weather forecasts to human - written ones, in part because the computer forecasts used more consistent terminology, and a demonstration that statistical techniques could be used to generate high - quality weather forecasts. recent applications include the arns system used to summarise conditions in us ports. in the 1990s there was interest in using nlg to summarise financial and business data. for example the spotlight system developed at a. c. nielsen automatically generated readable english text based on the analysis of large amounts of retail sales data. more recently there is interest in using nlg to summarise electronic medical records. commercial applications in this area are appearing, and researchers have shown that nlg summaries of medical data can be effective decision - support aids for medical professionals. there is also growing interest in using nlg to enhance accessibility, for example by describing graphs and data sets to blind people. an example of an interactive use of nlg is the wysiwym framework. it stands for what you see is what you meant and allows users to see and manipulate the continuously rendered view ( nlg output ) of an underlying formal language document ( nlg input ), thereby editing the formal language without learning it. as in other scientific fields, nlg researchers need to test how well their systems, modules, and algorithms work. this is called evaluation. there are three basic techniques for evaluating nlg systems : - task - based ( extrinsic ) evaluation : give the generated text to a person, and assess how well it helps him perform a task ( or otherwise achieves its communicative goal ). for example, a system which generates summaries of medical data can be evaluated by giving these summaries to doctors, and assessing whether the summaries helps doctors make better decisions. - human ratings : give the generated text to a person, and ask him or her to rate the quality and usefulness of the text. - metrics : compare generated texts to texts written by people from the same input data, using an automatic metric such as bleu. an ultimate goal is how useful nlg systems are at helping people, which is the first of the above techniques. however, task - based evaluations are time - consuming and expensive, and can be difficult to carry out ( especially if they require subjects with specialised expertise, such as doctors ). hence ( as in other areas of nlp ) task - based evaluations are the exception, not the norm. recently researchers are assessing how well human - ratings and metric


out ( especially if they require subjects with specialised expertise, such as doctors ). hence ( as in other areas of nlp ) task - based evaluations are the exception, not the norm. recently researchers are assessing how well human - ratings and metrics correlate with ( predict ) task - based evaluations. work is being conducted in the context of generation challenges shared - task events. initial results suggest that human ratings are much better than metrics in this regard. in other words, human ratings usually do predict task - effectiveness at least to some degree ( although there are exceptions ), while ratings produced by metrics often do not predict task - effectiveness well. these results are preliminary. in any case, human ratings are the most popular evaluation technique in nlg ; this is contrast to machine translation, where metrics are widely used. - r turner, s sripada, e reiter, i davy ( 2006 ). generating spatio - temporal descriptions in pollen forecasts. proceedings of eacl06 - goldberg e, driedger n, kittredge r ( 1994 ). " using natural - language processing to produce weather forecasts ". ieee expert 9 ( 2 ) : 45 – 53. doi : 10. 1109 / 64. 294135. - reiter e, sripada s, hunter j, yu j, davy i ( 2005 ). " choosing words in computer - generated weather forecasts ". artificial intelligence 167 : 137 – 69. doi : 10. 1016 / j. artint. 2005. 06. 006. - belz a ( 2008 ). " automatic generation of weather forecast texts using comprehensive probabilistic generation - space models ". natural language engineering 14 : 431 – 55. - anand, tej ; kahn, gary ( 1992 ). " making sense of gigabytes : a system for knowledge - based market analysis ". in klahr, philip ; scott, a. f. innovative applications of artificial intelligence 4 : proceedings of the iaai - 92 conference. menlo park, calif : aaai press. pp. 57 – 70. isbn 0 - 262 - 69155 - 8. - harris md ( 2008 ). " building a large - scale commercial nlg system for an emr ". proceedings of the fifth international natural language generation conference. pp. 157 – 60. http : / / www. aclweb. org / anthology / w08 - 1120. pdf. - portet f, rei


emr ". proceedings of the fifth international natural language generation conference. pp. 157 – 60. http : / / www. aclweb. org / anthology / w08 - 1120. pdf. - portet f, reiter e, gatt a, hunter j, sripada s, freer y, sykes c ( 2009 ). " automatic generation of textual summaries from neonatal intensive care data ". artificial intelligence 173 ( 7 – 8 ) : 789 – 816. doi : 10. 1016 / j. artint. 2008. 12. 002. - law a, freer y, hunter j, logie r, mcintosh n, quinn j ( 2005 ). " a comparison of graphical and textual presentations of time series data to support medical decision making in the neonatal intensive care unit ". journal of clinical monitoring and computing 19 ( 3 ) : 183 – 94. doi : 10. 1007 / s10877 - 005 - 0879 - 3. pmid 16244840. further reading - dale, robert ; reiter, ehud ( 2000 ). building natural language generation systems. cambridge, uk : cambridge university press. isbn 0 - 521 - 02451 - x. - acl special interest group on generation ( siggen ) - siggen part of acl anthology ( contains nlg research papers ) - acl nlg portal ( contains list of nlg resources ) - bateman and zock ' s list of nlg systems - introduction an open - ended review of the state of the art including many references ( last update : september 2002 ) - kpml — general - purpose natural language generation system - yseop — business - oriented natural language generation system - simplenlg — open source java library to assist in nlg ( english only ) - simplenlg - enfr — open source java library adaption of simplenlg which adds french support.


church of the east | part of a series on | the church of the east ( syriac : ʿe ( d ) taʾ d - madn ( ə ) haʾ ), also known as the nestorian church, [ note 1 ] is a christian church, part of the syriac tradition of eastern christianity. the church of the persian sassanid empire, it quickly spread widely through asia. between the 9th and 14th centuries it was the world ' s largest christian church in terms of geographical extent, with dioceses stretching from the mediterranean to china and india. several modern churches claim continuity with the historical church of the east. the church of the east was headed by the patriarch of the east, continuing a line that, according to tradition, stretched back to the apostolic age. liturgically, the church adhered to the east syrian rite, and theologically, it is associated with the doctrine of nestorianism, which emphasizes the distinctness of the divine and human natures of jesus. this doctrine and its chief proponent, nestorius ( 386 – 451 ), were condemned by the first council of ephesus in 431, leading to the nestorian schism and a subsequent exodus of nestorius ' supporters to sassanid persia. the existing christians in persia welcomed these refugees and gradually adopted nestorian doctrine, leading the church of persia to be known alternately as the nestorian church. the church grew rapidly under the sassanids, and following the islamic conquest of persia, it was designated as a protected dhimmi community under muslim rule. from the 6th century, it expanded greatly, establishing communities in india ( the saint thomas christians ), central asia ( where they had evangelical success among the mongol tribes ), and china, which was home to a thriving nestorian community under the tang dynasty from the 7th to the 9th century. in the 13th and 14th century the church experienced a final period of expansion under the mongol empire, which had influential nestorian christians in the mongol court. from its peak of geographical extent, the church experienced a rapid period of decline starting in the 14th century, due in large part to outside influences. the mongol empire dissolved into civil war, the chinese ming dynasty overthrew the mongols and ejected christians and other foreign influences from china ( also including manichaeism ), and many mongols in central asia converted to islam. the muslim mongol leader timur ( 1336 – 1405 ) nearly eradicated the remaining christians in persia ; thereafter, nestorian christianity was largely confined to upper mesopotamia and the malabar


the culmination of a philosophical current developed by scholars at the school of antioch, most notably nestorius ' s mentor theodore of mopsuestia. this became a source of controversy when nestorius publicly challenged usage of the title theotokos ( literally, " bearer of god " ) for the virgin mary. he suggested that the title denied christ ' s full humanity, arguing instead that jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine logos and the human jesus, and proposed christotokos ( literally, " bearer of the christ " ) as a more suitable alternative title. these statements drew criticism from other prominent churchmen, particularly from cyril, patriarch of alexandria, leading to the first council of ephesus in 431, which condemned nestorius for heresy and deposed him as patriarch. nestorianism was officially anathematized, a ruling reiterated at the council of chalcedon in 451. however, a number of churches, particularly those associated with the school of edessa in mesopotamia, supported nestorius — though not necessarily the doctrine ascribed to him — and broke with the churches of the roman empire. many of nestorius ' supporters relocated to sassanid persia. these events are known as the nestorian schism. although the " nestorian " label was initially a theological one, applied to followers of the nestorian doctrine, it was soon applied to all associated churches with little regard for theological consideration. while often used disparagingly in the west to emphasize the church of the east ' s connections to a heretical doctrine, many writers of the middle ages and since have simply used the label descriptively, as a neutral and conventional term for the church. other names for the church include " persian church ", " syriac " or " syrian " ( often distinguished as east syriac / syrian ), and, more recently, " assyrian ". in modern times some scholars have sought to avoid the nestorian label, preferring " church of the east " or one of the other alternatives. this is due both to the term ' s derogatory connotations, and because it implies a stronger connection to nestorian doctrine than may have historically existed. as wilhelm baum and dietmar w. winkler said, " nestorius himself was no nestorian " in terms of doctrine. even from the beginning, not all churches called " nestorian " adhered to the nestorian doctrine ; in china, it has been noted that none of the various sources for the local nestorian church refer to christ as having two natures. as


even from the beginning, not all churches called " nestorian " adhered to the nestorian doctrine ; in china, it has been noted that none of the various sources for the local nestorian church refer to christ as having two natures. as such, in 2006 an academic conference changed its name from " research on nestorianism in china ", explaining in the preface, "... it was decided not to keep the term " nestorianism " in the title of the future conferences and the present book, but to use the term church of the east, which is correct and wide enough to cover the whole field of the research. " the 2000 work, the ecclesiastical organisation of the church of the east, 1318 – 1913, offers an explanation in the first chapter : the terminology used in this study deserves a word of explanation. until recently the church of the east was usually called the ' nestorian ' church, and east syrian christians were either ' nestorians ' or ( for the catholic group after the schism of 1552 ) ' chaldeans '. during the period covered in this study, the word ' nestorian ' was used both as a term of abuse by those who disapproved of the traditional east syrian theology, as a term of pride by many of its defenders ( including abdisho of nisibis in 1318, the mosul patriarch eliya x yohannan marogin in 1672, and the qudshanis patriarch shem ' on xvii abraham in 1842 ), and as a neutral and convenient descriptive term by others. nowadays it is generally felt that the term carries a stigma, and students of the church of the east are advised to avoid its use. in this thesis the theologically neutral adjective ' east syrian ' has been used wherever possible, and the term ' traditionalist ' to distinguish the non - catholic branch of the church of the east after the schism of 1552. the modern term ' assyrian ', often used in the same sense, was unknown for most of the period covered in this study, and has been avoided. the modern assyrian church of the east has shunned the " nestorian " label. the church ' s present head, catholicos - patriarch mar dinkha iv, explicitly rejected the term on the occasion of his consecration in 1976. the peshitta, in some cases lightly revised and with missing books added, is the standard syriac bible for churches in the syriac tradition : the syriac orthodox church, the syrian catholic church, the assyrian


term on the occasion of his consecration in 1976. the peshitta, in some cases lightly revised and with missing books added, is the standard syriac bible for churches in the syriac tradition : the syriac orthodox church, the syrian catholic church, the assyrian church of the east, the ancient church of the east, the indian orthodox church, the chaldean catholic church, the maronite church, the malankara syrian orthodox church, the syro - malabar church and the syro - malankara catholic church. the old testament of the peshitta was translated from the hebrew, although the date and circumstances of this are not entirely clear. the translators may have been syriac - speaking jews, or the early jewish converts to christianity. the translation could have been done separately for different old testament texts, and the whole work was probably done by the 2nd century ad. parthian and sassanid periods christians were already forming communities in mesopotamia as early as the first century, when it was part of the parthian empire. by the third century, the area had been conquered by the persian sassanid empire ( becoming the province of asuristan ), and there were significant christian communities in northern mesopotamia, elam, and fars. the church of the east traced its origins ultimately to the evangelical activity of the apostles addai, mari and thomas, but leadership and structure was disorganized until the establishment of the diocese of seleucia - ctesiphon, the bishop of which came to be recognized as catholicos, or universal leader, of the church. this position received an additional title later, patriarch of the east. these early christian communities were reinforced in the fourth and fifth centuries by large - scale deportations of christians from the eastern roman empire. however, the persian church faced several severe persecutions, notably during the reign of shapur ii ( 339 – 79 ), from the zoroastrian majority who accused it of roman leanings. the church grew considerably during the sassanid period, but the pressure of persecution led to the persian church declaring itself independent of all other christian churches in 424. meanwhile, in the roman empire, the nestorian schism had led many of nestorius ' supporters to relocate to the persian empire. the persian church increasingly aligned itself with the nestorian schismatics, a measure encouraged by the zoroastrian ruling class. the church became increasingly nestorian in doctrine over the next decades, furthering the divide between roman christendom and the nestorians. in


aligned itself with the nestorian schismatics, a measure encouraged by the zoroastrian ruling class. the church became increasingly nestorian in doctrine over the next decades, furthering the divide between roman christendom and the nestorians. in 486 the metropolitan of nisibis, barsauma, publicly accepted nestorius ' mentor, theodore of mopsuestia, as a spiritual authority. in 489, when the school of edessa in mesopotamia was closed by byzantine emperor zeno for its nestorian teachings, the school relocated to its original home of nisibis, becoming again the school of nisibis, leading to a wave of nestorian immigration into the persian empire. the persian patriarch mar babai i ( 497 – 502 ) reiterated and expanded upon his predecessors ' esteem for theodore, solidifying the church ' s adoption of nestorianism. now firmly established in the persia, with centers in nisibis, ctesiphon, and gundeshapur, and several metropolitan sees, the church of the east began to branch out beyond the persian sassanid empire. however, through the 6th century the church was frequently beset with internal strife and persecution from the zoroastrians. the infighting led to a schism, which lasted from 521 until around 539, when the issues were resolved. however, immediately afterward roman - persian conflict led to a renewed persecution of the church by the sassanid king khosrau i ; this ended in 545. the church survived these trials under the guidance of patriarch mar abba i, who had converted to christianity from zoroastrianism. by the end of the 5th century and the middle of the 6th, the area occupied by nestorians included " all the countries to the east and those immediately to the west of the euphrates ", including persia, egypt, syria, arabia, socotra, mesopotamia ( assyria and babylonia ), media, bactria, hyrcania, and india ; and possibly also to places called calliana, male, and sielediva ( ceylon ). beneath the patriarch in the hierarchy were nine metropolitans, and clergy were recorded among the huns, in persarmenia, media, and the island of dioscoris in the indian ocean. islamic rule after the sassanid empire was conquered by muslim arabs in 644, the newly established rashidun caliphate designated the church of the east as an official dhimmi minority group headed by


island of dioscoris in the indian ocean. islamic rule after the sassanid empire was conquered by muslim arabs in 644, the newly established rashidun caliphate designated the church of the east as an official dhimmi minority group headed by the patriarch of the east. as with all other christian and jewish groups given the same status, the church was restricted within the caliphate, but also given a degree of protection. nestorians were not permitted to proselytize or attempt to convert muslims, but their missionaries were otherwise given a free hand, and they increased missionary efforts farther afield. missionaries established dioceses in india ( the saint thomas christians ). they made some advances in egypt, despite the strong monophysite presence there, and they entered central asia, where they had significant success converting local tartar tribes. nestorian missionaries were firmly established in china during the early part of the tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) ; the chinese source known as the nestorian stele describes a mission under a persian proselyte named alopen as introducing nestorian christianity to china in 635. in the 7th century, the church had grown to have two nestorian archbishops, and over 20 bishops east of the iranian border of the oxus river. the patriarch timothy i ( 780 – 823 ), a contemporary of the caliph harun al - rashid, took a particularly keen interest in the missionary expansion of the church of the east. he is known to have consecrated metropolitans for damascus, for armenia, for dailam and gilan in azerbaijan, for rai in tabaristan, for sarbaz in segestan, for the turks of central asia, for china, and possibly also for tibet. he also detached india from the metropolitan province of fars and made it a separate metropolitan province, known as india. by the 10th century the church of the east had a number of dioceses stretching from across the caliphate ' s territories to india and china. nestorian christians made substantial contributions to the islamic umayyad and abbasid caliphates, particularly in translating the works of the ancient greek philosophers to syriac and arabic. nestorians made their own contributions to philosophy, science ( such as hunayn ibn ishaq, qusta ibn luqa, masawaiyh, patriarch eutychius, jabril ibn bukhtishu ) and theology ( such as tatian, bar daisan, babai the great, nestorius, toma bar yacoub ). the personal physicians of the abbas


, patriarch eutychius, jabril ibn bukhtishu ) and theology ( such as tatian, bar daisan, babai the great, nestorius, toma bar yacoub ). the personal physicians of the abbasid caliphs were often assyrian christians such as the long serving bukhtishu dynasty. the church of the east had a vigorous corps of missionaries, who proceeded eastward from their base in persia, having particular success in india, among the mongols, and reaching as far as china and korea. nestorianism reached india at a very early date, becoming the religion of the saint thomas christians of the malabar coast probably by the 6th century. whether or not christianity in india predated the nestorian missions ( the saint thomas christians attribute their christianization to thomas the apostle in the 1st century ), in later times southern india ' s christian community maintained strong ties with the nestorian church in persia. these ties were strengthened through a series of mass migrations by syriac christians to the malabar coast in the 9th century. after the 8th century the thomas christian community was organized as the ecclesiastical province of india. in the 12th century indian nestorianism engaged the western imagination in the figure of prester john, supposedly a nestorian ruler of india who held the offices of both king and priest. the geographically remote malabar church survived the decay of the nestorian hierarchy elsewhere, enduring until the 16th century when the portuguese arrived in india. the portuguese at first accepted the nestorian sect, but by the end of the century they had determined to actively bring the saint thomas christians into full communion with rome under the latin rite. they installed portuguese bishops over the local sees and made liturgical changes to accord with the latin practice. in 1599 the synod of diamper, overseen by aleixo de menezes, archbishop of goa, led to a revolt among the saint thomas christians ; the majority of them broke with the catholic church and vowed never to submit to the portuguese in the coonan cross oath of 1653. in 1661 pope alexander vii responded by sending a delegation of carmelites headed by chaldean catholics to re - establish the east syrian rites under an eastern catholic hierarchy ; by the next year, 84 of the 116 communities returned, forming the syro - malabar catholic church. the rest, which became known as the malankara church, soon entered into communion with the syriac orthodox church ; from the malankara church has also come the syro - malankara catholic church. christianity reached china by 635


church. the rest, which became known as the malankara church, soon entered into communion with the syriac orthodox church ; from the malankara church has also come the syro - malankara catholic church. christianity reached china by 635, and its relics can still be seen in chinese cities such as xi ' an. the nestorian stele, set up on 7 january 781 at the then - capital of chang ' an, attributes the introduction of christianity to a mission under a persian cleric named alopen in 635, in the reign of tang taizong during the tang dynasty. the inscription on the nestorian stele, whose dating formula mentions the patriarch hnanishoʿ ii ( 773 – 80 ), gives the names of several prominent christians in china, including the metropolitan adam, the bishop yohannan, the ' country - bishops ' yazdbuzid and sargis and the archdeacons gigoi of khumdan ( chang ' an ) and gabriel of sarag ( loyang ). the names of around seventy monks are also listed. nestorian christianity thrived in china for approximately 200 years, but then faced persecution from emperor wuzong of tang ( reigned 840 – 846 ). he suppressed all foreign religions, including buddhism and christianity, causing it to decline sharply in china. a syrian monk visiting china a few decades later described many churches in ruin. the church disappeared from china in the early 10th century, coinciding with the collapse of the tang dynasty and the tumult of the next years ( the five dynasties and ten kingdoms period ). christianity in china experienced a significant revival during the mongol - created yuan dynasty, established after the mongols had conquered china in the 13th century. marco polo in the 13th century and other medieval western writers described many nestorian communities remaining in china and mongolia ; however, they clearly were not as vibrant as they had been during tang times. the church of the east enjoyed a final period of expansion under the mongols. several mongol tribes had already been converted by nestorian missionaries in the 7th century, and christianity was therefore a major influence in the mongol empire. genghis khan was a shamanist, but his sons took christian wives from the powerful kerait clan, as did their sons in turn. during the rule of genghis ' s grandson, the great khan mongke, nestorian christianity was the primary religious influence in the empire, and this also carried over to mongol - conquered china, during the yuan dynasty. it was at this point


the rule of genghis ' s grandson, the great khan mongke, nestorian christianity was the primary religious influence in the empire, and this also carried over to mongol - conquered china, during the yuan dynasty. it was at this point, in the late 13th century, that the church of the east reached its greatest geographical extent. but mongol power was already waning, as the empire dissolved into civil war, and it reached a turning point in 1295, when ghazan, the mongol ruler of the ilkhanate, made a formal conversion to islam when he took the throne. jerusalem and cyprus rabban bar sauma had initially conceived of his journey to the west as a pilgrimage to jerusalem, so it is possible that there was a nestorian presence in the city ca. 1300. there was certainly a recognizable nestorian presence at the holy sepulchre from the 1348 through 1575, as contemporary franciscan accounts indicate. at famagusta, cyprus, a nestorian community was established just before 1300, and a church was built for them ca. 1339. schism and later history collapse of the exterior provinces the ' exterior provinces ' of the church of the east, with the important exception of india, collapsed during the second half of the fourteenth century. although little is known of the circumstances of the demise of the nestorian dioceses in central asia ( which may never have fully recovered from the destruction caused by the mongols a century earlier ), it was probably due to a combination of persecution, disease, and isolation. the blame for the destruction of the nestorian communities east of iraq has often been thrown upon the turco - mongol leader timur, whose campaigns during the 1390s spread havoc throughout persia and central asia, but in many parts of central asia, christianity had died out decades before timur ' s campaigns. the surviving evidence from central asia, including a large number of dated graves, indicates that the crisis for the church of the east occurred in the 1340s rather than the 1390s. several contemporary observers, including the papal envoy giovanni de ' marignolli, mention the murder of a latin bishop in 1339 or 1340 by a muslim mob in almaliq, the chief city of tangut, and the forcible conversion of the city ' s christians to islam. at the end of the 19th century, the last tombstones in two east syrian cemeteries were discovered and dated in mongolia. they dated from 1342, and several commemorated deaths during a plague in 1338. in china


city ' s christians to islam. at the end of the 19th century, the last tombstones in two east syrian cemeteries were discovered and dated in mongolia. they dated from 1342, and several commemorated deaths during a plague in 1338. in china, the last references to nestorian and latin christians date from the 1350s. it is likely that all foreign christians were expelled from china soon after the revolution of 1368, which replaced the mongol yuan dynasty with the xenophobic ming dynasty. by the 15th century, nestorian christianity was largely confined to northern mesopotamia, in the rough triangle formed by mosul and lakes van and urmia. small nestorian communities were located further west, notably in jerusalem and cyprus, but the malabar christians of india represented the only significant survival of the once - thriving exterior provinces of the church of the east. schism of 1552 around the middle of the fifteenth century the patriarch shemʿon iv basidi made the patriarchal succession hereditary, normally from uncle to nephew. this practice, which resulted in a shortage of eligible heirs, eventually led to a schism in the church of the east. the patriarch shemʿon vii ishoʿyahb ( 1539 – 58 ) caused great offense at the beginning of his reign by designating his twelve - year - old nephew hnanishoʿ as his successor, presumably because no older relatives were available. several years later, probably because hnanishoʿ had died in the interim, he designated as successor his fifteen - year - old brother eliya, the future patriarch eliya vii ( 1558 – 91 ). these appointments, combined with other accusations of impropriety, caused discontent throughout the church, and by 1552 shemʿon vii ishoʿyahb had become so unpopular that a group of bishops, principally from the amid, seert and salmas districts, chose a new patriarch, electing a monk named yohannan sulaqa, the superior of rabban hormizd monastery near alqosh. however, no bishop of metropolitan rank was available to consecrate him, as canonically required. franciscan missionaries were already at work among the nestorians, and they persuaded sulaqa ' s supporters to legitimize their position by seeking their candidate ' s consecration by pope julius iii ( 1550 – 5 ). sulaqa went to rome to put his case in person. at rome he made a satisfactory catholic profession of faith and presented a letter, drafted by his supporters in mosul


their candidate ' s consecration by pope julius iii ( 1550 – 5 ). sulaqa went to rome to put his case in person. at rome he made a satisfactory catholic profession of faith and presented a letter, drafted by his supporters in mosul, which set out his claims to be recognized as patriarch. on april 9, having satisfied the vatican that he was a good catholic, sulaqa was consecrated bishop and archbishop in the basilica of saint peter. on april 28 he was recognized as " patriarch of mosul " by pope julius iii in the bull divina disponente clementia and received the pallium from the pope ' s hands at a secret consistory in the vatican. these events, which marked the birth of the chaldean catholic church, created a permanent schism in the church of the east. sulaqa was consecrated " patriarch of mosul " in rome in april 1553 and returned to mesopotamia towards the end of the same year. in december 1553 he obtained documents from the turkish authorities recognizing him as an independent " chaldean " patriarch, and in 1554, during a stay of five months in amid, consecrated five metropolitan bishops ( for the dioceses of gazarta, hesna d ' kifa, amid, mardin and seert ). shemʿon vii ishoʿyahb responded by consecrating two more underage members of the patriarchal family as metropolitans for nisibis and gazarta. he also won over the governor of ʿamadiya, who invited sulaqa to ʿamadiya, imprisoned him for four months, and put him to death in january 1555. sees in qochanis, amid, and alqosh the connections with rome loosened up under shimun viii sulaqa ' s successors, who all used the patriarchal name shimun. the last patriarch to be formally recognized by the pope died in the 1600, and the heredity of the office was reintroduced, and thus by 1660 the church of the east had become divided into two patriarchates, the eliya line in alqosh ( which comprised those who had not entered in communion with rome ) and the shimun line. in 1672 the patriarch of the shimun line, mar shimun xiii denha, moved his seat to the village of qochanis in the mountains of hakkari. in 1692 he formally broke communion with rome and he allegedly resumed relations with the line at alqosh. in the western regions, a new start


of the east is in exile in chicago, and that of the ancient church of the east is in baghdad. in the common christological declaration between the catholic church and the assyrian church of the east in 1994, the two churches recognized the legitimacy and rightness of each other ' s titles for mary. see also - ancient church of the east - assyrian church of the east - chaldean catholic church - dioceses of the church of the east to 1318 - dioceses of the church of the east, 1318 – 1552 - dioceses of the church of the east, 1552 – 1913 - list of patriarchs of the church of the east - syriac christianity - though the " nestorian " label is well established, it has been contentious. see the nestorianism section for the naming issue and alternate designations for the church. - " history of the nestorian church ". nestorian. org. retrieved may 1, 2013. - wilmshurst, ecclesiastical organisation of the church of the east, 21 – 2 - " nestorian ". encyclopædia britannica. retrieved january 28, 2010. - wilmshurst, p. 4 - according to john foster, church of the tang dynasty, p. 34, in the 9th century there were 25 metropolitans - silverberg, robert ( 1972 ). the realm of prester john. doubleday. pp. 20 – 23. - foltz, p. 63 - " cyril of alexandria, third epistle to nestorius, including the twelve anathemas ". monachos. net. - " nestorius ". encyclopædia britannica. retrieved january 29, 2010. - baum, w. & winkler, d., ( 2000, 2003 [ tr. ] ) the church of the east, london, routledgecurzon, pp. 4 – 5 - hofrichter, peter l. ( 2006 ). " preface ". in malek, roman ; hofrichter, peter ( editors ). jingjiao : the church of the east in china and central asia. steyler verlagsbuchhandlung gmbh. isbn 978 - 3 - 8050 - 0534 - 0. - hill, p. 107 - winkler, church of the east : a concise history, p. 1 - roberson, ronald ( 1999 ). the eastern christian churches : a brief survey. edizioni orientalia christiana. isbn 8872103215. - culture and customs


the east : a concise history, p. 1 - roberson, ronald ( 1999 ). the eastern christian churches : a brief survey. edizioni orientalia christiana. isbn 8872103215. - culture and customs of iran, p. 61 - foster, pp. 26 – 27 - stewart, pp. 13−14 - foster, p. 33 - fiey, pocn, 47 ( armenia ), 72 ( damascus ), 74 ( dailam and gilan ), 94 – 6 ( india ), 105 ( china ), 124 ( rai ), 128 – 9 ( sarbaz ), 128 ( samarqand and beth turkaye ) and 139 ( tibet ) - hill, donald. islamic science and engineering. 1993. edinburgh univ. press. isbn 0 - 7486 - 0455 - 3, p. 4 - remi brague, assyrians contributions to the islamic civilization - britannica, nestorian - " christians of saint thomas ". encyclopædia britannica. retrieved february 9, 2010. - ding, wang ( 2006 ). " renmants of christianity from chinese central asia in medieval ages ". in malek, roman ; hofrichter, peter ( editors ). jingjiao : the church of the east in china and central asia. steyler verlagsbuchhandlung gmbh. isbn 978 - 3 - 8050 - 0534 - 0. - stewart, p. 169 - stewart, p. 183 - moffett, pp. 14 – 15. - jackson, mongols and the west, p. 97 - h. c. luke, " the christian communities in the holy sepulchre, " in jerusalem 1920 – 1922 ( london : john murray, 1924 ), pp. 46 – 56. - j. m. fiey, pour un oriens christianus novus ; repertoire des dioceses syriaques orientaux et occidentaux. ( beirut, 1993 ) p. 71. david wilsmhurst, the ecclesiastical organisation of the church of the east, 1318 – 1913 ( louvain : peeters, 2000 ), p. 66. - frazee, p. 55. - wilmshurst, ecclesiastical organisation of the church of the east, 1318 – 1913, 345 – 7 - wilmshurst, p. 19 - wilsmhurst, p. 21. - wilmshurst, pp. 21 – 22. - wilmshurst, p


organisation of the church of the east, 1318 – 1913, 345 – 7 - wilmshurst, p. 19 - wilsmhurst, p. 21. - wilmshurst, pp. 21 – 22. - wilmshurst, p. 22. - habbi, " signification de l ' union chaldeenne de mar sulaqa avec rome en 1553 ", l ' orient syrien 11 ( 1966 ), 99 – 132 and 199 – 230 ; wilmshurst, ecclesiastical organisation of the church of the east, pp. 21 – 22 - heleen h. l. murre. " the patriarchs of the church of the east from the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries ". hugoye : journal of syriac studies. retrieved 2009 - 02 - 04. - " common christological declaration between the catholic church and the assyrian church of the east ". the holy see. november 11, 1994. retrieved january 25, 2010. - angold, michael, ed. ( 2006 ). the cambridge history of christianity. volume 5, eastern christianity. cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 81113 - 2. - baum, wilhelm ; winkler, dietmar w ( 1 january 2003 ). the church of the east : a concise history, london : routledge. isbn 0 - 415 - 29770 - 2. google print, retrieved 16 july 2005. - daniel, elton l. ( 2006 ). culture and customs of iran. greenwood publishing group. isbn 978 - 0 - 313 - 32053 - 8. - " nestorius and nestorianism ". catholic encyclopedia. - fiey, j. m., pour un oriens christianus novus ; repertoire des dioceses syriaques orientaux et occidentaux ( beirut, 1993 ) - foltz, richard, religions of the silk road, palgrave macmillan, 2nd edition, 2010 isbn 978 - 0 - 230 - 62125 - 1 - foster, john ( 1939 ). the church of the t ' ang dynasty. great britain : society for promoting christian knowledge. - charles a. frazee, catholics and sultans : the church and the ottoman empire 1453 – 1923, cambridge university press, 2006 isbn 0 - 521 - 02700 - 4 - gumilev, lev n. ( 2003 ). poiski vymyshlennogo tsarstva [ looking for the mythical kingdom ] ( in russian ). moscow : onyx publishers. isbn 5 - 9503 - 00


- gumilev, lev n. ( 2003 ). poiski vymyshlennogo tsarstva [ looking for the mythical kingdom ] ( in russian ). moscow : onyx publishers. isbn 5 - 9503 - 0041 - 6. - hill, henry, ed ( 1988 ). light from the east : a symposium on the oriental orthodox and assyrian churches. toronto : anglican book centre. - jackson, peter ( 2005 ). the mongols and the west : 1221 – 1410. longman. isbn 978 - 0 - 582 - 36896 - 5. - jenkins, philip. the lost history of christianity. harperone. isbn 0 - 06 - 147281 - 6. - moffett, samuel hugh ( 1999 ). " alopen ". biographical dictionary of christian missions : 14 – 15. - morgan, david ( 2007 ). the mongols ( 2nd ed. ). blackwell publishing. isbn 978 - 1 - 4051 - 3539 - 9. - rossabi, morris ( 1992 ). voyager from xanadu : rabban sauma and the first journey from china to the west. kodansha international ltd. isbn 4 - 7700 - 1650 - 6. - seleznyov, nikolai n., " nestorius of constantinople : condemnation, suppression, veneration, with special reference to the role of his name in east - syriac christianity " in : journal of eastern christian studies 62 : 3 – 4 ( 2010 ) : 165 – 190. - stewart, john ( 1928 ). nestorian missionary enterprise, the story of a church on fire. edinburgh, t. & t. clark. - wilmshurst, david ( 2000 ). the ecclesiastical organisation of the church of the east, 1318 – 1913. peeters publishers. isbn 978 - 90 - 429 - 0876 - 5.


pausanias ( greek : παυσανιας ) ( died c. 470 bc ) was a spartan general of the 5th century bc. he was a scion of the royal house of the agiads but not in the direct line of succession himself : the son of cleombrotus and nephew of leonidas i, serving as regent after the latter ' s death, since leonidas ' son pleistarchus was still under - age. pausanias was also the father of pleistoanax, who later became king, and cleomenes. pausanias was responsible for the greek victory over mardonius and the persians at the battle of plataea in 479 bc, and was the leader of the hellenic league created to resist persian aggression during the greco - persian wars. after the greek victories at plataea and the battle of mycale, the spartans lost interest in liberating the greek cities of asia minor. however, when it became clear that athens would dominate the hellenic league in sparta ' s absence, sparta sent pausanias back to command the league ' s military. in 478 bc pausanias was suspected of conspiring with the persians and was recalled to sparta, however he was acquitted and then left sparta of his own accord, taking a trireme from the town of hermione. after capturing byzantium pausanias was alleged to have released some of the prisoners of war who were friends and relations of the king of persia. however, pausanias argued that the prisoners had escaped. he sent a letter via gongylus of eretria to king xerxes ( son of darius ), saying that he wished to help him and bring sparta and the rest of greece under persian control. in return, he wished to marry the king ’ s daughter. after receiving a letter back from xerxes in which xerxes agreed to his plans, pausanias started to dress like a persian aristocrat and he started to adopt persian customs. many spartan allies joined the athenian side because of pausanias ’ arrogance and high - handedness. the spartans recalled him once again, and pausanias fled to kolonai in the troad before returning to sparta because he didn ’ t wish to be suspected of persian sympathies. on his arrival in sparta, the ephors had him imprisoned but he was later released. nobody had enough evidence to convict him of disloyalty ; even though some helot


’ t wish to be suspected of persian sympathies. on his arrival in sparta, the ephors had him imprisoned but he was later released. nobody had enough evidence to convict him of disloyalty ; even though some helots gave evidence that he had offered certain helots their freedom if they joined him in revolt. one of the messengers that xerxes and pausanias had been using to communicate provided written evidence to the spartan ephors that they needed to formally prosecute pausanias. the ephors planned to arrest pausanias in the street but he was warned of their plans and escaped to the temple of athena of the brazen house. the ephors walled up the doors, put sentries outside and proceeded to starve him out. when pausanias was on the brink of death they carried him out, and he died shortly thereafter. this chain of events prevented pausanias ' s death from taking place within the sanctuary of the temple, which would have been an act of ritual pollution. see also - thucydides i, 133 s : history of the peloponnesian war / book 1 # second congress at lacedaemon - preparations for war and diplomatic skirmishes - cylon - pausanias - themistocles


postmodernism is a term which describes the postmodernist movement in the arts, its set of cultural tendencies and associated cultural movements. it is in general the era that follows modernism. it frequently serves as an ambiguous overarching term for skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. it is often associated with deconstruction and post - structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth - century post - structural thought. one of the most well - known postmodernist concerns is " deconstruction, " a concern for philosophy, literary criticism, and textual analysis developed by jacques derrida. the notion of a " deconstructive " approach implies an analysis that questions the already evident deconstruction of a text in terms of presuppositions, ideological underpinnings, hierarchical values, and frames of reference. a deconstructive approach further depends on the techniques of close reading without reference to cultural, ideological, moral opinions or information derived from an authority over the text such as the author. at the same time derrida famously writes : " il n ' y a pas de hors - texte ( there is no such thing as outside - of - the - text ). " derrida implies that the world follows the grammar of a text undergoing its own deconstruction. derrida ' s method frequently involves recognizing and spelling out the different, yet similar interpretations of the meaning of a given text and the problematic implications of binary oppositions within the meaning of a text. derrida ' s philosophy influenced a postmodern movement called deconstructivism among architects, characterized by the intentional fragmentation, distortion, and dislocation of architectural elements in designing a building. derrida discontinued his involvement with the movement after the publication of his collaborative project with architect peter eisenmann in chora l works : jacques derrida and peter eisenman. postmodernism and structuralism | | this section needs additional citations for verification. ( september 2012 ) | structuralism was a philosophical movement developed by french academics in the 1950s, partly in response to french existentialism. it has been seen variously as an expression of modernism, high modernism, or postmodernism [ by whom? ]. " post - structuralists " were thinkers who moved away from the strict interpretations and applications of structuralist ideas. many american academics consider post - structuralism to


an expression of modernism, high modernism, or postmodernism [ by whom? ]. " post - structuralists " were thinkers who moved away from the strict interpretations and applications of structuralist ideas. many american academics consider post - structuralism to be part of the broader, less well - defined postmodernist movement, even although many post - structuralists insisted it was not. thinkers who have been called structuralists include the anthropologist claude levi - strauss, the linguist ferdinand de saussure, the marxist philosopher louis althusser, and the semiotician algirdas greimas. the early writings of the psychoanalyst jacques lacan and the literary theorist roland barthes have also been called structuralist. those who began as structuralists but became post - structuralists include michel foucault, roland barthes, jean baudrillard, gilles deleuze. other post - structuralists include jacques derrida, pierre bourdieu, jean - francois lyotard, julia kristeva, helene cixous, and luce irigaray. the american cultural theorists, critics and intellectuals they influenced include judith butler, john fiske, rosalind krauss, avital ronell, hayden white. post - structuralism is not defined by a set of shared axioms or methodologies, but by an emphasis on how various aspects of a particular culture, from its most ordinary, everyday material details to its most abstract theories and beliefs, determine one another. post - structuralist thinkers reject reductionism and epiphenomenalism and the idea that cause - and - effect relationships are top - down or bottom - up. like structuralists, they start from the assumption that people ' s identities, values and economic conditions determine each other rather than having intrinsic properties that can be understood in isolation. thus the french structuralists considered themselves to be espousing relativism and constructionism. but they nevertheless tended to explore how the subjects of their study might be described, reductively, as a set of essential relationships, schematics, or mathematical symbols. ( an example is claude levi - strauss ' s algebraic formulation of mythological transformation in " the structural study of myth " ). post - structuralists thinkers went further, questioning the existence of any distinction between the nature of a thing and its relationship to other things. post - structuralists generally reject the notion of formulations of “ essential relations ” in primitive cultures, languages, or descriptions of psychological phenomena being forms of aristotel


existence of any distinction between the nature of a thing and its relationship to other things. post - structuralists generally reject the notion of formulations of “ essential relations ” in primitive cultures, languages, or descriptions of psychological phenomena being forms of aristotelianism, rationalism, or idealism. another common thread among thinkers associated with the post - structuralist movement is the criticism of the absolutist, quasi - scientific claims of structuralist theorists as more reflective of the mechanistic bias inspired by bureaucratization and industrialization than of the inner - workings of actual primitive cultures, languages or psyches. generally, post - structuralists emphasize the inter - determination and contingency of social and historical phenomena with each other and with the cultural values and biases of perspective. such realities were not to be dissected, in the manner of some structuralists, as a system of facts that could exist independently from values and paradigms ( either those of the analysts or the subjects themselves ), but to be understood as both causes and effects of each other. for this reason, most post - structuralists hold a more open - ended view of function within systems than did structuralists and were sometimes accused of circularity and ambiguity. post - structuralists countered that, when closely examined, all formalized claims describing phenomena, reality, or truth, rely on some form or circular reasoning and self - referential logic that is often paradoxical in nature. thus, it was important to uncover the hidden patterns of circularity, self - reference and paradox within a given set of statements rather that feign objectivity, as such an investigation might allow new perspectives to have influence and new practices to be sanctioned or adopted. in this latter respect, post - structuralists were, as a group, continuing the philosophical project initiated by martin heidegger, who saw himself as extending the implications of friedrich nietzsche ' s work. post - structuralist writing tends to connect observations and references from many, widely varying disciplines into a synthetic view of knowledge and its relationship to experience, the body, society and economy - a synthesis in which it sees itself as participating. structuralists, while also somewhat inter - disciplinary, were more comfortable within departmental boundaries and often maintained the autonomy of their analytical methods over the objects they analyzed. post - structuralists, unlike structuralists, did not privilege a system of ( abstract ) " relations " over the specifics to which such relations were applied, but tended to see the notion of “ the relation ” or of systemization itself as part


post - structuralists, unlike structuralists, did not privilege a system of ( abstract ) " relations " over the specifics to which such relations were applied, but tended to see the notion of “ the relation ” or of systemization itself as part - and - parcel of any stated conclusion rather than a reflection of reality as an independent, self - contained state or object. if anything, if a part of objective reality, theorization and systemization to post - structuralists was an exponent of larger, more nebulous patterns of control in social orders – patterns that could not be encapsulated in theory without simultaneously conditioning it. for this reason, certain post - structural thinkers were also criticized by more realist, naturalist or essentialist thinkers of anti - intellectualism or anti - philosophy. post - structuralists, in contrast to structuralists, tend to place a great deal of skepticism on the independence of theoretical premises from collective bias and the influence of power, and reject the notion of a " pure " or " scientific " methodology in social analysis, semiotics or philosophical speculation. no theory, they said – especially when concerning human society or psychology – was capable of reducing phenomena to elemental systems or abstract patterns, nor could abstract systems be dismissed as secondary derivatives of a fundamental nature : systemization, phenomena, and values were part of each other. postmodernism and post - postmodernism | | this section needs additional citations for verification. ( september 2012 ) | recently the notions of metamodernism, post - postmodernism and the " death of postmodernism " have been increasingly widely debated : in 2007 andrew hoborek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal twentieth century literature titled " after postmodernism " that " declarations of postmodernism ' s demise have become a critical commonplace ". a small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture and / or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably raoul eshelman ( performatism ), gilles lipovetsky ( hypermodernity ), nicolas bourriaud ( altermodern ), and alan kirby ( digimodernism, formerly called pseudo - modernism ). none of these new theories and labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. the exhibition postmodernism - style and subversion 1970 - 1990 at the victoria and albert museum ( london, 24 september 2011 – 15 january 2012 ) was billed as the first show ever to


theories and labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. the exhibition postmodernism - style and subversion 1970 - 1990 at the victoria and albert museum ( london, 24 september 2011 – 15 january 2012 ) was billed as the first show ever to document postmodernism as a historical movement. history of term the term " postmodern " was first used around the 1870s. john watkins chapman suggested " a postmodern style of painting " as a way to move beyond french impressionism. j. m. thompson, in his 1914 article in the hibbert journal ( a quarterly philosophical review ), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion : " the raison d ' etre of post - modernism is to escape from the double - mindedness of modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to catholic feeling as well as to catholic tradition. " in 1917, rudolf pannwitz used the term to describe a philosophically - oriented culture. his idea of post - modernism drew from friedrich nietzsche ' s analysis of modernity and its end results of decadence and nihilism. pannwitz ' s post - human would be able to overcome these predicaments of the modern human. contrary to nietzsche, pannwitz also included nationalist and mythical elements in his use of the term. in 1921 and 1925, postmodernism had been used to describe new forms of art and music. in 1942 h. r. hays described it as a new literary form. however, as a general theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by arnold j. toynbee : " our own post - modern age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914 - 1918. " in 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with modern architecture, and led to the postmodern architecture movement, perhaps also a response to the modernist architectural movement known as the international style. postmodernism in architecture is marked by the re - emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms, and non - orthogonal angles. after that, postmodernism was applied to a whole host of movements, many in art, music, and literature, that reacted against tendencies in the imperialist phase of capitalism called " modernism, " and are typically marked by revival of historical elements and techniques. walter truett anderson identifies postmodernism as one of four typological world views. these four world views


reacted against tendencies in the imperialist phase of capitalism called " modernism, " and are typically marked by revival of historical elements and techniques. walter truett anderson identifies postmodernism as one of four typological world views. these four world views are the postmodern - ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed ; the scientific - rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry ; the social - traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of american and western civilization ; and the neo - romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and / or spiritual exploration of the inner self. postmodernist ideas in philosophy and the analysis of culture and society expanded the importance of critical theory and has been the point of departure for works of literature, architecture, and design, as well as being visible in marketing / business and the interpretation of history, law and culture, starting in the late 20th century. these developments — re - evaluation of the entire western value system ( love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy ) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the social revolution of 1968 — are described with the term postmodernity, influences on postmodern thought, paul lutzeler ( st. louis ) as opposed to postmodernism, a term referring to an opinion or movement. postmodernism has also been used interchangeably with the term post - structuralism out of which postmodernism grew, a proper understanding of postmodernism or doing justice to the postmodernist thought demands an understanding of the poststructuralist movement and the ideas of its advocates. post - structuralism resulted similarly to postmodernism by following a time of structuralism. it is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form. " postmodernist " describes part of a movement ; " postmodern " places it in the period of time since the 1950s, making it a part of contemporary history. influence on art the movement of postmodernism began with architecture, as a response to the perceived blandness, hostility, and utopianism of the modern movement. modern architecture, as established and developed by people such as walter gropius, le corbusier, and philip johnson, was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function, and dismissal of " frivolous ornament. " critics of modernism argued that the attributes of


, le corbusier, and philip johnson, was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function, and dismissal of " frivolous ornament. " critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed out anachronisms in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy. definitive postmodern architecture such as the work of michael graves and robert venturi rejects the notion of a ' pure ' form or ' perfect ' architectonic detail, instead conspicuously drawing from all methods, materials, forms and colors available to architects. modernist ludwig mies van der rohe is associated with the phrase " less is more " ; in contrast venturi famously said, " less is a bore. " postmodernist architecture was one of the first aesthetic movements to openly challenge modernism as antiquated and " totalitarian ", favoring personal preferences and variety over objective, ultimate truths or principles. it is this atmosphere of criticism, skepticism, and emphasis on difference over and against unity that distinguishes the postmodernism aesthetic. among writers defining the terms of this discourse is charles jencks, described by architectural design magazine as " the definer of post - modernism for thirty years " and the " internationally acclaimed critic..., whose name became synonymous with post - modernism in the 80s ". urban planning postmodernism is a rejection of ' totality ', of the notion that planning could be ' comprehensive ', widely applied regardless of context, and rational. in this sense, postmodernism is a rejection of its predecessor : modernism. from the 1920s onwards, the modern movement sought to design and plan cities which followed the logic of the new model of industrial mass production ; reverting to large - scale solutions, aesthetic standardisation and prefabricated design solutions ( goodchild 1990 ). postmodern also brought a break from the notion that planning and architecture could result in social reform, which was an integral dimension of the plans of modernism ( simonsen 1990 ). furthermore, modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards homogenous landscapes ( simonsen 1990, 57 ). within modernism, urban planning represented a 20th century move towards establishing something stable, structured, and rationalised within what had become a world of chaos, flux and change ( irving 1993, 475 ). the role of planners predating postmodernism was one of the ' qualified professional ' who believed they could find and implement one single


, and rationalised within what had become a world of chaos, flux and change ( irving 1993, 475 ). the role of planners predating postmodernism was one of the ' qualified professional ' who believed they could find and implement one single ' right way ' of planning new urban establishments ( irving 1993 ). in fact, after 1945, urban planning became one of the methods through which capitalism could be managed and the interests of developers and corporations could be administered ( irving 1993, 479 ). considering modernism inclined urban planning to treat buildings and developments as isolated, unrelated parts of the overall urban ecosystems created fragmented, isolated, and homogeneous urban landscapes ( goodchild, 1990 ). one of the greater problems with modernist - style of planning was the disregard of resident or public opinion, which resulted in planning being forced upon the majority by a minority consisting of affluent professionals with little to no knowledge of real ' urban ' problems characteristic of post - second world war urban environments ; slums, overcrowding, deteriorated infrastructure, pollution and disease, among others ( irving 1993 ). these were precisely the ' urban ills ' modernism was meant to ' solve ', but more often than not, the types of ' comprehensive ', ' one size fits all ' approaches to planning made things worse., and residents began to show interest in becoming involved in decisions which had once been solely entrusted to professionals of the built environment. advocacy planning and participatory models of planning emerged in the 1960s to counter these traditional elitist and technocratic approaches to urban planning ( irving 1993 ; hatuka & d ' hooghe 2007 ). furthermore, an assessment of the ' ills ' of modernism among planners during the 1960s, fuelled development of a participatory model that aimed to expand the range of participants in urban interventions ( hatuka & d ' hooghe 2007, 21 ). jane jacobs ' s 1961 book the death and life of great american cities was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning ( irving 1993, 479 ). however, the transition from modernism to postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3 : 32pm on the 15th of july in 1972, when pruitt igoe ; a housing development for low - income people in st. louis designed by architect minoru yamasaki, which had been a prize winning version of le corbusier ' s ' machine for modern living ' was deemed


today. jorge luis borges ' s ( 1939 ) short story pierre menard, author of the quixote, is often considered as predicting postmodernism and conceiving the ideal of the ultimate parody. samuel beckett is sometimes seen as an important precursor and influence. novelists who are commonly connected with postmodern literature include vladimir nabokov, william gaddis, john hawkes, william burroughs, giannina braschi, kurt vonnegut, john barth, donald barthelme, e. l. doctorow, jerzy kosinski, don delillo, thomas pynchon, pynchon ' s work has also been described as " high modern " ) ishmael reed, kathy acker, ana lydia vega, and paul auster. in 1971, the arab - american scholar ihab hassan published the dismemberment of orpheus : toward a postmodern literature, an early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective, in which the author traces the development of what he calls " literature of silence " through marquis de sade, franz kafka, ernest hemingway, beckett, and many others, including developments such as the theatre of the absurd and the nouveau roman. in ' postmodernist fiction ' ( 1987 ), brian mchale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant [ clarification needed ], and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology. in constructing postmodernism ( 1992 ), mchale ' s second book, he provides readings of postmodern fiction and of some of the contemporary writers who go under the label of cyberpunk. mchale ' s " what was postmodernism? " ( 2007 ), follows raymond federman ' s lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism. | | this section needs additional citations for verification. ( september 2012 ) | postmodern music is either music of the postmodern era, or music that follows aesthetic and philosophical trends of postmodernism. as the name suggests, the postmodernist movement formed partly in reaction to the ideals of the modernist. because of this, postmodern music is mostly defined in opposition to modernist music, and a work can either be modernist, or postmodern, but not both. jonathan kramer posits the idea ( following umberto eco and


the modernist. because of this, postmodern music is mostly defined in opposition to modernist music, and a work can either be modernist, or postmodern, but not both. jonathan kramer posits the idea ( following umberto eco and jean - francois lyotard ) that postmodernism ( including musical postmodernism ) is less a surface style or historical period ( i. e., condition ) than an attitude. the postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1960s with the advent of musical minimalism. composers such as terry riley, krzysztof penderecki, gyorgy ligeti, henryk gorecki, bradley joseph, john adams, george crumb, steve reich, philip glass, michael nyman, and lou harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably john cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to modernism. some composers have been openly influenced by popular music and world ethnic musical traditions. postmodern classical music as well is not a musical style, but rather refers to music of the postmodern era. it bears the same relationship to postmodernist music that postmodernity bears to postmodernism. postmodern music, on the other hand, shares characteristics with postmodernist art — that is, art that comes after and reacts against modernism ( see modernism in music ). a clarifying example of this phenomenon would be a rock band that sells t - shirts, ostensibly an adjunct business to their primary musical pursuit, yet the t - shirts become more popular or are deemed " cooler " that the band ' s original musical output. though representing a general return to certain notions of music - making that are often considered to be classical or romantic, not all postmodern composers have eschewed the experimentalist or academic tenets of modernism. the works of dutch composer louis andriessen, for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti - romantic. eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition. influential postmodernist philosophers | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( september 2012 ) | - martin heidegger ( 1889 – 1976 ) - rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of " subjectivity " and " objectivity " and


influential postmodernist philosophers | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( september 2012 ) | - martin heidegger ( 1889 – 1976 ) - rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of " subjectivity " and " objectivity " and asserted that similar grounding oppositions in logic ultimately refer to one another. instead of resisting the admission of this paradox in the search for understanding, heidegger requires that we embrace it through an active process of elucidation he called the " hermeneutic circle ". he stressed the historicity and cultural construction of concepts while simultaneously advocating the necessity of an atemporal and immanent apprehension of them. in this vein, he asserted that it was the task of contemporary philosophy to recover the original question of ( or " openness to " ) dasein ( translated as being or being - in - the - world ) present in the presocratic philosophers but normalized, neutered and standardized since plato. this was to be done, in part, by tracing the record of dasein ' s sublimation or forgetfulness through the history of philosophy which meant that we were to ask again what constituted the grounding conditions in ourselves and in the world for the affinity between beings and between the many usages of the term " being " in philosophy. to do this, however, a non - historical and, to a degree, self - referential engagement with whatever set of ideas, feelings or practices would permit ( both the non - fixed concept and reality of ) such a continuity was required - a continuity permitting the possible experience, possible existence indeed not only of beings but of all differences as they appeared and tended to develop. such a conclusion led heidegger to depart from the phenomenology of his teacher husserl and prompt instead an ( ironically anachronistic ) return to the yet - unasked questions of ontology, a return that in general did not acknowledge an intrinsic distinction between phenomena and noumena or between things in themselves ( de re ) and things as they appear ( see qualia ) : being - in - the - world, or rather, the openness to the process of dasein ' s / being ' s becoming was to bridge the age - old gap between these two. in this latter premise, heidegger shares an affinity with the late romantic philosopher, friedrich nietzsche, another principal forerunner of post - structuralist and postmodernist thought. influential to thinkers associated with postmodernism are heidegger '


. in this latter premise, heidegger shares an affinity with the late romantic philosopher, friedrich nietzsche, another principal forerunner of post - structuralist and postmodernist thought. influential to thinkers associated with postmodernism are heidegger ' s critique of the subject - object or sense - knowledge division implicit in rationalism, empiricism and methodological naturalism, his repudiation of the idea that facts exist outside or separately from the process of thinking and speaking them ( however, heidegger is not specifically a nominalist ), his related admission that the possibilities of philosophical and scientific discourse are wrapped up in the practices and expectations of a society and that concepts and fundamental constructs are the expression of a lived, historical exercise rather than simple derivations of external, apriori conditions independent from historical mind and changing experience ( see johann gottlieb fichte, heinrich von kleist, weltanschauung and social constructionism ), and his instrumentalist and negativist notion that being ( and, by extension, reality ) is an action, method, tendency, possibility and question rather than a discreet, positive, identifiable state, answer or entity ( see also process philosophy, dynamism, instrumentalism, pragmatism and vitalism ). - jacques derrida ( 1930 – 2004 ) - re - examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general ; sought to undermine the language of ' presence ' or metaphysics in an analytical technique which, beginning as a point of departure from heidegger ' s notion of destruktion, came to be known as deconstruction. derrida utilized, like heidegger, references to greek philosophical notions associated with the skeptics and the presocratics, such as epoche and aporia to articulate his notion of implicit circularity between premises and conclusions, origins and manifestations, but - in a manner analogous in certain respects to gilles deleuze - presented a radical re - reading of canonical philosophical figures such as plato, aristotle and descartes as themselves being informed by such " destabilizing " notions. - michel foucault ( 1926 – 1984 ) - introduced concepts such as ' discursive regime ', or re - invoked those of older philosophers like ' episteme ' and ' genealogy ' in order to explain the relationship among meaning, power, and social behavior within social orders ( see the order of things, the archaeology of knowledge, discipline and punish and


re - invoked those of older philosophers like ' episteme ' and ' genealogy ' in order to explain the relationship among meaning, power, and social behavior within social orders ( see the order of things, the archaeology of knowledge, discipline and punish and the history of sexuality ). in direct contradiction to what have been typified as modernist perspectives on epistemology, foucault asserted that rational judgment, social practice and what he called ' biopower ' are not only inseparable but co - determinant. while foucault himself was deeply involved in a number of progressive political causes and maintained close personal ties with members of the far - left, he was also controversial with leftist thinkers of his day, including those associated with various strains of marxism, proponents of left libertarianism ( e. g. noam chomsky ) and humanism ( e. g. jurgen habermas ), for his rejection of what he deemed to be enlightenment concepts of freedom, liberation, self - determination and human nature. instead, foucault focused on the ways in which such constructs can foster cultural hegemony, violence and exclusion. in line with his rejection of such ' positive ' tenets of enlightenment - era humanism, he was active, with gilles deleuze and felix guattari, in the anti - psychiatry movement, considering much of institutionalized psychiatry and, in particular, freud ' s concept of repression central to psychoanalysis ( which was still very influential in france during the 1960s and 70s ), to be both harmful and misplaced. foucault was known for his controversial aphorisms, such as " language is oppression ", meaning that language functions in such a way as to render nonsensical, false or silent tendencies that might otherwise threaten or undermine the distributions of power backing a society ' s conventions - even when such distributions purport to celebrate liberation and expression or value minority groups and perspectives. his writings have had a major influence on the larger body of postmodern academic literature. - jean - francois lyotard ( 1924 – 1998 ) - identified in the postmodern condition a crisis in the " discourses of the human sciences " latent in modernism but catapulted to the fore by the advent of the " computerized " or " telematic " era ( see information revolution ). this crisis, insofar as it pertains to academia, concerns both the motivations and justification procedures for making research claims : unstated given


of the " computerized " or " telematic " era ( see information revolution ). this crisis, insofar as it pertains to academia, concerns both the motivations and justification procedures for making research claims : unstated givens or values that have validated the basic efforts of academic research since the late 18th century might no longer be valid ( particularly, in social science & humanities research, though examples from mathematics are given by lyotard as well ). as formal conjecture about real - world issues becomes inextricably linked to automated calculation, information storage and retrieval, such knowledge becomes increasingly " exteriorised " from its knowers in the form of information. knowledge is materialized and made into a commodity exchanged between producers and consumers ; it ceases to be either an idealistic end - in - itself or a tool capable of bringing about liberty or social benefit ; it is stripped of its humanistic and spiritual associations, its connection with education, teaching and human development, being simply rendered as " data " - omnipresent, material, unending and without any contexts or pre - requisites. furthermore, the ' diversity ' of claims made by various disciplines begins to lack any unifying principle or intuition as objects of study become more and more specialized due to the emphasis on specificity, precision and uniformity of reference that competitive, database - oriented research implies. the value - premises upholding academic research have been maintained by what lyotard considers to be quasi - mythological beliefs about human purpose, human reason and human progress - large, background constructs he calls " metanarratives ". these metanarratives still remain in western society but are now being undermined by rapid informatization and the commercialization of the university and its functions. the shift of authority from the presence and intuition of knowers - from the good - faith of reason to seek diverse knowledge integrated for human benefit or truth fidelity - to the automated database and the market had, in lyotard ' s view, the power to unravel the very idea of ' justification ' or ' legitimation ' and, with it, the rationale for research altogether - esp. in disciplines pertaining to human life, society and meaning. we are now controlled not by binding extra - linguistic value paradigms defining notions of collective identity and ultimate purpose, but rather by our automatic responses to different species of " language games " ( a concept lyotard imports from jl austin ' s theory of speech acts ).


binding extra - linguistic value paradigms defining notions of collective identity and ultimate purpose, but rather by our automatic responses to different species of " language games " ( a concept lyotard imports from jl austin ' s theory of speech acts ). in his vision of a solution to this " vertigo, " lyotard opposes the assumptions of universality, consensus, and generality that he identified within the thought of humanistic, neo - kantian philosophers like jurgen habermas and proposes a continuation of experimentation and diversity to be assessed pragmatically in the context of language games rather than via appeal to a resurrected series of transcendentals and metaphysical unities. - richard rorty ( 1931 – 2007 ) - argues in philosophy and the mirror of nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. in addition, he denounces the traditional epistemological perspectives of representationalism and correspondence theory that rely upon the independence of knowers and observers from phenomena and the passivity of natural phenomena in relation to consciousness. as a proponent of anti - foundationalism and anti - essentialism within a pragmatist framework, he echoes postmodern strains of conventionalism and philosophical relativism, but opposes much postmodern thinking with his commitment to social liberalism. - jean baudrillard ( 1929 – 2007 ), - in simulacra and simulation, introduced the concept that reality or the principle of the " real " is short - circuited by the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital technologies. baudrillard proposes the notion that, in such a state, where subjects are detached from the outcomes of events ( political, literary, artistic, personal, or otherwise ), events no longer hold any particular sway on the subject nor have any identifiable context ; they therefore have the effect of producing widespread indifference, detachment, and passivity in industrialized populations. he claimed that a constant stream of appearances and references without any direct consequences to viewers or readers could eventually render the division between appearance and object indiscernible, resulting, ironically, in the " disappearance " of mankind in what is, in effect, a virtual or holographic state, composed only of appearances. - fredric jameson ( born 1934 ) - set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the whitney museum, later expanded as postmodern


. - fredric jameson ( born 1934 ) - set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the whitney museum, later expanded as postmodernism, or the cultural logic of late capitalism ( 1991 ). eclectic in his methodology, jameson has continued a sustained examination of the role that periodization continues to play as a grounding assumption of critical methodologies in humanities disciplines. he has contributed extensive effort to explicating the importance of concepts of utopianism and utopia as driving forces in the cultural and intellectual movements of modernity, and outlining the political and existential uncertainties that may result from the decline or suspension of this trend in the theorized state of postmodernity. like susan sontag, jameson served to introduce a wide audience of american readers to key figures of the 20th century continental european intellectual left, particularly those associated with the frankfurt school, structuralism and post - structuralism. thus, his importance as a ' translator ' of their ideas to the common vocabularies of a variety of disciplines in the anglo - american academic complex is equally as important as his own critical engagement with them. - douglas kellner ( born 1943 ) - in " analysis of the journey, " a journal birthed from postmodernism, kellner insists that the " assumptions and procedures of modern theory " must be forgotten. his terms defined in the depth of postmodernism is based on advancement, innovation, and adaptation. extensively, kellner analyzes the terms of this theory in real life experiences and examples. kellner used science and technology studies as a major part of his analysis ; he urged that the theory is incomplete without it. the scale was larger than just postmodernism alone, it must be interpreted through cultural studies where science and technology studies play a huge role. the reality of the september eleventh attacks on the united states of america is the catalyst for his explanation. this catalyst is used as a great representation due to the mere fact of the planned ambush and destruction of " symbols of globalization ", insinuating the world trade centers. one of the numerous, yet appropriate definitions of postmodernism and the qualm aspect aids this attribute to seem perfectly accurate. in response, kellner continues to examine the repercussions of understanding the effects of the september eleventh attacks. he questions if the attacks are only able to be understood in a limited form of postmodern theory


attribute to seem perfectly accurate. in response, kellner continues to examine the repercussions of understanding the effects of the september eleventh attacks. he questions if the attacks are only able to be understood in a limited form of postmodern theory due to the level of irony. in further studies, he enhances the idea of semiotics in alignment with the theory. similar to the act of september 11 and the symbols that were interpreted through this postmodern ideal, he continues to even describe this as " semiotic systems " that people use to make sense of their lives and the events that occur in them. kellner ' s adamancy that signs are necessary to understand one ' s culture is what he analyzes from the evidence that most cultures have used signs in place of existence. finally, he recognizes that many theorists of postmodernism are trapped by their own cogitations. he finds strength in theorist baudrillard and his idea of marxism. kellner acknowledges marxism ' s end and lack of importance to his theory. - the conclusion he depicts is simple : postmodernism, as most utilize it today, will decide what experiences and signs in one ' s reality will be one ' s reality as they know it. criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the assertions that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes obscurantism. for example, noam chomsky has argued that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. he asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, " what are the principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn ' t already obvious, etc?... if [ these requests ] can ' t be met, then i ' d suggest recourse to hume ' s advice in similar circumstances : ' to the flames '. " see also - culture and politics - opposed by - ruth reichl, cook ' s november 1989 ; american heritage dictionary ' s definition of " postmodern " - derrida ( 1967 ), of grammatology, part ii, introduction to the " age of rousseau, " section 2 "... that dangerous supplement... ", title, the exorbitant question of method, pp. 158 – 59, 163. - benoit peeters, derrida : a biogaphy, pg. 377 - 8, translated by andrew brown,


... ", title, the exorbitant question of method, pp. 158 – 59, 163. - benoit peeters, derrida : a biogaphy, pg. 377 - 8, translated by andrew brown, polity press, 2013, isbn 9780745656151 - levi - strauss, claude. structural anthropology. trans. claire jacobson and brooke grundfest schoepf ( first published new york : basic books, 1963 ; new york : anchor books ed., 1967 ), 324. levi - strauss, quoting d ' arcy westworth thompson states - " to those who question the possibility of defining the interrelations between entities whose nature is not completely understood, i shall reply with the following comment by a great naturalist - in a very large part of morphology, our essential task lies in the comparison of related forms rather than in the precise definition of each ; and the deformation of a complicated figure may be a phenomenon easy of comprehension, though the figure itself has to be left unanalyzed and undefined. - levi - strauss, claude. anthropologie structurale. paris : editions plon, 1958. levi - strauss, claude. structural anthropology. trans. claire jacobson and brooke grundfest schoepf ( new york : basic books, 1963 ), 228. - see the following web reference for a common critique of from an " anti - positivist " perspective. - deleuze, gilles and felix guattari. capitalism and schizophrenia, vol. ii : a thousand plateaus. trans. brian massumi ( minneapolis : univ. of minnesota press, 1987 ), p. 101. orig. published as mille plateaux, in 1980 by les editions de minuit, paris. deleuze, here echoing the sentiments of derrida ' s reflection on foucault ' s " the history of madness " ( 1961 ) in his essay " cogito and the history of madness " ( 1963 ), makes a very thinly veiled reference to semiological certainty of both saussure and lacan ( who speaks of " the unity of the father " in his theory of semantic coherence ), critiquing the premise of objectivity in their methodology - " the scientific model taking language as an object of study is one with the political model by which language is homogenized, centralized, and standardized, becoming a language of power, a major or dominant language. linguistics can claim


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- intellectual ", new republic, 203, 11 / 12, pp. 44 - 48, academic search premier, ebscohost, viewed 2 april 2012.. - noam chomsky on post - modernism further reading - powell, jim ( 1998 ). " postmodernism for beginners " ( isbn 978 - 1 - 934389 - 09 - 6 ) - alexie, sherman ( 2000 ). " the toughest indian in the world " ( isbn 0 - 8021 - 3800 - 4 ) - anderson, walter truett. the truth about the truth ( new consciousness reader ). new york : tarcher. ( 1995 ) ( isbn 0 - 87477 - 801 - 8 ) - anderson, perry. the origins of postmodernity. london : verso, 1998. - ashley, richard and walker, r. b. j. ( 1990 ) “ speaking the language of exile. ” international studies quarterly v 34, no 3 259 - 68. - bauman, zygmunt ( 2000 ) liquid modernity. cambridge : polity press. - beck, ulrich ( 1986 ) risk society : towards a new modernity. - benhabib, seyla ( 1995 ) ' feminism and postmodernism ' in ( ed. nicholson ) feminism contentions : a philosophical exchange. new york : routledge. - berman, marshall ( 1982 ) all that is solid melts into air : the experience of modernity ( isbn 0 - 14 - 010962 - 5 ). - bertens, hans ( 1995 ) the idea of the postmodern : a history. london : routledge. ( isbn 0 - 145 - 06012 - 5 ). - best, steven best and douglas kellner. postmodern theory ( 1991 ) excerpt and text search - best, steven best and douglas kellner. the postmodern turn ( 1997 ) excerpt and text search - bielskis, andrius ( 2005 ) towards a postmodern understanding of the political : from genealogy to hermeneutics ( palgrave macmillan, 2005 ). - braschi, giannina ( 1994 ), empire of dreams, introduction by alicia ostriker, yale university press, new haven, london. - brass, tom, peasants, populism and postmodernism ( london : cass, 2000 ). - butler, judith ( 1995 ) ' contingent foundations ' in ( ed. nicholson ) feminist contentions : a philosophical exchange. new


. - brass, tom, peasants, populism and postmodernism ( london : cass, 2000 ). - butler, judith ( 1995 ) ' contingent foundations ' in ( ed. nicholson ) feminist contentions : a philosophical exchange. new yotk : routledge. - callinicos, alex, against postmodernism : a marxist critique ( cambridge : polity, 1999 ). - drabble, m. the oxford companion to english literature, 6 ed., article " postmodernism ". - farrell, john. " paranoia and postmodernism, " the epilogue to paranoia and modernity : cervantes to rousseau ( cornell up, 2006 ), 309 - 327. - featherstone, m. ( 1991 ) consumer culture and postmodernism, london ; newbury park, calif., sage publications. - giddens, anthony ( 1991 ) modernity and self identity, cambridge : polity press. - gosselin, paul ( 2012 ) flight from the absolute : cynical observations on the postmodern west. volume i. samizdat ( isbn 978 - 2 - 9807774 - 3 - 1 ) - goulimari, pelagia ( ed. ) ( 2007 ) postmodernism. what moment? manchester : manchester university press ( isbn 978 - 0 - 7190 - 7308 - 3 ) - grebowicz, margaret ( ed. ), gender after lyotard. ny : suny press, 2007. ( isbn 978 - 0 - 7914 - 6956 - 9 ) - greer, robert c. mapping postmodernism. il : intervarsity press, 2003. ( isbn 0 - 8308 - 2733 - 1 ) - groothuis, douglas. truth decay. downers grove, illinois : intervarsity press, 2000. - harvey, david ( 1989 ) the condition of postmodernity : an enquiry into the origins of cultural change ( isbn 0 - 631 - 16294 - 1 ) - hicks, stephen r. c. ( 2004 ) explaining postmodernism : skepticism and socialism from rousseau to foucault ( isbn 1 - 59247 - 646 - 5 ) - honderich, t., the oxford companion to philosophy, article " postmodernism ". - hutcheon, linda. the politics of postmodernism. ( 2002 ) online edition ] - jameson, fredric ( 1991 ) postmodern


. 2000, isbn i - 55753 - 205 - 2 ). - - - -, on deconstructing life - worlds : buddhism, christianity, culture ( atlanta : scholars press of american academy of religion, 1997 ; oxford : oxford university press, 2000 ; isbn 0 - 7885 - 0295 - 6, cloth, isbn 0 - 7885 - 0296 - 4, pbk ). - manuel, peter. " music as symbol, music as simulacrum : pre - modern, modern, and postmodern aesthetics in subcultural musics, " popular music 1 / 2, 1995, pp. 227 – 239. - murphy, nancey, anglo - american postmodernity : philosophical perspectives on science, religion, and ethics ( westview press, 1997 ). - natoli, joseph ( 1997 ) a primer to postmodernity ( isbn 1 - 57718 - 061 - 5 ) - norris, christopher ( 1990 ) what ' s wrong with postmodernism : critical theory and the ends of philosophy ( isbn 0 - 8018 - 4137 - 2 ) - pangle, thomas l., the ennobling of democracy : the challenge of the postmodern age, baltimore, the johns hopkins university press, 1991 isbn 0 - 8018 - 4635 - 8 - park, jin y., ed., buddhisms and deconstructions ( lanham : rowland & littlefield, 2006, isbn 978 - 0 - 7425 - 3418 - 6 ; isbn 0 - 7425 - 3418 - 9. - sim, stuart. ( 1999 ). " the routledge critical dictionary of postmodern thought " ( isbn 0415923530 ) - sokal, alan and jean bricmont ( 1998 ) fashionable nonsense : postmodern intellectuals ' abuse of science ( isbn 0 - 312 - 20407 - 8 ) - vattimo, gianni ( 1989 ). the transparent society ( isbn 0 - 8018 - 4528 - 9 ) - veith jr., gene edward ( 1994 ) postmodern times : a christian guide to contemporary thought and culture ( isbn 0 - 89107 - 768 - 5 ) - windshuttle, keith ( 1996 ) the killing of history : how literary critics and social theorists are murdering our past. new york : the free press. - woods, tim, beginning postmodernism, manchester : manchester university press, 1999, ( reprinted 2002 ) ( isbn 0


) the killing of history : how literary critics and social theorists are murdering our past. new york : the free press. - woods, tim, beginning postmodernism, manchester : manchester university press, 1999, ( reprinted 2002 ) ( isbn 0 - 7190 - 5210 - 6 hardback, isbn 0 - 7190 - 5211 - 4 paperback ). | look up postmodernism in wiktionary, the free dictionary. | | wikimedia commons has media related to : postmodernism | - stanford encyclopedia of philosophy ' s entry on postmodernism - discourses of postmodernism. multilingual bibliography by janusz przychodzen ( pdf file ) - modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, by lloyd spencer ( 1998 ) - dueling paradigms : modernist v. postmodernist thought * characterizing a fogbank : what is postmodernism, and why do i take such a dim view of it? - postmodernism and truth by philosopher daniel dennett - postmodernism is the new black : how the shape of modern retailing was both predicted and influenced by some unlikely seers ( the economist 19 december 2006 ) - gaining clarity : after postmodernism, eretz acheret magazine


sawmill process a sawmill ' s basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago ; a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end. - after trees are selected for harvest, the next step in logging is felling the trees, and bucking them to length. - branches are cut off the trunk. this is known as limbing. - logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive to the sawmill. - logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon arrival at the mill. - debarking removes bark from the logs. - decking is the process for sorting the logs by species, size and end use ( lumber, plywood, chips ). - the head saw, head rig or primary saw, breaks the log into cants ( unfinished logs to be further processed ) and flitches ( unfinished planks ) with a smooth edge. - depending upon the species and quality of the log, the cants will either be further broken down by a resaw or a gang edger into multiple flitches and / or boards - edging will take the flitch and trim off all irregular edges leaving four - sided lumber. - trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths. - drying removes naturally occurring moisture from the lumber. this can be done with kilns or air - dried. - planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a uniform width and thickness. - shipping transports the finished lumber to market. early history the hierapolis sawmill, a roman water - powered stone saw mill at hierapolis, asia minor ( modern - day turkey ) dating to the second half of the 3rd century ad is the earliest known sawmill. it is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism. the earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a roman poet, ausonius who wrote an epic poem about the river moselle in germany in the late 4th century ad. at one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the christian saint gregory of nyssa from anatolia around 370 / 390 ad, demonstrating a diversified use of water - power in many parts of the roman empire. sawmills became widespread in medieval europe again, as one was sketched by villard de honnecourt in c. 1250. they are claimed to have been introduced to madeira following its discovery in c. 1420 and spread widely in europe in the 16th century.