destroy a large one in detail, and repeated victory will make it invincible. — jackson to general imboden to move swiftly, strike vigorously, and secure all the fruits of victory, is the secret of successful war. the only true rule for cavalry is to follow the enemy as long as he retreats. — jackson to colonel munford on june 13, 1862 war means fighting. the business of the soldier is to fight. armies are not called out to dig trenches, to live in camps, but to find the enemy and strike him ; to invade his country, and do him all possible damage in the shortest possible time. this will involve great destruction of life and property while it lasts ; but such a war will of necessity be of brief continuance, and so would be an economy of life and property in the end. let us cross over the river, and rest under the shade of the trees. — jackson, last words the time for war has not yet come, but it will come, and that soon ; and when it does come, my advice is to draw the sword and throw away the scabbard. my religious belief teaches me to feel as safe in battle as in bed. god has fixed the time for my death. i do not concern myself about that, but to be always ready, no matter when it may overtake me.... that is the way all men should live, and then all would be equally brave. see also - list of american civil war generals - george francis robert henderson ( biographer ) and his work stonewall jackson and the american civil war - william b. ebbert, 1st lt., w. virginia infantry, union army. ( 1923 quote recalling battle of winchester, march 1862 ) - stonewall jackson ' s headquarters museum - farwell, p. xi, states that the overwhelmingly common usage of the middle name jonathan was never documented and that jackson did not acknowledge it, instead using the signature form " t. j. jackson. " robertson, p. 19, states that a county document on february 28, 1841, was the first recorded instance of jackson using


jonathan was never documented and that jackson did not acknowledge it, instead using the signature form " t. j. jackson. " robertson, p. 19, states that a county document on february 28, 1841, was the first recorded instance of jackson using a middle initial, although " whether it stood for his father jonathan ' s name is not known. " all of the other references to this article cite his full name as thomas jonathan jackson. - eicher, high commands, p. 316 ; robertson, p. 7. the physician, dr. james mccally, recalls delivering baby thomas just before midnight on january 20, but the family has insisted since then that he was born in the first minutes of january 21. the later date is the one generally acknowledged in biographies. - jackson biography at civil war home. - wallace hettle, inventing stonewall jackson : a civil war hero in history and memory ( louisiana state university press, 2011 ) - robertson, pp. 1 - 2. - robertson, pp. 2 - 3. - vmi jackson genealogy site ; robertson, p. 4. - robertson, p. 7. - robertson, p. 8. - robertson, p. 10. - robertson, pp. 9 - 16. robertson refers to multiple bachelor uncles in residence at the mill, but does not name them. - robertson, p. 17. - robertson, p. 40. - robertson, p. 69. - robertson, pp. 108 - 10. he left the army on march 21, 1851, but stayed on the rolls, officially on furlough, for nine months. his resignation took effect formally on february 2, 1852, and he joined the vmi faculty in august 1851. - virginia military institute archives : stonewall jackson faq - jackson, mary anna, memoirs of stonewall jackson, by his widow ( louisville, ky, 1895 ), 78. - robertson, p. 169. - robertson, pp. 191 - 92. - jackson, 152. - robertson, p. 191. - isbell, sherman. " archibald alexander travelogue ". archived from the original on september 14, 2005. retrieved 2008 - 12 - 17. " after 1844, the presidents resided in the neighboring brick house, known as the lee - jackson house. while presbyterian minister george junkin was president, the appendage on the right side of the lee - jackson house was from 1853 the residence of junkin ' s daughter and her husband, thomas " stonewall " jackson. after jackson '


house. while presbyterian minister george junkin was president, the appendage on the right side of the lee - jackson house was from 1853 the residence of junkin ' s daughter and her husband, thomas " stonewall " jackson. after jackson ' s wife died the next year, jackson remained in the house for another three years. robert e. lee, president of the college from 1865 to 1870, resided in the brick house until 1869... " - robertson, p. 157. - eicher, high commands, p. 316. - freeman, lee ' s lieutenants, vol. 1, p. 82 ; robertson, p. 264. mcpherson, p. 342, reports the quotation after " stone wall " as being " rally around the virginians! " - see, for instance, goldfield, david, et al., the american journey : a history of the united states, prentice hall, 1999, isbn 0 - 13 - 088243 - 7 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. there are additional controversies about what bee said and whether he said anything at all. see freeman, lee ' s lieutenants, vol. 1, pp. 733 – 34. - mcpherson, p. 342. - robertson, pp. 263, 268. - see, for instance, freeman, r. e. lee, vol. 2, p. 247 : "... by every test, jackson had failed throughout the seven days. this is in part to being unfamiliar with the area and to following orders which stated he was to wait until he had communicated with the others before starting a battle. " confederate politician robert toombs wrote that " stonewall jackson and his troops did little or nothing in these battles of the chickahominy " ( robertson, p. 504 ). - wert, p. 206. - robertson, p. 645. - robertson, p. 630. - foote, shelby, the civil war : a narrative, vol. 2 - apperson, p. 430. - robertson, p. 739 - mcguire, pp. 162 - 63. - sorensen, james. " stonewall jackson ' s arm " american heritage, april / may 2005. - robertson, p. 746. - hall, kenneth. stonewall jackson and religious faith in military command. mcfarland, 2005. - harpers weekly, may 23, 1863 - " stonewall jackson : popular questions ". virginia military institute. retrieved 2009


. 746. - hall, kenneth. stonewall jackson and religious faith in military command. mcfarland, 2005. - harpers weekly, may 23, 1863 - " stonewall jackson : popular questions ". virginia military institute. retrieved 2009 - 05 - 06. - " stonewall jackson ' s way ". retrieved december 24, 2011. - gareth atkins, review of evangelicals in the royal navy, 1775 - 1815 : blue lights and psalm - singers by richard blake ( review no. 799 ) accessed dec. 24, 2011 at www. history. ac. uk / reviews / review / 799 - fitzgerald, michael, society of clinical psychologists paper. - schildkrout, enid ( 1997 ). medical diagnosis in psychotherapy patients : identifying medical conditions manifesting as psychiatric disorders. canada : john wiley. isbn 0 - 471 - 16872 - 6 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - cartmell, donald ( 2001 ). " the legend of stonewall ". the civil war book of lists. franklin lakes, new jersey : the career press inc. pp. 187 – 192. isbn 1 - 56414 - 504 - 2 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - samaritan medical center ( september 2008 ). " stonewall jackson and the henderson hydropath ". in samaritan medical center newsletter. no. 42. retrieved 13 december 2009. - taylor, p. 50 - robertson, p. xi. - dabney, robert l.. " true courage : a memorial sermon for general thomas j. " stone - wall jackson ". retrieved 26 february 2013. - selby, john millin ( 2000 ). stonewall jackson as military commander. p. 25. - sears, stephen w. ( 16 march 1997 ). " onward, christian soldier ". new york times. retrieved 26 february 2013. unknown parameter - white, davin ( 15 october 2010 ). " stonewall jackson biographer says religion drove civil war general ". the charleston gazette. retrieved 26 february 2013. - duewel, wesley l. ( 2010 ). revival fire. zondervan. p. 128. - summers, mark. " the great harvest : revival in the confederate army during the civil war ". religion & liberty 21 ( 3 ). retrieved 26 february 2013. - robertson, james i.. " " stonewall " jackson " : christian soldier ". virginia center for civil war studies. retrieved 26 february 2013


army during the civil war ". religion & liberty 21 ( 3 ). retrieved 26 february 2013. - robertson, james i.. " " stonewall " jackson " : christian soldier ". virginia center for civil war studies. retrieved 26 february 2013. - robertson, p. xiv. - pfanz, p. 344 ; eicher, longest night, p. 517 ; sears, p. 228 ; trudeau, p. 253. both sears and trudeau record " if possible ". - robertson, p. 499. - robertson, p. 230. - " little sorrel buried at vmi july 20, 1997 " ; robertson, p. 922, n. 16. - see, for instance, sears, gettysburg, pp. 233 - 34. alternative theories about gettysburg are prominent ideas in the literature about the lost cause. - jackson, mary anna ( 1895 ). memoirs of stonewall jackson by his widow. louisville, ky : the prentice press. - vmi article about jackson - farwell, 1993, p. 513 - horwitz, 1999, p. 232 - broadwayworld. com article - " stone wall ". television tropes & idioms. retrieved october 22, 2012. - underwood and buel, vol. 2, p. 297. - henderson, vol. 2, chapter xxv, p. 481. - henderson, vol. 1, chapter xi, s. 392. - " stonewall jackson at the battle of bull ' s run ", new york times, may 3, 1885, citing the recollections of john d. imboden. - alexander, bevin. lost victories : the military genius of stonewall jackson. new york : holt, 1992, isbn 978 - 0 - 8050 - 1830 - 1 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - apperson, john samuel. repairing the " march of mars " : the civil war diaries of john samuel apperson, hospital steward in the stonewall brigade, 1861 - 1865. macon, ga : mercer university press, 2001. isbn 0 - 86554 - 779 - 3 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - bryson, bill. a walk in the woods. new york : broadway books, 1998. isbn 0 - 7679 - 0251 - 3 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - eicher, david j. the longest night : a military history of the civil war. new york


york : broadway books, 1998. isbn 0 - 7679 - 0251 - 3 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - eicher, david j. the longest night : a military history of the civil war. new york : simon & schuster, 2001. isbn 0 - 684 - 84944 - 5 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - eicher, john h., and david j. eicher. civil war high commands. stanford, ca : stanford university press, 2001. isbn 0 - 8047 - 3641 - 3 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - farwell, byron. stonewall : a biography of general thomas j. jackson. new york : w. w. norton and co., 1993. isbn 978 - 0 - 393 - 31086 - 3 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - freeman, douglas s. lee ' s lieutenants : a study in command. 3 vols. new york : scribner, 1946. isbn 0 - 684 - 85979 - 3 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - freeman, douglas s. r. e. lee, a biography. 4 vols. new york : charles scribner ' s sons, 1934 – 35. oclc 166632575. - henderson, g. f. r. stonewall jackson and the american civil war. new york : smithmark, 1995. isbn 0 - 8317 - 3288 - 1 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. first published in 1898 by longman, greens, and co. ( the 1900 version has an introduction by field marshal viscount wolseley. ) - hettle, wallace. inventing stonewall jackson : a civil war hero in history and memory ( louisiana state university press, 2011 ) - johnson, robert underwood, and clarence c. buel, eds. battles and leaders of the civil war. 4 vols. new york : century co., 1884 - 1888. oclc 2048818. - mcguire, dr. hunter. " death of stonewall jackson ". southern historical society papers 14 ( 1886 ). - mcpherson, james m. battle cry of freedom : the civil war era. oxford history of the united states. new york : oxford university press, 1988. isbn 0 - 19 - 503863 - 0 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - pfanz, harry w. gettysburg – the first day. chapel


of the united states. new york : oxford university press, 1988. isbn 0 - 19 - 503863 - 0 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - pfanz, harry w. gettysburg – the first day. chapel hill : university of north carolina press, 2001. isbn 0 - 8078 - 2624 - 3 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - robertson, james i., jr. stonewall jackson : the man, the soldier, the legend. new york : macmillan publishing, 1997. isbn 0 - 02 - 864685 - 1 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - sears, stephen w. gettysburg. boston : houghton mifflin, 2003. isbn 0 - 395 - 86761 - 4 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - sharlet, jeff. " through a glass, darkly : how the christian right is reimagining u. s. history. " harpers, december 2006. - taylor, richard. destruction and reconstruction : personal experiences of the late war. nashville, tn : j. s. sanders & co., 2001. isbn 1 - 879941 - 21 - x [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. first published 1879 by d. appleton. - trudeau, noah andre. gettysburg : a testing of courage. new york : harpercollins, 2002. isbn 0 - 06 - 019363 - 8 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - wert, jeffry d. general james longstreet : the confederacy ' s most controversial soldier : a biography. new york : simon & schuster, 1993. isbn 0 - 671 - 70921 - 6 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - jackson genealogy site at virginia military institute further reading - chambers, lenoir. stonewall jackson. new york : morrow, 1959. oclc 186539122. - cooke, john esten, moses drury hoge, and john william jones. http : / / books. google. com / books? id = dkhfahbx2isc stonewall jackson : a military biography ]. new york : d. appleton and company, 1876. oclc 299589. - cozzens, peter. shenandoah 1862 : stonewall jackson ' s valley campaign. chapel hill : university of north carolina press, 2008. isbn 978 - 0 - 8078 - 3200 - 4 [ amazon - us |


. - cozzens, peter. shenandoah 1862 : stonewall jackson ' s valley campaign. chapel hill : university of north carolina press, 2008. isbn 978 - 0 - 8078 - 3200 - 4 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - dabney, r. l. life of lieut. - gen. thomas j. jackson ( stonewall jackson ). london : james nisbet and co., 1866. oclc 457442354. - douglas, henry kyd. i rode with stonewall : the war experiences of the youngest member of jackson ' s staff. chapel hill : university of north carolina press, 1940. isbn 0 - 8078 - 0337 - 5 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - robertson, james i., jr. stonewall jackson ' s book of maxims. nashville, tn : cumberland house, 2002. isbn 1 - 58182 - 296 - 0 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - shackel, paul a. archaeology and created memory : public history in a national park. new york : kluwer academic / plenum publishers, 2000. isbn 978 - 0 - 306 - 46177 - 4 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - white, henry a. stonewall jackson. philadelphia : g. w. jacobs and co., 1909. oclc 3911913. - wilkins, j. steven. all things for good : the steadfast fidelity of stonewall jackson. nashville, tn : cumberland house publishing, 2004. isbn 1 - 58182 - 225 - 1 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - robertson, james i., jr. stonewall jackson the man, the soldier, the legend. macmillan pub. ; 1 edition ( february 18, 1997 ). # isbn - 10 : 0028646851 - isbn - 13 : 978 - 0028646855 - virginia military institute archives stonewall jackson resources - jackson genealogy site - " death of ' stonewall ' jackson, southern confederacy, may 12, 1863. atlanta historic newspapers archive. digital library of georgia. - find - a - grave entry for jackson - find - a - grave entry for jackson ' s arm - fitzhugh lee ' s 1879 address on chancellorsville - the stonewall jackson house - animated history of the campaigns of stonewall jackson - details on john jackson ' s larceny trial in the court records of the old bailey -


many of us live in older homes, and we may have lead in our old pipes. we are buying fruit juices from the grocery store with arsenic in it. go to this website to find out more information about safe drinking water : cfpub. epa. gov / savewater / ccr young children should not be drinking lots of fruit juice, as it can be full of sugar, causes obesity and even tooth decay. besides some of it has too much arsenic in it. for many years or until the 1980 ′ s pesticides were banned. crops were sprayed with pesticides that leaked into the crops, the soil, and the ground water. consequently, arsenic ended up contaminating the water, fertilizer and the soil. even bottled water can have arsenic in it. is that scary or what? all the bottled water we drink in this country could be borderline unsafe. the federal government limits arsenic in bottled water to 10 parts per billion. there are no limits in food and in fruit juices. i remember last year some media about arsenic in apple juice, so i stopped drinking it for awhile. i switched to eating an apple a day. ( thinking an apple a day kept the doctor away. thought i would get you to laugh this morning. ) parents need to think twice about what they have their young children drink. diluting juices could be helpful. don ’ t you feel some days like you are darned if you do and darned if you don ’ t. i know that sounds like a clique but it is true.


image size is the size of your original digital photo file, measured in pixels and dpi ( dots per inch, sometimes referred to as ppi, pixels per inch ). what is a pixel? a pixel is a small square dot. dpi refers to the number of dots ( pixels ) per inch. why is this important? well, if an image is too small, you might not be able to order a large size print or other photo product. a general rule of thumb for image size versus print size is : the image size should be at least the size of the print you want multiplied by 300, at 300 dpi. for example, if you want to order a 4x6 print, the image size should be 1200 pixels ( 4 x 300 ) by 1800 pixels ( 6 x 300 ) at 300 dpi. if the image size was half of that ( 600 by 900 ), then the 4x6 print would likely come out distorted or pixilated if you were to order a print. camera settings decide in advance what is more important : image quality or room on your memory card. you can set your camera to take photos that are larger or smaller in size. if you know you will only be printing 4x6 photos, then you can reduce the image quality, which allows you to store more photos on your memory card. if you will be printing enlargements or other photo products like photo books, then keep the setting on " high " for higher quality images. the image sizes will be larger and you will not be able to store as many on your memory card at one time. also, set the file type as " jpeg " if your camera allows you to control that detail. you might have a " tiff " option, but it is not necessary to save the photos as " tiff " files, and it will only take up more room on your memory card. if you have a point and shoot camera, open your main menu, and find the setting for " image quality " ( or something similar ). usually, the options are " low, " " medium, " and " high. " choose " high " for higher quality ( larger ) photos. if you have an slr camera, you probably have additional options. just stick to high quality jpeg images, unless you know you will be doing extensive image editing and post - production. in that case, you might want to shoot raw files. resolution the resolution of your photo is directly impacted by the image size. the more pixels


high quality jpeg images, unless you know you will be doing extensive image editing and post - production. in that case, you might want to shoot raw files. resolution the resolution of your photo is directly impacted by the image size. the more pixels your photos have, the higher their resolution is. when you upload photos to your online account, you are given three upload options : " regular, " " fast, " and " fastest. " when you choose " fast " or " fastest, " the photos are compressed, so the resolution will be less than the original photo file. so, if you are just uploading to order 4x6 prints, " fastest " will be fine. but, if you wish to order enlargements, photo books, calendars, and other photo products, choose the " regular " speed, which uploads the photos at their original resolution. once the photos are uploaded, you will notice three bars for each photo in your account. if all three bars are green, that means that the resolution of the photo that is in the account is sufficient enough to order just about anything on the site. if the bars are all red, you have uploaded a low resolution photo. try to find the original photo file and check the size. if the size is sufficient enough to order prints ( based on the rule we mentioned above about multiplying the desired print size by 300 and comparing to the actual image size ), re - upload the photo at " regular " upload speed. photos with two or three red bars will generate poor quality prints, especially if you are trying to order anything larger than 4x6 prints. we also will double check the resolution on our end. if we catch a low res file when printing, we always stop and notify you. we want you to be happy with your prints. now that you understand image size and resolution a bit more, and understand why they are important when working in your online photo account, here are a few more extra tips about image size and resolution : - most computer screens display photos at 72 dpi. that means the printed photo will look different than how it appears on your computer screen. - if you crop a photo too much ( zoom in too much ), it will always look pixilated and distorted, no matter how large the image size is. - once you take the photo, you cannot increase the size or resolution by increasing the number of pixels in any photo editing program. if you wish to increase the resolution or file


indian and himalayan art mahakala / bhairava with buddhas, ganesha, karttikeya, achala, and devoteesmade in nepal, asia malla dynasty ( 1200 - 1769 ), late 16th century artist / maker unknown, nepalese colors on cloth currently not on view 1963 - 141 - 1gift of stella kramrisch, 1963 labelnewar religious practice employs a unique mix of buddhist and hindu elements. the five transcendental buddhas at the top of this painting and achala ( the blue - skinned buddhist protector at the bottom center ) are joined by deities more often affiliated with hinduism. these include the elephant - headed ganesha and dancing karttikeya, who flank their father, shiva, in his form as mahakala / bhairava. another important feature of newar art and practice is the depiction and participation of both men and women devotees. in the lower two registers seventeen men ( in white - and - red - striped outfits ) and seven women ( in malla period red skirts with white - and - blue stripes ) offer flowers. also typical of the malla period are the shapes of mahakala ' s triangular eyebrows, his neatly trimmed moustache and beard, and his round, full eyes.


the interplay between indigenous indian painting traditions and imported persianate influences invigorated painting on the indian subcontinent for over three hundred years. primary colors, featuring some thirty works from the museum ' s collection, juxtaposes two intriguingly similar groups of paintings, one from seventeenth - century central india and another from eighteenth - century nepal. these works reflect indigenous painting traditions, characterized by expanses of intense red, blue, and yellow as well as figures seen in sharp profile, but they also include imagery of costume and architecture drawn from islamic prototypes. dynamic painting traditions flourished in central india under hindu, jain, and muslim patronage even before mughal rulers imported persian painters in the early sixteenth century. in the seventeenth century, the hindu rulers of malwa ( an area of central india ) developed active workshops that re - emphasized pre - mughal forms. in the eighteenth century, nepalese painting took a surprising turn, leading to forms closely related to those produced in seventeenth - century malwa. the installation explores why patrons and painters, separated by distance and time, chose a closely related aesthetic. among the highlights of the installation are two recently acquired nepalese paintings that will be seen in philadelphia for the first time. the celestial abode of shiva and devi is a great sunburst - like representation of a divine palace surrounded by courtly and ascetic devotees, while pilgrimage to gosainkund — a fourteen - foot - long scroll — illuminates a meandering path through cities and towns, peppered by pilgrims and animals, ultimately leading to a sacred lake in the high himalayas. curatorsdarielle mason • the stella kramrisch curator of indian and himalayan art katherine anne paul • assistant curator, indian and himalayan art


stanford encyclopedia of philosophy ( 2011 ) | abstract | | laws of nature take center stage in philosophy of science. laws are usually believed to stand in a tight conceptual relation to many important key concepts such as causation, explanation, confirmation, determinism, counterfactuals etc. traditionally, philosophers of science have focused on physical laws, which were taken to be at least true, universal statements that support counterfactual claims. but, although this claim about laws might be true with respect to physics, laws in the special sciences ( such as biology, psychology, economics etc. ) appear to have — maybe not surprisingly — different features than the laws of physics. special science laws — for instance, the economic law “ under the condition of perfect competition, an increase of demand of a commodity leads to an increase of price, given that the quantity of the supplied commodity remains constant ” and, in biology, mendel ' s laws — are usually taken to “ have exceptions ”, to be “ non - universal ” or “ to be ceteris paribus laws ”. how and whether the laws of physics and the laws of the special sciences differ is one of the crucial questions motivating the debate on ceteris paribus laws. another major, controversial question concerns the determination of the precise meaning of “ ceteris paribus ”. philosophers have attempted to explicate the meaning of ceteris paribus clauses in different ways. the question of meaning is connected to the problem of empirical content, i. e., the question whether ceteris paribus laws have non - trivial and empirically testable content. since many philosophers have argued that ceteris paribus laws lack empirically testable content, this problem constitutes a major challenge to a theory of ceteris paribus laws. | | through your library | | configure | similar books and articles markus schrenk ( 2007 ). can capacities rescue us from ceteris paribus laws? in b. gnassounou & m. kistler ( eds. ), dispositions in philosophy and science. ashgate. john earman & john roberts ( 1999 ). c eteris paribus, there is no problem of provisos. synthese 118 ( 3 ) : 439 - - 478. nancy cartwright ( 2002 ). in favor of laws that are not ceteris paribus after all. erkenntnis 57 ( 3 ) :


of provisos. synthese 118 ( 3 ) : 439 - - 478. nancy cartwright ( 2002 ). in favor of laws that are not ceteris paribus after all. erkenntnis 57 ( 3 ) : 425ð439. marc lange ( 2002 ). who ' s afraid of ceteris - paribus laws? or : how i learned to stop worrying and love them. erkenntnis 57 ( 3 ) : 281ð301. james woodward ( 2002 ). there is no such thing as a ceteris paribus law. erkenntnis 57 ( 3 ) : 303ð328. charles wallis ( 1994 ). ceteris paribus laws and psychological explanations. psa : proceedings of the biennial meeting of the philosophy of science association 1994 : 388 - 397. paul m. pietroski & georges rey ( 1995 ). when other things aren ' t equal : saving ceteris paribus laws from vacuity. british journal for the philosophy of science 46 ( 1 ) : 81 - 110. marcello guarini ( 2000 ). horgan and tienson on ceteris paribus laws. philosophy of science 67 ( 2 ) : 301 - 315. markus schrenk ( 2003 ). real ceteris paribus laws. in r. bluhm & c. nimtz ( eds. ), proceedings of gap. 5, bielefeld 2003. mentis. barry ward ( 2009 ). cartwright, forces, and ceteris paribus laws. southwest philosophy review 25 ( 1 ) : 55 - 62. gerhard schurz ( 2002 ). ceteris paribus laws : classification and deconstruction. erkenntnis 57 ( 3 ) : 351ð372. alice drewery ( 2001 ). dispositions and ceteris paribus laws. british journal for the philosophy of science 52 ( 4 ) : 723 - 733. stephen r. schiffer ( 1991 ). ceteris paribus laws. mind 100 ( 397 ) : 1 - 17. robert klee ( 1992 ). anomalous monism, ceteris paribus, and psychological explanation. british journal for the philosophy of science 43 ( 3 ) : 389 - 403. added to index2011 - 07 - 24 total downloads59 ( # 16, 371 of 548, 972 ) recent downloads ( 6 months ) 4


a wolverine first photographed by a remote - controlled camera on the tahoe national forest in february 2008 is most closely related to rocky mountain populations, according to a team of 10 federal, state and university scientists. their findings are published in the latest edition of northwest science and focus on genetic analysis of hair collected from the first scientifically verified california wolverine in 86 years. the u. s. forest service funded the study, which demonstrated the first evidence of connectivity between wolverine populations living in the rocky and sierra nevada mountains. determining where the male wolverine originated is important because it is a state - threatened species, and california wolverines are genetically unique from other north american populations. last year, scientists collected hair and fecal samples from the photographed animal so that its dna could be examined to help determine whether the wolverine had somehow survived as part of a historic population, escaped or was released from captivity, or dispersed on its own from outside of california. scientists at the agency ' s wildlife genetics laboratory in missoula, mont., later found the animal was not part of a historic population by comparing its genetic samples with specimens found in california museums. these scientists previously used the specimens to learn california wolverines are a distinct north american genotype. further genetic analysis suggested the california wolverine most resembled a population comprised mostly of wolverines from idaho, with a 73 percent confidence level. by comparison, the california wolverine had less than a five percent probability of belonging to most of the other north american wolverine populations evaluated. the scientists also used carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses to support the genetic results in the study, which is titled " wolverine confirmation in california after nearly a century : native or long - distance immigrant? " " we still can ' t be sure how this animal came to the tahoe national forest, " said bill zielinski, one of the study ' s authors and a research ecologist at the forest service ' s pacific southwest research station. " but, this peer - reviewed study shows that other scientists agreed with our interpretation that it likely traveled here from the rockies. " zielinski said the photographed animal would have traveled more than 400 miles to reach the national forest if it naturally dispersed from the nearest rocky mountain population. he said if the wolverine was accidentally or deliberately transplanted, it would have more likely originated from an area where wolverines are more common and legally trapped, such as alaska or the yukon territory. sierra pacific industries wildlife biologists also photographed the wolverine this winter using remote - controlled cameras on land it manages in california. wildlife genetics laboratory scientists determined it to be


the european society of cardiology welcomes new research published in the new england journal of medicine which quantifies for the first time the annual number of new cases of coronary heart disease, stroke and myocardial infarction that could be prevented by populations reducing daily intakes of salt. the data, says the esc, underline the urgent need for european union public health measures to substantially reduce the population ' s salt intake across europe. " this study provides excellent ammunition both to convince patients about the benefits of reducing their individual salt intakes and also to persuade the eu of the urgent need to introduce legislation to restrict the salt content of processed foods, " said esc spokesman professor frank ruschitzka, a cardiologist and hypertension specialist from the university of zurich, switzerland. " this study represents the evidence that a reduction of salt intake not only lowers blood pressure but also prevents cardiovascular events. the case for population - wide salt reduction is now compelling, " he added. in the paper, kirsten bibbins - domingo and colleagues, from the university of california, san francisco, usa, undertook a computer simulation showing the effects of population wide reductions of dietary salt intakes in all adults aged 35 to 85 years in the usa. reducing dietary salt intake by 3 g per day ( 1200mg less sodium per day ) could result in 60, 000 to 120, 000 fewer cases of heart disease, 32, 000 to 66, 000 fewer strokes and 54, 000 to 100, 000 fewer heart attacks. a reduction in dietary salt of 3g per day, the authors went on to say, would have approximately the same effect on reducing cardiac events as a 50 % reduction in tobacco use, a 5 % reduction in body mass index among obese adults or the use of statins to treat people at low or intermediate risk for chd events. furthermore, reducing dietary salt intakes by 3g per day would save $ 10 billion to $ 24 billion in annual health care costs. esc spokesperson professor giuseppe mancia, from the university of milano - bicocca, st. gerardo hospital ( milan, italy ), said the annual health cost savings outlined in the study would be likely to prove a persuasive argument for both the eu and individual european governments. recent studies clearly show that salt reduction reduces cardiovascular deaths. 4 epidemiological studies have also firmly established that increased intakes of salt directly increase blood pressure. high salt intakes are believed to exert their detrimental effects by influencing fluid retention, which in turn


clearly show that salt reduction reduces cardiovascular deaths. 4 epidemiological studies have also firmly established that increased intakes of salt directly increase blood pressure. high salt intakes are believed to exert their detrimental effects by influencing fluid retention, which in turn increases blood pressure. " but it ' s important for patients to appreciate that not all cardiovascular problems relating to salt are mediated through hypertension. salt can have an adverse effect on cardiovascular health, even among people with normal blood pressure, " said ruschitzka. salt intakes across europe are known to vary widely, ranging from 8. 6 g of salt per day in the uk, to around 12 g salt in croatia. even the best intakes, however, are falling widely short of the esc clinical practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension ( 2 ), based on who data, that recommend that only 5g of salt should be consumed per day. this amounts to just one teaspoonful. while individuals may use salt sparingly at home, around 75 % of the salt we eat is already in the food we buy. this, says the esc, underlines the need for legislation to lay down guidelines. " the reality of international food production in europe means that such public health initiatives need to be tackled on a european wide basis, rather than an individual country basis, " said ruschitzka. furthermore, added mancia, concerted action is usually more effective. " it has the advantage of preventing country to country inequalities and furthermore prevents the reinvention of the wheel in each individual country, " he said. but calls for legislation do not mean that physicians should stop their efforts to persuade patients to introduce individual changes in lifestyle. patients, they stress, need to be taught about the importance of reducing salt in their cooking and also for the need to check food labels. people need to learn to appreciate that the salt contents can vary widely even in the same product. take bread, for example. recent research from consensus action on salt and health ( a charity lobbying food manufacturers in the uk ) has shown that the highest salt content was 3g salt per 100 g of bread, while the lowest was 0. 7 g salt per 100g. to improve cardiovascular health, salt reduction cannot be undertaken in isolation. " it needs to be remembered that lifestyle measures such as smoking cessation, weight reduction, increased physical exercise, and eating plenty of fruit and vegetables are also important for reducing cardiovascular disease, " said mancia. salt will again be on


isolation. " it needs to be remembered that lifestyle measures such as smoking cessation, weight reduction, increased physical exercise, and eating plenty of fruit and vegetables are also important for reducing cardiovascular disease, " said mancia. salt will again be on the agenda with world salt awareness week 2010, which runs from february 1 - 7 ( 3 ). the week is being run by world action on salt and health ( wash ), a global group that works with governments to highlight the need for widespread introduction of population based salt reduction strategies. much can be done to reduce salt intakes through public health policy, say wash. they cite the success of consensus action on salt and health ( cash ), launched in 1996 to encourage food manufacturing companies in the uk to make voluntary reductions in their salt content. since the start of the policy salt intakes among uk adults ( calculated from 24 - hour urine samples ) have fallen from 9. 5 to 8. 6 g per day. in july 2009, wash surveyed over 260 food products available around the world from food manufacturers such as kfc, mcdonalds, kellogg ' s, nestle, burger king and subway, finding surprisingly wide spread variations. for example, kellogg ' s all bran for sale in france, norway, sweden and the netherlands contains 1. 30 g salt per 100 g compared to salt levels of 0. 65 g per 100g for the product in the us. such data underlines the urgent need to eradicate country to country inequalities, and bring everyone up to the highest possible standards. " the paper by bibbins - domingo and colleagues is an urgent call to action. policy makers in the european community need to implement public health interventions that result in reductions in salt intake now. reducing the salt content of our unneccesarily oversalted, processed food is an inexpensive, yet highly effective public health intervention that we can ' t afford to miss, " concluded ruschitzka. explore further : new research identifies risks, interventions for children ' s gi health 1. bibbins - domingo k, glenn cc, coxson pg et al. projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. new engl j med. 2010. published on - line january 20. 4. pasquale strazzullo, lanfranco d ' elia, ngianga - bakwin kandala, and francesco p cappuccio. salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease : meta - analysis of prospective studies. bmj 2009 ; 339


eliminating diabetes and depression, as well as increasing education and fruit and vegetable consumption, are likely to have the biggest impact on reducing levels of dementia in the coming years, should no effective treatment be found, concludes a study published in the british medical journal today. these findings suggest priorities for future public health interventions. while the exact cause of dementia is still unknown, several modifiable risk factors have already been identified. these include vascular risk factors ( heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and high cholesterol ), a history of depression, diet, alcohol consumption, and education level. based on this knowledge, a team of researchers based in france and the uk estimated which of these risk factors might be most effective in reducing the future burden of dementia, should no effective treatment be found. their analysis involved 1, 433 healthy people aged over 65 years living in the south of france and recruited between 1999 and 2001. participants underwent cognitive testing at the start of the study and again at two, four and seven years. a reading test ( the neale score ) was also used as an indicator of lifetime intelligence. medical history and information on measures such as height, weight, education level, monthly income, mobility, dietary habits, alcohol consumption, and tobacco use was obtained. an individual ' s genetic risk of dementia was also measured : although it ' s not a factor that can be changed it served as a useful benchmark for dementia risk. results showed that eliminating depression and diabetes and increasing fruit and vegetable consumption were estimated to lead to an overall 21 % reduction in new cases of dementia, with depression making the greatest contribution ( just over 10 % ). however, the researchers point out that the direct ( causal ) relationship between depression and dementia remains unclear. increasing education would also lead to an estimated 18 % reduction in new cases of dementia across the general population over the next seven years. by contrast, eliminating the principal known genetic risk factor from the general population would lead only to a 7 % reduction in the number of new cases over the next seven years. given these findings, the authors suggest that public health initiatives should focus on encouraging literacy at all ages irrespective of ability, prompt treatment of depressive symptoms, and early screening for glucose intolerance and insulin resistance ( early stages in the development of diabetes ). while these calculations can only provide a crude estimate of impact on incidence, they do make a significant statement about public health priorities in disease prevention in the face of current knowledge, conclude the authors. further studies including younger adults