. s. congress ’ approval rating, based upon a recent new york times poll, sits at an all - time low of 9 percent. by comparison, former president richard nixon ’ s final approval rating after the watergate scandal and upon his resignation was 23 %. - the u. s. national cancer institute ( nci ) continues to fight for increased federal funding for cancer research in a time when 50 % of men and 33 % of women woman will experience cancer at some point during their lifetimes. - it is estimated that 15, 460 u. s. women will die from ovarian cancer in 2011, which represents the death of one woman every 37 minutes. the annual u. s. ovarian cancer death toll is equal to the number of passenger deaths that would result from 30 boeing 747 airplane crashes every year. - according to a recently published u. k. report, the median survival of women with ovarian cancer only increased from 8 months to 3 years over the past 40 years. there is little doubt that the current state of u. s. affairs as described above is indeed daunting. the unsettling situation in the u. s., however, pales in comparison to the average life experience of those living in extreme poverty around the world ( including the u. s. ). - in 2005, the world bank reported that 1. 4 billion people in the developing world ( one in four ) were living on less than us $ 1. 25 per day, of which 162 million live on less than $ 0. 50 per day. the latter category of individuals are referred to as the “ ultra poor ” by the international food policy research institute. - number of children in the world : 2. 2 billion. number of children living in poverty : 1 billion. - according to the world health organization, there are approximately 33 million people living with hiv / aids today, with 2 million aids - related deaths anticipated each year. it is estimated that 76 % of those deaths will occur in sub - saharan africa. - the united nations estimates that 34, 000 children and 16, 000 adults die each day from hunger or preventable diseases with poverty - related causes. the annual death total is 18 million per year, which is nearly two times greater than the total number of deaths that occurred throughout “ the holocaust ” between 1933 and 1945. - approximately 1. 1 billion people in developing countries have inadequate access to clean water, and 2. 6 billion lack basic sanitation. approximately 12 percent of the world ’ s population uses


of deaths that occurred throughout “ the holocaust ” between 1933 and 1945. - approximately 1. 1 billion people in developing countries have inadequate access to clean water, and 2. 6 billion lack basic sanitation. approximately 12 percent of the world ’ s population uses 85 percent of its water, and the individuals represented by the 12 percent do not live in the third world. - in 1997, it was estimated that less than 1 percent of annual world weapons expenditures was needed to put every child into school by the year 2000. - nearly one billion people entered the 21st century unable to read a book or sign their names. - 1. 6 billion people live without electricity. - the u. s. has the widest gap between rich and poor of any industrialized nation. - in 2008, 7. 6 million people died of cancer or 13 % of all deaths worldwide. about 70 % of all cancer deaths occur in low - and middle - income countries. in light of the above - mentioned global poverty statistics, it should be possible for even the most pessimistic u. s. citizen to be grateful on thanksgiving day. for the women and families who are dealing with ovarian cancer in their lives, we also believe that gratitude and hope is not only possible ; it is essential. - while cancers ( including ovarian ) constitute an incredibly diverse and bewilderingly complex set of diseases, we have at hand the methods to identify essentially all of the genetic changes in a cell and to use that knowledge to rework the landscape of cancer research and cancer care, from basic science to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. - with this better understanding of cancer and recent technological advances in many fields, such as genomics, molecular biology, biochemistry, and computational sciences, progress has been made on many fronts, and a portrait is beginning to emerge for several cancers including ovarian. - it has been established that there are at least four major subtypes of epithelial ovarian cancer which should be treated as separate and distinct diseases. - in the cancer genome atlas ( tcga ) study findings recently published with respect to the most common form of epithelial ovarian cancer, the investigators reported that a class of drugs known as “ parp inhibitors ” may benefit up to 50 % of high - grade, serous ovarian cancer ( hgs - ovca ) survivors. in that same study, the investigators identified 22 genomic targets that occur in 10 % or more of these cases, along with nearly 100 preclini


high - grade, serous ovarian cancer ( hgs - ovca ) survivors. in that same study, the investigators identified 22 genomic targets that occur in 10 % or more of these cases, along with nearly 100 preclinical, clinical and fda - approved drugs which are capable of “ hitting ” those targets. - the tcga study of hgs - ovca is arguably the world ’ s largest genomic study of any form of cancer to date. - never before in human history has so much healthcare information been so readily available to the general public, thereby allowing cancer survivors and their families to proactively participate with their doctors in decisions relating to cancer diagnoses, treatments, and survivorship. - given the rapid technological and pharmacological developments described above, it is important to “ live to fight another day. ” - studies suggest that gratitude may improve overall health by leading to ( i ) better diet, ( ii ) increased amounts of exercise, ( iii ) reduced stress, and ( iv ) a stronger immune system. in other words, if you want to promote health, try giving thanks. thanksgiving in times of adversity & plenty “ … as we gather in our communities and in our homes, around the table or near the hearth, we give thanks to each other and to god for the many kindnesses and comforts that grace our lives. let us pause to recount the simple gifts that sustain us, and resolve to pay them forward in the year to come. … ” — president barack obama on november 16, 2011, u. s. president barack obama issued a presidential proclamation for thanksgiving day 2011. the proclamation is befitting of the true meaning underlying this traditional holiday. although the origins of the modern u. s. thanksgiving holiday can be traced back to the early 17th century, it is worth noting that the first thanksgiving to be celebrated by all u. s. states on the same day ( i. e., the final thursday of november, which was not enacted into law by congress until december 1941 ) was first proclaimed by president abraham lincoln on october 3, 1863. the year 1863 was arguably one of the darkest time periods in u. s. history because it occurred in the midst of the civil war ; a conflict that pitted brother against brother, and resulted in more american deaths than all subsequent u. s. conflicts combined. despite that fact, president lincoln believed strongly that we should give thanks for our daily blessings even in times of great adversity. the main text


pitted brother against brother, and resulted in more american deaths than all subsequent u. s. conflicts combined. despite that fact, president lincoln believed strongly that we should give thanks for our daily blessings even in times of great adversity. the main text of president obama ’ s proclamation, which is provided below, echoes the sentiments of lincoln and reminds all americans that in good times and bad times, “ … we have lifted our hearts by giving humble thanks for the blessings we have received and for those who bring meaning to our lives. ” “ one of our nation ’ s oldest and most cherished traditions, thanksgiving day brings us closer to our loved ones and invites us to reflect on the blessings that enrich our lives. the observance recalls the celebration of an autumn harvest centuries ago, when the wampanoag tribe joined the pilgrims at plymouth colony to share in the fruits of a bountiful season. the feast honored the wampanoag for generously extending their knowledge of local game and agriculture to the pilgrims, and today we renew our gratitude to all american indians and alaska natives. we take this time to remember the ways that the first americans have enriched our nation ’ s heritage, from their generosity centuries ago to the everyday contributions they make to all facets of american life. as we come together with friends, family, and neighbors to celebrate, let us set aside our daily concerns and give thanks for the providence bestowed upon us. though our traditions have evolved, the spirit of grace and humility at the heart of thanksgiving has persisted through every chapter of our story. when president george washington proclaimed our country ’ s first thanksgiving, he praised a generous and knowing god for shepherding our young republic through its uncertain beginnings. decades later, president abraham lincoln looked to the divine to protect those who had known the worst of civil war, and to restore the nation “ to the full enjoyment of peace, harmony, tranquility, and union. ” in times of adversity and times of plenty, we have lifted our hearts by giving humble thanks for the blessings we have received and for those who bring meaning to our lives. today, let us offer gratitude to our men and women in uniform for their many sacrifices, and keep in our thoughts the families who save an empty seat at the table for a loved one stationed in harm ’ s way. and as members of our american family make do with less, let us rededicate ourselves to our friends and fellow citizens in need of a helping hand. as we gather in our communities and in our


a loved one stationed in harm ’ s way. and as members of our american family make do with less, let us rededicate ourselves to our friends and fellow citizens in need of a helping hand. as we gather in our communities and in our homes, around the table or near the hearth, we give thanks to each other and to god for the many kindnesses and comforts that grace our lives. let us pause to recount the simple gifts that sustain us, and resolve to pay them forward in the year to come. … ” — barack obama ’ s presidential proclamation — thanksgiving day, 2011 if all else fails – try humor if you are still having trouble cultivating an attitude of gratitude on thanksgiving day, it is always helpful to enjoy the humor created by a child ’ s perspective. thanksgiving is a time for food, family and fun, and we all know that children and grandchildren are a big part of the fun. save mart supermarkets dared to create a video which captures a child ’ s perspective on the traditional thanksgiving experience. we should warn you that a broad smile is a common side effect of watching this video. enjoy! what are we thankful for? our thanksgiving day gratitude list includes the following : - ovarian cancer survivors and their families, who teach us every day about the importance of hope, perseverance, courage, compassion, love, and acceptance. - the compassion of medical clinicians who treat ovarian cancer patients every day. - the intelligence and dedication of u. s. and international medical and scientific researchers, who doggedly pursue methods to control, and ultimately conquer, ovarian cancer. - the generous assistance provided to us by the women ’ s oncology research & dialogue ( word ) gynecological cancer awareness organization. dr. kelly manahan ( word co - founder ), dr. john geisler ( word co - founder ), nate manahan ( word executive director ) and chad braham ( word director of media productions ) provide libby ’ s h * o * p * e * with invaluable substantive and technical assistance throughout the year, including the newest joint collaboration called “ word of hope ovarian cancer podcast. ” - the substantive assistance provided to us by the ovarian cancer research program of british columbia, the british columbia cancer agency, and the bc cancer foundation. - the ongoing generosity, encouragement and hope provided by douglas and diana gray through the gray family ovarian clear cell carcinoma research resource, a multi - year research project dedicated to understanding,


british columbia cancer agency, and the bc cancer foundation. - the ongoing generosity, encouragement and hope provided by douglas and diana gray through the gray family ovarian clear cell carcinoma research resource, a multi - year research project dedicated to understanding, and ultimately defeating, one of the most lethal subtypes of epithelial ovarian cancer. the talmud says : “ and whoever saves a life, it is considered as if he saved an entire world. ” doug and diana gray are passionate about pioneering ovarian cancer research aimed at saving women ’ s lives. - our families who provide seemingly endless support and understanding, while we advocate on behalf of ovarian cancer survivors and their families. - the inspiration provided by libby ’ s eternal spirit. - the ovarian cancer advocacy communities represented on facebook, twitter, inspire. com, etc., who demonstrate on a daily basis that there is patient empowerment, joy, kindness, compassion, and synergy created by a large number of passionate and dedicated survivors and advocates who band together in cyberspace. - the dedicated service of our u. s. military personnel ( and their families ), who allow us to rise and sleep under the blanket of freedom which they provide each day through blood, sweat, and tears. - the roofs over our heads, the food on our tables, the clean water from our faucets, the freedom of speech and religious practice upon which our country was founded, the ability to vote in fair elections, and the simple acts of kindness that we are able to provide to and receive from others. from our family to yours, let us take this opportunity to wish you a safe and enjoyable thanksgiving holiday.


nine ways to get fresh food nearly all fresh fruits and vegetables start to loose their nutritive value and taste the moment they are plucked. always try and buy the fresh produce grown near your place of residence if you can not grow them. ten percent of vitamins are lost during transit and specially vitamin c. hereunder are given nine points to get fresh food : 1 ) fresh squeezed juices get oxidized from end of third hour and should be consumed as soon as possible. it would be better to add some pulp in the juice as it has fibre. fiber is good for the stomach and easy to digest. 2 ) consume meat, poultry and fish with in two days of purchase as high fatty acids portions start disappearing soon after the catch. it is much wiser to place the meats lowest in the fridge or in the chiller tray. this will prevent juices to drip on fruits and vegetables and likely to change their taste, shape and may contaminate. 3 ) it is a good practice to cook vegetables just prior to eating, otherwise they loose their vitamins if stored and later on when heated to make them palatable. unused vegetable should be placed in air tight container to retain freshness 4 ) take care and handle with much care both fruit and vegetable as they loose their originality very soon if handled harshly. 5 ) always eat seasonal fruits and vegetables as they are cheaper than preserved or refrigerated. 6 ) always buy fruits and vegetables in small quantities as you can get the best nutrition when they are fresh. it is better to make purchases oftener to consume fresh food as much as possible. 7 ) regular water spray on vegetables will keep your raw vegetables more fresh. 8. fruit ripening should take place at room temperature. it may be noted that fridge will stifle the ripening process and subsequently make the vitamins disappear. 9. it is a good to plan in advance to purchase various fresh fruits and vegetables. once purchased, consume those items which decay faster than others.


you can download the memo here israel ’ s accession to oecd : encouraging impunity, rewarding war crimes - oecd ’ s fundamental values include respect for human rights, commitment to democracy and adherence to the purposes of the united nation. - in the “ road map for the accession of israel to the oecd convention ” the council noted that in order for israel to accede to the oecd it must demonstrate its commitment to “ fundamental values ” shared by all oecd members and meet related benchmarks. - israel is not in compliance with oecd standards and benchmarks. - israel exerts its sovereignty and effective control over four million palestinians living under an occupation in the west bank and the gaza strip. under the geneva conventions israel is fully responsible for the economic wellbeing of palestinians. israel is also responsible for at least three million palestinian refugees living in exile outside israel and the occupied palestinian territories, whom it has expelled and made stateless in violation of international law. israel ’ s denial of durable solutions and reparations keeps millions of palestinian refugees in a legal limbo ( statelessness ), undermining their economic wellbeing for decades. - israeli economist shir hever said : “ the oecd is treating israel as though it has seven million citizens when, in reality, it has 11 million subjects, of whom four million are palestinians living under occupation. if they were included in the figures submitted to the oecd, israel would have to be refused accession because of the enormous disparities in wealth. ” - israel is not in compliance with its obligations under international law. - israel has yet to comply with the recommendations of the un fact finding mission on the gaza conflict and investigate and prosecute where needed those responsible for war crimes and crimes against humanity. - israel has yet to lift its illegal blockade of the occupied gaza strip which has brought to the brink of starvation almost 1. 5 million palestinians. - israel has yet to dismantle its illegal wall in the occupied palestinian west bank in accordance with the 2004 international court of justice advisory opinion. 10. the high contracting parties of the fourth geneva convention have the legal responsibility to ensure israel ’ s compliance with the convention. the un general assembly resolution endorsing the 2004 international court of justice advisory opinion on the wall affirms that member states should not render aid and assistance to the unlawful situation created by israel in the occupied palestinian territories. 11. in its assessment of the israeli social and economic situation, the oecd said that


justice advisory opinion on the wall affirms that member states should not render aid and assistance to the unlawful situation created by israel in the occupied palestinian territories. 11. in its assessment of the israeli social and economic situation, the oecd said that israeli politics are defined by “ policy agendas rooted in ethnicity and religion. ” israel has over 30 laws that privilege jews over non - jews thus it cannot be considered a “ pluralist democracy ”, a key requirement for membership. oecd did not condition israel ’ s accession on the annulment of these racist laws, therefore legitimizing them. as a result, half of israel ’ s arab citizens are living below the poverty line, a rate three times higher than among israeli jews, and that on average arab citizens earn salaries that are one - third less than jews. 12. oecd members should be committed to “ free market ” principles. the economy of the occupied palestinian territories is part and parcel of the israeli economy. a recent world bank report states that “ restrictions on the movement of goods have crippled [ palestinian ] private sector activity ”. israel maintains over 500 checkpoints that restrict freedom of movement of palestinians. israel has blocked the implementation of the efta - plo agreement on the promotion of trade. palestinians in gaza cannot export their produce due to the israeli imposed siege. israel is an obstacle to “ free market ” and uses its economic hegemony to punish palestinians. 13. israel has breached one of the organization ’ s key requirements on providing accurate and transparent data on its economic activity. data submitted by israel to the oecd include illegal israeli settlements in the west bank. by including the settlements, the oecd will be giving it a seal of approval. by excluding the settlements, the oecd will be ignoring the reality of occupation. either way, the oecd treats as “ non - existent ” the millions of palestinians under israeli sovereignty. 14. israel does not abide by the core principles of environmental policy demanded for israel ’ s accession. the policy reforms implemented by israel do not apply to all territories under israel ’ s sovereignty, namely the west bank and the gaza strip. israel dumps waste and pollutants into the land and sea of gaza and the west bank ; contaminating gaza ’ s drinking water and reducing the territory to the point where amnesty international has declared 95 % of its drinking water unfit for human consumption ; destroying acre after acre of arable farm land to build the illegal separation wall and illegal settlements ; and setting ab


gaza ’ s drinking water and reducing the territory to the point where amnesty international has declared 95 % of its drinking water unfit for human consumption ; destroying acre after acre of arable farm land to build the illegal separation wall and illegal settlements ; and setting ablaze and uprooting olive groves and other orchards. 15. oecd maintains stringent rules for member countries in regards to chemical management and safety. israel violates the spirit of these rules by maintaining a large stockpile of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. these are not independently supervised or regulated and are recklessly used against palestinians e. g. depleted uranium, white phosphorous. 16. while israel approved legislation making bribery of foreign officials illegal, israel ’ s defense ministry has the power to censor the results of any investigation of bribes paid by israeli companies to foreign officials on the ground that the publicity could harm israel ’ s national interests. the censor can bar publication and is under no obligation to tell the authorities about the investigations. bribery mainly takes place in israel ’ s multi - million dollar defense industry. israel ranks 32nd on transparency international ’ s corruption perception index 17. considering the above, rewarding israel with oecd membership will be seen by people of conscience around the world as a decisive and far - reaching act of complicity in rewarding and perpetuating israel ’ s occupation, colonization and apartheid against the palestinian people. furthermore, it will irreparably undermine the rule of law and further entrench the culture of impunity that has enabled israel to escalate its commission of war crimes and what is described by some leading international law experts as a prelude to genocide against palestinians in the illegally besieged and occupied gaza strip. - add to the agenda of the upcoming council meeting discussion about the suitability and desirability of israel ’ s membership to oecd, namely the extent to which it represents key values of the organization ( international law, human rights, democracy, rule of law and open markets ) - condition israel ’ s membership on the fulfillment of its obligations towards palestinians under international law - reconsider economic data submitted by israel to reflect the full picture of israel ’ s economy, including economic figures for non - citizen palestinians under israel ’ s sovereignty. this will uncover massive discrepancies in income and standards of living that disqualifies israel from membership - overall recommendation : delay israel ’ s accession until it abides by international law and respects human rights, allows for palestinian self - determination, ends discrimination against its non - jewish citizens,


second - language learning : a psycholinguistic perspective 1978 survey reprinted in v. kinsella ( 1982 ) surveys 1, ciltr the early 1960s we were satisfied that we knew all about how people learnt a second language. then the impact of chomsky ' s ideas exposed the extent of our ignorance. some people ' s reactions were that we should stop interfering with the learner, since nature knew best ( newmark & reibel, 1968 ). others admitted the error of their ways in principle but in practice continued to use the same teaching techniques ; by and large the changes in the content of language teaching from ' structures ' to ' functions ' were not accompanied by any changes in teaching methods. however, in the past few years the question of second - language learning has been reopened ; this review attempts to give a critical account of some directions that research in this field is taking. our ignorance is not quite as boundless as it once was ; before long we may be able to base language teaching at last on a solid foundation of knowledge about second - language learning itself. the learner ' s development in a second language starting point is the language that the learner produces and understands. inevitably this involves several methodological problems. one is the relationship of the learner ' s language to time ; to show how learning takes place we need to see development in time : we need pictures of ' before ' and ' after '. one way of achieving this is to describe the longitudinal language development of a group of learners or a single learner, as in hakuta ( 1975 ). another is to relate different points of time in different learners, as in padilla and lindholm ( 1976 ). yet another is to relate the learner ' s language to the final point in time, the language of the native speaker, the approach often used in ' error analysis '. a second methodological problem is deciding what we count as evidence of the learner ' s language. the most common approach is to gather more or less natural samples of the learner ' s language ; this has the disadvantage common to corpus - based descriptions of making it hard to know when generalisations can be made to the learner ' s language system as a whole. kellerman ( 1974 ) has suggested supplementing it with ' lateralisation ', that is to say, eliciting further information from the learner about specific points. there are also dangers in relying solely on the analysis of errors since this provides partial information about the learner '


suggested supplementing it with ' lateralisation ', that is to say, eliciting further information from the learner about specific points. there are also dangers in relying solely on the analysis of errors since this provides partial information about the learner ' s language ; to describe it adequately we need to know more about it than its differences from the target language ( corder, 1971 ). an alternative approach consists of designing particular techniques that tap only the part of the learner ' s language that we are interested in. also, compared to first - language acquisition, the second - language learner is more aware of learning a language and can be asked direct questions about what he knows. in the previous paragraph it was accepted implicitly that the learner has a language system of his own ; though this system is related to both his first and second languages, it has its own distinctive characteristics. this implicit assumption has been called, with slightly different emphases, ' interlanguage ' ( selinker, 1972 ), ' transitional competence ' ( corder, 1967 ), ' approximative system ' ( nemser, 1971 ), and ' language learner ' s system ' ( sampson & richards, 1973 ). it parallels the common assumption that a child acquiring a first language has a systematic language that is not simply a defective version of the adult ' s. in itself the assumption tells one nothing about the system or how it develops except that it is for the description of learning, an important characteristic of the learner ' s language system is that it is changing rather than static : corder ( 1977 ) calls it a ' dynamic goal - oriented language system of increasing complexity '. however, one should not forget the effect of ' fossilisation ', in which some aspects of the learner ' s language system remain fixed and do not develop ( selinker, 1972 ). aspect of the learner ' s development that has interested many people is the order in which particular grammatical points are acquired. a common approach starts from part of roger brown ' s work on first - language acquisition. brown ( 1973 ) discovered that the chronological order in which children start to use grammatical morphemes such as the fairly constant : the child first uses - ing, the plural - s so on. dulay and burt ( 1973 ) first tried this approach on second - language learning, using the bilingual syntax measure ( bsm ) to elicit samples of language from children at one moment of time : they scored the accuracy for grammatical morpheme


. dulay and burt ( 1973 ) first tried this approach on second - language learning, using the bilingual syntax measure ( bsm ) to elicit samples of language from children at one moment of time : they scored the accuracy for grammatical morphemes and established an order of difficulty ; though they found a common order among the children, this order had certain differences from brown ' s order. this method was extended to show that children with different native languages share the same order ( dulay & burt, 1974 ) ; that adults have a similar order to children ( bailey, madden & krashen, 1974 ; krashen, sferlazza, feldman & fathman, 1976 ) ; that the order varies according to the task involved ( larsen - freeman, 1975 ) ; and that the order is not much affected by one month ' s classroom teaching ( perkins & larsen - freeman, 1975 ). at first glance, then, this research suggests that second - language learners share a common order of acquisition for grammatical morphemes in english. at closer inspection, the connections between the learner ' s language and time seem slightly dubious. the criteria used in brown ( 1973 ), in which points of acquisition are arranged into a chronological order, are replaced by criteria of relative success at one point of time : brown was talking about a ' codebreaking ' order, the second - language research about aa ' decoding ' order, to borrow two terms from cryptography. rosansky ( 1976 ) argues that it is necessary to show that order of difficulty is the same as order of acquisition, if these results are to mean anything in terms of development, furthermore, comparison with brown ' s results is obscured by the different methods collecting data, on the one hand elicitation techniques such as the bsm, on the other natural recordings ; indeed, native children tested with the bsm do not show brown ' s order ( porter, 1977 ). a naturalistic study has fact shown similarity between chronological order of acquisition in young bilingual children and brown ' s order, but less similarity in older children ( padilla, to appear ). so order of difficulty for grammatical morphemes is at present hard to interpret ; it certainly does not in itself justify any statements about chronological order of acquisition or about differences from of syntactic development aspects of syntactic development have been investigated in less controversial ways. much of the research has dealt with english and has been concerned with children. many results show a fair amount of variation between learners ( cancino,


differences from of syntactic development aspects of syntactic development have been investigated in less controversial ways. much of the research has dealt with english and has been concerned with children. many results show a fair amount of variation between learners ( cancino, rosansky & schumann, 1975 ; bertkua, 1974 ). even within the of one learner there is variation ; dickerson ( 1975 ) has suggested employing variable rules such as for the variation from one situation to out of the plethora of studies one can mention representative handful concerned with different points of english syntax : negation ( milon, 1974 ) ; pluralisation ( natalico & natalico, 1971 ) ; auxiliaries ( cancino et pronouns ( katz, 1976 ) ; possessives ( padilla & lindholm, 1976 ) ; eager / easy to please ( cook, 1973 ; d ' anglejean & tucker, 1975 ). other languages have been studied to lesser degree : french relative clauses and indirect objects ( chun, 1976 ) ; spanish verb and noun phrases ( dato, 1975 ) ; swedish negation ( hyltenstem, 1977 ). mostly the writers have concluded that there are general similarities between the order of acquisition of foreign learners and native children, though there are some differences ; for example a stage has been described in learning of english negation by germans in which a negative element occurs immediately after the verb, unlike any stage in first language acquisition wealth of information about the learning of english syntax should not blind us to the paucity of research in other areas of development ; semantic development has hardly been touched upon, apart from young ( 1973 ) ; phonological development is equally under - researched, with some exceptions ( dickerson, 1975 ; tarone, 1976 ; wode, 1976 a ). this bias towards syntax leaves the study of learner ' s language in a curiously isolated position. on the one hand, it is cut off from recent ideas in first - language acquisition which are more concerned with semantic, cognitive and social development than with syntax. on the other hand, it is cut off from recent work in applied linguistics which stresses communicative functions rather than grammatical form. while the grammatical data that have been unearthed are interesting in themselves, one may question where they lead. ultimately, so far as learning is concerned, the learner ' s language and the order in which he acquires various items are only interesting as evidence for underlying processes at work : the question to be answered is why his language takes the form that it does. so,


as learning is concerned, the learner ' s language and the order in which he acquires various items are only interesting as evidence for underlying processes at work : the question to be answered is why his language takes the form that it does. so, rather than attempt to summarise the vast mass of descriptive studies of learner ' s language that are now available, a task resembling hercules ' in the augean stables, the rest of this survey looks at some of the underlying causes of the learner ' s language system. 2. the learner ' s contribution to second language learning and production strategies with a new language the learner applies certain strategies both conscious and unconscious to what he hears, which partly determine his language system ( selinker, 1972 ; richards, 1971 ). the positive effects of the learner ' s conscious awareness that he is learning a new language have been described in terms of the strategies that the good language learner adopts ( rubin, 1975 ; stern, 1975 ; naiman, frohlich & stern, 1975 ). broadly speaking, the profile of the good learner shows that he is actively involved in the learning process : he listens carefully and checks what he says himself ; he is eager to participate and to communicate with others ; he practices the language of his own accord. though these strategies necessarily appear ' obvious ', any model of second - language learning has to take them into account ; if, for instance, adult learners feel that second - language learning is chiefly a matter of vocabulary ( hatch, 1976 ), this clearly has an effect on their learning, regardless of whether they are right or wrong. at the opposite pole from these conscious strategies are those revealed in an experiment, where, after 27 minutes of exposure to an unknown language, people were able to distinguish pauses located at grammatical boundaries from those that were not : somehow they had employed a strategy that yielded quite accurate information about the grammatical structure of the language ( wakefield, doughtie & yom, 1974 ). the learner then, consciously or unconsciously, absorbs or extracts information from what he hears. one strategy is to impose the structure of his first language : he transfers rules or items to his learner - language system from his first language and shows signs of ' interference ' ( selinker, 1972 ). another strategy is to attempt to guess the system of the target language, resulting in ' overgeneralisation ' ; his use of this strategy increases as he learns more of the language ( taylor, 1975 ). the learner


integrative ', in which the learner wants to communicate actively with the speakers of the other language, and the ' instrumental ', in which he wants to use the language for some utilitarian purpose ; of these two the integrative now seems more important ( gardner, smythe, clement & glicksman, 1976 ). a way in to the large body of literature on this subject can be found in the annotated bibliography compiled by desrochers, smythe & gardner ( 1975 ). the causes of motivation are attitudes ; success in second - language learning depends on the attitudes towards the foreign culture, towards learning a foreign language, and towards the classroom situation 1976 ). one ' s native language is an important factor in one ' s sense of identity as an individual and as a member of a group : learning a new language means adopting a new identity. lambert ( 1974 ) distinguishes ' additive ' bilingualism, in which the learner loses nothing by learning a second language, from ' subtractive ' bilingualism, in which he is forced to give something up ; clarke ( 1976 ) talks of a clash between the level of ' modernity ' in the two cultures ; schumann ( 1976 ) draws attention to the ' social distance ' separating the learner from the target culture. while these concepts have obvious relevance to contact or immigrant situations, they are less important to language teaching in schools. however, one idea of equal importance to both is the loss of personal identity in learning a second language : culture - shock is like the alienated state of a schizophrenic unable to make sense of his surroundings ( clarke, 1976 ) and this is supported by similarities between the language of schizophrenics and second - language learners ( meara, 1977 ). guiora, brannon & dull ( 1972 ) postulate a ' language ego ' that is threatened by the new language ; green ( 1977 ) claims that students regress to an earlier freudian stage in a foreign language and express ideas that are more childish than their level of thinking in their and memory processes and producing speech involves psychological processes that are only now starting to be understood. in second - language learning their nature is even more obscure. one issue is whether these processes are substantially the same in all languages ; some semantic processes involved in verifying the truth of sentences have in fact been found to be similar in different languages ( just & carpenter, 1975 ). another issue is whether these processes can be transferred to a second language ; in terms of syntax


languages ; some semantic processes involved in verifying the truth of sentences have in fact been found to be similar in different languages ( just & carpenter, 1975 ). another issue is whether these processes can be transferred to a second language ; in terms of syntax it has been shown that foreign adults do not benefit from knowing embedding in a first language but fall back on the same processes as the young native child ( cook, 1975 ). the work on grammatical morphemes can also be interpreted as showing some of the processing limitations common to learners. at least some speech processes then have to be relearnt in a second language. indeed some of them may never be so efficient in a second language : even skilled bilinguals are worse at a cloze test in their second language ( d ' anglejean & tucker, 1973 ) ; advanced learners cannot summarise texts as well as natives ( long & harding - esch, 1977 ). now to memory processes, it is convenient to distinguish short - term from long - term memory. the characteristics of short - term memory are that information is stored for only a few seconds, capacity for information is small, and the information is stored in the form of sounds. nothing is known about the duration of short - term memory in a second language but some research has looked at capacity. glicksberg ( 1963 ) found adult learners of english remembered 6 - 4 digits at a time compared with 7 - 1 in their first language, improving to 6 - 7 during five weeks of an intensive course ; cook ( 1977 ) found a capacity of 5 - 9 in beginners and 6 - 7 in advanced learners. so far as the form of storage is concerned, capacity has been related to syntactic complexity ( harris, 1970 ) and to phonological encoding ( cook, 1977 ) ; henning ( 1973 ) traced a development from phonological to semantic storage. so short - term memory seems to work in a similar fashion in a second language ; we can store slightly less information than in our first language but we store it in similar ways. long - term memory has also been studied. lambert ( 1956 ) tested word associations and concluded that, while advanced learners were more like native speakers in such aspects as number and range of associations, they were still unlike them in type of associations ; the clustering effect in which adults normally remember words from the same semantic category together was not found to any great extent with advanced foreign learners nor was there much difference between advanced learners and beginners ( cook, 1977 ).


them in type of associations ; the clustering effect in which adults normally remember words from the same semantic category together was not found to any great extent with advanced foreign learners nor was there much difference between advanced learners and beginners ( cook, 1977 ). ultimately this line of research leads to the issue of how the two language systems are related in the mind of the bilingual : is there a distinct memory system for each language or are they linked in some way? the evidence is inconclusive : in the same kind of task where bilinguals had to switch languages, taylor ( 1971 ) found the languages were stored separately, while neufeld ( 1976 ) found they were stored together ; a task involving naming colours, on the other hand, produced evidence for close links between the languages ( lambert & preston, 1967 ). answer to the question about transfer to a second language is then complex. the conclusion arrived at in cook ( 1977 ) was that memory processes are transferred more easily the less they depend on language. this has affinities with the claim that ' capacity increases with processing depth since we can make greater use of learned rules at deeper levels of analysis ' ( craik, 1973 ), if language is equated with learned rules. indeed some recent experiments can be taken to support this claim by showing little difference between beginners, advanced learners, and bilinguals in a deductive reasoning task in their second language ( d ' anglejean, gagnon, tucker & winsberg, 1977 ). a related issue is the extent to which these memory processes can be employed in learning a second language, as opposed to using it, in codebreaking rather than decoding. some attempts have been made to apply conscious mnemonic techniques to the learning of vocabulary : atkinson ( 1975 ) describes a ' keyword ' technique and paivio ( 1976 ) a ' pegword ' technique, both of which involve forming mental images. however, as rivers and melvin ( 1977 ) point out, ' a word learnt out of context is for the most part a useless bauble ' : mnemonic techniques are only useful if the vocabulary learnt with them is available to the speaker for normal language use. a general application of memory research is discussed in melvin and rivers ( 1976 ), who describe an information processing model which emphasises that procedures for speaking and learning are learnt through meaningful use of language rather than memorisation. a two - stage model of memory has also been proposed in which an initial memory fills up with formulas, and a second - stage memory


model which emphasises that procedures for speaking and learning are learnt through meaningful use of language rather than memorisation. a two - stage model of memory has also been proposed in which an initial memory fills up with formulas, and a second - stage memory creates rules to account for the overflow ( gallagher, 1976 ) ; this connects with the discovery of ' prefabricated utterances ' in a young japanese learner of english ( hakuta, 1974 ). people take it for granted that an important factor in second - language learning is the learner ' s age ; most discussions assume that children are better than adults and then go on to suggest explanations for this. it is useful to consider the evidence that might support this assumption. some canadian research indeed showed that children who arrived there under the age of seven fared better at learning english than those who arrived at an older age ( ramsay & wright, 1974 ). but on the other hand there is a mass of evidence that adults are either superior to, or the same as, children : adults are better than children at understanding spoken russian by the total physical response method ( asher & price, 1967 ) ; teenagers are better at learning grammar than younger children whether in english ( fathman, 1975 ) or dutch ( snow & hoefnagel - hohle, 1975 ) ; nine - year - olds learn french morphology and syntax faster than four - year - olds ( ervin - tripp, 1974 ) ; israeli census returns show that the age of immigration makes no difference to the pattern of acquisition, in terms of reported use, and that, while there is decline with age, the main watershed is at the age of 30 ( smith & braine, n. d. ). nevertheless, some people might say, the superiority of children is at learning pronunciation rather than grammar. again some evidence confirms this belief : older learners either retain more foreign accent ( oyama, 1976 ; asher & garcia, 1969 ) or report they retain it ( seliger, krashen & ladefoged, 1975 ) ; the younger children tested in fathman ( 1975 ) were better at pronunciation than the teenagers. but, on the other hand, adults learn german sounds better than children in the same teaching situation ( olson & samuels, 1973 ) ; adults have an initial advantage at pronouncing and imitating dutch ( snow & hoefnagel - hohle, n. d. ) ; older children up to ten make fewer mistakes with unfamiliar phonological structure ( kuus


; adults have an initial advantage at pronouncing and imitating dutch ( snow & hoefnagel - hohle, n. d. ) ; older children up to ten make fewer mistakes with unfamiliar phonological structure ( kuusinen & salin, 1971 ). so far from showing the superiority of children, most of the hard evidence warrants the opposite conclusion : adults are better than children at learning a second language when the tests are conducted under controlled lack of evidence has not prevented many ingenious explanations being offered for children ' s alleged superiority at second - language learning. the most general is that there is a critical period for language learning ; after we have left this period we can learn language only with difficulty. the reasons for this critical period may be ' lateralisation ', that is to say, the tendency for brain functions to become specialised to one side or the other in the early teens ( scovel, 1969 ). the evidence for locating lateralisation in the early teens is, however, debatable ( krashen, 1975 ), and the causal connection between lateralisation and language learning necessarily rests on evidence from pathological cases. a second explanation distinguishes ' acquisition ', the normal process through which children learn a first language, from ' learning ', an alternative process that can be used by adults because of their greater maturity ( krashen, 1976 ). this distinction has been enlarged into the ' monitor model ' ( krashen, 1977 ), which claims that the distinctive feature of adult ' learning ' is that adults can monitor what they are producing ; thus tasks which show similarities between adults and children test ' acquisition ' and do not provide sufficient time for the adult to monitor what he is doing. obviously independent evidence of this monitor needs to be supplied ; advanced learners, for example, have not been found to be better at correcting their own mistakes than beginners, as might have been expected ( white, 1977 ). a third type of explanation is cognitive development : rosansky ( 1975 ) suggests that the crucial point is the transition to the piagetian stage of formal operations in the early teens ; tremaine ( 1975 ) correlates the transition to the earlier piagetian stage of concrete operations at about seven with the syntactic development of bilingual children. as these explanations are, it is not clear they are needed. what differences there are between children and adults can be explained without recourse to some unique feature of language learning that changes with age. one simple cause is differences in


of bilingual children. as these explanations are, it is not clear they are needed. what differences there are between children and adults can be explained without recourse to some unique feature of language learning that changes with age. one simple cause is differences in situation : macnamara ( 1973 ) distinguishes succinctly between the demands of the street and of the classroom ; often the adult meets the classroom, the child the street. the types of social interaction also vary ; the language play described in peck ( to appear ) is rarely allowed to adults ; children talk about different topics from adults ( hatch, to appear ) ; the peer - group pressures on children are considerably different from those on adults ( macnamara, 1976 ) and the motivations and attitudes of the learner vary according to age ( schumann, 1975 b ). common factor to the research cited above that found no disadvantage to adults was precisely that the situation of children and adults was kept the same ( asher & price, 1967 ; olson & samuels, 1973 ). another factor that the research on accents does not take into account is historical changes in the status of immigrants : age of arrival confounds moment of arrival. while it is certainly possible to explain some of the differences in terms of cognitive maturity, this does not necessarily involve linking them to the acquisition of formal operations or to some special process such as monitoring without further evidence. given all the factors that distinguish adults from children, it would be strange if we found no differences between them but it is not necessary to invoke some peculiar property of language learning to explain them. while one does not wish to deny the strong impression that many people have that some adult immigrants speak their new language poorly, this may be ascribed not so much to an intrinsic defect in the adult ' s mind as to differences in situation, in motivation, in willingness to surrender part of one ' s identity, and so on, that separate children from adults. the learner ’ s situation language the learner hears important element in the learner ' s situation is the language he hears. ferguson ( 1975 ) described ' foreigner talk ', that is to say, the language variety addressed to foreigners, typified by its ' simpler ' grammar and by certain vocabulary items. in a natural setting the learner may well encounter this variety ; indeed it is not entirely unknown in the classroom ( hatch, 1978 ). while there are resemblances between ' simple ' foreigner talk addressed to learners and ' simple ' pidgin - like language produced by learners, there is


well encounter this variety ; indeed it is not entirely unknown in the classroom ( hatch, 1978 ). while there are resemblances between ' simple ' foreigner talk addressed to learners and ' simple ' pidgin - like language produced by learners, there is no evidence that foreigner talk assists second - language learning any more than there is proof that babytalk helps the native child. both these simple varieties reflect partly the adult ' s intuition about what learners find easy to understand, partly the language used by learners themselves, partly the sociolinguistic convention of what is appropriate for learners. aside from foreigner talk, some work has linked the learner ' s language to what he hears and the types of interaction in which he takes part ( larsen - freeman, 1976 ; hatch, 1976 ). this link between input and learning is vital to language teaching. a feature of most teaching methods is that they control the language the learner hears in several dimensions - situationally, functionally, grammatically, notionally, and in other ways. yet evidence for the effects of input hardly exists. only valdman ( 1975 ) has shown the possibility of basing the sequence of presentation of grammatical items on learner ' s errors. though a central feature of most classrooms is the structuring and sequencing of input, we still have no solid evidence to challenge the assertion that a natural unstructured input is as effective ( newmark & learner ' s social interactions second - language learning, evelyn hatch has pioneered the study of conversational interactions between learners and native speakers ( hatch, to appear ; hatch, 1976 ). the central feature of interaction she sees as the need to find something to talk about : adults interpret children ' s utterances as naming a topic for discussion ; foreign adults struggle hard to establish a topic of conversation. adults in particular need ' repairs ' to be able to check that they and the native are talking about the same thing ( hatch, 1976 ). the order of natural second - language acquisition is derived primarily from the learner ' s communicative needs rather than from grammatical complexity or frequency : the learner ' s language is a consequence of his interactions ( hatch, 1978 ). some of the strategies for interaction among children have also been described in fillmore ( 1976 ). as yet these interaction studies offer interesting insights into the learner ' s behaviour rather than a coherent theory ; nevertheless they complement the ideas of integrative motivation and production strategies. language learners, however, do not engage in social interactions with native speakers ; they sit in a classroom


offer interesting insights into the learner ' s behaviour rather than a coherent theory ; nevertheless they complement the ideas of integrative motivation and production strategies. language learners, however, do not engage in social interactions with native speakers ; they sit in a classroom facing a teacher. this contrast is often put in terms of ' informal ' learning which takes place in a natural setting and ' formal ' learning which takes place inside a classroom. macnamara ( 1976 ), however, denies that language teaching is strictly speaking formal, since the teacher cannot provide formal rules that are linguistically and psychologically valid. krashen ( 1976 ) sees aspects of both formal and informal learning in the classroom, defining ' formal ' as teaching one rule at a time and having feedback ; he suggests that an adult may benefit from formal teaching since this exploits his adult capacity to ' learn ' rather than ' acquire ' language. but we still have little idea of what goes on in a classroom in terms of interaction ; certainly it is very different from the conversation strategies that hatch describes. we do have some ideas about correction of errors ( cohen, 1975 ; holley & king, 1971 ) but more information is needed about all the other aspects of classroom behaviour by students and teachers. obvious conclusion from this research is the complexity of second - language learning ; any model has to account not just for grammatical development but also for the contributions made by the learner and by the learner ' s environment, not to mention the individual differences between learners, and the effects of learning a second language on the learner, a field too vast to include here. if nothing more, we can rule out simple accounts of second - language learning. a further general issue is whether a second language can be learnt in the same way as a first. an adequate discussion of this can only take place if we settle in advance which model of first - language acquisition we are comparing to second - language learning : it is hardly satisfactory to try to prove or disprove the similarity between the processes by choosing select examples from either field. at present this issue can only be discussed in fairly limited terms because the research in second - language learning is restricted in scope. nevertheless there have been several discussions of this issue ( cook, 1969 ; ervin - tripp, 1975 ; macnamara, 1976 ; mclaughlin, 1977 ; spolsky, 1977 ). the general tenor of these emphasises the broad similarities between first - and second - language learning but draws attention to some specific differences. much of the grammatical evidence has already been mentioned


. in terms of teaching techniques, it leads to activities that encourage the students to communicate and interact through the new language about things that vitally concern them, here and now in the classroom, rather than with a native speaker on some far - off occasion in the future ; thus the teacher will rely heavily on role - play, communication games, and the like. this new emphasis brings us to a point where the goals of language teaching are no longer defined simply by the language syllabus the student is expected to know, or by the usefulness of the language to some conjectured function in the student ' s later life, but by their contribution to the social and psychological development of the individual ; it may restore a central educational role to language teaching in addition to its academic and utilitarian roles. the original publication of this article, a large amount has been published, too much to summarise here as a postscript. the following, however, represent the essential reading in book form that has become available. f. & hastings, a. j. ( eds. ) ( 1977 ). studies in first and second language acquisition. rowley, mass. : newbury house, 1979. p. a. ( ed. ) ( 1977 ). bilingualism. york : academic press. s. w. ( ed. ) ( 1980 ). second language development. tubingen : r. c. ( ed. ) ( 1978 ). second language acquisition and foreign language teaching. arlington, va. : center for applied linguistics. krashen, s. d. ( 1981 ). second language acquisition and second language learning. oxford : d. ( ed. ) ( 1980 ). discourse analysis in second language research. rowley, mass. : newbury house. s. h. ( 1981 ). psychology in foreign language teaching. london : allen & unwin. b. ( 1978 ). second - language acquisition in childhood. hillsdale, n. j. : lawrence erlbaum associates. d. ( ed. ) ( 1980 ). studies in language acquisition *. heidelberg : julius groos. new york academy of sciences ( to appear ). proceedings of the conference on first and second language learning ; january 1981. a. & begg, i. ( 1981 ). psychology of language. englewood cliffs, n. j. : prentice - hall. w. g. ( ed. ) ( 1978 ). second language acquisition research. new york : academic press. to journals titles : ll, learning ;


). psychology of language. englewood cliffs, n. j. : prentice - hall. w. g. ( ed. ) ( 1978 ). second language acquisition research. new york : academic press. to journals titles : ll, learning ; ml /, modern language journal. a., gagnon, n., tucker, g. r. & winsberg, s. ( 1977 ). solving problems in deductive reasoning : the performance of adult second language learners. paper presented to the 8th conference on applied linguistics, university of a. & tucker, g. r. ( 1973 ). communicating across cultures : an empirical of cross cultural psychology, 4, a. & tucker, g. r. ( 1975 ). the acquisition of complex english structures by adult learners. ll, 25, j. j. & garcia, r. ( 1969 ). the optimal age to learn a foreign language. j. j. & price, b. s. ( 1967 ). the learning strategy of the total physical response : some age differences. child r. c. ( 1975 ). mnemotechnics in second - language learning. american n., madden, c. & krashen, s. ( 1974 ). is there a ' natural sequence ' in adult second language learning? ll, j. s. ( 1974 ). an analysis of english learner speech. ll, 24, s. & levenston, e. ( 1977 ). strategies of communications, through lexical avoidance in the speech and writing of second - language teachers and learners and in translation. mimeo. r. w. ( 1973 ). a first language : the early stages. harvard h., rosansky, e. j. & schumann, j. h. ( 1975 ). the acquisition of the english auxiliary by native spanish speakers. tesol j. ( 1975 ). selected processes in second language acquisition. paper presented to the fourth ai la congress, stuttgart. j. ( 1976 ). word order in second language acquisition. i n g. drachman ( ed. ), proceedings of the first salzburg colloquium on children ' s language. tubingen : verlag gunter narr. m. a. ( 1976 ). second language acquisition as a clash of consciousness. ll, 26, v. j. ( 1969 ). the analogy between first and second language learning. iral, v. j. ( 1973 ). the comparison of language development in native children and foreign adults. ira


a clash of consciousness. ll, 26, v. j. ( 1969 ). the analogy between first and second language learning. iral, v. j. ( 1973 ). the comparison of language development in native children and foreign adults. iral, v. j. ( 1975 ). strategies in the comprehension of relative clauses. language and speech, 18, v. j. ( 1977 ). cognitive processes in second language learning. iral, a. c. ( 1975 ). error correction and the training of language teachers. mlj, s. p. ( 1967 ). the significance of learners ' errors. iral, reprinted in richards ( 1974 ). s. p. ( 1971 ). idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. iral, 147 - 60. reprinted in richards ( 1974 ). s. p. ( 1977 ). language continua and the interlanguage hypothesis. in s. p. corder & e. roulet ( eds. ), the notions of simplification, interlanguages and pidgins and their relation to second language pedagogy. geneva : droz ; neuchatel : universite de neuchatel. f. i. m. ( 1973 ). a ' levels of analysis ' view of memory. in p. pliner, l. kramer & t. alloway ( eds. ), communication and affect. new york : academic press. d. p. ( 1975 ). on psycholinguistic universals in children ' s learning of spanish. in d. p. dato ( ed. ), developmental psycholinguistics : theory and application. georgetown university press. ( georgetown university round table. ) a. m., smythe, p. m. & gardner, r. c. ( 1975 ). the social psychology of second language acquisition and bilinguality : an annotated bibliography. research bulletin no. 340, university of western ontario. l. ( 1975 ). the learner ' s language as a system of variable rules. tesol h. c. & burt, m. k. ( 1972 ). goofing : an indicator of children ' s second language learning strategies. ll, h. c. & burt, m. k. ( 1973 ). should we teach children syntax? ll, 23, 2, h. c. & burt, m. k. ( 1974 ). natural sequences in child second language acquisition. ll, 24,


& burt, m. k. ( 1973 ). should we teach children syntax? ll, 23, 2, h. c. & burt, m. k. ( 1974 ). natural sequences in child second language acquisition. ll, 24, 1, 37 - 53. s. e. ( 1974 ). is second language learning like the first? tesol a. ( 1975 ). the relationship between age and second language productive ability. ll, 25, c. a. ( 1975 ). toward a characterization of english foreigner talk. anthropological l. w. ( 1976 ). individual differences in second language acquisition. asilomar conference on individual differences in language ability and language w. e. ( 1976 ). investigation of the relationship between memorisation and rule acquisition. in. j. e. fanselow & r. h. crymes ( eds. ), on r. c, smythe, p. c, clement, r. & gliksman, l. ( 1976 ). second language learning : a social psychological perspective. canadian modern language review, 32, d. h. ( 1963 ). a study of the span of immediate memory among adult students of english as a foreign language. university of michigan, phd thesis. m. f. ( 1977 ). regression in adult learning of a second language. foreign language annals, 10, a. z., brannan, r. c. l. & dull, c. y. ( 1972 ). empathy and second language learning. ll, 22, 2, 111 - 30. k. ( 1974 ). prefabricated patterns and the emergence of structure in second language acquisition. ll, k. ( 1975 ). learning how to speak a second language : what exactly does the child learn? in d. p. dato ( ed. ), developmental psycholinguistics : theory and application. georgetown university press ( georgetown university round table. ) d. p. ( 1970 ). report on an experimental group - administered memory span test. tesol e. ( 1976 ). conversational analysis : an alternative methodology for second language acquisition research. proceedings of the nwave - v conference, e. ( 1978 ). discourse analysis and second language acquisition. in e. hatch language acquisition. rowley, mass. : newbury house. g. h. ( 1973 ). remembering foreign language vocabulary : acoustic and semantic f. m. & king, j. k. ( 1971 ). imitation and correction in foreign language k.


acquisition. rowley, mass. : newbury house. g. h. ( 1973 ). remembering foreign language vocabulary : acoustic and semantic f. m. & king, j. k. ( 1971 ). imitation and correction in foreign language k. ( 1977 ). implicational patterns in interlanguage syntax variation. work in progress, 10, department of linguistics, edinburgh university. m. a. & carpenter, p. a. ( 1975 ). comparative studies of comprehension : an investigation of chinese, norwegian and english. memory and cognition, 3, j. t. ( 1976 ). case, gender, and pronominal diamorphy in child second language acquisition. paper delivered at first annual boston conference on language development. e. ( 1974 ). elicitation, lateralisation and error analysis. york papers in linguistics, 4. studies bulletin, 1, s. ( 1975 ). the development of cerebral dominance and language learning : more evidence. in d. p. dato ( ed. ), developmental psycholinguistics : theory and application. georgetown university press ( georgetown university round table ). s. d. ( 1976 ). formal and informal linguistic environments in language acquisition and language learning, tesol s. d. ( 1977 ). the monitor model for adult second language performance. in m. burt, h. dulay & m. finocchario ( eds. ), viewpoints on english as a second language. new s. d., sferlazza, v., feldman, l. & fathman, a. k. ( 1976 ). adult performance on the slope test : more evidence for a natural sequence in adult second language acquisition. ll, 26, j. & salin, e. ( 1971 ). children ' s learning of unfamiliar phonological motor skills, 33, w. e. ( 1956 ). developmental aspects of second language acquisition : i. associational fluency, stimulus provocativeness and word order influence. journal of social psychology, 43, w. e. ( 1974 ). cultural and language factors in learning and education. in f. aboud & r. meade, the fifth western symposium on learning. washington : western washington state college. w. e. & preston, m. s. ( 1967 ). the interdependences of the bilingual ' s two languages. in k. salzinger & s. salzinger ( eds. ), research in verbal behaviour and some neurophysiological


m. s. ( 1967 ). the interdependences of the bilingual ' s two languages. in k. salzinger & s. salzinger ( eds. ), research in verbal behaviour and some neurophysiological implications, 115 - 21. new york : academic press. d. e. ( 1975 ). the acquisition of grammatical morphemes by adult esl students. tesol d. e. ( 1976 ). an explanation for the morpheme acquisition order of second language learners. ll, e. ( 1975 ). second - language acquisition : environments and strategies. in c. molony, h. zobl & w. stolting ( eds. ), german in contact with other languages. monographs in linguistics and communication sciences. kronberg : skriptor verlag. p. m. ( 1977 ). french l2 learners : what they ' re talking about. paper presented at the first annual second language acquisition research forum, university of california, los angeles. j. & harding - esch, e. ( 1977 ). summary and recall of text in first and second languages ; some factors contributing to performance differences. in h. w. sinaiko and d. gerver ( eds. ), proceedings of nato symposium on language, interpretation and communication. new york ; london : plenum press. second language learning in children. psychological j. ( 1973 ). nurseries, streets and classrooms : some comparisons and deductions. j. ( 1976 ). comparison between first and second language learning. die neuren sprachen, 75, d. ( 1965 ). some thoughts on first and second language acquisition. mimeo, p. ( 1977 ). schizophrenic symptoms in foreign - language learners. paper presented to baal annual conference, colchester. b. s. & rivers, w. m. ( 1976 ). in one ear and out the other : implications of memory studies for language learning. in j. e. fanselow & r. crymes j. p. ( 1974 ). the development of negation in english by a second - language n., frohlich, m. & stern, h. h. ( 1975 ). the good language learner. toronto : ontario institute for studies in education. d. s. & natalico, l. f. s. ( 1971 ). a comparative study of english pluralisation by native and non - native english speakers


). the good language learner. toronto : ontario institute for studies in education. d. s. & natalico, l. f. s. ( 1971 ). a comparative study of english pluralisation by native and non - native english speakers. child w. ( 1971 ). approximative systems of foreign - language learners. iral, 115 - 23. reprinted in richards ( 1974 ). g. g. ( 1976 ). the bilingual ' s lexical store. iral, l. & reibel, d. a. ( 1968 ). necessity and sufficiency in language learning. l. l. & samuels, s. j. ( 1973 ). the relationship between age and accuracy of foreign - language pronunciation. journal of educational research, 66, s. ( 1976 ). a sensitive period for the acquisition of a non - native phonological of psycholinguistic research, 5, a. m. ( to appear ). acquisition of 14 grammatical morphemes in the speech of a. m. & lindholm, k. j. ( 1976 ). development of interrogative, negative and possessive forms in the speech of young spanish / english bilinguals. bilingual a. ( 1976 ). on exploring visual knowledge. paper presented at the iowa invitational conference on visual learning, thinking and communication. university of iowa. s. ( to appear ). language play in second language acquisition. in c. henning of the first annual los angeles second language research forum. k. & larsen - freeman, d. ( 1975 ). the effect of formal language instruction on the order of morpheme acquisition. ll, 25, j. h. ( 1977 ). a cross - sectional study of morpheme acquisition in first language learning. ll, 27, c. a. & wright, e. n. ( 1974 ). age and second language learning. journal of social psychology, 94, j. c. ( 1971 ). error analysis and second language strategies. language j. c. ( ed. ) ( 1974 ). error w. m. & melvin, b. s. ( 1977 ). memory and memorization in comprehension and production : contributions of i p theory. canadian modern language review, 33, e. j. ( 1975 ). the critical period for the acquisition of language ; some cognitive developmental considerations. working papers in bilingualism, 6, e. j. ( 1976 ). methods and morphemes in second language acquisition research.


e. j. ( 1975 ). the critical period for the acquisition of language ; some cognitive developmental considerations. working papers in bilingualism, 6, e. j. ( 1976 ). methods and morphemes in second language acquisition research. j. ( 1975 ). what the ' good language learner ' can teach us. tesol g. p. & richards, j. c. ( 1973 ). learner language systems. language reprinted in richards ( 1974 ). j. ( 1974 ). an error in error analysis. ll, 24, j. h. ( 1975a ). implications of pidginization and creolization for the study of adult second language acquisition. in j. h. schumann & n. stenson ( eds. ), new frontiers in second language learning. rowley, mass. : newbury house. j. h. ( 1975 6 ). affective factors and the problem of age in second language acquisition. ll, 25, j. h. ( 1976 ). social distance as a factor in second language acquisition. ll, 26, t. ( 1969 ). foreign accents, language acquisition, and cerebral dominance. ll, 19, h. w., krashen, s. d. & ladefoged, p. ( 1975 ). maturational constraints in the acquisition of second language accent. language l. ( 1972 ). interlanguage. iral, 209 - 31. reprinted in richards ( 1974 ). k. h. & braine, m. d -. s. ( no date ). miniature languages and the problem of language acquisition. mimeo. c. e. & hoefnagel - hohle, m. ( 1975 ). age differences in second language acquisition. paper read to fourth aila congress, stuttgart. c. e. & hoefnagel - hohle, m. ( no date ). age differences in the pronunciation of foreign sounds. mimeo, university of amsterdam. b. ( 1977 ). the comparative study of first and second language acquisition. paper read at sixth annual university of wisconsin - milwaukee linguistics symposium on h. h. ( 1975 ). what can we learn from the good language learner? canadian modern language review, 31, e. ( 1976 ). some influences on interlanguage phonology. working papers in bilingualism, 8, b. p. ( 1975 ). the use of overgeneralization and transfer learning strategies by elementary


review, 31, e. ( 1976 ). some influences on interlanguage phonology. working papers in bilingualism, 8, b. p. ( 1975 ). the use of overgeneralization and transfer learning strategies by elementary and intermediate students of esl. ll, 25, i. ( 1971 ). how are words from two languages organized in a bilingual ' s memory? canadian journal of psychology, 23, r. v. ( 1975 ). piagetian equilibration processes in syntax learning. in d. p. dato ( ed. ), developmental psycholinguistics : theory and application. georgetown university press. ( georgetown university round table. ) a. ( 1975 ). error analysis and pedagogical ordering and the determination of pedagogically motivated sequences. in s. p. corder & e. roulet ( eds. ), some implications of linguistic theory for applied linguistics. brussels : j. a., doughtie, e. g. & lee yom, b. h. ( 1974 ). the identification of structural components of an unknown language. journal of psycholinguistic research, 3, l. ( 1977 ). error analysis and error correction in adult learners of english as a second language, working papers in bilingualism, 13, h. ( 1976a ). redding - > [ wedin ] : the acquisition of l2 / r /. arbeitspapiere zum spracherwerb, 11. department, university of kiel. h. ( 19766 ). developmental sequences in naturalistic l2 acquisition. working papers in bilingualism, 11, young, r. w. ( 1973 ). the development of semantic categories in spanish - english and navajo - english bilingual children. in p. t. turner ( ed. ), bilingualism in the south west. tucson : university of arizona press


directional control valves are the most widely used... and the least understood... valves in fluid power circuits. many people are confused by the schematic symbol representations, and have difficulty understanding the terms ways, positions, and operators. learning to read schematic drawings is similar to learning a foreign language. to the trained eye, a symbol speaks volumes even when no words are present. this chapter attempts to take away some of the confusion and apparent magic of fluid power schematic drawings, and thus help make designing and maintaining fluid power systems easier. directional control valves can only perform three functions : - stop or block fluid flow - allow fluid flow, and - change direction of fluid flow. at first glance, the valve type shown in figure 10 - 1 does not appear to be a directional control valve. however, check valves do allow flow in one direction and block flow the opposite direction. use a check valve in any line where back flow cannot be tolerated. also pilot - operated check valves ( discussed in the next section ) can be shifted by an external source to allow reverse flow or stop free flow. the cross - sectional views show the standard poppet design used in most check valves. as in most early designs, the symbol still pictures a ball on a seat. ball check valves work well until they are disassembled for repair or when troubleshooting. as these valves operate, they wear a groove where the ball contacts the seat. if this wear groove is not reinstalled exactly where it was, the valve is no longer leak free. on the other hand, a guided poppet always goes back in the same relationship to the seat and seals easily after reassembly. it is easy to understand the function of a check valve. fluid entering opposite a spring pushes against the poppet and spring to move it out of the way. the inline valve has holes around the angled seat face above the body seat to allow flow to pass. the right - angle design pushes the poppet out of the way and fluid flows by with little restriction. check valves are almost trouble - free devices. seldom is one the cause of a problem. potential problems can be minimized further if the check valves are : right - angle types, screw - in cartridges, or subplate mounted. note that an inline check valve ’ s plumbing must be disassembled before the valve can be checked. check valves also can control pressure. almost all check valves use a spring to return the poppet. in most valves, this spring has very


note that an inline check valve ’ s plumbing must be disassembled before the valve can be checked. check valves also can control pressure. almost all check valves use a spring to return the poppet. in most valves, this spring has very light force, because any spring force results in an energy loss and heat. the light springs from most suppliers require about 5 psi to move the poppet against them ( some go as low as 1 psi ). some large check valves, when they are mounted vertically, may require no spring because the weight of the poppet causes it to fall onto its seat. strong springs give extra resistance to flow so a check valve could replace a relief valve when low - pressure bypass is required. many manufacturers have check valves with springs that require as much as 125 psi to push their poppets back. these valves work for low - pressure circuits such as a bypass around a low - pressure filter or heat exchanger, or to maintain minimum pilot pressure for pilot - operated directional control valves. when the spring functions as a backpressure or relief valve, the symbol usually shows the spring as part of the symbol. another lesser - known use for check valves is as a fixed - orifice flow - control function. figure 10 - 2 shows an inline check valve with an orifice drilled through the poppet. the orifice allows free flow in one direction and measured flow the opposite way. the orifice is non - adjustable, so this component is tamper proof. the only way to change actuator speed is to physically change the orifice size. this orificed check valve could protect an actuator that might run away if a line broke or a valve malfunctioned. it will not affect speed in the opposite direction. for this application it should be flange fitted or hard piped directly to the actuator port. pilot - operated check valves the check valves in figure 10 - 3 operate like standard check valves, but can permit reverse flow when required. they are called pilot - to - open check valves because they are normally closed but can be opened for reverse flow by a signal from an external pilot supply. the first cutaway view of a pilot - to - open check valve in figure 10 - 3 is a standard design using a pilot piston with a stem to unseat the check valve poppet for reverse flow. the pilot piston has an area three to four times that of the poppet seat. this produces enough force to open the poppet against backpressure. some pilot


piston with a stem to unseat the check valve poppet for reverse flow. the pilot piston has an area three to four times that of the poppet seat. this produces enough force to open the poppet against backpressure. some pilot - operated check valves have area ratios up to 100 : 1, allowing a very low pilot pressure to open the valve against high backpressure. the second valve in figure 10 - 3 shows a pilot - to - open with decompression function. it has a small, inner decompression poppet that allows low pilot pressure to open a small flow passage to reduce backpressure. after releasing high backpressure, the pilot piston can easily open the main poppet for full flow to tank. ( this arrangement does not work when the high backpressure is load - induced or generated by other continuous forces. ) the third valve, pilot - operated with external drain, isolates the stem side of the pilot piston from the in free - flow port backpressure that would resist pilot pressure trying to open the poppet. notice that in the other two cutaway views, any pressure in the in free - flow port pushes against the pilot piston stem side and resists pilot pressure ’ s attempt to open the poppet. backpressure could be from a downstream flow control or counterbalance valve in some circuits. the external - drain port also can be used to make the pilot piston return when using the valve for a pilot - operated 2 - way function. the circuit in figure 10 - 4 shows a typical application for pilot - operated check valves. spool - type directional control valves cannot keep a cylinder from moving from a mid - stroke position for any length of time. all spool valves allow some bypass, so a cylinder with an outside force working against it slowly moves out of position when stopped. installing pilot - operated check valves in the cylinder lines and connecting the directional valve ’ s a and b ports to tank in center position assures that the cylinder will stay where it stops ( unless the piston seals leak ). the circuit in figure 10 - 5 shows a pilot - operated check valve holding a load on the rod end of a vertically mounted cylinder. pilot - operated check valves can hold potential runaway loads in place without creep, but this circuit usually has problems on the extend stroke. this is because a pilot - operated check valve opens the rod end of the cylinder to tank, letting it run away. when the cylinder moves faster than the pump can fill it, pressure in the cap


this circuit usually has problems on the extend stroke. this is because a pilot - operated check valve opens the rod end of the cylinder to tank, letting it run away. when the cylinder moves faster than the pump can fill it, pressure in the cap end and pilot pressure to the pilot - operated check valve ’ s pilot port drops and the valve closes quickly. this can generate high - pressure spikes that may cause pipe and part damage. almost immediately, pressure to the pilot - operated check valve ’ s pilot port builds again and the runaway / stop scenario repeats until the cylinder meets resistance or something fails. the best valve to control runaway loads is the counterbalance valve explained in chapter 14. figure 10 - 6 illustrates another problem with using a pilot - operated check valve to hold back a runaway load : a pilot - operated check valve may not open when signaled to let a cylinder with an oversize rod and heavy load extend. when the directional valve shifts to extend the cylinder, load - induced pressure can hold the pilot - operated check valve poppet closed. it may take 300 to 400 psi to force the poppet open, even with its 3 : 1 or 4 : 1 area difference. pressure builds at the pilot port, but at the same time it increases in the cylinder cap end. with a 2 : 1 rod - differential cylinder, it can add 600 to 800 psi to the load - induced pressure. the additional downward force causes pilot pressure to increase, which causes more downward force, which causes more pilot pressure - - until the circuit reaches maximum pressure. at that point, the relief valve bypasses or the pump compensator kicks in to stop flow. the cylinder simply cannot start to extend... and even if it could, the action would be erratic, as in figure 10 - 5. pilot - to - close check valves there is also a pilot - to - close check valve, but it is seldom used. it is rarely necessary to have a valve that always stops flow in one direction and also is capable of stopping it the opposite direction. notice in the cutaway view in figure 10 - 7 that the spring - loaded poppet does not have communicating holes through it to the spring chamber. flow passes freely from inlet to outlet until a pilot signal is fed to the pilot port. because the pilot port side of the main - flow poppet has more area than the inlet side, this valve can be closed against free flow. part 2


dossi, dosso ( giovanni luteri ) ( c. 1490? - 1542 ). the outstanding painter of the ferrarese school in the 16th century. his early life and training are obscure, but vasari ' s assertion that he was born around 1474 is now thought unlikely. he is first recorded in 1512 at mantua ( the name ` dosso ' probably comes from a place near mantua - - he is not called ` dosso dossi ' until the 18th century ). by 1514 he was in ferrara, where he spent most of the rest of his career, combining with the poet ariosto in devising court entertainments, triumphs, tapestries, etc. dosso painted various kinds of pictures - - mythological and religious works, portraits, and decorative frescos - - and is perhaps most important for the part played in his work by landscape, in which he continues the romantic pastoral vein of giorgione and titian. the influence from these two artists is indeed so strong that it is thought he must have been in venice early in his career. dosso ' s work, however, has a personal quality of fantasy and an opulent sense of color and texture that gives it an individual stamp ( melissa, borghese galleria, rome, c. 1523 ). his brother battista dossi ( c. 1497 - 1548 ) often collaborated with him, but there is insufficient evidence to know whether he made an individual contribution. photographs by carol gerten - jackson.


however, wetlands along desert rivers are incredibly important for wildlife : for water, for fresh forage, for a place to escape the often harsh weather on canyon rims. on the 45 ranch, set deep in one of the most remote corners of the owyhee canyonlands of southwestern idaho, a new restoration project is returning wetlands to wildlife. conservation buyers charles conn and dennis fitzpatrick bought the ranch from the nature conservancy in 2005, with the goal of funding conservation and restoration work on the ranch. “ the owners had a vision to return the river bottom on their ranch to wetlands, ” says art talsma, the conservancy ’ s director of stewardship. “ it ’ s one of the largest river bottoms along the owyhee river, so it ’ s difficult to overstate how important it is to wildlife. ” the owners and the conservancy worked with geoengineers, a boise firm specializing in river restoration, to restore 26 acres of wetlands and 45 acres of native grasses to the river bottom. royce construction handled the on - the - ground developments. the project has already garnered awards for its engineering, including recognition by the american council of engineering companies and the owyhee conservation district. for the river ( pictured above ), it means the opportunity to behave more like a wild river — including moving from its channel and periodically flooding. for bighorn sheep, mule deer and sage grouse, it means a place to rest, to feed, to hide and to take cover from harsh weather. for waterfowl and other birds, the wetlands mean a place to rest in the middle of the harsh desert on a long migration. for rafters, it means a quieter float. previously, the agricultural field was irrigated with a diesel generator, which also generated unwelcome noise for rafters on one of the country ’ s most remote rivers. the wetlands project is watered solely through gravity and now saves energy, too.


mit ’ s technology review featured professor catherine klapperich ’ s snap device, co - developed as an iih project, to purify dna in the field. snap ( system for nucleic acid preparation ) is able to purify dna from field samples such as blood and saliva without any electricity or specialized training. this allows samples to be collected in the field, and stabilized without expensive refrigeration. by isolating dna from the sample, the resulting material remains stable at room temperature for long periods of time. “ instead of taking blood samples and keeping them cold, with our technology, they would be able to prepare all the samples at the point of care, ” says klapperich, an assistant professor of mechanical and biomedical engineering at boston university. “ they would also have a longer period of time to get a much more preserved sample to a central lab someplace else. ” a standard bicycle pump is all that ’ s required to power a dna purifying kit, designed by catherine klapperich and her students at boston university. the thermos - size device, dubbed snap ( system for nucleic acid preparation ), extracts genetic material from blood and other bodily fluids by pumping fluid through a polymer - lined straw designed to trap dna. a user can then pop the straw out and mail it to the nearest lab, where the preserved dna can be analyzed for suspicious bacteria, viruses, and genetic diseases. more at technology review


photo : elaine faith ( flickr ) if your hair drier shrunk your head to the size of a grapefruit, you ’ d be astounded. if your wool pants shrank in the drier, you ’ d be angry but not amazed. how can clothing disobey the laws of common sense, and shrink in the laundry? what happens in the laundry? to understand why this happens, we need to take a closer look at the microscopic structure of natural fibers like wool. each thready strand you can see is composed of millions of long, tangled molecules called “ polymer chains. ” microscopically, these start out coiled like miniature, tangled springs, something like a mass of tangled telephone cords. these curly molecules are stretched and straightened as the wool is carded and spun. in your pants, the straightened polymer chains have a natural tendency to spring back to their original, tightly - coiled state. fortunately for clothing manufacturers, it ’ s not exactly easy for the natural fibers to do this. in order to curl back up, they need a certain amount of energy. it ’ s hard to picture this, because we ’ re used to springs bouncing back to their original shape as soon as we take the tension off them. these microscopic springs don ’ t work that way though – they stay stretched out until they get a boost of energy to help them scrunch back up. hot drier or hot water running your pants through a hot drier, or washing them with hot water, can give them the energy they need to spring back. when this microscopic scrunching up happens all over the fabric, your pants shrink.


ramshackle barns exhorting passers - by to “ treat [ themselves ] to the best ” have become a familiar element of road - trip vernacular. those wandering down indiana ’ s scenic routes, or browsing around the courthouse square in certain county seats are sure to encounter the fading call to action – “ chew mail pouch tobacco ”. soon after the product ’ s birth in wheeling, west virginia around 1900, its makers launched a national advertising campaign that focused on rural areas in the midwest. chewing tobacco was especially convenient for the large number of farmers in the hoosier state whose daily routine limited their opportunities to smoke. indiana farmers were targeted not only as mail pouch customers, but partners in what became a century - long marketing campaign. in exchange for a small sum ( usually under ten dollars ), a yearlong supply of tobacco, or a magazine subscription, a farmer would agree to have the company ’ s slogan painted on his barn. having at least one side of a barn painted for free provided additional incentive. regionally - contracted two - man painting crews knocked out two to three barns a day, working for commissions that compensated them by the square foot. other signs were painted on the brick walls of corner buildings visible from the state ’ s county courthouses. each advertisement was signed and dated. a common set of initials — h.. e. w. — indicates that the sign was the work of harley warrick, an ohio native who painted around twenty thousand barns in twenty states for the mail pouch firm, never utilizing stencils or modern scaffolding. “ name an indiana town of any size, ” warrick claimed, “ and i ’ ve been there. ” the federal highway beautification act of 1965, prohibiting highway signage closer than 660 feet from the roadway, resulted in many of the mail pouch barns to be painted over. the advertising campaign was further weakened as the burgeoning interstate highway system reduced traffic on the state roads from which the barns were visible. mail pouch signs all but went the way of burma shave by 1969. in 1974, however, congress made an exception for commercial signs of historic significance, and warrick, the firm ’ s only remaining sign painter, went about restoring mail pouch signs around the country — completing major projects in the indiana towns of redkey and lanesville. with increasing societal consciousness of the health hazards of tobacco, mail pouch ended its legendary ad campaign upon warrick ’ s retirement, in 1996. some landowners who have mail pouch barns on their property choose to maintain them, while


the pocket gophers are burrowing rodents of the family geomyidae. these are the “ true ” gophers, though several ground squirrels of the family sciuridae are often called gophers as well. the name “ pocket gopher ” on its own may be used to refer to any of a number of subspecies of the family. pocket gophers are widely distributed in north america, extending into central america. gophers are heavily built, and most are 12 to 30 cm ( 4. 7 to 12 in ) long, weighing a few hundred grams. a few species reach weights approaching 1 kg ( 2. 2 lb ). within any species, the males are larger than the females and can be nearly double their weight. most gophers have brown fur that often closely matches the color of the soil in which they live. their most characteristic features are their large cheek pouches, from which the word “ pocket ” in their name derives. these pouches are fur - lined, and can be turned inside out. they extend from the side of the mouth well back onto the shoulders. they have small eyes and a short, hairy tail, which they use to feel around tunnels when they walk backwards. all pocket gophers are burrowers. they are larder hoarders, and their cheek pouches are used for transporting food back to their burrows. gophers can collect large hoards. their presence is unambiguously announced by the appearance of mounds of fresh dirt about 20 cm ( 7. 9 in ) in diameter. these mounds will often appear in vegetable gardens, lawns, or farms, as gophers like moist soil ( see soil biomantle ). they also enjoy feeding on vegetables. for this reason, some species are considered agricultural pests. they may also damage trees in forests. although they will attempt to flee when threatened, they may attack other animals, including cats and humans, and can inflict serious bites with their long, sharp teeth. pocket gophers are solitary outside of the breeding season, aggressively maintaining territories that vary in size depending on the resources available. males and females may share some burrows and nesting chambers if their territories border each other, but in general, each pocket gopher inhabits its own individual tunnel system. depending on the species and local conditions, pocket gophers may have a specific annual breeding season, or may breed repeatedly through the year. each litter typically consists of two to five young, although this may be much higher in some species


our work in room 7 concentrated on the conservation and removal of the large piece of plaster that was found in early 1980s. one of the biggest surprises was that we found a great number of schist slabs and pieces of limestone under the plaster. it is obvious that these stones made up the paved floor of the second story, which was preserved to a great extent some centimeters above the ground floor. the plaster we discovered on top of these stones likely once covered the paved floor. the excavation of room 8 had started in 2006. this year, we uncovered three pieces of limestone and two schist slabs, among them a complete handle - less conical cup. across the east wall, we collected several pieces of white plaster with traces of black and red color. also, we found some burnt wood, bones, and sherds, as well as a few crumbs of bronze. we continued to excavate at a lower level, where we uncovered a one - handled hemispherical cup, jug, open vessel, and some pieces of plaster. as usual, we found carbonized wood and bones. in addition, we uncovered a course of upright limestone across the western part of the south wall of the room. we are certain that these stones were intentionally positioned here in order to form a structure, which, however, we cannot yet identify. across the rest of the south wall were several pieces of limestone that had fallen vertically. it seems that they came from some kind of structure, such as shelves on the same wall, or they may have fallen from the upper story. a socket at the southern part of the west wall may have facilitated the positioning of a wooden beam. we collected more pieces of white plaster, some of which had red paint. it is probable that these courses of stones, found across the south wall, are somehow related. as the excavation extended into the other parts of the room, we collected more pieces of white plaster and charcoal. the excavation of room 15 had started in the 1980s, and continued during 2006 with the removal of the upper fill. this year, we removed the lower fill and uncovered numerous pieces of limestone and schist slabs. the fallen masonry was mainly concentrated in the western part of the room, whereas the eastern part was distinguished by a large, complete pithos and part of the floor of the upper story. the latter was well preserved on the top of the pithos. the excavation gradually revealed the lower part of the inner walls. two small rectangular gaps in the masonry may indicate the existence of niches.