. later that year, he transferred to naca ’ s high - speed flight station ( today, nasa ’ s dryden flight research centre ) at edwards air force base in california as an aeronautical research scientist, and then as a pilot. he was a test pilot on many pioneering high - speed aircraft, including the 4, 000mph x - 15. he flew over 200 different models of aircraft, including jets, rockets, helicopters and gliders. armstrong was engaged in both piloting and engineering aspects of the x - 15 programme from its inception. he completed the first flight in the aircraft equipped with a new self - adaptive flight control system and made seven flights in the rocket plane. in 1962 he was of the nine test pilots chosen by nasa for its second astronaut - training programme. here ’ s a round - up of some of the reactions from the twitterverse — : a flash of some of the reactions as the space community reacts to news of armstrong ’ s death armstrong ’ s reticence to make public appearances or give interviews means that, for many americans, their sole memory of armstrong was his trip to the moon. on a related note, it also made his autograph one of the most valuable in the memorabilia market, ahead of queen elizabeth ii, paul mccartney and muhammad ali. in 2010, our sister publication air and space ‘ s mike klesius reported : according to his biography, [ armstrong ] signed anything he was asked to for the first fifteen or so years after the moon landing. then, dealers of collectibles began misrepresenting themselves as school teachers or children, asking for signed photos by mail. by 1993, armstrong saw that forgeries of his signature were being sold on the internet, and stopped giving his autograph, advice that charles lindbergh had given him in september 1969 at a banquet of the society of experimental test pilots. nonetheless, armstrong ’ s autograph, according to paul fraser collectibles of the united kingdom, is the most valuable in the world, and fetches more than $ 7, 500 these days in 2010, owen edwards wrote in smithsonian about the model of the eagle lunar lander, on view at the national air and space museum on the mall : today, visitors to the apollo exhibition witness an artifact that looks — with a little help from artful curators — much as eagle looked when it made that giant leap 40 years ago. when buzz aldrin radioed back to us riveted earthlings that “ this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity


by janet helm ms, rd we make about 200 daily food decisions. yet, many people are not fully focused on these choices, and they ’ re unaware that lots of small things influence what they eat – including plate size, package size, people around us, and distractions, such as watching tv or working on the computer. it ’ s what cornell researcher brian wansink calls mindless eating. it turns out, we don ’ t have our mind on a lot of the choices we make throughout the day. a study conducted at duke university found that more than 40 percent of the actions people perform each day aren ’ t actual decisions, but habits. the habits we form impact so many parts of our lives, including what we put in our mouths. that ’ s the subject of a fascinating book called “ the power of habit : why we do what we do and how to change it ” by charles duhigg. before you can break a bad habit and create more positive, health - promoting behaviors you need to understand how habits work, according to duhigg, who says habits emerge because the brain is constantly looking for ways to save effort. left to its own devices, he says, the brain will try to make almost any regular routine into a habit because habits allow our minds to ramp down more often. habits become automatic decisions that don ’ t require us to think. we ’ re just on autopilot. they just become part of our routine. to be created, habits need three things : a cue or trigger that gets us started, a behavior, and a reward. it ’ s that reward that we begin to crave, and that ’ s what fuels this “ habit loop. ” so when a habit begins to start for you, it means your brain stops fully participating in decision making. it stops working so hard, or diverts focus to other tasks. unless you deliberately fight a bad habit – unless you find new, healthier routines – the pattern will unfold automatically. you can begin to break your habit loops when you start recognizing the triggers that get you shifting into automatic gear. or perhaps it means finding new cues and rewards to help you stick to your intentions. a habit can ’ t be fully eradicated, but it can be replaced, duhigg says. if we keep the same cue and the same reward, a new routine can be inserted. to keep a habit changed, you need to believe that change is possible. that ’ s what social scientists call self - efficacy. you need to believe that


| quick facts : forest and conservation technicians | | 2010 median pay | | $ 33, 390 per year $ 16. 05 per hour | entry - level education | | associate ’ s degree | | work experience in a related occupation | | none | | number of jobs, 2010 | | 36, 500 | | job outlook, 2010 - 20 | | - 1 % ( little or no change ) | | employment change, 2010 - 20 | | - 400 | forest and conservation technicians measure and improve the quality of forests, rangeland, and other natural areas. forest and conservation technicians typically work outdoors, sometimes in remote locations. forest and conservation technicians typically need an associate ’ s degree in a forest technology or technician program or in a related field. employers look for technicians who have a degree that is accredited by the society of american foresters ( saf ). the median annual wage of forest and conservation technicians was $ 33, 390 in may 2010. employment of forest and conservation technicians is expected to experience little or no change from 2010 to 2020. heightened demand for american timber and wood pellets will help increase overall job prospects for forest and conservation technicians. compare the job duties, education, job growth, and pay of forest and conservation technicians with similar occupations. o * net provides comprehensive information on key characteristics of workers and occupations. learn more about forest and conservation technicians by contacting these additional resources.


our changing ocean vast and powerful though the ocean is people have changed it. it ’ s a different ocean now. the ocean ’ s enduring surface beauty hides its plight. but the ocean today is a diminished version of a much healthier ocean of not so long ago. the ocean is the source of about half the oxygen we breathe, much of the water we drink, and much of the food we eat. ( if you don ’ t eat fish, consider this : about a third of the world fish catch gets made into feed for chickens, pigs, and other livestock. ) changes to the ocean undermine the health and well - being of people and wildlife worldwide. these changes include depletion from overfishing, warming, ocean acidification caused by the same carbon dioxide that is warming the atmosphere and the upper sea, chemical pollution, plastic debris, loss of wetlands, coastal mangrove forests, and coral reefs, and invasive species. each of these alone is serious. can any particular part of the oceans survive these things happening all at once? the answer is : “ it depends. ” there is still time to reverse course and restore the ocean to a healthy balance. many dedicated people and organizations, including blue ocean institute, are working actively to solve the oceans ’ problems. be a part of this hopeful work. jump in and help save the oceans! dive into our issues section to learn more. being knowledgeable will help you decide what part of the solution is just for you. why the oceans? simple : the ocean supports life on this planet. it feeds us, produces the oxygen we breathe, maintains our climate, cycles vital nutrients through countless ecosystems and provides food and medicines. the ocean provides jobs, food, energy, and recreation. as if that weren ’ t enough, the ocean is beautiful and inspiring. and that would be enough. people climate change is the defining environmental issue of our time and our children ’ s time. into one crowded elevator go conservation of nature, human health, the prospects for agriculture, international stability, national security, and of course energy policy and technology. climate change reflects our intensifying presence on the surface of this planet. it wraps together everything carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels is changing the oceans ’ chemistry. this is ocean acidification. the head of the national oceanic and atmospheric administration calls ocean acidification global warming ’ s equally evil twin. the oceans are absorbing up to a million tons of carbon dioxide every hour. the good news : less carbon dioxide in the air carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels is not only


oceanic and atmospheric administration calls ocean acidification global warming ’ s equally evil twin. the oceans are absorbing up to a million tons of carbon dioxide every hour. the good news : less carbon dioxide in the air carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels is not only changing the oceans ’ chemistry and warming the atmosphere, it is also warming the oceans. there ’ s a third more carbon dioxide in the air than at the start of the industrial revolution. the carbon acts like insulation in the atmosphere, or like glass in a greenhouse — overfishing is depleting the world ’ s oceans and having a negative impact on marine biodiversity and on human health, welfare, and prosperity. links to more complete info in our fish as food section. in the ocean, little fish play a big role. small fish like sardines and anchovies are some of the most important fish in the sea. fish such as herring, anchovies, menhaden, and sardines feed mostly on plankton all their lives. they supply calories and nourishment ( food! ) for many top predators including cod, tuna, salmon, and invasive marine species invasive species are animals and plants that hitchhike or ride along to places where they are not normally found. in their new homes, invasive species can sometimes create big problems for native species and ecosystems. the main source of marine invasive species is the global shipping industry, specifically through ballast water. species can also be marine debris comes from everyone and every source that makes every kind of garbage. tons of trash from both land – up to 80 percent — and ships constantly finds its way to the sea. much of this marine debris does not go away ; it cannot dissolve and it lasts in the oceans for many coastal habitat loss homes, jetties, seawalls, canals, and other structures built on beaches or wetlands often destroy habitat for sea turtles, birds, fish, and other sea life. salt and tidal marshes, wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs also suffer when development is unsustainable. wetlands, mangroves and sea grasses are valuable natural resources as they hold sediment and nutrients, filter in addition to carbon dioxide, mercury, and marine debris, which are types of pollution, other man made pollutants constantly enter the oceans from a range of sources. these include oil, fertilizers, toxic chemicals, and sewage. oil & chemicals oil spills may be the most infamous pollutant because popular media often vividly shows dramatic damage. the aquaculture – farmed seafood aqua


the core teaching of buddhism is dependent origination by zen master jongbeom sunim what is the truth buddhism expounds? what are its foundational teachings? these are essential questions for the newcomer. in a nutshell, buddhism teaches dependent origination and the middle way. these two principles form the core of buddhist philosophy - dependent origination explains the principle of buddhism, while the middle way defines the practice of buddhism. gautama buddha was enlightened to the principle of dependent origination, and then for the rest of his life he taught students the practice of the middle way. this was lord buddha ¡ succinct explanation : ¡ °whoever sees dependent origination sees the dharma ; whoever sees the dharma sees dependent origination. ¡ ± what is dependent origination? according to the principle of dependent origination, everything in the universe, including objects, ideas, beings, events, and processes, depends on numerous causes and conditions. nothing ever exists entirely alone or independently of others. because causes and conditions exist, there are effects. with dependent origination, ¡ °if there is this, then there is that ; with the arising of this, that arises. everything is interconnected : there is nothing separate, nothing standing alone. things arise depending on other conditions, and then coexist with others for a while, and then disappear depending on other things. all beings are in causal relationships, for example buddhas with sentient beings, monastic with lay communities, the wise with the foolish, and parents with their children. causes and conditions dependent origination came to be used interchangeably with ¡ °causes and conditions, ¡ ± and then with ¡ °cause and effect. ¡ ± in a world of dependent origination both physical and mental things arise from dependence on causal conditions. nothing can exist outside of cause - effect linkages. the present arises from the causal conditions of the past, and the past from the further past. the link of these causal conditions extends endlessly to the past and to the future. therefore, we need to see clearly the significance of causal conditions in our lives. buddhists often talk about impermanence. all things appear and disappear because of the concurrence of causes and conditions. this is why the causal - conditional phenomena are said to be impermanent. for this reason buddhism teaches us to be attached neither to existence nor to non - existence. when the smoke blows west, we feel the wind blow west, and when the smoke blows east, we feel the wind


are said to be impermanent. for this reason buddhism teaches us to be attached neither to existence nor to non - existence. when the smoke blows west, we feel the wind blow west, and when the smoke blows east, we feel the wind blow east. likewise, when you encounter good causal conditions, you could conclude, ¡ °i must have created good causal conditions in my previous lives. ¡ ± the buddha ¡ teaching is free of the slightest error. if we are in evil causal conditions, we should get out of them as soon as possible and approach good ones. lord buddha said that even the buddhas cannot save those to whom they are not linked causally. therefore, we should refrain from making bad causes and conditions and strive to make good ones. the twelve links of dependent origination lord buddha said all our sorrow, physical pain, mental agony, and suffering arise from the twelve causal conditions. let us examine each one in sequential order. ¨c ignorance ( avidya - ) : the sanskrit word ¡ °avidya - ¡ ± literally means ¡ °no illumination. ¡ ± we cannot readily find our way in the dark. likewise, when our mind is not illuminated, we tend to judge a wrong thought as a right one. ¨e formations ( sam. ska - ra ) : once ignorance causes us to confuse wrong with right, attachment arises. then we try to give concrete form to the concept we get attached to. that is, with ignorance as condition, mental formations arise. ¨e consciousness ( vijn ~ ana ) : when an object takes form by our actions, we tend to discern it. there is the consciousness of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking. that is, with mental formations as condition, consciousness arises. ¨e name and form ( namarupa ) : when we discern an object through our consciousness, we tend to judge if it is a material or nonmaterial being. ¡ °name ¡ ± describes non - materiality and ¡ °form ¡ ± materiality. that is, with consciousness as condition, name and form arise. ¨e six sense gates ( s. ad. a - yatana ) : when we judge an object as a material or non - material being using name and form, then we have a renewed perception of it through our six sense gates of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. that is, with name and form as condition, six sense gates arise. from this moment we begin to see, hear,


we have a renewed perception of it through our six sense gates of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. that is, with name and form as condition, six sense gates arise. from this moment we begin to see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think, and we are aware of things as they happen. ¨i contact ( spars ¡ ca ) : when we perceive an object through our six sense gates, we conceive of six - sense objects such as visible objects, sound, odor, taste, touch, and mental objects. in other words, we see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think. contact is the encounter between the sense gates and the sensory information. that is, with six sense gates as condition, contact arises. ¨i feeling ( vedana - ) : when there arises shape, sound, smell, taste, touch and thought of an object through contact, then one or more out of the following three feelings arise - pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral ( neither pleasant nor unpleasant ). all the objects we perceive in this world can generate one or more of these three feelings. with contact as condition, feeling arises. ¨i craving ( tr. s. n. a - ) : when one or more of the pleasant, unpleasant and neutral feelings arise depending on feeling, we crave only for the objects that give us the pleasant feeling. even when the objects are not the ones that can give us pleasure, we pour in blind love to make those objects render pleasure. that is, with feeling as condition, craving arises. this craving is far from buddha ¡ compassion, but rather close to love based on greed and hunger. ¨i clinging ( upa - da - na ) : in response to craving we attach to and pour our love on an object. when this object gives us a pleasant feeling, then naturally we engage in some kind of action to possess it. that is, with craving as condition, clinging arises. ¨ð becoming ( bhava ) : in response to clinging we try to possess the object of pleasure. that is, with clinging as condition, becoming arises. we get to possess a certain material, object or feeling. all the objects in the world did not start out having existence from the beginning, but were made to exist because of clinging. this is called the process of becoming - becoming someone or something other than what is. ¨n birth ( jati ) : when we get to possess a certain object or feeling in response to clinging, an


but were made to exist because of clinging. this is called the process of becoming - becoming someone or something other than what is. ¨n birth ( jati ) : when we get to possess a certain object or feeling in response to clinging, an object or thought has been generated. consequently, birth refers to the birth of all beings. ideas can also be birthed. that is, with becoming as a condition, birth arises. ¨o aging and dying ( jara - maran. a ) : when an object comes into existence in response to birth, it will also inevitably age and die. this process is not limited to the aging and dying of the body but encompasses the suffering coming from the thought that we are born, age, and die. whether form or formless, if a thought arises and then disappears, from the perspective of dependent origination it had a birth, lifespan, and death. that is, with birth as condition, aging and dying arise. what we can learn from dependent origination buddhism emphasizes the importance of efforts we make at this very moment. if we put in wholesome work at this moment, we will reap wholesome results, and if we put in unwholesome work, we will reap unwholesome results. therefore, rather than begging or wishing for things from a third party, we should be mindful of the frame of mind we inhabit and the actions we produce in this moment. then the frame of mind and action will naturally make their own results. as there can be no effect without a cause, there cannot be people we start out loving or hating from the beginning. an object or situation of confrontation will create the conditions for love or hate. therefore, we should be introspective rather than blaming or hating others. we should think of others ¡ hard work instead of raising the self on a pedestal. this is the buddhist way, and the path on which we practice the truth of dependent origination as taught by lord buddha.


each year thousands of canadian students make the life - altering decision to drop out of high school, thereby not realizing the unlimited potential that exists inside. in most cases, this seemingly simple and personal decision puts our youth on a downward spiral that affects us all. not allowing their full potential to be unleashed leads to lower wages, higher unemployment, a diminished tax base, higher rates of poverty, and greater dependency on social assistance. there is an imbalance. dropout rates in low - income communities are as high as 60 - 70 per cent, compared to the national average of 20 - 30 per cent. pathways to education canada is a charitable organization that helps youth in low - income communities graduate from high school and successfully transition into post - secondary education or training. pathways removes systemic barriers to education by providing leadership, expertise and a community - based program proven to lower dropout rates. founded in 2001, pathways operates in eleven communities across canada, with programs in ontario, quebec, nova scotia and manitoba. there is a strong need for this issue to be communicated across the country in order to raise awareness as well as donations from governments, corporations and individuals in order to grow the program and, in turn, make canada a graduation nation. the pathways to education program aims to reduce the high school dropout rate in low - income communities, help youth graduate and successfully transition into post - secondary education or training. we were tasked with raising the awareness of the program in order to drive participation, volunteers, partners and sponsors. in order to help achieve the goals of pathways to education canada, various communication tactics have been put into place. primarily, we are continually pitching stories about pathways 12 months of the year to both traditional and online media to ensure the multiple facets of the organization are engaged. citizen optimum ’ s key story telling happens around the success stories – the graduates, the new communities and the generous support received by federal and provincial governments and numerous corporate supporters. by finding new and exciting ways to celebrate the organizations success, we have been able to raise its profile, garner a connection between pathways and its supporters and well as the caring communities that participate. since the pathways program started in regent park in 2001, the dropout rate has decreased by more than 70 per cent, with nearly 600 pathways graduates now continuing on to post secondary studies or entering the workforce. even more exciting are the thousands of students in the program today and on track to become yet another pathways success story. as the profile continues to grow, citizen optimum ’ s ongoing story telling program continues to deliver and


chandra " hears " a supermassive black hole in perseus a 53 - hour chandra observation of the central region of the perseus galaxy cluster ( left ) has revealed wavelike features ( right ) that appear to be sound waves. the features were discovered by using a special image - processing technique to bring out subtle changes in brightness. these sound waves are thought to have been produced by explosive events occurring around a supermassive black hole ( bright white spot ) in perseus a, the huge galaxy at the center of the cluster. the pitch of the sound waves translates into the note of b flat, 57 octaves below middle - c. this frequency is over a million billion times deeper than the limits of human hearing, so the sound is much too deep to be heard. the image also shows two vast, bubble - shaped cavities, each about 50 thousand light years wide, extending away from the central supermassive black hole. these cavities, which are bright sources of radio waves, are not really empty, but filled with high - energy particles and magnetic fields. they push the hot x - ray emitting gas aside, creating sound waves that sweep across hundreds of thousands of light years. the detection of intergalactic sound waves may solve the long - standing mystery of why the hot gas in the central regions of the perseus cluster has not cooled over the past ten billion years to form trillions of stars. as sounds waves move through gas, they are eventually absorbed and their energy is converted to heat. in this way, the sound waves from the supermassive black hole in perseus a could keep the cluster gas hot. the explosive activity occurring around the supermassive black hole is probably caused by large amounts of gas falling into it, perhaps from smaller galaxies that are being cannibalized by perseus a. the dark blobs in the central region of the chandra image may be fragments of such a doomed galaxy.


the experiences in new york, washington and the oklahoma city bombing illustrate the tragic impact of a building explosion. we know that the use of explosives can result in collapsed buildings, fires and loss of life. people who live or work in multi - level buildings should : - review emergency evacuation procedures of their building - know where fire exits are located - keep fire extinguishers in working order. know where they are located ; and how to use them. - learn first aid contact the local chapter of the american red cross for additional information. the following items should be kept in a designated place on each floor of any building : - portable, battery - operated radio and extra batteries - several flashlights and extra batteries - first aid kit and manual - several hard hats - fluorescent tape to rope off dangerous areas. during an explosion in a building explosion, get out of the building as quickly and calmly as possible. if items are falling off of bookshelves or from the ceiling, get under a sturdy table or desk. if there is a fire : - stay low to the floor and exit the building as quickly as possible - cover nose and mouth with a wet cloth - when approaching a closed door, use the palm of your hand and forearm to feel the lower, middle and upper parts of the door. if it is not hot, brace yourself against the door and open it slowly. if it is hot to the touch, do not open the door - seek an alternative escape route. - heavy smoke and poisonous gasses collect first along the ceiling. stay below the smoke at all times.


chemistry 109, lectures 1 and 2, fall 2011 university of wisconsin - madison prof. frank keutsch prof. john w. moore there is no need to log in to use this online textbook. it is freely available to anyone before using the textbook, go through the tutorial how to use this site. useful links to bookmark - this page : - chem 109 moodle course management system : http : / / courses. chem. wisc. edu ( requiresuw netid login ) - netorials interactive chemistry tutorials - crc handbook of chemistry and physics constants - chempages laboratory resources online tutorials on laboratory equipment and procedures that the lab manual assigns for viewing before taking pre - lab quizzes. what is the difference between chempaths online resources and the printed textbook? chempaths has been developed as a project of the chemed digital library to bring chemistry to life using interactive molecule viewers, animations and videos. this online textbook is based on the printed textbook chemistry by john w. moore, william g. davies, and ronald w. collins, which was published in 1978. this page is the introduction to the chem 109 - fall 2011 pathway through the online textbook. - a typical textbook comes with online portions through the publisher where you can access multimedia resources, whereas chempaths incorporates these features right into the text itself. - just as you will notice that your daily readings skip around from chapter to chapter in the printed textbook, the same would be true of the online text which has chapters in different orders. this pathway, however, lets you read all the various portion of the textbook assigned in the order designed to coincide with the lecture materials - without skipping around. - all material is covered adequately by both the online text as well as the paper textbook - however you may find that some explanations in one version seem superior to the other. for instance - the online textbook has videos and interactive rotatable molecules. these multimedia advantages are helpful in describing 3d orbitals, molecular structures, and reactions. - both have worked out examples. - both have extra questions ( the paper textbook has them at the end of the chapters, the online resources have additional questions available within the moodle course management system as the ungraded course : chemistry 109 study questions ). - both have tables of useful values. the homework, however, uses the online tables as these are known to be accurate. textbooks go through periodic revisions as values are updated by scientists. these are done faster through the chempath


this section provides primary sources that document how indian and european men and one english and one indian woman have described the practice of sati, or the self - immolation of hindu widows. although they are all critical of self - immolation, francois bernier, fanny parks, lord william bentinck, and rev. england present four different european perspectives on the practice of sati and what it represents about indian culture in general, and the hindu religion and hindu women in particular. they also indicate increasing negativism in european attitudes toward india and the hindu religion in general. it would be useful to compare the attitudes of bentinck and england as representing the secular and sacred aspects of british criticism of sati. a comparison of bentinck ’ s minute with the subsequent legislation also reveals differences in tone between private and public documents of colonial officials. finally, a comparison between the fanny parks and the three men should raise discussion on whether or not the gender and social status of the writer made any difference in his or her appraisal of the practice of self - immolation. the three sources by indian men and one by an indian woman illustrate the diversity of their attitudes toward sati. the marathi source illuminates the material concerns of relatives of the hindu widow who is urged to adopt a son, so as to keep a potentially lucrative office within the extended family. these men are willing to undertake intense and delicate negotiations to secure a suitably related male child who could be adopted. this letter also documents that adoption was a legitimate practice among hindus, and that hindu women as well as men could adopt an heir. ram mohan roy ’ s argument illustrates a rationalist effort to reform hindu customs with the assistance of british legislation. roy illustrates one of the many ways in which indians collaborate with british political power in order to secure change within indian society. he also enabled the british to counter the arguments of orthodox hindus about the scriptural basis for the legitimacy of self - immolation of hindu widows. the petition of the orthodox hindu community in calcutta, the capital of the company ’ s territories in india, documents an early effort of indians to keep the british colonial power from legislating on matters pertaining to the private sphere of indian family life. finally, pandita ramabai reflects the ways in which ancient hindu scriptures and their interpretation continued to dominate debate. students should consider how ramabai ’ s effort to raise funds for her future work among child widows in india might have influenced her discussion of sati. two key issues should be emphasized. first


which ancient hindu scriptures and their interpretation continued to dominate debate. students should consider how ramabai ’ s effort to raise funds for her future work among child widows in india might have influenced her discussion of sati. two key issues should be emphasized. first, both indian supporters and european and indian opponents of the practice of self - immolation argue their positions on the bodies of hindu women, and all the men involved appeal to hindu scriptures to legitimate their support or opposition. second, the voices of indian women were filtered through the sieve of indian and european men and a very few british women until the late 19th century. - how do the written and visual sources portray the hindu women who commit self - immolation? possible aspects range from physical appearance and age, motivation, evidence of physical pain ( that even the most devoted woman must suffer while burning to death ), to any evidence of the agency or autonomy of the hindu widow in deciding to commit sati. are any differences discernible, and if so, do they seem related to gender or nationality of the observer or time period in which they were observed? - how are the brahman priests who preside at the self - immolation portrayed in indian and european sources? what might account for any similarities and differences? - what reasons are used to deter hindu widows from committing sati? what do these reasons reveal about the nature of family life in india and the relationships between men and women? - what do the reasons that orthodox hindus provide to european observers and to indian reformers reveal about the significance of sati for the practice of the hindu religion? what do their arguments reveal about orthodox hindu attitudes toward women and the family? - how are hindu scriptures used in various ways in the debates before and after the prohibition of sati? - what is the tone of the petition from 800 hindus to their british governor? whom do they claim to represent? what is their justification for the ritual of self - immolation? what is their attitude toward the mughal empire whose muslim rulers had preceded the british? what is their characterization of the petitioners toward those hindus who support the prohibition on sati? how do the petitioners envision the proper relationship between the state and the practice of religion among its subjects? - who or what factors do european observers, british officials, and indian opponents of sati hold to be responsible for the continuance of the practice of sati? - what were the reasons that widows gave for committing sati? were they religious, social or material motives? what is


more on what the bible says : believers should seek god, and not a legalistic rule, about how much to give. - 2 corinthians 9 : 7 each man should give what he has decided in his heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for god loves a cheerful giver. ( niv ) giving is meant to be a joyful expression of thanks to god from the heart, and not a legalistic obligation. the value of our offering is not determined by how much we give, but how we give. - mark 12 : 41 - 44 jesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. many rich people threw in large amounts. but a poor widow came and put in two very small copper coins, worth only a fraction of a penny. calling his disciples to him, jesus said, " i tell you the truth, this poor widow has put more into the treasury than all the others. they all gave out of their wealth ; but she, out of her poverty, put in everything — all she had to live on. " ( niv ) the widow ' s offeringi see at least 3 important things about giving in this story of the widow ' s offering : - god values our offerings differently than men do. in god ' s eyes, the value of the offering is not determined by the amount of the offering. the text says that the wealthy gave large amounts, but the widow ' s offering was of much higher value because she gave all that she had. it was a costly sacrifice. note that jesus did not say she put in more than any of the others, he said she put in more than all the others. - our attitude in giving is what is most important to god. the text says jesus " watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury. " jesus observed the people as they gave their offerings, and he watches us today as we give. if we give to be seen by men or with a stingy heart toward god, our offering loses its value. verse 41 says the rich threw in their offerings, further indicating that they gave carelessly with no thought. the widow carefully put in her offering. jesus is more interested and impressed by how we give than what we give. we see this same principle in the story of cain and abel. god evaluated cain and abel ' s offerings. abel ' s offering was pleasing in god ' s eyes, but he rejected cain ' s. rather than giving to god out of


give. we see this same principle in the story of cain and abel. god evaluated cain and abel ' s offerings. abel ' s offering was pleasing in god ' s eyes, but he rejected cain ' s. rather than giving to god out of thankfulness and worship, cain may have presented his offering with evil or selfish intentions. maybe he had hoped to receive some special recognition. no matter what, cain knew what was the right thing to do, but he didn ' t do it. god even gave cain an opportunity to make things right, but he chose not to. this illustrates again that god watches what and how we give. god not only cares about the quality of our gifts to him, but also the manner in which we offer them. - god doesn ' t want us to be overly concerned with how our offering is spent. at the time jesus observed this widow ' s offering, the temple treasury was no doubt being managed by the corrupt religious leaders of that day. but jesus did not mention anywhere in this story that the widow should not have given to the temple. although we should do what we can to ensure that the churches and ministries we give to are good stewards of god ' s money, we can ' t always know for certain that the money we give will be spent correctly. we should not be overly burdened with this concern. nor should we use this as an excuse not to give. it ' s important for us to find a good church that is wisely managing its financial resources for god ' s glory and for the growth of god ' s kingdom. but once we give to god, we don ' t need to worry about what happens to the money. this is god ' s problem to resolve. if a church leader or ministry misuses its funds, god knows how to deal with it. we rob god when we fail to give offerings to him. - malachi 3 : 8 will a man rob god? yet you rob me. but you ask, ' how do we rob you? ' in tithes and offerings. ( niv ) the picture of our financial giving simply reveals a reflection of our lives surrendered to god. - romans 12 : 1 therefore, i urge you, brothers, in view of god ' s mercy, to offer your bodies as living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to god — this is your spiritual act of worship. ( niv ) a challengein conclusion, i ' d like to explain my personal convictions and offer a challenge to my readers. as i ' ve already stated,


living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to god — this is your spiritual act of worship. ( niv ) a challengein conclusion, i ' d like to explain my personal convictions and offer a challenge to my readers. as i ' ve already stated, i believe tithing is no longer the law. we are under no legal obligation to give a tenth of our income. but my husband and i feel strongly that the tithe ought to be the starting point of our giving. we see it as the minimum to give, a demonstration that everything we have belongs to god. my husband and i also believe most of our giving should go to the local church ( the storehouse ) where we are fed god ' s word and nurtured spiritually. malachi 3 : 10 says, " ' bring the whole tithe into the storehouse, that there may be food in my house. test me in this, ' says the lord almighty, ' and see if i will not throw open the floodgates of heaven and pour out so much blessing that there will not be room enough to store it. ' " if you ' re not currently giving to the lord, i challenge you to start by making a commitment. give something faithfully and regularly. i ' m certain god will honor and bless your commitment. if a tenth seems too overwhelming, consider making it a goal. giving may feel like a huge sacrifice at first, but i ' m confident you ' ll eventually discover its rewards. god wants believers to be free from the love of money, which the bible says in 1 timothy 6 : 10 is " a root of all kinds of evil. " giving honors the lord, and allows his work to go forward. it also helps build our faith. we may experience times of financial hardship when we can ' t give as much, but the lord still wants us to trust him in times of lack. he, not our paycheck, is our provider. he will meet our daily needs. a friend of my pastor once told him that financial giving is not god ' s way of raising money — it ' s his way of raising children.


st. petersburg, russia, 6 july, 2012 ( iucn ) – as the number of natural wonders on the world heritage list continues to grow, too many sites are left with little resources to manage them properly and conserve the very values they were inscribed for, say iucn experts. many face a barrage of threats, not least from mining and oil exploration. africa ’ s natural world heritage sites are particularly at risk. over 60 % of west and central african sites are danger listed, and one out of four of these iconic areas are threatened by planned mining and oil and gas projects. this includes virunga national park in the democratic republic of the congo, home to many of the world ’ s last mountain gorillas. the security situation in these sites is precarious, making their management extremely challenging. since 1996 more than 130 rangers have been killed in virunga national park. recently, poachers armed with ak47 rifles attacked a neighbouring world heritage site, the okapi wildlife reserve, and killed seven people, including two rangers. unesco has launched an emergency appeal to raise $ 120, 000 by 20 july to help the families of the victims and support the reserve ( www. justgiving. com / okapi ). “ iucn is deeply saddened by these killings, ” says mariam kenza ali, world heritage conservation officer. “ unless the okapi wildlife reserve receives urgent help, the poachers who perpetrated the killings will have free reign to decimate the largest remaining population of forest elephants in the democratic republic of the congo and to terrorize local communities. ” none of the four natural world heritage sites that iucn recommended for inclusion on the danger list have been added, in what is seen by iucn as a serious set - back for conservation. iucn, the official world heritage advisory body on nature, had recommended that lake turkana national parks in kenya, dja faunal reserve in cameroon, virgin komi forests in russia, and pitons management area in saint lucia be added to the list of world heritage in danger. the world heritage committee rejected all four recommendations. six outstanding natural sites were given world heritage status following the advice of iucn to the annual meeting of the unesco world heritage committee, which ends today in st. t petersburg. sangha trinational - shared between cameroon, the central african republic and the republic of congo ; lakes of ounianga in chad, rock islands southern lagoon in palau, and chengjiang fossil site in china have been inscribed on the world heritage list. lena pillars nature park


shared between cameroon, the central african republic and the republic of congo ; lakes of ounianga in chad, rock islands southern lagoon in palau, and chengjiang fossil site in china have been inscribed on the world heritage list. lena pillars nature park in russia and western ghats in india were also added to the prestigious list by the world heritage committee, a 21 - nation panel. “ this move should mobilise international support for the planet ’ s extraordinary places that are facing serious threats to their conservation, ” says tim badman, director of iucn ’ s world heritage programme. “ international efforts are essential to secure the future of our planet ' s most important natural areas and the life - support services they provide, including clean air, water and livelihoods. ” iucn, the international union for conservation of nature, helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges by supporting scientific research ; managing field projects all over the world ; and bringing governments, ngos, the un, international conventions and companies together to develop policy, laws and best practice. iucn is the independent advisory body to the world heritage committee on natural heritage. www. iucn. org for more information or to set up interviews, please contact : - borjana pervan, iucn media relations, m + 41 79 857 4072, e firstname. lastname @ example. org - brian thomson, iucn media relations, m + 41 79 721 8326, e


" it ' s something i would never have thought of, " said my friend, talking about some pruning her son did in their yard, " but i like it. " my friend ' s son used a thinning cut called skirting, limbing up, or crown raising. my friend is right that most people don ' t consider this particular cut. so what exactly is skirting? cass turnbull, in " guide to pruning, " discusses this simple and effective pruning cut. it is simply to remove the lowest branches of a tree so that it looks less bulky and heavy. the cut should be about 1 / 4 inch above where the original bud began. be careful that you don ' t cut into the trunk and that you don ' t leave a nub. turnbull quotes dr. alex shigo, the renowned research scientist known as the isaac newton of arboriculture, who says, " trunk wood is much different from branch wood. " the trunk houses the tree ' s vascular system. both water and sugar, by means of pipe - like tissues, move up and down through the trunk by zylem, in the center of the tree, and phloem, right under the bark of the tree. understanding how close the phloem are to the bark helps us realize why a cut too far into the trunk can damage a tree permanently because it compromises the tree ' s vascular system. likewise, cutting into a trunk with a weed whacker or a lawn mower can kill a tree over time. skirting, then, removes lower limbs. remember that trees should look like trees, so don ' t limb - up more than one - third the tree ' s visible height. i recently skirted our azara tree because it was looking bulky and because it was cutting too much light from the easter lilies growing beneath it. in an hour ' s time, the tree looked totally different. the shape of the trunk was visible and its structure was both delicate and textured. the tree looked more handsome, just as a man does when his beard and mustache are well - trimmed. i used a felco folding handsaw i purchased at a local nursery, which was much more useful than pruners because of the thick branch diameters. i ' m soon going to tackle a few japanese maples whose branches are dragging on the ground. look around your garden and see which trees could use limbing up. while you have the handsaw in hand, look to see if the


bundelkhand ’ s ravine wastelands. photo : keya acharya / ips bundelkhand, india – narrow, cobblestoned lanes separate the rows of mud houses with cool interiors and mud - smoothened patios, some with goats tethered to the wooden posts. this is tajpura village, deep in this water - stressed, drought - prone region of northern india. an area of stark beauty marked by deep ravines in central india, bundelkhand spans the states of uttar pradesh and madhya pradesh. the ruins of stone fortresses dotting the landscape betray a history of constant warfare just as the remnants of water courses and irrigation systems speak of peaceable and prosperous times gone by. bundelkhand suffers from manmade problems, starting with the government ’ s misplaced land and water policies that have worsened an already stressed climatic situation caused by prolonged droughts and erratic rainfall. air dropping of ‘ prosopis juliflora ’ seeds as a soil - conservation measure in the 1960s resulted in the plant becoming an invasive species that killed indigenous shrubs and trees, making the soft soils of the ravines leach water rapidly and turned vast areas into wastelands. thoughtless promotion by the government of water - intensive crops like mentha ( mint ) encouraged richer farmers to dig deep tube wells while neglecting groundwater recharge, resulting in a disastrous lowering of the water table. marginalised farmers, unable to afford expensive infrastructure and inputs, suffer as groundwater depletion adds to problems caused by the ancient rainwater storage and distribution systems going defunct. drought is now a familiar spectre in this region and less than half of its one million hectare arable spread is now cultivable, causing distress to its mainly farming population of 50 million people. “ what you have is very high water consumption in an area suffering from water crisis, ” says anil singh, coordinator of parmarth, an organisation working to revive traditional systems of water and cropping among marginalised communities that inhabit the ravines of bundelkhand. in tajpura village, as though in denial of bundelkhand ’ s stark conditions, 36 - year - old mamtadevi, wife of ajan singh, serves up a meal of steaming hot chappatis ( indian flat bread ) smeared with clarified butter, a cool, green salad and a dish of smoked brinjal, boiled potato, fresh tomato and green chilli. “ that extra taste in the vegetables is because they are grown sustainably and without chemicals, ” explains mamtade


clarified butter, a cool, green salad and a dish of smoked brinjal, boiled potato, fresh tomato and green chilli. “ that extra taste in the vegetables is because they are grown sustainably and without chemicals, ” explains mamtadevi. ajan singh and mamtadevi were among the first to adopt parmarth ’ s ‘ low external input sustainable agriculture ’ ( leisa ) which is now standing them in good stead as rainfall becomes scantier and average temperatures rises. leisa involves such practices as efficient recycling of nitrogen and other plant nutrients, managing pests through natural means, maintaining ideal soil conditions and ensuring that local farmers are aware of the environment and the value of preserving ecosystems. the soundness of this method shows in the freshness of ajan singh ’ s vegetable crops, in biodiversity conservation through the use of hardy indigenous seeds and avoiding chemicals for maintaining soil health. ajan singh is also able to beat the vagaries of the weather and this year ’ s drought, caused by failure of the monsoons, holds no great terror for him or for other farmers who follow leisa. bhartendu prakash, steering committee member of the organic farmers association of india ( ofai ) and in - charge of its northern branch based in bundelkhand, says the region was hit by frost last winter but organic farmlands using leisa were the least affected. “ i did not know this system previously. i would grow ‘ gehu ’ ( wheat ) and manage 200 - 300 kg on this same plot, ” says ajan singh. parmarth helped the community in contouring the lands for rainwater run - off and storage and constructed a well for irrigation. its volunteers also taught farmers like ajan singh how to make vermicompost and set up pheromone traps to catch insects. most farmers though, already had their own methods of making biopesticide – usually a mix of neem leaves and garlic soaked in buffalo buttermilk. “ but before the pheromone traps were laid, the spraying had to be done once every three days, now once a week is enough, ” says mamtadevi. by 2009, the couple ’ s vegetables had such a reputation for quality that they sold at the local market 10 km away at higher than prevailing rates, earning them nearly 80, 000 indian rupees ( then approximately 1, 800 dollars ) yearly. three years later, ajan singh bought another ‘ bigha ’ ( approximately 2. 2 acres ) of land


km away at higher than prevailing rates, earning them nearly 80, 000 indian rupees ( then approximately 1, 800 dollars ) yearly. three years later, ajan singh bought another ‘ bigha ’ ( approximately 2. 2 acres ) of land. he now takes his produce to two markets and also sells milk from five buffaloes that he bought with his earnings. fifteen more farmers from tajpura are now following ajan singh ’ s methods. along with this, the women of the community have banded together into self - help groups that maintain a savings and loan account to assist women find simple livelihood alternatives like livestock rearing. the women also run a grain bank that sells surplus grain in the open market and give grain free to distressed families in times of need. “ we are now trying to link the community to government schemes wherever possible, such as obtaining sprinklers, and getting some benefit from the state - run bundelkhand relief package which does help with drought - proofing, ” says anil singh who works for parmarth. released in 2009 by the federal government, the package worth 1. 5 billion dollars supports rainwater harvesting, proper utilisation of river systems, irrigation canals and water bodies over a three - year period. but bundelkhand ’ s natural farming methods need to get more support as the funding period comes to an end. “ bundelkhand is too entrenched in northern indian chemical farming methods, ” says ofai ’ s prakash. in contrast, ofai is deluged with requests for training in organic farming methods from farmers in punjab and haryana, the ‘ mother zone ’ of the so - called ‘ green revolution ’ that transformed agriculture in india after introduction in the 1960s. rajesh krishnan, campaigner for greenpeace in india, is optimistic that the government will see the wisdom of promoting organic agriculture as a counter measure to the numerous fallouts of chemical agriculture that fuelled the green revolution. krishnan is hopeful for the probable financing of sustainable agriculture in india ’ s 12th five - year plan, due to be rolled out in november. prakash is confident that sustainable agricultural farming will survive through a growing demand for organically - grown crops.


common sense was first produced in edinburgh in 1987. it offered a direct challenge to the theory production machines of specialised academic journals, and tried to move the articulation of intellectual work beyond the collapsing discipline of the universities. it was organised according to minimalist production and editorial process which received contributions that could be photocopied and stapled together. it was reproduced in small numbers, distributed to friends, and sold at cost price in local bookshops and in a few outposts throughout the world. it maintained three interrelated commitments : to provide an open space wherein discussion could take place without regard to style or to the rigid classification of material into predefined subject areas ; to articulate critical positions within the contemporary political climate ; and to animate the hidden scottish passion for general ideas. within the context of the time, the formative impetus of common sense was a desire to juxtapose disparate work and to provide a continuously open space for a general critique of the societies in which we live. – may 1991 editorial the life of common sense began in 1987 and ended in 1999 after the publication of 24 issues. since then, a selection of articles from the journal have been republished in the book, revolutionary writing, and a few have been collected on libcom. despite the journal ’ s significance in the development of open and autonomous marxist critical theory, a complete set of issues has been difficult to source, until now. you can read how the digitising got under way and a few notes on the scanning process itself. the complete set of issues that were kindly donated by past common sense editors for the digitisation project has been deposited with the british library for preservation. a further set is held by the national library of scotland.


deductive versus inductive reasoning noah d. alper [ reprinted from land and freedom, march - april in his history of civilization in england, henry thomas buckle makes some interesting observations on the respective merits of the deductive and inductive methods of propagating thought in the development of civilization. in the deductive method we begin with a general conclusion and then attempt to point out the facts which support it. in the inductive method we first select our facts and then seek to lead to the acceptance of the general conclusions or principles. buckle says : " if we take a general view of those countries where science has been cultivated, we shall find that, whenever the deductive method of inquiry has predominated, knowledge, though often increased and accumulated, has never been widely diffused. on the other hand, we shall find that, when the inductive method has predominated, the diffusion of knowledge has always been considerable, or, at all events, has been beyond comparison greater than when deduction was prevalent. if, in any civilized nation, two men, equally gifted, were to propound some new and startling conclusion, and one of these men were to defend his conclusion by reasoning from ideas or general principles, while the other man were to defend his reasoning from particular and visible facts, there can be no doubt that, supposing all other things the same, the latter man would gain most adherents. facts seem to come home to every one, arid are undeniable. principles are not so obvious, and, being often disputed, they have to those who do not grasp them, an unreal and illusory appearance, which weakens their we find historically that the establishment of the modern inductive philosophy, with its varied and attractive experiments, its material appliances, and its constant appeal to the senses, has been intimately connected with the awakening of the public mind, and coincides with that spirit of inquiry, and with that love of liberty, which has been constantly advancing since the sixteenth century.... " in both cases [ induction and deduction ] there is no doubt a line of argument essentially ideal ; just as, in both cases, there is an assemblage of facts essentially sensuous. no method is pure, or stands entirely by itself. but inasmuch as, in induction, the facts are more prominent than the ideas, while, in deduction, the ideas are more prominent than the facts, it is evident that conclusions arrived at " by the former plan,


entirely by itself. but inasmuch as, in induction, the facts are more prominent than the ideas, while, in deduction, the ideas are more prominent than the facts, it is evident that conclusions arrived at " by the former plan, will, as a general rule, obtain a wider assent than conclusions arrived at by the latter plan. obtaining a wider assent, they will produce more decisive results, and will be more likely to shape the national character and influence the course of national affairs. " buckle ' s penetrating observations may be taken as a guide to georgeists in the dissemination of their principles. what is the georgeist objective? it is to free men. its practical goal is to abolish all forms of special privilege in order that an environment might exist in which the free enterprise system of production and distribution of wealth can operate. more specifically, it is to abolish all forms of securing public revenue save those which collect for the use of the community the publicly created rental value how are we to bring this about? we must secure favorable interest and decision on the part of a large majority of the people. we cannot hope to be the beneficiary of any dictatorship or of any totalitarian revolution. we must maintain and use the discriminating democratic processes. we must influence thought, difficult as that may be. we must educate in ways that will give understanding. the advice of buckle comes in for consideration here. the georgeist philosophy is adaptable to both the inductive and the deductive methods. but when we use the latter, we find that the statement of strong conclusions leads to antagonism toward them. farther investigation is discouraged, and the prospective convert is in no mood to ask for or receive facts. but if facts are presented first, people will listen. to many self - styled practical people, a principle, however sound it seems to be, is not a fact. a fact to these observers is a figure, a measurement, an example. facts promote curiosity, interest, inquiry. witness our ubiquitous radio quiz programs and pictorial " believe - it - or - not " presentations. facts, then, must be our starting point. it was my pleasure and privilege to be associated with judge jackson h. ralston of california during the years 1935 - 1938 in his gallant effort to secure the adoption of a strong application of georgeist principles in that state. it is from this experience that i have arrived at what i feel is a pattern of activity which can be followed to bring about the acceptance of our social and


his gallant effort to secure the adoption of a strong application of georgeist principles in that state. it is from this experience that i have arrived at what i feel is a pattern of activity which can be followed to bring about the acceptance of our social and economic proposals. this pattern follows the principles of influencing thought presented by buckle, making use largely of the inductive method, though not, of course, excluding use of the deductive. the great majority of the people must be made to feel that they will gain materially from the georgeist proposal and that it is on the whole sound and just. two propositions relating to our method of securing public revenue must be demonstrated factually so that they will be understood and accepted by the people. the first proposition is that the people, who should hold title to the land values of the nation, today hold little or no title to it. the second is that a tax on the value of land, or a direct levy on the rent, must be paid out of the rent now collected by the present title holder, and that he cannot shift this charge to the people in higher prices or rents and so recover an equal amount for himself. of course, during the process of education, the other points in the georgeist theory must also be demonstrated. people must be made to " see that rent is the measure of communal privileges ; that the economic activities of all who labor and spend contribute to the rent fund ; that the taxing of land values and the untaxing of labor and industry will benefit all. how is this objective to be accomplished? first, a study must be made of the land values in the community where the program is to be launched. this is a problem of research, of accumulating the facts in the given geographical area. they involve records, public sales, etc. - - facts that are familiar to people. during the ralston campaign in california such a study was made. because of data regularly collected, the problem in that state was not so difficult. based on 1936 figures compiled by prof. alfred s. niles, of stanford university, it was found that over 50 % of the state ' s land value was located in only three of the fifty - eight counties. the three counties were los angeles ( 36. 02 % ), san francisco ( 11. 09 % ), and alameda ( 5. 78 % ). this left the vast remaining area of fifty - five counties with bat 47. 01 % of the land values. in the city of san francisco it


), san francisco ( 11. 09 % ), and alameda ( 5. 78 % ). this left the vast remaining area of fifty - five counties with bat 47. 01 % of the land values. in the city of san francisco it was demonstrated that 3 % of the city blocks contained over one - third of the total land value of the city. by a breakdown of the distribution of land values in this manner it can be shown where the land value is to be found. by studies of ownership of titles it can be shown what percentage of the property holders and what percentage of the total population control and enjoy the vast bulk of the rental income of the land. this is a matter of statistical effort and study which any georgeist group that hopes for any sort of success in a political way must be prepared to make. such facts as these the people can grasp. further, they are facts which cannot be denied or argued by the land - title holders or their agents of agencies. our second proposition must also be demonstrated - - the proposition that a tax on land values cannot be shifted, and that the net effect of the georgeist proposal is to make land holders pay fairly and equally to the community for the privilege of holding land. unless the idea of the non - shiftability of our method of raising public revenue is accepted by the majority of the people, we cannot hope to secure favorable action on our proposals. there is another important point to be remembered in the planning of an educational program - - that is, its " timing. " we lost the 1938 ralston campaign in california, not because the methods used were unsound, but simply because we did not have the time or the funds to reach the people with our information. if any group of georgeists feel they are prepared or will one day be prepared for a political campaign, they must first and above all plan a long - range campaign of basic factual education. in far too many cases ( perhaps in all cases, so far ) the campaign method has never had a chance to succeed, because the correct sort of preliminary barrage of facts had not been laid down, and hence the ground was not prepared for political action. although georgeist campaigns have in the past failed, they have left us a precious heritage - - that is, anticipation of the probable line of attack on us by the opposition. chief among the arguments used against the georgeist proposal is that it will hurt the small home owner and raise rents, and that it will ruin the fanner. preparation against such arguments should be undertaken


the probable line of attack on us by the opposition. chief among the arguments used against the georgeist proposal is that it will hurt the small home owner and raise rents, and that it will ruin the fanner. preparation against such arguments should be undertaken by dissemination of facts on the case, before any political action is undertaken. a campaign should not begin with a draft of an amendment or legislative enactment. such an action will not only interfere with the preliminary educational program, but will draw the fire of the opposition on the nature of the measure. it will place us at a disadvantage in the ensuing fight. the legislative draft, which is only able to incorporate principles, is about the last thing to be after the work of research, which is the first requirement in a georgeist campaign, must come the work of publicizing these facts. all the attributes of the good salesman and advertising man, the radio quiz artist and the educators need to be brought into play to present the figures and facts to the people. during our california campaign, we held a meeting before the pomona grange, consisting of the grange organizations of shasta and trinity counties. the type of facts we presented profoundly affected those attending the meeting. the farmers of trinity county were asked how much land value there was in their county. none of them knew. then we presented the facts : the 1937 figures of the controller ' s report of california showed that there was $ 2, 728, 715 in land value in that county. along with this figure we gave the figures for the land value of block 329 in the city of san francisco. this small, triangular block of 1. 54 acres had a land value of $ 2, 766, 020 - - more than all of trinity county. the fanners of shasta county were also asked about the land value in their county. they, too, did not know. the 1937 report gave shasta county a land value of $ 12, 166, 890. it was shown that three large blocks between third and sixth streets in san francisco, some 17 acres, had a value of over $ 13, 000, 000 - - nearly a million more than all of shasta county. another presentation designed to attract attention might be in the form of weekly releases of the accumulated facts. in california we distributed such releases. one read : " less than one acre of land under the russ building ( in san francisco ) rents for $ 120, 000 a year. this is paid to the title holder for. 99 years. it would take 120 men


we distributed such releases. one read : " less than one acre of land under the russ building ( in san francisco ) rents for $ 120, 000 a year. this is paid to the title holder for. 99 years. it would take 120 men, working eight hours a day, making $ 1, 000 a year, to produce wages or salaries equal to the wealth taken by the title holders to this land each year. here is a measure of the value of privilege and the value of wages. " all the channels of publicity can be used in distributing the facts. if this policy were carried on continuously for a period of time without any concrete political proposal, it is of course to be expected that the enemies of the " to be proposed " measure would in time suspect the situation. but in the face of indisputable facts, they would be at a disadvantage as compared to their position if a legislative amendment were first drafted. sooner or later, in the course of the educational campaign, the question of the non - shiftability of the land value tax will have to be faced. several types of arguments can be used. it might be started on a quiz basis, a series of questions, such as the following : if the community increased the tax on the value of a vacant lot, could the owner shift the tax or would he have to pay it himself? to whom could he shift it? if the supply of vacant lots for sale or rent increased, due to a tax on land value, would their price go up or down? if a man is getting all the land rent he can for the use of a certain piece of land, could he collect more if the taxes on his rent were increased? if he could increase his rent, would he wait for the tax in order to do so? if a tax on land values can be shifted, why do landowners oppose it so strongly? a carefully prepared campaign, planned to run over a period of several years, could become more specific as the time came to launch a definite proposal and the actual campaign. until some definite proposal was made, the opposition would be at a great disadvantage. if they attacked in advance of a definite proposal, it would have to be over fundamental principles, the facts being indisputable. of course, georgeists would welcome such an attack. if it did not come, the georgeists should even provoke it. the best thing that can happen to our cause is to have our principles brought out into the open, discussed, argued, made into an issue. we can


the institute of food technologists ( ift ) offers some advice for safely handling food when you ’ re dining outdoors this summer : warm weather brings a bounty of fresh produce, and a trip to the local farmers market can make a nice addition to your outdoor meal. food safety starts in the field. it ’ s important to get to know the growers selling produce at your local farm stand, and ask about their farming practices. how do they keep their products free from bacterial pathogens and other contaminants? farmers may also have great tips for storing produce, testing for ripeness and even ways to prepare the fruits and veggies they sell. ift spokesperson and food safety expert, don schaffner, phd, says that when you ’ re purchasing produce, make sure it ’ s free of mold, bruises or blemishes where bacterial pathogens can grow. many grocery stores offer freshly cut, packaged produce for customers seeking nutritious convenience foods. freshly cut vegetables and fruit need proper temperature control to prevent the growth of bacteria that cause foodborne illness. before preparing food, wash your hands thoroughly with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds. make sure all prep utensils such as cutting boards, dishes and countertops are clean before preparing each food item. dirt, dust and pathogenic microbes can linger on produce. it ’ s important to wash fresh produce before consuming it. the only exception is are pre - bagged salads and leafy greens, as experts advise that additional washing of ready - to - eat green salads is not likely to enhance safety. thoroughly washing in cold water will suffice for most fruits and vegetables, but some types of produce require special handling. wash spinach or salad greens in a bowl of water and rinse them gently to remove dirt and other contaminants. give extra attention to fruits with stems, such as apples, pears and peaches. you may be tempted to forego washing fruit with a rind, since you won ’ t be eating the rind. but, it ’ s still important to wash oranges, avocados, melons, cantaloupe, etc. – pathogens can linger in unwashed crevices and transfer to your hands or the knife you use to cut the fruit. in addition, wash items you ’ ll peel – such as carrots and cucumbers – for the same reason. if you ’ ll be grilling at home, remember to always marinate meat in the refrigerator


you use to cut the fruit. in addition, wash items you ’ ll peel – such as carrots and cucumbers – for the same reason. if you ’ ll be grilling at home, remember to always marinate meat in the refrigerator, never on the kitchen counter or outdoors. discard any extra marinade that ’ s touched raw meat. grill food thoroughly, using a thermometer to ensure the proper internal temperature : 145 f for steaks and fish, 160 f for pork, hot dogs and hamburgers, and 165 f for poultry. keep finished meats hot until you serve by moving them to the side of the grill rack, away from the coals or highest flame on your gas grill. avoid cross contamination by using separate serving plates and utensils for different meats and vegetables. if you ’ ll be grilling away from home – in a park, tailgating at a sporting event or on a camping trip – consider purchasing pre - formed patties for burgers and pre - cut poultry. this minimizes the amount of handling meat requires and can help minimize the risk of bacteria and cross contamination. a picnic in the park can be great fun for everyone, but it ’ s important to assure your food arrives safely along with your family and guests. follow smart food packing guidelines. keep meats, including lunch meats and raw meats, cheeses and condiments cold in insulated, soft - sided bags or coolers with freezer gel packs. food needs to be stored at 40 f or colder to reduce the risk of pathogen growth, so limit the number of times you open the cooler. never allow food to sit for more than two hours at temperatures below 90 f, and no more than an hour when temperatures exceed 90 f. throw away food that ’ s been sitting out too long. securely package raw meat, seafood and poultry to ensure the juices don ’ t contaminate other foods. pack only the amount of perishable food that you think will be eaten. beverages and perishable foods should travel in separate containers and coolers, especially if you ’ ll be transporting raw meat. when it ’ s time to go home, don ’ t reuse packaging material that has touched raw meats or meat juices. make sure perishable leftovers stay cold on the trip home. avoid taking home uncooked leftovers.


record : darwin, c. r. 1842. the structure and distribution of coral reefs. being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the beagle, under the command of capt. fitzroy, r. n. during the years 1832 to 1836. london : smith elder and co. revision history : transcribed for john van wyhe 2002, further corrections 2003, 2. 2006, extensively corrected by sue asscher 3. 2007. rn3 see an introduction by gordon chancellor. see bibliographical introduction by r. b. freeman. the copy scanned was kindly provided by the earth sciences library cambridge. structure and distribution structure and distribution being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the beagle, under the command of capt. fitzroy, r. n. during the years 1832 to 1836. charles darwin, m. a., f. r. s., f. g. s., naturalist to the expedition. published with the approval of the lords her majesty ' s treasury. smith, elder and co., 65, cornhill. printed by stewart and murray, i shall have occasion, in many parts of the following volume, to acknowledge the valuable information i have received from several persons ; but i must more particularly express my obligations to captain r. moresby, i. n., who conducted the survey of the red sea, and of the archipelagoes of low coral - islands in the indian ocean. i beg, also, to be permitted to return my best thanks to captain beaufort, r. n., for having given me free access to the charts in the admiralty, as well as to captain beecher, r. n. for most kindly aiding me in consulting them. my thanks are likewise especially due to captain washington, r. n. for his invariable desire to assist me in every possible manner. having in former publications had the pleasure of acknowledging how much i owe to captain fitzroy, for having permitted me to volunteer my services on board h. m. s. beagle, and for his uniform kindness in giving me assistance in my researches, i can here only repeat my obligations to him. the materials for this volume were nearly ready two years ago ; but owing to ill health, its publication has been delayed. the two succeeding parts, — one on the volcanic islands visited during the voyage of the beagle, and the other on south america, — will appear, as soon as they can be prepared. 2nd may, 1842. description of the plates. in the several original


parts, — one on the volcanic islands visited during the voyage of the beagle, and the other on south america, — will appear, as soon as they can be prepared. 2nd may, 1842. description of the plates. in the several original surveys, from which the small plans on this plate have been reduced, the coral - reefs are engraved in very different styles. for the sake of uniformity, i have adopted the style used in the charts of the chagos archipelago, published by the east indian company, from the survey by capt. moresby and lieut. powell. the surface of the reef, which dries at low water, is represented by a stippled surface with small crosses : the coral - islets on the reef are marked by small linear unstippled spaces, on which a few cocoa - nut trees, out of all proportion too large, have been introduced for the sake of clearness. the entire annular reef, which when surrounding an open expanse of water, forms an ' atoll, ' and when surrounding one or more high islands, forms an encircling ' barrier - reef, ' has a nearly uniform structure, and has been tinted, in order to catch the eye, of a pale brownish - red colour. the reefs in some of the original surveys are represented merely by a single line with crosses, so that their breadth is not given ; i have had such reefs engraved of the width usually attained by coral - reefs. i have not thought it worth while to introduce all those small and very numerous reefs, which occur within the lagoons of most atolls and within the lagoon - channels of most barrier - reefs, and which stand either isolated, or are attached to the shores of the reef or land. at peros banhos none of the lagoon - reefs rise to the surface of the water ; a few of them have been introduced, and are marked by plain dotted circles. a few of the deepest soundings are laid down within each reef ; they are in fathoms, of six english feet. fig. 1. — vanikoro, situated in the western part of the s. pacific ; taken from the survey by capt. d ' urville in the astrolabe ; the scale is ¼ of an inch to a geographical mile ; the soundings on the southern side of the island, namely, from 30 to 40 fathoms, are given from the voyage of the chev. dillon ; the other soundings are laid down from the survey by d ' ur


geographical mile ; the soundings on the southern side of the island, namely, from 30 to 40 fathoms, are given from the voyage of the chev. dillon ; the other soundings are laid down from the survey by d ' urville ; height of the summit of the island is 3032 feet. the principal small detached reefs within the lagoon - channel have in this instance been represented. the southern shore of the island is narrowly fringed by a reef : if the engraver had carried this reef entirely round both islands, this figure would have served ( by leaving out in imagination the barrier - reef ) as a good specimen of an abruptly - sided island, surrounded by a reef of the fringing class. fig. 2. — hogoleu, or roug, in the caroline archipelago ; taken from the atlas of the voyage of the astrolabe, compiled from the surveys of captains duperrey and d ' urville ; scale 1 / 20 of an inch to a mile ; the depth of the immense lagoon - like space within the reef is not known. fig. 3. — raiatea, in the society archipelago ; from the map given in the quarto edition of cook ' s first voyage ; it is probably not accurate ; scale 1 / 20 of an inch to a mile. fig. 4. — bow, or heyou atoll ( or lagoon - island ), in the low archipelago, from the survey by capt. beechey, r. n. ; scale 1 / 20 of an inch to a mile ; the lagoon is choked up with reefs, but the average greatest depth of about 20 fathoms, is given from the published account of the voyage. fig. 5. — bolabola, in the society archipelago, from the survey of capt. duperrey, in the coquille : scale ¼ of an inch to a mile ; the soundings in this and the following figure have been altered from french feet to english fathoms ; height of highest point of the island 4026 feet. fig. 6. — maurua, in the society archipelago ; from the survey by capt. duperrey in the coquille : scale ¼ of an inch to a mile : height of land about 800 feet. fig. 7. — pouynipete, or seniavine, in the caroline archipelago ; from the survey by admiral lutke : scale ¼ of an inch to a mile. fig. 8. — gambier islands, in the southern part


. — pouynipete, or seniavine, in the caroline archipelago ; from the survey by admiral lutke : scale ¼ of an inch to a mile. fig. 8. — gambier islands, in the southern part of the low archipelago ; from the survey by capt. beechey ; scale ¼ of an inch to a mile ; height of highest island, 1246 feet ; the islands are surrounded by extensive and irregular reefs ; the reef on the southern side is submerged. fig. 9. — peros banhos atoll, ( or lagoon - island ), in the chagos group in the indian ocean ; from the survey by capt. moresby and lieut. powell ; scale ¼ of an inch to a mile ; not nearly all the small sub - merged reefs in the lagoon are represented ; the annular reef on the southern side is submerged. fig. 10. — keeling, or cocos atoll, ( or lagoon - island ), in the indian ocean ; from the survey by capt. fitzroy ; scale ¼ of an inch to a mile ; the lagoon south of the dotted line is very shallow, and is left almost bare at low water ; the part north of the line is choked up with irregular reefs. the annular reef on the n. w. side is broken, and blends into a shoal sand - bank, on which the sea breaks. fig. 1. — great chagos bank, in the indian ocean ; taken from the survey by capt. moresby and lieut. powell ; scale 1 / 20 of an inch to a mile ( same scale as hogoleu, in plate i. ) ; the parts which are shaded, with the exception of two or three islets on the western and northern sides, do not rise to the surface, but are submerged from 4 to 10 fathoms ; the banks bounded by the dotted lines lie from 15 to 20 fathoms beneath the surface, and are formed of sand ; the central space is of mud, and from 30 to 50 fathoms deep. fig. 2. — a vertical section, on the same scale, in an e. and w. line across the great chagos bank, given for the sake of exhibiting more clearly its structure. fig. 3. — menchicoff atoll ( or lagoon - island ), in the marshall archipelago, northern pacific ocean ; from krusenstern ' s atlas of the pacific ; originally surveyed by capt. hagemeister ; scale 1 / 20 of


3. — menchicoff atoll ( or lagoon - island ), in the marshall archipelago, northern pacific ocean ; from krusenstern ' s atlas of the pacific ; originally surveyed by capt. hagemeister ; scale 1 / 20 of an inch to a mile ; the depth within the lagoons is unknown. fig. 4. — mahlos mahdoo atoll, together with horsburgh atoll, in the maldiva archipelago ; from the survey by capt. moresby and lieut. powell ; scale 1 / 20 of an inch to a mile ; the white spaces in the middle of the separate small reefs, both on the margin and in the middle part, are meant to represent little lagoons ; but it was found not possible to distinguish them clearly from the small islets, which have been formed on these same small reefs ; many of the smaller reefs could not be introduced ; the nautical mark ( ) over the figures 250 and 200 between mahlos mahdoo and horsburgh atoll and powell ' s island, signifies that soundings were not obtained at these depths. fig. 5. — new caledonia, in the western part of the pacific ; from krusenstern ' s atlas, compiled from several surveys ; i have slightly altered the northern point of the reef, in accordance with the atlas of the voyage of the astrolabe. in krusenstern ' s atlas, the reef is represented by a single line with crosses ; i have for the sake of uniformity added an interior line ; scale 1 / 60 of an inch to a mile. fig. 6. — maldiva archipelago, in the indian ocean ; from the survey by capt. moresby and lieut. powell ; scale 1 / 60 of an inch to a mile. the principles, on which this map is coloured, are explained in the beginning of chapter vi. ; and the authorities for colouring each particular spot are detailed in the appendix. the names printed in italics in the index refer to the appendix. atolls or lagoon islands. section i. — description of keeling atoll. corals on the outer margin — zone of nulliporæ — exterior reef — islets — coral - conglomerate — lagoon — calcareous sediment — scari and holuthuriæ subsisting on corals — changes in the condition of the reefs and islets — probable subsidence of the atoll — future state of the lagoon.. page 5 to 19 section ii. — general description of atolls.


the conditions favourable to their increase. page 60 to 71 section ii. — on the rate of growth of coral - reefs. page 71 to 79 section iii. — on the depths at which reef - building polypifers can live …. page 80 to 87 theory of the formation of the different classes of coral reefs. the atolls of the large archipelagoes are not formed on submerged craters, or on banks of sediment — immense areas interspersed with atolls — their subsidence — the effects of storms and earthquakes on atolls — recent changes in their state — the origin of barrier - reefs and of atolls — their relative forms — the step - formed ledges and walls round the shores of some lagoons — the ring - formed reefs of the maldiva atolls — the submerged condition of parts or of the whole of some annular reefs — the disseverment of large atolls — the union of atolls by linear reefs — the great chagos bank — objections, from the area and amount of subsidence required by the theory, considered — the probable composition of the lower parts of atolls.. page 88 to 118 on the distribution of coral reefs with reference to the theory of their formation. description of the coloured map — proximity of atolls and barrier - reefs — relation in form and position of atolls with ordinary islands — direct evidence of subsidence difficult to be detected — proofs of recent elevation where fringing reefs occur — oscillations of level — absence of active volcanos in the areas of subsidence — immensity of the areas which have been elevated and have subsided — their relation to the present distribution of the land — areas of subsidence elongated, their intersection and alternation with those of elevation — amount, and slow rate of the subsidence — recapitulation. page 119 to 148 containing a detailed description of the reefs and islands in the coloured map, plate iii … …. page 151 to 205 the object of this volume is to describe from my own observation and the works of others, the principal kinds of coral reefs, more especially those occurring in the open ocean, and to explain the origin of their peculiar forms. i do not here treat of the polypifers, which construct these vast works, except so far as relates to their distribution, and to the conditions favourable to their vigorous growth. without any distinct intention to classify coral - reefs, most voyagers have spoken of them under the following heads : ' lagoon - islands, ' or ' atolls,


far as relates to their distribution, and to the conditions favourable to their vigorous growth. without any distinct intention to classify coral - reefs, most voyagers have spoken of them under the following heads : ' lagoon - islands, ' or ' atolls, ' ' barrier, ' or ' encircling reefs ' and ' fringing, ' or ' shore reefs. ' the lagoon - islands have received much the most attention ; and it is not surprising, for every one must be struck with astonishment, when he first beholds one of these vast rings of coral - rock, often many leagues in diameter, here and there surmounted by a low verdant island with dazzling white shores, bathed on the outside by the foaming breakers of the ocean, and on the inside surrounding a calm expanse of water, which, from reflection, is of a bright but pale green colour. the naturalist will feel this astonishment more deeply after having examined the soft and almost gelatinous bodies of these apparently insignificant creatures, and when he knows that the solid reef increases only on the outer edge, which day and night is lashed by the breakers of an ocean never at rest. well did francois pyrard de laval, in the year 1605, exclaim, " c ' est une merueille de voir chacun de ces atollons, enuironne d ' un grand banc de pierre tout autour, n ' y ayant point d ' artifice humain. " the accompanying sketch of whitsunday island, in the s. pacific, taken from capt. beechey ' s admirable voyage, although excellent of its kind, gives but a faint idea of the singular aspect of one of these lagoon - islands. whitsunday island is of small size, and the whole circle has been converted into land, which is a comparatively rare circumstance. as the reef of a lagoon - island generally supports many separate small islands, the word ' island, ' applied to the whole, is often the cause of confusion ; hence i have invariably used in this volume the term ' atoll, ' which is the name given to these circular groups of coral islets by their inhabitants in the indian ocean, and is synonymous with ' lagoon - island. ' barrier reefs, when encircling small islands, have been comparatively little noticed by voyagers ; but they well deserve attention. in their structure they are little less marvellous than atolls, and they give a singular and most picturesque character to the scenery of the


when encircling small islands, have been comparatively little noticed by voyagers ; but they well deserve attention. in their structure they are little less marvellous than atolls, and they give a singular and most picturesque character to the scenery of the islands they surround. in the accompanying sketch, taken from the voyage of the coquille, the reef is seen from within, from one of the high peaks of the island of bolabola. * here, as in whitsunday island, the whole of that part of the reef which is * i have taken the liberty of simplifying the foreground, and leaving out a mountainous island in the far distance. visible is converted into land. this is a circumstance of rare occurrence ; more usually a snow - white line of great breakers, with here and there an islet crowned by cocoa - nut trees, separates the smooth waters of the lagoon - like channel from the waves of the open sea. the barrier reefs of australia and of new caledonia, owing to their enormous dimensions, have excited much attention : in structure and form they resemble those encircling many of the smaller islands in the pacific ocean. with respect to fringing, or shore reefs, there is little in their structure which needs explanation ; and their name expresses their comparatively small extension. they differ from barrier - reefs in not lying so far from the shore, and in not having within a broad channel of deep water. reefs also occur around submerged banks of sediment and of worn - down rock ; and others are scattered quite irregularly where the sea is very shallow : these in most respects are allied to those of the fringing class, but they are of comparatively little interest. i have given a separate chapter to each of the above classes, and have described some one reef or island, on which i possessed most information, as typical ; and have afterwards compared it with others of a like kind. although this classification is useful from being obvious, and from including most of the coral reefs existing in the open sea, it admits of a more fundamental division into barrier and atoll - formed reefs on the one hand, where there is a great apparent diffi - culty with respect to the foundation on which they must first have grown ; and into fringing reefs on the other, where, owing to the nature of the slope of the adjoining land, there is no such difficulty. the two blue tints and the red colour on the map ( plate iii. ) represent this main division, as explained in the beginning of the last chapter


, owing to the nature of the slope of the adjoining land, there is no such difficulty. the two blue tints and the red colour on the map ( plate iii. ) represent this main division, as explained in the beginning of the last chapter. in the appendix, every existing coral reef, except some on the coast of brazil not included in the map, is briefly described in geographical order, as far as i possessed information ; and any particular spot may be found by consulting the index. several theories have been advanced to explain the origin of atolls or lagoon - islands, but scarcely one to account for barrier - reefs. from the limited depths at which reef - building polypifers can flourish, taken into consideration with certain other circumstances, we are compelled to conclude, as it will be seen, that both in atolls and barrier - reefs, the foundation on which the coral was primarily attached, has subsided ; and that during this downward movement, the reefs have grown upwards. this conclusion, it will be further seen, explains most satisfactorily the outline and general form of atolls and barrier - reefs, and likewise certain peculiarities in their structure. the distribution, also, of the different kinds of coral - reefs, and their position with relation to the areas of recent elevation, and to the points subject to volcanic eruptions, fully accord with this theory of their origin. * * a brief account of my views on coral formations, now published in my journal of researches, was read may 31, 1837, before the geological society, and an abstract has appeared in the proceedings. atolls or lagoon - islands. section first, keeling atoll. corals on the outer margin — zone of nulliporæ — exterior reef — islets — coral - conglomerate — lagoon — calcareous sediment — scari and holuthuriæ subsisting on corals — changes in the condition of the reefs and islets — probable subsidence of the atoll — future state of the lagoon. keeling or cocos atoll is situated in the indian ocean, in 12° 5 ' s. and long. 90° 55 ' e. : a reduced chart of it from the survey of capt. fitzroy and the officers of h. m. s. beagle, is given in plate i. fig. 10. the greatest width of this atoll is nine miles and a half. its structure is in most respects characteristic of the class to which it belongs, with the exception of the shallowness of the lagoon. the accompanying wood


in plate i. fig. 10. the greatest width of this atoll is nine miles and a half. its structure is in most respects characteristic of the class to which it belongs, with the exception of the shallowness of the lagoon. the accompanying woodcut represents a vertical section, supposed to be drawn at low water from the outer coast across one of the low islets ( one being taken of average dimensions ) to within the lagoon. a — level of the sea at low water : where the letter a is placed, the depth is 25 fathoms, and the distance rather more than 150 yards from the edge of the reef. b — outer edge of that flat part of the reef, which dries at low water : the edge either consists of a convex mound, as represented, or of rugged points, like those a little farther seaward, beneath the water. c — a flat of coral - rock, covered at high water. d — a low projecting ledge of brecciated coral - rock, washed by the waves at high water. e — a slope of loose fragments, reached by the sea only during gales : the upper part, which is from six to twelve feet high, is clothed with vegetation. the surface of the islet gently slopes to the lagoon. f — level of the lagoon at low - water. the section is true to the scale in a horizontal line, but it could not be made so in a vertical one, as the average greatest height of the land is only between six and twelve feet above high - water mark. i will describe the section, commencing with the outer margin. i must first observe that the reef - building polypifers, not being tidal animals, require to be constantly submerged or washed by the breakers. i was assured by mr. liesk, a very intelligent resident on these islands, as well as by some chiefs at tahiti ( otaheite ), that an exposure to the rays of the sun for a very short time invariably causes their destruction. hence it is possible only under the most favourable circumstances, afforded by an unusually low tide and smooth water, to reach the outer margin, where the coral is alive. i succeeded only twice in gaining this part, and found it almost entirely composed of a living porites, which forms great irregularly rounded masses ( like those of an astræa, but larger ) from four to eight feet broad, and little less in thickness. these mounds are separated from each other by narrow crooked channels, about six feet deep,