1939. although the controversy over whether its missing baktun value was a " 7 " or an " 8 " was conclusively settled with the discovery of the detached fragment in 1969, no real attempt has been made to ascertain what its date actually recorded. its inscription reads " 220. 127. 116. 11. 18 " in the long count, which may be transcribed into the julian date of september 5, - 31, or 32 b. c., if we use the goodman - martinez - thompson correlation value of 584, 285. ( of course, if we were to employ thompson ' s " revised " value of 584, 283 from 1935, the date would equate to september 3 instead. ) in an earlier paper ( malmstrom, 1992a ), i advanced the notion that, although stela c was only discovered in 1939, the meaning of its inscription may well be found in a monumental work of european science first published in 1877. known as canon der finsternisse, or " table of eclipses, " the volume is the work of theodor von oppolzer, an austrian count, and a team of his assistants, and constitutes a catalog of over 8000 solar and 5200 lunar eclipses ranging in date from 1208 b. c. to a. d. 2161. although his 376 pages of calculations and 160 maps charting the central paths of the solar eclipses were all carried out by hand, their accuracy has only recently been reconfirmed by modern researchers using computers ( meeus and mucke, 1979 ). listed as event no. 2803 in oppolzer ' s list of solar eclipses is one whose path of centrality passed right over the olmec ceremonial center of tres zapotes at dawn on the morning of august 31, 32 b. c. a more frightening celestial event can scarcely be imagined, for the sun rose out of the gulf of mexico totally black except for a ring of light around its outer edges. oppolzer described it as an annular, or ringlike, eclipse, and subsequent calculations at the u. s. naval observatory have revealed that the disk of the sun was 93 percent obscured ( personal communication ). surely, a " day without a sunrise " is not likely to have gone unrecorded by the olmecs! but, if this eclipse really is the same event as that described by oppolzer, why does its date not coincide with that which he records? a number of possible explanations suggest themselves


to have gone unrecorded by the olmecs! but, if this eclipse really is the same event as that described by oppolzer, why does its date not coincide with that which he records? a number of possible explanations suggest themselves : ( 1 ) perhaps the olmecs waited either three or five days to record it, depending on which correlation value of thompson ' s one uses ; ( 2 ) perhaps the stone carver who engraved the stela made an error of either three or five days in inscribing the date ; or ( 3 ) perhaps the goodman - martinez - thompson correlation value is incorrect by three to five days. of course, there is also a fourth possibility - - namely, that it had nothing whatsoever to do with the eclipse recorded by oppolzer, and that it was merely a strikingly close coincidence of both geography and history. the first hypothesis has no merit whatsoever, for if the olmecs consciously chose to put off recording the date, they would certainly have no means for measuring eclipse cycles with any precision. any basis they might have had for maintaining accurate records would thus largely have been vitiated. the second hypothesis is credible ; after all, " to err is human. " if this is the case, the inscription on stela c is more likely the result of an illiterate stone carver ' s mistake, however, than of a priest ' s miscalculation. but, if so, which is the " easier " mistake to make : to carve an extra three dots in the final, or kin, position - - equivalent to a three - day error - - or to carve an extra bar in the kin position - - equivalent to a five - day error? clearly, the mistaken addition of one symbol - - the bar - - would have been more likely than the mistaken addition of three symbols, so the discrepancy between oppolzer and the olmecs would appear to have been a matter of five days rather than three. the third hypothesis - - that the gmt itself may be off by three to five days - - is hardly likely, but the merits of the second hypothesis are now reflected in the accuracy of the original thompson correlation value of 584, 285. if that value is used, then the five - day discrepancy between oppolzer and the olmecs is substantiated ; if, on the other hand, we use thompson ' s " revised " value of 584, 283, then the lack


, then the five - day discrepancy between oppolzer and the olmecs is substantiated ; if, on the other hand, we use thompson ' s " revised " value of 584, 283, then the lack of a correspondence between the two dates can no longer be explained as an error, and we would probably have to abandon any thought that the olmecs were recording the eclipse after all. that, in turn, would mean discarding both the close historical " coincidence " between the two dates and the geographic " coincidence " of the passing of the eclipse ' s central path directly over tres zapotes. in effect, therefore, the inscription of stela c, erroneous though it seems to be, appears to confirm the accuracy of the original thompson correlation value between the olmec calendar and our own. in all fairness, however, it should be noted that there is one further complication in this interpretation of stela c ' s date. the bottom edge of the inscription is broken just at the point where the number and name of the day in the sacred almanac is recorded. if the long count inscription itself is accurate, the day - number and - name should be 6 eznab, and this is the way the fragmentary glyph at the bottom of the inscription is translated by most scholars. if the numeral is indeed rendered by a dot and a bar, then there is no question of its being a " 6, " but in keeping with my hypothesis that a second bar had been mistakenly added to the inscription. obviously, my argument is not destroyed by such a reading but it is substantially weakened, for to be consistent with my hypothesis, the day - number should have been a " 1 " instead. of course, if the inscription is accurate as it stands, it would then reopen the whole issue of what it was that the olmecs were actually recording on that intriguing occasion. if the blackened sun at dawn was not noteworthy enough to take cognizance of, what other event could have been so much more spectacular or important to them that they took notice of it instead? was it the occultation of mars by the sun that coincided very closely with the eclipse? or might it have been the occultation of the bright star regulus ( magnitude 1. 35 ) by the planet venus that occurred during the following couple of nights? neither of these seem very likely, for surely both of these astronomical events literally pale into insignificance when compared to a total


the bright star regulus ( magnitude 1. 35 ) by the planet venus that occurred during the following couple of nights? neither of these seem very likely, for surely both of these astronomical events literally pale into insignificance when compared to a total solar eclipse. thus, we are left with the very real possibility that nothing of note astronomically had prompted the carving of the inscription of stela c but that something even more earthshaking had taken place in and around tres zapotes shortly after the ominous eclipse had occurred. thanks to its location in the foothills of a volcanic region like the tuxtlas, the most obvious possibilities become either a monstrous earthquake or a devastating eruption. the point of this digression has been simply to illustrate that, about the time that edzna was coming into being, the mesoamericans appear to have begun recording eclipse data on their stelae, possibly in the hope that through accurate timekeeping they would eventually solve the puzzle of when these fearsome events would recur. in the intellectual community of the maya, therefore, this problem must have been near the top of the agenda as edzna was being founded. in the flat and featureless landscape of yucatan, it had been a rather simple matter to lay out a new city oriented to the sunset on " the day the world began " because the " summer solstice + 52 days " formula had already been developed. nonetheless, in a region where the local topography presented no opportunities for calibration against a natural landmark, the " gun - sight " alignment from the courtyard of cinco pisos through the notch in the artificial horizon to the top of the small pyramid constituted an ingenious solution to the problem of the city ' s orientation. in the same way, the erection of the tapered shaft surmounted by the stone disk had been an ingenious solution to calibrating the passage of the zenithal sun. the problem now at hand required some means of marking the moon ' s rising and setting position along the circumference of the monotonously uniform horizon that stretched out from edzna in all directions. view of the western horizon as seen from the top of cinco pisos at edzna. the elongated mound across the plaza served as an artificial horizon for a priest standing in the doorway of the courtyard, allowing him to sight through the notch in the middle of the mound to the summit of the pyramid immediately behind it to calibrate the sunset on august 13 - - an azimuth


artificial horizon for a priest standing in the doorway of the courtyard, allowing him to sight through the notch in the middle of the mound to the summit of the pyramid immediately behind it to calibrate the sunset on august 13 - - an azimuth of 285º. 5. the pyramid which intersects the true horizon farther to the right, or northwest, is " la vieja, " whose azimuth marks the northernmost stillstand of the moon ( i. e., 300º ). no doubt the first task was to provide the priests with a vantage point which allowed them a complete and unencumbered view of the entire 360º circuit of the horizon - - hence the need to erect what was perhaps the highest pyramid yet constructed in mesoamerica. when completed, the aptly named cinco pisos ( " five stories " ) towered more than 40 m ( 130 ft ) above the rocky platform on which it was sited, becoming in the process a true landmark visible from 40 - 50 km ( 20 - 30 mi ) away. although cinco pisos is a late classic structure ( i. e., built between a. d. 600 and 900 ), its situation at a focal point for the ceremonial center ' s canal system ( which dates to the late preclassic period - - 300 b. c. to a. d. 300 ) makes it seem likely that an earlier structure previously occupied this critical position. in fact, matheny suggests that " perhaps the remains of the late preclassic structure still exist within cinco pisos " ( 1983, 81 ). in any case, from the top of this key structure one could look out in any direction in a clear sight - line to the far horizon. the real problem was to keep track of the places along the horizon where the moon either rose or set. that cinco pisos faced slightly to the northwest to begin with - - having been oriented along with the rest of edzna to an azimuth of 285º. 5 - - meant that the moon ' s setting position was the one the priests chose to calibrate. but with a horizon so distant and so featureless, one is tempted to conclude that most of the initial record keeping may have been done by marking lines in the appropriate directions on the top platform of cinco pisos itself. only after the observations had narrowed in on a distinct enough point to erect some structure against the horizon at the required azimuth would that have been done. conceptually,


lines in the appropriate directions on the top platform of cinco pisos itself. only after the observations had narrowed in on a distinct enough point to erect some structure against the horizon at the required azimuth would that have been done. conceptually, the maya already had the model of the sun ' s behavior on which to predicate their observations. its northernmost stopping point marked the summer solstice, which in turn established the beginning date for the 52 - day count which fixed " the day the world began " - - i. e., august 13. if they could locate a similar position for the moon - - its northernmost setting point - - perhaps that would allow them to begin the count which would eventually reveal the secrets of the eclipse cycle. deciding what the northernmost setting point of the moon really was must have been a tedious and frequently altered judgment in itself. each time the moon reached what appeared to be an even more extreme setting position, the count for the eclipse cycle would have to be started again. one can well imagine that sometimes years of patient counting and record keeping might have gone on before the moon unexpectedly pushed its setting position even farther north along the horizon and literally wiped out the whole exhaustive tally in one fell swoop. when this process actually began and how long it took to yield any kind of meaningful results has to be pure conjecture. it is probably safe to say that the idea for launching the count may already have been formulated shortly after edzna was founded, and may well have been under way when the calendar reform fixing the new new year ' s day was adopted. what we do know for certain is that the first time that mention is made of the phase of the moon corresponding to a given long count date is in an inscription dating from a. d. 357 ( coe, 1980, 159 ). this does not mean, of course, that the problem had been solved by then, but only that from that time forward this seemingly important fact was now to be regularly recorded along with the date itself. indeed, this may be evidence that the lunar cycle had not yet been worked out, and that the priests felt the additional bit of information regarding the phase of the moon might actually be useful in finally establishing the cycle - - once they could examine the records in retrospect. this is not to say that the eclipse cycle could not have been worked out within the first half century that the quest was initiated. what the maya were ultimately to learn was that the cycle required a full 6797 days, or 18. 61


. this is not to say that the eclipse cycle could not have been worked out within the first half century that the quest was initiated. what the maya were ultimately to learn was that the cycle required a full 6797 days, or 18. 61 years, to complete, so if they had actually recognized the moon ' s northernmost stillstand on one occasion, they would have had to count that long to find the moon once more back at the same setting position. of course, to confirm the accuracy of their count would require the completion of at least one more full cycle, so by this time more than 37 years would have elapsed. thus, to postulate even the minimum time span necessary for such an achievement makes one appreciate the care and continuity which the maya priests exercised in keeping a constant, running tally over the equivalent of more than an entire generation. although less than a half dozen of the original maya manuscripts appear to have escaped the flames of the fanatic spaniards, one of those that did survive is the so - called dresden codex, which has subsequently been recognized as an elaborate eclipse warning table. thompson, among other scholars, assigns a twelfth - century origin to it, but concedes that its three base dates go back to the middle of the eighth century. ( my suggestion that the stela c inscription may have involved a five - day error owing to a stone carver ' s failure to understand the date he was carving finds an ironic parallel in the dresden codex. thompson ' s study of the manuscript revealed that no fewer than 92 errors of transcription have been made in recording its dates [ 1972, 115 - 116 ], but no one, least of all thompson, has ever suggested discounting the validity of the tables on that account. ) the three base dates of the dresden codex occur in the latter part of the year 755 and define two 15 - day intervals. for this reason, maud makemson suggested, in 1943, that they most likely represent two solar eclipses bracketing a lunar eclipse ( makemson, 1943 ). while not disputing such an interpretation, floyd lounsbury, writing in 1978, argues that if this is correct, then these dates must have been arrived at by calculation rather than through observation, because no such celestial events took place in yucatan in that year ( lounsbury, 1978, 816 ). the three dates in question would equate to november 8, november 23, and december 8, 755, if the original correlation value of thompson ( namely, 584


yucatan in that year ( lounsbury, 1978, 816 ). the three dates in question would equate to november 8, november 23, and december 8, 755, if the original correlation value of thompson ( namely, 584, 285 ) is employed. ( naturally, if his " revised " version is used, it would put each of these dates two days earlier. ) when the first of these dates was checked against a planetarium programmed to duplicate celestial events as seen from edzna on that day, it was found that the sun and moon did in fact rise just eight minutes apart on that morning over the yucatan, with an angular separation of less than 2º. 5. in other words, there had been a " near miss " to a solar eclipse visible in the maya area on that date. for the second date, we once again employ the calculations of oppolzer ( 1887 ). fifteen days after the near solar eclipse over the yucatan - - i. e., on november 23 - - he records a total lunar eclipse as having taken place, but ironically, his data demonstrate that it was visible only in the half of the world centered on the indian subcontinent. on the third date, again using oppolzer as our source, we find that a partial solar eclipse did indeed take place on december 8, 755, but its central path lay over the ocean between south africa and antarctica, where probably not a single human being witnessed it. from this data we can draw two very important conclusions. first, by the year 755 the maya had apparently worked out the motions of the moon with such precision that they knew when an eclipse should occur, but they still could not be sure if it actually would occur, in the sense of being visible to them. second, the original thompson correlation value of 584, 285 is clearly the correct one, for an acknowledged eclipse warning table such as the dresden codex could certainly not have been based upon a foundation two days out of phase with the realities of the celestial sphere. in this map view of edzna, we see the features shown photographically in figure 37. the astronomical importance of edzna may be gauged from these facts : ( 1 ) only at its specific latitude could the beginning of the maya new year be calibrated, here with the assistance of a remarkable gnomon ; ( 2 ) the " day the world began " was commemorated in the " gun - sight " orientation between the doorway of cinco pisos and the small pyramid across


year be calibrated, here with the assistance of a remarkable gnomon ; ( 2 ) the " day the world began " was commemorated in the " gun - sight " orientation between the doorway of cinco pisos and the small pyramid across the plaza ; and ( 3 ) lunar cycles were measured by using the line of sight between cinco pisos and " la vieja " on the northwestern horizon. although we cannot be certain when the maya finally succeeded in working out the lunar eclipse cycle, it would seem that most of the basic " research " on the problem was carried out at edzna. located some 300 m ( 1000 ft ) to the northwest of cinco pisos is the ruin of a lofty pyramid which matheny has termed " la vieja, " or the " old one. " the " la vieja " complex appears to date to the late classic period as well, but has not experienced the " urban renewal " from which cinco pisos subsequently benefited ( matheny, 1983, 109 ). even in its dilapidated condition it is still high enough to intersect the horizon as seen from the top of cinco pisos ; indeed, it is the only manmade construction which does so. this fact immediately prompted me to measure its azimuth as seen from edzna ' s commanding edifice, and the value i obtained was 300º. this means that the summit of the pyramid lies exactly 5º beyond the sun ' s northernmost setting position at the summer solstice. because the moon ' s orbit is just a hair over 5º off that of the sun, it seems very likely that the northwest pyramid, or " la vieja, " had been erected as a horizon marker to commemorate the moon ' s northernmost stillstand. not only is " la vieja " an eloquent testimonial to the patience and accuracy of maya " science, " but because of its specialized function, it is also probably worthy of being designated as the oldest lunar observatory in the new world. ( indeed, if matheny ' s dating of " la vieja " is accurate, then it is apparent that the maya had succeeded in measuring the interval between lunar stillstand maxima at least by a. d. 300. )


translated by w. d. ross. we have treated of that which is primarily and to which all the other categories of being are referred — i. e. of substance. for it is in virtue of the concept of substance that the others also are said to be — quantity and quality and the like ; for all will be found to involve the concept of substance, as we said in the first part of our work. and since ‘ being ’ is in one way divided into individual thing, quality, and quantity, and is in another way distinguished in respect of potency and complete reality, and of function, let us now add a discussion of potency and complete reality. and first let us explain potency in the strictest sense, which is, however, not the most useful for our present purpose. for potency and actuality extend beyond the cases that involve a reference to motion. but when we have spoken of this first kind, we shall in our discussions of actuality ’ explain the other kinds of potency as well. we have pointed out elsewhere that ‘ potency ’ and the word ‘ can ’ have several senses. of these we may neglect all the potencies that are so called by an equivocation. for some are called so by analogy, as in geometry we say one thing is or is not a ‘ power ’ of another by virtue of the presence or absence of some relation between them. but all potencies that conform to the same type are originative sources of some kind, and are called potencies in reference to one primary kind of potency, which is an originative source of change in another thing or in the thing itself qua other. for one kind is a potency of being acted on, i. e. the originative source, in the very thing acted on, of its being passively changed by another thing or by itself qua other ; and another kind is a state of insusceptibility to change for the worse and to destruction by another thing or by the thing itself qua other by virtue of an originative source of change. in all these definitions is implied the formula if potency in the primary sense. — and again these so - called potencies are potencies either of merely acting or being acted on, or of acting or being acted on well, so that even in the formulae of the latter the formulae of the prior kinds of potency are somehow implied. obviously, then, in a sense the potency of acting and of being acted on is one


acting or being acted on well, so that even in the formulae of the latter the formulae of the prior kinds of potency are somehow implied. obviously, then, in a sense the potency of acting and of being acted on is one ( for a thing may be ‘ capable ’ either because it can itself be acted on or because something else can be acted on by it ), but in a sense the potencies are different. for the one is in the thing acted on ; it is because it contains a certain originative source, and because even the matter is an originative source, that the thing acted on is acted on, and one thing by one, another by another ; for that which is oily can be burnt, and that which yields in a particular way can be crushed ; and similarly in all other cases. but the other potency is in the agent, e. g. heat and the art of building are present, one in that which can produce heat and the other in the man who can build. and so, in so far as a thing is an organic unity, it cannot be acted on by itself ; for it is one and not two different things. and ‘ impotence ' and ‘ impotent ’ stand for the privation which is contrary to potency of this sort, so that every potency belongs to the same subject and refers to the same process as a corresponding impotence. privation has several senses ; for it means ( 1 ) that which has not a certain quality and ( 2 ) that which might naturally have it but has not it, either ( a ) in general or ( b ) when it might naturally have it, and either ( a ) in some particular way, e. g. when it has not it completely, or ( b ) when it has not it at all. and in certain cases if things which naturally have a quality lose it by violence, we say they have suffered privation. since some such originative sources are present in soulless things, and others in things possessed of soul, and in soul, and in the rational part of the soul, clearly some potencies will, be non - rational and some will be non - rational and some will be accompanied by a rational formula. this is why all arts, i. e. all productive forms of knowledge, are potencies ; they are originative sources of change in another thing or in the artist himself considered as other. and each of those which are accompanied by a rational formula is alike


why all arts, i. e. all productive forms of knowledge, are potencies ; they are originative sources of change in another thing or in the artist himself considered as other. and each of those which are accompanied by a rational formula is alike capable of contrary effects, but one non - rational power produces one effect ; e. g. the hot is capable only of heating, but the medical art can produce both disease and health. the reason is that science is a rational formula, and the same rational formula explains a thing and its privation, only not in the same way ; and in a sense it applies to both, but in a sense it applies rather to the positive fact. therefore such sciences must deal with contraries, but with one in virtue of their own nature and with the other not in virtue of their nature ; for the rational formula applies to one object in virtue of that object ’ s nature, and to the other, in a sense, accidentally. for it is by denial and removal that it exhibits the contrary ; for the contrary is the primary privation, and this is the removal of the positive term. now since contraries do not occur in the same thing, but science is a potency which depends on the possession of a rational formula, and the soul possesses an originative source of movement ; therefore, while the wholesome produces only health and the calorific only heat and the frigorific only cold, the scientific man produces both the contrary effects. for the rational formula is one which applies to both, though not in the same way, and it is in a soul which possesses an originative source of movement ; so that the soul will start both processes from the same originative source, having linked them up with the same thing. and so the things whose potency is according to a rational formula act contrariwise to the things whose potency is non - rational ; for the products of the former are included under one originative source, the rational formula. it is obvious also that the potency of merely doing a thing or having it done to one is implied in that of doing it or having it done well, but the latter is not always implied in the former : for he who does a thing well must also do it, but he who does it merely need not also do it well. there are some who say, as the megaric school does, that a thing ‘ can ’ act only when it is acting, and when it is not acting it ‘ cannot ’ act,


he who does it merely need not also do it well. there are some who say, as the megaric school does, that a thing ‘ can ’ act only when it is acting, and when it is not acting it ‘ cannot ’ act, e. g. that he who is not building cannot build, but only he who is building, when he is building ; and so in all other cases. it is not hard to see the absurdities that attend this view. for it is clear that on this view a man will not be a builder unless he is building ( for to be a builder is to be able to build ), and so with the other arts. if, then, it is impossible to have such arts if one has not at some time learnt and acquired them, and it is then impossible not to have them if one has not sometime lost them ( either by forgetfulness or by some accident or by time ; for it cannot be by the destruction of the object, for that lasts for ever ), a man will not have the art when he has ceased to use it, and yet he may immediately build again ; how then will he have got the art? and similarly with regard to lifeless things ; nothing will be either cold or hot or sweet or perceptible at all if people are not perceiving it ; so that the upholders of this view will have to maintain the doctrine of protagoras. but, indeed, nothing will even have perception if it is not perceiving, i. e. exercising its perception. if, then, that is blind which has not sight though it would naturally have it, when it would naturally have it and when it still exists, the same people will be blind many times in the day — and deaf too. again, if that which is deprived of potency is incapable, that which is not happening will be incapable of happening ; but he who says of that which is incapable of happening either that it is or that it will be will say what is untrue ; for this is what incapacity meant. therefore these views do away with both movement and becoming. for that which stands will always stand, and that which sits will always sit, since if it is sitting it will not get up ; for that which, as we are told, cannot get up will be incapable of getting up. but we cannot say this, so that evidently potency and actuality are different ( but these views make potency and actuality the same, and so it


that which, as we are told, cannot get up will be incapable of getting up. but we cannot say this, so that evidently potency and actuality are different ( but these views make potency and actuality the same, and so it is no small thing they are seeking to annihilate ), so that it is possible that a thing may be capable of being and not he, and capable of not being and yet he, and similarly with the other kinds of predicate ; it may be capable of walking and yet not walk, or capable of not walking and yet walk. and a thing is capable of doing something if there will be nothing impossible in its having the actuality of that of which it is said to have the capacity. i mean, for instance, if a thing is capable of sitting and it is open to it to sit, there will be nothing impossible in its actually sitting ; and similarly if it is capable of being moved or moving, or of standing or making to stand, or of being or coming to be, or of not being or not coming to be. the word ‘ actuality ’, which we connect with ‘ complete reality ’, has, in the main, been extended from movements to other things ; for actuality in the strict sense is thought to be identical with movement. and so people do not assign movement to non - existent things, though they do assign some other predicates. e. g. they say that non - existent things are objects of thought and desire, but not that they are moved ; and this because, while ex hypothesi they do not actually exist, they would have to exist actually if they were moved. for of non - existent things some exist potentially ; but they do not exist, because they do not exist in complete reality. if what we have described is identical with the capable or convertible with it, evidently it cannot be true to say ‘ this is capable of being but will not be ’, which would imply that the things incapable of being would on this showing vanish. suppose, for instance, that a man — one who did not take account of that which is incapable of being — were to say that the diagonal of the square is capable of being measured but will not be measured, because a thing may well be capable of being or coming to be, and yet not be or be about to be. but from the premisses this necessarily follows, that if we actually supposed that which is not, but is capable of being, to be


thing may well be capable of being or coming to be, and yet not be or be about to be. but from the premisses this necessarily follows, that if we actually supposed that which is not, but is capable of being, to be or to have come to be, there will be nothing impossible in this ; but the result will be impossible, for the measuring of the diagonal is impossible. for the false and the impossible are not the same ; that you are standing now is false, but that you should be standing is not impossible. at the same time it is clear that if, when a is real, b must be real, then, when a is possible, b also must be possible. for if b need not be possible, there is nothing to prevent its not being possible. now let a be supposed possible. then, when a was possible, we agreed that nothing impossible followed if a were supposed to be real ; and then b must of course be real. but we supposed b to be impossible. let it be impossible then. if, then, b is impossible, a also must be so. but the first was supposed impossible ; therefore the second also is impossible. if, then, a is possible, b also will be possible, if they were so related that if a, is real, b must be real. if, then, a and b being thus related, b is not possible on this condition, and b will not be related as was supposed. and if when a is possible, b must be possible, then if a is real, b also must be real. for to say that b must be possible, if a is possible, means this, that if a is real both at the time when and in the way in which it was supposed capable of being real, b also must then and in that way be real. as all potencies are either innate, like the senses, or come by practice, like the power of playing the flute, or by learning, like artistic power, those which come by practice or by rational formula we must acquire by previous exercise but this is not necessary with those which are not of this nature and which imply passivity. since that which is ‘ capable ’ is capable of something and at some time in some way ( with all the other qualifications which must be present in the definition ), and since some things can produce change according to a rational formula and their potencies involve such a formula, while other things are nonrational and their potencies are non - rational


with all the other qualifications which must be present in the definition ), and since some things can produce change according to a rational formula and their potencies involve such a formula, while other things are nonrational and their potencies are non - rational, and the former potencies must be in a living thing, while the latter can be both in the living and in the lifeless ; as regards potencies of the latter kind, when the agent and the patient meet in the way appropriate to the potency in question, the one must act and the other be acted on, but with the former kind of potency this is not necessary. for the nonrational potencies are all productive of one effect each, but the rational produce contrary effects, so that if they produced their effects necessarily they would produce contrary effects at the same time ; but this is impossible. there must, then, be something else that decides ; i mean by this, desire or will. for whichever of two things the animal desires decisively, it will do, when it is present, and meets the passive object, in the way appropriate to the potency in question. therefore everything which has a rational potency, when it desires that for which it has a potency and in the circumstances in which it has the potency, must do this. and it has the potency in question when the passive object is present and is in a certain state ; if not it will not be able to act. ( to add the qualification ‘ if nothing external prevents it ’ is not further necessary ; for it has the potency on the terms on which this is a potency of acting, and it is this not in all circumstances but on certain conditions, among which will be the exclusion of external hindrances ; for these are barred by some of the positive qualifications. ) and so even if one has a rational wish, or an appetite, to do two things or contrary things at the same time, one will not do them ; for it is not on these terms that one has the potency for them, nor is it a potency of doing both at the same time, since one will do the things which it is a potency of doing, on the terms on which one has the potency. since we have treated of the kind of potency which is related to movement, let us discuss actuality — what, and what kind of thing, actuality is. for in the course of our analysis it will also become clear, with regard to the potential, that


of the kind of potency which is related to movement, let us discuss actuality — what, and what kind of thing, actuality is. for in the course of our analysis it will also become clear, with regard to the potential, that we not only ascribe potency to that whose nature it is to move something else, or to be moved by something else, either without qualification or in some particular way, but also use the word in another sense, which is the reason of the inquiry in the course of which we have discussed these previous senses also. actuality, then, is the existence of a thing not in the way which we express by ‘ potentially ’ ; we say that potentially, for instance, a statue of hermes is in the block of wood and the half - line is in the whole, because it might be separated out, and we call even the man who is not studying a man of science, if he is capable of studying ; the thing that stands in contrast to each of these exists actually. our meaning can be seen in the particular cases by induction, and we must not seek a definition of everything but be content to grasp the analogy, that it is as that which is building is to that which is capable of building, and the waking to the sleeping, and that which is seeing to that which has its eyes shut but has sight, and that which has been shaped out of the matter to the matter, and that which has been wrought up to the unwrought. let actuality be defined by one member of this antithesis, and the potential by the other. but all things are not said in the same sense to exist actually, but only by analogy — as a is in b or to b, c is in d or to d ; for some are as movement to potency, and the others as substance to some sort of matter. but also the infinite and the void and all similar things are said to exist potentially and actually in a different sense from that which applies to many other things, e. g. to that which sees or walks or is seen. for of the latter class these predicates can at some time be also truly asserted without qualification ; for the seen is so called sometimes because it is being seen, sometimes because it is capable of being seen. but the infinite does not exist potentially in the sense that it will ever actually have separate existence ; it exists potentially only for knowledge. for the fact that the process of dividing never comes to an end ensures that this activity exists


is capable of being seen. but the infinite does not exist potentially in the sense that it will ever actually have separate existence ; it exists potentially only for knowledge. for the fact that the process of dividing never comes to an end ensures that this activity exists potentially, but not that the infinite exists separately. since of the actions which have a limit none is an end but all are relative to the end, e. g. the removing of fat, or fat - removal, and the bodily parts themselves when one is making them thin are in movement in this way ( i. e. without being already that at which the movement aims ), this is not an action or at least not a complete one ( for it is not an end ) ; but that movement in which the end is present is an action. e. g. at the same time we are seeing and have seen, are understanding and have understood, are thinking and have thought ( while it is not true that at the same time we are learning and have learnt, or are being cured and have been cured ). at the same time we are living well and have lived well, and are happy and have been happy. if not, the process would have had sometime to cease, as the process of making thin ceases : but, as things are, it does not cease ; we are living and have lived. of these processes, then, we must call the one set movements, and the other actualities. for every movement is incomplete — making thin, learning, walking, building ; these are movements, and incomplete at that. for it is not true that at the same time a thing is walking and has walked, or is building and has built, or is coming to be and has come to be, or is being moved and has been moved, but what is being moved is different from what has been moved, and what is moving from what has moved. but it is the same thing that at the same time has seen and is seeing, seeing, or is thinking and has thought. the latter sort of process, then, i call an actuality, and the former a movement. what, and what kind of thing, the actual is, may be taken as explained by these and similar considerations. but we must distinguish when a thing exists potentially and when it does not ; for it is not at any and every time. e. g. is earth potentially a man? no — but rather when it has already become seed, and perhaps not even then. it is just as it


exists potentially and when it does not ; for it is not at any and every time. e. g. is earth potentially a man? no — but rather when it has already become seed, and perhaps not even then. it is just as it is with being healed ; not everything can be healed by the medical art or by luck, but there is a certain kind of thing which is capable of it, and only this is potentially healthy. and ( 1 ) the delimiting mark of that which as a result of thought comes to exist in complete reality from having existed potentially is that if the agent has willed it it comes to pass if nothing external hinders, while the condition on the other side — viz. in that which is healed — is that nothing in it hinders the result. it is on similar terms that we have what is potentially a house ; if nothing in the thing acted on — i. e. in the matter — prevents it from becoming a house, and if there is nothing which must be added or taken away or changed, this is potentially a house ; and the same is true of all other things the source of whose becoming is external. and ( 2 ) in the cases in which the source of the becoming is in the very thing which comes to be, a thing is potentially all those things which it will be of itself if nothing external hinders it. e. g. the seed is not yet potentially a man ; for it must be deposited in something other than itself and undergo a change. but when through its own motive principle it has already got such and such attributes, in this state it is already potentially a man ; while in the former state it needs another motive principle, just as earth is not yet potentially a statue ( for it must first change in order to become brass. ) it seems that when we call a thing not something else but ‘ thaten ' — e. g. a casket is not ‘ wood ’ but ‘ wooden ’, and wood is not ‘ earth ’ but ‘ earthen ’, and again earth will illustrate our point if it is similarly not something else but ‘ thaten ' — that other thing is always potentially ( in the full sense of that word ) the thing which comes after it in this series. e. g. a casket is not ‘ earthen ’ nor ‘ earth ’, but ‘ wooden ’ ; for this is potentially a casket and this is the matter of a casket, wood in general of a casket in general, and this particular wood of this particular casket.


casket is not ‘ earthen ’ nor ‘ earth ’, but ‘ wooden ’ ; for this is potentially a casket and this is the matter of a casket, wood in general of a casket in general, and this particular wood of this particular casket. and if there is a first thing, which is no longer, in reference to something else, called ‘ thaten ’, this is prime matter ; e. g. if earth is ‘ airy ’ and air is not ‘ fire ’ but ‘ fiery ’, fire is prime matter, which is not a ‘ this ’. for the subject or substratum is differentiated by being a ‘ this ’ or not being one ; i. e. the substratum of modifications is, e. g. a man, i. e. a body and a soul, while the modification is ‘ musical ’ or ‘ pale ’. ( the subject is called, when music comes to be present in it, not ‘ music ’ but ‘ musical ’, and the man is not ‘ paleness ’ but ‘ pale ’, and not ‘ ambulation ’ or ‘ movement ’ but ‘ walking ’ or ‘ moving ’, — which is akin to the ‘ thaten ’. ) wherever this is so, then, the ultimate subject is a substance ; but when this is not so but the predicate is a form and a ‘ this ’, the ultimate subject is matter and material substance. and it is only right that ‘ thaten ’ should be used with reference both to the matter and to the accidents ; for both are indeterminates. we have stated, then, when a thing is to be said to exist potentially and when it is not. from our discussion of the various senses of ‘ prior ’, it is clear that actuality is prior to potency. and i mean by potency not only that definite kind which is said to be a principle of change in another thing or in the thing itself regarded as other, but in general every principle of movement or of rest. for nature also is in the same genus as potency ; for it is a principle of movement — not, however, in something else but in the thing itself qua itself. to all such potency, then, actuality is prior both in formula and in substantiality ; and in time it is prior in one sense, and in another not. ( 1 ) clearly it is prior in formula ; for that which is in the primary sense potential is potential because it is possible for it to become active ;


in substantiality ; and in time it is prior in one sense, and in another not. ( 1 ) clearly it is prior in formula ; for that which is in the primary sense potential is potential because it is possible for it to become active ; e. g. i mean by ‘ capable of building ’ that which can build, and by ‘ capable of seeing ’ that which can see, and by ‘ visible ’ that which can be seen. and the same account applies to all other cases, so that the formula and the knowledge of the one must precede the knowledge of the other. ( 2 ) in time it is prior in this sense : the actual which is identical in species though not in number with a potentially existing thing is to it. i mean that to this particular man who now exists actually and to the corn and to the seeing subject the matter and the seed and that which is capable of seeing, which are potentially a man and corn and seeing, but not yet actually so, are prior in time ; but prior in time to these are other actually existing things, from which they were produced. for from the potentially existing the actually existing is always produced by an actually existing thing, e. g. man from man, musician by musician ; there is always a first mover, and the mover already exists actually. we have said in our account of substance that everything that is produced is something produced from something and by something, and that the same in species as it. this is why it is thought impossible to be a builder if one has built nothing or a harper if one has never played the harp ; for he who learns to play the harp learns to play it by playing it, and all other learners do similarly. and thence arose the sophistical quibble, that one who does not possess a science will be doing that which is the object of the science ; for he who is learning it does not possess it. but since, of that which is coming to be, some part must have come to be, and, of that which, in general, is changing, some part must have changed ( this is shown in the treatise on movement ), he who is learning must, it would seem, possess some part of the science. but here too, then, it is clear that actuality is in this sense also, viz. in order of generation and of time, prior to potency. but ( 3 ) it is also prior in substantiality ; firstly, ( a ) because the things that are posterior in


is clear that actuality is in this sense also, viz. in order of generation and of time, prior to potency. but ( 3 ) it is also prior in substantiality ; firstly, ( a ) because the things that are posterior in becoming are prior in form and in substantiality ( e. g. man is prior to boy and human being to seed ; for the one already has its form, and the other has not ), and because everything that comes to be moves towards a principle, i. e. an end ( for that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end ), and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potency is acquired. for animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see. and similarly men have the art of building that they may build, and theoretical science that they may theorize ; but they do not theorize that they may have theoretical science, except those who are learning by practice ; and these do not theorize except in a limited sense, or because they have no need to theorize. further, matter exists in a potential state, just because it may come to its form ; and when it exists actually, then it is in its form. and the same holds good in all cases, even those in which the end is a movement. and so, as teachers think they have achieved their end when they have exhibited the pupil at work, nature does likewise. for if this is not the case, we shall have pauson ’ s hermes over again, since it will be hard to say about the knowledge, as about the figure in the picture, whether it is within or without. for the action is the end, and the actuality is the action. and so even the word ‘ actuality ’ is derived from ‘ action ’, and points to the complete reality. and while in some cases the exercise is the ultimate thing ( e. g. in sight the ultimate thing is seeing, and no other product besides this results from sight ), but from some things a product follows ( e. g. from the art of building there results a house as well as the act of building ), yet none the less the act is in the former case the end and in the latter more of an end than the potency is. for the act of building is realized in the thing that is being built, and comes


the act of building ), yet none the less the act is in the former case the end and in the latter more of an end than the potency is. for the act of building is realized in the thing that is being built, and comes to be, and is, at the same time as the house. where, then, the result is something apart from the exercise, the actuality is in the thing that is being made, e. g. the act of building is in the thing that is being built and that of weaving in the thing that is being woven, and similarly in all other cases, and in general the movement is in the thing that is being moved ; but where there is no product apart from the actuality, the actuality is present in the agents, e. g. the act of seeing is in the seeing subject and that of theorizing in the theorizing subject and the life is in the soul ( and therefore well - being also ; for it is a certain kind of life ). obviously, therefore, the substance or form is actuality. according to this argument, then, it is obvious that actuality is prior in substantial being to potency ; and as we have said, one actuality always precedes another in time right back to the actuality of the eternal prime mover. but ( b ) actuality is prior in a stricter sense also ; for eternal things are prior in substance to perishable things, and no eternal thing exists potentially. the reason is this. every potency is at one and the same time a potency of the opposite ; for, while that which is not capable of being present in a subject cannot be present, everything that is capable of being may possibly not be actual. that, then, which is capable of being may either be or not be ; the same thing, then, is capable both of being and of not being. and that which is capable of not being may possibly not be ; and that which may possibly not be is perishable, either in the full sense, or in the precise sense in which it is said that it possibly may not be, i. e. in respect either of place or of quantity or quality ; ‘ in the full sense ’ means ‘ in respect of substance ’. nothing, then, which is in the full sense imperishable is in the full sense potentially existent ( though there is nothing to prevent its being so in some respect, e. g. potentially of a certain quality


in respect of substance ’. nothing, then, which is in the full sense imperishable is in the full sense potentially existent ( though there is nothing to prevent its being so in some respect, e. g. potentially of a certain quality or in a certain place ) ; all imperishable things, then, exist actually. nor can anything which is of necessity exist potentially ; yet these things are primary ; for if these did not exist, nothing would exist. nor does eternal movement, if there be such, exist potentially ; and, if there is an eternal mobile, it is not in motion in virtue of a potentiality, except in respect of ‘ whence ’ and ‘ whither ’ ( there is nothing to prevent its having matter which makes it capable of movement in various directions ). and so the sun and the stars and the whole heaven are ever active, and there is no fear that they may sometime stand still, as the natural philosophers fear they may. nor do they tire in this activity ; for movement is not for them, as it is for perishable things, connected with the potentiality for opposites, so that the continuity of the movement should be laborious ; for it is that kind of substance which is matter and potency, not actuality, that causes this. imperishable things are imitated by those that are involved in change, e. g. earth and fire. for these also are ever active ; for they have their movement of themselves and in themselves. but the other potencies, according to our previous discussion, are all potencies for opposites ; for that which can move another in this way can also move it not in this way, i. e. if it acts according to a rational formula ; and the same non - rational potencies will produce opposite results by their presence or absence. if, then, there are any entities or substances such as the dialecticians say the ideas are, there must be something much more scientific than science - itself and something more mobile than movement - itself ; for these will be more of the nature of actualities, while science - itself and movement - itself are potencies for these. obviously, then, actuality is prior both to potency and to every principle of change. that the actuality is also better and more valuable than the good potency is evident from the following argument. everything of which we say that it can do something, is alike capable of contraries, e. g. that of which we say


. that the actuality is also better and more valuable than the good potency is evident from the following argument. everything of which we say that it can do something, is alike capable of contraries, e. g. that of which we say that it can be well is the same as that which can be ill, and has both potencies at once ; for the same potency is a potency of health and illness, of rest and motion, of building and throwing down, of being built and being thrown down. the capacity for contraries, then, is present at the same time ; but contraries cannot be present at the same time, and the actualities also cannot be present at the same time, e. g. health and illness. therefore, while the good must be one of them, the capacity is both alike, or neither ; the actuality, then, is better. also in the case of bad things the end or actuality must be worse than the potency ; for that which ‘ can ’ is both contraries alike. clearly, then, the bad does not exist apart from bad things ; for the bad is in its nature posterior to the potency. and therefore we may also say that in the things which are from the beginning, i. e. in eternal things, there is nothing bad, nothing defective, nothing perverted ( for perversion is something bad ). it is an activity also that geometrical constructions are discovered ; for we find them by dividing. if the figures had been already divided, the constructions would have been obvious ; but as it is they are present only potentially. why are the angles of the triangle equal to two right angles? because the angles about one point are equal to two right angles. if, then, the line parallel to the side had been already drawn upwards, the reason would have been evident to any one as soon as he saw the figure. why is the angle in a semicircle in all cases a right angle? if three lines are equal the two which form the base, and the perpendicular from the centre — the conclusion is evident at a glance to one who knows the former proposition. obviously, therefore, the potentially existing constructions are discovered by being brought to actuality ; the reason is that the geometer ’ s thinking is an actuality ; so that the potency proceeds from an actuality ; and therefore it is by making constructions that people come to know them ( though the single actuality is later in generation than the corresponding potency ). the


’ s thinking is an actuality ; so that the potency proceeds from an actuality ; and therefore it is by making constructions that people come to know them ( though the single actuality is later in generation than the corresponding potency ). the terms ‘ being ’ and ‘ non - being ’ are employed firstly with reference to the categories, and secondly with reference to the potency or actuality of these or their non - potency or nonactuality, and thirdly in the sense of true and false. this depends, on the side of the objects, on their being combined or separated, so that he who thinks the separated to be separated and the combined to be combined has the truth, while he whose thought is in a state contrary to that of the objects is in error. this being so, when is what is called truth or falsity present, and when is it not? we must consider what we mean by these terms. it is not because we think truly that you are pale, that you are pale, but because you are pale we who say this have the truth. if, then, some things are always combined and cannot be separated, and others are always separated and cannot be combined, while others are capable either of combination or of separation, ‘ being ’ is being combined and one, and ‘ not being ’ is being not combined but more than one. regarding contingent facts, then, the same opinion or the same statement comes to be false and true, and it is possible for it to be at one time correct and at another erroneous ; but regarding things that cannot be otherwise opinions are not at one time true and at another false, but the same opinions are always true or always false. but with regard to incomposites, what is being or not being, and truth or falsity? a thing of this sort is not composite, so as to ‘ be ’ when it is compounded, and not to ‘ be ’ if it is separated, like ‘ that the wood is white ’ or ‘ that the diagonal is incommensurable ’ ; nor will truth and falsity be still present in the same way as in the previous cases. in fact, as truth is not the same in these cases, so also being is not the same ; but ( a ) truth or falsity is as follows — contact and assertion are truth ( assertion not being the same as affirmation ), and ignorance is non - contact. for it is not possible to be in error


not the same ; but ( a ) truth or falsity is as follows — contact and assertion are truth ( assertion not being the same as affirmation ), and ignorance is non - contact. for it is not possible to be in error regarding the question what a thing is, save in an accidental sense ; and the same holds good regarding non - composite substances ( for it is not possible to be in error about them ). and they all exist actually, not potentially ; for otherwise they would have come to be and ceased to be ; but, as it is, being itself does not come to be ( nor cease to be ) ; for if it had done so it would have had to come out of something. about the things, then, which are essences and actualities, it is not possible to be in error, but only to know them or not to know them. but we do inquire what they are, viz. whether they are of such and such a nature or not. ( b ) as regards the ‘ being ’ that answers to truth and the ‘ non - being ’ that answers to falsity, in one case there is truth if the subject and the attribute are really combined, and falsity if they are not combined ; in the other case, if the object is existent it exists in a particular way, and if it does not exist in this way does not exist at all. and truth means knowing these objects, and falsity does not exist, nor error, but only ignorance — and not an ignorance which is like blindness ; for blindness is akin to a total absence of the faculty of thinking. it is evident also that about unchangeable things there can be no error in respect of time, if we assume them to be unchangeable. e. g. if we suppose that the triangle does not change, we shall not suppose that at one time its angles are equal to two right angles while at another time they are not ( for that would imply change ). it is possible, however, to suppose that one member of such a class has a certain attribute and another has not ; e. g. while we may suppose that no even number is prime, we may suppose that some are and some are not. but regarding a numerically single number not even this form of error is possible ; for we cannot in this case suppose that one instance has an attribute and another has not, but whether our judgement be true or false, it is implied that the fact is eternal


in recent years there has also been a slight drop in the fraction of daily calories that american adults get from fast food. but among some groups - - young black adults, people in low - income families - - fast - food consumption remains high and unchanged. those are among the findings of the federal government ' s periodic look at americans ' health, the national health and nutrition examination survey ( nhanes ). " i think there ' s some potential good news here, " said cynthia ogden, who oversaw two studies released thursday by the national center for health statistics. from 1999 through 2010, the average intake for boys age 2 to 19 declined to 2, 100 from 2, 260 calories per day. for girls, the decline was to 1, 760 calories from 1, 830 calories. previously, daily caloric intake had been rising since the 1960s. the percentage of calories from protein increased over the past 12 years, and the percentage of calories from fat did not change. what did change was the consumption of carbohydrates. it fell by 1 percent in boys and girls. " the survey didn ' t look at sugar specifically. but other studies suggest that a decrease in carbohydrates is due to a decrease in added sugar, " ogden said. from 2007 to 2010, adult americans ( defined as those age 20 and older ) got 11 percent of their calories from fast food. that was down from 13 percent found in the previous nhanes survey, conducted from 2003 to 2006. blacks obtained 15 percent of their calories from fast food ; for whites and hispanics, the figure was 11 percent. the percentage declined slightly for whites over the two survey periods but didn ' t change for blacks or hispanics. among people in their 20s and 30s, 15 percent of whites ' and hispanics ' calories came from fast food. blacks of that age group got 21 percent - - roughly one - fifth - - of their total calories from fast food. people age 60 or older got a much smaller portion of their calories - - 6 or 7 percent - - from that source. income level had little relation to fast - food consumption, except in the young adult ( 20 - 39 ) age group. within that group, people in low - income households got slightly more of their calories from fast food than did people in middle - income families - - 17 percent vs. 14 percent. obese adults also got more of their calories from fast food ( 13 percent ) than adults of


recent event highlights : last american troops leave vietnam, operation linebacker 2, operation linebacker 1, and 18 more... created by 13rodriguezh on dec 20, 2010 last updated : 01 / 02 / 11 at 07 : 47 pm vietnam war menu has no followers yet. be the first one to follow. on march 29, 1973, two months after signing the vietnam peace agreement, the last u. s. troops leave south vietnam when hanoi freed the remaining american prisoners of war. these talks included secret preparatory talks, formal meetings, walkouts from negotiations, and return to the table after military force, resulted in a formal document signing on january 28, 1973. on january 15, 1973, president richard nixon ordered a ceasefire of the aerial bombings in north vietnam. the decision came after dr henry kissinger returned to washington from paris france with a draft peace proposal. combat missions continued in south vietnam. by january 27, 1973, all warring parties in the vietnam war signed a ceasefire as a prelude to the paris peace accord. it was a u. s military bombing campaign over north vietnam, that started when the paris negotiations broke down in december of 1972. linebacker was a great improvement over rolling thunder. during linebacker, american aircraft attacked targets like airfields, power plants, and radio stations which disrupted the flow of supplies and reinforcements to the units fighting in the south. president richard nixon introduced his policy of " vietnamization ". the plan was to encourage the south vietnamese to take more responsibility for fighting the war. in march 1969, president richard nixon authorized secret bombing raids in cambodia, nixon believed north vietnam was transporting troops and supplies through neighboring cambodia into south vietnam. he hoped that bombing supply routes in cambodia would weaken the united states ' enemies. the media really changed the view of the public ' s opinion on the vietnam war because not only was the media showing some good things such as secret bombings that were being planned, but was also making lyndon b. johnson as well as his military look very bad and badly represented the military due to war efforts. which made the people of the united states angry at lyndon b. johnson ' s administration and the soldiers of the military was also very angry on how the media was representing them. money spent in vietnam war. lyndon b johnson ' s general westmoreland said that his next step was to capture hue. he explaining the city was the symbol of a unified vietnam, and capturing it would have profound psychological impact on the vietnamese in both the north and the south. richard nixon, a republican won the election. he campaigned against


next step was to capture hue. he explaining the city was the symbol of a unified vietnam, and capturing it would have profound psychological impact on the vietnamese in both the north and the south. richard nixon, a republican won the election. he campaigned against rising crime and claimed he would restore " law and order ". nixon also instituted the southern policy, taking advantage of southern voters. a supply convoy was ambushed by pavn forces on route 9. this was the last overland attempt to resupply khe sanh until the following april. through december, pavn troops were spotted in the area, but there was little fighting. with the increase in enemy activity a decision was needed regarding whether to further reinforce khe sanh or abandon the position. the tet offensive was a series of surprise attacks by the vietcong and north vietnamese forces, on scores of cities, towns, and hamlets throughout south vietnam. it was considered to be a turning point in the vietnam war. the most notorious u. s. military event of the vietnam war. my lai was one of a cluster of south vietnamese hamlets making up son my village, nicknamed " pinkville " by u. s. soldiers because of its concentration of communist sympathizers and viet cong activity. it was a military operation of the vietnam war conducted primarily by us forces. the aim of this massive search and destroy operation was to corrupt the so - called " iron triangle. " this was the first major battle between the united states army and the people ' s army of vietnam ( referred to by us fighting units as the north vietnamese army during the vietnam war. ) u. s. cia agents had been tracking the nva ' s movements since the early fall, and by november 13 u. s. forces had been moved in to attack. operation rolling thunder was a prolonged u. s. bombing campaign during the vietnam war that failed to achieve its major political and military objectives. this was a major carpet - bombing of north vietnamese targets. 3, 500 marines were deployed to secure the u. s. airbase, freeing south vietnamese troops up for combat. on march 1, ambassador maxwell taylor had informed south vietnamese premier phan huy quat that the united states was preparing to send the marines to vietnam. three days later, a formal request was submitted by the u. s. embassy, asking the south vietnamese government to " invite " the united states to send the marines. was a congressional resolution passed in 1964 that authorized military action in southeast asia. on aug. 4, 1964,


request was submitted by the u. s. embassy, asking the south vietnamese government to " invite " the united states to send the marines. was a congressional resolution passed in 1964 that authorized military action in southeast asia. on aug. 4, 1964, north vietnamese torpedo boats in the gulf of tonkin attacked u. s. destroyers that were reporting intelligence information to south vietnam. on july 31, 1964, the destroyer uss maddox started a desoto patrol off north vietnam. it steamed through the gulf of tonkin getting used to the area until it was attacked by three soviet - built p - 4 motor torpedo boats were dispatched to attack the destroyer. the ho chi minh trail was a series of roads built from north vietnam to south vietnam through the friendly countries of laos and cambodia, to provide logistical support to the vietcong and the north vietnamese army during the vietnam war. the eisenhower doctrine defined itself as a defensive move to contain soviet expansionism, but response from the governments of the middle east was mixed. jordan and lebanon liked the declaration. egypt and syria said it as a threat to their security. and, israel was unsure of their response and iraq and saudi arabia opposed a u. s. military role in the region. the domino theory was the view held by u. s. policy makers during the cold war that if one country went to communism, its neighbors were threatened with a chain reaction of communist takeovers. president harry truman addresses congress in march 1947, introducing the new policy ( truman doctrine ) of providing economic and military aid to turkey and greece, the policy encompassed support for anticommunist efforts around the world.


one of the more surprising aspects of the early missions of the nx class enterprise during the 2150s was the number of hostile alien species which the ship encountered. one of the more mysterious of these incidents came in 2151, during the ship ' s first year of exploration. enterprise was deploying subspace amplifiers to expand earth ' s communications network when an alien vessel approached. the ship refused all attempts at communication, simply observing enterprise for a short time before departing. over the next few days the vessel returned several times, but on subsequent visits it scanned enterprise and then launched a series of unprovoked attacks on the ship. the alien vessel was fitted with a defensive energy screen which enterprise ' s torpedoes had little impact upon. the initial haste to get enterprise out of dock in time to return the klingon courier klaang to his home world had meant that there was no time to install the ship ' s most powerful weapons - three five hundred gigajoule phase cannon. the engineering and weapon crews managed to install the single cannon which the ship carried in storage, and to construct and install a second cannon. this remarkable feat, which would be expected to take up to a week in dock, was completed in 48 hours whilst the ship was still underway and engaged in periodic combat. on one of the attacks the alien craft dispatched a shuttlecraft which landed a two person boarding party aboard enterprise in what seemed to be some form of reconnaissance mission. the aliens were humanoid, but of a species completely unknown to the crew. they were equipped with personal force fields which proved invulnerable to the fire of the phase pistols enterprise carried, and after conducting scans of some crewmen and planting a surveillance device the aliens withdrew. once enterprise had its phase cannon installed, they were tested against a small mountain on an uninhabited moon. the effects were unexpected ; an overload caused the cannon to fire with ten times the expected yield, completely destroying the mountain and inflicting significant damage on the ship. some modification allowed the cannon to perform more normally, but when used against the alien craft they proved as ineffective as the torpedoes had. the chief engineering officer formulated a method of protecting the ship from the overload damage experienced earlier, and captain archer ordered that the conditions of the first firing be deliberately re - created. the overload allowed the phase cannon to puncture the shields of the enemy ship, inflicting considerable damage on it. a volley of torpedoes convinced the aliens to withdraw. 1 there has been no further encounter with this species since 2151,


when i was a kid, my favorite crayon was the one called " burnt sienna. " it produced a warm orange - brown color that reminded me of georgia red clay. i wasn ' t far off the mark. the rich pigments of the color sienna are derived from a form of limonite clay used in the production of oil - based paints. ferric oxides found in certain soils produce the complex color. natural soil pigments, such as siena, ochre and umbra are found in many cave paintings and are believed to be the first pigments used by humans. burnt sienna is a warm reddish - brown hue, created by heating raw sienna to remove excess water from the clay. " sienna " is short for terra di siena, or " earth of siena. " the color is named for the town of siena, italy, where it occurs in abundance. the southwest entrance to siena through medieval city wall. palazzo pubblico ( town hall ) piazza del campo a beautiful medieval door in siena, italy, the cathedrale di santa maria, known as the duomo, is a treasure trove of sacred art from the 13th and 14th centuries. this marble mosaic by an unknown artist depicts the " she - wolf, " symbol of siena our guide explained that the relief on this bronze door to the duomo ( siena, italy ) depicts the " glorification of the virgin. " cathedral de santa maria assunta ( holy mary of the assumption ) these colorful frescoes on the library ceiling were painted by umbrian artist bernardino di betto, better known as " pinturicchio. " the sequential panels depict the life story of siena cardinal enea silvio piccolomini, who eventually became pope pius ii. fresco painted archway bernardino di betto ( pinturicchio ) painted several frescoes in the cathedral. this one, in the nave above the door to the piccolomini library, substitutes portraits of pinturicchio ' s patrons for the faces of the saints.


comparing an integer with a floating - point number, part 1 : strategy last week, i started discussing the problem of comparing two numbers, each of which might be integer or floating - point. i pointed out that integers are easy to compare with each other, but a program that compares two floating - point numbers must take nan ( not a number ) into account. - a how - to guide on using cloud services for security - rich data backup - how to test and launch a world - class application - best practices : using apple ' s global proxy to boost mobile security - informationweek 2013 it spending priorities survey - the untapped potential of mobile apps for commercial customers - secure cloud : taking advantage of the intelligent wan that discussion omitted the case in which one number is an integer and the other is floating - point. as before, we must decide how to handle nan ; presumably, we shall make this decision in a way that is consistent with what we did for pure floating - point values. aside from dealing with nan, the basic problem is easy to state : we have two numbers, one integer and one floating - point, and we want to compare them. for convenience, we ' ll refer to the integer as n and the floating - point number as x. then there are three possibilities : - neither of the above. it ' s easy to write the comparisons n < x and x < n directly as c + + expressions. however, the definition of these comparisons is that n gets converted to floating - point and the comparison is done in floating - point. this language - defined comparison works only when converting n to floating - point yields an accurate result. on every computer i have ever encountered, such conversions fail whenever the " fraction " part of the floating - point number — that is, the part that is neither the sign nor the exponent — does not have enough capacity to contain the integer. in that case, one or more of the integer ' s low - order bits will be rounded or discarded in order to make it fit. to make this discussion concrete, consider the floating - point format usually used for the float type these days. the fraction in this format has 24 significant bits, which means that n can be converted to floating - point only when | n | < 224. for larger integers, the conversion will lose one or more bits. so, for example, 224 and 224 + 1 might convert to the same floating - point number, or perhaps 224 + 1 and 224 + 2 might do so, depending on how the machine handles rounding


, the conversion will lose one or more bits. so, for example, 224 and 224 + 1 might convert to the same floating - point number, or perhaps 224 + 1 and 224 + 2 might do so, depending on how the machine handles rounding. either of these possibilities implies that there are values of x such that n = = x, n + 1 = = x, and ( of course ) n < n + 1. such behavior clearly violates the conditions for c + + comparison operators. in general, there will be a number — let ' s call it b for big — such that integers with absolute value greater than b cannot always be represented exactly as floating - point numbers. this number will usually be 2k, where k is the number of bits in a floating - point fraction. i claim that " greater " is correct rather than " greater than or equal " because even though the actual value 2k doesn ' t quite fit in k bits, it can still be accurately represented by setting the exponent so that the low - order bit of the fraction represents 2 rather than 1. so, for example, a 24 - bit fraction can represent 224 exactly but cannot represent 224 + 1, and therefore we will say that b is 224 on such an implementation. with this observation, we can say that we are safe in converting a positive integer n to floating - point unless n > b. moreover, on implementations in which floating - point numbers have more bits in their fraction than integers have ( excluding the sign bit ), n > b will always be false, because there is no way to generate an integer larger than b on such an implementation. returning to our original problem of comparing n, we see that the problems arise only when n > b. in that case we cannot convert n to floating - point successfully. what can we do? the key observation is that if x is large enough that it might possibly be larger than n, the low - order bit of x must represent a power of two greater than 1. in other words, if x > b, then x must be an integer. of course, it might be such a large integer that it is not possible to represent it in integer format ; but nevertheless, the mathematical value of x is an integer. this final observation leads us to a strategy : n < b, then we can safely convert nto floating - point for comparison with x ; this conversion will be exact. - otherwise, if xis larger than the largest possible integer ( of the type of xmust


atenolol pregnancy and breastfeeding warnings atenolol is also known as : tenormin atenolol pregnancy warnings atenolol crosses the placental barrier and appears in cord blood. administration of atenolol in the second trimester of pregnancy has been associated with the birth of infants that are small for their gestational age. in addition, some data have shown a significantly decreased fetal heart rate and significantly decreased mean birth weight of infants whose mothers were taking atenolol relative to those taking acebutolol or pindolol. case reports of profound beta - blockade in neonates of mothers who were taking atenolol are reported. because of this, observation of affected neonates for bradycardia and hypotension is recommended for 48 hours postpartum. the results of one study indicate that maternal renal function, mean cardiac output, and heart rate are significantly increased, while mean total peripheral resistance is significantly decreased during the second and third trimesters as compared to 3 months postpartum. atenolol has been assigned to pregnancy category d by the fda. animal studies have revealed evidence of dose - related embryotoxicity and fetotoxicity. atenolol has been used during human pregnancy ( starting in the second trimester ) with evidence of lower birth weight and preterm ( less than 37 weeks ) delivery. neonates born to mothers who are receiving atenolol at parturition may be at risk for hypoglycemia and bradycardia. atenolol should only be given during pregnancy when there are no alternatives and benefit outweighs risk. atenolol breastfeeding warnings atenolol is excreted into human breast milk at a ratio of 1. 5 to 6. 8 when compared to the concentration in plasma. neonates born to mothers who are receiving atenolol and are breast - feeding may be at risk for hypoglycemia and bradycardia. the manufacturer recommends that caution be used when administering atenolol to nursing women. milk atenolol levels may be four times higher than maternal serum levels. one case of bradycardia, peripheral cyanosis, and hypothermia is reported in a nursing infant whose mother was taking atenolol 50 mg orally every 12 hours. the authors calculated that the atenolol exposure to the nursing infant was 9 % of the mother ' s daily dose. because of this


is reported in a nursing infant whose mother was taking atenolol 50 mg orally every 12 hours. the authors calculated that the atenolol exposure to the nursing infant was 9 % of the mother ' s daily dose. because of this, observation of nursing infants for bradycardia and hypotension is recommended during breast - feeding. in addition, neonates born to mothers who are breast - feeding may be at an increase risk for hypoglycemia. premature infants or infants with impaired renal function may be more at risk to develop side effects. - atenolol use while breastfeeding ( in more detail ) - atenolol consumer information - pregnancy support group - fda pregnancy categories - medicine use during pregnancy - medicine use while breastfeeding - safe medications during breastfeeding disclaimer : every effort has been made to ensure that the information provided by cerner multum, wolters kluwer health and drugs. com is accurate, up - to - date, and complete, but no guarantee is made to that effect. in addition, the drug information contained herein may be time sensitive and should not be utilized as a reference resource beyond the date hereof. this drug information does not endorse drugs, diagnose patients, or recommend therapy. this drug information is a reference resource designed as supplement to, and not a substitute for, the expertise, skill, knowledge, and judgement of healthcare practitioners in patient care. the absence of a warning for a given drug or drug combination in no way should be construed to indicate that the drug of drug combination is safe, effective, or appropriate for any given patient. multum information services, inc. does not assume any responsibility for any aspect of healthcare administered with the aid of information multum provides. copyright 2000 - 2008 multum information services, inc. the information in contained herein is not intended to cover all possible uses, directions, precautions, warnings, drug interactions, allergic reactions, or adverse effects. if you have questions about the drugs you are taking, check with your doctor, nurse, or pharmacist.


violin for dummies with all of its different parts and its beautiful, delicate - looking body, the violin can feel a bit intimidating at first. this cheat sheet helps you get to know your instrument by introducing the most important parts of your violin, provides some easy steps to keep it in tip - top condition, and takes you through the process of taking the violin out of its case for the very first time. examining the parts of your violin more than 70 parts go into making a complete violin. this hourglass - shaped string instrument consists of several basic parts, including the 21 important elements explained here. back : one of the most important parts of the violin, for both aesthetic and acoustic properties. the back of the violin can be made of one or two pieces, and it ’ s arched for strength and tone power. bass bar : a slim strip of wood glued under the table of the violin on the side of, and running more or less parallel to, the lower strings. the bass bar reinforces the strength of the violin ’ s top and enriches the tone of the lower notes. body : the sounding box of the violin has evolved to produce the best sound and use the most convenient playing shape. the waist of the violin is actually a necessary indentation, so that the bow can move freely across the strings without bumping into the body. bridge : the only piece of unvarnished wood on the violin, it sits on top, about halfway down the body, placed exactly between the little crossbars of the violin ’ s f - holes. the strings run over the top of the bridge, which transfers their vibrations to the main body of the violin for amplification. the bridge is slightly rounded to match the shape of the fingerboard and to enable the player to bow on one string at a time. chinrest : the spot on which your jaw rests when you ’ re playing ( come to think of it, it should be called a jaw rest ). chinrests are usually made of ebony that has been carved into a cupped shape to fit the left side of your jaw. your chinrest is attached just to the left of the tailpiece by a special metal bracket. you can choose from a variety of models to fit your chin shape and neck length most comfortably. end button : a small circular knob made of ebony, to which the tailpiece is attached by a loop. f - holes : the openings on either side of the bridge. they ’ re called f - holes because they ’ re shaped like the it


end button : a small circular knob made of ebony, to which the tailpiece is attached by a loop. f - holes : the openings on either side of the bridge. they ’ re called f - holes because they ’ re shaped like the italic letter f. fine tuners : small metal screws fitted into the tailpiece and used for minor tuning adjustments. fingerboard : a slightly curved, smooth piece of ebony that ’ s glued on top of the neck of the violin, under most of the length of the strings. neck : the long piece of wood to which the fingerboard is glued. the neck connects the body of the violin to the pegbox and scroll. nut : a raised ridge at the pegbox end of the fingerboard that stops the strings from vibrating beyond that point. pegbox : the rectangular part of the scroll immediately adjoining the nut end of the fingerboard, before all the fancy carving begins, where each of the four pegs fits snugly sideways into its individual hole. pegs : four pieces of wood, usually ebony, shaped for ease of turning and fitted into round holes in the pegbox. the player turns the peg to tighten or loosen each string when tuning the violin. purfling : an inlay running around the edge of the top and back of the violin ’ s body. the purfling is both decorative and functional because it protects the main body of the violin from cracks that can occur through accidental bumps. of all the parts of the violin, purfling is the most fun to say. ribs : the sides of the violin. the luthier ( a fancy word for violin maker ) bends the wood, curving it to fit the outline of the top and back of each instrument. saddle : an ebony ridge over which the tailpiece loop passes. the saddle protects the body of the violin from becoming damaged and prevents rattling sounds, which would occur if the tailpiece was to contact the top of the violin when it ’ s vibrating with sound. scroll : named after the rolled - up paper scrolls that were sent instead of envelopes in the old days, the scroll forms the very end of the pegbox. carving a scroll requires artistic vision and great expertise, so creative violin makers see the scroll as an opportunity to display their best work. occasionally, you meet a violin with a lion ’ s head scroll, or some other fanciful shape, the result of a maker ’ s whimsy. sound post : enhances the volume and tone of the violin by transferring the sound


work. occasionally, you meet a violin with a lion ’ s head scroll, or some other fanciful shape, the result of a maker ’ s whimsy. sound post : enhances the volume and tone of the violin by transferring the sound vibrations to the back of the instrument after the bow makes a string sound near the bridge. if you peek into the f - hole near the e string ( your thinnest string ), you see a small round column of unvarnished wood, about the circumference of a pencil, which fits vertically from the top to the back of the violin. strings : the four metal - wrapped wires ( often made with silver or aluminum ribbon spiraling smoothly around a gut or synthetic core material ) that you bow on ( or pluck ) to produce the notes of the violin. tailpiece : a flared - shaped piece of wood into which the top end of each string is attached. the tailpiece itself is attached to the end button by a gut or synthetic loop. top ( or table ) : the face of the violin. the top is very important to the character and quality of the violin ’ s sound as well as to its general appearance. protecting your violin from damage violins are made of natural materials that are sensitive to temperature and humidity changes. follow these tips to help your violin have a long and happy life : keep your violin at about room temperature. store the case away from high - traffic areas so that it doesn ’ t get knocked around. always close and latch the case when you finish playing, to protect your violin from falls. keep your violin away from radiators, air ducts, and direct sunlight, and avoid leaving it for long stays ( or almost any stays! ) in car trunks, especially in very hot or very cold weather. most important of all, keep your violin in a humidity of 40 to 60 percent whenever possible, and if you ’ re traveling to a different climate, take care to preserve the humidity in the violin ’ s case at a similar level. how to take your violin out of its case taking the violin out of its case ( and putting it away again safely ) is a skill ; mastering the art ensures that your instrument will have a long and happy life. to open the case, follow these steps : place the violin case on a stable, flat surface, such as a table or a sofa, with the lid facing the ceiling, and then turn the latch - and - handle side to face you. you may have to unzip the case


: place the violin case on a stable, flat surface, such as a table or a sofa, with the lid facing the ceiling, and then turn the latch - and - handle side to face you. you may have to unzip the case ’ s cover first, which usually has two zips that pull away to either side of the case ’ s handle. pull the zippers all the way around to the back of the case so that the lid is able to open fully. open the latches first, then release the lock and lift the lid. because the cases are very snugly built, the top can be a bit sticky to lift, in which case ( no pun intended! ), you hold firmly on the handle while you lift the lid. after you open the case, lift off the covering blanket ( if you have one ) and undo the strap or the ribbon that safely holds your violin around its neck in the case, before you lift out the violin. hold the violin around its neck to lift it from the case — don ’ t grab the body, because that ’ s not good for the varnish. it ’ s a good idea to place the velvet cloth that covers the violin onto the table and next to the case ; this way, you can place the instrument on the cloth. release the bow from the case by turning the toggle from a vertical to a horizontal position, taking the bow by the frog end ( the name for the piece of ebony wood below the stick at the right end of the bow ) with your right hand, and then sliding it gently to the right until the tip ( the pointy end ) of the bow is out of its loophole. never twist the stick while doing this — bows are strong, but they can ’ t always resist sideways twists.


bing online dictionary defines “ symptom ” as : “ indication of illness felt by patient : an indication of a disease or other disorder, especially one experienced by the patient, e. g. pain, dizziness or itching, as opposed to one observed by the doctor. ” so, how long does it take from the time symptoms start to get help? with symptoms of a common cold, relief can be found at the nearest supermarket or pharmacy ; over - the - counter remedies are as abundant as they are accessible. so on average, i would guess from the time of the first sneeze or cough until the first swig of medicine, we ’ re looking at about an hour. with symptoms of cardiac or other emergency distress, 911 is typically called, and help arrives quickly. perhaps an average 10 to 20 minutes or so from the onset of symptoms until help arrives, depending on the location of the patient. shooting pain from a tooth? most of us will deal with this symptom for only as long as it takes for the dentist can get us in. how about a torn knee ligament on the ski hill? most likely, we will get that treated as soon as possible. what about symptoms of depression, anxiety, substance abuse and other behavioral - health conditions? interestingly, we wait 10 years on average from the onset of symptoms until we get treatment. why do we wait? one answer is stigma, as defined by the online dictionary as, “ sign of social unacceptability : the shame or disgrace attached to something regarded as socially unacceptable. ” it ’ s true that our culture has not been ( historically ) accepting of behavioral - health conditions. that being said, i wonder how we can still consider these conditions to be socially unacceptable – especially when they are so prevalent nowadays. as evidence of the widespread nature of behavioral health conditions, the national alliance on mental illness reports an estimated 26. 2 percent of adults, or about 1 in 4, experience a diagnosable mental disorder every year. what are the consequences of waiting 10 years? unfortunately, as with any issue, the longer we wait to get treatment, the greater likelihood we have of developing advanced symptoms. however, as with other illnesses, the good news is that early intervention and treatment has proved effective in treating behavioral - health conditions. as i often write in this column, mental health first aid is an evidence - based set of skills that have proved to be effective in lessening the time between the start of symptoms and getting help. for more information about m


durham cathedral library descends from the library of the monastery founded on lindisfarne by st aidan in 635. when the community left lindisfarne in 875, the monks took with them relics of st cuthbert, and a number of books. these probably included the famous manuscript now known as the lindisfarne gospels. the community settled at chester - le - street in 883, where it continued to acquire books. in 995 it moved to durham, where it built the ' white church ' completed in 1017. the medieval priory library in 1083 the bishop of durham, william of st calais, founded a benedictine priory to replace the community of secular clerks which had served the white church and shrine of st cuthbert, and in 1093 the foundation stone of the present cathedral was laid. william drew his first monks from the recently re - founded abbeys of wearmouth and jarrow. the new priory inherited books from all these predecessors, including 7th and 8th century manuscripts of northumbrian origin, some of which are still in the cathedral library today. the priory gradually amassed a substantial library, including books written in its own scriptorium. most books were housed in the spendement off the west cloister, cupboards in the north cloister, and ( from the early 15th century ) a new library room above the east cloister. the cathedral library after the dissolution of the monastery after the dissolution of the monastery in 1539, the cathedral was re - founded under a dean and chapter who inherited what survived of the priory ' s collection of manuscripts and printed books. further severe losses occurred in the later 16th century, including the lindisfarne gospels ( now in the british library ; a facsimile is on display in the cathedral treasury ). nonetheless, over 300 manuscripts and some 60 printed books from the monastic collection still remain in the cathedral library today. after almost a century of neglect, the library was reformed in the 1620 ' s through the initiative of john cosin and other canons. during the civil war and interregnum it suffered less depredation and dispersal than many other cathedral libraries. after the restoration, the former monastic refectory was restored and fitted out as a library by dean sudbury, and the old library room above the east cloister ceased to be used for library purposes. the book collection grew rapidly, both by purchase and gift, and by 1676 the stock had increased to almost 1000 volumes. the 18th century brought further substantial expansion, with less emphasis on theology and more